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[ [ "Geography of Liechtenstein" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of the Principality of LiechtensteinSatellite image of Liechtenstein area, with the border shown in yellowEnlargeable, detailed map of LiechtensteinThe principality of Liechtenstein encompasses most of the eastern half of the Rhine Valley, wedged between Austria and Switzerland.", "The majority of the country's population is found in the western half along the Rhine River.", "Along with Uzbekistan, Liechtenstein is one of only two doubly landlocked countries in the world." ], [ "Statistics", "'''Geographic coordinates''': '''Area''': 160 km2 (land, 0 km2 water)'''Land boundaries''':''total:'' 76 km:''border countries:'' Austria 35 km, Switzerland 41 km'''Lake''':The only lake in Liechtenstein is the Gampriner Seele.", "'''Land use''':''arable land:'' 21.88%:''permanent crops:'' 0%:''other:'' 78.12% (2011)'''Terrain''':Mostly mountainous (Alps) with Rhine Valley in western third'''Natural resources'''::Hydroelectric potential, arable land'''Extreme points:'''* North - river Rhine, Ruggell * South - summit of Mazorakopf/Falknishorn (2,452 m), Triesen * East - border post 28, above Nenzinger Himmel* West - river Rhine, Balzers * highest - Vorder Grauspitz (2,599 m), Triesen * lowest - Bangserfeld (429 m), Ruggell" ], [ "Climate", "Continental; cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow or rain; cool to moderately warm, cloudy, humid summers, great variety of microclimates based on elevation." ], [ "Environment - international agreements", "''Party to:''Air Pollution,Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants,Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides,Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94,Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds,Biodiversity,Climate Change,Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol,Desertification,Endangered Species,Hazardous Wastes,Ozone Layer Protection,Wetlands,''Signed, but not ratified:''Law of the Sea" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Liechtenstein" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of Liechtenstein include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.Liechtenstein is the fourth smallest country of Europe, after the Vatican City, Monaco, and San Marino.", "Its population is primarily ethnic Alemannic, although a third of its resident population are foreign nationals, primarily German speakers from the Federal Republic of Germany, Austria, and the Swiss Confederation, other Swiss, Italians, and Turks.", "Nationals are referred to by the plural: Liechtensteiners.The official language is German; most speak Alemannic, a German dialect highly divergent from Standard German, but closely related to those dialects spoken in neighbouring regions.", "In Triesenberg a quite distinct dialect promoted by the municipality is spoken.", "According to the 2000 census, 87.9% of the population is Christian, of which 76% adhere to the Roman Catholic faith, while about 7% are Protestant.", "The religious affiliation for most of the remainder is Islam - 4.8%, undeclared - 4.1%, and no religion - 2.8%." ], [ "Population", "Administrative divisions of Liechtenstein.===2019===Resident population by municipalities as of 30 June 2019.Municipality/districtResident population Vaduz 5,668 Triesen 5,230 Balzers 4,628 Triesenberg 2,643 Schaan 5,998 Planken 478 Eschen 4,459 Mauren 4,404 Gamprin 1,663 Ruggell 2,295 Schellenberg 1,091 Liechtenstein 38,55766.2% are Liechtensteiners, the rest are foreigners.==Vital statistics since 1901== Average population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Fertility rate 1901 7,500 283 169 114 37.9 22.6 15.3 1902 7,600 264 168 96 34.8 22.1 12.6 1903 7,700 273 166 107 35.4 21.5 13.9 1904 7,800 256 175 81 32.7 22.4 10.4 1905 7,900 248 181 67 31.2 22.8 8.4 1906 8,100 253 131 122 31.4 16.3 15.1 1907 8,200 231 147 84 28.3 18.0 10.3 1908 8,300 240 145 95 29.0 17.5 11.5 1909 8,400 226 145 81 26.9 17.3 9.6 1910 8,500 266 152 114 31.2 17.8 13.4 1911 8,600 239 153 86 27.7 17.7 10.0 1912 8,700 238 141 97 27.4 16.2 11.1 1913 8,700 243 135 108 27.9 15.5 12.4 1914 8,700 264 150 114 30.2 17.2 13.1 1915 8,700 213 139 74 24.4 15.9 8.5 1916 8,800 183 141 42 20.9 16.1 4.8 1917 8,800 200 116 84 22.8 13.2 9.6 1918 8,800 211 200 11 24.0 22.8 1.3 1919 8,800 220 119 101 25.0 13.5 11.5 1920 8,800 262 141 121 29.7 16.0 13.7 1921 8,800 253 122 131 28.6 13.8 14.8 1922 8,900 247 131 116 27.7 14.7 13.0 1923 9,000 222 151 71 24.6 16.7 7.9 1924 9,100 249 109 140 27.2 11.9 15.3 1925 9,300 200 128 72 21.6 13.8 7.8 1926 9,400 226 112 114 24.1 11.9 12.1 1927 9,500 215 141 74 22.6 14.8 7.8 1928 9,600 202 111 91 21.0 11.5 9.4 1929 9,800 206 106 100 21.1 10.9 10.2 1930 9,900 199 104 95 20.1 10.5 9.6 1931 10,000 207 130 77 20.7 13.0 7.7 1932 10,100 196 106 90 19.4 10.5 8.9 1933 10,200 240 119 121 23.5 11.7 11.9 1934 10,300 229 102 127 22.2 9.9 12.3 1935 10,400 226 130 96 21.7 12.5 9.2 1936 10,500 225 121 104 21.4 11.5 9.9 1937 10,600 226 145 81 21.3 13.7 7.6 1938 10,700 213 136 77 19.9 12.7 7.2 1939 10,800 255 136 119 23.6 12.6 11.0 1940 10,900 281 119 162 25.7 10.9 14.8 1941 11,000 249 117 132 22.6 10.6 12.0 1942 11,200 284 141 143 25.3 12.6 12.7 1943 11,500 301 128 173 26.2 11.1 15.1 1944 11,700 342 120 222 29.1 10.2 18.9 1945 12,000 324 148 176 27.0 12.3 14.7 1946 12,300 351 139 212 28.6 11.3 17.3 1947 12,600 314 174 140 25.0 13.9 11.2 1948 12,900 366 135 231 28.4 10.5 17.9 1949 13,300 311 131 180 23.5 9.9 13.6 1950 13,600 275 105 170 20.2 7.7 12.5 1951 13,900 290 114 176 20.9 8.2 12.7 1952 14,100 303 132 171 21.5 9.4 12.1 1953 14,300 317 137 180 22.2 9.6 12.6 1954 14,500 316 127 189 21.7 8.7 13.0 1955 14,800 300 125 175 20.3 8.5 11.9 1956 15,000 317 133 184 21.2 8.9 12.3 1957 15,200 351 127 224 23.1 8.4 14.7 1958 15,600 372 142 230 23.9 9.1 14.8 1959 16,000 345 127 218 21.5 7.9 13.6 1960 16,500 380 123 257 23.1 7.5 15.6 1961 16,900 359 131 228 21.3 7.8 13.5 1962 17,400 360 166 194 20.6 9.5 11.1 1963 18,100 398 146 252 22.0 8.1 13.9 1964 18,800 386 148 238 20.6 7.9 12.7 1965 19,200 395 156 239 20.6 8.1 12.5 1966 19,600 370 152 218 18.9 7.8 11.1 1967 20,200 411 158 253 20.4 7.8 12.5 1968 20,800 431 148 283 20.7 7.1 13.6 1969 21,100 420 168 252 19.9 8.0 12.0 1970 21,100 422 163 259 20.0 7.7 12.3 1971 21,600 350 186 164 16.2 8.6 7.6 1972 22,100 359 149 210 16.2 6.7 9.5 1973 22,800 403 178 225 17.7 7.8 9.9 1974 23,500 326 147 179 13.9 6.3 7.6 1975 23,800 306 179 127 12.8 7.5 5.3 1976 24,100 347 178 169 14.4 7.4 7.0 1977 24,400 309 148 161 12.6 6.1 6.6 1978 25,000 313 163 150 12.5 6.5 6.0 1979 25,600 370 173 197 14.5 6.8 7.7 1980 25,500 393 175 218 15.4 6.9 8.5 1981 25,700 369 161 208 14.4 6.3 8.1 1982 26,300 384 167 217 14.6 6.4 8.3 1983 26,400 348 151 197 13.2 5.7 7.4 1984 26,600 405 177 228 15.2 6.7 8.6 1985 26,900 373 171 202 13.9 6.4 7.5 1986 27,200 351 188 163 12.9 6.9 6.0 1987 27,600 365 180 185 13.2 6.5 6.7 1988 27,900 416 195 221 14.9 7.0 7.9 1989 28,300 373 172 201 13.2 6.1 7.1 1990 28,700 379 195 184 13.2 6.8 6.4 1991 29,200 416 187 229 14.2 6.4 7.8 1992 29,600 375 180 195 12.7 6.1 6.6 1993 30,100 415 178 237 13.8 5.9 7.9 1994 30,500 358 206 152 11.7 6.8 5.0 1995 30,800 425 225 200 13.8 7.3 6.5 1996 31,000 405 230 175 13.1 7.4 5.6 1997 31,200 435 230 205 13.9 7.4 6.6 1998 31,700 382 208 174 12.1 6.6 5.5 1999 32,200 430 206 224 13.3 6.4 7.0 1.63 200032,673 420 239 181 12.9 7.3 5.5 1.58 200133,104 401 220 181 12.1 6.6 5.5 1.53 200233,678 395 215 180 11.7 6.4 5.3 1.49 200334,022 347 217 130 10.2 6.4 3.8 1.36 200434,477 372 198 174 10.8 5.7 5.0 1.46 200534,734 381 215 166 11.0 6.2 4.8 1.51 200635,010 361 220 141 10.3 6.3 4.0 1.45 200735,322 351 227 124 9.9 6.4 3.5 1.44 200835,446 350 205 145 9.9 5.8 4.1 1.45 200935,789 406 229 177 11.3 6.4 4.9 1.71 201036,010 329 238 91 9.1 6.6 2.5 1.40 201136,281 395 248 147 10.9 6.8 4.1 1.69 201236,636 357 224 133 9.7 6.1 3.6 1.51201336,942 339 246 93 9.2 6.7 2.5 1.45201437,215 372 268 104 10.0 7.2 2.8 1.59201537,468 325 252 73 8.7 6.7 1.9 1.40201637,686 378 271 107 10.0 7.2 2.8 1.61201737,877 338 249 89 8.9 6.6 2.3 1.44201838,111 378 274 104 9.9 7.2 2.7 1.58201938,378356263939.26.82.4 1.47202039,055353319349.08.20.81.46202139,1823752711049.56.92.61.53202239,494364279859.27.12.11.47===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 19 368 19 687 39 055 100 0–4 964 933 1 897 4.86 5–9 1 017 870 1 887 4.83 10–14 1 018 893 1 911 4.89 15–19 1 004 962 1 966 5.03 20–24 1 064 1 089 2 153 5.51 25–29 1 189 1 141 2 330 5.97 30–34 1 230 1 237 2 467 6.32 35–39 1 273 1 270 2 543 6.51 40–44 1 319 1 278 2 597 6.65 45–49 1 364 1 467 2 831 7.25 50–54 1 629 1 640 3 269 8.37 55–59 1 565 1 600 3 165 8.10 60–64 1 355 1 403 2 758 7.06 65-69 1 085 1 141 2 226 5.70 70-74 967 989 1 956 5.01 75-79 701 789 1 490 3.82 80-84 392 518 910 2.33 85-89 175 303 478 1.22 90-94 54 125 179 0.46 95-99 1 36 37 0.09 100-104 2 3 5 0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 2 999 2 696 5 695 14.58 15–64 12 992 13 087 26 079 66.78 65+ 3 377 3 904 7 281 18.64" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Alemannic Germans 86%, Italians, Turks, Albanians, Yugoslavs, and others 14%.Nationality 2017 2016 Liechtensteiners 66.2% 66.2% Swiss 9.5% 9.5% Austrians 5.8% 5.8% Germans 4.2% 4.1% Italians 3.1% 3.2% Portuguese 1.9% 1.9% Turks 1.6% 1.8% Kosovar Albanians 1.1% 1.1% Spaniards 1.0% 0.9% Others 5.6% 5.5%" ], [ "Languages", "+ Language in Liechtenstein Main language Year 2020 Number % German 36,088 92.4 Italian 494 1.3 Portuguese 390 1.0 Turkish 362 0.9 Spanish 324 0.8 Serbo-Croatian 288 \t0.7 Albanian 207 \t0.5 English 199 0.5 French 79 0.2 Other languages 624 1.6" ], [ "Religions", "In 2020, 88.76% of the population had a Christian background, 6% were Muslim and 5% had no religious beliefs.", "Religion 2015 2010 2000 1990 Catholics 73.4% 75.9% 78.4% 84.9% Protestants 8.2% 8.5% 8.3% 9.2% Christian-Orthodox Churches 1.3% 1.1% 1.1% 0.7% Other Christian Churches 0.3% 0.3% 0.1% 0.2% Muslims 5.9% 5.4% 4.8% 2.4% Other religions 0.8% 0.8% 0.3% 0.2% No religion 7.0% 5.4% 2.8% 1.5% Undeclared 3.3% 2.6% 4.1% 0.9%" ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.", "'''Age structure:'''''0–14 years:'' 16.1% (male 2,809/female 2,856)''15–64 years:'' 69% (male 11,970/female 12,326)''65 years and over:'' 15% (male 2,304/female 2,971) (2011 est.", ")'''Sex ratio:'''''at birth:'' 1.26 male(s)/female''under 15 years:'' 1.09 male(s)/female''15–64 years:'' 1 male(s)/female''65 years and over:'' 0.81 male(s)/female''total population:'' 0.98 male(s)/female (2011 est.", ")'''Infant mortality rate:''' 4.4 deaths/1,000 live births (2011 est.", ")Life expectancy at birth in Liechtenstein'''Life expectancy at birth:''' (14 in the world)''total population:'' 81.5 years''male:'' 79.37 years''female:'' 84.19 years (2011 est.", ")'''Total fertility rate:''' 1.69 children born/woman (2011 est.", ")'''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:''' N/A%'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:''' N/A'''HIV/AIDS - deaths:''' N/A'''Nationality:'''''noun:'' Liechtensteiner(s)''adjective:'' Liechtenstein'''Languages:''' German (official), Italian, Turkish, English (Spoken, not official)'''Literacy:''' (1 in the world)''definition:'' age 10 and over can read and write''total population:'' 100%''male:'' 100%''female:'' 100%" ], [ "See also", "*Languages of Liechtenstein*Turks in Liechtenstein" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Amt für Volkswirtschaft (Office of Economic Affairs)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Liechtenstein" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Liechtenstein''' is a principality governed under a semi-constitutional monarchy.", "It has a form of mixed constitution in which political power is shared by the monarch and a democratically elected parliament.", "There is a two-party system (though there are two minor parties as well) and a form of representative democracy in which the prime minister and head of government is responsible to parliament.", "However the Prince of Liechtenstein is head of state and exercises considerable political powers.The executive power is exercised by the Cabinet of Liechtenstein (government).", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Landtag (Parliament).", "The party system is dominated by the conservative Progressive Citizens' Party and the liberal-conservative Patriotic Union.", "The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.The country replaced universal male suffrage with universal suffrage in 1984, following a national referendum." ], [ "Constitution", "The current iteration of the Constitution of Liechtenstein was adopted in March 2003, amending the 1921 constitution.", "The 1921 constitution had established Liechtenstein as a constitutional monarchy headed by the reigning prince of the Princely House of Liechtenstein; a parliamentary system had been established, although the reigning Prince retained substantial political authority.In a national referendum in March 2003, nearly two-thirds of the electorate voted in support of Hans-Adam II's proposed constitutional reform.", "The proposals were criticised by many, including the Council of Europe, as it expanded the powers of the monarchy (extending monarch's power of veto law, increasing his executive authority, and allowing him to dismiss the government, or any minister, at will).", "The Prince threatened that if the constitution failed, he would, among other things, convert some royal property for commercial use and move to Austria.", "The princely family and the Prince enjoy tremendous public support inside the nation, and the resolution passed with about 64% in favour.", "A proposal to revoke the Prince's veto powers was rejected by 76% of voters in a 2012 referendum." ], [ "Executive branch", "|PrinceHans-Adam II13 November 1989Prince-regentAlois15 August 2004Prime MinisterDaniel RischPatriotic Union25 March 2021Hans-Adam II, Prince of LiechtensteinThe monarch is hereditary.", "Following legislative elections, the head of government is appointed by the prince and proposed and voted on by the parliament.", "Thus the government is usually composed of the members of the majority party.", "It is, however, also customary that the leader of the largest minority party in the Diet is appointed the deputy head of government by the monarch.According to the constitution of Liechtenstein, the government is a collegiate body and consists of the head of government and four governmental councilors.Amendment to the constitution or new law have to be adopted by Parliament, signed by both the Prince and the head of government, and published in the Principality's Law Gazette.Prince Hans Adam II is the current head of state.", "His constitutional powers include the power to veto any legislation, to be used at his discretion, as well as the dissolution of the parliament (this may be subject to a referendum).", "He represents the state vis-à-vis foreign states.", "He signs international treaties either in person or delegates this function to a plenipotentiary.", "Some treaties under international law only become valid when they have been ratified by Parliament.", "On the basis of the names put forward by Parliament, the Prince nominates the government, district and high court judges, the judges of the Supreme Court, and the presidents and their deputies of the Constitutional Court and of the Administrative Court of Appeal.", "The Prince's other authorities include exercising the right to mitigate and commute punishments that have been imposed with legal force and the abolition — i.e., the dismissal — of investigations that have been initiated.", "All judgments are issued in the name of the Prince.In August 2004, Prince Hans-Adam handed over the day-to-day running of the country to his son, Crown Prince Alois, while still remaining the official head of state.Government Building in VaduzThe Government of Liechtenstein is based on the principle of collegiality; namely, of colleagues collaborating with each other.", "The government consists of the head of government and four Councilors.", "The members of the government are proposed by the Parliament and are appointed by the Prince.", "Only men or women born in Liechtenstein, and who are eligible to be elected to Parliament, may be elected to the government committee.", "The two electoral areas of the country, the highlands and the lowlands, are entitled to at least two members of the government, and their respective deputies must come from the same area.According to the constitution, the cabinet shall consist of the Prime Minister and four other Ministers.", "The Prime Minister and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the Reigning Prince with the agreement of Parliament and on its proposal.", "On the proposal of Parliament, one of the Ministers shall be appointed by the Reigning Prince as the Deputy Prime Minister.", "If an individual Minister should lose the confidence of the Reigning Prince or of Parliament, the decision on the loss of the authority of the Minister to exercise his functions shall be taken by mutual agreement of the Reigning Prince and Parliament.", "Until a new Minister has been appointed, the official duties of the Minister shall be performed by the Minister's alternate." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Parliament of LiechtensteinThe Prince's involvement in legislation consists in a right to take initiatives in the form of government bills and in the right to veto parliamentary proposals.", "The Prince has the power to enact princely decrees.", "Emergency princely decrees are possible when the security and welfare of the country is at stake.", "A countersignature by the head of government is, nevertheless, required.", "The Prince has the right to convene and adjourn parliament and, for serious reasons, to adjourn it for 3 months or to dissolve it.The '''Landtag of Liechtenstein''' has 25 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional representation in two multi-seat constituencies.", "Until 1989, 15 members represented the population of the two constituencies (six for the lowland area and nine for the highland area).", "Since 1989 the lowland constituency has been entitled to have 10 members and the highland area 15.The Landtag's main task is to discuss and adopt resolutions on constitutional proposals and draft government bills.", "It has the additional duties of giving its assent to important international treaties; of electing members of the government, judges, and board members of the Principality's institutions; setting the annual budget and approving taxes and other public charges; and supervising the administration of the state.The Landtag observes its rights and duties in the course of sessions of the whole Landtag and through the parliamentary commissions that it elects.", "All members of the Landtag exercise their mandates in addition to their normal professions or occupations.", "The President of the Landtag and his deputy are both elected at the opening meeting for the current year.", "The president convenes the individual meetings during the session, leads them, and represent the Landtag externally.", "During the parliamentary recess — normally from January to February/March — a \"state committee\" assumes Parliament's duties, and such a committee must also be elected in the case of any adjournment or dissolution of Parliament.", "A \"state committee\" consists of the president of Parliament and four other members.The duties and working procedures of Parliament are laid down in the constitution and in Parliament's standing orders.Moreover, the people of Liechtenstein have very strong direct democratic rights.", "If called for by at least 1,000 citizens, a referendum on any law can be initiated.", "Referendums can suspend parliament or change the constitution, but at least 1500 citizens must vote affirmative, so referendums to suspend parliament or change the constitution fail if they have low turnout even if the required percentage of total voters is met." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "The political parties are in practice politically decisive and are the moving forces with regard to the composition of the government.", "In the 2001-05 legislature period of office, one Councillor and three deputies were women.From 1938 to 1997 Liechtenstein had a coalition government.", "Until recently there were only two parties in Parliament: the Patriotic Union and the Progressive Citizens' Party.", "Liechtenstein's distinctive form of coalition government came to an end in April 1997, when the Patriotic Union won an absolute majority of seats.", "It took sole responsibility for the government during the 1997 to 2001 Parliament, with its members filling all the positions on the government committee.", "Between 2001 and 2009, the Progressive Citizen's Party formed the government, winning an absolute majority in the 2001 elections and the most seats in the 2005 elections.", "The Patriotic Union once again won an absolute majority of seats in the February 2009 elections.", "Minority parties, as opposition parties, act as a check on the government in Parliament and on parliamentary commissions.=== Liechtenstein parliamentary election, 2021 ===" ], [ "Judicial branch", "The main part of the Judicial Branch of Liechtenstein is made up of the Supreme Court (), the Princely Court of Appeals (), and the Princely Court of Justice ().In the sphere of administrative law there is also the Administrative Court, and in the sphere of constitutional law there is the State Court." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Liechtenstein is divided in eleven communes (''''); Balzers, Eschen, Gamprin, Mauren, Planken, Ruggell, Schaan, Schellenberg, Triesen, Triesenberg, and Vaduz.=== Municipalities ===Municipalities of Liechtenstein are entitled under the constitution to secede from the union by majority vote.The autonomy of the Liechtenstein communities is in the upper range compared to the other Central European states along with Switzerland.", "Despite their small size, the municipalities have complex forms in terms of their territorial extent: in addition to a main part, seven municipalities also include one or more exclaves.", "Citizens' cooperatives, which exist in about half of Liechtenstein's municipalities, own forests and pastures for collective use, as well as parceled areas that are left for private use.The municipalities of Liechtenstein are divided between the two electoral districts of Unterland and Oberland.", "This division is historical; the Unterland depends on Schellenberg, the Oberland on the county of Vaduz." ], [ "International organization participation", "Liechtenstein is a member of the following organizations:*Council of Europe *EBRD *U.N. Economic Commission for Europe *European Free Trade Association*International Atomic Energy Agency*International Criminal Court*ICRM*IFRCS*Intelsat, Interpol*International Olympic Committee*ITU*OPCW*Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe*PCA*United Nations*UNCTAD*Universal Postal Union, WCL*World Intellectual Property Organization*World Trade Organization" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Liechtenstein" ], [ "Introduction", "'''The economy of Liechtenstein''' is based on industry, with a small but significant agricultural sector, and services (especially general services, including tourism and information technology).", "The country participates in a customs union with Switzerland and uses the Swiss franc as its national currency.", "It imports more than 85% of its energy requirements.", "Liechtenstein has been a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) since 1991 (previously its interests had been represented by Switzerland).", "It also has been a member of the European Economic Area (EEA) since May 1995 and participates in the Schengen Agreement for passport-free intra-European travel." ], [ "History", "Liechtenstein's historical customs union with Austria was dissolved in 1919.A customs treaty was signed in 1923 and since its entering into force in 1924, Liechtenstein and Switzerland have been in a customs union with each other and as such the borders between the two countries are open.", "The German village Büsingen am Hochrhein and the Italian village Campione d'Italia also form part of this customs union (the latter albeit in a ''de facto'' manner), which is often referred to as the ''Swiss customs area''.Liechtenstein utilizes the Swiss franc as its national currency.", "Swiss border police and customs officers secure its frontier with Austria.", "Currently there are 21 Swiss border guards stationed in Liechtenstein and 20 Austrian border guards securing its border (as of 2011).Liechtenstein is a member of EFTA, and joined the European Economic Area (EEA) in 1995 in order to benefit from the EU internal market.", "The capitalist economy and tax system make Liechtenstein a safe, trustworthy and success-oriented place for private and business purposes, especially with its highly modern, internationally laid-out infrastructure and close connections to Switzerland.The Principality of Liechtenstein has gone through economic and cultural development in the last 50 years like no other Western country.", "In the last half century, Liechtenstein has developed from a mainly agricultural state to one of the most highly industrialized countries in the world." ], [ "Foreign trade", "An office of the Hilti Corporation in Hong Kong pictured in March 2010, an example of Liechtenstein's export economy.Besides its efficient industry, there also is a strong services sector.", "Four out of ten employees work in the services sector, a relatively high proportion of whom are foreigners, including those who commute across the border from neighboring Switzerland, Austria and Germany.", "Industrial exports more than doubled in 20 years from $1.21 billion (SFr.", "2.2 billion) in 1988 to $2.9 billion (SFr.", "4.6 billion) in 2008.Some 15.7% of Liechtenstein goods are exported to Switzerland, 62.6% to the EU and 21.1% to the rest of the world.The United States has been the most important export market for Liechtenstein in recent times, totaling $561 million (SFr.", "876 million); Germany is second, with $479 million (SFr.", "748 million) worth of imports, and Switzerland third, with $375 million (SFr.", "587 million).About 32% of the country's revenues are invested in research and development, one of the driving forces of the success of Liechtenstein's economy.", "Total R&D spending in 2000 rose by 20.7% to approximately $140 million (213 million francs)." ], [ "Banking and finance", "National Bank of Liechtenstein.The Principality of Liechtenstein also is known as an important financial centre, primarily because it specializes in financial services for foreign entities.", "The country's low tax rate, loose incorporation and corporate governance rules, and traditions of strict bank secrecy have contributed significantly to the ability of financial intermediaries in Liechtenstein to attract funds from outside the country's borders.", "The same factors made the country attractive and vulnerable to money launderers, although late 2009 legislation has strengthened regulatory oversight of illicit funds transfers.Liechtenstein has chartered 17 banks, three non-bank financial companies, and 71 public investment companies, as well as insurance and reinsurance companies.", "Its 270 licensed fiduciary companies and 81 lawyers serve as nominees for, or manage, more than 73,000 entities (primarily corporations, institutions, or trusts), partly for non-Liechtenstein residents.", "About one-third of these entities hold the controlling interest in other entities, chartered in countries other than Liechtenstein.", "The Principality's laws permit the corporations it charters to issue bearer shares.", "Until recently, the Principality's banking laws permitted banks to issue numbered accounts, but new regulations require strict know-your-customer practices for all new accounts." ], [ "Taxation", "Silver coin: 5 kronen of Liechtenstein, 1904, the front of the coin is a portrait of Johann IILiechtenstein's standard rate of VAT (Mehrwertsteuer) is identical to Switzerland's for it must mirror the latter's continually and is currently 7.7%.", "The reduced rate is 2.5%.", "A special rate of 3.7% is in use in the hotel industry.In July 2015, Liechtenstein and Switzerland signed a new agreement on double taxation, which took effect in December 2016, superseding the previous one from 1995.Some differences on the withholding tax arose, but Switzerland did not agree to introduce this practice to residents of Liechtenstein working in Switzerland.In November 2016, the parliament of the principality decided with a large majority to introduce an agreement of automatic information exchange with 27 new treaty partners, including Switzerland.", "Data collection will start in 2018, and effectual exchange of account information is planned for 2019." ], [ "Statistics", "*'''GDP (PPP):''' $4.826 billion (2009)*'''GDP – real growth rate:''' 3.8% (2008)*'''GDP (PPP) – per capita:''' purchasing power parity – $141,100 (2008)*'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 0.7% (2011)*'''Labor force:''' 35,440 of whom about 10,440 are natives 7,550 are foreigners; 17,450 commute from Austria, Switzerland, and Germany to work each day (2008)*'''Labor force – by occupation:''' agriculture: 8%; industry: 41%; services: 51% (31 December 2008)*'''Unemployment rate:''' 1.9% (December 2020)*'''Currency:''' Swiss franc (CHF)*'''Exchange rates:''' Swiss francs per US dollar – 1.3467 (2003), 1.5586 (2002), 1.6876 (2001), 1.6888 (2000), 1.5022 (1999)*'''Fiscal year:''' calendar year===State budget===*'''revenues:''' $420.8 million*'''expenditures:''' $420.1 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.", ")===Industries===The principal industries are electronics, metal manufacturing, textiles, ceramics, pharmaceuticals, food products, precision instruments, and tourism.", "*'''Industrial production growth rate:''' N/A===Electricity===*'''production by source'''**''fossil fuel:'' 3,330 MWh (3.12%)**''hydro:'' 76,166 MWh (94.2%)**''nuclear:'' none (0%)**''solar/wind:'' 1,361 MWh (2.68%)*'''Electricity – production:''' 80,105 MWh (2010)*'''Electricity – consumption:''' about 350,645 MWh (2010)*'''Electricity – exports:''' none*'''Electricity – imports:''' about 270,540 MWh (2010)===Agriculture===*'''Products'''** wheat, barley, corn, potatoes; livestock, dairy products===Exports===*'''Commodities:''' small specialty machinery, dental products, stamps, hardware, pottery*'''Partners:''' EU 62.6%, Others 21.1% (Germany, the US, the UK, France, Italy, Austria, Taiwan and Japan), Switzerland 15.7% as of (2008)===Imports===*'''Commodities:''' agricultural products, raw materials, machinery, metal goods, textiles, foodstuffs, motor vehicles*'''Partners:''' member states of the European Union, Switzerland, Germany and the US.===Companies===In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Liechtenstein is Services with 7,666 companies followed by Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate and Unknown industry with 5,240 and 3,104 companies respectively." ], [ "See also", "*Healthcare in Liechtenstein*List of foundations established in Vaduz*List of companies of Liechtenstein" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Telecommunications in Liechtenstein" ], [ "Introduction", "The Erbi transmitter in VaduzThis article concerns the systems of '''communications in Liechtenstein'''.", "Liechtenstein possesses a number of modern communications systems, some of which are shared with the neighbouring country of Switzerland.", "The country code and top-level domain for Liechtenstein is .li." ], [ "Telephone and internet", "Liechtenstein's automatic telephone system is connected to the Swiss telephone networks via cable and microwave radio relay systems.", "There are 20,072 main line telephones in the country served by the network.", "In April 1999, Liechtenstein ceased to be a part of the Swiss telephone numbering plan, in which the country used the Swiss area code \"075\", opting instead to have a unique country calling code, \"+423\".", "There are 44 internet service providers in Liechtenstein and Switzerland combined." ], [ "Radio and television", "There are four FM radio broadcast stations in Liechtenstein serving 21,000 radios.", "The television broadcast system is linked to the Swiss networks, with the Swiss services serving 12,000 televisions in Liechtenstein." ], [ "References", ":''Much of the content of this article is adapted from the CIA World Factbook.''" ] ]
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[ [ "Foreign relations of Liechtenstein" ], [ "Introduction", "Consulate of Malta in SchaanLiechtenstein's foreign economic policy has been dominated by its customs union with Switzerland (and with Austria-Hungary until World War I).", "This union also led to its independent membership in the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1991.Unlike Switzerland however (where citizens rejected membership in a referendum), Liechtenstein is part of the European Economic Area.Liechtenstein was admitted to the United Nations in 1990.It is not a member of most specialized agencies of the United Nations, with the exceptions of the International Telecommunication Union, the Universal Postal Union and the World Intellectual Property Organization.Liechtenstein has resorted two times to international dispute settlement by the International Court of Justice, in the ''Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala)'' case against Guatemala in the 1950s and in a case concerning art property of the Liechtenstein family against Germany in 2005.It lost in both cases.Liechtenstein maintains resident embassies in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Holy See, Switzerland and the United States, along with a number of missions to international organisations.", "Under a 1919 agreement between Liechtenstein and Switzerland, ambassadors of Switzerland are authorised to represent Liechtenstein in countries and in diplomatic situations unless Liechtenstein opts to send its own ambassador.By 2017, Liechtenstein had diplomatic relations with 114 United Nations members." ], [ "Relations with individual countries", "===International dispute with Czechoslovakia, Czech Republic and Slovakia===The country has an international dispute with Czech Republic and Slovakia concerning the estates of its princely family in those countries.", "After World War II, Czechoslovakia, as it then was, acting to seize what it considered to be German possessions, expropriated the entirety of the Liechtenstein dynasty's hereditary lands and possessions in the Czech regions of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia.", "The expropriations (which were the subject of an unsuccessful court case brought by Liechtenstein in the German courts and the International Court of Justice) included over 1,600 km² (which is ten times the size of Liechtenstein) of agricultural and forest land mostly in Moravia, also including several family castles and palaces.", "An offer from the Czech Republic to return the palaces and castles (without the surrounding land) was rejected by Liechtenstein.Liechtenstein recognised and established diplomatic relations with the Czech Republic on 13 July 2009 and with Slovakia on 9 December 2009.Liechtenstein's ruling prince, Hans-Adam II, has announced that the principality will take no further legal action to recover the appropriated assets.In February 2020, the Czech Constitutional court in Brno rejected a case made by Liechtenstein to get the Czech government to change their classification of the Liechtenstein dynasty as German under the Benes Decrees.", "On 19 August 2020, an inter-state application under the European Convention on Human Rights was made by Liechtenstein to the European Court of Human Rights against the Czech Republic." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Liechtenstein maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate123—4567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132—333435363738394041424344454647484950515253545556575859606162636465666768697071727475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899—100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131Unknown" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "=== Americas === Country Formal relations began on Notes1 July 1994200x200px* Liechtenstein does not have an embassy accredited to Mexico.", "* Mexico is accredited to Liechtenstein from its embassy in Bern, Switzerland and maintains an honorary consulate in Vaduz.", "* On 13 December 2023, Liechtenstein foreign minister Dominique Hasler met her Mexican counterpart Alicia Bárcena Ibarra in the first official Liechtenstein visit to Mexico.", "10 February 1997See Liechtenstein–United States relations* Liechtenstein has an embassy in Washington, D.C. * United States is accredited to Liechtenstein from its embassy in Bern, Switzerland.=== Asia === Country Formal relations began on NotesSee Hong Kong–Liechtenstein relations* Signed a tax treaty in 2010.", "* Have a free trade agreement.1993See India–Liechtenstein relationsJune 1996See Japan–Liechtenstein relations* Japan has an honorary consulate in Schaan.", "* The two countries signed a tax treaty in 2012.2 October 1992* Turkey established diplomatic relations with Liechtenstein only in 1992 because Switzerland had taken responsibility for Liechtenstein's foreign relations until early 1990s.", "* Turkey is accredited to Liechtenstein from its embassy in Bern, Switzerland and maintains an honorary consulate in Vaduz.=== Europe === Country Formal relations began on Notes14 January 1992See Germany–Liechtenstein relations* Germany is accredited to Liechtenstein from its embassy in Bern, Switzerland and maintains an honorary consulate in Vaduz.", "* Liechtenstein has an embassy in Berlin.", "See Liechtenstein–Russia relations13 August 1919See Liechtenstein–Switzerland relations* The two countries have been in a customs union since 1924.", "* Liechtenstein has an embassy in Bern.", "* Switzerland is accredited to Liechtenstein from its Federal Department of Foreign Affairs in Bern and maintains an honorary consulate in Vaduz.6 February 1992See Liechtenstein–Ukraine relations* The two countries have a free trade agreement." ], [ "Membership in international organizations", "Liechtenstein is a member of the following international organizations:* United Nations* Council of Europe* European Bank for Reconstruction and Development* United Nations Economic Commission for Europe* European Economic Area* European Free Trade Association* International Atomic Energy Agency* International Criminal Court* International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement* International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies* Intelsat* Interpol* International Olympic Committee* International Telecommunication Union* Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons* Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe* Permanent Court of Arbitration* United Nations Conference on Trade and Development* Universal Postal Union* World Confederation of Labour* World Intellectual Property Organization* World Trade OrganizationLiechtenstein was never a member of the League of Nations.", "Its application to join that international organisation was refused in 1920 due to its small size.", "While included in the Schengen Area, Liechtenstein is not a member of the European Union." ], [ "See also", "* List of ambassadors to Liechtenstein* List of diplomatic missions in Liechtenstein* List of diplomatic missions of Liechtenstein" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "History of Lithuania" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of Lithuania''' dates back to settlements founded about 10,000 years ago, but the first written record of the name for the country dates back to 1009 AD.", "Lithuanians, one of the Baltic peoples, later conquered neighboring lands and established the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 13th century (and also a short-lived Kingdom of Lithuania).", "The Grand Duchy was a successful and lasting warrior state.", "It remained fiercely independent and was one of the last areas of Europe to adopt Christianity (beginning in the 14th century).", "A formidable power, it became the largest state in Europe in the 15th century spread from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, through the conquest of large groups of East Slavs who resided in Ruthenia.", "In 1385, the Grand Duchy formed a dynastic union with Poland through the Union of Krewo.", "Later, the Union of Lublin (1569) created the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "During the Second Northern War, the Grand Duchy sought protection under the Swedish Empire through the Union of Kėdainiai in 1655.However, it soon returned to being a part of the Polish–Lithuanian state, which persisted until 1795 when the last of the Partitions of Poland erased both independent Lithuania and Poland from the political map.", "After the dissolution, Lithuanians lived under the rule of the Russian Empire until the 20th century, although there were several major rebellions, especially in 1830–1831 and 1863.On 16 February 1918, Lithuania was re-established as a democratic state.", "It remained independent until the onset of World War II, when it was occupied by the Soviet Union under the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.", "Following a brief occupation by Nazi Germany after the Nazis waged war on the Soviet Union, Lithuania was again absorbed into the Soviet Union for nearly 50 years.", "In 1990–1991, Lithuania restored its sovereignty with the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania.", "Lithuania joined the NATO alliance in 2004 and the European Union as part of its enlargement in 2004." ], [ "Before statehood", "===Early settlement===Kernavė MoundsThe first humans arrived on the territory of modern Lithuania in the second half of the 10th millennium BC after the glaciers receded at the end of the last glacial period.", "According to the historian Marija Gimbutas, these people came from two directions: the Jutland Peninsula and from present-day Poland.", "They brought two different cultures, as evidenced by the tools they used.", "They were traveling hunters and did not form stable settlements.", "In the 8th millennium BC, the climate became much warmer, and forests developed.", "The inhabitants of what is now Lithuania then traveled less and engaged in local hunting, gathering and fresh-water fishing.", "During the 6th–5th millennium BC, various animals were domesticated and dwellings became more sophisticated in order to shelter larger families.", "Agriculture did not emerge until the 3rd millennium BC due to a harsh climate and terrain and a lack of suitable tools to cultivate the land.", "Crafts and trade also started to form at this time.Speakers of North-Western Indo-European might have arrived with the Corded Ware culture around 3200/3100 BC.===Baltic tribes===Map of the ancient Baltic homelands at the time of the Hunnish invasions (3rd-4th c. AD).", "Baltic cultural areas (identified archaeologically) are in purple.", "The Baltic sphere originally covered Eastern Europe from the Baltic Sea to modern Moscow.Baltic tribes around 1200, in the neighbourhood about to face the Teutonic Knights’ conversion and conquests; note that Baltic territory extended far inland.The first Lithuanian people were a branch of an ancient group known as the Balts.", "The main tribal divisions of the Balts were the West Baltic Old Prussians and Yotvingians, and the East Baltic Lithuanians and Latvians.", "The Balts spoke forms of the Indo-European languages.", "Today, the only remaining Baltic nationalities are the Lithuanians and Latvians, but there were more Baltic groups or tribes in the past.", "Some of these merged into Lithuanians and Latvians (Samogitians, Selonians, Curonians, Semigallians), while others no longer existed after they were conquered and assimilated by the State of the Teutonic Order (Old Prussians, Yotvingians, Sambians, Skalvians, and Galindians).The Baltic tribes did not maintain close cultural or political contacts with the Roman Empire, but they did maintain trade contacts (see Amber Road).", "Tacitus, in his study ''Germania'', described the Aesti people, inhabitants of the south-eastern Baltic Sea shores who were probably Balts, around the year 97 AD.", "The Western Balts differentiated and became known to outside chroniclers first.", "Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD knew of the Galindians and Yotvingians, and early medieval chroniclers mentioned Prussians, Curonians and Semigallians.Lithuania, located along the lower and middle Neman River basin, comprised mainly the culturally different regions of Samogitia (known for its early medieval skeletal burials), and further east Aukštaitija, or Lithuania proper (known for its early medieval cremation burials).", "The area was remote and unattractive to outsiders, including traders, which accounts for its separate linguistic, cultural and religious identity and delayed integration into general European patterns and trends.Lithuania's name first written in 1009, in the annals of the Quedlinburg Abbey, Germany.The Lithuanian language is considered to be very conservative for its close connection to Indo-European roots.", "It is believed to have differentiated from the Latvian language, the most closely related existing language, around the 7th century.", "Traditional Lithuanian pagan customs and mythology, with many archaic elements, were long preserved.", "Rulers' bodies were cremated up until the Christianization of Lithuania: the descriptions of the cremation ceremonies of the grand dukes Algirdas and Kęstutis have survived.The Lithuanian tribe is thought to have developed more recognizably toward the end of the first millennium.", "The first known reference to Lithuania as a nation (\"Litua\") comes from the Annals of the Quedlinburg monastery, dated 9 March 1009.In 1009, the missionary Bruno of Querfurt arrived in Lithuania and baptized the Lithuanian ruler \"King Nethimer.", "\"===Formation of a Lithuanian state===East of the Baltic tribes: Kievan Rus'From the 9th to the 11th centuries, coastal Balts were subjected to raids by the Vikings, and the kings of Denmark collected tribute at times.", "During the 10–11th centuries, Lithuanian territories were among the lands paying tribute to Kievan Rus', and Yaroslav the Wise was among the Ruthenian rulers who invaded Lithuania (from 1040).", "From the mid-12th century, it was the Lithuanians who were invading Ruthenian territories.", "In 1183, Polotsk and Pskov were ravaged, and even the distant and powerful Novgorod Republic was repeatedly threatened by the excursions from the emerging Lithuanian war machine toward the end of the 12th century.In the 12th century and afterwards, mutual raids involving Lithuanian and Polish forces took place sporadically, but the two countries were separated by the lands of the Yotvingians.", "The late 12th century brought an eastern expansion of German settlers (the Ostsiedlung) to the mouth of the Daugava River area.", "Military confrontations with Lithuanians followed at that time and at the turn of the century, but for the time being the Lithuanians had the upper hand.From the late 12th century, an organized Lithuanian military force existed; it was used for external raids, plundering and the gathering of slaves.", "Such military and pecuniary activities fostered social differentiation and triggered a struggle for power in Lithuania.", "This initiated the formation of early statehood, from which the Grand Duchy of Lithuania developed.", "In 1231, the Danish Census Book mentions Baltic lands paying tribute to the Danes, including Lithuania (''Littonia'')." ], [ "Grand Duchy of Lithuania (13th century–1569)", "===13th–14th century Lithuanian state=======Mindaugas and his kingdom====Pope Innocent IV's bull regarding Lithuania's placement under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, Mindaugas' baptism and coronationFrom the early 13th century, frequent foreign military excursions became possible due to the increased cooperation and coordination among the Baltic tribes.", "Forty such expeditions took place between 1201 and 1236 against Ruthenia, Poland, Latvia and Estonia, which were then being conquered by the Livonian Order.", "Pskov was pillaged and burned in 1213.In 1219, twenty-one Lithuanian chiefs signed a peace treaty with the state of Galicia–Volhynia.", "This event is widely accepted as the first proof that the Baltic tribes were uniting and consolidating.From the early 13th century, two German crusading military orders, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Teutonic Knights, became established at the mouth of the Daugava River and in Chełmno Land respectively.", "Under the pretense of converting the population to Christianity, they proceeded to conquer much of the area that is now Latvia and Estonia, in addition to parts of Lithuania.", "In response, a number of small Baltic tribal groups united under the rule of Mindaugas.", "Mindaugas, originally a ''kunigas'' or major chief, one of the five senior dukes listed in the treaty of 1219, is referred to as the ruler of all Lithuania as of 1236 in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle.State of the Teutonic Order in 1260In 1236 the pope declared a crusade against the Lithuanians.", "The Samogitians, led by Vykintas, Mindaugas' rival, soundly defeated the Livonian Brothers and their allies in the Battle of Saule in 1236, which forced the Brothers to merge with the Teutonic Knights in 1237.But Lithuania was trapped between the two branches of the Order.Around 1240, Mindaugas ruled over all of Aukštaitija.", "Afterwards, he conquered the Black Ruthenia region (which consisted of Grodno, Brest, Navahrudak and the surrounding territories).", "Mindaugas was in process of extending his control to other areas, killing rivals or sending relatives and members of rival clans east to Ruthenia so they could conquer and settle there.", "They did that, but they also rebelled.", "The Ruthenian duke Daniel of Galicia sensed an occasion to recover Black Ruthenia and in 1249–1250 organized a powerful anti-Mindaugas (and \"anti-pagan\") coalition that included Mindaugas' rivals, Yotvingians, Samogitians and the Livonian Teutonic Knights.", "Mindaugas, however, took advantage of the divergent interests in the coalition he faced.Seal of MindaugasIn 1250, Mindaugas entered into an agreement with the Teutonic Order; he consented to receive baptism (the act took place in 1251) and relinquish his claim over some lands in western Lithuania, for which he was to receive a royal crown in return.", "Mindaugas was then able to withstand a military assault from the remaining coalition in 1251, and, supported by the Knights, emerge as a victor to confirm his rule over Lithuania.On 17 July 1251, Pope Innocent IV signed two papal bulls that ordered the Bishop of Chełmno to crown Mindaugas as King of Lithuania, appoint a bishop for Lithuania, and build a cathedral.", "In 1253, Mindaugas was crowned and a Kingdom of Lithuania was established for the first and only time in Lithuanian history.", "Mindaugas \"granted\" parts of Yotvingia and Samogitia that he did not control to the Knights in 1253–1259.A peace with Daniel of Galicia in 1254 was cemented by a marriage deal involving Mindaugas' daughter and Daniel's son Shvarn.", "Mindaugas' nephew Tautvilas returned to his Duchy of Polotsk and Samogitia separated, soon to be ruled by another nephew, Treniota.In 1260, the Samogitians, victorious over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Durbe, agreed to submit themselves to Mindaugas' rule on the condition that he abandons the Christian religion; the king complied by terminating the emergent conversion of his country, renewed anti-Teutonic warfare (in the struggle for Samogitia) and expanded further his Ruthenian holdings.", "It is not clear whether this was accompanied by his personal apostasy.", "Mindaugas thus established the basic tenets of medieval Lithuanian policy: defense against the German Order expansion from the west and north and conquest of Ruthenia in the south and east.Mindaugas was the principal founder of the Lithuanian state.", "He established for a while a Christian kingdom under the pope rather than the Holy Roman Empire, at a time when the remaining pagan peoples of Europe were no longer being converted peacefully, but conquered.====Traidenis, Teutonic conquests of Baltic tribes====Daumantas of Pskov killed Mindaugas in revenge for the king's taking of Daumantas' wifeMindaugas was murdered in 1263 by Daumantas of Pskov and Treniota, an event that resulted in great unrest and civil war.", "Treniota, who took over the rule of the Lithuanian territories, murdered Tautvilas, but was killed himself in 1264.The rule of Mindaugas' son Vaišvilkas followed.", "He was the first Lithuanian duke known to become an Orthodox Christian and settle in Ruthenia, establishing a pattern to be followed by many others.", "Vaišvilkas was killed in 1267.A power struggle between Shvarn and Traidenis resulted; it ended in a victory for the latter.", "Traidenis' reign (1269–1282) was the longest and most stable during the period of unrest.", "Tradenis reunified all Lithuanian lands, repeatedly raided Ruthenia and Poland with success, defeated the Teutonic Knights in Prussia and in Livonia at the Battle of Aizkraukle in 1279.He also became the ruler of Yotvingia, Semigalia and eastern Prussia.", "Friendly relations with Poland followed, and in 1279, Tradenis' daughter Gaudemunda of Lithuania married Bolesław II of Masovia, a Piast duke.Pagan Lithuania was a target of northern Christian crusades of the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order.", "In 1241, 1259 and 1275, Lithuania was also ravaged by raids from the Golden Horde, which earlier (1237–1240) debilitated Kievan Rus'.", "After Traidenis' death, the German Knights finalized their conquests of Western Baltic tribes, and they could concentrate on Lithuania, especially on Samogitia, to connect the two branches of the Order.", "A particular opportunity opened in 1274 after the conclusion of the Great Prussian Rebellion and the conquest of the Old Prussian tribe.", "The Teutonic Knights then proceeded to conquer other Baltic tribes: the Nadruvians and Skalvians in 1274–1277 and the Yotvingians in 1283.The Livonian Order completed its conquest of Semigalia, the last Baltic ally of Lithuania, in 1291.====Vytenis, Lithuania's great expansion under Gediminas====Peace agreement between Gediminas and the Teutonic OrderThe family of Gediminas, whose members were about to form Lithuania's great native dynasty, took over the rule of the Grand Duchy in 1285 under Butigeidis.", "Vytenis (r. 1295–1315) and Gediminas (r. 1315–1341), after whom the Gediminid dynasty is named, had to deal with constant raids and incursions from the Teutonic orders that were costly to repulse.", "Vytenis fought them effectively around 1298 and at about the same time was able to ally Lithuania with the German burghers of Riga.", "For their part, the Prussian Knights instigated a rebellion in Samogitia against the Lithuanian ruler in 1299–1300, followed by twenty incursions there in 1300–15.Gediminas also fought the Teutonic Knights, and besides that made shrewd diplomatic moves by cooperating with the government of Riga in 1322–23 and taking advantage of the conflict between the Knights and Archbishop Friedrich von Pernstein of Riga.Gediminas expanded Lithuania's international connections by conducting correspondence with Pope John XXII as well as with rulers and other centers of power in Western Europe, and he invited German colonists to settle in Lithuania.", "Responding to Gediminas' complaints about the aggression from the Teutonic Order, the pope forced the Knights to observe a four-year peace with Lithuania in 1324–1327.Opportunities for the Christianization of Lithuania were investigated by the pope's legates, but they met with no success.", "From the time of Mindaugas, the country's rulers attempted to break Lithuania's cultural isolation, join Western Christendom and thus be protected from the Knights, but the Knights and other interests had been able to block the process.", "In the 14th century, Gediminas' attempts to become baptized (1323–1324) and establish Catholic Christianity in his country were thwarted by the Samogitians and Gediminas' Orthodox courtiers.", "In 1325, Casimir, the son of the Polish king Władysław I, married Gediminas' daughter Aldona, who became queen of Poland when Casimir ascended the Polish throne in 1333.The marriage confirmed the prestige of the Lithuanian state under Gediminas, and a defensive alliance with Poland was concluded the same year.", "Yearly incursions of the Knights resumed in 1328–1340, to which the Lithuanians responded with raids into Prussia and Latvia.Expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 13–15th centuriesThe reign of Grand Duke Gediminas constituted the first period in Lithuanian history in which the country was recognized as a great power, mainly due to the extent of its territorial expansion into Ruthenia.", "Lithuania was unique in Europe as a pagan-ruled \"kingdom\" and fast-growing military power suspended between the worlds of Byzantine and Latin Christianity.", "To be able to afford the extremely costly defense against the Teutonic Knights, it had to expand to the east.", "Gediminas accomplished Lithuania's eastern expansion by challenging the Mongols, who from the 1230s sponsored a Mongol invasion of Rus'.", "The collapse of the political structure of Kievan Rus' created a partial regional power vacuum that Lithuania was able to exploit.", "Through alliances and conquest, in competition with the Principality of Moscow, the Lithuanians eventually gained control of vast expanses of the western and southern portions of the former Kievan Rus'.", "Gediminas' conquests included the western Smolensk region, southern Polesia and (temporarily) Kyiv, which was ruled around 1330 by Gediminas' brother Fiodor.", "The Lithuanian-controlled area of Ruthenia grew to include most of modern Belarus and Ukraine (the Dnieper River basin) and comprised a massive state that stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea in the 14th and 15th centuries.In the 14th century, many Lithuanian princes installed to govern the Ruthenia lands accepted Eastern Christianity and assumed Ruthenian custom and names in order to appeal to the culture of their subjects.", "Through this means, integration into the Lithuanian state structure was accomplished without disturbing local ways of life.", "The Ruthenian territories acquired were vastly larger, more densely populated and more highly developed in terms of church organization and literacy than the territories of core Lithuania.", "Thus the Lithuanian state was able to function because of the contributions of the Ruthenian culture representatives.", "Historical territories of the former Ruthenian dukedoms were preserved under the Lithuanian rule, and the further they were from Vilnius, the more autonomous the localities tended to be.", "Lithuanian soldiers and Ruthenians together defended Ruthenian strongholds, at times paying tribute to the Golden Horde for some of the outlying localities.", "Ruthenian lands may have been ruled jointly by Lithuania and the Golden Horde as condominiums until the time of Vytautas, who stopped paying tribute.", "Gediminas' state provided a counterbalance against the influence of Moscow and enjoyed good relations with the Ruthenian principalities of Pskov, Veliky Novgorod and Tver.", "Direct military confrontations with the Principality of Moscow under Ivan I occurred around 1335.====Algirdas and Kęstutis====16th-century image of Algirdas, one of the great rulers of 14th-century EuropeAround 1318, Gediminas' elder son Algirdas married Maria of Vitebsk, the daughter of Prince Yaroslav of Vitebsk, and settled in Vitebsk to rule the principality.", "Of Gediminas' seven sons, four remained pagan and three converted to Orthodox Christianity.", "Upon his death, Gediminas divided his domains among the seven sons, but Lithuania's precarious military situation, especially on the Teutonic frontier, forced the brothers to keep the country together.", "From 1345, Algirdas took over as the Grand Duke of Lithuania.", "In practice, he ruled over Lithuanian Ruthenia only, whereas Lithuania proper was the domain of his equally able brother Kęstutis.", "Algirdas fought the Golden Horde Tatars and the Principality of Moscow; Kęstutis took upon himself the demanding struggle with the Teutonic Order.The warfare with the Teutonic Order continued from 1345, and in 1348, the Knights defeated the Lithuanians at the Battle of Strėva.", "Kęstutis requested King Casimir of Poland to mediate with the pope in hopes of converting Lithuania to Christianity, but the result was negative, and Poland took from Lithuania in 1349 the Halych area and some Ruthenian lands further north.", "Lithuania's situation improved from 1350, when Algirdas formed an alliance with the Principality of Tver.", "Halych was ceded by Lithuania, which brought peace with Poland in 1352.Secured by those alliances, Algirdas and Kęstutis embarked on the implementation of policies to expand Lithuania's territories further.Seal of KęstutisBryansk was taken in 1359, and in 1362, Algirdas captured Kyiv after defeating the Mongols at the Battle of Blue Waters.", "Volhynia, Podolia and left-bank Ukraine were also incorporated.", "Kęstutis heroically fought for the survival of ethnic Lithuanians by attempting to repel about thirty incursions by the Teutonic Knights and their European guest fighters.", "Kęstutis also attacked the Teutonic possessions in Prussia on numerous occasions, but the Knights took Kaunas in 1362.The dispute with Poland renewed itself and was settled by the peace of 1366, when Lithuania gave up a part of Volhynia including Volodymyr.", "A peace with the Livonian Knights was also accomplished in 1367.In 1368, 1370 and 1372, Algirdas invaded the Grand Duchy of Moscow and each time approached Moscow itself.", "An \"eternal\" peace (the Treaty of Lyubutsk) was concluded after the last attempt, and it was much needed by Lithuania due to its involvement in heavy fighting with the Knights again in 1373–1377.The two brothers and Gediminas' other offspring left many ambitious sons with inherited territory.", "Their rivalry weakened the country in the face of the Teutonic expansion and the newly assertive Grand Duchy of Moscow, buoyed by the 1380 victory over the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo and intent on the unification of all Rus' lands under its rule.====Jogaila's conflict with Kęstutis, Vytautas====treaty with the Teutonic Knights precipitated the fall of Kęstutis.Algirdas died in 1377, and his son Jogaila became grand duke while Kęstutis was still alive.", "The Teutonic pressure was at its peak, and Jogaila was inclined to cease defending Samogitia in order to concentrate on preserving the Ruthenian empire of Lithuania.", "The Knights exploited the differences between Jogaila and Kęstutis and procured a separate armistice with the older duke in 1379.Jogaila then made overtures to the Teutonic Order and concluded the secret Treaty of Dovydiškės with them in 1380, contrary to Kęstutis' principles and interests.", "Kęstutis felt he could no longer support his nephew and in 1381, when Jogaila's forces were preoccupied with quenching a rebellion in Polotsk, he entered Vilnius in order to remove Jogaila from the throne.", "A Lithuanian civil war ensued.", "Kęstutis' two raids against Teutonic possessions in 1382 brought back the tradition of his past exploits, but Jogaila retook Vilnius during his uncle's absence.", "Kęstutis was captured and died in Jogaila's custody.", "Kęstutis' son Vytautas escaped.Jogaila agreed to the Treaty of Dubysa with the Order in 1382, an indication of his weakness.", "A four-year truce stipulated Jogaila's conversion to Catholicism and the cession of half of Samogitia to the Teutonic Knights.", "Vytautas went to Prussia in seek of the support of the Knights for his claims, including the Duchy of Trakai, which he considered inherited from his father.", "Jogaila's refusal to submit to the demands of his cousin and the Knights resulted in their joint invasion of Lithuania in 1383.Vytautas, however, having failed to gain the entire duchy, established contacts with the grand duke.", "Upon receiving from him the areas of Grodno, Podlasie and Brest, Vytautas switched sides in 1384 and destroyed the border strongholds entrusted to him by the Order.", "In 1384, the two Lithuanian dukes, acting together, waged a successful expedition against the lands ruled by the Order.By that time, for the sake of its long-term survival, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had initiated the processes leading to its imminent acceptance of European Christendom.", "The Teutonic Knights aimed at a territorial unification of their Prussian and Livonian branches by conquering Samogitia and all of Lithuania proper, following the earlier subordination of the Prussian and Latvian tribes.", "To dominate the neighboring Baltic and Slavic people and expand into a great Baltic power, the Knights used German and other volunteer fighters.", "They unleashed 96 onslaughts in Lithuania during the period 1345–1382, against which the Lithuanians were able to respond with only 42 retributive raids of their own.", "Lithuania's Ruthenian empire in the east was also threatened by both the unification of Rus' ambitions of Moscow and the centrifugal activities pursued by the rulers of some of the more distant provinces.====13th–14th century Lithuanian society====Gediminas' Tower in Vilnius, built under VytautasThe Lithuanian state of the later 14th century was primarily binational, Lithuanian and Ruthenian (in territories that correspond to the modern Belarus and Ukraine).", "Of its 800,000 square kilometers total area, 10% comprised ethnic Lithuania, probably populated by no more than 300,000 inhabitants.", "Lithuania was dependent for its survival on the human and material resources of the Ruthenian lands.The increasingly differentiated Lithuanian society was led by princes of the Gediminid and Rurik dynasties and the descendants of former ''kunigas'' chiefs from families such as the Giedraitis, Olshanski and Svirski.", "Below them in rank was the regular Lithuanian nobility (or boyars), in Lithuania proper strictly subjected to the princes and generally living on modest family farms, each tended by a few feudal subjects or, more often, slave workers if the boyar could afford them.", "For their military and administrative services, Lithuanian boyars were compensated by exemptions from public contributions, payments, and Ruthenian land grants.", "The majority of the ordinary rural workers were free.", "They were obligated to provide crafts and numerous contributions and services; for not paying these types of debts (or for other offences), one could be forced into slavery.The Ruthenian princes were Orthodox, and many Lithuanian princes also converted to Eastern Orthodoxy, even some who resided in Lithuania proper, or at least their wives.", "The masonry Ruthenian churches and monasteries housed learned monks, their writings (including Gospel translations such as the Ostromir Gospels) and collections of religious art.", "A Ruthenian quarter populated by Lithuania's Orthodox subjects, and containing their church, existed in Vilnius from the 14th century.", "The grand dukes' chancery in Vilnius was staffed by Orthodox churchmen, who, trained in the Church Slavonic language, developed Chancery Slavonic, a Ruthenian written language useful for official record keeping.", "The most important of the Grand Duchy's documents, the Lithuanian Metrica, the Lithuanian Chronicles and the Statutes of Lithuania, were all written in that language.German, Jewish and Armenian settlers were invited to live in Lithuania; the last two groups established their own denominational communities directly under the ruling dukes.", "The Tatars and Crimean Karaites were entrusted as soldiers for the dukes' personal guard.Towns developed to a much lesser degree than in nearby Prussia or Livonia.", "Outside of Ruthenia, the only cities were Vilnius (Gediminas' capital from 1323), the old capital of Trakai and Kaunas.", "Kernavė and Kreva were the other old political centers.", "Vilnius in the 14th century was a major social, cultural and trading center.", "It linked economically central and eastern Europe with the Baltic area.", "Vilnius merchants enjoyed privileges that allowed them to trade over most of the territories of the Lithuanian state.", "Of the passing Ruthenian, Polish and German merchants (many from Riga), many settled in Vilnius and some built masonry residencies.", "The city was ruled by a governor named by the grand duke and its system of fortifications included three castles.", "Foreign currencies and Lithuanian currency (from the 13th century) were widely used.The Lithuanian state maintained a patrimonial power structure.", "Gediminid rule was hereditary, but the ruler would choose the son he considered most able to be his successor.", "Councils existed, but could only advise the duke.", "The huge state was divided into a hierarchy of territorial units administered by designated officials who were also empowered in judicial and military matters.The Lithuanians spoke in a number of Aukštaitian and Samogitian (West-Baltic) dialects.", "But the tribal peculiarities were disappearing and the increasing use of the name ''Lietuva'' was a testimony to the developing Lithuanian sense of separate identity.", "The forming Lithuanian feudal system preserved many aspects of the earlier societal organization, such as the family clan structure, free peasantry and some slavery.", "The land belonged now to the ruler and the nobility.", "Patterns imported primarily from Ruthenia were used for the organization of the state and its structure of power.Following the establishment of Western Christianity at the end of the 14th century, the occurrence of pagan cremation burial ceremonies markedly decreased.===Dynastic union with Poland, Christianization of the state=======Jogaila's Catholic conversion and rule====St.", "Nicholas in Vilnius, the oldest church in LithuaniaAs the power of the Lithuanian warlord dukes expanded to the south and east, the cultivated East Slavic Ruthenians exerted influence on the Lithuanian ruling class.", "They brought with them the Church Slavonic liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Christian religion, a written language (Chancery Slavonic) that was developed to serve the Lithuanian court's document-producing needs for a few centuries, and a system of laws.", "By these means, Ruthenians transformed Vilnius into a major center of Kievan Rus' civilization.", "By the time of Jogaila's acceptance of Catholicism at the Union of Krewo in 1385, many institutions in his realm and members of his family had been to a large extent assimilated already into the Orthodox Christianity and became Russified (in part a result of the deliberate policy of the Gediminid ruling house).Ruthenian depiction of Christian JogailaCatholic influence and contacts, including those derived from German settlers, traders and missionaries from Riga, had been increasing for some time around the northwest region of the empire, known as Lithuania proper.", "The Franciscan and Dominican friar orders existed in Vilnius from the time of Gediminas.", "Kęstutis in 1349 and Algirdas in 1358 negotiated Christianization with the pope, the Holy Roman Empire and the Polish king.", "The Christianization of Lithuania thus involved both Catholic and Orthodox aspects.", "Conversion by force as practiced by the Teutonic Knights had actually been an impediment that delayed the progress of Western Christianity in the grand duchy.Jogaila, a grand duke since 1377, was himself still a pagan at the start of his reign.", "In 1386, agreed to the offer of the Polish crown by leading Polish nobles, who were eager to take advantage of Lithuania's expansion, if he become a Catholic and married the 13-year-old crowned king (not queen) Jadwiga.", "For the near future, Poland gave Lithuania a valuable ally against increasing threats from the Teutonic Knights and the Grand Duchy of Moscow.", "Lithuania, in which Ruthenians outnumbered ethnic Lithuanians by several times, could ally with either the Grand Duchy of Moscow or Poland.", "A Russian deal was also negotiated with Dmitry Donskoy in 1383–1384, but Moscow was too distant to be able to assist with the problems posed by the Teutonic orders and presented a difficulty as a center competing for the loyalty of the Orthodox Lithuanian Ruthenians.Act of Kreva signed on 14 August 1385Jogaila was baptized, given the baptismal name Władysław, married Queen Jadwiga, and was crowned King of Poland in February 1386.Jogaila's baptism and crowning were followed by the final and official Christianization of Lithuania.", "In the fall of 1386, the king returned to Lithuania and the next spring and summer participated in mass conversion and baptism ceremonies for the general population.", "The establishment of a bishopric in Vilnius in 1387 was accompanied by Jogaila's extraordinarily generous endowment of land and peasants to the Church and exemption from state obligations and control.", "This instantly transformed the Lithuanian Church into the most powerful institution in the country (and future grand dukes lavished even more wealth on it).", "Lithuanian boyars who accepted baptism were rewarded with a more limited privilege improving their legal rights.", "Vilnius' townspeople were granted self-government.", "The Church proceeded with its civilizing mission of literacy and education, and the estates of the realm started to emerge with their own separate identities.Jogaila's orders for his court and followers to convert to Catholicism were meant to deprive the Teutonic Knights of the justification for their practice of forced conversion through military onslaughts.", "In 1403 the pope prohibited the Order from conducting warfare against Lithuania, and its threat to Lithuania's existence (which had endured for two centuries) was indeed neutralized.", "In the short term, Jogaila needed Polish support in his struggle with his cousin Vytautas.====Lithuania at its peak under Vytautas====Grand Duke Vytautas, a Lithuanian hero, was Jogaila's first cousin and rivalThe Lithuanian Civil War of 1389–1392 involved the Teutonic Knights, the Poles, and the competing factions loyal to Jogaila and Vytautas in Lithuania.", "Amid ruthless warfare, the grand duchy was ravaged and threatened with collapse.", "Jogaila decided that the way out was to make amends and recognize the rights of Vytautas, whose original goal, now largely accomplished, was to recover the lands he considered his inheritance.", "After negotiations, Vytautas ended up gaining far more than that; from 1392 he became practically the ruler of Lithuania, a self-styled \"Duke of Lithuania,\" under a compromise with Jogaila known as the Ostrów Agreement.", "Technically, he was merely Jogaila's regent with extended authority.", "Jogaila realized that cooperating with his able cousin was preferable to attempting to govern (and defend) Lithuania directly from Kraków.Vytautas had been frustrated by Jogaila's Polish arrangements and rejected the prospect of Lithuania's subordination to Poland.", "Under Vytautas, a considerable centralization of the state took place, and the Catholicized Lithuanian nobility became increasingly prominent in state politics.", "The centralization efforts began in 1393–1395, when Vytautas appropriated their provinces from several powerful regional dukes in Ruthenia.", "Several invasions of Lithuania by the Teutonic Knights occurred between 1392 and 1394, but they were repelled with the help of Polish forces.", "Afterwards, the Knights abandoned their goal of conquest of Lithuania proper and concentrated on subjugating and keeping Samogitia.", "In 1395, Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia, the Order's formal superior, prohibited the Knights from raiding Lithuania.In 1395, Vytautas conquered Smolensk, and in 1397, he conducted a victorious expedition against a branch of the Golden Horde.", "Now he felt he could afford independence from Poland and in 1398 refused to pay the tribute due to Queen Jadwiga.", "Seeking freedom to pursue his internal and Ruthenian goals, Vytautas had to grant the Teutonic Order a large portion of Samogitia in the Treaty of Salynas of 1398.The conquest of Samogitia by the Teutonic Order greatly improved its military position as well as that of the associated Livonian Brothers of the Sword.", "Vytautas soon pursued attempts to retake the territory, an undertaking for which needed the help of the Polish king.During Vytautas' reign, Lithuania reached the peak of its territorial expansion, but his ambitious plans to subjugate all of Ruthenia were thwarted by his disastrous defeat in 1399 at the Battle of the Vorskla River, inflicted by the Golden Horde.", "Vytautas survived by fleeing the battlefield with a small unit and realized the necessity of a permanent alliance with Poland.Oldest surviving manuscript in the Lithuanian language (beginning of the 16th century), rewritten from a 15th-century original textThe original Union of Krewo of 1385 was renewed and redefined on several occasions, but each time with little clarity due to the competing Polish and Lithuanian interests.", "Fresh arrangements were agreed to in the \"unions\" of Vilnius (1401), Horodło (1413), Grodno (1432) and Vilnius (1499).", "In the Union of Vilnius, Jogaila granted Vytautas a lifetime rule over the grand duchy.", "In return, Jogaila preserved his formal supremacy, and Vytautas promised to \"stand faithfully with the Crown and the King.\"", "Warfare with the Order resumed.", "In 1403, Pope Boniface IX banned the Knights from attacking Lithuania, but in the same year Lithuania had to agree to the Peace of Raciąż, which mandated the same conditions as in the Treaty of Salynas.Secure in the west, Vytautas turned his attention to the east once again.", "The campaigns fought between 1401 and 1408 involved Smolensk, Pskov, Moscow and Veliky Novgorod.", "Smolensk was retained, Pskov and Veliki Novgorod ended up as Lithuanian dependencies, and a lasting territorial division between the Grand Duchy and Moscow was agreed in 1408 in the treaty of Ugra, where a great battle failed to materialize.Battle of Grunwald was one of the largest battles in Medieval Europe and is regarded as one of the most important victories in the history of LithuaniaThe decisive war with the Teutonic Knights (the Great War) was preceded in 1409 with a Samogitian uprising supported by Vytautas.", "Ultimately the Lithuanian–Polish alliance was able to defeat the Knights at the Battle of Grunwald on 15 July 1410, but the allied armies failed to take Marienburg, the Knights' fortress-capital.", "Nevertheless, the unprecedented total battlefield victory against the Knights permanently removed the threat that they had posed to Lithuania's existence for centuries.", "The Peace of Thorn (1411) allowed Lithuania to recover Samogotia, but only until the deaths of Jogaila and Vytautas, and the Knights had to pay a large monetary reparation.The Union of Horodło (1413) incorporated Lithuania into Poland again, but only as a formality.", "In practical terms, Lithuania became an equal partner with Poland, because each country was obliged to choose its future ruler only with the consent of the other, and the Union was declared to continue even under a new dynasty.", "Catholic Lithuanian boyars were to enjoy the same privileges as Polish nobles (''szlachta'').", "47 top Lithuanian clans were colligated with 47 Polish noble families to initiate a future brotherhood and facilitate the expected full unity.", "Two administrative divisions (Vilnius and Trakai) were established in Lithuania, patterned after the existing Polish models.Vytautas practiced religious toleration and his grandiose plans also included attempts to influence the Eastern Orthodox Church, which he wanted to use as a tool to control Moscow and other parts of Ruthenia.", "In 1416, he elevated Gregory Tsamblak as his chosen Orthodox patriarch for all of Ruthenia (the established Orthodox Metropolitan bishop remained in Vilnius to the end of the 18th century).", "These efforts were also intended to serve the goal of global unification of the Eastern and Western churches.", "Tsamblak led an Orthodox delegation to the Council of Constance in 1418.The Orthodox synod, however, would not recognize Tsamblak.", "The grand duke also established new Catholic bishoprics in Samogitia (1417) and in Lithuanian Ruthenia (Lutsk and Kyiv).The Gollub War with the Teutonic Knights followed and in 1422, in the Treaty of Melno, the grand duchy permanently recovered Samogitia, which terminated its involvement in the wars with the Order.", "Vytautas' shifting policies and reluctance to pursue the Order made the survival of German East Prussia possible for centuries to come.", "Samogitia was the last region of Europe to be Christianized (from 1413).", "Later, different foreign policies were prosecuted by Lithuania and Poland, accompanied by conflicts over Podolia and Volhynia, the grand duchy's territories in the southeast.Vytautas' greatest successes and recognition occurred at the end of his life, when the Crimean Khanate and the Volga Tatars came under his influence.", "Prince Vasily I of Moscow died in 1425, and Vytautas then administered the Grand Duchy of Moscow together with his daughter, Vasily's widow Sophia of Lithuania.", "In 1426–1428 Vytautas triumphantly toured the eastern reaches of his empire and collected huge tributes from the local princes.", "Pskov and Veliki Novgorod were incorporated to the grand duchy in 1426 and 1428.At the Congress of Lutsk in 1429, Vytautas negotiated the issue of his crowning as the King of Lithuania with Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund and Jogaila.", "That ambition was close to being fulfilled, but in the end was thwarted by last-minute intrigues and Vytautas' death.", "Vytautas' cult and legend originated during his later years and have continued until today.====Around the first half of the 15th century====Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania in Vilnius, LithuaniaThe dynastic link to Poland resulted in religious, political and cultural ties and increase of Western influence among the native Lithuanian nobility, and to a lesser extent among the Ruthenian boyars from the East, Lithuanian subjects.", "Catholics were granted preferential treatment and access to offices because of the policies of Vytautas, officially pronounced in 1413 at the Union of Horodło, and even more so of his successors, aimed at asserting the rule of the Catholic Lithuanian elite over the Ruthenian territories.", "Such policies increased the pressure on the nobility to convert to Catholicism.", "Ethnic Lithuania proper made up 10% of the area and 20% of the population of the Grand Duchy.", "Of the Ruthenian provinces, Volhynia was most closely integrated with Lithuania proper.", "Branches of the Gediminid family as well as other Lithuanian and Ruthenian magnate clans eventually became established there.During the period, a stratum of wealthy landowners, important also as a military force, was coming into being, accompanied by the emerging class of feudal serfs assigned to them.", "The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was for the time being largely preserved as a separate state with separate institutions, but efforts, originating mainly in Poland, were made to bring the Polish and Lithuanian elites and systems closer together.", "Vilnius and other cities were granted the German system of laws (Magdeburg rights).", "Crafts and trade were developing quickly.", "Under Vytautas a network of chanceries functioned, first schools were established and annals written.", "Taking advantage of the historic opportunities, the great ruler opened Lithuania for the influence of the European culture and integrated his country with European Western Christianity.====Under Jagiellonian rulers====First Lithuanian legal statute, implemented in 1522–1529rulers of Lithuania in the Vilnius Cathedral, 1931The Jagiellonian dynasty founded by Jogaila (a member of one of the branches of the Gediminids) ruled Poland and Lithuania continuously between 1386 and 1572.Following the deaths of Vytautas in 1430, another civil war ensued, and Lithuania was ruled by rival successors.", "Afterwards, the Lithuanian nobility on two occasions technically broke the union between Poland and Lithuania by selecting grand dukes unilaterally from the Jagiellonian dynasty.", "In 1440, the Lithuanian great lords elevated Casimir, Jogaila's second son, to the rule of the grand duchy.", "This issue was resolved by Casimir's election as king by the Poles in 1446.In 1492, Jogaila's grandson John Albert became the king of Poland, whereas his grandson Alexander became the grand duke of Lithuania.", "In 1501 Alexander succeeded John as king of Poland, which resolved the difficulty in the same manner as before.", "A lasting connection between the two states was beneficial to Poles, Lithuanians, and Ruthenians, Catholic and Orthodox, as well as the Jagiellonian rulers themselves, whose hereditary succession rights in Lithuania practically guaranteed their election as kings in accordance with the customs surrounding the royal elections in Poland.On the Teutonic front, Poland continued its struggle, which in 1466 led to the Peace of Thorn and the recovery of much of the Piast dynasty territorial losses.", "A secular Duchy of Prussia was established in 1525.Its presence would greatly impact the futures of both Lithuania and Poland.The Tatar Crimean Khanate recognized the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire from 1475.Seeking slaves and booty, the Tatars raided vast portions of the grand duchy of Lithuania, burning Kyiv in 1482 and approaching Vilnius in 1505.Their activity resulted in Lithuania's loss of its distant territories on the Black Sea shores in the 1480s and 1490s.", "The last two Jagiellon kings were Sigismund I and Sigismund II Augustus, during whose reign the intensity of Tatar raids diminished due to the appearance of the military caste of Cossacks at the southeastern territories and the growing power of the Grand Duchy of Moscow.Martynas Mažvydas' ''Catechism'' was published in Lithuanian in Königsberg (1547)Lithuania needed a close alliance with Poland when, at the end of the 15th century, the increasingly assertive Grand Duchy of Moscow threatened some of Lithuania's Rus' principalities with the goal of \"recovering\" the formerly Orthodox-ruled lands.", "In 1492, Ivan III of Russia unleashed what turned out to be a series of Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars and Livonian Wars.In 1492, the border of Lithuania's loosely controlled eastern Ruthenian territory ran less than one hundred miles from Moscow.", "But as a result of the warfare, a third of the grand duchy's land area was ceded to the Russian state in 1503.Then the loss of Smolensk in July 1514 was particularly disastrous, even though it was followed by the successful Battle of Orsha in September, as the Polish interests were reluctantly recognizing the necessity of their own involvement in Lithuania's defense.", "The peace of 1537 left Gomel as the grand duchy's eastern edge.In the north, the Livonian War took place over the strategically and economically crucial region of Livonia, the traditional territory of the Livonian Order.", "The Livonian Confederation formed an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian side in 1557 with the Treaty of Pozvol.", "Desired by both Lithuania and Poland, Livonia was then incorporated into the Polish Crown by Sigismund II.", "These developments caused Ivan the Terrible of Russia to launch attacks in Livonia beginning in 1558, and later on Lithuania.", "The grand duchy's fortress of Polotsk fell in 1563.This was followed by a Lithuanian victory at the Battle of Ula in 1564, but not a recovery of Polotsk.", "Russian, Swedish and Polish-Lithuanian occupations subdivided Livonia.====Toward more integrated union====Third Grand Duchy's Statute (1588 legal code) was still written in the Ruthenian language.", "Lithuanian coat of arms, \"the Chase\", is shown on the title pageThe Polish ruling establishment had been aiming at the incorporation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland since before the Union of Krewo.", "The Lithuanians were able to fend off this threat in the 14th and 15th centuries, but the dynamics of power changed in the 16th century.", "In 1508, the Polish Sejm voted funding for Lithuania's defense against Muscovy for the first time, and an army was fielded.", "The Polish nobility's executionist movement called for full incorporation of the Grand Duchy because of its increasing reliance on the support of the Polish Crown against Moscow's encroachments.", "This problem only grew more acute during the reign of Sigismund II Augustus, the last Jagiellonian king and grand duke of Lithuania, who had no heir who would inherit and continue the personal union between Poland and Lithuania.", "The preservation of the Polish-Lithuanian power arrangement appeared to require the monarch to force a decisive solution during his lifetime.", "The resistance to a closer and more permanent union was coming from Lithuania's ruling families, increasingly Polonized in cultural terms, but attached to the Lithuanian heritage and their patrimonial rule.Legal evolution had lately been taking place in Lithuania nevertheless.", "In the Privilege of Vilnius of 1563, Sigismund restored full political rights to the Grand Duchy's Orthodox boyars, which had been restricted up to that time by Vytautas and his successors; all members of the nobility were from then officially equal.", "Elective courts were established in 1565–66, and the Second Lithuanian Statute of 1566 created a hierarchy of local offices patterned on the Polish system.", "The Lithuanian legislative assembly assumed the same formal powers as the Polish Sejm.Sigismund II Augustus took decisive steps to ensure preservation of the union after his deathThe Polish Sejm of January 1569, deliberating in Lublin, was attended by the Lithuanian lords at Sigismund's insistence.", "Most left town on 1 March, unhappy with the proposals of the Poles to establish rights to acquire property in Lithuania and other issues.", "Sigismund reacted by announcing the incorporation of the Grand Duchy's Volhynia and Podlasie voivodeships into the Polish Crown.", "Soon the large Kiev Voivodeship and Bratslav Voivodeship were also annexed.", "Ruthenian boyars in the formerly southeastern Grand Duchy mostly approved the territorial transfers, since it meant that they would become members of the privileged Polish nobility.", "But the king also pressured many obstinate deputies to agree on compromises important to the Lithuanian side.", "The arm twisting, combined with reciprocal guarantees for Lithuanian nobles' rights, resulted in the \"voluntary\" passage of the Union of Lublin on July 1.The combined polity would be ruled by a common Sejm, but the separate hierarchies of major state offices were to be retained.", "Many in the Lithuanian establishment found this objectionable, but in the end they were prudent to comply.", "For the time being, Sigismund managed to preserve the Polish-Lithuanian state as great power.", "Reforms necessary to protect its long-term success and survival were not undertaken.====Lithuanian Renaissance====Poland and Lithuania in 1526, before the Union of LublinFrom the 16th to the mid-17th century, culture, arts, and education flourished in Lithuania, fueled by the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation.", "The Lutheran ideas of the Reformation entered the Livonian Confederation by the 1520s, and Lutheranism soon became the prevailing religion in the urban areas of the region, while Lithuania remained Catholic.An influential book dealer was the humanist and bibliophile Francysk Skaryna (c. 1485—1540), who was the founding father of Belarusian letters.", "He wrote in his native Ruthenian (Chancery Slavonic) language, as was typical for literati in the earlier phase of the Renaissance in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.", "After the middle of the 16th century, Polish predominated in literary productions.", "Many educated Lithuanians came back from studies abroad to help build the active cultural life that distinguished 16th-century Lithuania, sometimes referred to as Lithuanian Renaissance (not to be confused with Lithuanian National Revival in the 19th century).At this time, Italian architecture was introduced in Lithuanian cities, and Lithuanian literature written in Latin flourished.", "Also at this time, the first printed texts in the Lithuanian language emerged, and the formation of written Lithuanian language began.", "The process was led by Lithuanian scholars Abraomas Kulvietis, Stanislovas Rapalionis, Martynas Mažvydas and Mikalojus Daukša." ], [ "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795)", "===New union with Poland===Poland and Lithuania after the Union of Lublin (1569)With the Union of Lublin of 1569, Poland and Lithuania formed a new state referred to as the Republic of Both Nations, but commonly known as Poland-Lithuania or the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "The Commonwealth, which officially consisted of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, was ruled by Polish and Lithuanian nobility, together with nobility-elected kings.", "The Union was designed to have a common foreign policy, customs and currency.", "Separate Polish and Lithuanian armies were retained, but parallel ministerial and central offices were established according to a practice developed by the Crown.", "The Lithuanian Tribunal, a high court for the affairs of the nobility, was created in 1581.Following the death of Sigismund II Augustus in 1572, a joint Polish–Lithuanian monarch was to be elected as agreed in the Union of Lublin.", "According to the treaty, the title \"Grand Duke of Lithuania\" would be received by a jointly elected monarch in the Election sejm on his accession to the throne, thus losing its former institutional significance.", "However, the treaty guaranteed that the institution and the title \"Grand Duke of Lithuania\" will be preserved.On 20 April 1576 the congress of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania's nobles was held in Grodno which adopted an Universal.", "It was signed by the participating Lithuanian nobles who announced that if the delegates of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania will feel pressure from the Poles in the Election sejm, the Lithuanians will not be obliged by an oath of the Union of Lublin and will have the right to select a separate monarch.", "On 29 May 1580 a ceremony was held in the Vilnius Cathedral during which bishop Merkelis Giedraitis presented Stephen Báthory (King of Poland since 1 May 1576) a luxuriously decorated sword and a cap adorned with pearls (both were sanctified by Pope Gregory XIII himself).", "Such ceremony manifested the sovereignty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and had the meaning of elevation of the new Grand Duke of Lithuania, thus ignoring the stipulations of the Union of Lublin.===Languages===The Lithuanian language fell into disuse in the circles of the grand ducal court in the second half of the 15th century in favor of Polish.", "A century later, Polish was commonly used even by the ordinary Lithuanian nobility.", "Following the Union of Lublin, Polonization increasingly affected all aspects of Lithuanian public life, but it took well over a century for the process to be completed.", "The 1588 Statutes of Lithuania were still written in the Ruthenian Chancery Slavonic language, just as earlier legal codifications were.", "From about 1700, Polish was used in the Grand Duchy's official documents as a replacement for Ruthenian and Latin use.", "The Lithuanian nobility became linguistically and culturally Polonized, while retaining a sense of Lithuanian identity.", "The integrating process of the Commonwealth nobility was not regarded as Polonization in the sense of modern nationality, but rather as participation in the Sarmatism cultural-ideological current, erroneously understood to imply also a common (Sarmatian) ancestry of all members of the noble class.", "The Lithuanian language survived, however, in spite of encroachments by the Ruthenian, Polish, Russian, Belarusian and German languages, as a peasant vernacular, and from 1547 in written religious use.Western Lithuania had an important role in the preservation of the Lithuanian language and its culture.", "In Samogitia, many nobles never ceased to speak Lithuanian natively.", "Northeastern East Prussia, sometimes referred to as Lithuania Minor, was populated mainly by Lithuanians and predominantly Lutheran.", "The Lutherans promoted publishing of religious books in local languages, which is why the ''Catechism'' of Martynas Mažvydas was printed in 1547 in East Prussian Königsberg.===Religion===Hetman Kristupas Radvila or Krzysztof Radziwiłł (1585–1640), a Lithuanian Calvinist and an accomplished military commanderThe predominantly East Slavic population of the Grand Duchy was mostly Eastern Orthodox, and much of the Lithuanian state's nobility also remained Orthodox.", "Unlike the common people of the Lithuanian realm, at about the time of the Union of Lublin in 1569 large portions of the nobility converted to Western Christianity.", "Following the Protestant Reformation movement, many noble families converted to Calvinism in the 1550s and 1560s, and typically a generation later, conforming to the Counter-Reformation trends in the Commonwealth, to Roman Catholicism.", "The Protestant and Orthodox presence must have been very strong, because according to an undoubtedly exaggerated early 17th-century source, \"merely one in a thousand remained a Catholic\" in Lithuania at that time.", "In the early Commonwealth, religious toleration was the norm and was officially enacted by the Warsaw Confederation in 1573.By 1750, nominal Catholics comprised about 80% of the Commonwealth's population, the vast majority of the noble citizenry, and the entire legislature.", "In the east, there were also the Eastern Orthodox Church adherents.", "However, Catholics in the Grand Duchy itself were split.", "Under half were Latin Church with strong allegiance to Rome, worshiping according to the Roman Rite.", "The others (mostly non-noble Ruthenians) followed the Byzantine Rite.", "They were the so-called Uniates, whose church was established at the Union of Brest in 1596, and they acknowledged only nominal obedience to Rome.", "At first the advantage went to the advancing Catholic Church pushing back a retreating Eastern Orthodox Church.", "However, after the first partition of the Commonwealth in 1772, the Orthodox had the support of the government and gained the upper hand.", "The Russian Orthodox Church paid special attention to the Uniates (who had once been Orthodox), and tried to bring them back.", "The contest was political and spiritual, utilizing missionaries, schools, and pressure exerted by powerful nobles and landlords.", "By 1800, over 2 million of the Uniates had become Orthodox, and another 1.6 million by 1839.===Grand Duchy, its grandeur and decline===Administrative divisions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 17th centuryThe Union of Lublin and the integration of the two countries notwithstanding, Lithuania continued to exist as a grand duchy within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth for over two centuries.", "It retained separate laws as well as an army and a treasury.", "At the time of Union of Lublin, King Sigismund II Augustus removed Ukraine and other territories from Lithuania and incorporated them directly into the Polish Crown.", "The grand duchy was left with today's Belarus and parts of European Russia, in addition to the core ethnic Lithuanian lands.", "From 1573, the kings of Poland and the grand dukes of Lithuania were always the same person and were elected by the nobility, who were granted ever increasing privileges in a unique aristocratic political system known as the Golden Liberty.", "These privileges, especially the ''liberum veto'', led to political anarchy and the eventual dissolution of the state.Within the Commonwealth, the grand duchy made important contributions to European economic, political and cultural life: Western Europe was supplied with grain, along the Danzig to Amsterdam sea route; the early Commonwealth's religious tolerance and democracy among the ruling noble class were unique in Europe; Vilnius was the only European capital located on the border of the worlds of the Western and Eastern Christianity and many religious faiths were practiced there; to the Jews, it was the \"Jerusalem of the North\" and the town of the Vilna Gaon, their great religious leader; Vilnius University produced numerous illustrious alumni and was one of the most influential centers of learning in its part of Europe; the Vilnius school made significant contributions to European architecture in Baroque style; the Lithuanian legal tradition gave rise to the advanced legal codes known as the Statutes of Lithuania; at the end of the Commonwealth's existence, the Constitution of 3 May 1791 was the first comprehensive written constitution produced in Europe.", "After the Partitions of Poland, the Vilnius school of Romanticism produced the two great poets: Adam Mickiewicz and Juliusz Słowacki.Traditional ethnographic regions of Lithuania properThe Commonwealth was greatly weakened by a series of wars, beginning with the Khmelnytsky Uprising in Ukraine in 1648.During the Northern Wars of 1655–1661, the Lithuanian territory and economy were devastated by the Swedish army in an invasion known as the Deluge, and Vilnius was burned and looted by the Russian forces.", "Before it could fully recover, Lithuania was again ravaged during the Great Northern War of 1700–1721.Besides war, the Commonwealth suffered the Great Northern War plague outbreak and famine (the worst caused by the Great Frost of 1709).", "These calamities resulted in the loss of approximately 40% of the country's inhabitants.", "Foreign powers, especially Russia, became dominant players in the domestic politics of the Commonwealth.", "Numerous factions among the nobility, controlled and manipulated by the powerful Magnates of Poland and Lithuania, themselves often in conflict, used their \"Golden Liberty\" to prevent reforms.", "Some Lithuanian clans, such as the Radziwiłłs, counted among the most powerful of Commonwealth nobles.The Constitution of 3 May 1791 was a culmination of the belated reform process of the Commonwealth.", "It attempted to integrate Lithuania and Poland more closely, although the separation was preserved by the added Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations.", "Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, 1793 and 1795 terminated its existence and saw the Grand Duchy of Lithuania divided between the Russian Empire, which took over 90% of the Duchy's territory, and the Kingdom of Prussia.", "The Third Partition of 1795 took place after the failure of the Kościuszko Uprising, the last war waged by Poles and Lithuanians to preserve their statehood.", "Lithuania ceased to exist as a distinct entity for more than a century." ], [ "Under Imperial Russia, World War I (1795–1918)", "===Post-Commonwealth period (1795–1864); foundations of Lithuanian nationalism===Adam Mickiewicz was a Polish–Lithuanian poet when the Polish–Lithuanian state no longer existedFollowing the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Russian Empire controlled the majority of Lithuania, including Vilnius, which was a part of the Vilna Governorate.", "In 1803, Tsar Alexander I revived and upgraded the old Jesuit academy as the imperial Vilnius University, the largest in the Russian Empire.", "The university and the regional educational system was directed on behalf of the tsar by Prince Adam Czartoryski.", "In the early years of the 19th century, there were signs that Lithuania might be allowed some separate recognition by the Empire, however this never happened.Simonas DaukantasIn 1812, the Lithuanians eagerly welcomed Napoleon Bonaparte's Grande Armée as liberators, with many joining the French invasion of Russia.", "After the French army's defeat and withdrawal, Tsar Alexander I decided to keep the University of Vilnius open and the Polish-language poet Adam Mickiewicz, a resident of Vilnius in 1815–1824, was able to receive his education there.", "The southwestern part of Lithuania that was taken over by Prussia in 1795, then incorporated into the Duchy of Warsaw (a French puppet state that existed between 1807 and 1815), became a part of the Russian-controlled Kingdom of Poland (\"Congress Poland\") in 1815.The rest of Lithuania continued to be administered as a Russian province.The Poles and Lithuanians revolted against Russian rule twice, in 1830-31 (the November Uprising) and 1863–64 (the January Uprising), but both attempts failed and resulted in increased repression by the Russian authorities.", "After the November Uprising, Tsar Nicholas I began an intensive program of Russification and the University of Vilnius was closed.", "Lithuania became part of a new administrative region called the Northwestern Krai.", "In spite of the repression, Polish language schooling and cultural life were largely able to continue in the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania until the failure of the January Uprising.", "The Statutes of Lithuania were annulled by the Russian Empire only in 1840, and serfdom was abolished as part of the general Emancipation reform of 1861 that applied to the entire Russian Empire.", "The Uniate Church, important in the Belarusian part of the former Grand Duchy, was incorporated into the Orthodox Church in 1839.Konstanty KalinowskiThe Polish poetry of Adam Mickiewicz, who was emotionally attached to the Lithuanian countryside and associated medieval legends, influenced ideological foundations of the emerging Lithuanian national movement.", "Simonas Daukantas, who studied with Mickiewicz at Vilnius University, promoted a return to Lithuania's pre-Commonwealth traditions and a renewal of the local culture, based on the Lithuanian language.", "With those ideas in mind, he wrote already in 1822 a history of Lithuania in Lithuanian (though still not yet published at that time).", "Teodor Narbutt wrote in Polish a voluminous ''Ancient History of the Lithuanian Nation'' (1835–1841), where he likewise expounded and expanded further on the concept of historic Lithuania, whose days of glory had ended with the Union of Lublin in 1569.Narbutt, invoking the German scholarship, pointed out the relationship between the Lithuanian and Sanskrit languages.", "It indicated the closeness of Lithuanian to its ancient Indo-European roots and would later provide the \"antiquity\" argument for activists associated with the Lithuanian National Revival.", "By the middle of the 19th century, the basic ideology of the future Lithuanian nationalist movement was defined with linguistic identity in mind; in order to establish a modern Lithuanian identity, it required a break with the traditional dependence on Polish culture and language.Around the time of the January Uprising, there was a generation of Lithuanian leaders of the transitional period between a political movement bound with Poland and the modern Lithuanian nationalist movement based on language.", "Jakób Gieysztor, Konstanty Kalinowski and Antanas Mackevičius wanted to form alliances with the local peasants, who, empowered and given land, would presumably help defeat the Russian Empire, acting in their own self-interest.", "This created new dilemmas that had to do with languages used for such inter-class communication and later led to the concept of a nation as the \"sum of speakers of a vernacular tongue.", "\"===Formation of modern national identity and push for self-rule (1864–1918)===Modern Lithuania with the former Russian Empire's administrative divisions (governorates) shown (1867–1914).The failure of the January Uprising in 1864 made the connection with Poland seem outdated to many Lithuanians and at the same time led to the creation of a class of emancipated and often prosperous peasants who, unlike often Polonized urban residents, were effectively custodians of the Lithuanian language.", "Educational opportunities, now more widely available to young people of such common origins, were one of the crucial factors responsible for the Lithuanian national revival.", "As schools were being de-Polonized and Lithuanian university students sent to Saint Petersburg or Moscow rather than Warsaw, a cultural void resulted, and it was not being successfully filled by the attempted Russification policies.Russian nationalists regarded the territories of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania as an East Slavic realm that ought to be (and was being) \"reunited\" with Russia.", "In the following decades however, a Lithuanian national movement emerged, composed of activists of different social backgrounds and persuasions, often primarily Polish-speaking, but united by their willingness to promote the Lithuanian culture and language as a strategy for building a modern nation.", "The restoration of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania was no longer the objective of this movement, and the territorial ambitions of its leaders were limited to the lands they considered historically Lithuanian.1864 Lithuanian prayer book, printed in the Latin characters and therefore prohibited.In 1864, the Lithuanian language and the Latin alphabet were banned in junior schools.", "The prohibition on printing in the Lithuanian language reflected the Russian nationalist policy of \"restoration\" of the supposedly Russian beginnings of Lithuania.", "The tsarist authorities implemented a number of Russification policies, including a Lithuanian press ban and the closing of cultural and educational institutions.", "Those were resisted by Lithuanians, led by Bishop Motiejus Valančius, among others.", "Lithuanians resisted by arranging printing abroad and smuggling of the books in from neighboring East Prussia.Lithuanian was not considered a prestigious language.", "There were even expectations that the language would become extinct, as more and more territories in the east were slavicized, and more people used Polish or Russian in daily life.", "The only place where Lithuanian was considered more prestigious and worthy of books and studying was in East Prussia, sometimes referred to by Lithuanian nationalists as \"Lithuania Minor.\"", "At the time, northeastern East Prussia was home to numerous ethnic Lithuanians, but even there Germanization pressure threatened their cultural identity.The language revival spread into more affluent strata, beginning with the release of the Lithuanian newspapers ''Aušra'' and ''Varpas'', then with the writing of poems and books in Lithuanian many of which glorified the historic Grand Duchy of Lithuania.", "''Aušra'', originally spelled ''Auszra'', formulated the ideas of Lithuanian nationalismThe two most prominent figures in the revival movement, Jonas Basanavičius and Vincas Kudirka, both originated from affluent Lithuanian peasantry and attended the Mariampol Gymnasium (secondary school) in the Suwałki Governorate.", "The school was a Polish educational center, Russified after the January Uprising, with Lithuanian language classes introduced at that time.Basanavičius studied medicine at the Moscow State University, where he developed international connections, published (in Polish) on Lithuanian history and graduated in 1879.From there he went to Bulgaria, and in 1882 moved to Prague.", "In Prague he met and became influenced by the Czech National Revival movement.", "In 1883, Basanavičius began working on a Lithuanian language review, which assumed the form of a newspaper named ''Aušra'' (''The Dawn''), published in Ragnit, Prussia, Germany (now Neman, Russia).", "''Aušra'' was printed in Latin characters banned under Russian law, which mandated the Cyrillic alphabet for printing Lithuanian.", "It was smuggled to Lithuania, together with other Lithuanian publications and books printed in East Prussia.", "The paper (forty issues in total), building on the work of the earlier writers, sought to demonstrate continuities with the medieval Grand Duchy and lionize the Lithuanian people.Jonas Basanavičius, a preeminent figure in the Lithuanian National Revival movementRussian restrictions at Marijampolė secondary school were eased in 1872 and Kudirka learned Polish there.", "He went on to study at the University of Warsaw, where he was influenced by Polish socialists.", "In 1889, Kudirka returned to Lithuania and worked on incorporating the Lithuanian peasantry into mainstream politics as the main building block of a modern nation.", "In 1898, he wrote a poem inspired by the opening strophe of Mickiewicz's epic poem ''Pan Tadeusz'': \"Lithuania, my fatherland!", "You are like health.\"", "The poem became the national anthem of Lithuania, ''Tautiška giesmė'': (\"Lithuania, Our Homeland\").As the revival grew, Russian policy became harsher.", "Attacks took place against Catholic churches while the ban forbidding the Lithuanian press continued.", "However, in the late 19th century, the language ban was lifted.", "and some 2,500 books were published in the Lithuanian Latin alphabet.", "The majority of these were published in Tilsit, Kingdom of Prussia (now Russian Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast), although some publications reached Lithuania from the United States.", "A largely standardized written language was achieved by 1900, based on historical and Aukštaitijan (highland) usages.", "The letters -č-, -š- and -v- were taken from the modern (redesigned) Czech orthography, to avoid the Polish usage for corresponding sounds.", "The widely accepted ''Lithuanian Grammar'', by Jonas Jablonskis, appeared in 1901.Vincas KudirkaLarge numbers of Lithuanians had emigrated to the United States in 1867–1868 after a famine in Lithuania.", "Between 1868 and 1914, approximately 635,000 people, almost 20 percent of the population, left Lithuania.", "Lithuanian cities and towns were growing under the Russian rule, but the country remained underdeveloped by the European standards and job opportunities were limited; many Lithuanians left also for the industrial centers of the Russian Empire, such as Riga and Saint Petersburg.", "Many of Lithuania's cities were dominated by non-Lithuanian-speaking Jews and Poles.A flyer with a proposed agenda for the Great Seimas of Vilnius; it was rejected by the delegates and a more politically activist schedule was adoptedLithuania's nationalist movement continued to grow.", "During the 1905 Russian Revolution, a large congress of Lithuanian representatives in Vilnius known as the Great Seimas of Vilnius demanded provincial autonomy for Lithuania (by which they meant the northwestern portion of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania) on 5 December of that year.", "The tsarist regime made a number of concessions as the result of the 1905 uprising.", "The Baltic states once again were permitted to use their native languages in schooling and public discourse, and Catholic churches were built in Lithuania.", "Latin characters replaced the Cyrillic alphabet that had been forced upon Lithuanians for four decades.", "But not even Russian liberals were prepared to concede autonomy similar to that that had already existed in Estonia and Latvia, albeit under Baltic German hegemony.", "Many Baltic Germans looked toward aligning the Baltics (Lithuania and Courland in particular) with Germany.After the Russian entry into World War I, the German Empire occupied Lithuania and Courland in 1915.Vilnius fell to the Imperial German Army on 19 September 1915.An alliance with Germany in opposition to both tsarist Russia and Lithuanian nationalism became for the Baltic Germans a real possibility.", "Lithuania was incorporated into Ober Ost under a German government of occupation.", "As open annexation could result in a public-relations backlash, the Germans planned to form a network of formally independent states that would in fact be dependent on Germany." ], [ "Independence (1918–1940)", "===Declaration of independence===Presidium and secretariat of the Vilnius ConferenceThe German occupation government permitted a Vilnius Conference to convene between 18 and 22 September 1917, with the demand that Lithuanians declare loyalty to Germany and agree to an annexation.", "The intent of the conferees was to begin the process of establishing a Lithuanian state based on ethnic identity and language that would be independent of the Russian Empire, Poland, and the German Empire.", "The mechanism for this process was to be decided by a constituent assembly, but the German government would not permit elections.", "Furthermore, the publication of the conference's resolution calling for the creation of a Lithuanian state and elections for a constituent assembly was not allowed.", "The Conference nonetheless elected a 20-member Council of Lithuania (''Taryba'') and empowered it to act as the executive authority of the Lithuanian people.", "The Council, led by Jonas Basanavičius, declared Lithuanian independence as a German protectorate on 11 December 1917, and then adopted the outright Act of Independence of Lithuania on 16 February 1918.It proclaimed Lithuania as an independent republic, organized according to democratic principles.", "The Germans, weakened by the losses on the Western Front, but still present in the country, did not support such a declaration and hindered attempts to establish actual independence.", "To prevent being incorporated into the German Empire, Lithuanians elected Monaco-born King Mindaugas II as the titular monarch of the Kingdom of Lithuania in July 1918.Mindaugas II never assumed the throne, however.The original twenty members of the Council of LithuaniaIn the meantime, an attempt to revive the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as a socialist multi-national federal republic was also taking place under the German occupation.", "In March 1918, Anton Luckievich and his Belarusian National Council proclaimed a Belarusian People's Republic that was to include Vilnius.", "Luckievich and the Council fled the Red Army approaching from Russia and left Minsk before it was taken over by the Bolsheviks in December 1918.Upon their arrival in Vilnius, they proposed a Belarusian-Lithuanian federation, which however generated no interest on the part of the Lithuanian leaders, who were in advanced stages of promoting national plans of their own.", "The Lithuanians were mostly interested only in a state \"within ethnographic frontiers,\" as they perceived it.Grodno Military Command, loyal to Lithuania, decorated with three flags of Lithuania, Belarus, and with the Coat of arms of Lithuania, January 1919Nevertheless, a Belarusian unit named 1st Belarusian Regiment (''''), commanded by Alaksandar Ružancoŭ, was formed mainly from Grodno's inhabitants in 1919 within the Lithuanian Armed Forces, which later also participated in supporting the Independence of Lithuania during the Lithuanian Wars of Independence, therefore many members of this unit were awarded with the highest state award of Lithuania – Order of the Cross of Vytis.", "Moreover, a Lithuanian Ministry for Belarusian Affairs () was established within the Government of Lithuania, which functioned in 1918–1924, and was led by the ethnic Belarusian ministers such as Jazep Varonka, Dominik Semashko.", "The ethnic Belarusians were also included into the Council of Lithuania, and the Belarusian political leaders initially requested for a political autonomy of the Belarusian lands with the Belarusian language as the official language in them within the restored Lithuania before losing all control over the Belarusian territories to the Poles and Soviets.In spite of its success in knocking Russia out of World War I by the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk early in 1918, Germany lost the war and signed the Armistice of Compiègne on 11 November 1918.Lithuanians quickly formed their first government, adopted a provisional constitution, and started organizing basic administrative structures.", "The prime minister of the new government was Augustinas Voldemaras.", "As the German army was withdrawing from the Eastern Front of World War I, it was followed by Soviet forces whose intention was to spread the global proletarian revolution.", "They created a number of puppet states, including the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic on 16 December 1918.By the end of December, the Red Army reached Lithuanian borders and started the Lithuanian–Soviet War.Augustinas Voldemaras, Lithuania's first prime ministerOn 1 January 1919, the German occupying army withdrew from Vilnius and turned the city over to local Polish self-defense forces.", "The Lithuanian government evacuated Vilnius and moved west to Kaunas, which became the temporary capital of Lithuania.", "Vilnius was captured by the Soviet Red Army on 5 January 1919.As the Lithuanian army was in its infant stages, the Soviet forces moved largely unopposed and by mid-January 1919 controlled about two-thirds of Lithuanian territory.", "Vilnius was now the capital of the Lithuanian Soviet Republic, and soon of the combined Lithuanian–Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.From April 1919, the Lithuanian–Soviet War dragged on parallel with the Polish–Soviet War.", "Polish troops captured Vilnius from the Soviets on 21 April 1919.Poland had territorial claims over Lithuania, especially the Vilnius Region, and these tensions spilled over into the Polish–Lithuanian War.", "Józef Piłsudski of Poland, seeking a Polish-Lithuanian federation, but unable to find common ground with Lithuanian politicians, in August 1919 made an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the Lithuanian government in Kaunas.", "According to a 1924 publication of Lithuanian President Antanas Smetona, following a successful recapture of the Lithuanian capital Vilnius from Poland, the Lithuanians planned to expand further into the Belarusian territories (the former lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania) and considered granting an autonomy to the Belarusian territories, as requested by the Belarusian side, therefore had kept the Lithuanian Ministry for Belarusian Affairs in force, moreover, Smetona noted that there were a lot of pro-Lithuanian sympathies among the Belarusians.The Belarusian unit of the Lithuanian Armed Forces in Grodno was disbanded by the Poles following the annexation of it by the Polish Armed Forces in April 1919, while the soldiers of this unit were disarmed, looted, and publicly humiliated by the Polish soldiers, who even ripped off the Belarusian officers insignias from their uniforms and trampled these symbols with their feet in public, as documented in the historical documents sent by the Belarusians to the temporary Lithuanian capital Kaunas because this unit refused to carry out the Polish orders and stayed loyal to Lithuania.", "Following the annexation of Grodno, the Lithuanian yellow–green–red, Belarusian white–red–white flags, and signs with the Coat of arms of Lithuania were torn off and the Polish gendarmes dragged them on the dusty streets for ridicule; instead of them, the Polish signs and flags were raised in their place everywhere in the city.", "Soldiers and Catholic officers of the Belarusian regiment in Grodno were offered to join the Polish Army, while those who refused were offered to leave or were arrested, put into the concentration camps or deported from the native land by the Poles, part of the Belarusian soldiers and officers of this regiment evacuated to Kaunas and continued serving for Lithuania.The Lithuanian Army, commanded by General Silvestras Žukauskas, withstood Red Army advance near Kėdainiai and in the spring of 1919 the Lithuanians recaptured Šiauliai, Radviliškis, Panevėžys, Ukmergė.", "By the end of August 1919, the Soviets were pushed out of Lithuanian territory and the Lithuanian units reached Daugava.", "The Lithuanian Army was then deployed against the paramilitary West Russian Volunteer Army (Bermontians), who invaded northern Lithuania.", "There were around 50,000 of Bermontians and they were well armed by Germany and supported German and Russian soldiers who sought to retain German control over the former Ober Ost.", "West Russian Volunteers were defeated and pushed out by the end of 1919.Thus the first phase of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence was over and Lithuanians could direct attention to internal affairs.===Democratic period===Demarcation lines between Poland and Lithuania 1919–1939The Constituent Assembly of Lithuania was elected in April 1920 and first met the following May.", "In June it adopted the third provisional constitution and on 12 July 1920, signed the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty.", "In the treaty the Soviet Union recognized fully independent Lithuania and its claims to the disputed Vilnius Region; Lithuania secretly allowed the Soviet forces passage through its territory as they moved against Poland.", "On 14 July 1920, the advancing Soviet army captured Vilnius for a second time from Polish forces.", "The city was handed back to Lithuanians on 26 August 1920, following the defeat of the Soviet offensive.", "The victorious Polish army returned and the Soviet–Lithuanian Treaty increased hostilities between Poland and Lithuania.", "To prevent further fighting, the Suwałki Agreement was signed with Poland on 7 October 1920; it left Vilnius on the Lithuanian side of the armistice line.", "It never went into effect, however, because Polish General Lucjan Żeligowski, acting on Józef Piłsudski's orders, staged the Żeligowski's Mutiny, a military action presented as a mutiny.", "He invaded Lithuania on 8 October 1920, captured Vilnius the following day, and established a short-lived Republic of Central Lithuania in eastern Lithuania on 12 October 1920.The republic was a part of Piłsudski's federalist scheme, which never materialized due to opposition from both Polish and Lithuanian nationalists.Lithuanian–Polish territorial disputes in the early 1920s, including the Republic of Central Lithuania.For 19 years, Kaunas was the temporary capital of Lithuania while the Vilnius region remained under Polish administration.", "The League of Nations attempted to mediate the dispute, and Paul Hymans proposed plans for a Polish–Lithuanian union, but negotiations broke down as neither side could agree to a compromise.", "Central Lithuania held a general election in 1922 that was boycotted by the Jews, Lithuanians and Belarusians, then was annexed into Poland on 24 March 1922.The Conference of Ambassadors awarded Vilnius to Poland in March 1923.Lithuania did not accept this decision and broke all relations with Poland.", "The two countries were officially at war over Vilnius, the historical capital of Lithuania, inhabited at that time largely by Polish-speaking and Jewish populations between 1920 and 1938.The dispute continued to dominate Lithuanian domestic politics and foreign policy and doomed the relations with Poland for the entire interwar period.Counties of Lithuania 1920–1939For administrative purposes, the de facto territory of the country was divided into 23 counties (lt:apskritis).", "A further 11 counties (including Vilnius) were allocated for the territory occupied by Poland (see also Administrative divisions of Lithuania).Lithuanian rebels during the Klaipėda RevoltThe Constituent Assembly, which adjourned in October 1920 due to threats from Poland, gathered again and initiated many reforms needed in the new state.", "Lithuania obtained international recognition and membership in the League of Nations, passed a law for land reform, introduced a national currency (the litas), and adopted a final constitution in August 1922.Lithuania became a democratic state, with Seimas (parliament) elected by men and women for a three-year term.", "The Seimas elected the president.", "The First Seimas of Lithuania was elected in October 1922, but could not form a government as the votes split equally 38–38, and it was forced to dissolve.", "Its only lasting achievement was the Klaipėda Revolt from 10 January to 15 January 1923.The revolt involved Lithuania Minor, a region traditionally sought by Lithuanian nationalists that remained under German rule after World War I, except for the Klaipėda Region with its large Lithuanian minority.", "(Various sources give the region's interwar ethnic composition as 41.9 percent German, 27.1 percent ''Memelländisch'', and 26.6 percent Lithuanian.", ")Lithuania took advantage of the Ruhr Crisis in western Europe and captured the Klaipėda Region, a territory detached from East Prussia by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and placed under a French administration sponsored by the League of Nations.", "The region was incorporated as an autonomous district of Lithuania in May 1924.For Lithuania, it provided the country's only access to the Baltic Sea, and it was an important industrial center, but the region's numerous German inhabitants resisted Lithuanian rule during the 1930s.", "The Klaipėda Revolt was the last armed conflict in Lithuania before World War II.The Second Seimas of Lithuania, elected in May 1923, was the only Seimas in independent Lithuania that served its full term.", "The Seimas continued the land reform, introduced social support systems, and started repaying foreign debt.", "The first Lithuanian national census took place in 1923.===Authoritarian period===Antanas Smetona, the first and last president of independent Lithuania during the interbellum years.", "The 1918–1939 period is often known as \"Smetona's time\".The Third Seimas of Lithuania was elected in May 1926.For the first time, the bloc led by the Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party lost their majority and went into opposition.", "It was sharply criticized for signing the Soviet–Lithuanian Non-Aggression Pact (even though it affirmed Soviet recognition of Lithuanian claims to Poland-held Vilnius) and was accused of \"Bolshevizing\" Lithuania.", "As a result of growing tensions, the government was deposed during the 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état in December.", "The coup, organized by the military, was supported by the Lithuanian Nationalists Union (''tautininkai'') and Lithuanian Christian Democrats.", "They installed Antanas Smetona as the president and Augustinas Voldemaras as the prime minister.", "Smetona suppressed the opposition and remained as an authoritarian leader until June 1940.The Seimas thought that the coup was just a temporary measure and that new elections would be called to return Lithuania to democracy.", "Instead, the legislative body was dissolved in May 1927.Later that year members of the Social Democrats and other leftist parties tried to organize an uprising against Smetona, but were quickly subdued.", "Voldemaras grew increasingly independent of Smetona and was forced to resign in 1929.Three times in 1930 and once in 1934, he unsuccessfully attempted to return to power.", "In May 1928, Smetona announced the fifth provisional constitution without consulting the Seimas.", "The constitution continued to claim that Lithuania was a democratic state while the powers of the president were vastly increased.", "Smetona's party, the Lithuanian Nationalist Union, steadily grew in size and importance.", "He adopted the title \"tautos vadas\" (leader of the nation) and slowly started building a cult of personality.", "Many prominent political figures married into Smetona's family (for example, Juozas Tūbelis and Stasys Raštikis).When the Nazi Party came into power in Germany, German–Lithuanian relations worsened considerably as the Nazis did not want to accept the loss of the Klaipėda Region (German: Memelland).", "The Nazis sponsored anti-Lithuanian organizations in the region.", "In 1934, Lithuania put the activists on trial and sentenced about 100 people, including their leaders Ernst Neumann and Theodor von Sass, to prison terms.", "That prompted Germany, one of the main trade partners of Lithuania, to declare an embargo of Lithuanian products.", "In response, Lithuania shifted its exports to the United Kingdom.", "That measure did not go far enough to satisfy many groups, and peasants in Suvalkija organized strikes, which were violently suppressed.", "Smetona's prestige was damaged, and in September 1936, he agreed to call the first elections for the Seimas since the coup of 1926.Before the elections, all political parties were eliminated except for the National Union.", "Thus 42 of the 49 members of the Fourth Seimas of Lithuania were from the National Union.", "This assembly functioned as an advisory board to the president, and in February 1938, it adopted a new constitution that granted the president even greater powers.Lithuanian territorial issues 1939–1940As tensions were rising in Europe following the annexation of the Federal State of Austria by Nazi Germany (the Anschluss), Poland presented the 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania in March of that year.", "Poland demanded the re-establishment of the normal diplomatic relations that were broken after the Żeligowski Mutiny in 1920 and threatened military actions in case of refusal.", "Lithuania, having a weaker military and unable to enlist international support for its cause, accepted the ultimatum.", "In the event of Polish military action, Adolf Hitler ordered a German military takeover of southwest Lithuania up to the Dubysa River, and his armed forces were being fully mobilized until the news of the Lithuanian acceptance.", "Relations between Poland and Lithuania became somewhat normalized after the acceptance of the ultimatum, and the parties concluded treaties regarding railway transport, postal exchange, and other means of communication.Parade of the Lithuanian Army in Vilnius (1939)Lithuania offered diplomatic support to Germany and the Soviet Union in opposition to powers such as France and Estonia that backed Poland in the conflict over Vilnius, but both Germany and the Soviet Union saw fit to encroach on Lithuania's territory and independence anyway.", "Following the Nazi electoral success in Klaipėda in December 1938, Germany decided to take action to secure control of the entire region.", "On 20 March 1939, just a few days after the German occupation of Czechoslovakia of 15 March, Lithuania received the 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania from foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.", "It demanded the immediate cession of the Klaipėda Region to Germany.", "The Lithuanian government accepted the ultimatum to avoid an armed intervention.", "The Klaipėda Region was directly incorporated into the Gau East Prussia of the German Reich.", "This triggered a political crisis in Lithuania and forced Smetona to form a new government that included members of the opposition for the first time since 1926.The loss of Klaipėda was a major blow to the Lithuanian economy and the country shifted into the sphere of German influence.", "Adolf Hitler initially planned to transform Lithuania into a satellite state which would participate in its planned military conquests in exchange for territorial enlargements.", "When Germany and the Soviet Union concluded the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in August 1939 and divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence, Lithuania was assigned to Germany at first, but that changed after Smetona's refusal to participate in the German invasion of Poland.", "Joseph Stalin agreed to cede Polish areas initially annexed by the Soviet Union to the Greater Germanic Reich in exchange for Lithuania entering the Soviet sphere of influence.", "The interwar period of independence gave birth to the development of Lithuanian press, literature, music, arts, and theater as well as a comprehensive system of education with Lithuanian as the language of instruction.", "The network of primary and secondary schools was expanded and institutions of higher learning were established in Kaunas.", "Lithuanian society remained heavily agricultural with only 20% of the people living in cities.", "The influence of the Catholic Church was strong and birth rates high: the population increased by 22% to over three million during 1923–1939, despite emigration to South America and elsewhere.In almost all cities and towns, traditionally dominated by Jews, Poles, Russians and Germans, ethnic Lithuanians became the majority.", "Lithuanians, for example, constituted 59% of the residents of Kaunas in 1923, as opposed to 7% in 1897.The right-wing dictatorship of 1926–1940 had strangely stabilizing social effects, as it prevented the worst of antisemitic excesses as well as the rise of leftist and rightist political extremism." ], [ "World War II (1939–1945)", "===First Soviet occupation===Joseph Stalin, Joachim von Ribbentrop and others at the signing of the German–Soviet Boundary and Friendship TreatySecret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, adjusted by the German-Soviet Frontier Treaty, divided Eastern Europe into Soviet and Nazi spheres of influence.", "The three Baltic states fell to the Soviet sphere.", "During the subsequent invasion of Poland, the Red Army captured Vilnius, regarded by Lithuanians as their capital.", "According to the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Pact of 10 October 1939, Soviet Union transferred Vilnius and surrounding territory to Lithuania in exchange for the stationing of 20,000 Soviet troops within the country.", "It was a virtual sacrifice of independence, as reflected in a known slogan \"Vilnius – mūsų, Lietuva – rusų\" (Vilnius is ours, but Lithuania is Russia's).", "Similar Mutual Assistance Pacts were signed with Latvia and Estonia.", "When Finland refused to sign its pact, the Winter War broke out.Lithuanian resistance fighters, commanded by the Provisional Government, lead the disarmed soldiers of the Red Army in Kaunas during the June Uprising in 1941In spring 1940, once the Winter War in Finland was over, the Soviets heightened their diplomatic pressure on Lithuania and issued the 1940 Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania on June 14.The ultimatum demanded the formation of a new pro-Soviet government and admission of an unspecified number of Red Army troops.", "With Soviet troops already stationed within the country, Lithuania could not resist and accepted the ultimatum.", "President Antanas Smetona fled Lithuania as 150,000 Soviet troops crossed the Lithuanian border.", "Soviet representative Vladimir Dekanozov formed the new pro-Soviet puppet government, known as the People's Government, headed by Justas Paleckis, and organized show elections for the so-called People's Seimas.", "During its first session on July 21, the People's Seimas unanimously voted to convert Lithuania into the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and petitioned to join the Soviet Union.", "The application was approved by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union on 3 August 1940, which completed the formalization of the annexation.Immediately following the occupation, Soviet authorities began rapid Sovietization of Lithuania.", "All land was nationalized.", "To gain support for the new regime among the poorer peasants, large farms were distributed to small landowners.", "However, in preparation for eventual collectivization, agricultural taxes were dramatically increased in an attempt to bankrupt all farmers.", "Nationalization of banks, larger enterprises, and real estate resulted in disruptions in production that caused massive shortages of goods.", "The Lithuanian litas was artificially undervalued and withdrawn by spring 1941.Standards of living plummeted.", "All religious, cultural, and political organizations were banned, leaving only the Communist Party of Lithuania and its youth branch.", "An estimated 12,000 \"enemies of the people\" were arrested.", "During the June deportation campaign of 1941, some 12,600 people (mostly former military officers, policemen, political figures, intelligentsia and their families) were deported to Gulags in Siberia under the policy of elimination of national elites.", "Many deportees perished due to inhumane conditions; 3,600 were imprisoned and over 1,000 were killed.===Occupation of Lithuania by Nazi Germany (1941–1944)===German soldiers and locals watch a Lithuanian synagogue burn in 1941.On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa.", "In Franz Walter Stahlecker's report of October 15 to Heinrich Himmler, Stahlecker wrote that he had succeeded in covering up actions of the ''Vorkommando'' (German vanguard unit) and made it look like an initiative of the local population to carry out the Kaunas pogrom.", "The German forces moved rapidly and encountered only sporadic Soviet resistance.", "Vilnius was captured on 24 June 1941, and Germany controlled all of Lithuania within a week.", "The retreating Soviet forces murdered between 1,000 and 1,500 people, mostly ethnic Lithuanians (see Rainiai massacre).", "The Lithuanians generally greeted the Germans as liberators from the oppressive Soviet regime and hoped that Germany would restore some autonomy to their country.", "The Lithuanian Activist Front organized an anti-Soviet revolt known as the June Uprising in Lithuania, declared independence, and formed a Provisional Government of Lithuania with Juozas Ambrazevičius as prime minister.", "The Provisional Government was not forcibly dissolved; stripped by the Germans of any actual power, it resigned on 5 August 1941.Germany established the civil administration known as the Reichskommissariat Ostland.Initially, there was substantial cooperation and collaboration between the German forces and some Lithuanians.", "Lithuanians joined the TDA Battalions and Auxiliary police battalions in hopes that these police units would be later transformed into the regular army of independent Lithuania.", "Instead, some units were employed by the Germans as auxiliaries in perpetrating the Holocaust.", "However, soon Lithuanians became disillusioned with harsh German policies of collecting large war provisions, gathering people for forced labor in Germany, conscripting men into the Wehrmacht, and the lack of true autonomy.", "These feelings naturally led to the creation of a resistance movement.", "The most notable resistance organization, the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania, was formed in 1943.Due to passive resistance, a Waffen-SS division was not established in Lithuania.", "As a compromise, the Lithuanian general Povilas Plechavičius formed the short-lived Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force (LTDF).", "Lithuanians did not organize armed resistance, still considering the Soviet Union their primary enemy.", "Armed resistance was conducted by pro-Soviet partisans (mainly Russians, Belarusians and Jews) and Polish Armia Krajowa (AK) in eastern Lithuania.Before the Holocaust, Lithuania was home to a disputed number of Jews: 210,000 according to one estimate, 250,000 according to another.", "About 90% or more of the Lithuanian Jews were murdered, one of the highest rates in Europe.", "The Holocaust in Lithuania can be divided into three stages: mass executions (June–December 1941), a ghetto period (1942 – March 1943), and a final liquidation (April 1943 – July 1944).", "Unlike in other Nazi-occupied countries where the Holocaust was introduced gradually, Einsatzgruppe A started executions in Lithuania on the first days of the German occupation.", "The executions were carried out by the Nazis and their Lithuanian collaborators in three main areas: Kaunas (marked by the Ninth Fort), in Vilnius (marked by the Ponary massacre), and in the countryside (sponsored by the Rollkommando Hamann).", "An estimated 80% of Lithuanian Jews were killed before 1942.The surviving 43,000 Jews were concentrated in the Vilnius Ghetto, Kaunas Ghetto, Šiauliai Ghetto, and Švenčionys Ghetto and forced to work for the benefit of German military industry.", "In 1943, the ghettos were either liquidated or turned into concentration camps.", "Only about 2,000–3,000 Lithuanian Jews were liberated from these camps.", "More survived by withdrawing into the interior of Russia before the war broke out or by escaping the ghettos and joining the Jewish partisans.===Second Soviet occupation===Lithuanian armed resistance against Soviet occupation lasted until 1953.The plan of deportations of the civilian population in Lithuania during the Operation Priboi (1949) created by the Soviet MGB.In the summer of 1944, the Soviet Red Army reached eastern Lithuania.", "By July 1944, the area around Vilnius came under control of the Polish Resistance fighters of the Armia Krajowa, who also attempted a takeover of the German-held city during the ill-fated Operation Ostra Brama.", "The Red Army captured Vilnius with Polish help on 13 July.", "The Soviet Union re-occupied Lithuania and Joseph Stalin re-established the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1944 with its capital in Vilnius.", "The Soviets secured the passive agreement of the United States and Great Britain (see Yalta Conference and Potsdam Agreement) to this annexation.", "By January 1945, the Soviet forces captured Klaipėda on the Baltic coast.", "The heaviest physical losses in Lithuania during World War II were suffered in 1944–1945, when the Red Army pushed out the Nazi invaders.", "It is estimated that Lithuania lost 780,000 people between 1940 and 1954 under the Nazi and Soviet occupations." ], [ "Soviet period (1944–1990)", "===Stalinist terror and resistance (1944–1953)===Lithuanian deportee house in Kolyma (1958).The Soviet deportations from Lithuania between 1941 and 1952 resulted in the exile of thousands of families to forced settlements in the Soviet Union, especially in Siberia and other remote parts of the country.", "Between 1944 and 1953, nearly 120,000 people (5% of the population) were deported, and thousands more became political prisoners.", "Many leading intellectual figures and most Catholic priests were among the deported; many returned to Lithuania after 1953.Approximately 20,000 Lithuanian partisans participated in unsuccessful warfare against the Soviet regime in the 1940s and early 1950s.", "Most were killed or deported to Siberian gulags.", "During the years following the German surrender at the end of World War II in 1945, between 40 and 60 thousand civilians and combatants perished in the context of the anti-Soviet insurgency.", "Considerably more ethnic Lithuanians died after World War II than during it.Lithuanian armed resistance lasted until 1953.Adolfas Ramanauskas (code name 'Vanagas', translated to English: the hawk), the last official commander of the Union of Lithuanian Freedom Fighters, was arrested in October 1956 and executed in November 1957.===Soviet era (1953–1988)===Former KGB headquarters in Vilnius, containing the Museum of Occupations and Freedom Fights.Soviet authorities encouraged the immigration of non-Lithuanian workers, especially Russians, as a way of integrating Lithuania into the Soviet Union and encouraging industrial development, but in Lithuania this process did not assume the massive scale experienced by other European Soviet republics.To a great extent, Lithuanization rather than Russification took place in postwar Vilnius and elements of a national revival characterize the period of Lithuania's existence as a Soviet republic.", "Lithuania's boundaries and political integrity were determined by Joseph Stalin's decision to grant Vilnius to the Lithuanian SSR again in 1944.Subsequently, most Poles were resettled from Vilnius (but only a minority from the countryside and other parts of the Lithuanian SSR) by the implementation of Soviet and Lithuanian communist policies that mandated their partial replacement by Russian immigrants.", "Vilnius was then increasingly settled by Lithuanians and assimilated by Lithuanian culture, which fulfilled, albeit under the oppressive and limiting conditions of the Soviet rule, the long-held dream of Lithuanian nationalists.", "The economy of Lithuania did well in comparison with other regions of the Soviet Union.The national developments in Lithuania followed tacit compromise agreements worked out by the Soviet communists, Lithuanian communists and the Lithuanian intelligentsia.", "Vilnius University was reopened after the war, operating in the Lithuanian language and with a largely Lithuanian student body.", "It became a center for Baltic studies.", "General schools in the Lithuanian SSR provided more instruction in Lithuanian than at any previous time in the country's history.", "The literary Lithuanian language was standardized and refined further as a language of scholarship and Lithuanian literature.", "The price the Lithuanian intelligentsia ended up paying for the national privileges was their much increased Communist Party membership after de-Stalinization.Between the death of Stalin in 1953 and the glasnost and perestroika reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s, Lithuania functioned as a Soviet society, with all its repressions and peculiarities.", "Agriculture remained collectivized, property nationalized, and criticism of the Soviet system was severely punished.", "The country remained largely isolated from the non-Soviet world because of travel restrictions, the persecution of the Catholic Church continued and the nominally egalitarian society was extensively corrupted by the practice of connections and privileges for those who served the system.The communist era is represented in the museum of Grūtas Park.===Rebirth (1988–1990)===An Anti-Soviet rally in Vingis Park of about 250,000 people.", "Sąjūdis was a movement which led to the restoration of an Independent State of Lithuania.Until mid-1988, all political, economic, and cultural life was controlled by the Communist Party of Lithuania (CPL).", "Lithuanians as well as people in the other two Baltic republics distrusted the Soviet regime even more than people in other regions of the Soviet state, and they gave their own specific and active support to Mikhail Gorbachev's program of social and political reforms known as perestroika and glasnost.", "Under the leadership of intellectuals, the Reform Movement of Lithuania Sąjūdis was formed in mid-1988, and it declared a program of democratic and national rights, winning nationwide popularity.", "Inspired by Sąjūdis, the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR passed constitutional amendments on the supremacy of Lithuanian laws over Soviet legislation, annulled the 1940 decisions on proclaiming Lithuania a part of the Soviet Union, legalized a multi-party system, and adopted a number of other important decisions, including the return of the national state symbols — the flag of Lithuania and the national anthem.", "A large number of CPL members also supported the ideas of Sąjūdis, and with Sąjūdis support, Algirdas Brazauskas was elected First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPL in 1988.On 23 August 1989, 50 years after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Latvians, Lithuanians and Estonians joined hands in a human chain that stretched 600 kilometres from Tallinn to Vilnius in order to draw the world's attention to the fate of the Baltic nations.", "The human chain was called the Baltic Way.", "In December 1989, the Brazauskas-led CPL declared its independence from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and became a separate social democratic party, renaming itself the Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania in 1990." ], [ "Independence restored (1990–present)", "===Struggle for independence (1990–1991)===Unarmed Lithuanian citizen standing against a Soviet tank during the January Events.Supreme Council of Lithuania on 11 March 1990, after promulgation of the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania in VilniusIn early 1990, candidates backed by Sąjūdis won the Lithuanian parliamentary elections.", "On 11 March 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR proclaimed the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania.", "The Baltic republics were in the forefront of the struggle for independence, and Lithuania was the first of the Soviet republics to declare independence.", "Vytautas Landsbergis, a leader of the Sąjūdis national movement, became the head of state and Kazimira Prunskienė led the Cabinet of Ministers.", "Provisional fundamental laws of the state were passed.On 15 March, the Soviet Union demanded revocation of the independence and began employing political and economic sanctions against Lithuania.", "On 18 April, Soviets imposed economic blockade of Lithuania which lasted until the end of June.", "The Soviet military was used to seize a few public buildings, but violence was largely contained until January 1991.During the January Events in Lithuania, the Soviet authorities attempted to overthrow the elected government by sponsoring the so-called National Salvation Committee.", "The Soviets forcibly took over the Vilnius TV Tower, killing 14 unarmed civilians and injuring 140.During this assault, the only means of contact to the outside world available was an amateur radio station set up in the Lithuanian Parliament building by Tadas Vyšniauskas whose call sign was LY2BAW.", "The initial cries for help were received by an American amateur radio operators with the call sign N9RD in Indiana and WB9Z in Illinois.", "N9RD, WB9Z and other radio operators from around the world were able to relay situational updates to relevant authorities until official United States Department of State personnel were able to go on-air.", "Moscow failed to act further to crush the Lithuanian independence movement, and the Lithuanian government continued to function.During the national referendum on 9 February 1991, more than 90% of those who took part in the voting (76% of all eligible voters) voted in favor of an independent, democratic Lithuania.", "During the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt in August, Soviet Armed Forces troops took over several communications and other government facilities in Vilnius and other cities, but returned to their barracks when the coup failed.", "The Lithuanian government banned the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and ordered confiscation of its property.", "Following the failed coup, Lithuania received widespread international recognition on 6 September 1991 and was admitted to the United Nations on 17 September.===Contemporary Republic of Lithuania (1991–present)===Flag of LithuaniaAs in many countries of the former Soviet Union, the popularity of the independence movement (Sąjūdis in the case of Lithuania) diminished due to worsening economic situation (rising unemployment, inflation, etc.).", "The Communist Party of Lithuania renamed itself as the Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania (LDDP) and gained a majority of seats against Sąjūdis in the Lithuanian parliamentary elections of 1992.LDDP continued building the independent democratic state and transitioning from a centrally planned economy to a free market economy.", "In the Lithuanian parliamentary elections of 1996, the voters swung back to the rightist Homeland Union, led by the former Sąjūdis leader Vytautas Landsbergis.As part of the economic transition to capitalism, Lithuania organized a privatization campaign to sell government-owned residential real estate and commercial enterprises.", "The government issued investment vouchers to be used in privatization instead of actual currency.", "People cooperated in groups to collect larger amounts of vouchers for the public auctions and the privatization campaign.", "Lithuania, unlike Russia, did not create a small group of very wealthy and powerful people.", "The privatization started with small organizations, and large enterprises (such as telecommunication companies or airlines) were sold several years later for hard currency in a bid to attract foreign investors.", "Lithuania's monetary system was to be based on the Lithuanian litas, the currency used during the interwar period.", "Due to high inflation and other delays, a temporary currency, the Lithuanian talonas, was introduced (it was commonly referred to as the ''Vagnorėlis'' or ''Vagnorkė'' after Prime Minister Gediminas Vagnorius).", "Eventually the litas was issued in June 1993, and the decision was made to set it up with a fixed exchange rate to the United States dollar in 1994 and to the Euro in 2002.Vilnius, the capital of LithuaniaDespite Lithuania's achievement of complete independence, sizable numbers of Russian Armed Forces troops remained in its territory.", "Withdrawal of those forces was one of Lithuania's top foreign policy priorities.", "Russian troop withdrawal was completed by 31 August 1993.The first military of the reborn country were the Lithuanian National Defence Volunteer Forces, who first took an oath at the Supreme Council of Lithuania soon after the declaration of independence.", "The Lithuanian military built itself to the common standard with the Lithuanian Air Force, Lithuanian Naval Force and Lithuanian Land Force.", "Interwar paramilitary organisations such as the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, Young Riflemen, and the Lithuanian Scouts were re-established.restoration of statehood of Lithuania with foreign leaders (Vilnius, 2018)On 27 April 1993, a partnership with the Pennsylvania National Guard was established as part of the State Partnership Program.Seeking closer ties with the West, Lithuania applied for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) membership in 1994.The country had to go through a difficult transition from planned to free market economy in order to satisfy the requirements for European Union (EU) membership.", "In May 2001, Lithuania became the 141st member of the World Trade Organization.", "In October 2002, Lithuania was invited to join the European Union and one month later to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization; it became a member of both in 2004.As a result of the broader global financial crisis and Great Recession, the Lithuanian economy in 2009 experienced its worst recession since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.After a boom in growth sparked by Lithuania's 2004 accession to the European Union, the Gross domestic product contracted by 15% in 2009.Especially since Lithuania's admission into the European Union, large numbers of Lithuanians (up to 20% of the population) have moved abroad in search of better economic opportunities to create a significant demographic problem for the small country.", "On 1 January 2015, Lithuania joined the eurozone and adopted the European Union's single currency as the last of the Baltic states.", "On 4 July 2018, Lithuania officially joined OECD.Dalia Grybauskaitė (2009–2019) was the first female President of Lithuania and the first president to be re-elected for a second consecutive term.", "She was succeeded by Gitanas Nausėda in 2019.On 11–12 July 2023, the NATO summit was held in Vilnius, which was attended by heads of state or government members of NATO countries and its allies." ], [ "Historiography", "Krapauskas (2010) identifies three main tendencies in the recent historiography.", "The \"postmodern school\" is heavily influenced by the French Annales School and presents an entirely new agenda of topics and interdisciplinary research methodologies.", "Their approach is methodologically controversial and focuses on social and cultural history.", "It is largely free from the traditional political debates and does not look back to the interwar Šapoka era.", "Secondly, the \"critical-realists\" are political revisionists.", "They focus on controversial political topics in the twentieth century, and reverse 180° the Soviet era interpretations of what was good and bad for Lithuania.", "They use traditional historical methodologies, with a strong focus on political history.", "They are often opposed by the third school, the \"romantic-traditionalists.\"", "After severe constraints in the communist era, the romantic-traditionalists now are eager to emphasize the most positive version of the Lithuanian past and its cultural heritage.", "They pay less attention to the niceties of documentation and historiography, but they are not the puppets of political conservatives.", "Indeed, they include many of Lithuania's most respected historians." ], [ "See also", "* History of Vilnius* List of hillforts in Lithuania* List of rulers of Lithuania* Northern Crusades* Prime Minister of Lithuania* Politics of Lithuania* Black ceramics in Lithuania" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Ališauskiene, Milda, and Ingo W. Schröder, eds.", "''Religious Diversity in Post-Soviet Society: Ethnographies of Catholic Hegemony & the New Pluralism in Lithuania'' (2011)* Backus III, Oswald P. \"The Problem of Feudalism in Lithuania, 1506-1548,\" ''Slavic Review'' (1962) 21#4 pp.", "639–659 in JSTOR * Budreckis, Algirdas M. ''An introduction to the history of Lithuania'' (1985)* Friedrich, Karin, and Barbara M. Pendzich, eds.", "''Citizenship and Identity in a Multinational Commonwealth: Poland-Lithuania in Context, 1550-1772'' (2011)* Gimius, Kestutis K. \"The Collectivization of Lithuanian Agriculture, 1944-50,\" ''Soviet Studies'' (1988) 40#3 pp. 460–478.", "* Kiaupa, Zigmantas.", "''The History of Lithuania'' (2005)* Kirby David G. ''The Baltic World 1772-1993'' (Longman, 1995).", "* Kuncevicius, Albinas et al.", "''The History of Lithuania Before 1795'' (2000)* Lane, Thomas.", "''Lithuania: Stepping Westward'' (2001); 20th century history esp.", "post 1991 online * Liekis, Sarunas.", "''1939: The Year that Changed Everything in Lithuania's History'' (2009)* Lieven Anatol.", "''The Baltic Revolution'' (2nd ed.", "1994).", "against the USSR* * Misiunas Romuald J.", "''The Baltic States: Years of Dependence, 1940-1990'' (2nd ed.", "1993).", "* * Palmer, Alan.", "''The Baltic: A new history of the region and its people'' (New York: Overlook Press, 2006; published In London with the title '' Northern shores: a history of the Baltic Sea and its peoples'' (John Murray, 2006).", "* * Stone, Daniel.", "''The Polish–Lithuanian state: 1386–1795'' (University of Washington Press, 2001)* Suziedelis, Saulius.", "''The Sword and the Cross: A History of the Church in Lithuania'' (1988)* Thaden Edward C. ''Russia's Western Borderlands, 1710-1870'' (Princeton University Press, 1984).", "* Vilkauskaite, Dovile O.", "\"From Empire to Independence: The Curious Case of the Baltic States 1917-1922.\"", "(thesis, University of Connecticut, 2013).", "online; Bibliography pp 70 – 75.===Historiography===* Krapauskas, Virgil.", "\"Recent Trends in Lithuanian Historiography\" ''Lituanus'' (2010) 56#4 pp 5–28.", "* Švedas, Aurimas.", "''In the Captivity of the Matrix: Soviet Lithuanian Historiography, 1944−1985'' (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2014).", "280 pp." ], [ "External links", "* Pages and Forums on the Lithuanian History" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Lithuania" ], [ "Introduction", "Lithuania is a country in the Baltic region of Europe.", "The most populous of the Baltic states, Lithuania has of coastline consisting of the continental coast and the \"Curonian Spit\" coast.", "Lithuania's major warm-water port of Klaipėda lies at the narrow mouth of Curonian Lagoon, a shallow lagoon extending south to Kaliningrad and separated from the Baltic sea by Curonian Spit, where Kuršių Nerija National Park was established for its remarkable sand dunes.The Neman River and some of its tributaries are used for internal shipping (in 2000, 89 inland ships carried 900,000 tons of cargo, which is less than 1% of the total goods traffic).Situated between 56.27 and 53.53 latitudes and 20.56 and 26.50 longitudes, Lithuania is glacially flat, except for morainic hills in the western uplands and eastern highlands no higher than 300 metres.", "The terrain is marked by numerous small lakes and swamps, and a mixed forest zone covers over 33% of the country.", "The growing season lasts 169 days in the east and 202 days in the west, with most farmland consisting of sandy- or clay-loam soils.", "Limestone, clay, sand, and gravel are Lithuania's primary natural resources, but the coastal shelf offers perhaps of oil deposits, and the southeast could provide high yields of iron ore and granite." ], [ "Geographical position", "Political map of LithuaniaLithuania is situated on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea.", "Lithuania's boundaries have changed several times since 1918, but they have been stable since 1945.Currently, Lithuania covers an area of about .", "About the size of West Virginia, it is larger than Belgium, Denmark, Latvia, the Netherlands, or Switzerland.", "Lithuania borders Latvia on the north, Belarus on the east and south, and Poland and the Kaliningrad region of Russia on the southwest.", "The Eastern border together with Latvia in the South of its East comes along with the Kraków-Wilno-Veliky Novgorod route with it within the territory.", "It is a country of gently rolling hills, many forests, rivers and streams, and lakes.", "Its principal natural resource is agricultural land.Lithuania's northern neighbor is Latvia.", "The two countries share a border that extends 453 kilometres.", "Lithuania's eastern border with Belarus is longer, stretching 502 kilometers.", "The border with Poland on the south is relatively short, only 91 kilometers, but it is very busy because of international traffic.", "Lithuania also has a 227-kilometer border with Russia.", "Russian territory adjacent to Lithuania is Kaliningrad Oblast, which is the northern part of the former German East Prussia, including the city of Kaliningrad.", "Finally, Lithuania has 108 kilometers of Baltic seashore with an ice-free harbor at Klaipėda.", "The Baltic coast offers sandy beaches and pine forests and attracts thousands of vacationers.According to some geographers, the geographical midpoint of Europe is just north of Lithuania's capital, Vilnius." ], [ "Topography and drainage", "Lithuania lies at the edge of the North European Plain.", "Its landscape was shaped by the glaciers of the last Ice Age, which retreated about 25,000–22,000 years BP (Before Present).", "Lithuania's terrain is an alternation of moderate lowlands and highlands.", "The highest elevation is 297.84 meters above sea level, found in the eastern part of the republic and separated from the uplands of the western region of Samogitia by the fertile plains of the southwestern and central regions.", "The landscape is punctuated by 2,833 lakes larger than and 1,600 smaller ponds.", "The majority of the lakes are found in the eastern part of the country.", "Lithuania also has 758 rivers longer than .", "The largest river is the Nemunas (total length ), which originates in Belarus.", "The other larger waterways are the Neris (), Venta (), and Šešupė () rivers.", "However, only of Lithuania's rivers are navigable.Once a heavily forested land, Lithuania's territory today consists of only 32.8 percent woodlands—primarily pine, spruce, and birch forests.", "Ash and oak are very scarce.", "The forests are rich in mushrooms and berries, as well as a variety of plants." ], [ "Climate", "Physical map of LithuaniaWinter landscape in LithuaniaLithuania has a humid continental climate (''Dfb'' in the Köppen climate classification).", "Average temperatures on the coast are in January and in July.", "In Vilnius the average temperatures are in January and in July.", "Simply speaking, is frequent on summer days and at night.", "Temperatures occasionally reach in summer.", "Winters when easterly flows from Siberia predominate, like 1941–42, 1955–56 and 1984–85, are very cold, whereas winters dominated by westerly maritime airflows like 1924–25, 1960–61 and 1988–89 are mild with temperatures above freezing a normal occurrence.", "occurs almost every winter.", "Winter extremes are at the coast and in the east of Lithuania.", "The average annual precipitation is on the coast, in Samogitia highlands, and in the eastern part of the country.", "Snow occurs every year, it can be snowing from October to April.", "In some years sleet can fall in September or May.", "The growing season lasts 202 days in the western part of the country and 169 days in the eastern part.", "Severe storms are rare in the eastern part of Lithuania and common nearer the coast.The longest measured temperature records from the Baltic area cover about 250 years.", "The data show that there were warm periods during the latter half of the eighteenth century and that the nineteenth century was a relatively cool period.", "An early twentieth century warming culminated in the 1930s, followed by a smaller cooling that lasted until the 1960s.", "A warming trend has persisted since then.Lithuania experienced a drought in 2002, causing forest and peat bog fires.", "The country suffered along with the rest of Northwestern Europe during a heatwave in the summer of 2006.===Examples=======General averages========Cities====" ], [ "Environment", "Concerned with environmental deterioration, Lithuanian governments have created several national parks and reservations.", "The country's flora and fauna have suffered, however, from an almost fanatical drainage of land for agricultural use.", "Environmental problems of a different nature were created by the development of environmentally unsafe industries.", "Air pollution problems exist mainly in the cities, such as Vilnius, Kaunas, Jonava, Mažeikiai, Elektrėnai, and Naujoji Akmenė—the sites of fertilizer and other chemical plants, an oil refinery, power station, and a cement factory.Water quality has also been an issue.", "The city of Kaunas, with a population of about 400,000, had no water purification plant until 1999; sewage was sent directly into the Neman River.", "Tertiary wastewater treatment is scheduled to come on-line in 2007.River and lake pollution are other legacies of Soviet carelessness with the environment.", "The Courland Lagoon, for example, separated from the Baltic Sea by a strip of high dunes and pine forests, is about 85 percent contaminated.", "Beaches in the Baltic resorts, such as the well-known vacation area of Palanga, are frequently closed for swimming because of contamination.", "Forests affected by acid rain are found in the vicinity of Jonava, Mažeikiai, and Elektrėnai, which are the chemical, oil, and power-generation centers.", "Lithuania was among the first former Soviet republics to introduce environmental regulations.", "However, because of Moscow's emphasis on increasing production and because of numerous local violations, technological backwardness, and political apathy, serious environmental problems now exist.", "'''Natural hazards:'''hurricane-force storms, blizzards, droughts, floods'''Environment—current issues:'''contamination of soil and groundwater with petroleum products and chemicals at former Soviet military bases'''Environment—international agreements:'''* ''party to:''Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands* ''signed, but not ratified:''" ], [ "Natural resources", "Lithuania has an abundance of limestone, clay, quartz sand, gypsum sand, and dolomite, which are suitable for making high-quality cement, glass, and ceramics.", "There also is an ample supply of mineral water, but energy sources and industrial materials are all in short supply.", "Oil was discovered in Lithuania in the 1950s, but only a few wells operate, and all that do are located in the western part of the country.", "It is estimated that the Baltic Sea shelf and the western region of Lithuania hold commercially viable amounts of oil, but if exploited this oil would satisfy only about 20 percent of Lithuania's annual need for petroleum products for the next twenty years.", "Lithuania has a large amount of thermal energy along the Baltic Sea coast which could be used to heat hundreds of thousands of homes, as is done in Iceland.", "In addition, iron ore deposits have been found in the southern region of Lithuania.", "But commercial exploitation of these deposits probably would require strip mining, which is environmentally unsound.", "Moreover, exploitation of these resources will depend on Lithuania's ability to attract capital and technology from abroad.", "''Natural resources:''peat, arable land, amber'''Land use:'''* ''arable land:'' 33.48%* ''permanent crops:'' 0.47%* ''other:'' 66.05% (2011)'''Irrigated land:'''13.4 km2 (2011)'''Total renewable water resources:'''24.9 km3 (2011)" ], [ "Area and boundaries", "'''Area:'''* ''Total:'' 65,300 km2* ''Land:'' 62,680 km2* ''Water:'' 2,620 km2'''Comparative area'''*Australia comparative: slightly smaller (5.5%) than Tasmania*Canada comparative: about 9% smaller than New Brunswick*United Kingdom comparative: about 17% smaller than Scotland*United States comparative: slightly larger (4%) than West Virginia'''Land boundaries:'''* ''Total:'' 1,574 km* ''Border countries:'' Belarus 680 km, Latvia 576 km, Poland 91 km, Russia (Kaliningrad) 227 km'''Coastline:''' .", "The coastline consists of 20 kilometres from Klaipėda, 50 kilometres at Cape Nehrung, and 21 kilometres in the region of Palanga and the mouth of the Šventoji river.", "\"The ''Memelland'' occupies two-thirds of the Lithuanian coast-line.", "\"'''Maritime claims:'''* ''Territorial sea:'' * ''Exclusive Economic Zone:'' with '''Elevation extremes:'''* ''Lowest point:'' Baltic Sea 0 m* ''Highest point:'' Aukštojas Hill" ], [ "See also", "*List of protected areas of Lithuania* Lithuania* ''''''''''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Kursiu Nerija National Park" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Lithuania" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of Lithuania include population density, ethnicity, level of education, health, economic status, and religious affiliations." ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory ===The earliest evidence of inhabitants in present-day Lithuania dates back to 10,000 BC.", "Between 3000 and 2000 BC, the people of the Corded Ware culture spread over a vast region of eastern Europe, between the Baltic Sea and the Vistula River in the West and the Moscow–Kursk line in the East.", "Merging with the indigenous peoples, they gave rise to the Balts, a distinct Indo-European ethnic group whose descendants are the present-day Lithuanian and Latvian nations and the former Old Prussians.=== Grand Duchy of Lithuania ===Area of the Lithuanian language in the 16th centuryThe name of Lithuania – ''Lithuanians'' – was first mentioned in 1009.Among its etymologies there are a derivation from the word ''Lietava'', for a small river, a possible derivation from a word leičiai, but most probable is the name for union of Lithuanian ethnic tribes ('susilieti, lietis' means to unite and the word 'lietuva' means something which has been united).The primary Lithuanian state, the Duchy of Lithuania, emerged in the territory of Lietuva, the ethnic homeland of Lithuanians.", "At the birth of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL), ethnic Lithuanians made up about 70% of the population.", "With the acquisition of new Ruthenian territories, this proportion decreased to 50% and later to 30%.", "By the time of the largest expansion towards Kievan Rus' lands, at the end of the 13th and during the 14th century, the territory of the GDL was about 800,000 km2, of which 10% was ethnically Lithuanian.", "The ethnic Lithuanian population is estimated to have been 420,000 out of 1.4 million in 1375 (the territory was about 700,000 km2), and 550,000 out of 3.8 million in 1490 (territory: 850,000 km2) In addition to the Ruthenians and Lithuanians, other significant ethnic groups throughout GDL were Jews and Tatars.", "The combined population of Poland and GDL in 1493 is estimated as 7.5 million, of whom 3.25 million were Poles, 3.75 million Ruthenians and 0.5 million Lithuanians.Samogitia (marked in pink) and Lithuania proper (marked in green) in a map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1712With the Union of Lublin Lithuanian Grand Duchy lost large part of lands to the Polish Crown (see demographics of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth).", "An ethnic Lithuanian proportion being about 1/4 in GDL after the Union of Lublin was held until the partitions.", "There was much devastation and population loss throughout the GDL in the mid and late 17th century, including the ethnic Lithuanian population in Vilnius voivodeship.", "Besides devastation, the Ruthenian population declined proportionally after the territorial losses to the Russian Empire.", "In 1770 there were about 4.84 million inhabitants in GDL, of which the largest ethnic group were Ruthenians, about 1.39 million – Lithuanians.", "The voivodeships with a majority ethnic Lithuanian population were Vilnius, Trakai and Samogitian voivodeships, and these three voivodeships comprised the political center of the state.", "In the southern angle of Trakai voivodeship and south-eastern part of Vilnius voivodeship there were also many Belarusians; in some of the south-eastern areas they were the major linguistic group.The Ruthenian population formed a majority in GDL from the time of the GDL's expansion in the mid 14th century; and the adjective \"Lithuanian\", besides denoting ethnic Lithuanians, from early times denoted any inhabitant of GDL, including Slavs and Jews.The Ruthenian language, corresponding to today's Belarusian and Ukrainian, was then called Russian, and was used as one of the chancellery languages by Lithuanian monarchs.", "However, there are fewer extant documents written in this language than those written in Latin and German from the time of Vytautas.", "Later, Ruthenian became the main language of documentation and writing.", "In the years that followed, it was the main language of government until the introduction of Polish as the chancellery language of the Lithuanian–Polish Commonwealth in 1697; however there are also examples of documents written in Ruthenian from the second half of the 18th century.", "The Lithuanian language was used orally in Vilnius, Trakai and Samogitian voivodeships, and by small numbers of people elsewhere.", "At the royal court in Vilnius of Sigismund II Augustus, the last Grand Duke of Lithuania prior to the Union of Lublin, both Polish and Lithuanian were spoken equally widely.===Russian Empire===Distribution of Lithuanians: Samogitians (olive green) and Aukštaitians-Lithuanians (orange) in a 1863 ethnographic map of the governorates of the Russian Empire After the Third Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth on October 24, 1795, between the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia and the Habsburg monarchy, the Commonwealth ceased to exist and Lithuania became a part of the Russian empire.", "After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, the use of the Polish language noticeably increased in eastern Lithuania and western Belarus.", "Many Lithuanians, living further east, were unable to receive the Lithuanian printed books smuggled into Lithuania by knygnešiai during the time of the ban on printing books in the Latin alphabet, and they switched to Polish.", "Although this also used the Latin alphabet, it was much less affected by the ban, because Polish was still used by the politically important class of the nobility, and also used predominantly in the biggest towns of Lithuania, and supported by the church.===National Revival===The Lithuanian National Revival had begun to intensify by the end of the 19th century, and the number of Lithuanian speakers and people identifying themselves as ethnic Lithuanians started to increase; but at the same time many Polish speaking Lithuanians, especially former ''szlachta'', cut themselves adrift from the Lithuanian nation.", "There were population losses due to several border changes, Soviet deportations, the Holocaust of the Lithuanian Jews, and German and Polish repatriations during and after World War II.", "After World War II, the ethnic Lithuanian population remained stable: 79.3% in 1959 to 83.5% in 2002.Lithuania's citizenship law and the Constitution meet international and OSCE standards, guaranteeing universal human and civil rights." ], [ "Population", "Population pyramid of Lithuania over time=== Life expectancy at birth ===403x403px''total population:'' 74.9 years''male:'' 69.98 years''female:'' 80.1 years (2009 est.", ")PeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195560.831955–1960 66.881960–1965 69.881965–1970 71.281970–1975 71.191975–1980 70.671980–1985 70.531985–1990 71.571990–1995 69.731995–2000 70.252000–2005 71.622005–2010 71.862010–2015 73.99=== Fertility ===1.48 children born/woman (2020)" ], [ "Vital statistics", ":Source: Statistical yearbooks of LithuaniaAverage population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Crude migration change (per 1000) 1915 2,137,000 38,722 43,596 −4,874 18.1 20.4 −2.3 2.3 1916 2,137,000 35,565 31,512 4,053 16.6 14.7 1.9 -3.3 1917 2,134,000 32,266 43,047 −10,781 15.1 20.2 −5.1 -1.0 1918 2,121,000 33,176 47,522 −14,346 15.6 22.4 −6.8 0.7 1919 2,108,000 41,095 51,930 −10,835 19.5 24.6 −5.1 3.2 1920 2,104,000 47,642 44,487 3,155 22.6 21.1 1.5 4.2 1921 2,116,000 51,864 31,915 19,949 24.5 15.1 9.4 0.1 1922 2,136,000 58,064 37,598 20,466 27.2 17.6 9.6 2.1 1923 2,161,000 60,869 32,432 28,437 28.2 15.0 13.2 -0.2 1924 2,189,000 63,864 35,493 28,371 29.2 16.2 13.0 -0.2 1925 2,217,000 63,743 37,179 26,564 28.8 16.8 12.0 0.6 1926 2,245,000 63,655 34,380 29,275 28.4 15.3 13.0 -0.5 1927 2,273,000 66,114 38,897 27,217 29.1 17.1 12.0 0.3 1928 2,301,000 65,945 35,698 27,116 28.7 15.5 11.8 -0.1 1929 2,328,000 63,083 39,669 23,414 27.1 17.0 10.1 1.1 1930 2,354,000 64,164 37,151 27,013 27.3 15.8 11.5 -0.5 1931 2,380,000 63,419 37,478 25,941 26.6 15.7 10.9 0.4 1932 2,407,000 65,371 36,577 28,794 27.2 15.2 12.0 0.0 1933 2,436,000 62,145 32,749 29,396 25.5 13.4 12.1 -0.6 1934 2,464,000 60,770 35,789 24,981 24.7 14.5 10.1 -0.4 1935 2,488,000 57,970 34,595 23,375 23.3 13.9 9.4 0.6 1936 2,513,000 60,446 33,440 25,939 24.1 13.3 10.3 -0.4 1937 2,538,000 56,393 33,260 22,433 22.2 13.1 8.8 1.1 1938 2,563,000 57,951 32,256 24,562 22.6 12.6 9.6 -60.7 19391 2,432,000 54,184 32,983 21,201 22.3 13.6 8.71 the figures of 1939 exclude the Klaipėda RegionSource: Official Statistics PortalAverage population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Crude migration change (per 1000)Total fertility rate 1945 2,520,000 60,392 35,201 25,191 24.0 14.0 10.0 -6.0 1946 2,530,000 58,399 37,688 20,711 23.1 14.9 8.2 -4.2 1947 2,540,000 59,680 39,716 19,964 23.5 15.6 7.9 -4.0 1948 2,550,000 58,780 35,137 23,643 23.1 13.8 9.3 -5.4 1949 2,560,000 63,034 32,049 30,985 24.6 12.5 12.1 -9.4 1950 2,567,000 60,719 30,870 29,849 23.7 12.0 11.6 -10.8 1951 2,569,000 58,504 29,693 28,811 22.8 11.6 11.2 -8.5 1952 2,576,000 56,944 28,166 28,778 22.1 10.9 11.2 -5.8 1953 2,590,000 52,610 27,118 25,492 20.3 10.5 9.8 -3.2 1954 2,607,000 54,229 25,559 28,670 20.8 9.8 11.0 -2.6 1955 2,629,000 55,525 24,138 31,387 21.1 9.2 11.9 -2.8 1956 2,653,000 53,741 21,869 31,872 20.3 8.2 12.0 -1.4 1957 2,681,000 56,223 23,361 32,862 21.0 8.7 12.3 -1.1 1958 2,711,000 61,190 22,103 39,087 22.6 8.2 14.0 -2.2 2.63 1959 2,744,000 62,240 24,688 37,553 22.7 9.0 14.0 0.1 2.63 1960 2,782,000 62,485 21,611 40,874 22.5 7.8 14.7 1.8 2.59 1961 2,828,000 62,775 23,365 39,410 22.2 8.3 13.9 -0.8 2.57 1962 2,865,000 59,728 24,925 34,803 20.8 8.7 12.1 -2.3 2.64 1963 2,893,000 57,024 23,112 33,912 19.7 8.0 11.7 0.4 2.45 1964 2,928,000 55,856 21,830 34,026 19.1 7.5 11.6 1.7 2.31 1965 2,967,000 53,818 23,467 30,351 18.1 7.9 10.2 2.9 2.21 1966 3,006,000 54,275 23,799 30,476 18.1 7.9 10.1 2.9 2.34 1967 3,045,000 53,806 24,571 29,235 17.7 8.1 9.6 2.9 2.27 1968 3,083,000 54,258 25,725 28,533 17.6 8.3 9.3 1.1 2.25 1969 3,115,000 54,263 27,156 27,107 17.4 8.7 8.7 0.6 2.29 1970 3,144,000 55,519 28,048 27,471 17.7 8.9 8.7 2.4 2.40 1971 3,179,000 56,044 26,972 29,072 17.6 8.5 9.1 1.9 2.41 1972 3,214,000 54,616 29,252 25,364 17.0 9.1 7.9 1.4 2.35 1973 3,244,000 51,944 29,160 22,784 16.0 9.0 7.0 2.2 2.22 1974 3,274,000 51,941 29,612 22,329 15.9 9.0 6.8 1.8 2.21 1975 3,302,000 51,766 31,265 20,501 15.7 9.5 6.2 2.0 2.18 1976 3,329,000 52,296 31,972 20,324 15.7 9.6 6.1 1.7 2.18 1977 3,355,000 52,166 32,932 19,234 15.5 9.8 5.7 1.5 2.14 1978 3,379,000 51,821 34,008 17,813 15.3 10.1 5.3 0.3 2.09 1979 3,398,000 51,937 34,897 17,040 15.3 10.3 5.0 -0.6 2.05 1980 3,413,000 51,765 35,871 15,894 15.2 10.5 4.7 1.2 1.99 1981 3,433,000 52,249 35,579 16,670 15.2 10.4 4.9 2.1 1.98 1982 3,457,000 53,141 35,040 18,101 15.4 10.1 5.2 2.9 1.97 1983 3,485,000 57,589 36,451 21,138 16.5 10.5 6.1 2.2 2.10 1984 3,514,000 57,576 38,666 18,910 16.4 11.0 5.4 3.4 2.07 1985 3,545,000 58,454 39,169 19,285 16.5 11.0 5.4 4.2 2.09 1986 3,579,000 59,705 35,788 23,917 16.7 10.0 6.7 3.6 2.12 1987 3,616,000 59,360 36,917 22,443 16.4 10.2 6.2 4.6 2.11 1988 3,655,000 56,727 37,649 19,078 15.5 10.3 5.2 2.7 2.02 1989 3,684,000 55,782 38,150 17,632 15.1 10.3 4.8 -1.0 1.98 1990 3,698,000 56,868 39,760 17,108 15.3 10.7 4.6 -3.0 2.02 1991 3,704,000 56,219 41,013 15,206 15.2 11.1 4.1 -5.2 2.00 1992 3,700,000 53,617 41,455 12,162 14.5 11.2 3.3 -7.9 1.94 1993 3,683,000 47,464 46,107 1,357 12.9 12.5 0.4 -7.5 1.74 1994 3,657,000 42,376 46,486 −4,110 11.6 12.7 −1.1 -6.6 1.57 1995 3,629,000 41,195 45,306 −4,111 11.4 12.5 −1.1 -6.3 1.55 1996 3,602,000 39,066 42,896 −3,830 10.8 11.9 −1.1 -6.4 1.49 1997 3,575,000 37,812 41,143 −3,331 10.5 11.5 −0.9 -6.4 1.47 1998 3,549,000 37,019 40,757 −3,738 10.4 11.4 −1.0 -6.0 1.46 1999 3,524,000 36,415 40,003 −3,588 10.3 11.3 −1.0 -5.8 1.46 2000 3,500,000 34,149 38,919 −4,770 9.7 11.1 −1.4 -6.9 1.39 2001 3,471,000 31,185 40,399 −9,214 8.9 11.6 −2.6 -5.5 1.29 2002 3,443,000 29,541 41,072 −11,531 8.6 11.9 −3.3 -4.8 1.23 2003 3,415,000 29,977 40,990 −11,013 8.7 11.9 −3.2 -7.9 1.26 2004 3,377,000 29,769 41,340 −11,571 8.8 12.2 −3.4 -12.6 1.27 2005 3,323,000 29,510 43,799 −14,289 8.8 13.1 −4.3 -11.6 1.29 2006 3,270,000 29,606 44,813 −15,207 9.0 13.6 −4.6 -7.3 1.33 2007 3,231,000 30,020 45,624 −15,604 9.2 14.0 −4.8 -5.4 1.36 2008 3,198,000 31,536 43,832 −12,296 9.8 13.6 −3.8 -7.1 1.45 2009 3,163,000 32,165 42,032 −9,867 10.1 13.2 −3.1 -17.8 1.50 2010 3,097,000 30,676 42,120 −11,444 9.8 13.4 −3.6 -18.7 1.502011 3,028,000 30,268 41,037 −10,769 9.9 13.4 −3.5 -9.7 1.55 2012 2,988,000 30,459 40,938 −10,479 10.1 13.6 −3.5 -11.2 1.60 2013 2,944,000 29,885 41,511 −11,626 10.1 14.0 −3.9 -8.7 1.59 2014 2,907,000 30,369 40,252 −9,883 10.3 13.7 −3.4 -6.6 1.63 2015 2,878,000 31,475 41,776 −10,301 10.8 14.3 −3.5 -6.9 1.70 2016 2,848,000 30,623 41,106 −10,483 10.6 14.2 −3.6 -10.1 1.69 2017 2,809,000 28,696 40,142 −11,446 10.1 14.1 −4.0 4.0 1.63 2018 2,808,901 28,149 39,574 −11,425 10.0 14.1 −4.1 -1.1 1.63 2019 2,794,184 27,393 38,281 −10,888 9.8 13.7 −3.9 3.9 1.61 2020 2,794,090 25,144 43,547 −18,403 9.0 15.6 −6.6 11.71.48 2021 2,808,219 23,330 47,746 -24,416 8.3 17.0 –8.7 18.01.34 2022 2,834,340 22,068 42,884 -20,816 7.8 15.1 –7.3 1.27 2023 2,870,191 19,844 36,029 -16,185 6.9 12.6 –5.7 1.14(e)===Current vital statistics===By data of Statistics Lithuania+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January 2023''' 1,414 3,730 -2,316 '''January 2024''' 1,561 3,593 -2,032 '''Difference''' +147 (+10.40%) -137 (−3.67%) +284===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 1 304 965 1 505 796 2 810 761 100 0–4 68 362 64 287 132 649 4.72 5–9 73 251 69 389 142 640 5.07 10–14 72 399 69 383 141 782 5.04 15–19 66 376 63 291 129 667 4.61 20–24 73 506 69 556 143 062 5.09 25–29 86 449 82 753 169 202 6.02 30–34 99 253 95 926 195 179 6.94 35–39 94 857 92 583 187 440 6.67 40–44 89 807 90 697 180 504 6.42 45–49 93 631 100 431 194 062 6.90 50–54 97 747 108 319 206 066 7.33 55–59 101 687 116 887 218 574 7.78 60–64 92 818 117 176 209 994 7.47 65-69 65 526 93 500 159 026 5.66 70-74 49 426 82 581 132 007 4.70 75-79 36 574 73 494 110 068 3.92 80-84 25 387 60 804 86 191 3.07 85-89 12 874 37 019 49 893 1.78 90-94 4 373 14 613 18 986 0.68 95-99 630 2 873 3 503 0.12 100+ 32 234 266 0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 214 012 203 059 417 071 14.84 15–64 896 131 937 619 1 833 750 65.24 65+ 194 822 365 118 559 940 19.92" ], [ "Ethnic composition", "Lithuanians are a Baltic ethnic group (i.e.", "Balts), closely related to neighbouring Latvians, who speak Lithuanian, a Baltic language of the Indo-European language family.", "The group is distinct from neighbouring Slavic and Germanic peoples, although the historical union with Poland in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well German and Russian colonization and settlement left cultural and religious influences.=== Before World War II ===+Population of Lithuania according to ethnic group 1923/1925 1 Ethnicgroup Census ofLithuania in 1923 Census of theKlaipėda Region in 1925 Number % Number % Lithuanians 1,701,863 83.9 37,626 26.6 Memels 34,337 24.2 Jews 153,743 7.6 578 0.4 Germans 29,231 1.4 59,337 41.9 Poles 65,599 3.2 29 0.0 Russians 50,460 2.5 267 0.2 Latvians 14,883 0.7 47 0.0 Belarusians 4,421 0.2 – – Tatars 973 0.0 Romani 284 0.0 Karaites 141 0.0 Estonians 46 0.0 Ukrainians 43 0.0 Others 7,284 0.2 9,424 6.7 Total 2,028,971 141,6451 Source: .", "The Klaipėda Region was annexed from Germany in 1923, but was not included in the 1923 census.", "A separate census in the Klaipėda region was held in 1925.===After World War II===Among the Baltic states, Lithuania has the most homogeneous population.", "According to the census conducted in 2021, 84.6% of the population identified themselves as Lithuanians, 6.5% as Poles, 5.0% as Russians, 1.0% as Belarusians, and 2.3% as members of other ethnic groups.+Population of Lithuania according to ethnic group 1959–2021 Ethnicgroup census 19591 census 19702 census 19793 census 19894 census 20015 census 20116 census 20217 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Lithuanians 2,150,767 79.3 2,506,751 80.1 2,712,233 80.0 2,924,251 79.6 2,907,293 83.4 2,561,314 84.2 2,378,118 84.61 Poles 230,107 8.5 240,203 7.7 247,022 7.3 257,994 7.0 234,989 6.7 200,317 6.6 183,421 6.53 Russians 231,014 8.5 267,989 8.6 303,493 8.9 344,455 9.4 219,789 6.3 176,913 5.8 141,122 5.02 Belarusians 30,256 1.1 45,412 1.5 57,584 1.7 63,169 1.7 42,866 1.2 36,227 1.2 28,183 1.0 Ukrainians 17,692 0.7 25,099 0.8 31,982 0.9 44,789 1.2 22,488 0.6 16,423 0.5 14,168 0.5 Jews 24,667 0.9 23,538 0.8 14,691 0.4 12,390 0.3 4,007 0.1 3,050 0.1 2,256 0.08 Romani 1,238 0.1 1,880 0.1 2,306 0.1 2,718 0.1 2,571 0.1 2,115 0.1 2,251 0.08 Tatars 3,020 0.1 3,454 0.1 3,984 0.1 5,135 0.1 3,235 0.1 2,793 0.1 2,142 0.08 Germans 11,166 0.4 1,904 0.1 2,616 0.1 2,058 0.1 3,243 0.1 2,418 0.1 1,977 0.07 Latvians 6,318 0.2 5,063 0.2 4,354 0.1 4,229 0.1 2,955 0.1 2,025 0.1 1,572 0.06 Armenians 1,125 0.04 Azerbaijanis 575 0.02 Moldovans 451 0.02 Georgians 333 0.01 Estonians 352 0.0 551 0.0 546 0.0 598 0.0 400 0.0 314 0.0 233 0.01 Kazakhs 214 0.01 Karaites 423 0.0 388 0.0 352 0.0 289 0.0 273 0.0 241 0.0 192 0.01 Chuvashs 177 0.01 Greeks 134 0.01 Lezgins 131 0.01 Uzbeks 126 0.01 Mordvins 121 0.01 Ossetians 118 0.01 Bulgarians 110 0.01 Chinese 97 0.01 Chechens 85 0.01 Bashkirs 81 0.01 Turks 78 0.01 Hungarians 76 0.01 Vietnamese 75 0.01 French 71 0.01 Romanians 68 0.01 Finns 68 0.01 Udmurts 67 0.01 Koreans 62 0.01 Maris 60 0.01 Komis 54 0.01 Italians 52 0.01 Britons 48 0.01 Arabs 48 0.01 Karelians 47 0.01 Danes 44 0.01 Tajiks 42 0.01 Czechs 27 0.01 Dutch 25 0.01 Turkmens 25 0.01 Spanish 24 0.01 Egyptians 23 0.01 Swedes 21 0.01 Serbs 19 0.01 Gagauzes 18 0.01 Afghans 16 0.01 Abazins 14 0.01 Mexicans 14 0.01 Norwegians 14 0.01 Punjabis 14 0.01 Albanians 13 0.01 Kyrgyz 13 0.01 Brazilians 13 0.01 Japanese 12 0.01 Abkhazians 11 0.01 Kalmuks 10 0.01 Other 330 0.01 Not indicated 49,633 1.77 Total 2,711,445 3,128,236 3,391,490 3,674,802 3,483,972 3,043,429 2,810,761 1 Source: .", "2 Source: .", "3 Source: .", "4 Source: .", "5 Source: .", "6 Source: .Poles are concentrated in the Vilnius Region, the area controlled by Poland in the interwar period.", "There are especially large Polish communities in Vilnius district municipality (47% of the population) and Šalčininkai district municipality (76%).", "The Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania, an ethnic minority political party, has strong influence in these areas and has representation in the Seimas.", "The party is most active in local politics and controls several municipal councils.Russians, even though they are almost as numerous as Poles, are much more evenly scattered and lack strong political cohesion.", "The most prominent community lives in Visaginas (47%).", "Most of them are engineers who moved with their families from the Russian SFSR to work at the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant.", "A number of ethnic Russians (mostly military) left Lithuania after the declaration of independence in 1990.Another major change in the ethnic composition of Lithuania was the extermination of the Jewish population during the Holocaust.", "Before World War II about 7.5% of the population was Jewish; they were concentrated in cities and towns and had a significant influence on crafts and business.", "They were called Litvaks and had a strong culture.", "The population of Vilnius, sometimes nicknamed Northern Jerusalem, was about 30% Jewish.", "Almost all of these Jews were killed during the Nazi German occupation, or later emigrated to the United States and Israel.", "Now there are only about 4,000 Jews living in Lithuania." ], [ "Nationality and immigration", "Lithuania's membership of the European Union has made Lithuanian citizenship all the more appealing.", "Lithuanian citizenship is theoretically easier (see court ruling notes below) to obtain than that of many other European countries—only one great-grandparent is necessary to become a Lithuanian citizen.", "Persons who held citizenship in the Republic of Lithuania prior to June 15, 1940, and their children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren (provided that these persons did not repatriate) are eligible for Lithuanian citizenship .", "Lithuanian citizens are allowed to travel and work throughout the European Union without a visa or other restrictions.The Lithuanian Constitutional Court ruled in November 2006 that a number of provisions of the Law of the Republic of Lithuania on citizenship are in conflict with the Lithuanian Constitution.", "In particular, the court ruled that a number of current provisions of the Citizenship Law implicitly or explicitly allowing dual citizenship are in conflict with the Constitution; such provisions amounted to the unconstitutional practice of making dual citizenship a common phenomenon rather than a rare exception.", "The provisions of the Citizenship Law announced to be unconstitutional are no longer valid and applicable to the extent stated by the Constitutional Court.The Lithuanian Parliament amended the Citizenship Law substantially as a result of this court ruling, allowing dual citizenship for children of at least one Lithuanian parent who are born abroad, but preventing Lithuanians from retaining their Lithuanian citizenship after obtaining the citizenship of another country.There are some special cases still permitting dual citizenship.", "See Lithuanian nationality law.+Largest groups of foreign residentsRankNationality Population (2019)116,927212,529312,20441,100582667687736850794901047211470124451344514416153991638217369183691934620305" ], [ "Languages", " The Lithuanian language is the country's sole official language countrywide.", "It is the first language of over 85% of population and is also spoken by 295,244 out of 432,643 non-Lithuanians.", "Ethnic minorities, such as the Polish population that mostly speaks Polish; Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians who immigrated after World War II and converse in Russian, generally use their associated languages as their main language.Nearly every citizen of Lithuania is considered to be at least bilingual, with the older generations being able to speak Russian as a second language, as the Soviet era had imposed the official use of Russian, while the independence generations usually speak English as their second language.", "According to the census of 2021, 31% of the population can speak English, 67.4% - Russian.", "The average Lithuanian knows 2.7 languages with a substantial portion of the total population (37%) speaking at least two foreign languages.Approximately 14,800 pupils started their 2012 school year in schools where the curriculum is conducted in Russian (down from 76,000 in 1991), and about 12,300 enrolled in Polish schools (compared to 11,400 in 1991 and 21,700 in 2001).", "There are also schools in the Belarusian language, as well as in English, German, and French.There are perhaps 50 speakers of Karaim, a Turkic language spoken by Karaite Jews, in Lithuania.Lithuanian Sign Language and Russian Sign Language are used by the deaf community.Baltic Romani is spoken by the Lithuanian Roma (Gypsy) minority." ], [ "Religion", "St. Anne's Church, Vilnius As per the 2011 census, 77.2% of Lithuanians identified themselves as Roman Catholic.", "The Church has been the majority denomination since the Christianisation of Lithuania at the end of the 14th century.", "Some priests actively led the resistance against the Communist regime (symbolised by the Hill of Crosses).In the first half of the 20th century, the Lutheran Protestant church had around 200,000 members, 9% of the total population, mostly Protestant Lithuanians from the former Memel Territory and Germans, but it has declined since 1945.Small Protestant communities are dispersed throughout the northern and western parts of the country.", "Believers and clergy suffered greatly during the Soviet occupation, with many killed, tortured or deported to Siberia.", "Various Protestant churches have established missions in Lithuania since 1990.4.1% are Orthodox, 0.8% are Old Believers (both mainly among the Russian minority), 0.8% are Protestant and 6.1% have no religion.Lithuania was historically home to a significant Jewish community and was an important center of Jewish scholarship and culture from the 18th century, until the community, numbering about 160,000 before World War II, was almost entirely annihilated during the Holocaust.", "By 2011, around 3000 people in Lithuania identified themselves as Jews, while around 1200 identified with Judaic religious community.According to the 2005 Eurobarometer Poll, 12% said that \"they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force\", 36% answered that \"they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force\" and 49% of Lithuanian citizens responded that \"they believe there is a God\"." ], [ "Education", "According to the 2011 census, only around 0.2% of the Lithuanian population aged 10 and over were illiterate, the majority of them in rural areas.", "The proportion is similar for males and females.The general education system in Lithuania consists of primary, basic, secondary and tertiary education.", "Primary, basic and secondary (or high school) education is free of charge to all residents and is compulsory for pupils under 16 years of age.", "Pre-primary education is also available free of charge to 5- and 6-year-old children but is not compulsory.", "Pre-primary schooling is attended by about 90% of pre-school age children in Lithuania.", "Primary, basic and secondary education in Lithuania is available to some ethnic minorities in their native languages, including Polish, Russian and Belarusian.Primary schooling () is available to children who have reached age 7 (or younger, should the parents so desire) and lasts four years.", "Primary school students are not assessed through a grade system, instead using oral or written feedback.", "Students begin studying their first foreign language in their second year of primary school.", "Data from the 2011 census showed that 99.1% of the population aged 20 and older have attained at least primary education, while around 27,000 pupils started the first grade in 2012.Basic education () covers grades 5 to 10.It is provided by basic, secondary, youth, vocational schools and gymnasiums.", "After completing the 10th grade, the students must take the basic education achievement test in the Lithuanian language, mathematics, and an elective basic education achievement test in their mother tongue (Belarusian, Polish, Russian or German).", "In 2011, 90.9% of the population of Lithuania aged 20 or older had attained the basic level of education.Secondary education () in Lithuania is optional and available to students who have attained basic education.", "It covers two years (11th–12th grades in secondary schools and 3rd–4th grades in gymnasiums).", "At this level, students have the opportunity to adapt their study plans (subjects and study level) to their individual preferences.", "Secondary education is completed upon passing national ''matura'' examinations.", "These consist of as many as six separate examinations of which two (Lithuanian Language and Literature and one elective subject) are required to attain the diploma.", "As of 2011, 78.2% of the population of Lithuania aged 20 or older had attained the secondary level of education, including secondary education provided by vocational schools.More than 60% of the graduates from secondary school every year choose to continue education at colleges and universities of the Lithuanian higher education system.", "As of 2013, there were 23 universities (including academies and business schools recognized as such) and 24 colleges operating in Lithuania.", "Vilnius University, founded in 1579, is the oldest and largest university in Lithuania.", "More than 48,000 students enrolled in all higher education programmes in Lithuania in 2011, including level I (professional bachelor and bachelor), level II (masters) and level III (doctorate) studies.", "Higher education in Lithuania is partly state-funded, with free-of-charge access to higher education constitutionally guaranteed to students deemed \"good\".", "There are also scholarships available to the best students." ], [ "See also", "* Lithuania* Lithuanians in Brazil* Ethnic history of the Vilnius region* Russians in Lithuania * Ukrainians in Lithuania* Aging of Europe* ''''''''''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* statistics about education in Lithuania (PDF)* Key results of Lithuanian census* 2020 Population pyramid of Lithuania.", "* Suicide statistics as of 2005 (Lith.)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Lithuania" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Politics of Lithuania''' takes place in a framework of a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the president of Lithuania is the head of state and the prime minister of Lithuania is the head of government, and of a multi-party system.Executive power is exercised by the president and the Government, which is headed by the prime minister.", "Legislative power is vested in both the Government and the unicameral Seimas (Lithuanian Parliament).", "Judicial power is vested in judges appointed by the president of Lithuania and is independent of executive and legislature power.", "The judiciary consists of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and the Court of Appeal as well as the separate administrative courts.", "The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania established these powers upon its approval on 25 October 1992.Being a multi-party system, the government of Lithuania is not dominated by any single political party, rather it consists of numerous parties that must work with each other to form coalition governments." ], [ "History", "Since Lithuania restored independence on 11 March 1990, it has kept democratic traditions.", "Drawing from the interwar experiences, politicians made many different proposals that ranged from strong parliamentarism to a presidential republic with checks and balances similar to the United States.", "Through compromise, a semi-presidential system was settled.", "In a referendum on 25 October 1992, the first general vote of the people since their declared independence, 56.75% of the total number of voters supported the new constitution.All major political parties declared their support for Lithuania's membership in NATO and the European Union (EU).", "Lithuania joined NATO on 29 March 2004.Lithuania joined the EU on 1 May 2004 and Schengen Area on 21 December 2007 and Eurozone on 1 January 2015.Since 1991, Lithuanian voters have shifted from right to left and back again, swinging between the Conservatives, led by Vytautas Landsbergis, and the (formerly Communist) Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania, led by president Algirdas Brazauskas.", "During this period, the prime minister was Gediminas Vagnorius.Valdas Adamkus was the president since 1998.His proposed prime minister was Rolandas Paksas, whose government got off to a rocky start and collapsed within seven months.", "The alternation between left and right was broken in the October 2000 elections when the Liberal Union and New Union parties won the most votes and were able to form a centrist ruling coalition with minor partners.", "President Adamkus played a key role in bringing the new centrist parties together.", "Artūras Paulauskas, the leader of the centre-left New Union (also known as the social-liberal party), became the Chairman of the Seimas.", "In July 2001, the centre-left New Union party forged an alliance with the Social Democratic Party of Lithuania and formed a new cabinet under former president Algirdas Brazauskas.", "On 11 April 2006, Artūras Paulauskas was removed from his position and Viktoras Muntianas was elected Chairman of the Seimas.The cabinet of Algirdas Brazauskas resigned on 31 May 2006, as President Valdas Adamkus expressed no confidence in two of the Ministers, formerly party colleagues of Brazauskas, over ethical principles.", "Brazauskas decided not to remain in office as acting prime minister, and announced that he was finally retiring from politics.", "Even so, he led the ruling Social Democratic Party of Lithuania for one more year, until 19 May 2007, when he passed the reins to Gediminas Kirkilas.", "On 27 November 2008, Andrius Kubilius of conservative Homeland Union was appointed as a prime minister.", "In December 2012 Andrius Kubilius was succeeded by Algirdas Butkevičius after his Social Democratic Party became the biggest party in parliamentary elections.In 2016, The Peasant and Green's Union (LGPU) won parliamentary elections.", "It secured 54 seats in the 141-member parliament (Seimas), making a previously small centrist agrarian party the biggest in parliament.", "The conservative Homeland Union won 30 seats.", "The ruling Social Democrats, led by Lithuania's Prime Minister Algirdas Butkevciu, lost heavily and secured just 17 seats.", "On 22 November 2016, Saulius Skvernelis of the Lithuanian Peasants and Greens Union, became new prime minister.In October 2020, conservative opposition Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD) won parliamentary elections with 50 seats.", "Prime Minister Saulius Skvernelis' Union of Farmers and Greens came a distant second with just 32 seats.", "In November 2020, Ingrida Šimonytė became new prime minister, after forming a centre-right coalition government of her TS-LKD and two liberal parties." ], [ "Government", "Government in Lithuania is made up of three branches originally envisioned by enlightenment philosopher Baron de Montesquieu: executive, legislative, and judicial.", "Each branch is separate and is set up to do checks and balances on each other branch.=== Executive branch ===The executive branch of the Lithuanian government consists of a president, a prime minister, and the president's Council of Ministers.", "It is in charge of running the government.==== President ====Presidential Palace of the Republic of Lithuania in Daukanto SquareThe president of Lithuania is the head of state of the country, elected directly for a five-year term and can serve maximum of two terms consecutively.", "Presidential elections take place in a modified version of the two-round system.", "If half of voters participate, a candidate must win a majority of the total valid vote in order to win election in the first round.", "If fewer than half of voters participate, a candidate can win outright with a plurality and at least one third of the total vote.", "If the first round does not produce a president, a runoff is held between the top two finishers in the first round, with a plurality sufficient to win.The president, with the approval of the Seimas, is first responsible of appointing the prime minister.", "Upon the prime minister's nomination, the president also appoints, under the recommendation of the prime minister, the Council of Ministers (13 ministries), as well as a number of other top civil servants and the judges for all courts.", "The president also serves as the commander-in-chief, oversees foreign and security policy, addresses political problems of foreign and domestic affairs, proclaims states of emergency, considers the laws adopted by the Seimas, and performs other duties specified in the Constitution.", "Lithuanian presidents have somewhat greater power than their counterparts in Estonia and Latvia, but have more influence in foreign policy than domestic policy.Former president Rolandas Paksas, who had defeated Adamkus in 2003, was impeached in April 2004 for leaking classified information.Dalia Grybauskaitė, the first female president, served as the president of Lithuania since July 2009 until 2019, winning a reelection bid in 2014.Grybauskaitė succeeded Valdas Adamkus who had served a total of two non-consecutive terms.In 2019, Gitanas Nauseda won Lithuania's presidential runoff election after his opponent Ingrida Šimonytė conceded.==== Prime minister ====Government of Lithuania buildingThe prime minister of Lithuania is the head of government of the country, appointed by the president and approved by the Seimas.", "The prime minister, within 15 days of being appointed, is responsible for choosing ministers for the president to approve to each of the 13 ministries.", "In general, the prime minister is in charge of the affairs of the country, maintains homeland security, carries out laws and resolutions of the Seimas and decrees of the president, maintains diplomatic relations with foreign countries and international organizations, and performs other duties specified in the Constitution.", "In practice, the prime minister is mostly responsible for domestic policy, while the president mostly handles foreign policy.==== Council of Ministers ====Similar to the cabinet of other nations, the Council of Ministers consists of 13 ministers chosen by the prime minister and appointed by the president.", "Each minister is responsible for his or her own ministry of the Lithuanian government and must give reports on his or her ministry when directed to.", "When the prime minister resigns or dies, the position is to be filled as soon as possible and the new leader will appoint a new government.==== Current office holders ====PresidentGitanas NausėdaIndependent12 July 2019Prime MinisterIngrida ŠimonytėHomeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats11 December 2020=== Legislative branch === The parliament (Seimas) has 141 members that are elected for a 4-year term.", "About half of the members are elected in single-member districts (71), and the other half (70) are elected in the nationwide vote using proportional representation by party lists.", "A party must receive at least 5% of the national vote to be represented in the Seimas.=== Political parties and elections =======2019 presidential election==== CandidatePartyFirst roundSecond roundVotes%Votes%Ingrida ŠimonytėIndependent'''442,353''''''31.43'''437,39933.28Gitanas NausėdaIndependent438,46931.16'''876,749''''''66.72'''Saulius SkvernelisIndependent278,68019.80Vytenis AndriukaitisSocial Democratic Party of Lithuania67,8024.82Arvydas JuozaitisIndependent66,5354.73Valdemar TomaševskiElectoral Action of Poles in Lithuania56,4114.01Mindaugas PuidokasIndependent36,6452.60Naglis PuteikisLithuanian Centre Party11,2140.80Valentinas MazuronisIndependent9,1690.65Invalid/blank votes9,905–17,097–'''Total''''''1,417,183''''''100''''''1,314,148''''''100'''Registered voters/turnout2,486,91556.992,491,02153.44Source: VRK, VRK====2020 parliamentary election==== ====2019 European election==== PartyVotes%SeatsHomeland Union245,91818.603Social Democratic Party of Lithuania199,21717.262Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union157,60411.922Labour Party112,9648.541Liberal Movement81,9166.201Public election committee \"Aušra Maldeikienė's Train\"80,7036.101\"Waldemar Tomaszewski Block\" - Coalition of Christian Families Alliance and Lithuanian Russian Union69,2635.241Lithuanian Centre Party64,0914.850Public election committee \"President Rolandas Paksas' Movement\"50,1303.790Public election committee \"Vytautas Radžvilas: Recover the State!", "\"41,8603.170Order and Justice34,2982.590Social Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania29,5922.240Lithuanian Green Party28,1262.130Lithuanian Freedom Union (Liberals)23,8291.800Public election committee \"Strong Lithuania in United Europe\"16,6711.260Public election committee \"Decisive Leap\"16,6711.070'''Total''' '''1,250,377''' '''100.00''' '''11''' === Judicial branch ===The judges of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Lithuania (''Lietuvos Respublikos Konstitucinis Teismas'') for a single nine-year term are appointed by the Seimas from the candidates presented by the President (three judges), Chairman of Seimas (three judges) and the chairman of the Supreme Court (three judges)." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Lithuania has a three-tier administrative division: the country is divided into 10 counties (Lithuanian: singular – ''apskritis'', plural – ''apskritys'') that are further subdivided into 60 municipalities (Lithuanian: singular – ''savivaldybė'', plural – ''savivaldybės'') which consist of over 500 elderships (Lithuanian: singular – ''seniūnija'', plural – ''seniūnijos'').The county governors (Lithuanian: ''apskrities viršininkas'') institution and county administrations have been dissolved in 2010.Municipalities are the most important administrative unit.", "Some municipalities are historically called \"district municipalities\", and thus are often shortened to \"district\"; others are called \"city municipalities\", sometimes shortened to \"city\".", "Each municipality has its own elected government.", "In the past, the election of municipality councils occurred once every three years, but it now takes place every four years.", "The council appoints elders to govern the elderships.", "Mayors are elected directly since 2015, being appointed by the council before that." ], [ "International organization participation", " Organization Acronym Date joined Notes Bank for International Settlements BIS Council of the Baltic Sea States CBSS 5 March 1992 Council of Europe COE 14 May 1993 European Community EC Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council EAPC European Bank for Reconstruction and Development EBRD 30 January 1992 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe ECE European Union EU 1 May 2004 Food and Agriculture Organization FAO 9 November 1991 International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA 18 November 1993 World Bank IBRD 6 July 1992 International Civil Aviation Organization ICAO 27 September 1991 International Chamber of Commerce ICC International Criminal Court ICC International Trade Union Confederation ITUC International Finance Corporation IFC 21 March 1992 International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement IFRCS 17 November 1991 International Labour Organization ILO 4 October 1991 International Monetary Fund IMF 29 March 1992 International Maritime Organization IMO 7 December 1995 International Telecommunications Satellite Organization Intelsat (nonsignatory user) International Criminal Police Organization – Interpol Interpol 4 November 1991 International Olympic Committee IOC International Organization for Migration IOM 28 November 1995 International Organization for Standardization ISO 1 January 1992 (correspondent) International Telecommunication Union ITU 12 October 1991 North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO 1 April 2004 Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons OPCW 15 May 1998 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe OSCE 10 September 1991 United Nations UN 17 September 1991 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO 15 October 1991 United Nations Children's Fund UNICEF 6 February 1993 United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina UNMIBH United Nations Mission in Kosovo UNMIK Universal Postal Union UPU 10 January 1992 World Customs Organization WCO 18 June 1992 Western European Union WEU (associate partner) World Health Organization WHO 25 November 1991 World Intellectual Property Organization WIPO 30 March 1992 World Meteorological Organization WMO 3 July 1922 World Trade Organization WTO 31 May 2001" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Erik Herron's Guide to Politics of East Central Europe and Eurasia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Lithuania" ], [ "Introduction", "This article offers an overview of '''telecommunications in Lithuania''', encompassing radio, television, telephony, and Internet services.The Communications Regulatory Authority of the Republic of Lithuania (RRT) functions as the independent regulator for the country's electronic communications industry.", "Established under the Law on Telecommunications and the provisions with European Union Directives, its role is to facilitate a competitive environment within the industry.The European Commission’s 2022 Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) report evaluates Lithuania's digital progress among 27 EU nations.", "Ranking 23rd in overall connectivity, Lithuania stands out with Fixed Very High Capacity Network (VHCN) and Fiber-to-the-Premises (FTTP) coverage.", "In human capital, Lithuania ranks 20th, with a strength in digital skills.", "Notably, in the integration of digital technologies, Lithuania performs 13th, with advancements in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) and e-commerce.", "Digital public services earn the 10th rank, with aspirations for 100% online key public services by 2026.Additionally, the country has focused on enhancing broadband infrastructure, particularly in less urban areas.", "Efforts in cybersecurity and the development of smart city solutions are also highlighted." ], [ "Radio", "* Three radio networks operated by the public broadcaster (2007).", "* Many privately owned commercial broadcasters, many with repeater stations in various regions throughout the country (2007).", "* Radios: 1.9 million (1997)." ], [ "Television", "* Three channels operated by the public broadcaster, with the third, a satellite channel, introduced in 2014.", "* Various privately owned commercial TV broadcasters operate national and multiple regional channels (2007).", "* Many privately owned local TV stations (2007).", "* Multi-channel cable and satellite TV services are available (2007).", "* Televisions: 1.7 million (1997)." ], [ "Telephony", "* Main lines: 667,300 lines in use (2012), 89th in the world; 819,147 lines (2004).", "* Mobile cellular: 5 million lines, 110th in the world (2012).", "* Telephone system: adequate, but is being modernised to provide an improved international capability and better residential access (2010).", "** Domestic: national fibre-optic cable interurban trunk system; rapid expansion of mobile-cellular services has resulted in a steady decline in the number of fixed-line connections; mobile-cellular teledensity stands at about 140 per 100 persons (2010).", "** International: major international connections to Denmark, Sweden, and Norway by submarine cable for further transmission by satellite; landline connections to Latvia and Poland (2010).", "* Country calling code: 370." ], [ "Internet services", "=== Fixed broadband ===In the DESI 2022 report, Lithuania shows a varied performance in fixed broadband connectivity.", "While the country's Fibre to the Premises (FTTP) coverage is notably high at 78%, surpassing the EU average of 50%, its overall fixed broadband take-up is lower at 67% compared to the EU's 78%.", "Additionally, the adoption rate for fixed broadband with speeds of at least 100 Mbps is slightly below the EU average, standing at 36% against 41%.", "Lithuania's Fixed Very High Capacity Network (VHCN) coverage is notable at 78%, outperforming the EU average of 70%.=== Mobile broadband ===Lithuania's mobile broadband adoption is high at 85%, marginally below the EU average of 87%.", "However, the country faces challenges in 5G deployment.", "Only 5% of the spectrum is assigned for 5G, and the coverage in populated areas is just 33%, substantially less than the EU average of 66%.=== Ultra-fast broadband goals ===The European Commission's \"Broadband in Lithuania\" report from September 2022 outlines Lithuania's plan, initiated in October 2021, to implement ultra-fast broadband.", "This plan aims to provide internet speeds of at least 100 Mbps (megabits per second) to households and public institutions in both urban and rural areas by 2027.Such speeds are suitable for various online activities.", "Aligned with the Lithuanian Information Society Development Programme and the Digital Agenda of the Republic of Lithuania, the initiative is designed for nationwide broadband infrastructure expansion.In terms of infrastructure, Lithuania has committed €75 million to construct communication towers and install fiber optic lines, striving for 95% of households to have access to these high-speed Internet services by 2025.Additionally, the Ministry of Transport and Communications is guiding the country's 5G advancements.", "Guidelines established in 2020 focus on rolling out next-generation mobile networks, including uninterrupted 5G services along major transport routes by 2025.===Censorship===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority.", "Individuals and groups generally engage in the free expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail, but authorities prosecute people for openly posting material on the Internet that authorities considered to be inciting hatred.The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice.", "An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combine to promote these freedoms.", "However, the constitutional definition of freedom of expression does not protect certain acts, such as incitement to national, racial, religious, or social hatred, violence and discrimination, or slander, and disinformation.", "It is a crime to deny or \"grossly trivialise\" Soviet or Nazi German crimes against Lithuania or its citizens, or to deny genocide, crimes against humanity, or war crimes.", "In the first 11 months of 2012 authorities initiated investigations into 259 allegations of incitement of hatred and six of incitement of discrimination, most of them over the Internet.", "Authorities forwarded 69 of those allegations to the courts for trial, closed 68, and suspended 113 for lack of evidence; the others remained under investigation.", "Most allegations of incitement of hatred involved racist or anti-Semitic expression, or hostility based on sexual orientation, gender identity, or nationality.It is a crime to disseminate information that is both untrue and damaging to an individual's honour and dignity.", "Libel is punishable by a fine or imprisonment of up to one year, or up to two years for libellous material disseminated through the mass media.", "While it is illegal to publish material \"detrimental to minors’ bodies\" or thought processes, information promoting the sexual abuse and harassment of minors, promoting sexual relations among minors, or \"sexual relations\", the law is not often invoked and there are no indications that it adversely affects freedom of the media.The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference in an individual's personal correspondence or private and family life, but there were reports that the government did not respect these prohibitions in practice.", "The law requires authorities to obtain judicial authorisation before searching an individual's premises and prohibits the indiscriminate monitoring by government or other parties of citizens’ correspondence or communications.", "However, domestic human rights groups allege that the government does not properly enforce the law.===Free wi-fi zones===*Vilnius- Cathedral Square, Gediminas Avenue, Vokiečių Street, Vilnius International Airport*Kaunas- Laisvė Avenue*Klaipėda- Theatre Square, The New Ferry*Šiauliai- Vilnius pedestrian boulevard*Panevėžys- Laisvė Square, Senvagė." ], [ "See also", "* Media of Lithuania* LITNET, an academic and research network in Lithuania* Ministry of Transport and Communications (Lithuania)* ''''''''''" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* .lt domain registrar, Kaunas University of Technology." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Lithuania" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in Lithuania''' relies mainly on road and rail networks." ], [ "Lithuanian road system", "E-roads in LithuaniaA1 motorway near Kaunas (98-101 km)''total:''''paved:''''unpaved:''=== Highways ====== Controlled-access highways sections ===There are two categories of controlled-access highways in Lithuania: expressways (Lithuanian: ''greitkeliai'') with maximum speed 120 km/h and motorways (Lithuanian: ''automagistralės'') with maximum speed 130 km/h.==== Motorway sections ====* A1 Kaunas – Klaipėda.", "Total length of the stretch: 195 km.", "The motorway ends for a short section near Sujainiai (Raseiniai district municipality) as the junction here is one-level and it is used by non-motorway vehicles.", "*A2 Vilnius – Panevėžys.", "Total length of the stretch: 114 km.", "*A5 Kaunas – Marijampolė.", "Total length of the stretch: 57 km.", "*A1 Kaunas – Vilnius.", "There length of the stretch: 55 km (Kaunas – Vievis) and 16 km (Vievis – Grigiškės).", "==== Expressway sections ====*A9 Radviliškis – Šiauliai.", "Total length of the stretch: 10 km.===A road system===The A roads (Lithuanian: ''magistraliniai keliai'') total .", "* A1 Vilnius – Kaunas – Klaipėda, .", "Most important east to west corridor in Lithuania.", "Connects three largest Lithuanian cities: Vilnius, Kaunas and Klaipėda.", "Most of the road has motorway status.", "* A2 Vilnius – Panevėžys, .", "The stretch between Vilnius and Šilagalis has motorway status.", "* A3 Vilnius – Medininkai Border Checkpoint, .", "Continues to Belarus and connects Vilnius with the Belarusian capital of Minsk.", "* A4 Vilnius – Raigardas Border Checkpoint, .", "Continues to Grodno, Belarus.", "* A5 Kaunas – border with Poland, .", "The stretch from Kaunas to Marijampolė has motorway status.", "Continues towards Suwałki in Poland.", "* A6 Kaunas – Daugavpils, .", "Continues towards Daugavpils in Latvia.", "* A7 Marijampolė – Kybartai Border Checkpoint, .", "An important transit route to Kaliningrad Oblast.", "* A8 Sitkūnai – Panevėžys, .", "* A9 Panevėžys – Šiauliai, .", "Short 10 km expressway section.", "* A10 Panevėžys – Bauska .", "Continues to Bauska in Latvia.", "Important transit route to Riga.", "* A11 Šiauliai – Palanga, * A12 border with Latvia – Panemunė Border Checkpoint, * A13 Klaipėda – Liepaja, * A14 Vilnius – Utena, * A15 Vilnius – Lida, * A16 Vilnius – Marijampolė, * A17 Panevėžys Bypass, .", "* A18 Šiauliai Bypass, * A19 Vilnius Southern Bypass, * A20 Ukmergė Northern Bypass, * A21 Panemunė Eastern Bypass, 4 km (2.5 mi)=== Major highway projects in Interwar Lithuania ===Before World War I, there were few isolated routes suitable for transit traffic e.g.", "present day A12 highway, connecting Riga with Kaliningrad, or present day A6 highway which was part of highway Warsaw–Saint Petersburg that ran through Kaunas.", "After Lithuania became an independent country in 1918, there was increased demand for new highways for inner needs.", "First long-distance highways built exclusively by the Lithuanian government were opened in the late 1930s.", "These are following:* Samogitian highway – old highway built in the 1930s, connecting Kaunas and Klaipėda.", "Road section between Kaunas and Ariogala is now completely refurbished to motorway, and the road section from Ariogala to Klaipėda is serving as alternative road for a parallelly-built A1 motorway and connects local towns such as Ariogala, Raseiniai and Rietavas.", "* Aukštaitian highway – old highway built in the 1930s.", "It connects Kaunas, Kėdainiai, Panevėžys and Biržai to Riga.", "After building an original route, new routes were built through the course of Soviet Union and after its dissolution.", "The road was gradually rerouted to avoid larger urban areas, and now runs from Sitkūnai, bypasses Kėdainiai, Panevėžys, Pasvalys, Biržai, and reaches Latvian border to Riga.", "Rerouted highway is now part of Via Baltica.=== Museum ===* Lithuanian Road Museum" ], [ "Railways", "LTG Link train in VilniusTrain station in Vilnius AirportThere is a total of 1,998 route km of railways, of which:*1,807 km are ''broad gauge'' of – 122 km of which are electrified*169 km are ''narrow gauge'' of – as of 2001*22 km are ''standard gauge'' of === Rail links with adjacent countries ===* Latvia – yes* Belarus – yes* Russia (Kaliningrad) – yes* Poland – yes – break-of-gauge /" ], [ "Waterways", "There are that are perennially navigable." ], [ "Pipelines", "In 1992, there were of crude oil pipelines, and of natural gas pipelines." ], [ "Ports and harbours", "Klaipėda port===Sea ports===* Port of Klaipėda* Būtingė oil terminal===River ports===* Kaunas* Rumšiškės* Nida* Juodkrantė" ], [ "Merchant marine", "The merchant marine consists of 47 ships of 1,000 GT or over, together totaling 279,743 GT/.", "'''Ships by type:''' Cargo 25, Combination bulk 8, Petroleum tanker 2, Railcar carrier 1, Refrigerated cargo 6, Roll on/roll off 2, Short-sea passenger 3.", "''Note:'' These totals include some foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: Denmark 13 (2002 est.)" ], [ "Airports", "In Lithuania, there are four international airports:* Vilnius International Airport* Kaunas Airport* Palanga International Airport* Šiauliai International Airport* '''Paved Runways''': 9 in total**''over 3,047 m'': 2**''1,524 to 2,437 m'': 4**''under 914 m'': 3* '''Unpaved runways''': 63 in total**''2,438 to 3,047 m'': 3**''914 to 1,523 m'': 5**''under 914 m'': 55" ], [ "See also", "* ''''''''''* ''''''''''" ], [ "External links", "* The public transport guide" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lithuanian Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Lithuanian Armed Forces''' () are the military of Lithuania.", "The Lithuanian Armed Forces consist of the Lithuanian Land Forces, the Lithuanian Naval Force, the Lithuanian Air Force and the Lithuanian Special Operations Force.", "In wartime, the Lithuanian State Border Guard Service (which is under the supervision of the Ministry of the Interior in peacetime) becomes part of the Lithuanian Armed Forces.", "A special security department handles VIP protection and communications security.The purpose of the Lithuanian Armed Forces are to be the principal deterrent against any security threat to the nation.", "Lithuania's defence system is based on the concept of \"total and unconditional defence\" mandated by Lithuania's ''National Security Strategy''.", "The goal of Lithuania's defence policy is to prepare their society for general defence and to integrate Lithuania into Western security and defence structures.", "The Ministry of National Defence is responsible for combat forces, search and rescue, and intelligence operations.Male conscription is in place since 2015, when it was reinstated after being ended in 2008, due to concerns about the geopolitical environment in light of the Russo-Ukrainian War.In early 2022, Lithuania's defence budget for 2022 was approximately €1.05 billion, but it was increased to €1.5 billion on 17 March 2022." ], [ "History", "=== Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army ===Grand Duke Kęstutis from 1379 depicting a grand ducal infantrymanThe Lithuanian military originates in the Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army, active from the 13th century to 1795.After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the Lithuanian Army remained equal to the Polish Crown army in the military of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the Third Partition in 1795.The Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army fought in many major battles, such as the Battle of Blue Waters (1362/63), Battle of Grunwald (1410), Battle of Orsha (1514) and Battle of Kircholm (1605).Similarly to other medieval European states, the army was raised by the nobility during the Late Middle Ages.", "By the 17th century, it was mostly outclassed by professional forces and a standing army was instituted.==== 13th century ====From the 12th century's end and into the 13th century, Lithuania frequently went to war against the western and southwestern Rus' states, Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia and Duchy of Masovia, and also devastated the lands along the Daugava and elsewhere.", "From the early 1200s, Lithuanians fought against the Swordbrothers, then from 1237 against the Livonian Order, and from the second half of the 13th century's against the State of the Teutonic Order.''''''", "Fighting on Lithuania's northern and western frontiers was unceasing, the Lithuanian state expanded southwards and eastwards in the Late Middle Ages.''''''", "The Lithuanian army was mobile, as it had to fight on many fronts: the State of the Teutonic Order to the west, the Livonian Order to the north, the Golden Horde and its vassal Muscovy to the east, and the Tatar khanates to the south.", "According to 13th-century sources, Lithuanian soldiers rode horses on military expeditions but fought on foot, arranged in three rows during battles.", "The best-armed and most experienced fought in the front, while the least experienced and lightly armed were in the last row.", "Furthermore, the Lithuanians were skilled at fighting using spears, especially on horseback.", "The earliest written mention of such tactics, from 1208, says that Lithuanians on horses threw spears at their enemies.Although the Germans initially had superior weaponry in the 13th century, the Lithuanians won the Battles of Saule (1236), Durbe (1260), Karuse (1270) and the Aizkraukle (1279).", "However they were less successful against enemy fortifications, especially brick castles.", "Eventually the front lines stabilised over time, and the one against the Livonian Order more or less followed the modern Latvia–Lithuania border, while the one against the Teutonic Order was close to the Nemunas.", "A castle system fortified the Lithuanian side of the border along the river.==== 14th century ====Over the 14th century, the Teutonic and Livonian orders organised raids into Lithuania.", "Lithuanians reciprocated by raiding their respective territories, but the Lithuanian raids were fewer in number.", "The Lithuanians won the Battle of Medininkai (1320), but lost the Battle of Strėva (1348).", "More and more, the Teutonic Order destroyed the Lithuanian castle system along the Nemunas and built their own castles near the Lithuanian ones.''''''", "As the German and Livonian orders were constantly reinforced by Christian European countries, it became increasingly difficult to defend Lithuania solely by military means.''''''", "A new generation of the Lithuanian Grand Dukes, Jogaila and Vytautas the Great, used not only military, but also diplomatic and political means, for example Lithuanian baptism in 1387, to protect Lithuania.Meanwhile on the other side of Lithuania, the Golden Horde's army was destroyed in the Battle of Blue Waters (1362-1363).", "In 1368, 1370, and 1372, the Lithuanian Grand Duke Algirdas led the Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army on military expeditions against Muscovy.", "However, the Battle of the Vorksla River (1399) was a decisive victory for the Golden Horde.File:Jan Matejko, Bitwa pod Grunwaldem.jpg|Battle of Grunwald (1410) was one of the largest in medieval Europe==== 15th century ====Finally, the German Teutonic Order was crushed in the Battle of Grunwald (1410) (known as Battle of Žalgiris in Lithuanian historiography), which was the largest Middle Age battle in Central and Eastern Europe.", "In this key battle, the Lithuanian Army was led by Vytautas the Great.", "Under him, the Lithuanian Army attacked the lands of the Republics of Pskov, in 1426, and Novgorod, in 1428.The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had internal civil wars in the first half of the 15th century.", "The Lithuania Army engaged in biological warfare already in 1422, when it catapulted manure made from infected victims into an opposing Bohemian town as part of the Hussite Wars.", "In 1435, Sigismund Kęstutaitis' army defeated the opposing army, which included troops of the Livonian Order, led by Švitrigaila in the Battle of Wiłkomierz.==== 16th century ====This century was marked by war of Lithuania against Muscovy and the Crimean Khanate, against whom they won the Battle of Kletsk in 1506.The strengthening Grand Duchy of Moscow starting in the late 15th century waged unceasing wars over Lithuania's eastern territories.", "In 1514, during the fourth war, the Lithuanians triumphed over the numerically larger Muscovite army in the famous Battle of Orsha.", "However, Lithuania lost a part of its eastern lands, most notably the strategically important fortress of Smolensk.", "The Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army fought against Muscovy in the Livonian War and won against the Muscovite army, twice its size in the Battle of Ula in 1564.Three years into the Livonian War, the Treaty of Vilnius.", "made Livonia part of Lithuania in 1561 with the Union of Lublin concluded in 1569.In the late 1570s and early 1580s, the Lithuanian and Polish armies cooperated in Stephen Báthory's incursions into Russia.File:Autor nieznany (malarz z kręgu Lukasa Cranacha Starszego), Bitwa pod Orszą.jpg|The victory of the Polish-Lithuanian forces over the Grand Duchy of Moscow at the Battle of Orsha in 1514File:Lithuanian_soldiers_during_the_Battle_of_Žalgiris_reconstruction_3.jpg|Modern reconstruction of the Lithuanian fighters from the 14-15th century==== 17th century ====The 17th century was marked by wars against Sweden, the Tsardom of Muscovy and the Ottoman Empire.", "The Lithuanian army and the Polish army fought against the Ottoman forces notably at both Battles of Khotyn in 1621 and 1673.During the war with Sweden from 1600 to 1629, the Lithuanian army defeated Swedish forces three times their number at the Battle of Kircholm in 1605.However, this war highlighted the Commonwealth's difficulty recruiting and retaining enough troops, better arming its soldiers with firearms and bettering their use.", "Sweden seized a significant part of Livonia as part of Swedish Livonia.", "In the first half of the 17th century, Smolensk returned to Lithuania following the Smolensk War.The Commonwealth's military weakness in the middle and late 17th century was evidenced in the Deluge.", "In 1655, the much-smaller Lithuanian army could not defend the Lithuanian capital of Vilnius against Muscovite attack.", "This was the first time that Vilnius was occupied by a foreign state.", "The Swedish and Muscovite armies occupied large parts of Lithuania.", "Nevertheless, Lithuania succeeded in holding out and liberated Vilnius, Kaunas, Samogitia and the eastern Voivodeships, except for Smolensk Voivodeship and other parts.", "Militarily speaking, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was weakening however.==== 18th century ====During the Great Northern War the Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army no longer defended the country and the Lithuanian magnates' private armies supported different sides.", "Throughout the 18th century, many confederations in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth sought different political goals.", "The Bar Confederation (1768–1772), which happened partly in Lithuania, attempted but failed to stem the increasing influence of Imperial Russia and the First partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth followed.", "In the face of the possible loss of independence, military reforms in the Four Years' Sejm (1788–1792) significantly expanded the Lithuanian army, which reached a strength of 17,500.Attempts to make the Commonwealth's armies equal those of neighbouring absolute monarchies were unsuccessful and the unsuccessful War of 1792 resulted in the Second Partition.The Polish and Lithuanian armies put up a spirited fight against the Imperial Russian Army and the Prussian Army in the Kościuszko Uprising.", "In addition to regular forces, many ''ad hoc'' units such as the Vilnian National Guard also fought, as well as many irregular units.", "In the end, the Uprising was defeated and much of the remainder of the Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army was lost in the Battle of Praga on 4 November 1794.With the uprising defeated, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland ended with the Third Partition, and their respective armies being disbanded.===Interwar and post-war periods===After Lithuania's restoration on 16 February 1918, the country immediately began creating an army.", "The Ministry of Defence's first order, issued on 23 November 1918, is considered to maek the establishment of the modern Lithuanian Armed Forces.", "The newly-formed army almost immediately fought three wars of independence.", "Having won the Lithuanian–Soviet War and the war against the Bermontians, Lithuania lost large chunks of territory, including its capital Vilnius in the Polish–Lithuanian War.", "Armoured equipment in the interwar period,primarily consisted of light tanks and armored cars: French Renault FT-17s, British Vickers Carden-Loyd M1936s, Swedish Landsverk-181, and German Ehrhardt E-V/4.In 1935, the country opened an advanced military research laboratory, specialising in chemical materials for ammunition as well as defence against chemical warfare.", "The construction of the laboratory was supervised by Juozas Vėbra.", "In 1940, Lithuania had a considerable Air Force, consisting of 118 aircraft with about half of them designed and produced locally.", "During the World War II, Lithuania was invaded by both Nazis and Soviets, which eventually concluded in Soviet occupation.", "The Lithuanian Armed Forces transformed into the Lithuanian People's Army in 1940 under the People's Government of Lithuania.", "Despite Soviet deportations from Lithuania, armed Lithuanian resistance lasted until the 1950s.File:Tankai_Renault-FT-17.jpg|Lithuanian Renault FT-17 tanks in 1924File:Lietuvos kariuomene 1938.Army of Lithuania in1938.jpg|Lithuanian Army in 1938File:ANBO-III 05.jpg|Lithuanian design ANBO III aircraft from 1930s===Restoration and NATO===American soldiers during the Operation Atlantic Resolve in 2014Following the restoration of independence, the defence forces were formally reestablished on 25 April 1990 with the creation of the Department of National Defence.", "After the January Events, the Voluntary National Defence Service was formed of lightly armed volunteers.", "The Lithuanian Armed Forces were officially restored on 19 November 1992.Western European countries, especially Sweden, helped to arm the initial force by selling or donating excess equipment.", "Lithuania began the modernisation of its military, becoming the first European country to acquire the US-made FGM-148 Javelin systems in 2001 and the FIM-92 Stinger systems in 2002.Lithuania applied for NATO membership in 1994 and eventually joined the alliance in 2004.It has modernised its armed forces and participated in various international missions including the NATO-led mission in Afghanistan.Conscription ended in September 2008, but was reintroduced in 2015 because of concerns about the geopolitical environment given the Russia's military intervention in Ukraine." ], [ "Organization", "Structure of the Lithuanian Armed Forces, 2023 (click to enlarge)The President of Lithuania is the commander-in-chief of the Lithuanian Armed Forces according to the Constitution of Lithuania.", "Ministry of National Defence is directly responsible for the organisation of the defence system.", "Chief of Defence () is subordinate to the Minister of National Defence.", "Defence Staff () of the Armed Forces is responsible for the preparation of defence and mobilisation plans.The Lithuanian Armed Forces consist of the Lithuanian Land Force, Lithuanian Air Force, Lithuanian Naval Force, Lithuanian Special Operations Force and other units: Logistics Command, Training and Doctrine Command, Headquarters Battalion, Military Police.", "Directly subordinated to the Chief of Defence are the Special Operations Force and Military Police.", "The Reserve Forces are under command of the Lithuanian National Defence Volunteer Forces.Lithuanian Riflemen's Union is a paramilitary organization that cooperates with the Armed Forces, but it is not part of them.", "However, during the state of war, its armed formations fall under the command of the Armed Forces.", "The same applies to the State Border Guard Service and the Public Security Service.===Lithuanian Land Force===Lithuanian soldiers during an exercise.The core of the Lithuanian Land Force structure is the Mechanised Infantry Brigade Iron Wolf (MIB \"Iron Wolf\") consisting of four mechanized infantry battalions and an artillery battalion, supported by the ''Žemaitija'' Motorized infantry Brigade, which has three battalions and one artillery battalion as well.", "The third, ''Aukštaitija'' Light Infantry Brigade, is a reserve formation with active training.", "Its command, signal and logistic units are manned by professional soldiers.", "The Volunteer Forces form another brigade-size force, consisting of six territorial units.", "Other auxiliary units include ''Juozas Vitkus Engineer Battalion'' and ''Juozas Lukša Land Force Training Center''.The Lithuanian Land forces use equipment compatible with NATO standards.", "Since 2007, the standard assault rifle is the German Heckler & Koch G36.Units are supplied with modern variants of anti-tank weapons (M72 LAW, Carl Gustaf, AT4, FGM-148 Javelin) as well as man-portable air-defense systems (PZR Grom, RBS-70, FIM-92 Stinger).", "Modern armoured equipment includes: Oshkosh L-ATV armoured cars, Boxer infantry fighting vehicles (local designation IVF \"Vilkas\") armed with Spike-LR anti-tank missiles and PzH 2000 self-propelled howitzers.", "Lithuanian Land forces have carried out major modernization and acquired more new weapons and heavier armour.Lithuania has been restructuring its armed forces so that one-tenth of the Land Forces could at any given time be deployed for international operations, while half of the Land Forces would be prepared to deploy outside Lithuania's borders.", "The volunteers have already successfully participated in international operations in the Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq.In May 2023, the State Defence Council approved the plan to form an army division, based on the three army brigades.", "The division-sized unit would have enhanced capabilities, including new tank, reconnaissance, engineering and artillery battalions.===Lithuanian Air Force===Lithuanian Air Force helicopterThe Lithuanian Air Force (LAF) is an integral part of the Lithuanian Armed Forces.", "The LAF is formed by professional military servicemen and non-military personnel.", "Units are located at various bases across Lithuania:*Kaunas (Headquarters and the Airspace Surveillance and Control Command);*Karmėlava (Air Space Control Centre);*Nemirseta (providing basing for sea search and rescue detachment);*Šiauliai (Zokniai Air Base, Air Force Armament and Equipment Repair Depot);*Radviliškis (Air Defence Battalion).The initial formation of the LAF was the 2nd transport squadron with the transfer of 20 An-2 aircraft from civilian to military use, with initial basing at the Barysiai Airport on 27 April 1992.These were joined by four L-39C Albatros aircraft to be used by the 1st fighter (training) squadron.", "These were in addition to Mil Mi-8 helicopters and a short-range transport aircraft L-410, all of which went through a capital overhaul, upgrade and modernisation in the 2000s.Following the initial acquisitions, the LAF began its aircraft's modernisation by ordering three C-27J Spartan transporters in 2006.In 2013, three Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin helicopters were acquired from France and, in 2020, Lithuania announced an order or four Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters from the USA.", "Simultaneously, new medium-range and long-range radars were acquired for the Airspace Surveillance and Control Command.Air space is patrolled by jet fighters from other NATO members and they are based in Zokniai Air Base, near the city of Šiauliai (see Baltic Air Policing).", "The external border of the European Union (with Kaliningrad and Belarus) is patrolled by the Aviation Unit of the Lithuanian State Border Guard Service which, since the 2000s, uses helicopters EC-120, EC-135 and EC-145.===Lithuanian Navy===Lithuanian Naval Force ''Flyvefisken''-class ship ''Dzukas''The Navy has over 600 personnel.", "The Navy consists of the Warship Flotilla, the Sea Coastal Surveillance System, the Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Divers Team, the Naval Logistic Service, Training Center and Maritime Rescue Coordination Center.", "The flotilla is the core component of the Navy and consists of the Mine Countermeasures Squadron, the Patrol Ships Squadron, and the Harbour Boats Group.", "The current Commander in Chief of the Lithuanian Navy is Rear Admiral Kęstutis Macijauskas.", "The Naval base and Headquarters are located in the city of Klaipėda.", "The Navy uses patrol ships for coastal surveillance.The four newly acquired s replaced the older s and s.===Special Operations Force===Lithuanian Special Forces squadron ''Aitvaras'' deployed in Afghanistan.The Lithuanian Special Operations Force of Lithuanian Armed Forces has been in operation ''de facto'' since 2002 and it was established ''de jure'' on 3 April 2008, when amendments of National Defence System organisation and military service law came into force.", "The Special Operations Force is formed from the Special Operations Unit.The Special Operations Force is responsible for special reconnaissance, direct actions, and military support.", "It is also in charge of other tasks, e.g., protection of VIPs in peacetime.", "Its core is based on the Special Purpose Service, Vytautas the Great Jaeger Battalion and Combat Divers Service.", "Lithuanian Air Force Special Operations Element is subordinate to the Unit at the level of operations management.", "Its structure is flexible which makes it easy to form squadrons intended for concrete operations and missions from its elements.", "The Special Operations Force can be called upon inside the territory of Lithuania when law enforcement agencies lack or do not have the necessary capabilities to react to terrorist attacks.", "The capabilities of special forces make them the main national response force responsible for counter-terrorism operations and operations to prevent violations of sovereignty.The Special Operations Force Squadron \"Aitvaras\" was deployed to Afghanistan on the Operation Enduring Freedom.", "From 2005 to 2006 its squadrons were on standby in NATO Response Force." ], [ "International cooperation", "Lithuanian soldier in Afghanistan, 2012Lithuanian Bandvagn 206 helping an Afghan National Police vehicle in the snowLithuania has been a member of NATO military alliance since 2004.In the European Union, Lithuanian Armed Forces have also taken part in the Nordic Battle Group since 2008.Lithuanian Armed Forces also participate in the Joint Expeditionary Force formed in 2014.In 2009, to encourage regional cooperation, Lithuania joined the initiative to form the Lithuanian–Polish–Ukrainian Brigade.===NATO membership===Lithuanian Air Force L-39ZA with two Royal Netherlands Air Force F-16AM Fighting FalconSoon after the restoration of independence, Lithuania applied for NATO membership in January 1994.Together with another six Central and Eastern European countries, Lithuania was invited to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in the 2002 Prague summit and became a member of the Alliance in March 2004.Lithuania entered NATO on full-fledged rights immediately after the procedures of joining the North Atlantic Treaty were completed and acquired rights to participate in the political decision-making process of the Alliance.", "Integration into the military structures of NATO became a long-term task of the Lithuanian Armed Forces.", "Mechanised Infantry Brigade \"Iron Wolf\" was affiliated to the Danish Division based on agreements signed by Denmark and Lithuania in August 2006.Lithuanian Armed Forces started to boost the Brigade's ability to cooperate with the forces of other NATO members.Baltic Air Policing was established by NATO allies since Lithuania and the other Baltic states do not have capabilities to secure their airspace.", "Fighter jets of NATO members are permanently deployed in Zokniai airport near the city Šiauliai to provide cover for the Baltic states airspace.", "In 2013, NATO Energy Security Centre of Excellence was established in Vilnius.Following the 2016 Warsaw summit, NATO Enhanced Forward Presence was deployed in the Baltic States with the multinational battalion battle group in Lithuania being led by Germany.===Cooperation between the Baltic States===Lithuanian soldiers with their NATO allies during Iron Sword 2014.Lithuania also cooperates with the two other Baltic states – Latvia and Estonia in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives:* Baltic Battalion ''(BALTBAT)'' – infantry battalion for participation in international peace support operations, headquartered near Riga, Latvia;* Baltic Naval Squadron ''(BALTRON)'' – naval force with mine countermeasures capabilities, headquartered near Tallinn, Estonia;* Baltic Air Surveillance Network ''(BALTNET)'' – air surveillance information system, headquartered near Kaunas, Lithuania;* Joint military educational institutions: Baltic Defence College ''(BALTDEFCOL)'' in Tartu, Estonia, Baltic Diving Training Centre in Liepāja, Latvia and Baltic Naval Communications Training Centre in Tallinn, Estonia.In January 2011, the Baltic states were invited to join Nordic Defence Cooperation, the defence framework of the Nordic countries.", "In November 2012, the three countries agreed to create a joint military staff in 2013.Future co-operation will include sharing of national infrastructures for training purposes and specialisation of training areas ''(BALTTRAIN)'' and collective formation of battalion-sized contingents for use in the NATO rapid-response force.===Foreign missions and operations===Lithuanian soldiers have taken part in international operations since 1993.From the summer of 2005 until 2014, Lithuania has been part of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan (ISAF), leading a Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) in the town of Chaghcharan in the province of Ghor.", "The PRT included personnel from Denmark, Iceland and the US.", "There have also been special operation forces units in Afghanistan.", "They were placed in Kandahar province.Since joining international operations in 1993, Lithuania has lost two soldiers.", "1st Lt. Normundas Valteris fell in Bosnia (17 April 1996), Sgt.", "Arūnas Jarmalavičius in Afghanistan (22 May 2008).===Current operations (in 2022)=== Deployment Organization Operation PersonnelCentral African RepublicEUEUTM RCA2IraqNATONATO Mission Iraq2MaliEUEUTM Mali2MaliUNMINUSMA45KosovoNATOKFOR1UkraineJMTG-U30" ], [ "List of military equipment", "File:G36KA4M1_in_the_Lithuanian_army_(with_attachments).jpg|Heckler & Koch G36File:FGM-148 Javelin in Lithuanian service.jpg|FGM-148 JavelinFile:IFV Vilkas sideview.jpg|IFV VilkasFile:JLTV in Lithuanian service.jpg|JLTVFile:Lithuanian PzH 2000 unit during exercises.jpg|PzH 2000File:NASAMS 3 in Lithuanian service.jpg|NASAMS 3File:Eurocopter AS365+( kf 8984).jpg|Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin" ], [ "Ranks" ], [ "See also", "* Equipment of the Lithuanian Land Force* Baltic Air Policing* NATO Enhanced Forward Presence* ''''''''''" ], [ "Notes", "'''a.'''", "The 23,000 is structured like this: 14,500 in the Army, 1,500 in the Air Force, 700 in the Navy, and 6,300 in other units.", "The other units includes the Logistics Support Command (1,400), Training and Doctrine Command (1,500), the Special Operations Force (unknown) as well as the battalions of HQ and Military Police (2,600).'''b.'''", "The paramilitary includes 10,600 of the Riflemen's Union and 3,550 of the State Border Guard Service.'''c.'''", "The number of 1.05 billion is without including military pensions.", "When the military pensions are included, the military budget reaches 1.12 billion." ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* The Military Strategy of the Republic of Lithuania* Stefan Marx, 'Lithuania's Defence Structure,' Jane's Intelligence Review, September 1993, p. 407–409" ], [ "External links", "* * Official Ministry of National Defence Republic of Lithuania website* Official Joint Headquarters of Lithuanian Armed Forces website* Official YouTube channel of Lithuanian Armed Forces* Official NATO Energy Security Center of Excellence website* Official General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Lithuania" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lithuania''' is a Northern country on the south-eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, a member of the United Nations Organisation, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, the World Trade Organisation.", "Currently, Lithuania maintains diplomatic relations with 186 states Lithuania became a member of the United Nations on 18 September 1991, and is a signatory to a number of its organizations and other international agreements.", "It is also a member of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, NATO and its adjunct North Atlantic Coordinating Council, the Council of Europe, and the European Union.", "Lithuania gained membership in the World Trade Organization on 31 May 2001." ], [ "Lithuania's membership in the EU", "framelessOn 1 May 2004, Lithuania became one of the 27 member states of the European Union.", "The EU activities affect different spheres of politics, from consumer rights to national defence matters.", "In the second half of 2013, Lithuania took presidency over the EU Council.", "Membership in the Union has strengthened the domestic economy, giving it access to the wide pan-European market.", "Foreign direct investments in Lithuania are growing.", "The country is poised to become energy-independent.", "The accession to the Schengen space in 2007 has opened up possibilities for the free movement of both citizens and goods across 25 European states.", "Lithuania's citizens enjoy equal social guarantees while working, travelling, or studying at the Community's countries.", "The country now benefits from additional EU fund and programme funding in the field of education and science.", "As an EU citizen, every citizen of Lithuania has the guarantee of consular assistance of EU representative offices in countries where Lithuania has none." ], [ "Lithuania's membership in NATO", "150x150pxOn 29 March 2004, Lithuania became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation It is a defensive union based on political and military cooperation of sovereign states.", "Its members are committed to protecting freedom, guarding shared heritage and civilisation under the principles of democracy, individual freedom, and superiority of law.", "According to Article 5 of the agreement, all NATO states are obliged to defend one another.", "Lithuania entered into cooperation with NATO in 1991.Five years later, Lithuania launched its mission to the organisation, and in late 2002, Lithuania and six other states was invited to start negotiations over membership in the Alliance.", "Today Lithuania sees NATO as the key and most effective collective defence system, one that ensures the security of the state and stands to defer potential aggression, and employs every measure available to strengthen trans-Atlantic relations to contribute to the strengthening of the EU-U.S. relations." ], [ "Lithuania as a part of the Northern Europe region", "Lithuania is also an active member in the cooperation between Northern Europe countries.", "Lithuania is a member of the interparliamentary Baltic Assembly, the intergovernmental Baltic Council of Ministers and the Council of the Baltic Sea States.Lithuania also cooperates with Nordic and other two Baltic countries through Nordic-Baltic Eight cooperation format.", "The similar format, called NB6 unites Nordic and Baltic countries members of EU.", "The main goal of NB6 cooperation is to discuss and agree on positions before presenting them in the Council of the European Union and the meetings of the EU Foreign Affairs Ministers.The Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) was established in 1992 in Copenhagen as an informal regional political forum, which main aim is to promote integration process and to affiliate close contacts between the countries of the region.", "The members of CBSS are Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden and European Commission.", "The observer states are Belarus, France, Italy, Netherlands, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, United States, United Kingdom, Ukraine.The cooperation between the Nordic Council of Ministers and Lithuania is a political cooperation through which experience exchange contributes to realization of joint goals.", "One of its most important functions is to discover new trends and new possibilities for joint cooperation.", "The information office aims to represent Nordic concepts and demonstrate Nordic cooperation in Lithuania.Lithuania, together with other two Baltic countries, is also a member of Nordic Investment Bank (NIB) and cooperates in NORDPLUS programme committed to education.Baltic Development Forum (BDF) is an independent nonprofit organization which unites large companies, cities, business associations and institutions in the Baltic Sea region.", "In 2010 the 12th Summit of the BDF was held in Vilnius." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Lithuania maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate124 August 1991226 August 1991327 August 1991428 August 1991528 August 1991628 August 1991729 August 1991829 August 1991930 August 1991102 September 1991112 September 1991122 September 1991133 September 1991144 September 1991155 September 1991165 September 1991175 September 1991186 September 1991199 September 1991209 September 19912110 September 19912213 September 19912314 September 19912418 September 19912525 September 19912625 September 1991–30 September 1991274 October 1991285 October 1991295 October 1991307 October 1991319 October 19913210 October 19913314 October 1991345 November 1991355 November 1991366 November 19913720 November 19913821 November 19913922 November 1991403 December 1991415 December 19914211 December 19914312 December 19914415 December 1991457 January 1992468 January 19924710 January 19924822 January 19924910 February 19925018 March 19925118 March 19925227 April 19925327 April 19925427 April 1992554 May 1992567 May 19925717 May 19925822 May 19925928 May 19926012 June 19926118 June 19926230 June 1992632 July 1992643 July 1992658 July 1992–9 July 19926610 July 19926721 July 1992685 August 19926913 August 19927022 September 19927116 October 19927220 October 1992736 November 19927412 November 19927519 November 19927625 November 1992773 December 19927830 December 1992793 March 1993808 March 19938118 March 1993829 April 19938317 May 19938425 May 1993851 July 19938615 July 1993875 August 19938810 October 1993894 November 19939011 November 19939114 December 19939212 January 1994937 February 1994943 March 1994959 March 19949623 March 19949730 March 1994985 April 19949915 April 199410031 May 19941015 July 199410210 August 19941031 September 199410416 September 19941052 May 19951063 July 199510711 July 199510820 October 199510920 November 199511021 November 199511120 August 199611213 May 19971139 June 199711428 July 199711521 October 199711629 August 199811723 September 199811819 October 19981199 June 199912020 September 199912115 October 19991222 December 199912317 February 200012420 July 200012522 December 200012617 January 200112727 March 200112827 April 200112913 July 20011304 June 20021316 March 20031328 July 200313317 February 200413423 September 200413530 December 200413626 January 20051378 February 200513830 March 200513931 March 200514011 August 20051412 September 200514231 October 20051435 December 200514422 December 200514519 January 200614618 July 20061475 February 200714811 June 2008–1 September 200814919 February 200915016 March 200915119 March 20091524 May 201015312 April 201115428 June 201115518 November 201115625 January 201215715 March 201215820 September 201215926 September 201216026 September 201216126 March 201316227 March 201316325 September 201316426 September 201316526 September 201316626 September 201316727 September 20131687 October 20131698 October 201317016 October 20131714 November 201317215 January 201417324 January 201417415 April 201417523 April 201417630 May 201417722 September 201417828 September 201517921 June 201718019 September 201718130 September 20171827 June 201818325 September 201818424 September 20191851 April 202118621 September 2021}" ], [ "Multilateral", " Organization Formal Relations BeganNotesSee 2004 enlargement of the European Union Lithuania joined the European Union as a full member on 1 May 2004.Lithuania joined NATO as a full member on 29 March 2004.}" ], [ "Africa", " Country Formal relations (re)establishedNotes See Algeria–Lithuania relations 17 February 2000 See Gambia–Lithuania relations Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 February 2000.11 June 2008 See Libya–Lithuania relations See Lithuania–South Africa relations See Lithuania–Tunisia relations" ], [ "America", " Country Formal relations (re)establishedNotes 23 September 2004 Both countries established diplomatic relations on September 23, 2004.1991 * Argentina is accredited to Lithuania from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland.", "* Lithuania is accredited to Argentina from its embassy in Madrid, Spain and maintains honorary consulates in Buenos Aires and in Santa Fe.", "1991 See Brazil–Lithuania relations* Brazil is accredited to Lithuania from its embassy in Copenhagen, Denmark and maintains an honorary consulate in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania maintains a consulate-general in São Paulo.", "2 September 1991 See Canada–Lithuania relations* Canada has an embassy office in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Ottawa.", "5 November 1991 See Lithuania–Mexico relationsLithuania and Mexico initially established diplomatic relations on 31 May 1938 and signed a Treaty of Friendship in Washington, D.C., United States.", "Mexico never recognized the annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union and condemned the action.", "On 5 November 1991, Mexico recognized and re-established diplomatic relations with Lithuania.", "In 2002, President Valdas Adamkus paid a visit to Mexico and met with Mexican President Vicente Fox.", "In 2008, President Adamkus returned to Mexico for a visit and met with Mexican President Felipe Calderón.", "* Lithuania is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States and maintains an honorary consulate in Mexico City.", "* Mexico is accredited to Lithuania from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden and maintains an honorary consulate in Vilnius.", "28 July 1992 See Lithuania–United States relationsJoe Biden and Gitanas Nausėda during 2023 Vilnius SummitValdas Adamkus and George W. Bush in Vilnius in 2002.Lithuania and the United States first entered into diplomatic relations on 28 July 1992, thanks to enormous efforts from governmental officials of Lithuania and members of the Lithuanian community in the U.S. During the entire period when Lithuania was occupied, the U.S. pursued a policy of non-recognition of the occupation.", "After independence was restored, on 6 September 1991 the two countries resumed their cross-border relations.", "U.S. governmental and non-governmental organisations have lent a lot of assistance to strengthen the public and governmental institutions and market economy of the fledgling democracy.", "On 2 October 1992, the U.S. embassy was launched in Vilnius.", "On 22 November 2002, U.S. President George W. Bush paid the first official visit to Lithuania.", "On 8 May 2003, the United States Senate cast a unanimous vote ratifying NATO membership protocols and opening up a door to NATO for Lithuania.", "Currently, there are 29 bilateral agreements regulating the relationship between Lithuania and the U.S. in various field.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and consulates-general in Chicago, Los Angeles and New York.", "* United States has an embassy in Vilnius." ], [ "Asia", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes21 November 1991* Armenia is represented in Lithuania through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland).", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Yerevan.", "* There are around 2,500 people of Armenian descent living in Lithuania.", "* Lithuania has recognized the Armenian genocide in 2005.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Armenia (in Lithuanian only) 1995-11-27* Azerbaijan recognized the independence of Lithuania on 10 September 1991.", "* Lithuania recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 20 December 1991.", "* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Baku.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Cooperation with Azerbaijan * Foreign Minister of Lithuania to pay official visit to AzerbaijanSee China-Lithuania relationsThe Republic of China established diplomatic relations in 1921.China has an embassy in Vilnius.", "Lithuania has an embassy in Beijing.", "In 1992, the embassy of China was established in Vilnius and in 1995, the embassy of Lithuania was established in Beijing.16 September 1994See Georgia–Lithuania relations1992-04-27See India–Lithuania relations*India has an honorary consulate in Vilnius.", "*Lithuania has an embassy in New Delhi and an Honorary Consulate in Mumbai, India.", "See Iran–Lithuania relationsSee Israel–Lithuania relationsIsrael recognized Lithuania's independence in 1992.Both countries established diplomatic relation in 1992.Israel is represented in Lithuania through its embassy in Vilnius (previously through its embassy in Riga, Latvia).", "Lithuania has an embassy in Tel Aviv and 2 honorary consulates (in Herzliya and Ramat Gan).1991 09 06See Japan–Lithuania relationsRelations between Lithuania and Japan started on 22 December 1922, when Lithuania was recognized by Japan de jure.", "In 1939 the Consulate of Japan, headed by vice-consul Chiune Sugihara, was opened in Kaunas.", "It was closed in 1940 when Lithuania was annexed by the Soviet Union.On 6 September 1991, Japan recognized the independence of the Republic of Lithuania from the Soviet Union and on 10 October, Diplomatic relations were restored.In 1997, Embassy of Japan was established in Lithuania, in 1998, Embassy of Lithuania was established in Japan.In 2006 May, Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs Taro Aso visited Lithuania, and Kirkilas, the Prime Minister of Lithuania, visited Japan just three months later.", "Bilateral relations were strengthen by the official state visit of Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko in 2007 May.", "1992-06-12* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Nur-Sultan and an honorary consulate in Almaty.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Kazakhstan (in Lithuanian only) *Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 July 1992.", "*Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.See Lithuania–Malaysia relationsLithuania has an honorary consulate in Kuala Lumpur, while Malaysia embassy in Stockholm were also accredited to Lithuania.1991-10-14* The establishment of diplomatic relations between the South Korea and Lithuania began in October 1991.", "* Bilateral Trade in 2014** Exports US$216,000,000** Imports US$50,000,000* Bilateral Trade in 2014** South Korea's Investment in Lithuania US$3,340,000** Lithuania's Investment in South Korea US$145,000* According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade there are as few as 41 South Koreans living in Lithuania.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Cooperation with South Korea * South Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Lithuania (in Korean only)1992*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 August 1992.", "*Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "See Lithuania–Turkey relations* Lithuania has an embassy in Ankara.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "* Lithuania is an EU member and Turkey is an EU candidate.", "Lithuania supports Turkey's accession negotiations to the EU, although negotiations have now been suspended.", "See Lithuania–Vietnam relations" ], [ "Europe", " Country Formal relations (re)establishedNotes28 August 1991* Austria is accredited to Lithuania from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Vienna and maintains an honorary consulate in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Vienna.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Austria (in Lithuanian only) 30 December 1992See Belarus–Lithuania relationsLithuania entered into an international relationship with Belarus in 1991, when, on 20 December, the Supreme Council of Lithuania recognised the independence of the Republic of Belarus, with Belarus recognising the independence of Lithuania a week later, on 27 December.", "On 30 December 1992, an agreement to enter into diplomatic relations was made in Minsk.", "In 1995, the presidents of the two countries, Algirdas Brazauskas and Alexander Lukashenko signed an agreement on Good Neighbourhood and Cooperation.", "Top-ranking governmental officials have exchanged visits.", "Since 2007, the heads of the governments of the two states have been meeting on regular basis.", "Belarus is an important economic partner to Lithuania, yet Lithuania supports the stance of the EU and other international organisations on this state.", "Recently, the nuclear power plant under construction in Astravyets, Belarus, which is considered by Lithuania unsafe, has been escalating tensions.", "On top of that, Belarus's growing energy, economic, and military dependence on Russia is forcing Lithuania to exercise caution in measuring the political decisions of the country.", "Currently, there are 27 bilateral agreements regulating the relationship between Lithuania and Belarus in different areas.", "* Belarus has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Minsk and a general consulate in Hrodna.", "* Both countries share 680 km of common border.10 September 1991See Bulgaria–Lithuania relations* Bulgaria has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Sofia.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Bulgaria (in Lithuanian only) * Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.18 March 1992See Croatia–Lithuania relations26 September 1991See Denmark–Lithuania relationsAfter Lithuania regained its independence in 1990, Denmark's government approved of and lent its assistance to the establishment of the Baltic Information Bureau in Copenhagen in the fall of 1990, to become the first Baltic institution of the kind in Western Europe.", "On 28 February 1991, the Danish and the Lithuanian foreign ministers inked a mutual protocol, undertaking to reconstruct diplomatic relations whenever possible.", "The Lithuanian–Denmark diplomatic relations were restored on 26 September 1991.On the initiative of Uffe Ellemann-Jensen, then the Danish foreign minister, an active policy on the Baltics was established and followed until our country joined NATO and the EU.", "Denmark's tremendous assistance to Lithuania was instrumental to the achievement of our NATO and EU ambitions and the huge inflow of Danish investments in Lithuania.", "Today, the two countries are cooperating very closely in the fields of defence and economy.16 June 1991See Estonia–Lithuania relations28 August 1991Finland recognised Lithuania's independence on 28 August 1991, and the two countries started diplomatic relations the very same day.", "Finland is a key partner and neighbour to Lithuania, with the countries pursuing active cooperation in the fields of economy, energy, regional, information security, to name a few.", "Currently, there are 11 bilateral agreements regulating the relationship between Lithuania and Finland different fields.29 August 1991The first contacts between Lithuania and France were established back in the fall of 1918, and the 1919 Versailles peace conference featured a Lithuanian delegation under Oskaras Milašius.", "France pronounced ''de jure'' recognition of Lithuania on 20 December 1922, becoming a key political partner to the state of Lithuania of the period.", "During the times of Soviet occupation, Lithuania did not have an official mission to France, even though individual persons were allowed to act in an emissary capacity.", "The diplomatic relations were resumed on 29 August 1991.27 August 1991See Germany–Lithuania relationsGermany was the first state to ''de jure'' recognise Lithuania's statehood on 23 March 1918.Even though Lithuania had been trying to build close ties with this country before the Second World War, on 23 March 1939 Germany made an ultimatum and took over the region of Klaipėda.", "With the Second World War raging on, in summer 1941, Germany pushed the invading Soviet regime out of Lithuania and occupied the country until early 1945.During the period, in 1942, Germany established a self-government reporting to the German authorities.", "In the wake of the failed coup and the factual collapse of the Soviet Union in August 1991, on 27 August 1991, the Federal Republic of Germany recognised the independence of the Republic of Lithuania and entered into diplomatic relation s with the country on 28 August.", "On 28 November 1991, Germany supported Lithuania's membership in the EU and NATO.", "On the basis of the decisions made at the 2016 NATO Summit in Warsaw, as of February 2017, Lithuania hosts a NATO enhanced forward presence battlegroup under German command.", "Currently, there are 21 bilateral agreements regulating the historically finest relationship between Lithuania and Germany.7 February 1992See Greece–Lithuania relations30 September 1991The first Pope to ''de jure'' recognise Lithuania in 1922 was Pius XI, with Kazys Bizauskas dispatched to represent Lithuania in the Vatican.", "In 1926, Kaunas ecclesiastical province was established, and a concord with the Holy See was signed in 1927.The latter had never recognised Lithuania's incorporation into the Soviet Union.", "Lithuania had its embassies to the Holy See in Rome.", "Full-fledged diplomatic relations were resumed on 30 September 1991 with a bilateral declaration signed in Vilnius.", "On 11 July 1992, Kazys Lozoraitis became Lithuania's first ambassador to the Holy See.", "Currently, there are 4 bilateral agreements regulating the relationship between Lithuania and the Holy See in different fields.26 August 1991See Iceland–Lithuania relations* Iceland was the first country which recognised Lithuania's Independence from the Soviet Union on 11 January 1991.16 July 2008See Kosovo–Lithuania relations* Lithuania recognized Kosovo on 6 May 2008.Diplomatic relations commenced on 16 July 2008.12 February 1921See Latvia–Lithuania relationsLithuanian Speaker Viktoras Pranckietis and Latvian Prime Minister Māri Kučinski in 2016.The diplomatic relations between Lithuania and Latvia date back to 1919.On 12 February 1921, Latvia ''de jure'' recognised Lithuania.", "Throughout the entire period of independence of the two states between the two world wars, efforts were being made to strengthen cross-border and international cooperation by establishing new unions and partnerships.", "This did not produce any significant results.", "After the two countries restored their statehood, their diplomatic relations were resumed on 5 October 1991, when an agreement on the reconstruction of the state border, promotion and protection of investments, air service, and other matters, was made.", "Today, Latvia ranks second on the list of Lithuania's export partners, and fourth in terms of imports.", "Currently, the relations between Lithuania and Latvia in different fields are regulated by 23 bilateral agreements.", "and 22 tripartite agreements, which involve Estonia7 February 1994* Malta is represented in Lithuania through a non-resident ambassador based in Valletta (in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) * and an honorary consulate in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and an honorary consulate in Valletta.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Malta (in Lithuanian only) 8 July 1992*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 July 1992.", "*Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.27 April 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 April 1992.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in The Hague.", "* The Netherlands has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.27 August 1991Norway recognised Lithuania's independence on 24 August 1991.On 27 August, the countries entered into diplomatic relations.", "Norway is a key partner in the areas of economy, energy security, and defence.", "Currently, there are 12 bilateral agreements regulating the relationship between Lithuania and Norway in different areas.26 August 1991See Lithuania–Poland relationsAleksander Kwasniewski and Valdas AdamkusLithuania and Poland have a long history of mutual relations: from a common state to the period when all diplomatic ties were cut.", "Currently, the Lithuania-Poland relations are excellent.", "Poland recognised Lithuania's independence on 26 August 1991, and the two countries entered into a diplomatic relationship on 5 August 1991.To promote cross-border relations, an agreement on friendly relations and good neighbourly cooperation between the Republic of Lithuania and the Republic of Poland was signed on 26 April 1994.The agreement regulates the underlying principles that support the cooperation between the countries, waiving any territorial claims, and defines the rights of ethnic minorities.", "In February 1995, the first official visit of the Lithuania's president to Warsaw took place.", "To ensure a more efficient cooperation between the countries and to facilitate the implementation of bilateral projects, in 1997, three joint institutions – the Advisory Committee of the presidents of Lithuania and Poland, the Lithuanian-Polish Interparliamentary Assembly, and the Lithuanian-Polish Council of Intergovernmental cooperation – were founded.", "Bilateral cooperation became very close and intensive with the election of Valdas Adamkus and Aleksander Kwaśniewski presidents of the two countries.", "Poland was an important ally to Lithuania in the country's bid to attain EU and NATO membership, both presidents acted as mediators during the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, and the countries still agree on foreign political threats and the importance of energy independence.", "Later, there has been some tension in the relations due to the controversy over the situation with ethnic minorities and the disputes over the spelling of Polish personal and place names and Polish schools in Lithuania.", "Difficulties in education are a challenge that the Lithuanian minority in Puńsk and Sejny is facing.", "With the changes that occurred in the geopolitical situation of the region in 2016 and energy and transportation infrastructural projects underway, the relationship between Lithuania and Poland is recovering, Poland is actively involved in ensuring the security of the Batic region, its troops are continuously participating in NATO military training exercises in Lithuania.13 August 1991See Lithuania–Romania relations* Romania recognized Lithuania's independence on 26 August 1991.", "* Diplomatic relations between both countries have been resumed on 13 September 1991.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Bucharest.", "* Romania has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO, the European Union, and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Romania (in Lithuanian only) 9 October 1991See Lithuania–Russia relationsOn 12 July 1920, Lithuania signed a Peace Treaty with the Soviet Russia, whereby Russia recognises the sovereignty and independence of the State of Lithuania without reservations and with all of the resulting legal implications, and in good faith abandoned all of Russia's national and territorial claims for all times.’ On 27 July 1991, Lithuania and Russia signed an agreement On the Grounds of Cross-border Relations.", "By this agreement, the countries recognised each other a full-fledged subject of international law and a sovereign state.", "On 9 October, of the same year, representatives of the two states exchanged notes that signified ultimate recognition of the independence and sovereignty of the state of Lithuania.", "Russia's troops took a little longer to withdraw from Lithuania.", "The last of the Russian military deployed in Lithuania left the territory of the country on 31 August 1993.Lithuania supports the stance of the EU and other international organisations towards this state and approves the policy of sanctions.", "The country does not recognise the annexation of part of Georgian and Ukrainian territories to the Russian Federation.", "The country also takes active steps to protect its information space.", "Currently, there are 39 bilateral agreements regulating the relationship between Lithuania and Russia in different fields.", "Lithuania has an embassy in Moscow.", "Russia has an embassy in Vilnius, with a consulate in Klaipėda.14 December 2000* Lithuania is represented in Serbia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary).", "* Serbia is represented in Lithuania through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland) and the diplomatic office in Belgrade.", "* Lithuania is an EU member and Serbia is an EU candidate.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Serbia (in Lithuanian only) * Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Lithuania 6 January 1993* Lithuania is represented in Slovakia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).", "* Slovakia is represented in Lithuania through its embassy in Riga (Latvia).", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Slovakia (in Lithuanian only) 27 August 1991See Lithuania–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 August 1991.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.1991See Lithuania–Sweden relations26 August 1991See Lithuania–Ukraine relationsGitanas Nausėda meets Volodymyr Zelenskyy during the Russian invasion of Ukraine* Lithuania has an embassy in Kyiv and an honorary consulates in Lviv.", "* Ukraine has an embassy in Vilnius and 3 honorary consulates (in Klaipėda, Šalčininkai and Visaginas).", "* There are around 44,000 ethnic Ukrainians living in Lithuania and around 11,000 ethnic Lithuanians living in Ukraine.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Ukraine (in Lithuanian only) 4 September 1991See Lithuania–United Kingdom relationsGitanas Nausėda greets Rishi SunakThe history of Lithuania's relations with the United Kingdom started on 20 December 1921 with ''de jure'' recognition of Lithuania's statehood.", "The UK became a key export partner.", "When Lithuania lost independence, the UK officially closed Lithuania's embassy in London but allowed the ambassador to act in this capacity.", "On 27 August 1991, the UK recognised the restored state of independent Lithuania and soon thereafter transferred to the Bank of Lithuania the frozen gold reserves of Lithuania.", "On 4 September 1991, the two countries resumed their diplomatic relations.", "In addition to intensive economic, military, social cooperation, Lithuania and the United Kingdom stand in close cooperation in the areas of education, science, and culture.", "Currently, there are 8 bilateral agreements regulating the relationship between Lithuania and the UK in various fields.", "* The UK recognized the restoration of Lithuanian independence on 27 August 1991.", "* The United Kingdom has an embassy in Vilnius and an honorary consulate in Klaipėda.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in London and 5 honorary consulates (in Northern Ireland, Northumberland, * Scotland, Wales and the West Midlands).", "* There are around 100,000 Lithuanian people living in the United Kingdom.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "* British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Lithuania* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Poland (in Lithuanian only)" ], [ "Oceania", " Country Formal relations (re)establishedNotes 1921/1991See Australia–Lithuania relations* Australia is accredited to Lithuania from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland and maintains an honorary consulate in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Canberra.See Lithuania–New Zealand relations" ], [ "Issues", "===Illicit drug trafficking===Lithuania has been a trans-shipment point for opiates and other illicit drugs from Russia, Southwest Asia, Latin America, and Western Europe to Eastern Europe and Scandinavia.===Anti-terrorism===Lithuania is a signatory to 8 of the 12 International Conventions related to counter-terrorist activities===Human trafficking===The International Organization for Migration (IOM) reports that about 1,000 citizens of Lithuania fall victim to trafficking annually.", "Most are women between the ages of 21 and 30 who are sold into prostitution" ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Lithuania* List of diplomatic missions of Lithuania* List of ambassadors to Lithuania" ], [ "Further reading", "* Tomas Janeliūnas.", "2020.''", "Foreign Policy Analysis of a Baltic State: Lithuania and 'Grybauskaitė Doctrine'.''", "Routledge." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Luxembourg" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''history of Luxembourg''' consists of the history of the country of Luxembourg and its geographical area.Although its recorded history can be traced back to Roman times, the history of Luxembourg proper is considered to begin in 963.Over the following five centuries, the powerful House of Luxembourg emerged, but its extinction put an end to the country's independence.", "After a brief period of Burgundian rule, the country passed to the Habsburgs in 1477.After the Eighty Years' War, Luxembourg became a part of the Southern Netherlands, which passed to the Austrian line of the Habsburg dynasty in 1713.After occupation by Revolutionary France, the 1815 Vienna Congress transformed Luxembourg into a Grand Duchy in personal union with the Netherlands.", "The treaty also resulted in the second partitioning of Luxembourg, the first being in 1658 and a third in 1839.Although these treaties greatly reduced Luxembourg's territory, the latter established its formal independence, which was confirmed after the Luxembourg Crisis of 1867.In the following decades, Luxembourg fell further into Germany's sphere of influence, particularly after the creation of a separate ruling house in 1890.It was occupied by Germany from 1914 until 1918 and again from 1940 until 1944.Since the end of the Second World War, Luxembourg has become one of the world's richest countries, buoyed by political stability and European integration." ], [ "Early history", "In the territory now covered by the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, there is evidence of primitive inhabitants dating back to the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age over 35,000 years ago.", "The oldest artifacts from this period are decorated bones found at Oetrange.However, the first real evidence of civilisation is from the Neolithic or 5th millennium BC, from which evidence of houses has been found.", "Traces have been found in the south of Luxembourg at Grevenmacher, Diekirch, Aspelt and Weiler-la-Tour.", "The dwellings were made of a combination of tree trunks for the basic structure, mud-clad wickerwork walls, and roofs of thatched reeds or straw.", "Pottery from this period has been found near Remerschen.While there is not much evidence of communities in Luxembourg at the beginning of the Bronze Age, a number of sites dating back to the period between the 13th and the 8th century BC provide evidence of dwellings and reveal artefacts such as pottery, knives and jewellery.", "The sites include Nospelt, Dalheim, Mompach and Remerschen.", "What is present-day Luxembourg, was inhabited by Celts during the Iron Age (from roughly 600 BC until 100 AD).The Gaulish tribe in what is present-day Luxembourg during and after the La Tène period was known as the Treveri; they reached the height of prosperity in the 1st century BC.", "The Treveri constructed a number of oppida, Iron Age fortified settlements, near the Moselle valley in what is now southern Luxembourg, western Germany and eastern France.", "Most of the archaeological evidence from this period has been discovered in tombs, many closely associated with Titelberg, a 50 ha site which reveals much about the dwellings and handicrafts of the period.The Romans, under Julius Caesar, completed their conquest and occupation in 53 BC.", "The first known reference to the territory of present-day Luxembourg was by Julius Caesar in his ''Commentaries on the Gallic War''.", "The Treveri were more co-operative with the Romans than most Gallic tribes, and adapted readily to Roman civilization.", "Two revolts in the 1st century AD did not permanently damage their cordial relations with Rome.The land of the Treveri was at first part of Gallia Celtica, but with the reform of Domitian in c. 90, was reassigned to Gallia Belgica.Gallia Belgica was infiltrated by the Germanic Franks from the 4th century, and was abandoned by Rome in AD 406.The territory of what would become Luxembourg by the 480s, became part of Merovingia Austrasia and eventually part of the core territory of the Carolingian Empire.With the Treaty of Verdun (843), it fell to Middle Francia, and in 855, to Lotharingia.", "With the latter's division in 959, it then fell to the Duchy of Upper Lorraine within the Holy Roman Empire." ], [ "County", "The history of Luxembourg properly began with the construction of Luxembourg Castle in the High Middle Ages.", "It was Siegfried I, count of Ardennes who traded some of his ancestral lands with the monks of the Abbey of St. Maximin in Trier in 963 for an ancient, supposedly Roman, fort named ''Lucilinburhuc'', commonly translated as \"little castle\".", "Modern historians link the etymology of the word with ''Letze'', meaning fortification, which may have referred to either the remains of a Roman watchtower or to a primitive refuge of the early Middle Ages." ], [ "Duchy", "From the Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance, Luxembourg bore multiple names, depending on the author.", "These include ''Lucilinburhuc'', ''Lutzburg'', ''Lützelburg'', ''Luccelemburc'', and ''Lichtburg'', among others.", "The Luxembourgish dynasty produced several Holy Roman Emperors, Kings of Bohemia, and Archbishops of Trier and Mainz.Around the fort of Luxembourg, a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a small but important state of great strategic value to France, Germany and the Netherlands.", "Luxembourg's fortress, located on a rocky outcrop known as the Bock, was steadily enlarged and strengthened over the years by successive owners.", "Some of these included the Bourbons, Habsburgs and Hohenzollerns, who made it one of the strongest fortresses on the European continent, the Fortress of Luxembourg.", "Its formidable defences and strategic location caused it to become known as the ‘Gibraltar of the North’." ], [ "Habsburg (1477–1795) and French (1795–1815) rule", "In the 17th and 18th centuries, the electors of Brandenburg, later kings of Prussia (Borussia), advanced their claim to the Luxembourg patrimony as heirs-general to William of Thuringia and his wife Anna of Bohemia, the disputed dukes of Luxembourg in the 1460s.", "Anna was the eldest daughter of the last Luxembourg heiress.", "From 1609 onward, they had a territorial base in the vicinity, the Duchy of Cleves, the starting-point of the future Prussian Rhineland.", "This Brandenburger claim ultimately produced some results when some districts of Luxembourg were united with Prussia in 1813.The first Hohenzollern claimant to descend from both Anna and her younger sister Elisabeth, was John George, Elector of Brandenburg (1525–98), his maternal grandmother having been Barbara Jagiellon.", "In the late 18th century, the younger line of Orange-Nassau (the princes who held sway in the neighbouring Dutch oligarchy) also became related to the Brandenburgers.In 1598, the then possessor, Philip II of Spain, bequeathed Luxembourg and the other Low Countries to his daughter, the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia and her husband Albert VII, Archduke of Austria.", "Albert was an heir and descendant of Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1505), queen of Poland, the youngest granddaughter of Sigismund of Luxembourg, the Holy Roman Emperor.", "Thus, Luxembourg returned to the heirs of the old Luxembourg dynasty of the line of Elisabeth.", "The Low Countries were a separate political entity during the couple's reign.", "After Albert's childless death in 1621, Luxembourg passed to his great-nephew and heir Philip IV of Spain.=== Governance ===In the early 17th century, the Duchy was a Spanish possession administered from Brussels by an appointee of the Spanish King, at the same time as the other territories that formed the Spanish Netherlands.", "They held the title of Governor-General or Lieutenant Governor and were frequently a relative of the King.", "The Governor-General was represented in Luxembourg by the Governor.", "They were surrounded by counsellors, who formed the Provincial Council, effectively the Duchy's government.", "However as there was no separation of powers, the Provincial Council was also the main court of justice.", "The Duchy was composed of administrative units that were very different in nature: * ''seigneuries'' (lordships), belonging to the nobility* influential abbeys, whose many lands were exploited by the abbots* ''prévôtés,'' governed directly by the King's administration: ''prévôts'' and ''sous-prévôts'' (provosts and sub-provosts)* towns, living according to the laws of their charterFrom the 14th century, the inhabitants were represented by the Estates.", "This assembly comprised representatives of the three orders:* the nobility* the clergy* the townsAll the heads of noble families had the right to participate in sessions of the Estates, while the clergy were represented only by the heads of the largest abbeys: St. Maximin's Abbey of Trier, Echternach Abbey, Münster Abbey, Orval Abbey, and Saint-Hubert Abbey.", "The secular clergy, the priests in the villages and towns, were therefore not included.", "A certain number of towns were represented.", "For the German-speaking part of the Duchy, this was Luxembourg, Echternach, Diekirch, Grevenmacher and Remich.", "Villages had no representation.", "===French invasion===Luxembourg was invaded by Louis XIV of France (husband of Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV) in 1684, an action that caused alarm among France's neighbors and resulted in the formation of the League of Augsburg in 1686.In the ensuing War of the Grand Alliance, France was forced to give up the duchy, which was returned to the Habsburgs by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697.During this period of French rule, the defences of the fortress were strengthened by the famous siege engineer Vauban.", "The French king's great-grandson Louis (1710–74) was, from 1712, the first heir-general of Albert VII.", "Albert VII was a descendant of Anna of Bohemia and William of Thuringia, having that blood through his mother's Danish great-great-grandmother, but was not the heir-general of that line.", "Louis was the first real claimant of Luxembourg to descend from both sisters, the daughters of Elisabeth of Bohemia, the last Luxembourg empress.Habsburg rule was confirmed in 1715 by the Treaty of Utrecht, and Luxembourg was integrated into the Southern Netherlands.", "Emperor Joseph and his successor Emperor Charles VI were descendants of Spanish kings who were heirs of Albert VII.", "Joseph and Charles VI were also descendants of Anna of Bohemia and William of Thuringia, having that blood through their mother, although they were heirs-general of neither line.", "Charles was the first ruler of Luxembourg to descend from both sisters, daughters of Elisabeth of Bohemia.Austrian rulers were ready to exchange Luxembourg and other territories in the Low Countries.", "Their purpose was to round out and enlarge their power base, which in geographical terms was centred around Vienna.", "Thus, Bavarian candidate(s) emerged to take over the Duchy of Luxembourg, but this plan led to nothing permanent.", "Emperor Joseph II however, made a preliminary pact to make a neighbour of Luxembourg, Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine, as Duke of Luxembourg and king in the Low Countries, in exchange for his possessions in Bavaria and Franconia.", "However, this scheme was aborted by Prussia's opposition.", "Charles Theodore, who would have become Duke of Luxembourg, was genealogically a junior descendant of both Anna and Elisabeth, but the main heir of neither.During the War of the First Coalition, Luxembourg was conquered and annexed by Revolutionary France, becoming part of the ''département'' of the Forêts in 1795.The annexation was formalised at Campo Formio in 1797.In 1798, Luxembourgish peasants started a rebellion against the French but it was rapidly suppressed.", "This brief rebellion is called the Peasant's War." ], [ "Developing independence (1815–1890)", "The three Partitions of Luxembourg.Luxembourg remained more or less under French rule until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815.When the French departed, the Allies installed a provisional administration.", "Luxembourg initially came under the ''Generalgouvernement Mittelrhein'' in mid-1814, and then from June 1814 under the ''Generalgouvernement Nieder- und Mittelrhein'' (General Government Lower and Middle Rhine).The Congress of Vienna of 1815, gave formal autonomy to Luxembourg.", "In 1813, the Prussians had already managed to wrest lands from Luxembourg, to strengthen the Prussian-possessed Duchy of Julich.", "The Bourbons of France held a strong claim to Luxembourg, whereas the Emperor Francis of Austria, on the other hand, had controlled the duchy until the revolutionary forces had joined it to the French republic.", "However, his Chancellor, Klemens von Metternich, was not enthusiastic about regaining Luxembourg and the Low Countries, as they were separated so far from the main body of the Austrian Empire.Prussia and the Netherlands, both claiming Luxembourg, made an exchange deal: Prussia received the Principality of Orange-Nassau, the ancestral Principality of the Prince of Orange in Central Germany; and the Prince of Orange in turn received Luxembourg.", "In 1815 Luxembourg joined the German Confederation and 1842 the German Customs Union.Luxembourg, somewhat diminished in size (as the medieval lands had been slightly reduced by the French and Prussian heirs), was augmented in another way through the elevation to the status of grand duchy and placed under the rule of William I of the Netherlands.", "This was the first time that the duchy had a monarch who had no claim to the inheritance of the medieval patrimony.", "However, Luxembourg's military value to Prussia prevented it from becoming a full part of the Dutch kingdom.", "The fortress, ancestral seat of the medieval Luxembourgers, was garrisoned by Prussian forces, following Napoleon's defeat, and Luxembourg became a member of the German Confederation with Prussia responsible for its defence, and a state under the suzerainty of the Netherlands at the same time.Historic map (undated) of Luxembourg city's fortificationsIn July 1819, a contemporary from Britain visited Luxembourg — his journal offers some insights.", "Norwich Duff, writes of its city that \"Luxembourg is considered one of the strongest fortifications in Europe, and … it appears so.", "It is situated in Holland (then as now used by English speakers as shorthand for the Netherlands) but by treaty is garrisoned by Prussians and 5,000 of their troops occupy it under a Prince of Hesse.", "The civil government is under the Dutch and the duties collected by them.", "The town is not very large but the streets are broader than in the French towns and clean and the houses are good....", "I got the cheapest of hot baths here at the principal house I ever had in my life: one franc.", "\"In 1820, Luxembourg made use of the metric system of measurement compulsory.", "Previously, the country had using local units such as the \"malter\" (which was equivalent to 191 litres).Much of the Luxembourgish population joined the Belgian revolution against Dutch rule.", "Except for the fortress and its immediate vicinity, Luxembourg was considered a province of the new Belgian state from 1830 to 1839.By the Treaty of London in 1839, the status of the grand duchy became fully sovereign and in personal union to the king of the Netherlands.", "In turn, the predominantly Oil-speaking geographically larger western part of the duchy was ceded to Belgium as the province de Luxembourg.This loss left the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg a predominantly German state, although French cultural influence remained strong.", "The loss of Belgian markets also caused painful economic problems for the state.", "Recognising this, the grand duke integrated it into the German ''Zollverein'' in 1842.Nevertheless, Luxembourg remained an underdeveloped agrarian country for most of the century.", "As a result of this, about one in five of the inhabitants emigrated to the United States between 1841 and 1891.Beginning in the 1830s, Luxembourg came to develop its own national identity.", "The Catholic Church helped provide a sense of a unique cultural identity, and as early as 1840, Luxembourg had been granted its own diocese, and in 1870, a separate bishopric.", "Luxemburger Wort, which came to be the domination national newspaper in Luxembourg, also had close links with the church.", "Patterns of language use further consolidated Luxembourgish nationality - while bilingualism prevailed, Luxembourgish became a language used in local literature and newspapers, especially when domestic issues and folklore were discussed; French was considered a language of diplomacy and was used when discussing international matters.===Crisis of 1867===In 1867, Luxembourg's independence was confirmed, after a turbulent period which even included a brief time of civil unrest against plans to annex Luxembourg to Belgium, Germany, or France.", "The crisis of 1867 almost resulted in war between France and Prussia over the status of Luxembourg, which had become free of German control when the German Confederation was abolished at the end of the Seven Weeks War in 1866.William III, king of the Netherlands, and sovereign of Luxembourg, was willing to sell the grand duchy to France's Emperor Napoleon III in order to retain Limbourg but backed out when Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, expressed opposition.", "The growing tension brought about a conference in London from March to May 1867 in which the British served as mediators between the two rivals.", "Bismarck manipulated public opinion, resulting in the denial of sale to France.", "The issue was resolved by the second Treaty of London which guaranteed the perpetual independence and neutrality of the state.", "The fortress walls were pulled down and the Prussian garrison was withdrawn.Famous visitors to Luxembourg in the 18th and 19th centuries included the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the French writers Émile Zola and Victor Hugo, the Hungarian composer Franz Liszt, and the English painter Joseph Mallord William Turner." ], [ "Separation and the World Wars (1890–1945)", "Luxembourg remained a possession of the kings of the Netherlands until the death of William III in 1890, when the grand duchy passed to the House of Nassau-Weilburg due to the 1783 Nassau Family Pact, under which those territories of the Nassau family in the Holy Roman Empire at the time of the pact (Luxembourg and Nassau) were bound by semi-Salic law, which allowed inheritance by females or through the female line only upon extinction of male members of the dynasty.", "When William III died leaving only his daughter Wilhelmina as an heir, the crown of the Netherlands, not being bound by the family pact, passed to Wilhelmina.", "However, the crown of Luxembourg passed to a male of another branch of the House of Nassau: Adolphe, the dispossessed Duke of Nassau and head of the branch of Nassau-Weilburg.By the beginning of the 20th century, Luxembourg had abandoned its cultural ties to Germany in favour of developing its own nationalism - writers such as elevated the status of Luxembourgish to a literary language, and nationalist organisations such as the developed, espousing anti-German and anti-French sentiments.", "Luxembourgish was confirmed as an official and separate language by the Education Law of 1912, which established it as a mandatory school subject.", "The demographic patterns reversed, with more people immigrating to Luxembourg than emigrating from it, and the politics of Luxembourg had consolidated into three major parties - the socialists of Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party, the liberals of the Liberal League, and the conservatives of the Rietspartei.===First World War===The internationally recognised neutrality of Luxembourg from the 1867 revised Treaty of London was violated in 1914 when Luxembourg was occupied by German troops, although the government was left intact and Luxembourg was not incorporated into the German state.", "While the government officially maintained its neutrality in spite of German occupation, the population was sympathising with the Entente forces, and number of Luxembourgers joined the French army during as a result.", "The political neutrality that the government maintained during the occupation was cause of dissent and unrest; German occupation of Luxembourg caused widespread anti-German sentiment, and the monarchy was accused of collaborating with Germany, creating momentum in favour of its abolition.", "As a result, Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg abdicated in favour of her sister, Charlotte.", "Shortly thereafter, in 1919, a referendum was held wherein the public voted in favour of retaining the monarchy, which had become closely affiliated with the major political party, the Party of the Right, in turn having links to the Catholic Church.", "The war caused social upheaval, which laid the foundation for the first trades union in Luxembourg.===Luxembourg Rebellions===The Luxembourg Rebellions were a series of riots and mutinies in Luxembourg from 1918-1919, inspired by similar events in Germany.", "The rebellions failed, mainly due to the lack of public support as well as France intervening with the government.", "'''1918 Rebellion'''In November 1918, communists in Luxembourg city revolted and started a short rebellion, inspired by similar events in Germany.", "The rebellion soon spread to Esch-sur-Alzette.", "It was quickly suppressed by the Grand Ducal Gendarmerie, and was followed by the larger republican Luxembourg Rebellion the following January.", "'''1919 Rebellion'''The Luxembourg Rebellion was a failed communist rebellion in Luxembourg that occurred on 9 January 1919.The rebellion saw the Luxembourg Army take over the capital, Luxembourg City and establish the Luxembourg republic led by Émile Servais.===Interwar period===The end of the occupation in November 1918, squared with a time of uncertainty on the international and national levels.", "The victorious Allies disapproved of the choices made by the local élites, and some Belgian politicians even demanded the (re)integration of the country into a greater Belgium.", "Within Luxembourg, a strong minority asked for the creation of a republic.", "In the end, the grand duchy remained a monarchy but was led by a new head of state, Charlotte.", "In 1921, it entered into an economic and monetary union with Belgium.", "During most of the 20th century, however, Germany remained its most important economic partner.The introduction of universal suffrage for men and women favored the Rechtspartei (party of the Right) which played the dominant role in the government throughout the 20th century, with the exception of 1925–26 and 1974–79, when the two other important parties, the Liberal and the Social-Democratic parties, formed a coalition.", "The success of the resulting party was due partly to the support of the church — the population was more than 90 percent Catholic — and of its newspaper, the ''Luxemburger Wort''.On the international level, the interwar period was characterised by an attempt to put Luxembourg on the map.", "Especially under Joseph Bech, head of the Department of Foreign Affairs, the country participated more actively in several international organisations, in order to ensure its autonomy.", "On 16 December 1920 Luxembourg became a member of the League of Nations.", "On the economic level in the 1920s and the 1930s, the agricultural sector declined in favour of industry, but even more so for the service sector.", "The proportion of the active population in this last sector rose from 18 percent in 1907 to 31 percent in 1935.In the 1930s, the internal situation deteriorated, as Luxembourgish politics were influenced by European left- and right-wing politics.", "The government tried to counter communist-led unrest in the industrial areas and continued friendly policies towards Nazi Germany, which led to much criticism.", "The attempts to quell unrest peaked with the ''Maulkuerfgesetz'', the \"muzzle\" Law, which was an attempt to outlaw the Communist Party.", "The law was turned down in a 1937 referendum.===Second World War===Upon the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, the government of Luxembourg observed its neutrality and issued an official proclamation to that effect on 6 September 1939.On 10 May 1940 an invasion by German armed forces swept away the Luxembourgish government and monarchy into exile.", "The German troops made up of the 1st, 2nd, and 10th Panzer Divisions invaded at 04:35.They did not encounter any significant resistance save for some bridges destroyed and some land mines since the majority of the Luxembourgish Volunteer Corps stayed in their barracks.", "Luxembourgish police resisted the German troops, but to little avail and the capital city was occupied before noon.", "Total Luxembourgish casualties amounted to 75 police and soldiers captured, six police wounded, and one soldier wounded.The Luxembourg royal family and their entourage received visas from Portuguese consul Aristides de Sousa Mendes in Bordeaux.", "They crossed into Portugal and subsequently travelled to the United States in two groups: on the from Lisbon to Baltimore in July 1940, and on the Pan American airliner'' Yankee Clipper'' in October 1940.Throughout the war, Grand Duchess Charlotte broadcast via the BBC to Luxembourg to give hope to the people.Luxembourg remained under German military occupation until August 1942, when Nazi Germany formally annexed it as part of the ''Gau'' ''Moselland''.", "The German authorities declared Luxembourgers to be German citizens and called up 13,000 for military service.", "2,848 Luxembourgers eventually died fighting in the German army.", "Luxembourg was fully incorporated into the Third Reich in 1942, which the German government justified by ‘proclaiming’ that Luxembourgers were ethnically and linguistically German.An estimated 3,500 Jews lived in Luxembourg before the war; an estimated 1,000 to 2,500 were murdered in the Holocaust.Luxembourgish opposition to this annexation took the form of passive resistance at first, as in the ''Spéngelskrich'' (lit.", "\"War of the Pins\"), and in refusal to speak German.", "As French was forbidden, many Luxembourgers resorted to resuscitating old Luxembourgish words, which led to a renaissance of the language.", "The Germans met opposition with deportation, forced labour, forced conscription and, more drastically, with internment, deportation to Nazi concentration camps and execution.", "In October 1941, a census was administered, including questions on ''jetzige Staatsangehörigkeit'' (‘current citizenship’), ''Muttersprache'' (‘mother tongue’), and ''Volkszugehörigkeit'' (‘ethnicity’).", "An overwhelming majority of the population answered these questions with \"Lëtzebuergesch\", an act that showed the opposition to Luxembourg's incorporation into the Third Reich, while also emphasising that Luxembourg was not a part of the German nation.", "This rebellion against Nazi authority is referred to today as ''dräimol Lëtzebuergesch'' (‘three times Luxembourgish’).", "Forced draft of the local population into the German army starting in 1942 resulted in the outbreak of numerous strikes, an event which is referred to today in collective terms as the Generalstreik.Executions took place after the so-called general strike from 1 to 3 September 1942, which paralysed the administration, agriculture, industry and education in response to the declaration of forced conscription by the German administration on 30 August 1942.The Germans suppressed the strike violently.", "They executed 21 strikers and deported hundreds more to Nazi concentration camps.", "The then civilian administrator of Luxembourg, Gauleiter Gustav Simon, had declared conscription necessary to support the German war effort.", "The general strike in Luxembourg remained one of the few mass strikes against the German war machine in Western Europe.U.S.", "forces liberated most of the country in September 1944.They entered the capital city on 10 September 1944.During the Ardennes Offensive (Battle of the Bulge) German troops took back most of northern Luxembourg for a few weeks.", "Allied forces finally expelled the Germans in January 1945.Between December 1944 and February 1945, the recently liberated city of Luxembourg was designated by the OB West (German Army Command in the West) as the target for V-3 siege guns, which were originally intended to bombard London.", "Two V-3 guns based at Lampaden fired a total of 183 rounds at Luxembourg.", "However, the V-3 was not very accurate.", "142 rounds landed in Luxembourg, with 44 confirmed hits in the urban area, and the total casualties were 10 dead and 35 wounded.", "The bombardments ended with the American Army nearing Lampaden on 22 February 1945.Altogether, of a pre-war population of 293,000, 5,259 Luxembourgers lost their lives during the hostilities." ], [ "Modern history (since 1945)", "After World War II, Luxembourg abandoned its politics of neutrality, when it became a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the United Nations.", "It is a signatory of the Treaty of Rome, and constituted a monetary union with Belgium (Benelux Customs Union in 1948), and an economic union with Belgium and the Netherlands, the so-called BeNeLux.Between 1945 and 2005, the economic structure of Luxembourg changed significantly.", "The crisis of the metallurgy sector, which began in the mid-1970s and lasted till the late 1980s, nearly pushed the country into economic recession, given the monolithic dominance of that sector.", "The Tripartite Coordination Committee, consisting of members of the government, management representatives, and trade union leaders, succeeded in preventing major social unrest during those years, thus creating the myth of a “Luxembourg model” characterised by social peace.", "Although in the early years of the 21st century Luxembourg enjoyed one of the highest GNI per capita in the world, this was mainly due to the strength of its financial sector, which gained importance at the end of the 1960s.", "Thirty-five years later, one-third of the tax proceeds originated from that sector.", "The harmonisation of the tax system across Europe could, however, seriously undermine the financial situation of the grand duchy.Luxembourg has been one of the strongest advocates of the European Union in the tradition of Robert Schuman.", "It was one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952 and of the European Economic Community (EEC) (later the European Union) in 1957; in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.Encouraged by the contacts established with the Dutch and Belgian governments in exile, Luxembourg pursued a policy of presence in international organisations.", "In the context of the Cold War, Luxembourg clearly opted for the West having joined NATO in 1949.Engagement in European reconstruction was rarely questioned subsequently, either by politicians or by the greater population.Despite its small proportions, Luxembourg often played an intermediary role between larger countries.", "This role of mediator, especially between the two large and often bellicose nations of Germany and France, was considered one of the main characteristics of its national identity, allowing the Luxembourgers not to have to choose between one of these two neighbours.", "The country also hosted a large number of European institutions such as the European Court of Justice.Luxembourg's small size no longer seemed to be a challenge to the existence of the country, and the creation of the Banque Centrale du Luxembourg (1998) and of the University of Luxembourg (2003) was evidence of the continuing desire to become a “real” nation.", "The decision in 1985 to declare Lëtzebuergesch (Luxembourgish) the national language was also a step in the affirmation of the country's independence.", "In fact, the linguistic situation in Luxembourg was characterised by trilingualism: Lëtzebuergesch was the spoken vernacular language, German the written language, in which Luxembourgers were most fluent, and French the language of official letters and law.In 1985, the country became victim to a mysterious bombing spree, which was targeted mostly at electrical masts and other installations.In 1995, Luxembourg provided the president of the European Commission, former Prime Minister Jacques Santer, who later had to resign in March 1999 over corruption accusations against other commission members.Prime Minister, Jean-Claude Juncker, followed this European tradition.", "On 10 September 2004, Mr Juncker became the president of the group of finance ministers from the 12 countries that share the euro, a role that led him to be dubbed \"Mr Euro\".The present sovereign is Grand Duke Henri.", "Henri's father, Jean, succeeded his mother, Charlotte, on 12 November 1964.Jean's eldest son, Prince Henri, was appointed \"Lieutenant Représentant\" (Hereditary Grand Duke) on 4 March 1998.On 24 December 1999, Prime Minister Juncker announced Grand Duke Jean's decision to abdicate the throne on 7 October 2000, in favour of Prince Henri who assumed the title and constitutional duties of Grand Duke.On 10 July 2005, after threats of resignation by Prime Minister Juncker, the proposed European Constitution was approved by 56.52% of voters.In July 2013, Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker announced his resignation following a secret service scandal.", "He had been prime minister since 1995.In December 2013, openly gay Xavier Bettel was sworn in as the new prime minister to succeed Juncker.", "Bettel of Democratic Party (DP), formed a coalition of Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens who won a combined majority of 32 out of 60 seats in Luxembourg's snap election on 20 October 2013.However, Juncker's Christian Democrats (CSV) remained the biggest party with 23 seats.In July 2014, European Parliament elected former Luxembourg prime minister Jean-Claude Juncker as the President of the European Commission on 1 November 2014, succeeding Portugal's Jose Manuel Barroso, who had held the post since 2004.In December 2018, Prime Minister Xavier Bettel was sworn in for a second term, following the narrow victory of his liberal-led coalition in 2018 parliamentary election.In October 2023, the Christian Social People’s Party (CSV) won the general election, meaning Prime Minister Xavier Bettel’s ruling liberal coalition lost its clear majority.", "In November 2023, Luc Frieden, leader of CSV, became new Prime minister of Luxemburg.", "He formed a coalition with the liberal Democratic Party (DP), meaning outgoing Prime Minister Xavier Bettel remained in government as foreign minister and deputy prime minister." ], [ "See also", "* List of monarchs of Luxembourg* List of prime ministers of Luxembourg* Politics of Luxembourg* History of rail transport in Luxembourg, 1846 to present day'''General:'''* History of Europe" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Further reading", "*Arblaster, Paul.", "''A History of the Low Countries'' (Palgrave Essential Histories) (2005)* Blom, J.C.H.", "''History of the Low Countries'' (2006).", "* Bodenstein, Felicity.", "\"National Museums in Luxembourg.\"", "''Building National Museums in Europe 1750-2010'' (Linköping University Electronic Press, 2011) online.", "* Brühwiler, Ingrid, and Matias Gardin.", "\"Fabricating National Unity in Torn Contexts: World War I in the Multilingual Countries of Switzerland and Luxembourg.\"", "in ''Small Nations and Colonial Peripheries in World War I'' (Brill, 2016) pp. 140–156.", "* De Bres, Julia, Gabriel Rivera Cosme, and Angela Remesch.", "\"Walking the tightrope of linguistic nationalism in a multilingual state: constructing language in political party programmes in Luxembourg.\"", "''Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development'' 41.9 (2020): 779–793.", "* de Vries, Johan.", "\"Benelux, 1920-1970,\" in C. M. Cipolla, ed.", "''The Fontana Economic History of Europe: Contemporary Economics Part One'' (1976) pp 1–71.", "** Fletcher, Willard Allen.", "“The German Administration in Luxemburg 1940-1942: Towards a ‘De Facto’ Annexation” ''Historical Journal'' 13#3 (1970), pp.", "533–544.online* Garcia, Nuria.", "\"The paradox of contemporary linguistic nationalism: the case of Luxembourg.\"", "''Nations and Nationalism'' 20.1 (2014): 113–132.", "* Horner, Kristine, and Jean Jacques Weber.", "\"The language situation in Luxembourg.\"", "''Current issues in language planning'' 9.1 (2008): 69–128.", "* Kossmann, E. H. ''The Low Countries 1780–1940'' (1978).", "* Millim, Anne-Marie.", "\"Schooling the gaze: Industry and nation-building in Luxembourgish landscape-writing, 1900–1940.\"", "''Journal of European Studies'' 44.2 (2014): 151-169 online.", "* Péporté, Pit.", "''Constructing the Middle Ages: historiography, collective memory and nation-building in Luxembourg'' (Brill, 2011).", "* Péporté, Pit; Kmec, Sonja; Majerus, Benoît and Margue, Michel '' Inventing Luxembourg.", "Representations of the Past, Space and Language from the Nineteenth to the Twenty-first Century '', Vol.", "1 of the Collection ‘National Cultivation of Culture’, ed.", "Joep Leerssen (Leiden/Boston: Brill) (2010).", "* Schreiber, Catherina.", "\"Integrating the cosmopolitan and the local–The curricular construction of citizens in Luxembourg in the long 19th century.\"", "''Encounters in Theory and History of Education'' 16 (2015): 165-182 online.", "* Thyssen, Geert.", "\"The stranger within: Luxembourg’s early school system as a European prototype of nationally legitimized international blends (ca.", "1794–1844).\"", "''Paedagogica Historica'' 49.5 (2013): 625–644.", "* Zariz, Ruth.", "“The Jews of Luxembourg during the Second World War” ''Holocaust & Genocide Studies'' No 7 (1993).", "pp.", "51–66." ], [ "External links", "* History Of Luxembourg* Luxembourg emigration in the 19th century - Offers reasons why people left Luxembourg in the 19th century.", "* History of Luxembourg: Primary Documents* Historical Map of Luxembourg 1789* National Museum of Military History" ] ]
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[ [ "Geography of Luxembourg" ], [ "Introduction", "Towns and rivers in LuxembourgLuxembourg is a small country located in the Low Countries, part of North-West Europe It borders Belgium for to the west and north, France () to the south, and Germany () to the east.", "Luxembourg is landlocked, separated from the North Sea by Belgium.The topography of the country is divided very clearly between the hilly Oesling of the northern third of the Grand Duchy and the flat Gutland, which occupies the southern two-thirds.", "The country's longest river is the Sauer, which is a tributary of the Moselle, the basin of which includes almost all of Luxembourg's area.", "Other major rivers include the Alzette in the south and the Wiltz in the north.The capital, and by far the largest city, is Luxembourg City, which is located in the Gutland, as are most of the country's main population centres, including Esch-sur-Alzette, Dudelange, and Differdange.", "Besides Luxembourg City, the other main towns are primarily located in the southern Red Lands region, which lines the border between Luxembourg and France to the south." ], [ "Physical geography", "===Topography===A map of Luxembourg's relief clearly illustrates the dichotomy between the hilly Oesling in the north and the southern Gutland.Despite its small size, Luxembourg has a varied topography, with two main features to its landscape.", "The northern section of the country is formed by part of the plateau of the Ardennes, where the mountain heights range from .", "The rest of the country is made up of undulating countryside with broad valleys.", "The capital, Luxembourg City, is located in the southern part of the country.===Black heart of Europe===Because the soil is so difficult to cultivate, most of the land is used for cattle pasture.", "The Ardennes region also includes the Upper Sûre National Park, an important conservation area and a hiker's retreat.South of the Sûre River, the country is known as the Gutland.", "The region covers slightly over two-thirds of the country.The terrain gently rises and falls with an average height of .", "Agriculture is the main activity as term Gutland arises from the fertile soil and warm, dry summers experienced is this part of the Duchy compared to the Oesling region.As a result, vegetables and fruit, such as strawberries, apples, plums, and cherries, are grown in large quantities.", "River erosion in this area has created deep gorges and caves, resulting in some spectacular scenery.In the extreme south of the country lies \"the land of the red rocks\" – a reference to the deposits of minerals found here.", "Rich in iron ore, the district has been a mining and heavy industrial region since Roman if not earlier times and stretches for over .", "The tall chimneys of the iron and steel works are typical landmarks of the industrial south.", "To the east lies the grape-growing valley of the Moselle.", "Numerous villages nestle in the deep valleys and behind the vineyards along the river banks.", "Most villages have at least one winery.", "Also in the east is the \"Little Switzerland\" area, characterized by wooded glens and ravines in unusual rock formations.===Rivers and lakes===Luxembourg's people love minors and rivers, such as the Eisch, the Alzette, and the Pétrusse, but the main river is the Moselle with its tributaries-the Sûre and the Our.", "Together, their courses serve as a natural boundary between Luxembourg and Germany.", "Along their banks, many of the country's medieval castles can be found.The Moselle actually rises in northeast France and flows north through Luxembourg for to join the mighty Rhine at Koblenz, Germany.", "The Moselle is long, and is navigable, due to canalization for .", "Green slopes, covered with vines, flank the meandering course of the river.Rising in Belgium, the Sûre River flows for in an easterly direction through Luxembourg and into the Moselle.", "Its sinuous course essentially cuts Luxembourg from east to west.", "The Our River, flowing along the northeastern border, is a tributary of the Sûre.", "Its valley is surrounded by unspoiled countryside.Dam in the Upper Sûre lakeThe Upper Sûre lake is the largest stretch of water in the Grand Duchy.", "Surrounded by luxuriant vegetation and peaceful creeks, the lake is a centre for water sports, such as sailing, canoeing, and kayaking.", "Such outdoor activities, which has made it an attractive spot for tourists, have led to the growth of a local crafts industry.The town of Esch-sur-Sûre nestles at one end of the lake.", "Immediately above it, the river has been dammed to form a hydroelectric reservoir extending some up the valley.", "The Upper Sûre dam was built in the 1960s to meet the country's drinking water requirements===Extreme points==='''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:''Moselle at Wasserbillig - 133 m''highest point:''Kneiff near Wilwerdange - 560 m" ], [ "Environment", "===Climate===250pxLuxembourg is part of the West European Continental climatic region, and enjoys a temperate climate without extremes.", "Winters are mild, summers fairly cool, and rainfall is high.Seasonal weather is somewhat different between the northern and southern regions.", "In the north there is considerable influence from the Atlantic systems, in which the passage of frequent pressure depressions gives rise to unstable weather conditions.", "This results in overcast skies and considerable drizzle in the winter.Rainfall reaches a year in some areas.", "In the summer, excessive heat is rare and temperatures drop noticeably at night.", "Low temperatures and humidity make for what those living in this part of the country call, optimistically, an \"invigorating climate\".In the south, although the rainfall is not significantly low, at around , and the winters no milder, the principal difference is in the higher summer temperatures, especially in the Moselle Valley.", "Crops, especially wine grapes, thrive here.", "With a mean annual temperature of , the sunniest months are May to August.", "In the spring, the countryside is a riot of wildflowers and blossoms.===Flora===Trees at Birtrange Castle in LuxembourgLuxembourg's flora is characterized by the country's location at the border between the Atlantic-European and Central-European climate zones.", "In the north, beech and oak trees are plentiful.", "The oak trees can grow up to , with a diameter of .", "They supply large quantities of excellent hardwood timber because of their strength.Along the riverbanks, species like the black alder and willows can be found.", "Alder wood is pale yellow to reddish brown, fine-textured and durable even under water.", "It is also an important timber tree mainly because of its disease-resistant properties.", "Willow trees can reach a height of , and are valued for ornamental purposes.The narrow, deeply incised valleys of the north also provide a habitat for rare plants and animals, especially the European otter, a protected species.", "In the industrial south, among the abandoned quarries and deserted open pit mines, nature has reclaimed her own, and there are flowers everywhere.===International agreements===''Party to:''Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands''Signed, but not ratified:''Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea" ], [ "Geographical statistics", "Detailed map of the Grand Duchy'''Geographic coordinates:''''''Area:'''''total:''2 586 km2''land:''2 586 km2''water:''0 km2'''Natural resources:'''iron ore (no longer exploited), arable land'''Land use:'''''arable land:''23.9%''permanent crops:''0.56%''other:''75.52% (2011)'''Irrigated land:'''10 km2 (including Belgium) (1993 est.", ")'''Total renewable water resources:'''3.1 km3" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Luxembourg Earth science portal" ] ]
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[ [ "Demographics of Luxembourg" ], [ "Introduction", " communeDemographic features of the population of Luxembourg include population density, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.The following is an overview of the '''demographics of Luxembourg'''.", "Demographic topics include basic statistics, most populous cities, and religious affiliation.The population of Luxembourg as of 1 January 2022 was '''645,397''' (52.87% Luxembourgers and 47.13% of foreign nationality).The people of Luxembourg are called Luxembourgers." ], [ "Population", "The population of Luxembourg in 2022 is 650,364.=== Population growth rate ===1.8% (2020 est.", ")===Total fertility rate===1.62 children born/woman (2020 est.", ")=== Life expectancy ===Life expectancy at birth in LuxembourgPeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195566.01990–199575.81955–196067.61995–200077.01960–196569.12000–200578.31965–197069.82005–201079.51970–197570.22010–201581.21975–198071.52015–202082.01980–198572.92020–202582.81985–199074.52025–203083.6Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''=== Age structure ===(2020 est.", ")*0–14 years: 16.73% (male 54 099; female 51 004)*15–24 years: 11.78% (male 37,946; female 36 061)*25-54 years: 43.93% (male 141,535/female 134,531)*55-64 years: 12.19% (male 39,289/female 37,337)*65 years and over: 15.37% (male 43,595/female 52,984)" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Vital statistics of Luxemburg 1900 till present.The following table chronicles factors such as population, birth rates, and death rates in Luxembourg since 1900.Average population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Fertility rates 1900 234,000 7,037 5,109 1,928 30.1 21.9 8.2 1901 236,000 7,444 4,300 3,144 31.5 18.2 13.3 1902 238,000 7,416 4,460 2,956 31.1 18.7 12.4 1903 241,000 7,279 4,686 2,593 30.3 19.5 10.8 1904 243,000 7,535 4,952 2,583 31.0 20.4 10.6 1905 245,000 7,431 4,851 2,580 30.3 19.8 10.5 1906 248,000 7,516 4,844 2,672 30.3 19.6 10.8 1907 250,000 7,738 4,482 3,256 30.9 17.9 13.0 1908 253,000 7,639 4,933 2,706 30.2 19.5 10.7 1909 256,000 7,264 4,752 2,512 28.4 18.6 9.8 1910 258,000 7,065 4,321 2,744 27.4 16.7 10.6 1911 260,000 7,126 4,892 2,234 27.4 18.8 8.6 1912 262,000 7,051 4,556 2,495 26.9 17.4 9.5 1913 264,000 7,009 4,383 2,626 26.5 16.6 9.9 1914 266,000 6,781 4,446 2,335 25.5 16.7 8.8 1915 265,000 5,701 4,126 1,575 21.5 15.6 5.9 1916 264,000 4,958 4,246 712 18.8 16.1 2.7 1917 263,000 4,516 4,730 -214 17.1 18.0 -0.8 1918 263,000 4,413 5,611 -1,198 16.8 21.4 -4.6 1919 262,000 4,638 4,627 11 17.7 17.7 0.0 1920 261,000 5,621 3,404 2,217 21.6 13.1 8.5 1921 261,000 5,494 3,444 2,050 21.1 13.2 7.9 1922 262,000 5,094 3,538 1,556 19.5 13.5 5.9 1923 263,000 5,468 3,581 1,887 20.8 13.6 7.2 1924 266,000 5,369 3,421 1,948 20.2 12.9 7.3 1925 268,000 5,619 3,791 1,828 21.0 14.1 6.8 1926 270,000 5,639 4,100 1,539 20.9 15.2 5.7 1927 278,000 5,864 3,909 1,955 21.1 14.1 7.0 1928 287,000 6,114 4,017 2,097 21.3 14.0 7.3 1929 292,000 6,210 4,553 1,657 21.3 15.6 5.7 1930 297,000 6,377 3,876 2,501 21.4 13.0 8.4 1931 300,000 5,988 3,971 2,017 20.0 13.3 6.7 1932 299,000 5,295 3,949 1,346 17.7 13.2 4.5 1933 298,000 4,895 3,725 1,170 16.4 12.5 3.9 1934 298,000 4,665 3,535 1,130 15.7 11.9 3.8 1935 297,000 4,523 3,740 783 15.2 12.6 2.6 1936 298,000 4,514 3,433 1,081 15.2 11.5 3.6 1937 299,000 4,514 3,555 959 15.1 11.9 3.2 1938 301,000 4,486 3,811 675 14.9 12.7 2.2 1939 300,000 4,511 3,804 707 15.0 12.7 2.4 1940 296,000 3,959 3,580 379 13.4 12.1 1.3 1941 292,000 4,029 4,065 -36 13.8 13.9 -0.1 1942 290,000 4,506 4,220 286 15.6 14.6 1.0 1943 289,000 4,277 4,437 -160 14.8 15.4 -0.6 1944 285,000 4,128 5,406 -1,278 14.5 18.9 -4.5 1945 284,000 3,775 4,585 -810 13.3 16.2 -2.9 1946 286,000 4,263 3,525 738 14.9 12.3 2.6 1947 289,000 4,178 3,548 630 14.5 12.3 2.2 1948 292,000 4,162 3,400 762 14.3 11.6 2.6 1949 294,000 4,026 3,676 350 13.7 12.5 1.2 1950 296,000 4,116 3,401 715 13.9 11.5 2.4 1951 297,000 4,176 3,456 720 14.0 11.6 2.4 1952 299,000 4,535 3,557 978 15.2 11.9 3.3 1953 301,000 4,565 3,737 828 15.2 12.4 2.7 1954 303,000 4,713 3,421 1,292 15.6 11.3 4.3 1955 305,000 4,962 3,453 1,509 16.3 11.3 5.0 1956 307,000 4,833 3,878 955 15.8 12.6 3.1 2.08 1957 309,000 4,954 3,811 1,143 16.1 12.4 3.7 2.13 1958 310,000 4,959 3,512 1,447 16.0 11.3 4.7 2.13 1959 312,000 5,037 3,607 1,430 16.1 11.6 4.6 2.16 1960 314,000 5,019 3,716 1,303 16.0 11.8 4.1 2.37 1961 317,000 5,112 3,616 1,496 16.1 11.4 4.7 2.42 1962 321,000 5,137 4,037 1,100 16.0 12.6 3.4 2.41 1963 324,000 5,112 3,929 1,183 15.8 12.1 3.7 2.37 1964 328,000 5,229 3,857 1,372 16.0 11.8 4.2 2.40 1965 332,000 5,297 4,057 1,240 16.0 12.2 3.7 2.39 1966 334,000 5,194 4,133 1,061 15.6 12.4 3.2 2.36 1967 335,000 4,957 4,166 791 14.8 12.4 2.4 2.25 1968 336,000 4,780 4,138 642 14.2 12.3 1.9 2.14 1969 338,000 4,503 4,202 301 13.3 12.5 0.9 2.03 1970 339,000 4,476 4,168 308 13.2 12.3 0.9 1.97 1971 342,000 4,512 4,416 96 13.2 12.9 0.3 1.96 1972 347,000 4,138 4,120 18 11.9 11.9 0.1 1.75 1973 351,000 3,847 4,184 -337 11.0 11.9 -1.0 1.58 1974 355,000 3,925 4,291 -366 11.1 12.1 -1.0 1.57 1975 359,000 3,997 4,376 -379 11.1 12.2 -1.1 1.55 1976 361,000 3,915 4,507 -592 10.8 12.5 -1.6 1.48 1977 362,000 4,053 4,083 -30 11.2 11.3 -0.1 1.49 1978 362,000 4,072 4,187 -115 11.2 11.6 -0.3 1.47 1979 363,000 4,078 3,985 93 11.2 11.0 0.3 1.47 1980 364,000 4,169 4,113 56 11.4 11.3 0.2 1.50 1981 365,000 4,414 4,105 309 12.1 11.2 0.8 1.55 1982 366,000 4,300 4,133 167 11.8 11.3 0.5 1.49 1983 366,000 4,185 4,129 56 11.4 11.3 0.2 1.44 1984 366,000 4,192 4,072 120 11.5 11.1 0.3 1.42 1985 367,000 4,104 4,027 77 11.2 11.0 0.2 1.38 1986 368,000 4,309 3,970 339 11.7 10.8 0.9 1.44 1987 371,000 4,238 4,012 226 11.4 10.8 0.6 1.39 1988 374,000 4,603 3,840 763 12.3 10.3 2.0 1.51 1989 378,000 4,665 3,984 681 12.4 10.6 1.8 1.52 1990 382,000 4,936 3,773 1,163 12.9 9.9 3.0 1.62 1991 387,000 4,986 3,744 1,242 12.9 9.7 3.2 1.60 1992 392,000 5,149 4,022 1,127 13.1 10.3 2.9 1.67 1993 397,000 5,353 3,915 1,438 13.5 9.8 3.6 1.69 1994 403,000 5,451 3,800 1,651 13.5 9.4 4.1 1.72 1995 409,000 5,421 3,797 1,624 13.3 9.3 4.0 1.67 1996 414,000 5,689 3,895 1,794 13.7 9.4 4.3 1.76 1997 419,000 5,503 3,937 1,566 13.1 9.4 3.7 1.71 1998 425,000 5,386 3,901 1,485 12.7 9.2 3.5 1.67 1999 430,000 5,582 3,793 1,789 13.0 8.8 4.2 1.71 2000 436,000 5,723 3,754 1,969 13.1 8.6 4.5 1.78 2001 442,000 5,459 3,719 1,740 12.4 8.4 3.9 1.66 2002 446,000 5,345 3,744 1,601 12.0 8.4 3.6 1.63 2003 452,000 5,303 4,053 1,250 11.7 9.0 2.8 1.62 2004 458,000 5,452 3,578 1,874 11.9 7.8 4.1 1.66 2005 465,000 5,371 3,621 1,750 11.5 7.8 3.8 1.62 2006 473,000 5,514 3,766 1,748 11.7 8.0 3.7 1.64 2007 480,000 5,477 3,866 1,611 11.4 8.1 3.4 1.61 2008 489,000 5,596 3,595 2,001 11.5 7.4 4.1 1.60 2009 498,000 5,638 3,657 1,982 11.3 7.3 4.0 1.59 2010 507,000 5,874 3,760 2,114 11.6 7.4 4.2 1.63 2011 518,000 5,639 3,819 1,820 10.9 7.4 3.5 1.51 2012 531,000 6,026 3,876 2,150 11.4 7.3 4.1 1.57 2013 543,000 6,115 3,822 2,293 11.2 7.0 4.2 1.55 2014 556,000 6,070 3,841 2,229 10.9 6.9 4.0 1.50 2015 576,000 6,115 3,983 2,132 10.9 7.0 3.9 1.47 2016 590,000 6,050 3,967 2,083 10.4 6.8 3.6 1.40 2017 602,000 6,174 4,263 1,911 10.4 7.1 3.3 1.39 2018 608,000 6,274 4,318 1,956 10.3 7.1 3.2 1.38 2019 613,900 6,230 4,283 1,947 10.0 6.9 3.1 1.34 2020 626,100 6,459 4,609 1,850 10.2 7.3 2.9 1.37 2021 645,397 6,690 4,489 2,201 10.4 7.0 3.4 1.38 2022 660,809 6,495 4,449 2,046 9.8 6.7 3.1 1.31===Current vital statistics=== + Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January - September 2022''' 4,686 3,313 +1,373 '''January - September 2023''' 4,594 3,252 +1,342 '''Difference''' -92 (−1.96%) -61 (−1.84%) -31===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 319 456 315 274 634 730 100 0–4 16 900 16 355 33 255 5.24 5–9 17 641 16 618 34 259 5.40 10–14 17 291 16 590 33 881 5.34 15–19 17 179 15 892 33 071 5.21 20–24 19 975 18 739 38 714 6.10 25–29 24 373 23 227 47 600 7.50 30–34 25 947 25 103 51 050 8.04 35–39 24 798 24 587 49 385 7.78 40–44 24 400 23 790 48 190 7.59 45–49 23 728 22 533 46 261 7.29 50–54 24 324 22 633 46 957 7.40 55–59 22 789 21 070 43 859 6.91 60–64 18 034 17 477 35 511 5.59 65-69 13 904 14 266 28 170 4.44 70-74 11 176 11 828 23 004 3.62 75-79 7 593 8 844 16 437 2.59 80-84 5 290 7 492 12 782 2.01 85-89 2 853 5 009 7 862 1.24 90-94 1 100 2 493 3 593 0.57 95-99 148 657 805 0.13 100-104 10 67 77 0.01 105-109 2 3 5 <0.01 110+ 1 1 2 <0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 51 832 49 563 101 395 15.97 15–64 225 547 215 051 440 598 69.42 65+ 42 077 50 660 92 737 14.61" ], [ "Fertility", "In 2020, 64% of children born in Luxembourg were to mothers of foreign origin, both from other EU member states and from non-EU countries." ], [ "Immigration", "300pxLuxembourg does not formally collect ethnic or racial data of its citizens.", "The foreign population resident in Luxembourg currently numbers over 296,465, corresponding to 47.4% of the total population (compared to 13.2% in 1961).", "That means there are currently almost as many immigrants as there are native citizens.", "These immigrants are overwhelmingly nationals of EU countries (accounting for over 80%), by far the greater part of whom originally come from Portugal, Italy and the two neighbouring countries, France and Belgium.", "For some years, there has also been a large increase in the number of immigrants and asylum seekers from the countries of Eastern Europe, and especially the new republics to have emerged from the former Yugoslavia (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro).", "These immigrants include a considerable proportion of young people.", "Immigrants (especially asylum seekers) have a strong impact on the birth rate, accounting for nearly 50% of births in Luxembourg.A more detailed breakdown by nationality shows that the Portuguese community is still the largest group, accounting for almost a third of the foreign population.", "The Italian population has been stable for the past ten years at approximately 20,000.Some 80,000 foreigners come from bordering countries (France, Belgium and Germany).", "Nationality ''1 January 2020'' 1 '''''' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 - Other" ], [ "Religion", "The predominant religion of the Luxembourg population is Roman Catholic, with Protestant, Anglican, Jewish, Muslim and Hindu minorities.", "According to a 1979 law, the government forbids collection of data on religious practices, but over 90% is estimated to be baptized Catholic (the Virgin Mary is the Patroness of the city of Luxembourg).The Lutherans are the largest Protestant denomination in the country.", "Muslims are estimated to number approximately 6000 persons, notably including 1,500 refugees from Montenegro; Orthodox (Albanian, Greek, Montenegrin, Serbian, Russian, and Romanian) adherents are estimated to number approximately 5,000 persons, along with approximately 1,000 Jews.", "Freedom of religion is provided by the Luxembourg Constitution." ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "Demographics of Luxembourg, Data of FAO, year 2020The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook." ], [ "Language", "+census 2011LuxembourgishPortugueseFrenchGermanItalianEnglishDutchSpanishSerbianother\"main language\"55,815,712,13,12,92,10,90,80,5spoken at home64,98831,211,65,17,210,4use in school79,610,249,139,31,720,46,5use at the workplace60,514,668,234,24,828,57,3The linguistic situation in Luxembourg is complicated.", "The \"national language\" is Luxembourgish, a West Germanic language based on the same German dialect as in the neighbouring part of Germany.", "Three languages are used by the administration: Luxembourgish, French and German.", "French is the only language of legislation According to the census of 2011, the residents of Luxembourg answer very differently about their use of language, depending on the context (see table)." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Luxembourg" ], [ "Introduction", "Luxembourg is a parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, whereby the prime minister is the head of government, and the multi-party system.", "Executive power is under the constitution of 1868, as amended, exercised by the government, by the grand duke and the Council of Government (cabinet), which consists of a prime minister and several other ministers.", "Usually, the prime minister is the leader of the political party or coalition of parties having the most seats in parliament.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.", "The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.Legislative power is vested in the Chamber of Deputies, elected directly to five-year terms.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Luxembourg was 2023 the 9th most electoral democratic country in the world." ], [ "Recent political history", "Since the end of World War II, the Christian Social People's Party (CSV) has been the senior partner in all governing coalitions with two exceptions: between 1974–79 (DP–LSAP coalition) and between 2013-2023 (DP–LSAP–Green coalition).", "The Catholic-oriented CSV resembles Christian democratic political parties in other West European nations, and enjoys broad popular support making it the strongest party in the country and the second strongest in those regions where it is not the \"number one\".The Democratic Party (DP) is a social-liberal party, drawing support from self-employed persons, the business community and the urban upper-middle class.", "Like other West European liberal parties, it advocates a mixture of basic social legislation and minimum government involvement in the economy.", "It is strongly pro-NATO and defends the idea of a secular state in which religion should not play any role in public life.", "The DP had been a junior partner in coalition governments with the CSV in 1979–1984 and 1999–2004, and senior partner in a coalition government with the LSAP in 1974–1979.The traditional stronghold of the party is the City of Luxembourg, the ''Buergermeeschter'' (Mayor) of the nation's capital coming usually from the ranks of the DP.The Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSAP) is a party of social-democratic orientation which has been a junior partner in most governments since 1974 either with the CSV in 1984–1999 and 2004–2013, or the Democratic Party in 1974–1979.Its stronghold lies in the industrial belt in the south of the country (the ''Minette Region'', which is mainly the canton of Esch).The Greens have received growing support since it was officially formed in 1983.It opposes both nuclear weapons and nuclear power and supports environmental and ecological preservation measures.", "This party generally opposes Luxembourg's military policies, including its membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.The Alternative Democratic Reform Party (ADR) is a national conservative political party.", "It endorses a softly eurosceptic line and advocates and promotes intensely the preservation and use of the Luxembourgish language.", "It is sometimes described as a mildly populist right-wing party.The Left is a democratic socialist party.", "It was formed in 1999.It won its first seat in the Chamber of Deputies in 1999.It currently holds two seats in the Chamber and has done so since 2013.The Pirate Party Luxembourg was formed in October 2009.It won its first two seats in the Chamber of Deputies in 2018 with 6.45% of the vote.The Communist Party (KPL), which received 10%–18% of the vote in national elections from World War II to the 1960s, won two seats in the 1984 elections, one in 1989, and none in 1994.The last election it won a seat in Luxembourg's national legislature was in 1999 with 3.3% of the vote.", "It lost this single seat in 2004 and has held no seats in Luxembourg's national legislature since.", "It also holds no seats in the EU Parliament.", "Its small remaining support lies in the heavily industrialised south.In the June 2004 parliamentary elections, the CSV won 24 seats, the LSAP 14, the DP 10, the Greens 7, and the Alternative Democratic Reform Party 5.The Left and the Communist Party each lost its single seat in part due to their separate campaigns.", "The Democratic Party which had become the junior coalition partner in 1999 registered heavy losses.", "The long-reigning CSV was the main winner, partly due to the personal popularity of the prime minister Jean-Claude Juncker (CSV).", "In July 2004, it chose the LSAP as its coalition partner.", "Jean Asselborn (LSAP) was appointed as the Vice Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Immigration.", "In 2013, the CSV lost one seat (23 seats instead of 24).A complete list of all governments is maintained on the website of the Government of Luxembourg.In 2008, the bitter controversy over euthanasia had parliament pass a measure which would restrict the legislative veto powers of the grand duke, who had opposed the pro-euthanasia law on the grounds of his personal moral standards based on the Christian faith, a problem of private conscience very similar to what had occurred in Belgium in the early 1990s when King Baudouin expressed his opposition to a law liberalizing abortion.In July 2013, Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker announced his resignation following a secret service scandal.", "He had been prime minister since 1995.In December 2013, openly gay Xavier Bettel was sworn in as the new prime minister to succeed Juncker.", "Bettel of Democratic Party (DP), formed a coalition of Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens who won a combined majority of 32 out of 60 seats in Luxembourg's snap election on 20 October 2013.However, Juncker's Christian Democrats (CSV) remained the biggest party with 23 seats.In July 2014, European Parliament elected former Luxembourg prime minister Jean-Claude Juncker as the President of the European Commission on 1 November 2014, succeeding Portugal's Jose Manuel Barroso, who had held the post since 2004.In December 2018, Prime Minister Xavier Bettel was sworn in for a second term, following the narrow victory of his liberal-led coalition in 2018 parliamentary election.On 12 July the Luxembourg Parliament supported the expansion of NATO.In October 2023, the Christian Social People’s Party (CSV) won the general election, meaning Prime Minister Xavier Bettel’s ruling liberal coalition lost its clear majority.", "In November 2023, Luc Frieden, leader of CSV, became new Prime minister of Luxemburg.", "He formed a coalition with the liberal Democratic Party (DP), meaning outgoing Prime Minister Xavier Bettel remained in government as foreign minister and deputy prime minister." ], [ "Executive branch", "| Grand DukeHenri - 7 October 2000 Prime Minister Luc Frieden CSV 17 November 2023 Deputy Prime Minister Xavier Bettel DP 17 November 2023Luxembourg has a parliamentary form of government with a constitutional monarchy operating according to absolute primogeniture.According to the constitution of 1868, executive power is exercised by the Grand Duke or Grand Duchess and the cabinet, which consists of a Prime Minister and a variable number of government branch ministers.", "The Grand Duke has the power to dissolve the legislature and reinstate a new one.", "However, since 1919, sovereignty has resided with the nation.The monarchy is hereditary within the ruling dynasty of ''Luxembourg-Nassau''.", "The prime minister and vice prime minister are appointed by the monarch, following popular elections to the Chamber of Deputies.", "All government members are responsible to the Chamber of Deputies.", "The government is currently a coalition of the CSV and DP." ], [ "Legislative branch", "The Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourgish: ''D'Chamber''; French: ''Chambre des Députés'') has 60 members, elected for a five-year term by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies.The Council of State (Luxembourgish: ''Staatsrot''; French: ''Conseil d'État'') is an advisory body composed of 21 citizens (usually politicians or senior public servants with good political ties) proposed by the Council of Government and appointed by the Grand Duke.", "Traditionally the heir of the throne is also one of its members.", "Its role is to advise the Chamber of Deputies in the drafting of legislation.", "The function of the councilor ends after a continuous or discontinuous period of fifteen years or when the relevant person reaches the age of seventy-two.", "The responsibilities of the members of the Council of State are extracurricular to their normal professional duties." ], [ "Political parties and elections" ], [ "Judicial branch", "Luxembourgish law is based upon the Code Napoléon with numerous updates, modernization, and modifications.", "The apex of the judicial system is the Superior Court of Justice (Luxembourgish: ''Iewechte Geriichtshaff''; French: ''Cour Supérieure de Justice''), whose judges are appointed by the Grand Duke for life.", "The same goes for the Administrative Court (Luxembourgish: ''Verwaltungsgeriicht''; French: ''Cour Administrative'')." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The Grand Duchy is divided into twelve cantons:* Luxembourg/Lëtzebuerg* Esch-Sur-Alzette* Capellen* Remich/Réimech* Grevenmacher/Gréiwemaacher* Echternach/Iechternach* Mersch/Miersch* Redange/Réiden* Diekirch/Dikrech* Wiltz/Wolz* Clervaux/Klierf* Vianden/VeianenTwo judicial districts: * Diekirch/Dikrech * Luxembourg/LëtzebuergFour electoral constituencies (multi-seated):* North/Norden/Nord* East/Osten/Est* Centre/Zentrum* South/Süden/Sud" ], [ "Military", "Luxembourg's contribution to its defense and to NATO consists of a small but well-equipped army of volunteers of Luxembourgish and foreign nationality.", "Its operational headquarters are at the Haerebierg Military Center in Diekirch.Being a landlocked country, it has no navy.", "It also has no air force.", "According to an agreement with neighboring Belgium, its airspace is protected by the Belgian Air Force.Also, 18 NATO Airborne Warning And Control System (AWACS) airplanes are registered as aircraft of Luxembourg based on a decision of the NATO Authorities." ], [ "International organization membership", "Luxembourg is a member of ACCT, Australia Group, Benelux, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, NATO, NEA, NSG, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, Zangger Committee" ], [ "See also", "*List of political parties in Luxembourg*Foreign relations of Luxembourg" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Luxembourg" ], [ "Introduction", "labour productivity level of Luxembourg is one of the highest in Europe.", "OECD, 2012.The '''economy of Luxembourg''' is largely dependent on the banking, steel, and industrial sectors.", "Citizens of Luxembourg enjoy the second highest per capita gross domestic product in the world, according to an IMF estimate in 2022.Although Luxembourg in tourist literature is aptly called the \"Green Heart of Europe\", its pastoral land coexists with a highly industrialized and export-intensive area.", "Luxembourg's economy is quite similar to Germany's.", "Luxembourg enjoys a degree of economic prosperity very rare among industrialized democracies." ], [ "Sectors", "In 2013 the GDP was $60.54 billion of which services, including the financial sector, produced 86%.", "The financial sector comprised 36% of GDP, industry comprised 13.3% and agriculture only 0.3%.=== The financial center ======= Banking ====Luxembourg has been part of the eurozone since 1999.Banking is the largest sector in the Luxembourg economy.", "In the 2019 Global Financial Centres Index, Luxembourg was ranked as having the 25th most competitive financial center in the world, and third most competitive in Europe after London and Zürich.", "The country has specialised in the cross-border fund administration business.", "As Luxembourg's domestic market is relatively small, the country's financial centre is predominantly international.", "At the end of March 2009, there were 152 banks in Luxembourg, with over 27,000 employees.", "Political stability, good communications, easy access to other European centres, skilled multilingual staff, a tradition of banking secrecy and cross-border financial expertise have all contributed to the growth of the financial sector.", "These factors have contributed to a Corruption Perceptions Index of 8.3 and a DAW Index ranking of 10 in 2012; the latter the highest in Europe.", "Germany accounts for the largest-single grouping of banks, with Scandinavian, Japanese, and major US banks also heavily represented.", "Total assets exceeded €929 billion at the end of 2008.More than 9,000 holding companies are established in Luxembourg.", "The European Investment Bank—the financial institution of the European Union—is also located there.", "Luxembourg enterprises expected negative investment in 2023 due to slowing economic growth and tighter monetary policy.", "The net balance of enterprises anticipating an increase in investment minus those expecting a fall is negative at -4%, far lower than the EU average of 14%.==== Holdings ====Since the Holding Act of 1929, Luxembourg has been an attractive location for tax avoidance.", "A network of lawyers, bankers and political elites have since then maintained an infrastructure of regulatory codes, legal expertise and shell companies that enable tax avoidance.", "Concern about Luxembourg's banking secrecy laws, and its reputation as a tax haven, led in April 2009 to it being added to a \"grey list\" of nations with questionable banking arrangements by the G20, a list from which it was removed in 2009.This concern has led Luxembourg to modify its tax legislation to avoid conflict with the tax authorities of European Union Members.", "For example, the classic tax exempt 1929 Holding Company was outlawed 31 December 2010, as it was deemed an illegal state aid by the European Commission.===== The early beginnings of the financial center =====Contrary to the belief of a large number of national historians, the financial center of Luxembourg was not a product that simply saw success out of nowhere in the 70s.", "In their article, Calabrese and Majerus argue that the Holding Law of 1929 (H29) was more than just a historical side note, but rather a foundation that laid the future of the country’s financial success.", "In essence the law was a legal tool that would help companies in avoiding double taxation on financial assets, mainly by creating a dummy corporations and profiting from the low taxes the country offered for these kinds of companies.", "The newly introduced Holding regime was successful.", "Within a span of three years, the capital estimations for the holding companies not only met but exceeded expectations, reaching a total surpassing 2 billion Luxembourg francs.", "Among the biggest holdings was The Ford Investment Company set up in early 1930.The Holding, enabled by the legislation, could avoid UK tax on the dividends of its subsidiary companies in Europe.", "This type of company could however, also be used to loan money or make investments, like in the case of Ford by buying factories for European subsidiaries for example.", "The Law was accompanied by the creation of the Luxembourg Stock Exchange a year earlier, which would constitute another important institution to round off the construction of a national financial center.", "In the interwar period, the role these Holding companies played as a source of revenue started to materialize.", "While the discussions on the adoption of the Holding Law saw opposition members argue against it, discussions on later modifications on the Law would not see a strong opposition anymore due to its contribution to the state’s tax revenues.H29 also enabled the creation of networks and practices.", "Following its implementation, Luxembourg experienced the establishment of a network involving lawyers, banks, and notaries closely associated with the local political elite.", "This network successfully developed and maintained an infrastructure comprising regulatory codes, legal expertise, and shell companies, rendering it appealing within the European market for tax avoidance.", "Additionally, H29 majorly contributed to the establishment of a legal framework that would pave the way for the future use of investment funds, by establishing a positive reputation among investors and proving itself to be a competent key-player on the market.", "As a result, Luxembourg was chosen in 1963 to list the first and a large part of the Eurobonds on the Luxembourg Stock Exchange, a choice that only could have been made with the awareness of a financial center that could keep up with others such as London, which were also used in the case of Eurobonds.Consequently, the Holding Law of 1929 had a large and long lasting impact on the construction of a domestic financial place, an impact that should not be disregarded when presenting the economic history of the country.===Steel===A key event in the economic history of Luxembourg was the 1876 introduction of English metallurgy.", "The refining process led to the development of the steel industry in Luxembourg and founding of the Arbed company in 1911.The restructuring of the industry and increasing government ownership in Arbed (31%) began as early as 1974.As a result of timely modernization of facilities, cutbacks in production and employment, government assumption of portions of Arbed's debt, and recent cyclical recovery of the international demand for steel, the company is again profitable.", "Its productivity is among the highest in the world.", "US markets account for about 6% of Arbed's output.", "The company specializes in production of large architectural steel beams and specialized value-added products.", "There has been, however, a relative decline in the steel sector, offset by Luxembourg's emergence as a financial center.", "In 2001, through the merger with Aceralia and Usinor, Arbed became Arcelor.", "Arcelor was taken over in 2006 by Mittal Steel to form Arcelor-Mittal, helmed by Lakshmi Mittal, the largest steel producer in the world.===Telecommunications===Government policies promote the development of Luxembourg as an audiovisual and communications center.", "Radio-Television-Luxembourg is Europe's premier private radio and television broadcaster.", "The government-backed Luxembourg satellite company \"Société européenne des satellites\" (SES) was created in 1986 to install and operate a satellite telecommunications system for transmission of television programs throughout Europe.", "The first SES Astra satellite, the 16-channel RCA 4000 Astra 1A, was launched by the Ariane Rocket in December 1988.SES presently constitutes the world largest satellite services company in terms of revenue.67% of Luxembourg enterprises use innovative digital technologies.", "Luxembourg firms choose robots (74%), IoT (43%), and Digital Platforms (42%), over other digital technologies.===Tourism===Tourism is an important component of the national economy, representing about 8.3% of GDP in 2009 and employing some 25,000 people or 11.7% of the working population.", "Despite the current crisis, the Grand Duchy still welcomes over 900,000 visitors a year who spend an average of 2.5 nights in hotels, hostels or on camping sites.", "Business travel is flourishing representing 44% of overnight stays in the country and 60% in the capital, up 11% and 25% between 2009 and 2010.===Agriculture===Luxembourg's small but productive agricultural sector is highly subsidized, mainly by the EU and the government.", "It employs about 1–3% of the workforce.", "Most farmers are engaged in dairy and meat production.", "Vineyards in the Moselle Valley annually produce about 15 million litres of dry white wine, most of which is consumed within Luxembourg and also in Germany, France, and Belgium on a lesser scale." ], [ "Data", "In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Luxembourg is Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate with 89,748 companies followed by Services and Retail Trade with 31,658 and 6,571 companies respectively.The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Inflation under 2% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment (in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)19805.715,6116.43.2%6.3%0.7%n/a19816.317,1535.50.8%8.1%1.0%n/a19826.718,3914.61.0%9.4%1.3%n/a19837.119,4784.51.9%8.7%1.6%n/a19847.721,1064.44.7%5.6%1.7%n/a19858.422,9564.55.6%14.8%1.7%n/a19869.425,6386.610.0%0.3%1.5%n/a198710.127,1558.24.0%−0.1%1.7%n/a198811.330,2239.38.5%1.4%1.5%n/a198912.934,1379.99.8%3.4%1.4%n/a199014.136,86312.65.3%3.7%1.3%n/a199115.840,82613.78.6%3.1%1.4%n/a199216.541,94315.31.8%3.2%1.6%n/a199317.644,11515.74.2%3.6%2.1%n/a199418.646,10417.53.8%2.2%2.7%n/a199519.347,51620.61.4%1.9%3.0%8.9%199619.948,41220.51.5%1.2%3.2%8.6%199721.551,50218.45.9%1.4%3.3%8.5%199823.154,75719.36.5%1.0%3.1%8.1%199925.459,52921.18.4%1.0%2.9%7.1%200028.865,07921.28.4%3.8%2.2%6.5%200129.667,33121.42.5%2.4%2.0%6.9%200231.270,24923.63.8%2.1%2.5%6.8%200332.372,12729.71.6%2.5%3.3%6.8%200434.475,66335.03.6%3.2%4.0%7.3%200536.779,48037.73.2%3.7%4.0%7.4%200639.784,72242.95.2%3.0%4.0%7.8%200744.292,83751.68.4%2.7%4.0%7.7%200844.591,97758.8−1.3%4.1%4.1%14.9%200942.986,89454.4−4.4%0.0%5.6%15.7%201045.590,66256.34.9%2.8%6.0%19.8%201147.692,97061.72.5%3.7%6.0%18.7%201248.392,10259.8−0.4%2.9%6.1%21.7%201350.994,82465.23.7%1.7%6.8%23.7%201454.899,73868.85.8%0.7%7.1%22.7%201557.0101,25560.12.9%0.1%6.8%22.0%201659.5103,28662.23.1%0.0%6.3%20.8%201762.8106,37365.73.5%2.1%5.8%23.0%" ], [ "Energy", "In 1978, Luxembourg tried to build a 1,200 MW nuclear reactor but dropped the plans after threats of major protests.Currently, Luxembourg uses imported oil and natural gas for the majority of its energy generation." ], [ "Spaceflight and space resource extraction", "Luxembourg is a member of the European Space Agencywhere Luxembourg contributed 23 million Euros in 2015.The world's biggest satellite operator (SES Global) has its origin and headquarters in Betzdorf, Luxembourg.In February 2016, the Government of Luxembourg announced that it would attempt to \"jump-start an industrial sector to mine asteroid resources in space\" by, among other things, creating a \"legal framework\" and regulatory incentives for companies involved in the industry.By June 2016, announced that it would \"invest more than in research, technology demonstration, and in the direct purchase of equity in companies relocating to Luxembourg.\"", "By April 2017, three space mining corporations had established headquarters established in Luxembourg.Luxembourg's new law took effect in August 2017, ensuring that private operators can be confident about their rights on resources they extract in space.", "The law provides that space resources can be owned by anyone, not just by Luxembourg citizens or companies.\"" ], [ "Transportation", "Luxembourg has efficient road, rail and air transport facilities and services.", "The road network has been significantly modernised in recent years with 147 km of motorways connecting the capital to adjacent countries.", "The advent of the high-speed TGV link to Paris has led to renovation of the city's railway station while a new passenger terminal at Luxembourg Airport has recently been opened.", "The airport has known a sustained growth in passenger numbers during the last years (2015: 2.7 mio, 2020 : 4 mio expected), and the second stage of expansion is on its way.Trams have been reintroduced to the capital (first core line operative in end 2017) and further lines are planned, including a tram/light-rail to Esch-sur-Alzette.", "In 2019, almost all public transport was made free to use for both residents and visitors." ], [ "See also", "*Economy of Europe*List of companies of Luxembourg*The Integrated Traffic and Landscape Concept for the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg*Social welfare in Luxembourg*Luxembourg for Finance" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Majerus, Benoît & Benjamin Zenner (2020) \" Too small to be of interest, too large to grasp?", "Histories of the Luxembourg financial centre.\"", "''European Review of History''** * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Economic Survey of Luxembourg 2012 from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)* OECD general page on Luxembourg* Government statistics * Luxembourg in ''The World Factbook''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Luxembourg" ], [ "Introduction", "Luxembourg is known for opening local television and radio stations in other countries.", "RTL Group is operated in many countries.", "Luxembourg is the home of the world's biggest satellite company, SES, located in Betzdorf.In the 2022 Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI), among the 27 European Union (EU) members, Luxembourg is placed 6th in Human Capital, with 64% of its population possessing basic digital skills, exceeding the EU average of 54%.", "Additionally, in Information and Communication Technology (ICT), the country mirrors the EU average with 20% female ICT specialists.", "For Connectivity, it ranks 11th, with 91% uptake in fixed broadband and 96% in mobile broadband, both figures exceeding the EU averages of 78% and 87%, respectively.", "The country is 18th in Integration of Digital Technology, as Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) show a 54% digital intensity level, slightly below the EU average of 55%.", "In Digital Public Services, Luxembourg ranks 7th with an e-government user rate of 79%, exceeding the EU's 65%." ], [ "User statistics", "* Telephones - main lines in use: 314,700 (1999)* Telephones - mobile cellular: 215,741 (2000)* Telephone system: highly developed, completely automated and efficient system, mainly buried cables** ''domestic:'' nationwide cellular telephone system; buried cable** ''international:'' 3 channels leased on TAT-6 coaxial submarine cable (Europe to North America)* Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 9, shortwave 2 (1999)* Radios: 285,000 (1997)* Television broadcast stations: 5 (1999)* Televisions: 285,000 (1998 est.", ")* Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 8 (2000) Note: Work has started in 2006 on a citywide WiFi project called Hotcity.", "* Internet users: 100,000 (2001)* Country code (Top-level domain): .lu" ], [ "Internet", "=== Fixed broadband ===Luxembourg's fixed broadband sector exhibits a 91% uptake rate, exceeding the EU's 78% average.", "Additionally, 63% of Luxembourg households have access to broadband speeds of at least 100 Mbps, above the EU's 41%.", "The country's digital infrastructure includes 96% coverage in very high capacity networks (VHCN) and 75% in fibre to the premises (FTTP), both higher than the EU averages of 70% and 50%, respectively.=== Mobile broadband ===The country demonstrates solid performance in mobile broadband with an uptake rate of 96%, higher than the EU average of 87%.", "The country is advancing its 5G capabilities, achieving an assigned 5G spectrum of 61%, slightly above the EU average of 56%.", "However, 5G coverage lags behind, with a notably lower coverage rate of 13% compared to the EU average of 66%=== Digital public services ===In the domain of digital public services, Luxembourg ranks 7th within the EU.", "Notably, 79% of the country's internet users actively utilize e-government solutions, representing a significant increase compared to the prior year and to the EU average of 65%.", "This accomplishment is attributed to the \"Electronic Governance 2021-2025\" strategy, jointly developed by the Ministry for Digitalisation and the Government IT Centre (CTIE), with the goal of facilitating the transition to a digital government model.", "Luxembourg actively promotes innovation and modernization through initiatives such as the Guichet.lu portal, electronic authentication certificates, and the introduction of numerous online administrative procedures.", "The country continues its efforts to enhance open data availability, currently standing at 66%, which is below the EU average of 81%." ], [ "References", "(49° 41'36 N; 6° 19'45 E)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Luxembourg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in Luxembourg''' is ensured principally by road, rail and air.", "There are also services along the river Moselle which forms the border with Germany.", "The road network has been significantly modernised in recent years with motorways to adjacent countries.", "The advent of the high-speed TGV link to Paris has led to renovation of the capital's main railway station while a new Schengen-only passenger terminal at Luxembourg Airport opened in 2017.Trams in the capital were reintroduced in December 2017 and there are plans for light-rail and/or tram-train lines in adjacent areas.All public transport in Luxembourg (buses, trams, and trains) has been free to use since 29 February 2020, as part of a larger mobility experiment with goals to increase walking for short trips, increase bicycling, and increase the transit ridership sharply as the network is enlarged and service frequency is increased.Current cross-border railway network, connecting Luxembourg City with Luxembourg's neighbouring countries, north (Belgium) – south (France) and east (Germany) – west (France)" ], [ "Railways", "Operated by Chemins de Fer Luxembourgeois (CFL), Luxembourg's railways form the backbone of the country's public transport network, linking the most important towns.", "The total length of operational (standard gauge) track is , though it was some at the end of the Second World War.", "There are regular services from Luxembourg City to Ettelbruck, Esch-sur-Alzette, Wasserbillig and Kleinbettingen while international routes extend to Trier, Koblenz, Brussels, Liège, Metz and Nancy.The railway network links into Belgium, Germany and France.", "Some of the cross-border services are run by CFL, others by SNCF, NMBS/SNCB and DB.There is now a frequent high-speed connection to Paris via the LGV Est line.", "EuroCap-Rail is a proposed high-speed axis connecting Brussels, Luxembourg (city), and Strasbourg." ], [ "Roads", "===Road network===Luxembourg's A7 motorwayThe six Luxembourg motorways cover a total distance of , linking the capital with Trier (Germany), Thionville (France) and Arlon (Belgium) as well as with Esch-sur-Alzette and Ettelbruck in Luxembourg.", "Luxembourg's motorways are toll free.", "The speed limit is normally , in rainy weather.", "With of motorway per , Luxembourg probably now has the highest density of motorways in Europe.Luxembourg City is a major business and financial center.", "Many workers prefer to live in the three neighboring countries and drive to work each day.", "This creates huge traffic jams during peak commuting hours.", "Tailbacks on the E411 motorway can extend five or more kilometers into Belgium and can take an hour or more to navigate.The remaining road network in Luxembourg accounts for a total length of , consisting of of trunk roads (RN or ''routes nationales'') and of secondary roads (CR or ''chemins repris'').+Evaluation of road kmYear (as of 01.01)19901995200020082012201620172019kmkmkmkmkmkmkmkmRoads (total)27752820286328752899290829122914Trunk roads869869837837837837837839Motorways78123115147152161165165Secondary roads18281828191118911891189118911891===Bus services===Comprehensive bus services linking the towns and villages of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg are contracted out to private operators by the RGTR (Régime général des transports routiers) under the Ministry of Transport.Luxembourg City is served by 163 of its own AVL (Autobus de la Ville de Luxembourg) buses transporting some 28 million passengers per year (2007).", "As with the RGTR, AVL contracts out to private operators for a number of services.", "Most of these buses are in AVL colors but the owner's name is often mentioned on them in small print.", "Also, the letters on the license plate can give ownership away to those that know how that system works.", "There are 25 regular bus routes plus special bus services through the night.The TICE or Syndicat des Tramways Intercommunaux dans le Canton d’Esch/Alzette operates several bus routes.", "They are centered on the city of Esch-sur-Alzette in the southeast of the country.", "Most are urban and suburban routes but some extend into the surrounding countryside.CFL, the Luxembourg railway company, operates some 17 bus routes, mainly serving towns and villages that are no longer served by rail.A number of smaller cities like Ettelbruck and Wiltz have started their own local services, some of which reach out to nearby villages.", "These services are not part of the RGTR and national tickets are not always honored.All transport companies work together under the ''Verkéiersverbond'', which covers all bus, tram, and train routes.", "Starting from 29 Feb 2020, all public transport was made free throughout the territory of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, funded through general taxation.", "However first class tickets can still be purchased for use on the trains: a ticket valid for 2 hours is €3, whilst a one-day ticket is €6.=== Cycling ===Veloh bike sharing LuxemburgIn the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the EV5 Via Romea Francigena runs and follows a network of dedicated cycle paths from the Belgian border, through to its cliff-top capital city, and towards the French and German borders at Schengen.", "The EV5 follows the following national routes in Luxembourg: PC18, PC17, PC12, PC13, the Luxembourg-Ville route no.", "10, PC1, PC11, PC7 and PC3.In Luxembourg, the EV5 goes through Strassen, Luxembourg, Hesperange and Schengen.", "It then passes through back to France." ], [ "Trams", "Luxembourg's historic tramway network closed in 1964 as part of a general decline of trams across Europe but the city reintroduced trams at the end of 2017 as part of the renaissance of tramways.", "The phased approach initially saw trams running through the Kirchberg quarter to the Grand Duchess Charlotte Bridge, and later Place de l'Etoile, before the line was eventually extended to the old town in Ville Haute and on towards Luxembourg railway station.", "Currently under construction are the extensions to the Cloche d'Or business district in the south, and Luxembourg Airport in the north.", "A new funicular line was also opened allowing connections between trams running along the Kirchberg approach to the Grand Duchess Charlotte Bridge and a new station serving a CFL rail line located in the Pfaffenthal valley below.", "The full tramline is planned to be completed by 2023.Moselle tourist boats at Remich" ], [ "Water", "The river Moselle forms a natural border between Luxembourg and Germany in the southeast of the country.", "In the summer months, the Princess Marie-Astrid and a few other tourist boats operate regular services along the river.Mertert near Grevenmacher on the Moselle is Luxembourg's only commercial port.", "With two quays covering a total length of , it offers facilities connecting river, road and rail transport.", "It is used principally for coal, steel, oil, agricultural goods and building materials.", "In 2016, the port handled 1.2 million tonnes of cargo." ], [ "Air", "Luxembourg Airport at Findel, some to the north of the city, is Luxembourg's only commercial airport.", "Thanks to its long runway (4,000 m), even the largest types of aircraft are able to use its facilities.Luxembourg airportLuxair, Luxembourg's international airline, and Cargolux, a cargo-only airline, operate out of the airport.", "In 2008, the airport ranked as Europe's 5th largest and the world's 23rd by cargo tonnage.Luxair has regular passenger services to 20 European destinations and operates tourist flights to 17 more.", "Other airlines operating flights to and from Luxembourg include British Airways, KLM, Scandinavian Airlines, Swiss Global Air Lines, and TAP Portugal.A large new airport terminal building was opened in 2008 with more modern facilities, including an underground carpark.", "In order to accommodate anticipated growth in travel within the Schengen Area, in 2016 an abandoned terminal was renovated to handle low-capacity and regional flights." ], [ "Pipelines", "The trunk natural gas pipelines in Luxembourg have a total length of (2007).Russia and Norway are the main producers.", "The Luxembourg network is connected to Germany, France and Belgium." ], [ "Merchant Navy", "MS Princesse Marie-Astrid on the river Moselle near EhnenLuxembourg has 150 vessels in its merchant navy.", "These include 4 bulk carriers, 1 container ship, 21 general cargo ships, 3 oil tankers, and 121 others." ], [ "See also", "*The Integrated Traffic and Landscape Concept for the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg*Plug-in electric vehicles in Luxembourg*Trams in Luxembourg" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Luxembourg Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Luxembourg Armed Forces''' (; ) are the national military force of Luxembourg.", "The army has been a fully volunteer military since 1967., it has 939 personnel.The army is under civilian control, with the grand duke as commander-in-chief.", "The minister for defence, currently Yuriko Backes, oversees army operations.", "The professional head of the army is the Chief of Defence, who answers to the minister and holds the rank of general.Luxembourg has provided military personnel for UN, NATO and EU peacekeeping missions since 1992.It has been a member of Eurocorps since 1994." ], [ "History", "=== Militia (1817–1841) ===On 8 January 1817, William I, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, published a constitutional law governing the organization of a militia, the main provisions of which were to remain in force until the militia was abolished in 1881.The law fixed the militia's strength at 3,000 men.", "Until 1840, Luxembourg's militiamen served in units of the Royal Netherlands Army.", "Enlisted men served for five years: the first year consisted of active service, but during each of the subsequent four years of service they were mobilised only three times per year.=== Federal Contingent (1841-1867) ===In 1839, William I became a party to the Treaty of London by which the Grand-Duchy lost its western, francophone territories to the Belgian province of Luxembourg.", "Due to the country's population having been halved, with the loss of 160,000 inhabitants, the militia lost half its strength.", "Under the terms of the treaty, Luxembourg and the newly formed Duchy of Limburg, both members of the German Confederation, were together required to provide a federal contingent consisting of a light infantry battalion garrisoned in Echternach, a cavalry squadron in Diekirch, and an artillery detachment in Ettelbruck.", "In 1846, the cavalry and artillery units were disbanded and the Luxembourg contingent was separated from that of Limburg.", "The Luxembourg contingent now consisted of two light infantry battalions, one in Echternach and the second in Diekirch; two reserve companies; and a depot company.In 1866, the Austro-Prussian war resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation.", "Luxembourg was declared neutral in perpetuity by the 1867 Treaty of London, and in accordance, its fortress was demolished in the following years.", "In 1867, the Prussian garrison left the fortress, and the two battalions of Luxembourg light infantry entered the city of Luxembourg that September.A new military organization was established in 1867, consisting of two battalions, known as the , having a total strength of 1,568 officers and men.", "In 1868, the contingent came to consist of one light infantry battalion of four companies, with a strength of 500 men.", "On 16 February 1881, the light infantry battalion was disbanded with the abolition of the militia-based system.=== Gendarmes and Volunteers Corps ===Soldiers of the pose for a photograph, 1910On 16 February 1881, the (Corps of Gendarmes and Volunteers) was established.", "It was composed of two companies, a company of gendarmes and one of volunteers.", "In 1939, a corps of auxiliary volunteers was established and attached to the company of volunteers.", "Following the occupation of Luxembourg by Germany in May 1940, recruitment for the company of volunteers continued until 4 December 1940, when they were moved to Weimar, Germany, to be trained as German police.=== Luxembourg Battery ===Luxembourg troops training in an English seaside town in 1943In 1944 during World War II, the Luxembourg Government, while exiled in London, made agreements for a group of seventy Luxembourg volunteers to be assigned to the Artillery Group of the 1st Belgian Infantry Brigade, commonly known as Brigade Piron, Jean-Baptiste Piron being the chief of this unit.", "This contingent was named the Luxembourg Battery.", "Initially, it was built up and trained by two Belgian officers.", "Later, from August 1944, these were joined by Luxembourg officers, who had received training in Britain.Several Luxembourg NCOs and half of the country's troops had fought in North Africa in the French Foreign Legion.", "The rest were people who had escaped from Luxembourg, and young men evading forcible conscription into the Wehrmacht by fleeing to Britain.", "The Luxembourg unit landed in Normandy on 6 August 1944—at approximately the same time as the Dutch Princess Irene Brigade and the French 2nd DB (\"division blindée\") commanded by General Leclerc—two months after the D-Day landings.The Luxembourg Battery was equipped with four Ordnance QF 25 pounder howitzers, which were named after the four daughters of Grand Duchess Charlotte: Princesses Elisabeth, Marie Adelaide, Marie Gabriele and Alix.=== Post-Liberation Luxembourg Armed Forces ===Conscription was introduced in Luxembourg for the first time in November 1944.In 1945, the '''''' (Grand Ducal Guard Corps) garrisoned in the Saint-Esprit barracks in Luxembourg City and the 1st and 2nd infantry battalions were established, one in Walferdange and the other in Dudelange.", "The Luxembourg Armed Forces took charge of part of the French occupation zone in Germany, the 2nd Battalion occupying part of the Bitburg district and a detachment from the 1st Battalion part of the Saarburg district.", "The 2nd Battalion remained in Bitburg until 1955.The strength of the army rose to 2,150 men.", "Luxembourg signed the Treaty of Brussels in March 1948, and the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949.Setting up an army after the war proved more difficult than predicted.", "To a certain extent, the authorities could rely on escaped German conscripts and Luxembourgers who had joined Allied armies; however, they had to find a way to train officers.", "Initially, British military advisers came to Luxembourg, where training was carried out by British officers and NCOs.", "But officer training, in the long term, would have to be done in military schools abroad.", "Belgium and France were both interested in helping and offered solutions.", "In the end, the government opted for a compromise solution, by sending some officer cadets to the in France and others to the Royal Military Academy in Belgium.", "This eventually led to disunity within the Luxembourg officer corps due to differences in training and promotion.In 1951, the Grand Ducal Guard relocated to Walferdange and integrated with the ''''''.", "The Guard had special units for reconnaissance, radiac reconnaissance, and anti-air warfare.", "From 1955, it was organised into a headquarters company, a garrison platoon, a reconnaissance company and two training companies.", "In 1959, the was disbanded and the Grand Ducal Guard was integrated into the '''''' (Territorial Command).", "The force was reduced to a single company, a corporals' training school, and a weapons platoon.", "In 1960, the Grand Ducal Guard was again reorganised into four platoons, temporarily grouped into intervention and reinforcement detachments.", "In 1964, the Grand Ducal Guard was organized into a HQ, three platoons, a reinforcement platoon, and the NCO school.", "On 28 February 1966, the Grand Ducal Guard was officially disbanded.=== Korean War ===A Luxembourgish soldier in Korea, 1953In 1950, seventeen countries, including Luxembourg, decided to send armed forces to assist the Republic of Korea.", "The Luxembourg contingent was incorporated into the Belgian United Nations Command or the Korean Volunteer Corps.", "The Belgo-Luxemburgish battalion arrived in Korea in 1951, and was attached to the US 3rd Infantry Division.", "Two Luxembourger soldiers were killed and 17 were wounded in the war.", "The Belgo-Luxembourg battalion was disbanded in 1955.=== Groupement Tactique Régimentaire and Home Command ===In 1954, the '''''' (GTR) (Regimental Tactical Group) was established as Luxembourg's contribution to NATO.", "It consisted of three infantry battalions, an artillery battalion, and support, medical, transport, signals, engineering, heavy mortar, reconnaissance, and headquarters companies.", "By 1954, its overall strength had risen to 5,200 men.", "The GTR was disbanded in 1959.In addition to the GTR, the Army also included the '''Territorial Command''', composed of headquarters, military police, movement and transportation companies, a static guard battalion, and a mobile battalion.", "By 1954, it numbered some 2,500 men.", "At the same date, some 2.45 percent of the country's population was serving in the military.=== 1st Artillery Battalion ===In 1961, the 1st Artillery Battalion was placed at NATO's disposal.", "The battalion was organised into three batteries, each with six field howitzers (British 25 pounder guns converted to 105 mm caliber) from the former GTR artillery battalion, an HQ battery, and a service battery.", "In 1963, the battalion was attached to the US 8th Infantry Division.", "In 1966, the Grand Ducal Guard was disbanded and its tasks were transferred to and performed by the 1st Artillery Battalion until it too was disbanded, in 1967.=== 1st Infantry Battalion ===Compulsory military service was abolished in 1967 by which time some 34,700 men had served at some point in the Luxembourg Army.", "As part of a major reorganisation of the military, the 1st Infantry Battalion was established, consisting of a headquarters and services unit, two motorized infantry companies, and a reconnaissance company with two reconnaissance (recce) platoons and an anti-tank platoon.", "From 1968 onwards, it formed a part of NATO's ACE Mobile Force (Land) (AMF(L)).", "In 1985, a reinforced company—consisting of an AMF Company with two recce platoons and an anti-tank platoon, a forward air-control team, a national support element for logistics, and a medical support element—replaced the battalion.", "In 2002 the AMF(L) was dissolved.=== Recent international operations ===Luxembourg started financially supporting international peacekeeping missions in 1991, citing the Persian Gulf War, Rwanda and in Albania.", "Luxembourg is deploying military personnel for peacekeeping missions since 1992.Luxembourg has contributed troops to the UNPROFOR from April 1992 to August 1993, deploying in total 40 military personnel in a Belgian bataillon.", "In 1996 Luxembourg contributed to IFOR missions in former Yugoslavia in a multinational transport company.", "This was followed by a small contingent in the NATO SFOR mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina, completing 9 personnel rotations.", "The Luxembourg Armed Forces were integrated into the Multinational Beluga Force under Belgian command.", "Luxembourg has contributed over 18 years in NATO KFOR, totalling 1200 military personnel.", "Luxembourg deployed a reconnaissance platoon first from 2000 to 2006 under Belgian command and from 2007 to 2011 under a French detachment.", "From 2011 to 2017 Luxembourg was subordinated to the headquarters in Pristina, collaborating with an Austrian reconnaissance company.Together with Belgium, Luxembourg contributed military personnel to UNIFIL in Lebanon from 2006 to 2014.Over 35 rotations, Luxembourg troops have been deployed to Afghanistan from 2003 to 2014 to support ISAF in Kabul and Kandahar.", "The army has also participated in humanitarian relief missions such as setting up refugee camps for Kurds and providing emergency supplies to Albania.", "Furthermore, Luxembourg participated in the RSM in Mazar-i-Sharif from 2015 to 2021 and prodived evacuation support during the August 2021 Taliban offensive in Kabul.The Luxembourg Armed Forces have also been active in Africa, supporting the EU Security Reform Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (EUSEC RDC), the EU Military Operation in Eastern Chad and North Eastern Central African Republic (EUFOR Chad/CAR), following with the MINURCAT.", "From 2013 to 2022 Luxembourg provided support to EUTM in Mali.Luxembourg is also active in the NATO eFP, contributing logistical and satellite transmission support in Lithuania since 2017." ], [ "Luxembourg Armed Forces Organization", "Luxembourg soldiers during National DayThe army is under civilian control, with the Grand Duke as Commander-in-Chief.", "The Minister for Defence oversees army operations.", "The professional head of the army is the Chief of Defence, currently Steve Thull, who answers to the minister.", "The Grand Duke and the Chief of Defence are the only generals, with colonels as Deputy Chief of Defence and head of the Military Training Centre.Until 1999, the army was integrated into the '''''' (Public Force), which included the Gendarmerie and the Police, until the Gendarmerie was merged with the Grand Ducal Police under a different minister in 2000.The army has been an all-volunteer force since 1967.It has a strength of around 900 professional soldiers and 200 civilians with a total budget of approximately $389 million, or 0.57% of GDP in 2021.The Luxembourg Army is a battalion-sized formation with four separate (companies) under the control of the (Military Centre), located in the Caserne Grand-Duc Jean barracks on Herrenberg hill near the town of Diekirch.", "Luxembourg has no navy, as the country is landlocked.", "It has an air force since 2021 and aircraft.=== Compagnie A ===Compagnie A, the first of two rifle companies that forms the Luxembourg contingent of the Eurocorps, is normally integrated into the Belgian contribution during operations.", "As such, it participates in Eurocorps' contribution to the NATO Response Force (entire company) and the EU Battlegroups (one platoon).", "The company consists of a command element and three reconnaissance platoons of four sections each, plus a command section.", "Each section is equipped with two armoured M1114 HMMWVs, each armed with a .50 caliber M2 Browning machine gun.", "The command section has a MAN X40 truck in addition to its pair of HMMWVs.=== Compagnie B ===Compagnie B, currently known as the Reconversion Service, is the educational unit of the Army, providing various educational courses for personnel to take in preparation for advancement.", "On 19 May 2011, Company B was redesignated as the (Reconversion Service) with the mission to prepare volunteer soldiers for the return to civilian life.", "The service includes the (Army School).", "In order to attend this school a soldier must have at least eighteen months of service.", "The school is divided into two sections:* Level B - is open to all soldiers at the end of their first eighteen months of service.", "Soldiers follow two six-month periods of tuition in both general and military-based subjects prior to taking examinations.", "Upon gaining 75% pass marks, they can proceed to the next level.", "* Level A - is open to soldiers who have achieved the required passes at Level B, or who have attained the equivalent in civilian life prior to their enlistment.", "Soldiers do a single six-month period of tuition in the same subjects as Level B, but for a longer period each week.=== Compagnie C ===Compagnie C, better known as the (Staff & Instruction Company), is the main military training unit of the Luxembourg Armed Forces, with instruction given in:* Basic soldiering* Driving* Physical trainingThis company is also responsible for the army's Elite Sports Section, reserved for sportsmen in the Army.", "Following their basic training, these soldiers join the (SSEA).=== Compagnie D ===Compagnie D is the second rifle company – it provided Luxembourg's contribution to NATO's ACE Mobile Force (Land) (disbanded in 2002) as the Luxembourg Reconnaissance Company.", "Luxembourg's participation in various UN, EU, and NATO missions is drawn from Compagnie D, which mirrors Compagnie A in organisation, with a command element and three reconnaissance platoons." ], [ "Equipment", "A guard in front of the Grand Ducal Palace seen carrying AUG A1Luxembourg army troops are seen using Humvee as their military vehicle, with .50 BMG Heavy Machine Gun" ], [ "Luxembourg Air Wing", "Luxembourg has a small air wing.", "All NATO AWACS planes are registered to the LAF and sport the Luxembourg Armed Forces roundel.Airbus A400M CT-01 in service with Luxembourg=== Aircraft ===AircraftOriginTypeVariantIn serviceNotes Transport Airbus A400M France / Spain transport 1operated by the Belgian 15th Air Transport Wing Helicopter Airbus H145 Germany light utility H145M 2=== Retired aircraft ===Previous aircraft operated were 3 Piper PA-18 Super Cub's from 1952 to 1968." ], [ "Uniform", "Guard in front of the Grand Ducal Palace in 2009Luxembourg military uniforms consist of dress, service (or garrison) and field uniforms, often worn with a black beret.", "Dress uniforms are worn mostly on formal occasions, while service uniforms are worn for daily duty.", "Luxembourg Armed Forces uniforms consist of service and field attire for summer and winter, as well as a dress uniform and mess jacket for officers.", "The winter service dress uniform, of olive drab wool, consists of a single-breasted coat having patch pockets with flaps, a khaki shirt and tie, and trousers that are usually cuffless.", "The summer uniform is similar, but made of light tan material.Combat uniforms use either a temperate or desert camouflage pattern.", "These patterns were adopted in 2010–11 to replace the U.S. Woodland pattern used since 1985." ], [ "Grades", "=== Officers ===Those who have completed high school will enter a special thirteen-week basic training in the Army as warrant officers, then attend the military officer school for five years (normally in Brussels, Belgium), before becoming a lieutenant in the Luxembourg Armed Forces.Aspiring officers are sent to the Belgian École Royale Militaire in Brussels, or the Ecole Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr in France.", "After the first two years at these schools, officer-cadets receive the title of lieutenant.After leaving military academy, officer candidates become probationary officers for a period of twenty-four months.", "The probation period consists of specialised military-branch training at a school abroad, and practical service within one of the Army's units.", "If they succeed during this probation, their appointment as lieutenants is made permanent.=== NCOs ===Those who have completed five years of high school and have served four months as voluntary soldiers, will do a nine-month stage at the Infantry Training Department of the Belgian Army in Arlon, before becoming sergeants in the Luxembourg Armed Forces.=== Career Corporals ===Those who have not completed five years of high school may, after three years of service, become career corporals in the Luxembourg Armed Forces, if they pass physical and mental tests.", "They also have to pass a part of the NCO School in Belgium." ], [ "Insignia", "=== Officers ====== NCOs and enlisted ===" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Luxembourgish Army official website* History of Luxembourg's Army* Service roster of the Company of Gendarmes and Volunteers" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Luxembourg" ], [ "Introduction", "The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg has long been a prominent supporter of European political and economic integration.", "In 1921, Luxembourg and Belgium formed the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) to create an inter-exchangeable currency and a common customs regime.", "Post-war, Luxembourg became a founding member state of the United Nations, and dropped its policy of neutrality to become a founding member state of NATO.", "Luxembourg expanded its support for European integration, becoming a founding member state of the Benelux Economic Union (today's Benelux Union), and one of the \"inner six\" founding member states of the three European Communities; the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the European Economic Community (EEC).", "Subsequently, Luxembourg became a founding member state of the European Union (EU) when the EEC and ECSC were incorporated into it in 1993.Luxembourg is a founding member of the Schengen Area, abolishing internal borders amongst its member states, named after the Luxembourg village where the original agreement — since incorporated into EU law — was signed in 1985.At the same time, the majority of Luxembourgers have consistently believed that European unity makes sense only in the context of a dynamic transatlantic relationship, and thus have traditionally pursued a pro-NATO, pro-US foreign policy.Luxembourg is the site of the European Court of Justice, the European Investment Bank, the European Court of Auditors, the secretariat of the European Parliament, the Statistical Office of the European Commission (Eurostat), and other EU bodies." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Luxembourg maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate12—3456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179—180181182183184185186Unknown187Unknown188Unknown189Unknown190Unknown191Unknown" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Africa=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes21 January 1964Diplomatic relations were established on 21 January 196414 May 2002Diplomatic relations were established on 14 May 200217 September 1968Diplomatic relations were established on 17 September 196829 January 1963Diplomatic relations were established on 29 January 1963* Burkina Faso is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Ouagadougou.29 April 1965Diplomatic relations were established on 29 April 19657 June 1962Diplomatic relations were established on 7 June 196231 March 1977Diplomatic relations were established on 31 March 1977* Cape Verde has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Praia.12 June 1963Diplomatic relations were established on 12 June 196328 April 1964Diplomatic relations were established on 28 April 19641 February 1978Diplomatic relations were established on 1 February 19787 September 1965Diplomatic relations were established on 7 September 196510 June 1967Diplomatic relations were established on 10 June 196729 January 1963Diplomatic relations were established on 29 January 196314 November 1935Diplomatic relations were established on 14 November 193519 March 1980Diplomatic relations were established on 19 March 1980 when accredited first Ambassador of Ethiopia to Luxembourg (resident in Brussels) Dr. Ghebray Berhane* Ethiopia is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Addis Ababa.1 December 1961Diplomatic relations were established on 1 December 196115 April 1975Diplomatic relations were established on 15 April 197521 February 1968Diplomatic relations were established on 21 February 196812 September 1962Diplomatic relations were established on 12 September 19627 December 1979Diplomatic relations were established on 7 December 197920 January 1961Diplomatic relations were established on 20 January 196113 January 1967Diplomatic relations were established on 13 January 196728 October 1980Diplomatic relations were established on 28 October 198015 December 1965Diplomatic relations were established on 15 December 196520 September 1961Diplomatic relations were established on 20 September 196128 February 1973Diplomatic relations were established on 28 February 197311 April 1958Diplomatic relations were established on 11 April 19587 January 1988Diplomatic relations were established on 7 January 198818 December 1962Diplomatic relations were established on 18 December 1962* Luxembourg has an embassy in Niamey.", "* Niger is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.29 December 1975Diplomatic relations were established on 29 December 197527 October 1964Diplomatic relations were established on 27 October 196413 June 1968Diplomatic relations were established on 13 June 1968* Luxembourg has an embassy in Dakar.", "* Senegal is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.17 February 1989Diplomatic relations were established on 17 February 198913 October 1970Diplomatic relations were established on 13 October 197027 September 2013Diplomatic relations were established on 27 September 2013 First time countries established diplomatic relations on 19 April 196722 December 2011Diplomatic relations were established on 22 December 20113 May 1984Diplomatic relations were established on 3 May 19847 March 1972Diplomatic relations were established on 7 March 197228 April 1964Diplomatic relations were established on 28 April 196415 December 1981Diplomatic relations were established on 15 December 1981===Americas=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes26 September 2007Diplomatic relations were established on 26 September 200729 June 1937Diplomatic relations were established on 29 June 1937* Argentina is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Argentina from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.28 September 2007Diplomatic relations were established on 28 September 20075 May 1977Diplomatic relations were established on 5 May 197715 May 2008Diplomatic relations were established on May 15, 2008.21 December 1990Diplomatic relations were established on 21 December 199015 April 1911Diplomatic relations were established on 15 April 1911* Brazil is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Brasília.3 January 1945Diplomatic relations were established on 3 January 1945* Canada is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Canada from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States and maintains four honorary consulates (in Calgary, Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver).", "* Both countries are full members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, NATO and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.24 January 1938Diplomatic relations were established on 24 January 1938* Chile is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium and maintains an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg maintains an honorary consulate in Santiago.21 April 1971Diplomatic relations were established on 21 April 197129 January 1963Diplomatic relations were established on 29 January 196325 November 1942Diplomatic relations were established on 25 November 19421 May 1979Diplomatic relations were established on 1 May 197925 May 2005Diplomatic relations were established on 25 May 200526 April 1991Diplomatic relations were established on 26 April 199117 June 2009Diplomatic relations were established on 17 June 20096 July 1978Diplomatic relations were established on 6 July 19782 January 1963Diplomatic relations were established on 2 January 19638 January 1947See Luxembourg–Mexico relationsDiplomatic relations were established on 8 January 1947In 1980, Prime Minister Pierre Werner paid an official visit to Mexico.", "In March 1996, Grand Duke Jean paid a visit to Mexico.", "During the Grand Duke's visit, both nations signed an Air Transportation Agreement.", "In April 2019, Prime Minister Xavier Bettel paid an official visit to Mexico and met with President Andrés Manuel López Obrador.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States and maintains an honorary consulate in Mérida.", "* Mexico is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium and maintains an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City.7 July 1976Diplomatic relations were established on 7 July 1976* Luxembourg has an embassy in Managua.", "* Nicaragua is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Berlin, Germany.12 November 1985Diplomatic relations were established on 12 November 198526 February 1965Diplomatic relations were established on 26 February 196514 June 1962Diplomatic relations were established on 14 June 196218 June 2009Diplomatic relations were established on 18 June 200923 September 2009Diplomatic relations were established on 23 September 200926 September 2007Diplomatic relations were established on 26 September 20071 February 2010Diplomatic relations were established on 1 February 201017 December 1969Diplomatic relations were established on 17 December 196917 July 1903Diplomatic relations were established on 17 July 1903Embassy of Luxembourg in Washington, D.C.The United States, fighting on the Allied side, contributed to Luxembourg's liberation in World War I and World War II.", "More than 5,000 American soldiers, including U.S. Army General George S. Patton, are buried at the Luxembourg American Cemetery and Memorial near the capital of Luxembourg City, and there are monuments in many towns to American liberators.", "The strong U.S.-Luxembourg relationship is expressed both bilaterally and through common membership in NATO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and a consulates-general in New York City and San Francisco.", "* United States has an embassy in Luxembourg City.6 January 1934Diplomatic relations were established on 6 January 193414 March 1950Diplomatic relations were established on 14 March 1950===Asia=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes13 January 2005Diplomatic relations were established on 13 January 200511 June 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 11 June 1992 * Armenia is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium, and an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg maintains an honorary consulate in Yerevan.", "1 June 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 1 June 1992See Azerbaijan–Luxembourg relations24 March 1980Diplomatic relations were established on 24 March 198020 November 1973Diplomatic relations were established on 20 November 19731 December 2011Diplomatic relations were established on 1 December 201118 July 2003Diplomatic relations were established on 18 July 200315 May 2002Diplomatic relations were established on 15 May 200216 November 1972Diplomatic relations were established on 16 November 1972See China–Luxembourg relations* China has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Beijing.", "17 October 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 17 October 1992See Georgia–Luxembourg relations1 July 1948Diplomatic relations were established on 1 July 1948See India–Luxembourg relations* India has a consulate general in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in New Delhi.8 January 1952Diplomatic relations were established on 8 January 195223 May 1936Diplomatic relations were established on 23 May 193612 March 1952Diplomatic relations were established on 12 March 195216 January 1950Diplomatic relations were established on 16 January 1950In November 1947, Luxembourg voted in favor of the partition plan to create a Jewish state.", "* Israel is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Israel from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Luxembourg City.", "*The relations became strained after Luxembourg condemned the Israel–United Arab Emirates peace agreement.24 November 1927Diplomatic relations were established on 24 November 1927* Japan has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Tokyo.5 December 1973Diplomatic relations were established on 5 December 197329 June 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 29 June 19928 March 1980Diplomatic relations were established on 8 March 198026 May 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 26 May 199225 September 1997Diplomatic relations were established on 25 September 199721 November 1950Diplomatic relations were established on 21 November 195015 June 1967Diplomatic relations were established on 15 June 196711 July 1988Diplomatic relations were established on 11 July 198813 July 1976Diplomatic relations were established on 13 July 197631 July 2012Diplomatic relations were established on 31 July 201227 November 1975Diplomatic relations were established on 27 November 19755 March 2001Diplomatic relations were established on 5 March 200115 September 1980Diplomatic relations were established on 15 September 1980See Luxembourg–Palestine relations* Palestine is accredited to Luxembourg from its mission in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Palestine from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Luxembourg City.26 May 1961Diplomatic relations were established on 26 May 19613 May 1980Diplomatic relations were established on 3 May 198010 December 1977Diplomatic relations were established on 10 December 197717 March 1975Diplomatic relations were established on 17 March 197516 March 1962*Luxembourg and South Korea established diplomatic relations on 16 March 1962.", "*Both countries have a shipping agreement in 1987 and an air agreement in 2003.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to South Korea from its embassy in Tokyo, Japan.", "* South Korea is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "*High-level Exchanges.", "**1983 April Chairperson of the Advisory Council on State Affairs Choi Kyu-hah.", "**1996 October the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade Gong Roh-myong.", "*From Luxembourg to the South Korea.", "**1997 September Grand Duke Henri and Minister of Economic Affairs Robert Goebbels.", "**2000 October Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker and the Minister of Foreign Affairs Lydie Polfer.", "(To attend the third ASEM meeting).", "**2001 March Hereditary Grand Duke Guillaume.", "**2004 March Minister of Economy Grethen.", "(Economic Mission).", "**2006 October Minister of Finance and Budget Frieden and Prince Guillaume of Luxembourg.", "**2011 April Ministry of Foreign Affairs Jean Asselborn.", "**2011 May Hereditary Grand Duke Guillaume and Minister of Economy Jeannot Krecke.27 July 1972Diplomatic relations were established on 27 July 197224 July 1953Diplomatic relations were established on 24 July 195322 May 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 22 May 199216 June 1959Diplomatic relations were established on 16 June 195927 September 2007Diplomatic relations were established on 27 September 200710 July 1946See Luxembourg–Turkey relationsDiplomatic relations were established on 10 July 1946Bilateral relations between the Republic of Turkey and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg gained momentum with the opening of a Turkish Embassy in Luxembourg in 1987.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Ankara, which was opened on 29 November 2011.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Luxembourg City.There are 500 ethnic Turk's living in Luxembourg, 200 of whom have dual citizenship.", "The trade volume between the two States had reached $217 million in 2011.Luxembourg strongly supports Turkey's candidacy as a full European Union member.2 October 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 2 October 19926 May 1980Diplomatic relations were established on 6 May 198010 June 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 10 June 199215 November 1973See Luxembourg–Vietnam relationsDiplomatic relations were established on 15 November 1973 * Luxembourg is accredited to Vietnam from its embassy in Beijing, China.", "* Vietnam is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.10 December 1979Diplomatic relations were established on 10 December 1979===Europe=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes15 February 1972Diplomatic relations were established on 15 February 19727 April 1995Diplomatic relations were established on 7 April 199530 January 1891Diplomatic relations were established on 30 January 1891* Austria has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Vienna.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.9 July 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 9 July 199218 April 1892See Belgium–Luxembourg relationsDiplomatic relations were established on 18 April 1892* Belgium has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Brussels.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.12 April 1994Diplomatic relations were established on 12 April 199416 December 1956Diplomatic relations were established on 16 December 195629 April 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 29 April 19923 March 1970Diplomatic relations were established on 3 March 197024 April 1922Diplomatic relations were established on 24 April 1922* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, of the European Union and of NATO.", "* Both countries shared a common fate in the 14th century when John the Blind of Luxembourg married Eliška Přemyslovna sister of the deceased King Wenceslaus III of Bohemia and became king of Bohemia.4 June 1906Diplomatic relations were established on 4 June 1906* Denmark has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the European Union, and NATO.29 August 1991Luxembourg recognised Estonia on February 22, 1923, and re-recognised Estonia on August 27, 1991.Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on August 29, 1991In 1937, a prominent Estonian political leader Artur Sirk, while a fugitive in Luxembourg was found dead, having apparently committed suicide by jumping out a second-story window.", "Although the Luxembourg Gendarmerie report assumed suicide, because of inconsistencies in the report, the Estonian chargé d'affaires in Paris, Rudolph Mollerson was sent to investigate.", "Estonian historians including Pusta and Tomingas have argued that the death was an act of defenestration by agents of the first President of Estonia, Konstantin Päts.As of December 31, 2007, foreign investments made in Estonia originating from Luxembourg totaled 225 million EUR accounting for 2% of the total volume of foreign direct investments.", "There are about 300 Estonians living in Luxembourg.", "An Estonian cultural association was founded in 1998.Estonian President Arnold Rüütel made a state visit to Luxembourg in May 2003, prime minister Andrus Ansip's in 2006.Luxembourgish Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker visited Estonia in 1999 and 2007.", "* Trade agreement between Estonia and Belgium and Luxembourg (1935)* Agreement on Road Transport between Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands (came into force 1.12.94)* Agreement Between Estonia and the Belgo-Luxembourg Economic Union on the Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments (came into force 23.09.99)* Agreement Between Estonia and the States of Benelux on Readmission of Persons (came into force 1.02.05)* Agreement on the Avoidance of Double Taxation and the Prevention of Income and Capital Tax evasion (signed 23.05.2006)* Estonia is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium and maintains an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City.", "Luxembourg is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Prague (Czech Republic).", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Prague, Czech Republic.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.25 October 1921* Diplomatic relations were established on 25 October 1921* Luxembourg is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Copenhagen, Denmark.", "* Finland has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland about relations with Luxembourg * Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.15 December 1890See France–Luxembourg relationsDiplomatic relations were established on 15 December 1890* Luxembourg was besieged by Louis XIV of France in 1684 and was annexed by Revolutionary France to be part of the Forêts ''département'' during the War of the First Coalition in 1795 until Napoleon's defeat in 1815.", "* France has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Paris, a consulate general in Strasbourg, and consulates in Bordeaux, Lille, Longwy, Lyon, Marseille, and Metz.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, European Union, NATO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.8 January 1891See Germany–Luxembourg relationsDiplomatic relations were established on 8 January 1891* Germany has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.1933* Greece has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Athens and 3 honorary consulates in Athens, Patras and Thessaloniki.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Luxembourg * Luxembourg’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Greece (in French only)9 February 1891Diplomatic relations were established on 9 February 189117 July 1923Diplomatic relations were established on 17 July 1923* Hungary has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Hungary through its embassy in Vienna, Austria.", "* Both countries are full members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, of the European Union and of NATO.30 July 1962Diplomatic relations were established on 30 July 196220 December 1961Diplomatic relations were established on 20 December 1961* Ireland has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an honorary consulate in Dublin.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and of the European Union.7 February 1891Diplomatic relations were established on 7 February 1891* Italy has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Rome and 9 honorary consulates (in Florence, Genoa, Milan, Naples, Palermo, Perugia, Riccione, Turin, and Venice).", "* Both countries are full members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, of the European Union and of NATO.", "* There are around 19,000 people of Italian descent living in Luxembourg.16 June 2011Diplomatic relations were established on 16 June 2011Luxembourg recognized the independence of Kosovo on 21 February 2008.", "* Kosovo is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Luxembourg has an embassy in Pristina.29 January 1992Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on 29 January 1992 and first time established relations on 14 October 19226 November 2000Diplomatic relations were established on 6 November 20002 July 1992* Diplomatic relations were established on 2 July 1992* Luxembourg did not recognise the annexation of the Baltic States by the USSR in 1940-1991 either ''de iure'' or ''de facto''.", "* Lithuania is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium and through an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Lithuania from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland and through an honorary consulate in Vilnius.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Luxembourg 3 June 1969Diplomatic relations were established on 3 June 1969* Malta is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium and through an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Malta from its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.16 June 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 16 June 199218 December 1947Diplomatic relations were established on 18 December 194721 September 2006Diplomatic relations were established on 21 September 20064 March 1891Diplomatic relations were established on 4 March 1891* Luxembourg has an embassy in The Hague.", "* Netherlands has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.19 September 1994Diplomatic relations were established on 19 September 199415 April 1931Diplomatic relations were established on 15 April 193118 April 1921See Luxembourg–Poland relationsDiplomatic relations were established on 18 April 1921* Luxembourg has an embassy in Warsaw.", "* Poland has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.22 July 1891Diplomatic relations were established on 22 July 1891* Luxembourg has an embassy in Lisbon.", "* Portugal has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.5 December 1910Diplomatic relations were established on 5 December 1910 * Luxembourg is accredited to Romania from its embassy in Athens, Greece and maintains two honorary consulates (in Bucharest and Sibiu).", "* Romania has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.7 March 1891See Luxembourg–Russia relationsDiplomatic relations were established on 7 March 1891* Luxembourg has an embassy in Moscow and an honorary consulate in Saint Petersburg.", "* Russia has an embassy in the city of Luxembourg City.Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and the United Nations.In the history of bilateral relations, the first Russian president to come on an official visit to Luxembourg was Vladimir Putin on 24 May 2007.As bilateral trade had more than tripled from US$66.6 million in 2003 to US$228.3 million in 2006, time had come to strengthen the ties between the two countries, energy and finance being the key areas of cooperation between Russia and Luxembourg.26 September 2000Diplomatic relations were established on 26 September 200023 August 1927Diplomatic relations were established on 23 August 19271 January 1993Diplomatic relations were established on 1 January 199311 March 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 11 March 199218 February 1891See Luxembourg–Spain relationsDiplomatic relations were established on 18 February 1891* Luxembourg has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.25 January 1923Diplomatic relations were established on 25 January 192324 November 1917Diplomatic relations were established on 24 November 1917* Luxembourg has an embassy in Bern.", "* Switzerland has an embassy in Luxembourg City.1 July 1992Diplomatic relations were established on 1 July 1992* Luxembourg is accredited to Ukraine from its embassy in Prague, Czech Republic and through an honorary consulate in Kyiv.", "* Ukraine is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium and through an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City.8 June 1891Diplomatic relations were established on 8 June 1891* Luxembourg has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Luxembourg City.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and NATO.===Oceania=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes18 September 1970Diplomatic relations were established on 18 September 1970* Australia is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.", "* Luxembourg is accredited to Australia from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Luxembourg, City.January 1971Diplomatic relations were established in January 197120 July 1993Diplomatic relations were established on 20 July 199324 April 2008Diplomatic relations were established on 24 April 200821 May 2010Diplomatic relations were established on 21 May 20103 December 1970Diplomatic relations were established on 3 December 1970* Luxembourg is accredited to New Zealand from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Luxembourg, City.", "* New Zealand is accredited to Luxembourg from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.16 February 2012Diplomatic relations were established on 16 February 201215 October 1977Diplomatic relations were established on 15 October 19772 June 2009Diplomatic relations were established on 2 June 200919 November 2010Diplomatic relations were established on 19 November 20101 November 1976Diplomatic relations were established on 1 November 197616 September 2009Diplomatic relations were established on 16 September 200924 September 2010Diplomatic relations were established on 24 September 2010" ], [ "Relations by organization", "===NATO======United Nations===" ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Luxembourg* List of diplomatic missions of Luxembourg* List of ambassadors to Luxembourg* Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Luxembourg)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Luxembourg* Australia Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about the relations with Luxembourg *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "London Underground" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''London Underground''' (also known simply as '''the Underground''' or by its nickname '''the Tube''') is a rapid transit system serving Greater London and some parts of the adjacent home counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in England.The Underground has its origins in the Metropolitan Railway, opening on 10 January 1863 as the world's first underground passenger railway.", "It is now part of the Circle, District, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines.", "The first line to operate underground electric traction trains, the City & South London Railway in 1890, is now part of the Northern line.The network has expanded to 11 lines with of track.", "However, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London; there are only 33 Underground stations south of the River Thames.", "The system's 272 stations collectively accommodate up to 5 million passenger journeys a day.", "In 2020/21 it was used for 296 million passenger journeys, making it one of the world's busiest metro systems.The system's first tunnels were built just below the ground, using the cut-and-cover method; later, smaller, roughly circular tunnels—which gave rise to its nickname, the Tube—were dug through at a deeper level.", "Despite its name, only 45% of the system is under the ground: much of the network in the outer environs of London is on the surface.The early tube lines, originally owned by several private companies, were brought together under the Underground brand in the early 20th century, and eventually merged along with the sub-surface lines and bus services in 1933 to form ''London Transport'' under the control of the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB).", "The current operator, London Underground Limited (LUL), is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London (TfL), the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in London.", ", 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares.", "The Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster card, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003.Contactless bank card payments were introduced in 2014, the first such use on a public transport system.The LPTB commissioned many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style.", "The schematic Tube map, designed by Harry Beck in 1931, was voted a national design icon in 2006 and now includes other transport systems besides the Underground, such as the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground, Thameslink, the Elizabeth line, and Tramlink.", "Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and the Johnston typeface, created by Edward Johnston in 1916." ], [ "History", "===Early years===The Metropolitan Railway opened in 1863 using GWR broad-gauge locomotives.==== Sub-surface lines ====The idea of an underground railway linking the City of London with the urban centre was proposed in the 1830s, and the Metropolitan Railway was granted permission to build such a line in 1854.To prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London.", "This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, filled up.", "The world's first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives.", "It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, and borrowing trains from other railways to supplement the service.", "The Metropolitan District Railway (commonly known as the District Railway) opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground \"inner circle\" connecting London's main-line stations.", "The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and cover method.", "Both railways expanded, the District building five branches to the west reaching Ealing, Hounslow, Uxbridge, Richmond and Wimbledon and the Metropolitan eventually extended as far as in Buckinghamshire, more than from Baker Street and the centre of London.==== Deep-level lines ====For the first deep-level tube line, the City and South London Railway, two diameter circular tunnels were dug between King William Street (close to today's Monument station) and Stockwell, under the roads to avoid the need for agreement with owners of property on the surface.", "This opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed ''padded cells''.", "The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, known as the \"twopenny tube\".", "These two ran electric trains in circular tunnels having diameters between and , whereas the Great Northern and City Railway, which opened in 1904, was built to take main line trains from Finsbury Park to a Moorgate terminus in the City and had diameter tunnels.While steam locomotives were in use on the Underground there were contrasting health reports.", "There were many instances of passengers collapsing whilst travelling, due to heat and pollution, leading for calls to clean the air through the installation of garden plants.", "The Metropolitan even encouraged beards for staff to act as an air filter.", "There were other reports claiming beneficial outcomes of using the Underground, including the designation of Great Portland Street as a \"sanatorium for sufferers of ... asthma and bronchial complaints\", tonsillitis could be cured with acid gas and the Twopenny Tube cured anorexia.==== Electrification ====With the advent of electric Tube services (the Waterloo and City Railway and the Great Northern and City Railway), the Volks Electric Railway, in Brighton, and competition from electric trams, the pioneering Underground companies needed modernising.", "In the early 20th century, the District and Metropolitan railways needed to electrify and a joint committee recommended an AC system, the two companies co-operating because of the shared ownership of the inner circle.", "The District, needing to raise the finance necessary, found an investor in the American Charles Yerkes who favoured a DC system similar to that in use on the City & South London and Central London railways.", "The Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted.===Underground Electric Railways Company era===alt=Sketch showing about a dozen people standing on an underground railway platform with a train standing at the platform.", "Several more people are visible inside the train, which has the words \"Baker St\" visible on its side.Yerkes soon had control of the District Railway and established the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) in 1902 to finance and operate three tube lines, the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway (Bakerloo), the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway (Hampstead) and the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway, (Piccadilly), which all opened between 1906 and 1907.When the \"Bakerloo\" was so named in July 1906, ''The Railway Magazine'' called it an undignified \"gutter title\".", "By 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines.In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway and the City & South London Railway, as well as many of London's bus and tram operators.", "Only the Metropolitan Railway, along with its subsidiaries the Great Northern & City Railway and the East London Railway, and the Waterloo & City Railway, by then owned by the main line London and South Western Railway, remained outside the Underground Group's control.A joint marketing agreement between most of the companies in the early years of the 20th century included maps, joint publicity, through ticketing and UNDERGROUND signs, incorporating the first bullseye symbol, outside stations in Central London.", "At the time, the term Underground was selected from three other proposed names; 'Tube' and 'Electric' were both officially rejected.", "Ironically, the term Tube was later adopted alongside the Underground.", "The Bakerloo line was extended north to Queen's Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but the First World War delayed construction and trains reached in 1917.During air raids in 1915 people used the tube stations as shelters.", "An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war and was completed in 1920.After the war, government-backed financial guarantees were used to expand the network and the tunnels of the City and South London and Hampstead railways were linked at Euston and Kennington; the combined service was not named the Northern line until later.", "The Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the \"Metro-land\" brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line.", "Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925 and from Wembley Park to Stanmore in 1932.The Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow (later Uxbridge) and Hounslow.===London Passenger Transport Board era===Aldwych Underground station being used as a bomb shelter in 1940In 1933, most of London's underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, which used the London Transport brand.", "The Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners.", "In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, Harry Beck's diagrammatic tube map first appeared.In the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936.The 1935–40 New Works Programme included the extension of the Central and Northern lines and the Bakerloo line to take over the Metropolitan's Stanmore branch.", "The Second World War suspended these plans after the Bakerloo line had reached Stanmore and the Northern line High Barnet and Mill Hill East in 1941.Following bombing in 1940, passenger services over the West London line were suspended, leaving Olympia exhibition centre without a railway service until a District line shuttle from Earl's Court began after the war.", "After work restarted on the Central line extensions in east and west London, these were completed in 1949.During the war many tube stations were used as air-raid shelters.", "They were not always a guarantee of safety however; on 11 January 1941 during the London Blitz, a bomb penetrated the booking hall of Bank Station, the blast from which killed 111 people, many of whom were sleeping in passageways and on platforms.", "On 3 March 1943, a test of the air-raid warning sirens, together with the firing of a new type of anti-aircraft rocket, resulted in a crush of people attempting to take shelter in Bethnal Green Underground station.", "A total of 173 people, including 62 children, died, making this both the worst civilian disaster in Britain during the Second World War, and the largest loss of life in a single incident on the London Underground network.===London Transport Executive and Board era===Barons CourtOn 1 January 1948, under the provisions of the Transport Act 1947, the London Passenger Transport Board was nationalised and renamed the London Transport Executive, becoming a subsidiary transport organisation of the British Transport Commission, which was formed on the same day.", "Under the same act, the country's main line railways were also nationalised, and their reconstruction was given priority over the maintenance of the Underground and most of the unfinished plans of the pre-war New Works Programme were shelved or postponed.The District line needed new trains and an unpainted aluminium train entered service in 1953, this becoming the standard for new trains.", "In the early 1960s, the Metropolitan line was electrified as far as Amersham, British Railways providing services for the former Metropolitan line stations between Amersham and Aylesbury.", "In 1962, the British Transport Commission was abolished, and the London Transport Executive was renamed the London Transport Board, reporting directly to the Minister of Transport.", "Also during the 1960s, the Victoria line was dug under central London and, unlike the earlier tunnels, did not follow the roads above.", "The line opened in 1968–71 with the trains being driven automatically and magnetically encoded tickets collected by automatic gates gave access to the platforms.===Greater London Council era===On 1 January 1970 responsibility for public transport within Greater London passed from central government to local government, in the form of the Greater London Council (GLC), and the London Transport Board was abolished.", "The London Transport brand continued to be used by the GLC.On 28 February 1975, a southbound train on the Northern City Line failed to stop at its Moorgate terminus and crashed into the wall at the end of the tunnel, in the Moorgate tube crash.", "There were 43 deaths and 74 injuries, the greatest loss of life during peacetime on the London Underground.", "In 1976 the Northern City Line was taken over by British Rail and linked up with the main line railway at Finsbury Park, a transfer that had already been planned prior to the accident.In 1979 another new tube, the Jubilee line, named in honour of Queen Elizabeth's Silver Jubilee, took over the Stanmore branch from the Bakerloo line, linking it to a newly constructed line between Baker Street and Charing Cross stations.", "Under the control of the GLC, London Transport introduced a system of fare zones for buses and underground trains that cut the average fare in 1981.Fares increased following a legal challenge but the fare zones were retained, and in the mid-1980s the Travelcard and the Capitalcard were introduced.===London Regional Transport era===WestminsterIn 1984 control of London Buses and the London Underground passed back to central government with the creation of London Regional Transport (LRT), which reported directly to the Secretary of State for Transport, still retaining the London Transport brand.", "One person operation had been planned in 1968, but conflict with the trade unions delayed introduction until the 1980s.On 18 November 1987, fire broke out in an escalator at King's Cross St Pancras tube station.", "The resulting fire cost the lives of 31 people and injured a further 100.London Underground was strongly criticised in the aftermath for its attitude to fires underground, and publication of the report into the fire led to the resignation of senior management of both London Underground and London Regional Transport.", "Following the fire, substantial improvements to safety on the Tube were implemented - including the banning of smoking, removal of wooden escalators, installation of CCTV and fire detectors, as well as comprehensive radio coverage for the emergency services.In April 1994, the Waterloo & City Railway, by then owned by British Rail and known as the Waterloo & City line, was transferred to the London Underground.", "In 1999, the Jubilee Line Extension project extended the Jubilee line from Green Park station through the growing Docklands to Stratford station.", "This resulted in the closure of the short section of tunnel between Green Park and Charing Cross stations.", "The 11 new stations were designed to be \"future-proof\", with wide passageways, large quantities of escalators and lifts, and emergency exits.", "The stations were the first on the Underground to have platform edge doors, and were built to have step free access throughout.", "The stations have subsequently been praised as exemplary pieces of 20th century architecture.===Transport for London era===In 2000, Transport for London (TfL) was created as an integrated body responsible for London's transport system.", "Part of the Greater London Authority, the TfL Board is appointed by the Mayor of London, who also sets the structure and level of public transport fares in London.", "The day-to-day running of the corporation is left to the Commissioner of Transport for London.TfL eventually replaced London Regional Transport, and discontinued the use of the London Transport brand in favour of its own brand.", "The transfer of responsibility was staged, with transfer of control of London Underground delayed until July 2003, when London Underground Limited became an indirect subsidiary of TfL.In the early 2000s, London Underground was reorganised in a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) as part of a project to upgrade and modernise the system.", "Private infrastructure companies (infracos) would upgrade and maintain the railway, and London Underground would run the train service.", "One infraco – Metronet – went into administration in 2007, and TfL took over the other – Tube Lines – in 2010.Despite this, substantial investment to upgrade and modernise the Tube has taken place - with new trains (such as London Underground S7 and S8 Stock), new signalling, upgraded stations (such as King's Cross St Pancras) and improved accessibility (such as at Green Park).", "Small changes to the Tube network occurred in the 2000s, with extensions to Heathrow Terminal 5, new station at Wood Lane and the Circle line changed from serving a closed loop around the centre of London to a spiral also serving Hammersmith in 2009.In July 2005, four coordinated terrorist attacks took place, three of them occurring on the Tube network.", "It was the UK's deadliest terrorist incident since 1988.Electronic ticketing in the form of the contactless Oyster card was first introduced in 2003, with payment using contactless banks cards introduced in September 2014.In , over 12 million Oyster cards and 35 million contactless cards were used, generating around £5bn in ticketing revenue.During the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, the Underground saw record ridership levels, with over 4.3 million people using the Tube on some days.", "This record was subsequently beaten in later years, with 4.82 million riders in December 2015.In 2013, the Underground celebrated its 150th anniversary, with celebratory events such as steam trains and installation of a unique Labyrinth artwork at each station.Under TfL, London's public transport network became more unified, with existing suburban rail lines across London upgraded and rebranded as London Overground from 2007, with the former East London line became part of the Overground network in 2010.Many Overground stations interchange with Underground ones, and Overground lines were added onto the Tube map.In the 2010s, the £18.8bn Crossrail project built a new east–west railway tunnel under central London.", "The project involved rebuilding and expanding several central Underground stations including Tottenham Court Road and Whitechapel.", "By increasing rail capacity, the line aims to reduce overcrowding on the Tube and cut cross-London journey times.", "The railway opened as the Elizabeth line in May 2022.Although not part of the Underground, the line connects with several Underground stations.In 2020, passenger numbers fell significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic and 40 stations were temporarily closed.", "The Northern Line Extension opened in September 2021, extending the Northern line from Kennington to Battersea Power Station via Nine Elms.", "The extension was privately funded, with contributions from developments across the Battersea Power Station, Vauxhall and Nine Elms areas." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Railway===As of 2021, the Underground serves 272 stations.", "16 stations are outside London region, eight on the Metropolitan line and eight on the Central line.", "Of these, five (Amersham, Chalfont & Latimer, Chesham, and Chorleywood on the Metropolitan line and Epping on the Central line), are beyond the M25 London Orbital motorway.", "Of the thirty-two London boroughs, six (Bexley, Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Lewisham and Sutton) are not served by the Underground network, while Hackney has Old Street (on the Northern line Bank branch) and Manor House (on the Piccadilly line) only just inside its boundaries.", "Lewisham used to be served by the East London line (stations at New Cross and New Cross Gate).", "The line and the stations were transferred to the London Overground network in 2010.London Underground's eleven lines total in length, making it the eleventh longest metro system in the world.", "These are made up of the sub-surface network and the deep-tube lines.", "The Circle, District, Hammersmith & City, and Metropolitan lines form the sub-surface network, with railway tunnels just below the surface and of a similar size to those on British main lines, converging on a bi-directional loop around zone 1.The four sub-surface lines share tracks and stations with each other at various places along their respective routes.", "The Bakerloo, Central, Jubilee, Northern, Piccadilly, Victoria and Waterloo & City lines are deep-level tubes, with smaller trains that run in circular tunnels (''tubes'') with a diameter of about , with one tube for each direction.", "The seven deep-level lines have the exclusive use of tracks and stations along their routes with the exception of the Piccadilly line, which shares track with the District line between Acton Town and Hanger Lane Junction and with the Metropolitan line between Rayners Lane and Uxbridge; and the Bakerloo line, which shares track with London Overground's Watford DC Line for its above-ground section north of Queen's Park.Fifty-five per cent of the system runs on the surface.", "There are of cut-and-cover tunnel and of tube tunnel.", "Many of the central London underground stations on deep-level tube routes are higher than the running lines to assist deceleration when arriving and acceleration when departing.", "Trains generally run on the left-hand track.", "In some places, the tunnels are above each other (for example, the Central line east of St Paul's station), or the running tunnels are on the right (for example on the Victoria line between Warren Street and King's Cross St. Pancras, to allow cross-platform interchange with the Northern line at Euston).The lines are electrified with a four-rail DC system: a conductor rail between the rails is energised at −210 V and a rail outside the running rails at +420 V, giving a potential difference of 630 V. On the sections of line shared with mainline trains, such as the District line from East Putney to Wimbledon and Gunnersbury to Richmond, and the Bakerloo line north of Queen's Park, the centre rail is bonded to the running rails.The average speed on the Underground is .", "Outside the tunnels of central London, many lines' trains tend to travel at over in the suburban and countryside areas.", "The Metropolitan line can reach speeds of .===Lines===The London Underground was used by 296.1 million passengers in 2020–21.+ London Underground lines NameMapcolourTypeLengthTerminiDepotsCurrent rolling stock Average weekday ridership (2017) Trips per year Average trips per milekmmi ×1000 (2016/17) Bakerloo lineBrown 1906 Deep tube 25 1972 Stock 7 401,123 117,000 8,069 Central line Red 1900 Deep tube 49 1992 Stock 8 1,021,084 288,800 6,278 Circle lineYellow 1871 Sub surface Hammersmith ''(via Moorgate and Ladbroke Grove)'' Edgware Road ''(via Embankment and Notting Hill Gate)'' 36 Hammersmith S7 Stock 7 257,391 73,000 4,294District lineGreen 1868 Sub surface 60 S7 Stock 7 842,991 226,100 5,652Hammersmith & City linePink 1864 Sub surface Hammersmith 29 Hammersmith S7 Stock 7 231,193 61,000 3,860Jubilee lineGrey 1979 Deep tube 27 1996 Stock 7 999,561 280,400 12,462Metropolitan lineMagenta 1863 Sub surface 34 Neasden S8 Stock 8 352,464 80,900 1,926Northern lineBlack 1890 Deep tube 52 1995 Stock 6 1,123,342 294,000 8,166Piccadilly lineDark blue 1906 Deep tube 53 1973 Stock 6 710,647 206,900 4,670Victoria lineLight blue 1968 Deep tube 16 Northumberland Park 2009 Stock 8 955,823 263,400 20,261Waterloo & City lineTurquoise 1898 Deep tube Bank Waterloo 2 Waterloo Modified 1992 Stock 4 59,492 16,900 11,267===Services using former and current main lines===A map of the entire system with accurate positions of stations but simplified presentation of linesThe Underground uses several railways and alignments that were built by main-line railway companies.", ";Bakerloo line:Between Queen's Park and Harrow & Wealdstone this runs over the Watford DC Line also used by London Overground, alongside the London & North Western Railway (LNWR) main line that opened in 1837.The route was laid out by the LNWR in 1912–15 and is part of the Network Rail system.", ";Central line:The railway from just south of Leyton to just south of Loughton was built by Eastern Counties Railway in 1856 on the same alignment in use today.", "The Underground also uses the line built in 1865 by the Great Eastern Railway (GER) between Loughton to Ongar via Epping.", "The connection to the main line south of Leyton was closed in 1970 and removed in 1972.The line from Epping to Ongar was closed in 1994; most of the line is in use today by the heritage Epping Ongar Railway.", "The line between Newbury Park and Woodford junction (west of Roding Valley) via Hainault was built by the GER in 1903, the connections to the main line south of Newbury Park closing in 1947 (in the Ilford direction) and 1956 (in the Seven Kings direction).", ";Central line:The line from just north of White City to Ealing Broadway was built in 1917 by the Great Western Railway (GWR) and passenger service introduced by the Underground in 1920.North Acton to West Ruislip was built by GWR on behalf of the Underground in 1947–8 alongside the pre-existing tracks from Old Oak Common junction towards and beyond, which date from 1904., the original Old Oak Common junction to route has one main-line train a day to and from Paddington.", ";District line:South of Kensington (Olympia) short sections of the 1862 West London Railway (WLR) and its 1863 West London Extension Railway (WLER) were used when District extended from Earl's Court in 1872.The District had its own bay platform at Olympia built in 1958 along with track on the bed of the 1862–3 WLR/WLER northbound.", "The southbound WLR/WLER became the new northbound main line at that time, and a new southbound main-line track was built through the site of former goods yard.", "The 1872 junction closed in 1958, and a further connection to the WLR just south of Olympia closed in 1992.The branch is now segregated.", ":The line between Campbell Road junction (now closed), near Bromley-by-Bow, and Barking was built by the London, Tilbury & Southend Railway (LTSR) in 1858.The slow tracks were built 1903–05, when District services were extended from Bow Road (though there were no District services east of East Ham from 1905 to 1932).", "The slow tracks were shared with LTSR stopping and goods trains until segregated by 1962, when main-line trains stopped serving intermediate stations.", ":The railway from Barking to Upminster was built by LTSR in 1885 and the District extended over the route in 1902.District withdrew between 1905 and 1932, when the route was quadrupled.", "Main-line trains ceased serving intermediate stations in 1962, and the District line today only uses the 1932 slow tracks.", ":The westbound track between east of Ravenscourt Park and Turnham Green and Turnham Green to Richmond (also used by London Overground) follows the alignment of a railway built by the London & South Western Railway (LSWR) in 1869.The eastbound track between Turnham Green and east of Ravenscourt Park follows the alignment built in 1911; this was closed 1916 but was re-used when the Piccadilly line was extended in 1932.The section between Turnham Green and Richmond still belongs to Network Rail now.", ":The line between East Putney and Wimbledon was built by the LSWR in 1889.The last scheduled main-line service ran in 1941 but it still sees a few through Waterloo passenger services at the start and end of the daily timetable.", "The route is also used for scheduled ECS movements to/from Wimbledon Park depot and for Waterloo services diverted during disruptions and track closures elsewhere.", "This section is now owned by London Underground but the signalling is still operated by Network Rail.", ";Hammersmith & City:Between Paddington and Westbourne Park Underground station, the line runs alongside the main line.", "The Great Western main line opened in 1838, serving a temporary terminus the other side of Bishop's Road.", "When the current Paddington station opened in 1854, the line passed to the south of the old station.", "On opening in 1864, the Hammersmith & City Railway (then part of the Metropolitan Railway) ran via the main line to a junction at Westbourne Park, until 1867 when two tracks opened to the south of the main line, with a crossing near Westbourne Bridge, Paddington.", "The current two tracks to the north of the main line and the subway east of Westbourne Park opened in 1878.The Hammersmith & City route is now completely segregated from the main line.", ";Jubilee line:The rail route between Canning Town and Stratford was built by the GER in 1846, with passenger services starting in 1847.The original alignment was quadrupled \"in stages between 1860 and 1892\" for freight services before the extra (western) tracks were lifted as traffic declined during the 20th century, and were re-laid for Jubilee line services that started in 1999.The current Docklands Light Railway (ex-North London line) uses the original eastern alignment and the Jubilee uses the western alignment.", ";Northern line:The line from East Finchley to Mill Hill East was opened in 1867, and from Finchley Central to High Barnet in 1872, both by the Great Northern Railway.", ";Piccadilly line:The westbound track between east of Ravenscourt Park and Turnham Green was built by LSWR in 1869, and originally used for eastbound main-line and District services.", "The eastbound track was built in 1911; it closed in 1916 but was re-used when the Piccadilly line was extended in 1932.===Main line services using LU tracks===Chiltern Railways shares track with the Metropolitan Line between Harrow-on-the-Hill and Amersham.", "Three South Western Railway passenger trains a day use District Line tracks between Wimbledon and East Putney.===Trains=== A sub-surface Metropolitan line A Stock train (left) passes a deep-tube Piccadilly line 1973 Stock train (right) in the siding at Rayners Lane.London Underground trains come in two sizes, larger sub-surface trains and smaller deep-tube trains.", "Since the early 1960s all passenger trains have been electric multiple units with sliding doors and a train last ran with a guard in 2000.All lines use fixed-length trains with between six and eight cars, except for the Waterloo & City line that uses four cars.", "New trains are designed for maximum number of standing passengers and for speed of access to the cars and have regenerative braking and public address systems.", "Since 1999 all new stock has had to comply with accessibility regulations that require such things as access and room for wheelchairs, and the size and location of door controls.", "All underground trains are required to comply with The Rail Vehicle Accessibility (Non Interoperable Rail System) Regulations 2010 (RVAR 2010) by 2020.Stock on sub-surface lines is identified by a letter (such as S Stock, used on the Metropolitan line), while tube stock is identified by the year of intended introduction (for example, 1996 Stock, used on the Jubilee line).===Depots===The Underground is served by the following depots:* Bakerloo: Stonebridge Park, Queen's Park, London Road* Central: Hainault, Ruislip, White City* Circle: Hammersmith* District: Ealing Common, Lillie Bridge Depot, Upminster* Hammersmith & City: Hammersmith* Jubilee: Neasden, Stratford Market* Metropolitan: Neasden* Northern: Edgware, Golders Green, Highgate, Morden* Piccadilly: Cockfosters, Northfields, South Harrow* Victoria: Northumberland Park* Waterloo & City: Waterloo*London Underground: Acton Works===Disused and abandoned stations===In the years since the first parts of the London Underground opened, many stations and routes have been closed.", "Some stations were closed because of low passenger numbers rendering them uneconomical; some became redundant after lines were re-routed or replacements were constructed; and others are no longer served by the Underground but remain open to National Rail main line services.", "In some cases, such as Aldwych and Ongar, the buildings remain and are used for other purposes.", "In others, such as British Museum, all evidence of the station has been lost through demolition.London Transport Museum runs guided tours of several disused stations including Down Street and Aldwych through its \"Hidden London\" programme.", "The tours look at the history of the network and feature historical details drawn from the museum's own archives and collections.=== Proposed line extensions ===safeguarded by TfL in 2021====Bakerloo line extension to Lewisham====A southern extension of the Bakerloo line from Elephant & Castle has been proposed multiple times since the line opened.", "In the 2010s, consultation events and preliminary design work took place on an extension.", "A route from Elephant & Castle to Lewisham via the Old Kent Road and was chosen by Transport for London in 2019.The line could be extended further on the Hayes National Rail line in future.", "Estimated to cost between £4.7bn to £7.9bn (in 2017 prices), the extension would take around 7 years to construct.", "Due to financial impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, work to implement the extension is currently on hold.==== Other proposed extensions and lines ====Several other extensions have been proposed in recent years, including a further extension of the Northern line to Clapham Junction.", "The long proposed Croxley Rail Link (an extension of the Metropolitan line) was cancelled in 2018 due to higher than expected costs and lack of funding.In 2019, the Canary Wharf Group suggested the construction of a new rail line between Euston and Canary Wharf, to improve connections to the future High Speed 2 railway.In 2021, Harlow District Council proposed extending the Central line from its eastern terminus in Epping to Harlow.", "They argued this would reduce travel times to Epping and London, and help with efforts to add 19,000 new homes to the town and expand the population to 130,000.However, no funding has been allocated for this proposed extension.===Line improvements=======Bakerloo line====The thirty-six 1972-stock trains on the Bakerloo line have already exceeded their original design life of 40 years.", "London Underground is therefore extending their operational life by making major repairs to many of the trains to maintain reliability.", "The Bakerloo line will receive new trains as part of the New Tube for London project.", "This will replace the existing fleet with new air-cooled articulated trains and a new signalling system to allow Automatic Train Operation.", "The line is predicted to run a maximum of 27 trains per hour, a 25% increase on the current 21 trains per hour during peak periods.====Central line====Shepherd's Bush station, part of a Central line improvementThe Central line was the first line to be modernised in the 1990s, with 85 new 1992-stock trains and a new automatic signalling system installed to allow Automatic Train Operation.", "The line runs 34 trains per hour for half an hour in the morning peak but is unable to operate more frequently because of a lack of additional trains.", "The 85 existing 1992-stock trains are the most unreliable on the London Underground as they are equipped with the first generation of solid-state direct-current thyristor-control traction equipment.", "The trains often break down, have to be withdrawn from service at short notice and at times are not available when required, leading to gaps in service at peak times.", "Although relatively modern and well within their design life, the trains need work in the medium term to ensure the continued reliability of the traction control equipment and maintain fleet serviceability until renewal, which is expected between 2028 and 2032.Major work is to be undertaken on the fleet to ensure their continued reliability with brakes, traction control systems, doors, automatic control systems being repaired or replaced, among other components.", "The Central line will be part of the New Tube for London Project.", "This will replace the existing fleet with new air-cooled walkthrough trains and a new automatic signalling system.", "The line is predicted to run 36 trains per hour, a 25% increase compared to the present service of 34 trains for the busiest 30 minutes in the morning and evening peaks and 27–30 trains per hour during the rest of the peak.====Jubilee line====The signalling system on the Jubilee line has been replaced to increase capacity on the line by 20%—the line now runs 30 trains per hour at peak times, compared to the previous 24 trains per hour.", "As with the Victoria line, the service frequency is planned to increase to 36 trains per hour.", "To enable this, ventilation, power supply and control and signalling systems will be adapted and modified to allow the increase in frequency.", "London Underground also plans to add up to an additional 18 trains to the current fleet of 63 trains of 1996 stock.====Northern line====The signalling system on the Northern line has been replaced to increase capacity on the line by 20%, as the line now runs 24 trains per hour at peak times, compared to 20 previously.", "Capacity can be increased further if the operation of the Charing Cross and Bank branches is separated.", "To enable this up to 50 additional trains will be built in addition to the current 106 1995 stock.", "Five trains will be required for the Northern line extension and 45 to increase frequencies on the rest of the line.", "This, combined with segregation of trains at Camden Town junction, will allow 30–36 trains per hour compared to 24 trains per hour currently.====Piccadilly line====The eighty-six 1973 stock trains that operate on the Piccadilly line are some of the most reliable trains on the London Underground.", "The trains have exceeded their design life of around 40 years and are in need of replacement.", "The Piccadilly line will be part of the New Tube for London Project.", "This will replace the existing fleet with new air-cooled walk-through trains and a new signalling system to allow Automatic Train Operation.", "The line is predicted to run 30–36 trains per hour, up to a 50% increase compared to the 24–25 train per hour service provided today.", "The line will be the first to be upgraded as part of the New Tube for London Project, as passenger numbers have increased over recent years and are expected to increase further.", "This line is important in this project because it currently provides a less frequent service than other lines.====Victoria line====The signalling system on the Victoria line has been replaced to increase capacity on the line by around 25%; the line now runs up to 36 trains per hour compared to 27–28 previously.", "The trains have been replaced with 47 new higher-capacity 2009-stock trains.", "The peak frequency was increased to 36 trains per hour in 2016 after track works were completed to the layout of the points at Walthamstow Central crossover, which transfers northbound trains to the southbound line for their return journey.", "This resulted in a 40% increase in capacity between Seven Sisters and Walthamstow Central.====Waterloo & City line====The line was upgraded with five new 1992-stock trains in the early 1990s, at the same time as the Central line was upgraded.", "The line operates under traditional signalling and does not use Automatic Train Operation.", "The line will be part of the New Tube for London Project.", "This will replace the existing fleet with new air-cooled walk-through trains and a new signalling system to allow Automatic Train Operation.", "The line is predicted to run 30 trains per hour, an increase of up to 50% on the current 21 trains per hour.", "The line may also be one of the first to be upgraded, alongside the Piccadilly line, with new trains, systems and platform-edge doors to test the systems before the Central and Bakerloo lines are upgraded.====Sub-surface lines (District, Metropolitan, Hammersmith & City and Circle)====New S Stock trains have been introduced on the sub-surface (District, Metropolitan, Hammersmith & City and Circle) lines.", "These were all delivered by 2017.191 trains have been introduced: 58 for the Metropolitan line and 133 for the Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines.", "The track, electrical supply and signalling systems are also being upgraded in a programme to increase peak-hour capacity.", "The replacement of the signalling system and the introduction of Automatic Train Operation and Control is scheduled for 2019–22.A control room for the sub-surface network has been built in Hammersmith and an automatic train control (ATC) system is to replace ageing signalling equipment dating from between the mid-1920s and late 1980s, including the signal cabin at Edgware Road, the control room at Earl's Court, and the signalling centre at Baker Street.", "Bombardier won the contract in June 2011 but was released by agreement in December 2013, and London Underground has now issued another signalling contract, with Thales.===New trains for deep-level lines===In mid-2014 Transport for London issued a tender for up to 18 trains for the Jubilee line and up to 50 trains for the Northern line.", "These would be used to increase frequencies and cover the Battersea extension on the Northern line.In early 2014 the Bakerloo, Central, Piccadilly and Waterloo & City line rolling-stock replacement project was renamed ''New Tube for London'' (NTfL) and moved from the feasibility stage to the design and specification stage.", "The study had showed that, with new generation trains and re-signalling:* Piccadilly line capacity could be increased by 60% with 33 trains per hour (tph) at peak times by 2025.", "* Central line capacity increased by 25% with 33 tph at peak times by 2030.", "* Waterloo & City line capacity increased by 50% by 2032, after the track at Waterloo station is remodelled.", "* Bakerloo line capacity could be increased by 25% with 27 tph at peak times by 2033.The project is estimated to cost £16.42 billion (£9.86 billion at 2013 prices).", "A notice was published on 28 February 2014 in the Official Journal of the European Union asking for expressions of interest in building the trains.", "On 9 October 2014 TFL published a shortlist of those (Alstom, Siemens, Hitachi, CAF and Bombardier) who had expressed an interest in supplying 250 trains for between £1.0 billion and £2.5 billion, and on the same day opened an exhibition with a design by PriestmanGoode.", "The fully automated trains may be able to run without drivers, but the ASLEF and RMT trade unions that represent the drivers strongly oppose this, saying it would affect safety.", "The invitation to tender for the trains was issued in January 2016; the specifications for the Piccadilly line infrastructure are expected in 2016, and the first train is due to run on the Piccadilly line in 2023.Siemens Mobility's Inspiro design was selected in June 2018 in a £1.5 billion contract.===Ventilation and cooling===When the Bakerloo line opened in 1906, it was advertised with a maximum temperature of , but over time the tube tunnels have warmed up.", "In 1938 approval was given for a ventilation improvement programme, and a refrigeration unit was installed in a lift shaft at Tottenham Court Road.", "Temperatures of were reported in the 2006 European heat wave.", "It was claimed in 2002 that, if animals were being transported, temperatures on the Tube would break European Commission animal welfare laws.", "A 2000 study reported that air quality was seventy-three times worse than at street level, with a passenger inhaling the same mass of particulates during a twenty-minute journey on the Northern line as when smoking a cigarette.", "The main purpose of the London Underground's ventilation fans is to extract hot air from the tunnels, and fans across the network are being refurbished, although complaints of noise from local residents preclude their use at full power at night.In June 2006 a groundwater cooling system was installed at Victoria station.", "In 2012, air-cooling units were installed on platforms at Green Park station using cool deep groundwater and at Oxford Circus using chiller units at the top of an adjacent building.", "New air-conditioned trains have been introduced on the sub-surface lines, but was initially ruled out for the tube trains due to space being considered limited on tube trains for air-conditioning units and that these would heat the tunnels even more.", "The New Tube for London, which will replace the trains for the Bakerloo, Central, Waterloo and City and Piccadilly lines, is planned to have air conditioning for the new trains along with better energy conservation and regenerative braking.In the original Tube design, trains passing through close fitting tunnels act as pistons to create air pressure gradients between stations.", "This pressure difference drives ventilation between platforms and the surface exits through the passenger foot network.", "This system depends on adequate cross-sectional area of the airspace above the passengers' heads in the foot tunnels and escalators, where laminar airflow is proportional to the fourth power of the radius, the Hagen–Poiseuille equation.", "It also depends on an absence of turbulence in the tunnel headspace.", "In many stations the ventilation system is now ineffective because of alterations that reduce tunnel diameters and increase turbulence.", "An example is Green Park tube station, where false ceiling panels attached to metal frames have been installed that reduce the above-head airspace diameter by more than half in many parts.", "This has the effect of reducing laminar airflow by 94%.Originally, air turbulence was kept to a minimum by keeping all signage flat to the tunnel walls.", "Now, the ventilation space above head height is crowded with ducting, conduits, cameras, speakers and equipment acting as a baffle plates with predictable reductions in flow.", "Often, electronic signs have their flat surface at right angles to the main air flow, causing choked flow.", "Temporary sign boards that stand at the top of escalators also maximise turbulence.", "The alterations to the ventilation system are important, not only to heat exchange, but also the quality of the air at platform level, particularly given its asbestos content.===Lifts and escalators===Escalators at Canary Wharf stationOriginally access to the deep-tube platforms was by a lift.", "Each lift was staffed, and at some quiet stations in the 1920s the ticket office was moved into the lift, or it was arranged that the lift could be controlled from the ticket office.", "The first escalator on the London Underground was installed in 1911 between the District and Piccadilly platforms at Earl's Court and from the following year new deep-level stations were provided with escalators instead of lifts.", "The escalators had a diagonal shunt at the top landing.", "In 1921 a recorded voice instructed passengers to stand on the right and signs followed in the Second World War.", "Travellers were asked to stand on the right so that anyone wishing to overtake them would have a clear passage on the left side of the escalator.", "The first 'comb' type escalator was installed in 1924 at Clapham Common.", "In the 1920s and 1930s many lifts were replaced by escalators.", "After the fatal 1987 King's Cross fire, all wooden escalators were replaced with metal ones and the mechanisms are regularly degreased to lower the potential for fires.", "The only wooden escalator not to be replaced was at Greenford station, which remained until March 2014 when TfL replaced it with the first incline lift on the UK transport network in October 2015.There are 426 escalators on the London Underground system and the longest, at , is at Angel.", "The shortest, at Stratford, gives a vertical rise of .", "There are 184 lifts, and numbers have increased in recent years because of investment in making tube stations accessible.", "Over 28 stations will have lifts installed over the next 10 years, bringing the total of step-free stations to over 100.Lift and escalators are abundant with advertising posters which can be used for artistic purposes due to the nature of their layout.===Wi-Fi and mobile phone reception===In mid-2012, London Underground, in partnership with Virgin Media, trialled Wi-Fi hotspots in many stations, but not in the tunnels, that allowed passengers free internet access.", "The free trial proved successful and was extended to the end of 2012, whereupon it switched to a service freely available to subscribers to Virgin Media and others, or as a paid-for service.", "It was not previously possible to use mobile phones on most parts of the Underground (excluding services running overground or occasionally sub-surface, depending on the phone and carrier) using native 2G, 3G or 4G networks, and a project to extend coverage before the 2012 Olympics was abandoned because of commercial and technical difficulties.In March 2020, 2G, 3G and 4G signal was made available on parts of the Jubilee line, between Westminster and Canning Town, throughout the stations and tunnels as part of an initial trial.In June 2021, Vodafone dropped London Underground Wi-Fi connectivity across the entire network.", "This was restored in April 2023 after control of the Wi-Fi connectivity moved from Virgin Media to Boldyn Networks as part of their 20-year concession deal with Transport for London, providing data connectivity across the entire network.In December 2022, additional mobile coverage, including 5G connectivity, launched at a small subset of stations and tunnel segments on the Central line, with a view to expand to the full set of sub-surface stations and tunnels on the London Underground and Elizabeth Line by the end of 2024.Further stations on the Northern line were launched from January 2023, with additional Northern line stations also being added in June 2023.Not all stations have identical coverage solutions, with some not having 5G connectivity present.", "As of June 2023, testing has begun on sections of the Bakerloo, Piccadilly and Victoria lines.In November and December 2023, more mobile data coverage was launched on more stations on the Northern and Central Lines.", "On the Northern line: all stations from Tottenham Court Road to Euston.", "on the Central line: from Oxford Circus to Chancery Lane.+Mobile coverage availability on London UndergroundLineSections of track or stationsAvailable fromJubileeWestminster – Canning TownMarch 2020CentralHolland Park – QueenswayDecember 2022CentralOxford Circus – Tottenham Court RoadSeptember 2023NorthernArchway – Kentish TownJanuary 2023NorthernTottenham Court Road to BankDecember 2023NorthernKentish Town – Mornington CrescentJuly 2023NorthernArchway – East FinchleyJanuary 2024 - Highgate platforms have service - not the tunnels, Expected from Spring 2024PiccadillyRussell Square – Covent GardenExpected from Spring 2024NorthernEuston – Belsize ParkNovember 2023" ], [ "Travelling", "===Ticketing===The Oyster card, a contactless smart card used across the London transport systemThe Underground received £2.669 billion in fares in 2016/17 and uses Transport for London's zonal fare system to calculate fares.", "There are nine zones with zone 1 being the central zone, which includes the loop of the Circle line with a few stations to the south of River Thames.", "The only London Underground stations in Zones 7 to 9 are on the Metropolitan line beyond Moor Park, outside London region.", "Some stations are in two zones, and the cheapest fare applies.", "Paper tickets, the contactless Oyster cards, contactless debit or credit cards and Apple Pay and Android Pay smartphones and watches can be used for travel.", "Single and return tickets are available in either format, but Travelcards (season tickets) for longer than a day are available only on Oyster cards.TfL introduced the Oyster card in 2003; this is a pre-payment smartcard with an embedded contactless RFID chip.", "It can be loaded with Travelcards and used on the Underground, the Overground, buses, trams, the Docklands Light Railway, and National Rail services within London.", "Fares for single journeys are cheaper than paper tickets, and a daily cap limits the total cost in a day to the price of a Day Travelcard.", "The Oyster card must be 'touched in' at the start and end of a journey, otherwise it is regarded as 'incomplete' and the maximum fare is charged.", "In March 2012 the cost of this in the previous year to travellers was £66.5 million.In 2014, TfL became the first public transport provider in the world to accept payment from contactless bank cards.", "The Underground first started accepting contactless debit and credit cards in September 2014.This was followed by the adoption of Apple Pay in 2015 and Android Pay in 2016, allowing payment using a contactless-enabled phone or smartwatch.", "Over 500 million journeys have taken place using contactless, and TfL has become one of Europe's largest contactless merchants, with around 1 in 10 contactless transactions in the UK taking place on the TfL network.", "This technology, developed in-house by TfL, has been licensed to other major cities like New York City and Boston.A concessionary fare scheme is operated by London Councils for residents who are disabled or meet certain age criteria.", "Residents born before 1951 were eligible after their 60th birthday, whereas those born in 1955 will need to wait until they are 66.Called a \"Freedom Pass\" it allows free travel on TfL-operated routes at all times and is valid on some National Rail services within London at weekends and after 09:30 on Monday to Fridays.", "Since 2010, the Freedom Pass has included an embedded holder's photograph; it lasts five years between renewals.In addition to automatic and staffed faregates at stations, the Underground also operates on a proof-of-payment system.", "The system is patrolled by both uniformed and plain-clothes fare inspectors with hand-held Oyster-card readers.", "Passengers travelling without a valid ticket must pay a penalty fare of £80 (£40 if paid within 21 days) and can be prosecuted for fare evasion under the Regulation of Railways Act 1889 and Transport for London Byelaws.===Hours of operation===The tube closes overnight during the week, but since 2016, the Central, Jubilee, Northern, Piccadilly, and Victoria lines, as well as a short section of the London Overground have operated all night on Friday and Saturday nights.", "The first trains run from about 05:00 and the last trains until just after 01:00, with later starting times on Sunday mornings.", "The nightly closures are used for maintenance, but some lines stay open on New Year's Eve and run for longer hours during major public events such as the 2012 London Olympics.", "Some lines are occasionally closed for scheduled engineering work at weekends.The Underground runs a limited service on Christmas Eve with some lines closing early, and does not operate on Christmas Day.", "Since 2010 a dispute between London Underground and trade unions over holiday pay has resulted in a limited service on Boxing Day.====Night Tube====Route map of Night TubeOn 19 August 2016, London Underground launched a 24-hour service on the Victoria and Central lines with plans in place to extend this to the Piccadilly, Northern and Jubilee lines starting on Friday morning and continuing right through until Sunday evening.", "The Night Tube proposal was originally scheduled to start on 12 September 2015, following completion of upgrades, but in August 2015 it was announced that the start date for the Night Tube had been pushed back because of ongoing talks about contract terms between trade unions and London Underground.", "On 23 May 2016 it was announced that the night service would launch on 19 August 2016 for the Central and Victoria lines.", "The service operates on the:;Central line:between Ealing Broadway and Hainault via Newbury Park or Loughton.", "No service on the West Ruislip Branch, between Woodford and Hainault via Grange Hill or between Loughton and Epping.", ";Northern line:between Morden and Edgware / High Barnet via Charing Cross.", "No service on Mill Hill East, Battersea or Bank branches.", ";Piccadilly line:between Cockfosters and Heathrow Terminals 1, 2, 3 and 5.No service to Terminal 4 or between Acton Town and Uxbridge.", ";Jubilee line:Full line – Stratford to Stanmore.", ";Victoria line:Full line – Walthamstow Central to Brixton.The Jubilee, Piccadilly and Victoria lines, and the Central line between White City and Leytonstone, operate at 10-minute intervals.", "The Central line operates at 20-minute intervals between Leytonstone and Hainault, between Leytonstone and Loughton, and between White City and Ealing Broadway.", "The Northern line operates at roughly 8-minute intervals between Morden and Camden Town via Charing Cross, and at 15-minute intervals between Camden Town and Edgware and between Camden Town and High Barnet.Night Tube services were suspended in March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic.===Accessibility===Accessibility for people with limited mobility was not considered when most of the system was built, and before 1993 fire regulations prohibited wheelchairs on the Underground.", "The stations on the Jubilee Line Extension, opened in 1999, were the first stations on the system designed with accessibility in mind, but retrofitting accessibility features to the older stations is a major investment that is planned to take over twenty years.", "A 2010 London Assembly report concluded that over 10% of people in London had reduced mobility and, with an ageing population, numbers will increase in the future.The standard issue tube map indicates stations that are step-free from street to platforms.", "There can also be a step from platform to train as large as and a gap between the train and curved platforms, and these distances are marked on the map.", "Access from platform to train at some stations can be assisted using a boarding ramp operated by staff, and a section has been raised on some platforms to reduce the step., there are 90 stations with step-free access from platform to train, and there are plans to provide step-free access at another 11 stations by 2024.By 2016 a third of stations had platform humps that reduce the step from platform to train.", "New trains, such as those being introduced on the sub-surface network, have access and room for wheelchairs, improved audio and visual information systems and accessible door controls.===Delays and overcrowding===An overcrowded Northern line train.", "Overcrowding is a regular problem for Tube passengers, especially during peak hours.During peak hours, stations can get so crowded that they need to be closed.", "Passengers may not get on the first train and the majority of passengers do not find a seat on their trains, some trains having more than four passengers every square metre.", "When asked, passengers report overcrowding as the aspect of the network that they are least satisfied with, and overcrowding has been linked to poor productivity and potential poor heart health.", "Capacity increases have been overtaken by increased demand, and peak overcrowding has increased by 16 percent since 2004–05.Compared with 2003–04, the reliability of the network had increased in 2010–11, with lost customer hours reduced from 54 million to 40 million.", "Passengers are entitled to a refund if their journey is delayed by 15 minutes or more due to circumstances within the control of TfL, and in 2010, 330,000 passengers out of a potential 11 million Tube passengers claimed compensation for delays.", "Mobile phone apps and services have been developed to help passengers claim their refund more efficiently.===Safety===London Underground is authorised to operate trains by the Office of Rail Regulation.", "there had been 310 days since the last major incident, when a passenger had died after falling on the track.", "there have been nine consecutive years in which no employee fatalities have occurred.", "A special staff training facility was opened at West Ashfield tube station in TFL's Ashfield House, West Kensington in 2010 at a cost of £800,000.Meanwhile, Mayor of London Boris Johnson decided it should be demolished along with the Earls Court Exhibition Centre as part of Europe's biggest regeneration scheme.In November 2011 it was reported that 80 people had died by suicide in the previous year on the London Underground, up from 46 in 2000.Most platforms at deep tube stations have pits, often referred to as 'suicide pits', beneath the track.", "These were constructed in 1926 to aid drainage of water from the platforms, but also halve the likelihood of a fatality when a passenger falls or jumps in front of a train.=== Tube Challenge ===The Tube Challenge is the competition for the fastest time to travel to all London Underground stations, tracked by Guinness World Records since 1960.The goal is to visit all the stations on the system, but not necessarily using all the lines; participants may connect between stations on foot, or by using other forms of public transport.As of 2021, the record for fastest completion was held by Steve Wilson (UK) and Andi James (Finland), who completed the challenge in 15 hours, 45 minutes and 38 seconds on 21 May 2015." ], [ "Design and the arts", "===Map===The left side shows the 1933 Beck map and the right side the map in 2012.Early maps of the Metropolitan and District railways were city maps with the lines superimposed, and the District published a pocket map in 1897.A Central London Railway route diagram appears on a 1904 postcard and 1905 poster, similar maps appearing in District Railway cars in 1908.In the same year, following a marketing agreement between the operators, a joint central area map that included all the lines was published.", "A new map was published in 1921 without any background details, but the central area was squashed, requiring smaller letters and arrows.", "Although Fred H. Stingemore enlarged the central area of the map, it was Harry Beck who took this further by distorting geography and simplifying the map so that the railways appeared as straight lines with equally spaced stations.", "He presented his original draft in 1931, and after initial rejection it was first printed in 1933.Today's tube map is an evolution of that original design, and the ideas are used by many metro systems around the world.The current standard tube map shows the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground, IFS Cloud Cable Car, London Tramlink and the London Underground; a more detailed map covering a larger area, published by National Rail and Transport for London, includes suburban railway services.", "The tube map came second in a BBC and London Transport Museum poll asking for a favourite UK design icon of the 20th century and the underground's 150th anniversary was celebrated by a Google Doodle on the search engine.Commissioned by Art on the Underground, the cover of the pocket map is designed by various British and international artists, one of the largest public art commissions in the UK.===Roundel===While the first use of a roundel in a London transport context was the trademark of the London General Omnibus Company registered in 1905, it was first used on the Underground in 1908 when the UERL placed a solid red circle behind station nameboards on platforms to highlight the name.", "The word \"UNDERGROUND\" was placed in a roundel instead of a station name on posters in 1912 by Charles Sharland and Alfred France, as well as on undated and possibly earlier posters from the same period.", "Frank Pick, impressed by the Paris Metro, thought the solid red disc cumbersome and took a version where the disc became a ring from a 1915 Sharland poster and gave it to Edward Johnston to develop, and registered the symbol as a trademark in 1917.The roundel was first printed on a map cover using the Johnston typeface in June 1919, and printed in colour the following October.After the UERL was absorbed into the London Passenger Transport Board in 1933, it used forms of the roundel for buses, trams and coaches, as well as the Underground.", "The words \"London Transport\" were added inside the ring, above and below the bar.", "The Carr-Edwards report, published in 1938 as possibly the first attempt at a graphics standards manual, introduced stricter guidelines.", "Between 1948 and 1957 the word \"Underground\" in the bar was replaced by \"London Transport\".", ", forms of the roundel, with differing colours for the ring and bar, are used for other TfL services, such as London Buses, Tramlink, London Overground, London River Services and Docklands Light Railway.", "Crossrail will also be identified with a roundel.", "The 100th anniversary of the roundel was celebrated in 2008 by TfL commissioning 100 artists to produce works that celebrate the design.", "Roundels are featured outside many underground stations; they are commonly mounted on a white pole known as a \"Venetian mast\".", "In some cases, the mast is merely a decorative feature, with the roundel being mounted to a wall, and the mast supported by the roundel, rather than ''vice versa''.In 2016, Tate Modern commissioned conceptual artist Michael Craig-Martin to \"reimagine\" the roundel, changing its colours for the first time since the sign was introduced.", "His design was displayed at Southwark Station in collaboration with Art on the Underground to mark the opening weekend of the new Tate Modern gallery situated near the station.File:Ealing Broadway Roundel.png|An early form of the roundel as used on the platform at Ealing BroadwayFile:Mosaic Underground roundel, Maida Vale.jpg|Mosaic roundel used at Maida Vale stationFile:Underground sign at Westminster.jpg|The form used today outside Westminster tube stationFile:Bethnal Green stn roundel.JPG|Roundel and \"way out\" arrow on a platform at Bethnal Green stationFile:Art Changes, We Change - London Undergound roundel by Michael Craig-Martin at Southwark Station.png|Michael Craig-Martin's 2016 roundel designFile:No Smoking in the Bakerloo line.jpg|NO SMOKING signs using the roundel which are present only on the 1972 stock trains of the Bakerloo line===Architecture===Seventy of the 272 London Underground stations use buildings that are on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest, and five have entrances in listed buildings.", "The Metropolitan Railway's original seven stations were inspired by Italianate designs, with the platforms lit by daylight from above and by gas lights in large glass globes.", "Early District Railway stations were similar and on both railways the further from central London the station the simpler the construction.", "The City & South London Railway opened with red-brick buildings, designed by Thomas Phillips Figgis, topped with a lead-covered dome that contained the lift mechanism and weather vane (still visible at many stations, such as Clapham Common).", "The Central London Railway appointed Harry Bell Measures as architect, who designed its pinkish-brown steel-framed buildings with larger entrances.ox-blood tiles55 Broadway, above St James's Park station, was designed by Charles Holden in 1927 and is one of only two Grade I listed buildings on the Underground.In the first decade of the 20th century Leslie Green established a house style for the tube stations built by the UERL, which were clad in ox-blood faience blocks.", "Green pioneered using building design to guide passengers with direction signs on tiled walls, with the stations given a unique identity with patterns on the platform walls.", "Many of these tile patterns survive, though a significant number of these are now replicas.", "Harry W. Ford was responsible for the design of at least 17 UERL and District Railway stations, including Barons Court and Embankment, and claimed to have first thought of enlarging the U and D in the UNDERGROUND wordmark.", "The Met's architect Charles Walter Clark had used a neo-classical design for rebuilding Baker Street and Paddington Praed Street stations before the First World War and, although the fashion had changed, continued with Farringdon in 1923.The buildings had metal lettering attached to pale walls.", "Clark would later design \"Chiltern Court\", the large, luxurious block of apartments at Baker Street, that opened in 1929.In the 1920s and 1930s, Charles Holden designed a series of modernist and art-deco stations some of which he described as his 'brick boxes with concrete lids'.", "Holden's design for the Underground's headquarters building at 55 Broadway included avant-garde sculptures by Jacob Epstein, Eric Gill and Henry Moore.When the Central line was extended east, the stations were simplified Holden proto-Brutalist designs, and a cavernous concourse built at Gants Hill in honour of early Moscow Metro stations.", "Few new stations were built in the 50 years after 1948, but Misha Black was appointed design consultant for the 1960s Victoria line, contributing to the line's uniform look, with each station having an individual tile motif.", "Notable stations from this period include Moor Park, the stations of the Piccadilly line extension to Heathrow and Hillingdon.In recent years, the stations of the 1990s Jubilee Line Extension were designed in a high-tech style by architects such as Norman Foster and Michael Hopkins.", "The project was critically acclaimed, with the Royal Fine Arts Commission describing the project as \"an example of patronage at its best and most enlightened\", and two stations shortlisted for the Stirling Prize.", "Stations were built to the latest standards, future proofed for growth, with innovations such as Platform screen doors.", "West Ham station was built as a homage to the red brick tube stations of the 1930s, using brick, concrete and glass.Many platforms have unique interior designs to help passenger identification.", "The tiling at Baker Street incorporates repetitions of Sherlock Holmes's silhouette, at Tottenham Court Road semi-abstract mosaics by Eduardo Paolozzi feature musical instruments, tape machines and butterflies, and at Charing Cross, David Gentleman designed the mural depicting the construction of the Eleanor Cross.", "Robyn Denny designed the murals on the Northern line platforms at Embankment.===Johnston typeface===The first posters used various type fonts, as was contemporary practice, and station signs used sans serif block capitals.", "The Johnston typeface was developed in upper and lower case in 1916, and a complete set of blocks, marked Johnston Sans, was made by the printers the following year.", "A bold version of the capitals was developed by Johnston in 1929.The Met changed to a serif letterform for its signs in the 1920s, used on the stations rebuilt by Clark.", "Johnston was adopted systemwide after the formation of the LPTB in 1933 and the LT wordmark was applied to locomotives and carriages.", "Johnston was redesigned, becoming New Johnston, for photo-typesetting in the early 1980s when Elichi Kono designed a range that included Light, Medium and Bold, each with its italic version.", "The typesetters P22 developed today's electronic version, sometimes called TfL Johnston, in 1997.===Posters and patronage of the arts===1913 Underground poster by Tony SargEarly advertising posters used various letter fonts.", "Graphic posters first appeared in the 1890s, and it became possible to print colour images economically in the early 20th century.", "The Central London Railway used colour illustrations in their 1905 poster, and from 1908 the Underground Group, under Pick's direction, used images of country scenes, shopping and major events on posters to encourage use of the tube.", "Pick found he was limited by the commercial artists the printers used, and so commissioned work from artists and designers such as Dora Batty, Edward McKnight Kauffer, the cartoonist George Morrow, Herry (Heather) Perry, Graham Sutherland, Charles Sharland and the sisters Anna and Doris Zinkeisen.", "According to Ruth Artmonsky, over 150 women artists were commissioned by Pick and latterly Christian Barman to design posters for London Underground, London Transport and London County Council Tramways.The Johnston Sans letter font began appearing on posters from 1917.The Met, strongly independent, used images on timetables and on the cover of its ''Metro-land'' guide that promoted the country it served for the walker, visitor and later the house-hunter.", "By the time London Transport was formed in 1933 the UERL was considered a patron of the arts and over 1000 works were commissioned in the 1930s, such as the cartoon images of Charles Burton and Kauffer's later abstract cubist and surrealist images.", "Harold Hutchison became London Transport publicity officer in 1947, after the Second World War and nationalisation, and introduced the \"pair poster\", where an image on a poster was paired with text on another.", "Numbers of commissions dropped, to eight a year in the 1950s and just four a year in the 1970s, with images from artists such Harry Stevens and Tom Eckersley.Artwork by French artist Daniel Buren, commissioned by Art on the Underground at Tottenham Court RoadArt on the Underground was launched in 2000 to revive London Underground as a patron of the arts.", "Today, commissions range from the pocket tube map cover, to temporary art pieces, to large scale permanent installations in stations.", "Major commissions by Art on the Underground in recent years have included Labyrinth by Turner prize winning artist Mark Wallinger to mark the 150th anniversary of the London Underground, \"Diamonds and Circles\" permanent works \"in situ\" by French artist Daniel Buren at Tottenham Court Road and \"Beauty < Immortality\", a memorial to Frank Pick by Langlands & Bell at Piccadilly Circus.Similarly since 1986, Poems on the Underground has commissioned poetry that is displayed in trains.===In popular culture===The Underground (including several fictitious stations) has been featured in many movies and television shows, including ''Skyfall'', ''Death Line'', ''Die Another Day'', ''Sliding Doors'', ''An American Werewolf in London'', ''Creep'', ''Tube Tales, Sherlock'' and ''Neverwhere''.", "The London Underground Film Office received over 200 requests to film in 2000.The Underground has also featured in music such as the Jam's \"Down in the Tube Station at Midnight\" and in literature such as the graphic novel ''V for Vendetta''.", "Popular legends about the Underground being haunted persist to this day.", "In 2016, British composer Daniel Liam Glyn released his concept album Changing Stations based on the 11 main tube lines of the London Underground network.", "''Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3'' has a single-player level named ''Mind The Gap'' where most of the level takes place between the dockyards and Westminster while the player and a team of SAS attempt to take down terrorists attempting to escape using the London Underground via a hijacked train.", "The game also features the multiplayer map \"Underground\", in which players are combating in a fictitious Underground station.", "The London Underground map serves as a playing field for the conceptual game of Mornington Crescent (which is named after a station on the Northern line) and the board game ''The London Game''.In 1999, Carlton Television premiered a regional game show (Greater London area only) also called ''Mind the Gap.", "''=== Busking ===The London Underground provides busking permits for up to 39 pitches across 25 central London stations, with over 100,000 hours of live music performed each year.", "Performers are chosen by audition, with previous buskers including Ed Sheeran, George Michael and Rod Stewart." ], [ "Research", "The London Underground is frequently studied by academics because it is one of the largest, oldest, and most widely used systems of public transit in the world.", "Therefore, the transportation and complex network literatures include extensive information about the Tube system.For London Underground passengers, research suggests that transfers are highly costly in terms of walk and wait times.", "Because these costs are unevenly distributed across stations and platforms, path choice analyses may be helpful in guiding upgrades and choice of new stations.", "Routes on the Underground can also be optimized using a global network optimization approach, akin to routing algorithms for Internet applications.", "Analysis of the Underground as a network may also be helpful for setting safety priorities, since the stations targeted in the 2005 London bombings were amongst the most effective for disrupting the transportation system.A study in March 2023 showed that over £1.3 million worth of mobile phones were stolen on the London Underground in 2022, more than the entire UK rail network combined." ], [ "Notable people", "* Harry Beck (1902–1974) designed the tube map, named in 2006 as a British design icon.", "* Hannah Dadds (1941–2011), the first female train driver on the London Underground.", "* John Fowler (1817–1898) was the railway engineer that designed the Metropolitan Railway.", "* MacDonald Gill (1884–1947), cartographer credited with drawing, in 1914, \"the map that saved the London Underground\".", "* James Henry Greathead (1844–1896) was the engineer that dug the Tower Subway using a method using a wrought iron shield patented by Peter W. Barlow, and later used the same tunnelling shield to build the deep-tube City & South London and Central London railways.", "* Edward Johnston (1872–1944) developed the Johnston Sans typeface, still in use today on the London Underground.", "* Charles Pearson (1793–1862) suggested an underground railway in London in 1845 and from 1854 promoted a scheme that eventually became the Metropolitan Railway.", "* Frank Pick (1878–1941) was UERL publicity officer from 1908, commercial manager from 1912 and joint managing director from 1928.He was chief executive and vice chairman of the LPTB from 1933 to 1940.It was Pick that commissioned Edward Johnston to create the typeface and redesign the roundel, and established the Underground's reputation as patrons of the arts as users of the best in contemporary poster art and architecture.", "* Robert Selbie (1868–1930) was manager of the Metropolitan Railway from 1908 until his death, marketing it using the Metro-land brand.", "* Edgar Speyer (1862–1932) Financial backer of Yerkes who served as UERL chairman from 1906 to 1915 during its formative years.", "* Albert Stanley (1874–1948) was manager of the UERL from 1907, and became the first chairman of the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) in 1933.", "* Edward Watkin (1819–1901) was chairman of the Metropolitan Railway from 1872 to 1894.", "* Charles Yerkes (1837–1905) was an American who founded the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) in 1902, which opened three tube lines and electrified the District Railway." ], [ "See also", "* Automation of the London Underground* List of London Underground stations* List of busiest London Underground stations* London Underground mosquito* London Underground strikes* London UnderRound* Timeline of the London Underground" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * Scan available online at ''railwaysarchive.co.uk''.", "Retrieved 27 October 2012.", "* * * * * Snippet view at google.com, retrieved 20 August 2012* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * London Underground Morphing Map* * London Underground API* London Underground map and history* London Underground history in a dynamic timeline map * ===London Underground track maps===* TfL Track Map (shows only London Underground-operated trackage)* Carto.metro Track Map (more detailed; shows Underground, Overground, Crossrail, DLR, and mainline railway tracks as well)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Large technical system" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''large technical system''' ('''LTS''') is a system or network of enormous proportions or complexity.", "The study of LTSs is a subdiscipline of history of science and technology.The book ''Rescuing Prometheus'' by Thomas P. Hughes documents the development of four such systems, including the Boston central artery tunnel and the Internet." ], [ "References", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lund University" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lund University''' () is a public research university in Sweden and one of Northern Europe's oldest universities.", "The university is located in the city of Lund in the Swedish province of Scania.", "It traces its roots back to 1425, when a Franciscan ''studium generale'' was founded in Lund.", "After Sweden won Scania from Denmark in the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde, the university was officially founded in 1666 on the location of the old ''studium generale'' next to Lund Cathedral.Lund University has nine faculties, with additional campuses in the cities of Malmö and Helsingborg, with around 45,000 students in 270 different programmes and 1,500 freestanding courses.", "The university has 650 partner universities in approximately 75 countries.", "It belongs to the League of European Research Universities as well as the global Universitas 21 network.", "Among those associated with the university are five Nobel Prize winners, a Fields Medal winner, Prime Ministers, scores of business leaders and an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.Two major facilities for materials research are in Lund University: MAX IV, a synchrotron radiation laboratory – inaugurated in June 2016, and European Spallation Source (ESS), a new European facility that will provide up to 100 times brighter neutron beams than existing facilities today, to be fully operational by the end of 2027.The university centres on the Lundagård park adjacent to the Lund Cathedral, with various departments spread in different locations in town, but mostly concentrated in a belt stretching north from the park connecting to the university hospital area and continuing out to the northeastern periphery of the town, where one finds the large campus of the Faculty of Engineering." ], [ "History", "Lund University Main Building, built in 1882, designed by Helgo Zettervall=== Medieval origins ===The city of Lund has a long history as a centre for learning and was the ecclesiastical centre and seat of the archbishop of Denmark.", "A cathedral school (the ''Katedralskolan'') for the training of clergy was established in 1085 and is today Scandinavia's oldest school.In 1425, a Franciscan ''studium generale'' (a medieval university) was founded in Lund next to the Lund Cathedral (with baccalaureate degree started in 1438), making it the oldest institution of higher education in Scandinavia followed by ''studia generalia'' in Uppsala in 1477 and Copenhagen in 1479.After Sweden won Scania from Denmark in the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde, the university was founded in 1666 on the location of the old ''studium generale'' next to Lund Cathedral.", "The ''studium generale'' had not survived the Lutheran Reformation of 1536, which is why the university is considered a separate institution when founded in 1666.=== 17th–19th centuries ===After the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658, the Scanian lands came under the possession of the Swedish Crown, which founded the university in 1666 as a means of making Scania Swedish by educating teachers in Swedish and culturally integrate the Scania region with Sweden.", "The university was named ''Academia Carolina'' after Charles X Gustav of Sweden until the late 19th century when Lund University became the widespread denomination.", "It was the fifth university under the Swedish king, after Uppsala University (1477), the University of Tartu (1632, now in Estonia), the Academy of Åbo (1640, now in Finland), and the University of Greifswald (founded 1456; Swedish 1648–1815, now in Germany).The university was at its founding granted four faculties: Law, Theological, Medicine and Philosophy.", "They were the cornerstones, and for more than 200 years this system was in effect.", "Towards the end of the 17th century, the number of students hovered around 100.Some notable professors in the early days were Samuel Pufendorf, a juridical historian; and Canutus Hahn and Kristian Papke in philosophy.The Scanian War in 1676 led to a shut-down, which lasted until 1682.The university was re-opened largely due to regional patriots, but the university was not to enjoy a high status until well into the 19th century.", "Lecturing rooms were few, and lectures were held in the Lund Cathedral and its adjacent chapel.", "The professors were underpaid.View of the Historical Museum building in the 19th centuryIn 1716, Charles XII of Sweden entered Lund.", "He stayed in Lund for two years, in between his warlike expeditions.", "Lund and the university attracted a temporary attention boost.", "The most notable lecturer during this time was Andreas Rydelius.Peace was finally restored with the death of Charles XII in 1718, and during the first half of the 18th century, the university was granted added funds.", "The number of students was now around 500.Despite not being on par with Uppsala University, it had built a solid reputation and managed to attract prominent professors.Around 1760 the university's reputation dropped as the number of students fell below 200, most of whom hailed from around the province.", "However, by 1780 its reputation was largely restored and continued to rise through the 1820s.", "This was largely owing to popular and well-educated lecturers particularly in philology; the prominent professor Esaias Tegnér was a particularly notable character with widespread authority.", "He, in turn, attracted others towards Lund.", "One of these was the young theological student C. G. Brunius, who studied ancient languages under Tegnér and was later to become a professor of Greek.", "With time he was to devote himself to architecture and he redesigned several of Lund's buildings, as well as churches of the province.In 1829, the murder at Locus Peccatorum occurred in the Locus Peccatorum residence at the university.", "Jacob Wilhelm Blomdahl, a theology student, beat his fellow student Anders Landén to death in the night.", "Blomdahl was later executed for the murder, and the controversy the murder created around the conditions of student life were a factor in the creation of Akademiska Föreningen in the 1830s.In 1845 and 1862 Lund co-hosted Nordic student meetings together with the University of Copenhagen.A student called Elsa Collin was the first woman in the whole of Sweden to take part in a spex (a student comedy show).=== 20th century – present ===The University Square in the 1910s.In the early 20th century, the university had a student population as small as one thousand, consisting largely of upper-class pupils training to become civil servants, lawyers and doctors.", "In the coming decades, it started to grow significantly until it became one of the country's largest.", "In 1964 the social sciences were split from the Faculty of Humanities.", "Lund Institute of Technology was established in 1961 but was merged with Lund University eight years later.In recent years, Lund University has been very popular among applicants to Swedish higher education institutions, both nationally and internationally.", "For studies starting in autumn 2012, Lund received 11,160 foreign master's applications from 152 countries, which was roughly one third of all international applications to Swedish universities.===Women at the university===The first woman to study in Lund was Hildegard Björck (spring of 1880) who had previously studied in Uppsala and had there been the first Swedish woman ever to get an academic degree.", "Her tenure in Lund was however very brief and the medical student Hedda Andersson who entered the university later in 1880 (two years before the next woman to do so) is usually mentioned as the first woman at Lund University.", "Hilma Borelius was the first woman who finished a doctorate in Lund, in 1910.The first woman to be appointed to a professor's chair was the historian Birgitta Odén in 1965, though Carin Boalt was made a professor at the Faculty of Engineering, which at the time was a separate institution, in 1964.In 1992 Boel Flodgren, Professor of Business Law, was appointed rector magnificus (or, strictly speaking, ''rectrix magnifica'') of Lund University.", "As such, she was the first woman to be the head of a European university.===Campus===''Kungshuset,'' the oldest university building (completed 1584)The university's facilities are mainly located in the small city of Lund in Scania, about 15 km away from central Malmö and 50 km from Copenhagen.", "The large student and staff population makes an impact on the city, effectively making it a university town.", "Over a hundred university buildings scatter around town, most of them in an area covering more than 1 km2, stretching towards the north-east from Lundagård park in the very centre of town.", "Buildings in and around Lundagård include the main building, Kungshuset, the Historical Museum and the Academic Society's headquarters.", "The main library building is located in a park 400 meters to the north, followed by the large hospital complex.Lund University has a satellite campus in nearby Malmö, Sweden's third-largest city.", "The Faculty of Fine and Performing Arts' three academies: Malmö Art Academy, Malmö Academy of Music and Malmö Theatre Academy, are all located in Malmö.", "The city is also the location of Skåne University Hospital, where Lund University performs a considerable amount of research and medical training.Campus Helsingborg is, as the name suggests, located in the city of Helsingborg, almost 50 km from Lund.", "Opened in 2000, it consists of a building in the city center, right next to the central train station and the harbor.", "Nearly 3,000 students are based on the campus.", "The Department of Service Management and the Department of Communication and Media are among those located at the campus in Helsingborg.Teaching and training at the School of Aviation (LUSA) take place at an airfield next to the town of Ljungbyhed, about 40 km away from Lund.===Museums===The Biological Museum is a research collection, not having public exhibitions.", "It possesses between 10 and 13 million specimens of plants and animals.", "The museum was founded by Kilian Stobaeus , a teacher of Carl Linnaeus, in 1735.It is divided into three sections: the herbarium, the entomological collections and the zoological collections.", "The collections are particularly rich in specimens from Sweden and the other Nordic countries, and hold approximately 10,000 type specimens The collections were previously known as the Botanical Museum and Museum of Zoology.", "These were merged into the Biological Museum in 2005.The museum is a part of the Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences.", "It holds the historically important collections of Johan Wilhelm Zetterstedt, Carl Gustaf Thomson, Carl Adolph Agardh, Anders Jahan Retzius, Erik Acharius, Axel Gustaf Gyllenkrok and Sven Nilsson.=== Library ===University Central LibraryLund University library was established in 1668 at the same time as the university and is one of Sweden's oldest and largest libraries.", "Since 1698 it has received legal deposit copies of everything printed in the country.", "Today six Swedish libraries receive legal deposit copies, but only Lund and the Royal Library in Stockholm are required to keep everything for posterity.", "Swedish imprints make up half of the collections, which amount to 170,000 linear meters of shelving (2006).", "The library serves 620,000 loans per year, the staff is 200 full-time equivalents, and the 33 branch libraries house 2600 reading room desks.The current main building at Helgonabacken, designed by architect Alfred Hellerström, opened in 1907.It was named Sweden's most beautiful building in 2019.The old library building was ''Liberiet'' close to the city's cathedral.", "Liberiet was built as a library in the 15th century but now serves as a cafe.=== Hospital ===University HospitalEducation and research in the health sciences at the university are operated in cooperation with Skåne University Hospital, located in both Lund and Malmö.", "Medical education takes place in the Biomedical Centre, next to the hospital in Lund.", "Nursing and occupational therapy are taught in the Health Sciences Centre nearby.", "The university also operates the Clinical Research Centre in Malmö, featuring many specialized laboratories.", "There are over 100 faculty.=== Accommodation ===LU Accommodation offers housing in the cities of Lund, Malmö and Helsingborg.", "There are different room types including dormitory rooms, studio flats and one and two-bedroom apartments." ], [ "Organisation", "=== Administration ===Sphinxes overlooking Lundagård ParkThe University Board is the university's highest decision-making body.", "The Board comprises the Vice-Chancellor, representatives of the teaching staff and students, and representatives of the community and business sector.", "Chair of the board is Margot Wallström.", "Executive power lies with the Vice-Chancellor and the University Management Group, to which most other administrative bodies are subordinate.=== Faculties ===BMC, center for research in biology and medicineLund University is divided into nine faculties:*Faculties of Humanities and Theology*Faculty of Engineering (LTH)*Faculty of Fine & Performing Arts*Faculty of Law*Faculty of Medicine*Faculty of Science*Faculty of Social Sciences*School of Aviation*School of Economics and Management=== Research centres ===The university is also organised into more than 20 institutes and research centres, such as:Esaias Tegnér statue near the towering Lund Cathedral.", "*Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies (LUCSUS)*Biomedical Centre*Centre for Biomechanics*Centre for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering - Kemicentrum* Centre for East and South-East Asian Studies*Centre for European Studies*Centre for Geographical Information Systems (GIS Centrum)*Centre for Innovation, Research and Competence in the Learning Economy (CIRCLE)*Center for Middle Eastern Studies at Lund University*Centre for Molecular Protein Science*Centre for Risk Analysis and Management (LUCRAM)*International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics at Lund University (IIIEE)*Lund Functional Food Science Centre*Lund Center for the History of Knowledge (LUCK)*Lund University Diabetes Centre (LUDC)*MAX lab - Accelerator physics, synchrotron radiation and nuclear physics research*Pufendorf Institute*Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law*Swedish South Asian Studies Network" ], [ "Academics", "LTH's Design Centre.University ObservatoryMAX IV synchrotron radiation laboratoryEuropean Spallation Source (ESS): a multidiciplinary research facility at LundNano-science & technology LabBio Medical Center===Education===The university offers around 275 educational programmes and some 1400 courses.", "Several programmes and courses are offered in English, allowing foreign students to study at the university.", "The university offers 6 of the 10 most popular master's programs in Sweden (2021), in terms of the numbers of applications.", "Five of those programs are offered at the School of Economics and Management (LUSEM).", "The LUSEM Master's in Finance ranks 36th in the world, according to the Financial Times annual global ranking.", "The Financial Times Master's programmes in Management ranking places Lund 44th in the world.===Research===Lund University is well known as one of Scandinavia's largest research universities.", "It ranks among top performers in the European Union in terms of papers accepted for publication in scientific journals.", "It is also Sweden's top receiver of research grants from the EU, and places fifth among european universities in funding from Horizon Europe.", "The university is active in many internationally important research areas, such as neurology, nanotechnology, climate change and stem cell biology.===Innovation===One of the most famous innovations based on research from Lund University is diagnostic ultrasound, which is today a routine method of examination in hospitals around the world.", "Otherexamples of pioneering innovations are the artificial kidney, which laid the foundations for the multinational company Gambro and which makes life easier for dialysis patients worldwide, and Bluetooth technology, which enables wireless communication over short distances.", "Here is a sample selection of discoveries from Lund through the ages.", "*1847: Ice Age theory*1887: Rydberg's constant*1916: The M series and new methods of measurement*1926: The first respirator*1944: The Tetrahedron packing method*1946: The artificial kidney*1953: Medical ultrasound*1956: Human chromosome number*1957: Dopamine*1962: The Falck-Hillarp method, Partial differential equations*1963: Lactose intolerance*1966: Asthma medicine*1967: Nicorette*1969: New radiocontrast agent*1970: Servo Ventilator*1972: The Inkjet printer*1987: Inhaler for asthma medicine*1990: Oat milk*1991: Proviva (probiotic drink)*1993: Qlik – data visualization software*1994: Bluetooth*1997: Precise biometrics – fingerprint reader*1999: Digital diagnostic support*2000: LUCAS device for automated CPR*2004: Facial recognition technology*2005: Hövding invisible cycling helmet*2008: Cancer diagnostics using MR technology*2009: Treatment of pre-eclampsia*2012: The world's most water-efficient shower*2013: A unique new method for simpler and more accurate cancer diagnosis*2014: Protein diagnostics of cancer*2018: Suture-TOOL.", "A surgical device for fast and standardized closure of the abdominal wall===Rankings===Lund University consistently ranks among the top 100 universities in the world, with several subjects ranked in the top 50 and higher.", "Lund was ranked 85th in the world (22nd in Europe) in the 2024 QS World University Rankings, making it the top ranked comprehensive university in Sweden.", "It is the most popular university in Sweden for international applicants and was ranked as the 40th most international university in the world by Times Higher in 2021.Lund placed 8th in the 2024 QS World University Sustainability Ranking.The QS World University Rankings by Subject for 2021 places Lund in the top 50 in the following subjects: Geography (24th), Development Studies (32nd), Environmental Sciences (44th) and Nursing (47th).", "QS also has a separate ranking for business Master's (the QS Business Masters Rankings), where Lund University is ranked in the categories 'Marketing' (42nd) and 'Finance' (47th) in 2022.Additionally, the Times Higher subject rankings for 2021 places Lund in 65th place in Law.Lund University ranks 66th in the RUR World University Rankings.", "Round University Ranking (RUR) is an international world university rankings system which measures performance of 1100 leading world universities by 20 unique indicators and 4 areas of university activities: teaching, research, international diversity, financial sustainability.", "All raw data for RUR Rankings is provided by Thomson Reuters.", "The same ranking offers subject rankings of different disciplines.", "RUR places Lund in the top tier for the following disciplines: Humanities (32nd), Life Sciences (12th), Medical Sciences (35th), Natural Sciences (18th), Social Sciences (89th), and Technical Sciences (38th).In 2018, Lund placed 82nd in the world in the Times Higher Global University Employability Ranking and in 2020, Lund placed 91–100 in the Times Higher Education (THE) World Reputation Ranking." ], [ "Student life", "''AF-borgen,'' the student-run complex at the heart of student life in Lund, May 2002.Lund student life is based on three central structures: the student nations, the Academic Society (AF) and the student unions.", "Before July 1, 2010, students were required to enroll in a student union, nation and AF in order to receive grades at the university, but this is no longer compulsory.", "Students may still enroll in these organizations if they wish.=== Student nations ===The nations in Lund are a central part of the university's history, initially serving as residential colleges for students, organized by geographic origin.", "Östgöta Nation, the oldest nation, was established in 1668, two years after the university was founded.", "While the nations still offer limited housing, today they are best described as student societies.Today students may enroll in any nation, although the nations still preserve their geographic names.", "In most cases, it does not matter what nation one enrolls in, but different nations offer different activities for interested students.Each nation has student housing, but the accommodations in no way meet demand, and they are usually appointed according to a queue system.", "Each nation has at least one pub evening per week, with a following night club.", "The solemn peak event in the course of an activity year is the organization of student balls once a year.", "Most well known of the nation balls (as opposed to balls organized by student unions) is the ball hosted by Göteborgs Nation - called the \"Gustaf II Adolf Ball\" (also known as the \"GA-Ball\").", "Most nations also host at least one banquet per week, where a three-course dinner is served.", "Each nation also has different activities for students interested in sports, arts, or partying.", "All activities within the nations are run by volunteer workers.=== The Academic Society ===In 1830, Professor Carl Adolph Agardh formed ''Akademiska Föreningen'' (The Academic Society), commonly referred to as AF, with the goal of \"developing and cultivating the academic life\" by bringing students and faculty from all departments and student nations together in one organization.", "Prince Oscar, then Sweden's Chancellor of Education, donated 2000 Kronor to help found the society.", "In 1848, construction began on ''AF-borgen'' (the AF Fortress), which is located opposite the Main Building in Lundagård.", "To this day, AF is the center of student life in Lund, featuring many theater companies, a prize-winning student radio (Radio AF), and organizing the enormous ''Lundakarnevalen'' (the Lund Carnival) every four years.", "\"AF Bostäder\", an independent foundation with close ties to Akademiska Föreningen, maintains over 5,700 student residences in Lund.=== Student unions ===The Delphi residential area, located in the northern part of Lund, is one of the large student housing complexes run by AF Bostäder.The student unions represent students in various decision-making boards within the university and counsel students regarding their rights, housing and career options.", "There are nine student unions, one for each faculty and an additional union for doctoral students.", "Lund's Doctoral Student Union is further divided into councils, one for each faculty except for the faculties of engineering and fine and performing arts.The unions are incorporated into the Association of Lund University Student Unions (LUS).", "It has two full-time representatives who go to weekly meetings with the vice-chancellor and other organizational university bodies.", "The student union association runs services such as a loan institute, a day-care center and a website with housing information.", "It also publishes the monthly Lundagård magazine." ], [ "Notable people", "Samuel von Pufendorf.Tage Erlander & Bertil Ohlin 1954.Ruth Bader Ginsburg, SCOTUS photo portrait.Karl Manne Siegbahn, Nobel Prize in Physics.Anne L'Huillier, Nobel Prize in Physics.Lars Hörmander, Fields Medal in 1962Swedish author Viktor Rydberg with signature.Alumni and faculty of Lund University are associated with, among other things: five Nobel Prizes, a Fields Medal, the creation of the first implantable pacemaker, the development of echocardiography, the spread of modern physiotherapy, the discovery of the role of dopamine as an independent neurotransmitter, the determination of the number of chromosomes of man, the establishment of osseointegration, the development of the Bluetooth technology, and the development of the modern-day medical ventilator.The following is a selected list of some notable people who have been affiliated with Lund University as students or academics.=== Humanities and economics ===Samuel Pufendorf (1632–1694) was a notable jurist and philosopher known for his natural law theories, influencing Adam Smith as well as Thomas Jefferson.", "Olof von Dalin (1708–1763) was an influential Swedish writer and historian of the late enlightenment era.", "Peter Wieselgren (1800–1877) was a Swedish priest, literature critic and prominent leader of the Swedish temperance movement.", "Knut Wicksell (1851–1926) was an influential economist, sometimes considered one of the founders of modern macroeconomics.", "Oscar Olsson (1877–1950) was an important developer of self-education in Sweden and known as the father of study circles.", "Bertil Ohlin (1899–1979) received the Nobel Prize in economic sciences in 1977 for theories concerning international trade and capital, and was the leader of the Liberal's Peoples Party (Folkpartiet) for 23 years.", "Gunnar Jarring (1907–2002) was Sweden's ambassador in UN 1956–1958, and Sweden's ambassador in Washington DC 1958–1964.Britta Holmström (1911–1992) was the founder of Individuell Människohjälp (IM), a human rights organization with activities in 12 countries.", "Torsten Hägerstrand (1916–2004) was an internationally renowned geographer, considered the father of 'time geography' and receiver of the Lauréat Prix International de Géographie Vautrin Lud in 1992.Judith Wallerstein (1921–2012) was a renowned psychologist and internationally recognized authority on the effects of marriage and divorce on children and their parents.", "The first person from Iceland to earn a degree in archaeology, Ólafía Einarsdóttir, studied for her MA and PhD at Lund.=== Biology and medicine ===Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), began his academic career in Lund by studying medicine and botany for a year before moving to Uppsala.", "He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology.", "Pehr Henrik Ling (1776–1839) is considered the prime developer of natural gymnastics, the father of Swedish massage, and one of the most important contributors to the development and spread of modern physical therapy.", "Carl Adolph Agardh (1787–1859) made important contributions to the study of algae and played an important role as a politician in raising educational standards in Sweden.", "Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878) was a notable botanist who played a prominent role in the creation of the modern taxonomy of mushrooms.", "Nils Alwall (1904–1986) was a pioneer in hemodialysis who constructed the first practical dialysis machine, commercialized by The Gambro Company.", "Rune Elmqvist (1906–1996) was a physician and medical engineer who developed the first implantable pacemaker as well as the first inkjet ECG printer.", "Lars Leksell (1907–1986) was a notable neurosurgeon who was the father of radiosurgery and later the inventor of the Gamma Knife.", "Inge Edler (1911–2001) developed the medical ultrasonography in 1953, commonly known as echocardiography, together with Hellmuth Hertz, and was awarded the Lasker Clinical Medical Research Award in 1977.Sune Bergström (1916–2004) and Bengt Samuelsson (1934–) were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1982 for \"discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances\".", "Arvid Carlsson (1923–2018) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2000 for \"discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system\" and is noted for having discovered the role of dopamine as an independent neurotransmitter.=== Mathematics, engineering and physical sciences ===Per Georg Scheutz (1785–1873) was a Swedish lawyer, publicist and inventor who created the first working programmable difference engine with a printing unit.", "Martin Wiberg (1826–1905) was a prolific inventor who, among many things, created the first difference engine the size of the sewing machine that could calculate and print logarithmic tables.", "Johannes Rydberg (1854–1919) was a renowned physicist famous for the Rydberg formula and the Rydberg constant.", "Carl Charlier (1862–1934) was an internationally acclaimed astronomer who made important contributions to astronomy as well as statistics and was awarded the James Craig Watson Medal in 1924 and the Bruce Medal in 1933.Manne Siegbahn (1886–1978), a student of Rydberg, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics 1924 for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy.", "Oskar Klein (1894–1977) was an internationally renowned theoretical physicist famous for the Klein-Kaluza theory, the Klein-Gordon equation, and the Klein-Nishina formula.", "Pehr Edman (1916–1977) was a renowned biochemist who developed a method for sequencing proteins, known as the Edman degradation, and has been called the father of modern biochemistry.", "Hellmuth Hertz (1920–1990) developed the echocardiography together with Inge Edler (see above), and was also the first to develop the inkjet technology of printing.", "Lars Hörmander FieldsMedalFrontArchimedes (1931–2012) is sometimes considered the foremost contributor to the modern theory of linear partial differential equations and received the Fields Medal in 1962 for his early work on equations with constant coefficients.", "Karl Johan Åström (1934–) is a notable control theorist, who in 1993 was awarded the IEEE Medal of Honor for \"fundamental contributions to theory and applications of adaptive control technology\".", "Sven Mattisson (1955–) is an electrical engineer who was one of the developers of the Bluetooth technology.", "In 2023, Anne L'Huillier (1958-), professor since 1997, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for her work in attosecond physics.", "=== Politics and law ===Rutger Macklean (1742–1816) was a prominent captain, politician and land owner remembered for introducing agricultural reforms leading to more effective large-scale farming in Sweden.", "Ernst Wigforss (1881–1977) was Sweden's finance minister 1925–1926 and 1932–1949 and has been considered the 'foremost developer of the Swedish Social Democracy'.", "Östen Undén (1886–1974) was an internationally recognized professor of law and Sweden's minister of foreign affairs 1924–1926 and 1945–1962.Tage Erlander (1901–1985) was Sweden's prime minister 1945–1969, potentially a record of uninterrupted tenure in parliamentary democracies, and led his party through eleven elections.", "Ruth Bader Ginsburg (1933–2020) was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, the second female justice to be in this position.", "Ingvar Carlsson (1934–) served as Sweden's prime minister 1986–1991 and 1994–1996 and as Sweden's deputy prime minister 1982–1986.Rupiah Banda (1937–) was the president of Zambia 2008–2011 and its vice president 2006–2008.Leif Silbersky (1938–) is a notable lawyer and author famous for representing so-called high-profile cases in Sweden.", "Marianne Lundius (1949–) was between 2010 and 2016 the president of the Supreme court of Sweden, the first female justice in this position.", "Utoni Nujoma (1952–) was Namibia's minister of foreign affairs 2010–2012 and is since 2012 the country's minister of justice.=== Literature and culture ===Thomas Thorild (1759–1808) was a notable Swedish writer, poet, and philosopher who, among many things, was an early proponent of gender equality.", "Esaias Tegnér (1782–1846) was an influential writer, poet, bishop and professor of the Greek language, perhaps most famous for his work Frithiofs Saga.", "Viktor Rydberg (1828–1895) was a notable journalist, writer and researcher, most famous for his works Tomten and Singoalla and regarded as one of Sweden's most important authors of the 19th century.", "Frans G Bengtsson (1894–1954) was a Swedish writer and poet famous for his novels The Long Ships (Röde Orm) which have been translated to at least 23 languages.", "Fritiof Nilsson Piraten (1895–1972) was a Swedish lawyer and popular author, known for his works Bombi Bitt och Jag and Bock i Örtagård.", "Hjalmar Gullberg (1898–1961) was a notable writer and poet who was also the head of the Swedish Radio Theatre 1936–1950.Ivar Harrie (1899–1973) was one of the founders of the newspaper , as well as its editor in chief 1944–1960.Elisabet Wentz-Janacek (1923 – 2014) was a composer and musicologist who mapped 20,000 different melody variants for Swedish hymns and helped create the Swedish Choral Registrar.", "Hans Alfredsson (1931–2017) was a Swedish comedian, author and actor, sometimes regarded as the foremost representative of the so-called Lundahumorn (the humor from Lund).", "Agnes von Rosen was a bullfighter and stunt performer who spent most of her later years in Mexico.", "Axwell (Born as Axel Christofer Hedfors, 1977–) is a world-renowned DJ, perhaps best known as a member of the trio the Swedish House Maffia.", "Elisabet Wentz-Janacek was a musicologist, organist, and major contributor to the Swedish Choral Registrar.=== Business and entrepreneurship ===Hans Rausing (1926–2019) was the managing director of Tetra Pak 1954–1985, the company's chairman 1985–1993, and has been ranked as the third richest man in Sweden.", "Pehr G. Gyllenhammar (1935–) is a businessman who was the CEO and chairman of Volvo 1971–1983 and 1983–1993 respectively, the chairman of Procordia 1990–1992, Aviva 1998–2005, Investment AB Kinnevik 2004–2007, and is the current vice chairman of Rothschild Europe.", "Bertil Hult (1941–) founded EF Education from his dormitory in Lund and was the company's CEO until 2002 and chairman until 2008.Olof Stenhammar (1941–) is a Swedish financier and businessman who founded Optionsmäklarna, OM, which later changed its name to OMX and today is a part of the NASDAQ OMX Group.", "Michael Treschow (1943–) is the current chairman of Unilever and was the CEO of Atlas Copco and Elektrolux 1991–1998 and 1998–2002 respectively, as well as the chairman of Ericsson 2002–2011.Stefan Persson (1947–) was the CEO of H&M 1982–1997 and has been the company's chairman since 1998 and has been ranked among the top ten richest men in the world.", "Dan Olofsson (1950–) is a Swedish entrepreneur and philanthropist who founded the company Sigma and the foundation Star for Life and is a large shareholder in the company ÅF.", "Anders Dahlvig (1957–) was the CEO and President of the IKEA group between 1999 and 2009, during which IKEA experienced an average growth of 11 percent, and is the current chairman of the New Wave Group.", "Charlotta Falvin (1966–) is a Swedish businesswoman who is the chairman of the companies Teknopol, Barista, Multi-Q and Ideon AB and the previous CEO of TAT and Decuma.", "Ann-Sofie Johansson is the Creative Advisor and former Head of Design for fashion retailer H&M.", "Cristina Stenbeck (1977–) is a Swedish businesswoman who is the current chairman of Investment AB Kinnevik." ], [ "Partner universities", "Lund University cooperates with universities on all continents, both in areas of research and student exchange.Partners include the University of California system, Nanyang Technological University, Heidelberg University, the University of Tokyo and the University of Texas.Apart from being a member of the LERU and Universitas 21 networks, the university participates in the European Erasmus and Nordplus programs.", "It also coordinates several intercontinental projects, mostly through the Erasmus Mundus program." ], [ "See also", "* List of early modern universities in Europe* Royal Swedish Physiographic Society in Lund* Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association, of which Lund University Library is a member* Fernström Prize" ], [ "Notes", ": Prepared for both the book and the sword – to study and to defend the country in times of war.", "The lion in Lund University's seal holds a book in one hand, and a sword in the other." ], [ "References", "* ''Lunds universitet'' from Nordisk familjebok, in Swedish.", "* ''Lunds universitets historia : utgiven av universitetet till dess 300-årsjubileum.''", "4 volumes.", "Lund: Lunds universitet 1968–1983.", "(The standard work on the history of the university.", ")*Magnus Laurentius Ståhl, ''Biographiske underrättelser om professorer vid Kongl.", "universitetet i Lund, ifrån dess inrättning till närvarande tid.''", "(\"Biographical notes on professors at the Royal University of Lund from its foundation until the current time\") Christianstad: L. Littorin, 1834.", "(public domain book available on Google Print,)" ], [ "External links", "* Lund University - Official site* Scholars and Literati at the University of Lund (1666–1800), Repertorium Eruditorum Totius Europae – RETE" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lord Peter Wimsey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lord Peter Death Bredon Wimsey''' (later '''17th Duke of Denver''') is the fictional protagonist in a series of detective novels and short stories by Dorothy L. Sayers (and their continuation by Jill Paton Walsh).", "A dilettante who solves mysteries for his own amusement, Wimsey is an archetype for the British gentleman detective.", "He is often assisted by his valet and former batman, Mervyn Bunter; by his good friend and later brother-in-law, police detective Charles Parker; and, in a few books, by Harriet Vane, who becomes his wife." ], [ "Biography", "===Background===Born in 1890 and ageing in real time, Wimsey is described as being of average height, with straw-coloured hair, a beaked nose, and a vaguely foolish face.", "Reputedly his looks are patterned after those of academic and poet Roy Ridley, whom Sayers briefly met after witnessing him read his Newdigate Prize-winning poem \"Oxford\" at the Encaenia ceremony in July 1913.Twice in the novels (in ''Murder Must Advertise'' and ''Busman's Honeymoon'') his looks are compared to those of the actor Ralph Lynn.", "Wimsey also possesses considerable intelligence and athletic ability, evidenced by his playing cricket for Oxford University while earning a First.", "He creates a spectacularly successful publicity campaign for Whifflet cigarettes while working for Pym's Publicity Ltd, and at age 40 is able to turn three cartwheels in the office corridor, stopping just short of the boss's open office door (''Murder Must Advertise'').Among Lord Peter's hobbies, in addition to criminology, is collecting incunabula, books from the earliest days of printing.", "He is an expert on matters of food (and especially wine), male fashion, and classical music.", "He excels at the piano, including Bach's works for keyboard instruments.", "Lord Peter likes driving fast and keeps a powerful Daimler (for example, a 12-cylinder or \"double-six\" 1927 Daimler four-seater); he calls these cars \"Mrs Merdle\" after a character in Charles Dickens's ''Little Dorrit'' who \"hated fuss\".", "In the eleventh novel, ''Busman's Honeymoon'', we are told he has owned nine Daimlers with this name.", "Daimler double-six V12 50hp Corsica drophead coupé body designed by Reid Railton (1931)A Daimler double-six V12 50hp four-door saloon made for Anna Neagle and given to her by her husbandLord Peter Wimsey's ancestry begins with the 12th-century knight Gerald de Wimsey, who went with King Richard the Lionheart on the Third Crusade and took part in the Siege of Acre.", "This makes the Wimseys an unusually ancient family, since \"Very few English noble families go that far in the first creation; rebellions and monarchic head choppings had seen to that\", as reviewer Janet Hitchman noted in the introduction to ''Striding Folly''.", "The family coat of arms, first mentioned in ''Gaudy Night'', is \"Sable, 3 mice courant, argent; crest, a domestic cat couched as to spring, proper\".", "The family motto, displayed under its coat of arms, is \"As my Whimsy takes me.", "\"===Early life===Lord Peter is the second of the three children of Mortimer Wimsey, 15th Duke of Denver, and Honoria Lucasta Delagardie, who lives on throughout the novels as the Dowager Duchess of Denver.", "She is witty and intelligent, and strongly supports her younger son, whom she plainly prefers over her less intelligent, more conventional older son Gerald, the 16th Duke.", "Gerald's snobbish wife, Helen, detests Peter.", "Gerald's son and heir is the devil-may-care Viscount St George.", "Lady Mary, the younger sister of the 16th Duke, and of Lord Peter, leans strongly to the political left.", "At one time she planned to elope with a radical left agitator, and though this did not come about she did scandalise Helen by marrying a policeman of working-class origins.Lord Peter Wimsey is called \"Lord\" as he is the younger son of a duke.", "This is a courtesy title; he is not a peer and has no right to sit in the House of Lords, nor does the courtesy title pass on to any offspring he may have.As a boy, Peter was, to the great distress of his father, strongly attached to an old, smelly poacher living at the edge of the family estate.", "In his youth, Peter was influenced by his maternal uncle, Paul Delagardie, who took it upon himself to instruct his nephew in the facts of life – how to conduct various love affairs and treat his lovers.", "Lord Peter was educated at Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford, graduating with a first-class degree in history.", "He was also an outstanding cricketer, whose performance was still well remembered decades later.", "Though not taking up an academic career, he was left with an enduring and deep love for Oxford.===Great War and aftermath===To his uncle's disappointment, Wimsey fell deeply in love with a young woman named Barbara and became engaged to her.", "When the First World War broke out, he hastened to join the British Army, releasing Barbara from her engagement in case he was killed or mutilated.", "The girl later married another, less principled officer.Wimsey served on the Western Front from 1914 to 1918, reaching the rank of Major in the Rifle Brigade.", "He was appointed an intelligence officer, and on one occasion he infiltrated the staff room of a German officer.", "Though not explicitly stated, that feat implies that Wimsey spoke a fluent and unaccented German.", "As noted in ''Have His Carcase'', he communicated at that time with British Intelligence using the Playfair cipher and became proficient in its use.For reasons never clarified, after the end of his spy mission, Wimsey in the later part of the war moved from Intelligence and resumed the role of a regular line officer.", "He was a conscientious and effective commanding officer, popular with the men under his command—an affection still retained by Wimsey's former soldiers many years after the war, as is evident from a short passage in ''Clouds of Witness'' and an extensive reminiscence in ''Gaudy Night''.In particular, while in the army he met Sergeant Mervyn Bunter, who had previously been in service.", "In 1918, Wimsey was wounded by artillery fire near Caudry in France.", "He suffered a breakdown due to shell shock (which we now call post-traumatic stress disorder but which was then often thought, by those without first-hand experience of it, to be a species of malingering) and was eventually sent home.", "While sharing this experience, which the Dowager Duchess referred to as \"a jam\", Wimsey and Bunter arranged that if they were both to survive the war, Bunter would become Wimsey's valet.", "Throughout the books, Bunter takes care to address Wimsey as \"My Lord\".", "Nevertheless, he is a friend as well as a servant, and Wimsey again and again expresses amazement at Bunter's high efficiency and competence in virtually every sphere of life.After the war, Wimsey was ill for many months, recovering at the family's ancestral home in Duke's Denver, a fictional setting—as is the Dukedom of Denver—about 15 miles (24 km) beyond the real Denver in Norfolk, on the A10 near Downham Market.", "Wimsey was for a time unable to give servants any orders whatsoever, since his wartime experience made him associate the giving of an order with causing the death of the person to whom the order was given.", "Bunter arrived and, with the approval of the Dowager Duchess, took up his post as valet.", "Bunter moved Wimsey to a London flat at 110A Piccadilly, W1, while Wimsey recovered.", "Even much later, however, Wimsey would have relapses—especially when his actions caused a murderer to be hanged.", "As noted in ''Whose Body?", "'', on such occasions Bunter would take care of Wimsey and tenderly put him to bed, and they would revert to being \"Major Wimsey\" and \"Sergeant Bunter\".In the reissue of ''The Unpleasantness at the Bellona Club'' (1935), the biography of Wimsey is \"brought up to date\" by his uncle, Paul Austin Delagardie, purportedly at the request of Sayers herself, further giving the illusion that he is a real person.", "At this point, Wimsey is claimed to be 45 years old and \"time he was settled\".", "The biography takes up the last eight pages of the book and concludes with the statement that Wimsey \"has always had everything except the things he really wanted, and I suppose he is luckier than most.", "\"===Detective work===Wimsey begins his hobby of investigation by recovering ''The Attenbury Emeralds'' in 1921.At the beginning of ''Whose Body?", "'', there appears the unpleasant Inspector Sugg, who is extremely hostile to Wimsey and tries to exclude him from the investigation (reminiscent of the relations between Sherlock Holmes and Inspector Lestrade).", "However, Wimsey is able to bypass Sugg through his friendship with Scotland Yard detective Charles Parker, a sergeant in 1921.At the end of ''Whose Body?", "'', Wimsey generously allows Sugg to take completely undeserved credit for the solution; the grateful Sugg cannot go on with his hostility to Wimsey.", "In later books, Sugg fades away and Wimsey's relations with the police become dominated by his amicable partnership with Parker, who eventually rises to the rank of Commander (and becomes Wimsey's brother-in-law).Bunter, a man of many talents himself, not least photography, often proves instrumental in Wimsey's investigations.", "However, Wimsey is not entirely well.", "At the end of the investigation in ''Whose Body?''", "(1923), Wimsey hallucinates that he is back in the trenches.", "He soon recovers his senses and goes on a long holiday.In ''Clouds of Witness'' (1926), Wimsey travels to the fictional Riddlesdale in North Yorkshire to assist his elder brother Gerald, who has been accused of murdering Captain Denis Cathcart, their sister's fiancé.", "As Gerald is the Duke of Denver, he is tried by the entire House of Lords, as required by the law at that time, to much scandal and the distress of his wife Helen.", "Their sister, Lady Mary, also falls under suspicion.", "Lord Peter clears the Duke and Lady Mary, to whom Parker is attracted.As a result of the slaughter of men in the First World War, there was in the UK a considerable imbalance between the sexes.", "It is not exactly known when Wimsey recruited Miss Climpson to run an undercover employment agency for women, a means to garner information from the otherwise inaccessible world of spinsters and widows, but it is prior to ''Unnatural Death'' (1927), in which Miss Climpson assists Wimsey's investigation of the suspicious death of an elderly cancer patient.", "Wimsey's highly effective idea is that a male detective going around and asking questions is likely to arouse suspicion, while a middle-aged woman doing it would be dismissed as a gossip and people would speak openly to her.As recounted in the short story \"The Adventurous Exploit of the Cave of Ali Baba\", in December 1927 Wimsey fakes his own death, supposedly while hunting big game in Tanganyika, to penetrate and break up a particularly dangerous and well-organised criminal gang.", "Only Wimsey's mother and sister, the loyal Bunter and Inspector Parker know he is still alive.", "Emerging victorious after more than a year masquerading as \"the disgruntled sacked servant Rogers\", Wimsey remarks that \"We shall have an awful time with the lawyers, proving that I am me.\"", "In fact, he returns smoothly to his old life, and the interlude is never referred to in later books.During the 1920s, Wimsey has affairs with various women, which are the subject of much gossip in Britain and Europe.", "This part of his life remains hazy: it is hardly ever mentioned in the books set in the same period; most of the scant information on the subject is given in flashbacks from later times, after he meets Harriet Vane and relations with other women become a closed chapter.", "In ''Busman's Honeymoon'' Wimsey facetiously refers to a gentleman's duty \"to remember whom he had taken to bed\" so as not to embarrass his bedmate by calling her by the wrong name.There are several references to a relationship with a famous Viennese opera singer, and Bunter—who evidently was involved with this, as with other parts of his master's life—recalls Wimsey being very angry with a French mistress who mistreated her own servant.The only one of Wimsey's earlier women to appear in person is the artist Marjorie Phelps, who plays an important role in ''The Unpleasantness at the Bellona Club''.", "She has known Wimsey for years and is attracted to him, though it is not explicitly stated whether they were lovers.", "Wimsey likes her, respects her, and enjoys her company—but that is not enough.", "In ''Strong Poison'', she is the first person other than Wimsey himself to realise that he has fallen in love with Harriet.Reviewer Barbara Stanton noted that \"Dorothy Sayers had created Peter Wimsey as a womanizer - though a rather gentlemanly and sensitive one.", "It would have been out of character for him to return Marjorie Phelps' love, and inevitable that he would break her heart - as he must have done to many other women before.", "But Sayers - a woman writer who had herself experienced disappointments and frustrations in relations with men - evidently decided to take revenge on her character and educate him.", "Sayers took the conscious decision to turn the tables on Wimsey and make him fall deeply in love with a woman who would make him sweat and wait very very long before she finally accepted him\".In ''Strong Poison'' Lord Peter encounters Harriet Vane, a cerebral, Oxford-educated mystery writer, while she is on trial for the murder of her former lover in December 1929.He falls in love with her at first sight.", "He saves Harriet from the gallows, but she believes that gratitude is not a good foundation for marriage, and politely but firmly declines his frequent proposals.", "Lord Peter encourages his friend and foil, Chief Inspector Charles Parker, to propose to his sister, Lady Mary Wimsey, despite the great difference in their rank and wealth.", "They marry and have a son, named Charles Peter (\"Peterkin\"), and a daughter, Mary Lucasta (\"Polly\").", "Visiting the Fen country in Easter 1930 (in ''The Nine Tailors'') Wimsey must unravel a 20-year-old case of missing jewels, an unknown corpse, a missing World War I soldier believed alive, a murderous escaped convict believed dead, and a mysterious code concerning church bells.While on a fishing holiday in Scotland later in 1930, Wimsey takes part in the investigation of the murder of an artist, related in ''Five Red Herrings''.", "Despite her rejection of his marriage proposals, he continues to court Miss Vane.", "In ''Have His Carcase'', in 1931, he finds Harriet is not in London, but learns from a reporter that she has discovered a corpse while on a walking holiday on England's south coast.", "Wimsey is at her hotel the next morning.", "He not only investigates the death and offers proposals of marriage, but also acts as Harriet's patron and protector from press and police.", "Despite a prickly relationship, they work together to identify the murderer.Back in London in 1932, Wimsey goes undercover as \"Death Bredon\" at an advertising firm, working as a copywriter (''Murder Must Advertise'').", "Bredon is framed for murder, leading Charles Parker to \"arrest\" Bredon for murder in front of numerous witnesses.", "To distinguish Death Bredon from Lord Peter Wimsey, Parker smuggles Wimsey out of the police station and urges him to get into the papers.", "Accordingly, Wimsey accompanies \"a Royal personage\" to a public event, leading the press to carry pictures of both \"Bredon\" and Wimsey.By 1935 Lord Peter is in continental Europe, acting as an unofficial attaché to the British Foreign Office (at the time of writing, British diplomacy was much concerned with the impending Italian invasion of Ethiopia).", "Harriet Vane contacts him about a problem she has been asked to investigate in her college at Oxford (''Gaudy Night'').", "At the end of their investigation, Vane finally accepts Wimsey's proposal of marriage.The couple marry on 8 October 1935, at St Cross Church, Oxford, as depicted in the opening collection of letters and diary entries in ''Busman's Honeymoon''.", "The Wimseys honeymoon at Talboys, a house in east Hertfordshire near Harriet's childhood home, which Peter has bought for her as a wedding present.", "There they find the body of the previous owner, and spend their honeymoon solving the case, thus having the aphoristic \"Busman's Honeymoon\".Over the next five years, according to Sayers' short stories, the Wimseys have three sons: Bredon Delagardie Peter Wimsey (born in October 1936 in the story \"The Haunted Policeman\"); Roger Wimsey (born 1938), and Paul Wimsey (born 1940).", "However, according to the wartime publications of ''The Wimsey Papers'', published in ''The Spectator'', the second son was called Paul.", "In ''The Attenbury Emeralds'', Paul is again the second son and Roger is the third son.", "In the subsequent ''The Late Scholar'', Roger is not mentioned at all.", "It may be presumed that Paul is named after Lord Peter's maternal uncle Paul Delagardie.", "\"Roger\" is an ancestral Wimsey name.In Sayers's final Wimsey story, the 1942 short story \"Talboys\", Peter and Harriet are enjoying rural domestic bliss with their three sons when Bredon, their first-born, is accused of the theft of prize peaches from the neighbour's tree.", "Peter and the accused set off to investigate and, of course, prove Bredon's innocence." ], [ "Fictional bibliography", "Incunabulum: Lord Peter has a noted collection of early editions of Dante, including an Aldine edition of ''The Divine Comedy'' (''Whose Body?", "'')Wimsey is described as having authored numerous books, among them the following fictitious works:*''Notes on the Collecting of Incunabula''*''The Murderer's Vade-Mecum''" ], [ "The stories", "Dorothy Sayers wrote 11 Wimsey novels and a number of short stories featuring Wimsey and his family.", "Other recurring characters include Inspector Charles Parker, the family solicitor Mr Murbles, barrister Sir Impey Biggs, journalist Salcombe Hardy, and family friend and financial whiz the Honourable Freddy Arbuthnot, who finds himself entangled in the case in the first of the Wimsey books, ''Whose Body?''", "(1923).Sayers wrote no more Wimsey murder mysteries, and only one story involving him, after the outbreak of World War II.", "In ''The Wimsey Papers'', a series of fictionalised commentaries in the form of mock letters between members of the Wimsey family published in ''The Spectator'', there is a reference to Harriet's difficulty in continuing to write murder mysteries at a time when European dictators were openly committing mass murders with impunity; this seems to have reflected Sayers' own wartime feeling.", "''The Wimsey Papers'' included a reference to Wimsey and Bunter setting out during the war on a secret mission of espionage in Europe, and provide the ironic epitaph Wimsey writes for himself: \"Here lies an anachronism in the vague expectation of eternity\".", "The papers also incidentally show that in addition to his thorough knowledge of the classics of English literature, Wimsey is familiar — though in fundamental disagreement — with the works of Karl Marx, and well able to debate with Marxists on their home ground.The only occasion when Sayers returned to Wimsey was the 1942 short story \"Talboys\".", "The story is set in a quiet rural environment, the war at that time devastating Europe received only a single oblique reference, and the case Wimsey undertakes is just to clear his young son of the false accusation of stealing fruit from the neighbour's tree.", "Though Sayers lived until 1957, she never again took up the Wimsey books after this final effort.Jill Paton Walsh wrote about Wimsey's career through and beyond the Second World War.", "In the continuations ''Thrones, Dominations'' (1998), ''A Presumption of Death'' (2002), ''The Attenbury Emeralds'' (2010), and ''The Late Scholar'' (2014), Harriet lives with the children at Talboys, Wimsey and Bunter have returned successfully from their secret mission in 1940, and his nephew Lord St. George is killed while serving as an RAF pilot in the Battle of Britain.", "Consequently, when Wimsey's brother dies of a heart attack in 1951 during a fire in Bredon Hall, Wimsey becomes — very reluctantly — the Duke of Denver.", "Their Graces are then drawn into a mystery at a fictional Oxford college." ], [ "Origins", "In ''How I Came to Invent the Character of Lord Peter Wimsey,'' Sayers wrote:Janet Hitchman, in the preface to ''Striding Folly'', remarks that \"Wimsey may have been the sad ghost of a wartime lover(...).", "Oxford, as everywhere in the country, was filled with bereaved women, but it may have been more noticeable in university towns where a whole year's intake could be wiped out in France in less than an hour.\"", "There is, however, no verifiable evidence of any such World War I lover of Sayers on whom the character of Wimsey might be based.Another theory is that Wimsey was based, at least in part, on Eric Whelpton, who was a close friend of Sayers at Oxford.", "Ian Carmichael, who played the part of Wimsey in the first BBC television adaptation and studied the character and the books thoroughly, said that the character was Sayers' conception of the 'ideal man', based in part on her earlier romantic misfortunes.Another theory is that Wimsey was based, at least in part, on Philip Trent, created by E. C. Bentley in the novel ''Trent's Last Case''.", "Dorothy Sayers greatly admired that book." ], [ "Social satire", "Many episodes in the Wimsey books express a mild satire on the British class system, in particular in depicting the relationship between Wimsey and Bunter.", "The two of them are clearly the best and closest of friends, yet Bunter is invariably punctilious in using \"my lord\" even when they are alone, and \"his lordship\" in company.", "In a brief passage written from Bunter's point of view in ''Busman's Honeymoon'' Bunter is seen, even in the privacy of his own mind, to be thinking of his employer as \"His Lordship\".", "Wimsey and Bunter even mock the Jeeves and Wooster relationship.In ''Whose Body?", "'', when Wimsey is caught by a severe recurrence of his First World War shell-shock and nightmares and being taken care of by Bunter, the two of them revert to being \"Major Wimsey\" and \"Sergeant Bunter\".", "In that role, Bunter, sitting at the bedside of the sleeping Wimsey, is seen to mutter affectionately, \"Bloody little fool!", "\"In \"The Vindictive Story of the Footsteps That Ran\", the staunchly democratic Dr Hartman invites Bunter to sit down to eat together with himself and Wimsey, at the doctor's modest apartment.", "Wimsey does not object, but Bunter strongly does: \"If I may state my own preference, sir, it would be to wait upon you and his lordship in the usual manner\".", "Whereupon Wimsey remarks: \"Bunter likes me to know my place\".At the conclusion of ''Strong Poison'', Inspector Parker asks \"What would one naturally do if one found one's water-bottle empty?\"", "(a point of crucial importance in solving the book's mystery).", "Wimsey promptly answers, \"Ring the bell\", whereupon Miss Murchison, the indefatigable investigator employed by Wimsey for much of this book, comments \"Or, if one wasn't accustomed to be waited on, one might use the water from the bedroom jug.", "\"George Orwell was highly critical of this aspect of the Wimsey books: \"...", "Even she Sayers is not so far removed from ''Peg's Paper'' as might appear at a casual glance.", "It is, after all, a very ancient trick to write novels with a lord for a hero.", "Where Miss Sayers has shown more astuteness than most is in perceiving that you can carry that kind of thing off a great deal better if you pretend to treat it as a joke.", "By being, on the surface, a little ironical about Lord Peter Wimsey and his noble ancestors, she is enabled to lay on the snobbishness ('his lordship' etc.)", "much thicker than any overt snob would dare to do\"." ], [ "Dramatic adaptations", "===Film===In 1935, the British film ''The Silent Passenger'' was released, in which Lord Peter, played by well-known comic actor Peter Haddon, solved a mystery on the boat train crossing the English Channel.", "Sayers disliked the film and James Brabazon describes it as an \"oddity, in which Dorothy's contribution was altered out of all recognition.", "\"The novel ''Busman's Honeymoon'' was originally a stage play by Sayers and her friend Muriel St. Clare Byrne.", "A 1940 film of ''Busman's Honeymoon'' (US: ''The Haunted Honeymoon''), stars Robert Montgomery and Constance Cummings as Lord and Lady Peter and Seymour Hicks as Bunter.===Television===The cover of Gaudy Night, from the BBC series.", "Featuring Edward Petherbridge as Lord Peter WimseyA BBC television version of the play ''Busman's Honeymoon'' with Harold Warrender as Lord Peter, was transmitted live on the BBC Television Service on 2 October 1947.A second live BBC version was broadcast on 3 October 1957, with Peter Gray as Wimsey.Several other Lord Peter Wimsey novels were made into television productions by the BBC, in two separate series.", "Wimsey was played by Ian Carmichael, with Bunter being played by Glyn Houston (with Derek Newark stepping in for ''The Unpleasantness at The Bellona Club''), in a series of separate serials under the umbrella title ''Lord Peter Wimsey'', that ran between 1972 and 1975, adapting five novels (''Clouds of Witness'', ''The Unpleasantness at the Bellona Club'', ''Five Red Herrings'', ''Murder Must Advertise'' and ''The Nine Tailors'').Edward Petherbridge played Lord Peter for BBC Television in 1987, in which three of the four major Wimsey/Vane novels (''Strong Poison'', ''Have His Carcase'' and ''Gaudy Night'') were dramatised under the umbrella title ''A Dorothy L. Sayers Mystery''.", "Harriet Vane was played by Harriet Walter and Bunter was played by Richard Morant.", "The BBC was unable to secure the rights to turn ''Busman's Honeymoon'' into a proposed fourth and last part of the planned 13-episode series, so the series was produced as ten episodes.", "(Edward Petherbridge later played Wimsey in the UK production of the ''Busman's Honeymoon'' play staged at the Lyric Hammersmith and on tour in 1988, with the role of Harriet being taken by his real-life spouse, Emily Richard.", ")Both sets of adaptations were critically successful, with both Carmichael and Petherbridge's respective performances being widely praised.", "However, the two portrayals are quite different from one another: Carmichael's Peter is eccentric, jolly and foppish with occasional glimpses of the inner wistful, romantic soul, whereas Petherbridge's portrayal was more calm, solemn and had a stiff upper lip, subtly downplaying many of the character's eccentricities.", "Both the 1970s productions and the 1987 series are now available on videotape and DVD.===Radio===Adaptations of the Lord Peter Wimsey novels appeared on BBC Radio from the 1930s onwards.", "An adaptation of the short story \"The Footsteps That Ran\" dramatised by John Cheatle appeared on the BBC Home Service in November 1939 with Cecil Trouncer as Wimsey.", "Rex Harrison took on the role in an adaptation of \"Absolutely Everywhere\" on the Home Service on 5 March 1940.The short story \"The Man with No Face\" was dramatised by Audrey Lucas for the Home Service ''Saturday-Night Theatre'' play, broadcast on 3 April 1943 with Robert Holmes in the lead role.A four-part adaptation of ''The Nine Tailors'' adapted by Giles Cooper and starring Alan Wheatley as Wimsey was broadcast on the BBC Light Programme in August 1954.Ian Carmichael reprised his television role as Lord Peter in ten radio adaptations for BBC Radio 4 of Sayers's Wimsey novels between 1973 and 1983, all of which have been available on cassette and CD from the BBC Radio Collection.", "These co-starred Peter Jones as Bunter.", "In the original series no adaptation was made of the seminal ''Gaudy Night'', perhaps because the leading character in this novel is Harriet and not Peter; this was corrected in 2005 when a version specially recorded for the BBC Radio Collection was released starring Carmichael and Joanna David.", "The CD also includes a panel discussion on the novel, the major participants in which are P. D. James and Jill Paton Walsh.", "''Gaudy Night'' was released as an unabridged audio book read by Ian Carmichael in 1993.Gary Bond starred as Lord Peter Wimsey and John Cater as Bunter in two single-episode BBC Radio 4 adaptations: ''The Nine Tailors'' on 25 December 1986 and ''Whose Body'' on 26 December 1987.Simon Russell Beale played Wimsey in an adaptation of ''Strong Poison'' dramatised by Michael Bakewell in 1999." ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Novels ===With year of first publication*''Whose Body?''", "(1923)*''Clouds of Witness'' (1926)*''Unnatural Death'' (1927) (U.S. title originally ''The Dawson Pedigree'')*''The Unpleasantness at the Bellona Club'' (1928)*''Strong Poison'' (1930)*''The Five Red Herrings'' (1931)*''Have His Carcase'' (1932)*''Murder Must Advertise'' (1933)*''The Nine Tailors'' (1934)*''Gaudy Night'' (1935)*''Busman's Honeymoon'' (1937)*''Thrones, Dominations'' (1998) Unfinished Sayers manuscript completed by Jill Paton Walsh===Short story collections===*''Lord Peter Views the Body'' (1928)*''Hangman's Holiday'' (1933) Also contains non-Wimsey stories*''In the Teeth of the Evidence'' (1939) Also contains non-Wimsey stories*''Striding Folly'' (1972)*''Lord Peter'' (1972)===Uncollected Lord Peter Wimsey stories===*''The Locked Room''.", "''Bodies from the Library: Volume 2'', Ed.", "Tony Medawar (HarperCollins, 2019).In addition there are*''The Wimsey Papers'', published between Nov. 1939 and Jan. 1940 in ''The Spectator'' Magazine—a series of mock letters by members of the Wimsey family, being in effect fictionalised commentaries on life in England in the early months of the war." ], [ "Books about Lord Peter by other authors", "* ''Ask a Policeman'' (1934), a collaborative novel by members of The Detection Club, wherein several authors 'exchanged' detectives.", "The Lord Peter Wimsey sequence was penned by Anthony Berkeley.", "* ''The Wimsey Family: A Fragmentary History compiled from correspondence with Dorothy L. Sayers'' (1977) by C. W. Scott-Giles, Victor Gollancz, London.", "* ''Lord Peter Wimsey Cookbook'' (1981) by Elizabeth Bond Ryan and William J. Eakins * ''The Lord Peter Wimsey Companion'' (2002) by Stephan P. Clarke published by The Dorothy L. Sayers Society.", "* ''Conundrums for the Long Week-End : England, Dorothy L. Sayers, and Lord Peter Wimsey'' (2000) by Robert Kuhn McGregor, Ethan Lewis * ''A Presumption of Death'' (2002) by Jill Paton Walsh*''The Attenbury Emeralds'' (2010) by Jill Paton Walsh*''The Late Scholar'' (2014) by Jill Paton WalshLord Peter Wimsey has also been included by the science fiction writer Philip José Farmer as a member of the Wold Newton family." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Lord Peter Wimsey chronology* Lord Peter Wimsey portrait at Balliol, Oxford* Extensive review of the Wimsey books in \"Second Glance: Dorothy Sayers and the Last Golden Age\" by Joanna Scutts* Lord Peter Wimsey in the Internet Movie Database (IMDb)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Letter (message)" ], [ "Introduction", "James Campbell, 1858–1859 (Walker Art Gallery)A '''letter''' is a written message conveyed from one person (or group of people) to another through a medium.", "Something epistolary means that it is a form of letter writing.", "The term usually excludes written material intended to be read in its original form by large numbers of people, such as newspapers and placards, although even these may include material in the form of an \"open letter\".", "The typical form of a letter for many centuries, and the archetypal concept even today, is a sheet (or several sheets) of paper that is sent to a correspondent through a postal system.", "A letter can be formal or informal, depending on its audience and purpose.", "Besides being a means of communication and a store of information, letter writing has played a role in the reproduction of writing as an art throughout history.", "Letters have been sent since antiquity and are mentioned in the ''Iliad''.", "Historians Herodotus and Thucydides mention and use letters in their writings." ], [ "History of letter writing", "Letter of Darius the Great to Gadatas, circa 500 BC.The famous Einstein letter from Edward Teller and Leó Szilárd to US President Franklin Roosevelt suggesting an atomic bomb project.", "Click here for page 2.A thank-you letter from Katharine Hepburn to Alan Light thanking him for his condolences in regards of Cary Grant's deathHistorically, letters have existed from ancient India, ancient Egypt and Sumer, through Rome, Greece and China, up to the present day.", "During the 17th and 18th centuries, letters were used to self-educate.", "The main purposes of letters were to send information, news and greetings.", "For some, letters were a way to practice critical reading, self-expressive writing, polemical writing and also exchange ideas with like-minded others.", "For some people, letters were seen as a written performance.", "Letters make up several of the books of the Bible.", "Archives of correspondence, whether for personal, diplomatic, or business reasons, serve as primary sources for historians.", "At certain times, the writing of letters was thought to be an art form and a genre of literature, for instance in Byzantine epistolography.In the ancient world letters might be written on various different materials, including metal, lead, wax-coated wooden tablets, pottery fragments, animal skin, and papyrus.", "From Ovid, we learn that Acontius used an apple for his letter to Cydippe.", "More recently, letters have mainly been written on paper: handwritten and more recently typed.", "There is a wealth of letters and instructional materials (for example, manuals, as in the medieval ars dictaminis) on letter writing throughout history.", "The study of letter writing usually involves both the study of rhetoric and grammar.Historians of the medieval period often study family letter collections, which gather the personal and business correspondence of a group of related people and shed light on their daily life.", "The Paston Letters (1425 – 1520 CE) are widely studied for insight into life in Britain during the Wars of the Roses.", "Other major medieval family letter collections include the Stonor Letters (1420 – 1483 CE), Plumpton Letters (1416 – 1552 CE), and Cely Letters (1472-1488 CE).Letters were a chief form of communication, in both personal and business communications, for many centuries before telegraphy, telephony, and Internet communications reduced their primacy.", "Even in times and places where literacy was lower, illiterate people could pay literate ones to write letters to, and to read letters from, distant correspondents.", "Even in the era of telegrams and telephones, letters remained quite important until fax and email further eroded their primacy, especially since the turn of the 21st century.", "As communication technology has developed in recent history, posted letters on paper have become less important as a routine form of communication.", "For example, the development of the telegraph drastically shortened the time taken to send a communication, by sending it between distant points as an electrical signal.", "At the telegraph office closest to the destination, the signal was converted back into writing on paper and delivered to the recipient.", "The next step was the telex which avoided the need for local delivery.", "Then followed the fax (facsimile) machine: a letter could be transferred from the sender to the receiver through the telephone network as an image.", "These technologies did not displace physical letters as the primary route for communication; however today, the Internet, by means of email, plays the main role in written communications, together with text messages; however, these email communications are not generally referred to as letters but rather as e-mail (or email) messages, messages or simply emails or e-mails, with the term \"letter\" generally being reserved for communications on paper." ], [ "Letters as historical source material", "Due to the timelessness and universality of letter writing, extant letters from earlier eras constitute an important category of source material in historiography (the methodology of historians)." ], [ "Importance of letters in the 18th century", "During the 18th century, called the \"Great Age of Letter Writing,\" the epistolary novel became a hugely popular genre and came from the format of letters.", "The novel also debuted in the 17th century with ''Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister''.", "Letter writers used this to communicate and explore their identity and daily life at the time.", "As a medium of writing that lies ambiguously between the public and private worlds, letters provide an appealing peek into other people's thoughts, feelings, and lives.", "During this historical period, publishing these \"private\" letters so they could build and preserve literary prominence became common for the first time.", "Just as social media streams now allow modern celebrities to present versions of their intimate lives for the public to see and read all about, so did early modern and 18th-century figures carefully build themselves in their letters for audiences to be excited to read these works of literature.", "In the 18th century, readers frequently associated personal letters with the ideals of honesty and truth.", "Writing in the 18th-century was a rough process that required a lot of materials, many of which were difficult or expensive to get.", "Researchers interested in the links and connections between migrants, settlers, and refugees have increasingly concentrated on letters and their purposes.", "Surprisingly, academics only began examining letters as artifacts in the late twentieth century; most studies continue to focus on the national course of epistolary novels.", "Letters also offer information on changing conceptions of privacy, secrecy, and trust during a period of widespread censorship, especially in war.", "Lastly, study on letter writing and mail services culture exposes the economic and technical roots of letter writing, as well as how links required resources ranging from writing tables and ink to postal employees and ships to carry letters over the world.", "A lot of letters that were written in this time also showed up in a popular magazine called ''The Gentleman’s Magazine''.", "People were also charged for postage during this time.", "They either had to pay before or during transit.", "Writers took great caution in their number of pages so they did not have to pay so much.", "These writers were considered very clever in their way to avoid the overcharge.", "Letter writing also became a really important pastime for some.", "Women were among these people to write letters and express themselves.", "A lot of female friendships were formed from women being encouraged to write letters.", "In fact, the most popular character who wrote in this period was named Clarissa Harlowe.", "This was also a chance for women to express their intelligence.", "They used letters also to separate themselves from their husbands and have their own voice to enter more into society.", "Even when the epistolary novel lost its popularity, people did not stop writing letters.", "It gave everyone a voice when they did not think they had one and it is incredibly important to people to have that, especially the women of this time.Alexander Pope was the first English writer to publish from his own letters during his lifetime, putting out a new example for authors and other important people's epistolary works.", "Pope recognized that writings may reflect both personal religious devotion and cleverness.", "Pope's works are lacking in formality and informality.", "He had written his letters all about his life and what he did.", "Pope also wrote about his friends and the health and work of them.", "\"All the pleasure of using familiar letters is to give us the assurance of a friend's welfare,\" Pope said.", "He had also taken to describing himself as \"a mortal enemy and despiser of what they call fine letters.\"", "There was a letter addressed to Pope's father that ended up being used as writing paper for the ''Iliad''.", "When Alexander Pope's letters were published, they were widely read by a number of people." ], [ "Comparison with electronic mail", "François Boucher – ''The Secret Message'', 1767 (Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum)Despite email's widespread use, letters are still popular, particularly in business and for official communications.", "At the same time, many \"letters\" are sent in electronic form.", "The following advantages of paper letters over e-mails and text messages are put forward:*No special device is needed to receive a letter, just a postal address, and the letter can be read immediately on receipt.", "*An e-mail may sit in a recipient's inbox for some time before being read, or may not be read at all; a paper letter is more likely to receive prompt attention once it arrives.", "*An advertising mailing can reach every address in a particular area.", "*A letter provides an immediate, and in principle permanent, physical record of communication, without the need for printing.", "Letters, especially those with a signature and/or on an organization's own notepaper, are more difficult to falsify than is an email, and thus provide much better evidence of the contents of the communication.", "*A letter in the sender's own handwriting is more personal than an e-mail and shows that the sender has taken the effort to write it.", "*If required, small physical objects can be enclosed in the envelope with the letter.", "*Letters are unable to transmit malware or other harmful files that can be transmitted by e-mail.", "*E-mails are insecure and may be intercepted en route.", "For this reason, letters are often preferred for confidential correspondence.", "*Letter writing leads to the mastery of the technique of good writing.", "*Letter writing can provide an extension of the face-to-face therapeutic encounter.", "*Since at least a small fee is required, sending a large number of irrelevant letters becomes more expensive (and therefore less likely) than e-mail (spam).The following advantages are put forward for e-mails and iPosts and text messages over traditional letters:*They can be transmitted instantly.", "*They can be sent to a number of recipients in one operation.", "*They do not require a postage fee.", "*They do not require materials such as paper and ink.", "*iPosts are virtual letters and can be read by using a VR (virtual reality) headset.", "*iPosts have a cheaper postage fee than the traditional letter.", "*iPosts keeps the formal style of the traditional letter.", "*Often an e-mail would require a less formal style than a letter to the same recipient, and thus may take less time to write.", "It is also easier to make amendments to a draft than it is with a handwritten letter.", "*E-mails may be composed using spell checkers and other devices, and thus may conceal the ignorance (inability to spell or compose prose etc.)", "of the sender.", "*During an epidemic, e-mails and iPosts cannot transmit diseases.", "*Emails and iPosts do not take up physical space and cannot be damaged in a natural disaster." ], [ "Delivery process", "Here is how a letter gets from the sender to the recipient:# Sender composes and writes letter and may fold the letter so that it fits in an envelope.", "For bulk mailings, a folding machine may be employed.# Sender places the letter in an envelope on which the recipient's address is written on the front of the envelope, or often is visible through a transparent window of the envelope.", "Sender ensures that the recipient's address includes the ZIP or Postal Code (if applicable) and historically often included their return address on the envelope.# For small volume private letters, the sender buys a postage stamp and attaches it to the top right corner on the front of the envelope.", "(For most commercial letters, postage stamps are not used: a franking machine or other methods are used to pay for postage.", ")# Sender puts the letter in a postbox.# The national postal service of the sender's country (e.g.", "Royal Mail, UK; USPS, United States; Australia Post in Australia; or Canada Post in Canada) empties the postbox and transports all the contents to the local sorting office.# The sorting office then sorts each letter by address and postcode and sends the letters destined for a particular area to that area's local sorting office (sometimes called a delivery office).", "Letters addressed to a different region may go through more than one stage of transmission and sorting.# The local delivery personnel collect the letters from the delivery office and deliver them to the proper addresses.", "In some areas, recipients may need to collect the letters from the local office.This process, depending on how far the sender is from the recipient, can take anywhere from a day to 3–4 weeks.", "International mail is sent via trains and airplanes to other countries.In 2008, Janet Barrett in the UK received an RSVP to a party invitation addressed to 'Percy Bateman', from 'Buffy', allegedly originally posted on 29 November 1919.It had taken 89 years to be delivered by the Royal Mail.", "However, Royal Mail denied this, saying that it would be impossible for a letter to have remained in their system for so long, as checks are carried out regularly.", "Instead, the letter dated 1919 may have \"been a collector's item which was being sent in another envelope and somehow came free of the outer packaging\"." ], [ "Forms of letters", "The forms (conformations) of letters have usually followed traditional norms of the times and places where correspondence took place.", "Aspects such as where to place the elements (salutation, body of letter, valediction/closing, sender's address, recipient's address, date, and so on) were somewhat standardized albeit also usually flexible in practice.", "The form often varied by kind of letter.", "For any kind, though, factors of cost—such as that each sheet/leaf of paper cost money to buy and to post, and the fact of who paid for the posting (sender or recipient)—placed constraints on the forms of letters that varied from negligible in some times and places to crucial in others.", "These factors of cost drove norms on whether to write on both sides of the leaf, whether to cross the leaf with lines written in both directions (horizontally and vertically), whether to allow margins and how big or small to make them, how much to abbreviate to save space, and whether to have a separate envelope and thus how to fold the letter and where on the leaf to put the addresses.", "Business encyclopedias and textbooks of the 19th and 20th centuries show that businesspeople of those eras sometimes took the standardization of the forms of business letters to extremes.", "Typists were required to follow dozens or hundreds of rules about element placement and sizing, some of them with rather arbitrary and even counterproductive (wastefully expensive) strictness.", "However, the effort to standardize (on where to put the information and how to represent it) did have various valid motivations, as in some respects it presaged the concept of data normalization, helping with the extensive manual indexing, cataloguing, and filing that characterized the clerking duties of the era.", "Over the centuries, a lexicon of abbreviations, metonymic short forms, and conventional valedictions developed for frequent use in letters.", "For example, \"yours of the 12th inst.\"", "meant \"your letter of the 12th of this month\"; \"do\" meant \"ditto\"; and forms like \"Yr Obdt Srvt\" for \"Your Obedient Servant\" were common." ], [ "Kinds of letters", "Australian actress Betty Bryant reading fan mailThere are a number of different types of letter:" ], [ "Security methods", "Cryptography (secret writing) sometimes played a role in letters in centuries past, as correspondents would use previously agreed code to try to shield the plaintext from the comprehension of prying eyes during the letter's transit.", "This could be done in business letters to lessen spying by competitors on prices and methods and in personal letters to try to evade postal censorship (either of wartime censors or of peacetime authoritarian censors) or the gossip of townsfolk.", "It could be in either cryptic form (for example, \"AEDFX GHSTR HTFXV\") or in deceptively readable form (for example, \"the dog will run at sunset unless the rains come\").", "By the standards of modern digital applied cryptography, the security was often not especially high (that is, the codebreaking was not necessarily difficult), but it was usually high enough to meet the demands of the context (that is, the degree of risk, the likelihood or stakes of any codebreaking efforts, and the state of the codebreaking art in each era).", "Various forms or precursors of tamper-evident technology were developed over the centuries to enable the sending and receiving of letters whereby it would be evident to the recipient if anyone else had opened the letter before they received it.", "The principal class of these methods was sealing wax.", "Another method was to apply a small thin disc of adhesive material known as a wafer.", "A more elaborate class was letterlocking, including a type called spiral locking, which was especially relevant to government ministers, royal courts, judicial courts, and legislators.", "Envelopes are available in plain types as well as types with somewhat higher privacy protection in which a pattern of ink is printed on the inner side, making it more difficult for anyone trying to candle a sealed letter (that is, examine it translucently via backlight).", "Such envelopes are usually called privacy envelopes or security envelopes.", "Another sense of the term ''security envelope'' refers to security bags.", "Diplomatic mail pouch systems are special, small, closed postal systems run by each country's ministry of foreign affairs or department of state.", "A general theme of the diplomatic mail pouch is that outsiders never have physical access to it during the entire chain of custody; it never gets sent off out of sight of authorized persons, which would otherwise be the weak link in the chain where intelligence agencies could surreptitiously examine it in non-evident ways.", "The mail pouch itself in a diplomatic mail pouch system is often a security bag instead of merely any cloth pouch or sack." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Brev från Mikael Agricola till Nils Bielke 1549.jpg|A hand-written letter (written in Swedish) from Mikael Agricola to Nils Turesson Bielke, 1549.File:From Caroline Weston to Deborah Weston; Tuesday, June 1, 1841?", "p1.jpg|By writing both across and down, the sender of a letter could save on postage.File:Cesare Borgia, handwritten letter 1.jpg|A hand-written letter of Cesare Borgia.File:Virginia Santa Claus.png|Virginia O'Hanlon's original 1897 letter which was answered by Francis Pharcellus Church in his famous newspaper editorial \"Yes Virginia, there is a Santa Claus\"File:Wish list.jpg|A child's letter to Santa Claus.File:Letter from Arthur Conan Doyle to Herbert Greenhough Smith.jpg|A letter from Arthur Conan Doyle about his 1902 novel ''The Hound of the Baskervilles''.File:Invitation to Space Needle groundbreaking, 1961.jpg|An invitation letter to the ground-breaking of the Seattle Space Needle, 1961.File:Letter of Resignation of Richard M. Nixon, 1974.jpg|The resignation letter of U.S. president Richard Nixon, 1974.File:Augusto Tominz - The Letter, 1873.jpg|A letter sheet.", "- ''The Letter'', 1873" ], [ "See also", "*iPost*Virtual letter box" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Letters as historical sources.", "* The First English Family Letters at ''History Today''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lesbian" ], [ "Introduction", "''Sappho and Erinna in a Garden at Mytilene'' by Simeon Solomon, 1864Symbol representing lesbian made from two interlocked astronomical symbols for the planet Venus.", "In biology, the singular symbol represents the female sex.|alt=A '''lesbian''' is a homosexual woman or girl.", "The word is also used for women in relation to their sexual identity or sexual behavior, regardless of sexual orientation, or as an adjective to characterize or associate nouns with female homosexuality or same-sex attraction.", "The concept of \"lesbian\" to differentiate women with a shared sexual orientation evolved in the 20th century.", "Throughout history, women have not had the same freedom or independence as men to pursue homosexual relationships, but neither have they met the same harsh punishment as gay men in some societies.", "Instead, lesbian relationships have often been regarded as harmless, unless a participant attempts to assert privileges traditionally enjoyed by men.", "As a result, little in history was documented to give an accurate description of how female homosexuality was expressed.", "When early sexologists in the late 19th century began to categorize and describe homosexual behavior, hampered by a lack of knowledge about homosexuality or women's sexuality, they distinguished lesbians as women who did not adhere to female gender roles.", "They classified them as mentally ill—a designation which has been reversed since the late 20th century in the global scientific community.Women in homosexual relationships in Europe and the United States responded to the discrimination and repression either by hiding their personal lives, or accepting the label of outcast and creating a subculture and identity.", "Following World War II, during a period of social repression when governments actively persecuted homosexuals, women developed networks to socialize with and educate each other.", "Gaining greater economic and social freedom allowed them to determine how they could form relationships and families.", "With second-wave feminism and the growth of scholarship in women's history and sexuality in the late 20th century, the definition of ''lesbian'' broadened, leading to debate about the term's use.", "While research by Lisa M. Diamond identified sexual desire as the core component for defining lesbians, some women who engage in same-sex sexual activity may reject not only identifying as lesbians but as bisexual as well.", "Other women's self-identification as lesbian may not align with their sexual orientation or sexual behavior.", "Sexual identity is not necessarily the same as one's sexual orientation or sexual behavior, due to various reasons, such as the fear of identifying their sexual orientation in a homophobic setting.Portrayals of lesbians in the media suggest that society at large has been simultaneously intrigued and threatened by women who challenge feminine gender roles, as well as fascinated and appalled with women who are romantically involved with other women.", "Women who adopt a lesbian identity share experiences that form an outlook similar to an ethnic identity: as homosexuals, they are unified by the heterosexist discrimination and potential rejection they face from their families, friends, and others as a result of homophobia.", "As women, they face concerns separate from men.", "Lesbians may encounter distinct physical or mental health concerns arising from discrimination, prejudice, and minority stress.", "Political conditions and social attitudes also affect the formation of lesbian relationships and families in the open." ], [ "Etymology", "''Sappho'' by Amanda Brewster Sewell, 1891.Sappho of Lesbos gave the term ''lesbian'' the connotation of erotic desire between women.|alt=Painting of a woman dressed in Greek robes holding a lyre, with three partially nude women sitting in front of her on a long marble bench.The word ''lesbian'' is the demonym of the Greek island of Lesbos, home to the 6th-century BCE poet Sappho.", "From various ancient writings, historians gathered that a group of young women were left in Sappho's charge for their instruction or cultural edification.", "Little of Sappho's poetry survives, but her remaining poetry reflects the topics she wrote about: women's daily lives, their relationships, and rituals.", "She focused on the beauty of women and proclaimed her love for girls.", "Before the mid-19th century, the word ''lesbian'' referred to any derivative or aspect of Lesbos, including a type of wine.In Algernon Charles Swinburne's 1866 poem \"Sapphics\", the term ''lesbian'' appears twice but capitalized both times after twice mentioning the island of Lesbos, and so could be construed to mean .", "In 1875, George Saintsbury, in writing about Baudelaire's poetry, refers to his \"Lesbian studies\" in which he includes his poem about \"the passion of Delphine\" which is a poem simply about love between two women which does not mention the island of Lesbos, though the other poem alluded to, entitled \"Lesbos\", does.", "Use of the word ''lesbianism'' to describe erotic relationships between women had been documented in 1870.In 1890, the term ''lesbian'' was used in a medical dictionary as an adjective to describe tribadism (as \"lesbian love\").", "The terms ''lesbian'', ''invert'' and ''homosexual'' were interchangeable with ''sapphist'' and ''sapphism'' around the turn of the 20th century.", "The use of ''lesbian'' in medical literature became prominent; by 1925, the word was recorded as a noun to mean the female equivalent of a sodomite.The development of medical knowledge was a significant factor in further connotations of the term ''lesbian.''", "In the middle of the 19th century, medical writers attempted to establish ways to identify male homosexuality, which was considered a significant social problem in most Western societies.", "In categorizing behavior that indicated what was referred to as \"inversion\" by German sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld, researchers categorized what was normal sexual behavior for men and women, and therefore to what extent men and women varied from the \"perfect male sexual type\" and the \"perfect female sexual type\".Far less literature focused on female homosexual behavior than on male homosexuality, as medical professionals did not consider it a significant problem.", "In some cases, it was not acknowledged to exist.", "Sexologists Richard von Krafft-Ebing from Germany and Britain's Havelock Ellis wrote some of the earliest and more enduring categorizations of female same-sex attraction, approaching it as a form of insanity (Ellis' categorization of \"lesbianism\" as a medical problem is now discredited).", "Krafft-Ebing, who considered lesbianism a neurological disease, and Ellis, who was influenced by Krafft-Ebing's writings, disagreed about whether sexual inversion was generally a lifelong condition.", "Ellis believed that many women who professed love for other women changed their feelings about such relationships after they had experienced marriage and a \"practical life\".Ellis conceded that there were \"true inverts\" who would spend their lives pursuing erotic relationships with women.", "These were members of the \"third sex\" who rejected the roles of women to be subservient, feminine, and domestic.", "''Invert'' described the opposite gender roles, and also the related attraction to women instead of men; since women in the Victorian period were considered unable to initiate sexual encounters, women who did so with other women were thought of as possessing masculine sexual desires.The work of Krafft-Ebing and Ellis was widely read and helped to create public consciousness of female homosexuality.", "The sexologists' claims that homosexuality was a congenital anomaly were generally well-accepted by homosexual men; it indicated that their behavior was not inspired by nor should be considered a criminal vice, as was widely acknowledged.", "In the absence of any other material to describe their emotions, homosexuals accepted the designation of different or perverted, and used their outlaw status to form social circles in Paris and Berlin.", "''Lesbian'' began to describe elements of a subculture.Lesbians in Western cultures in particular often classify themselves as having an identity that defines their individual sexuality, as well as their membership to a group that shares common traits.", "Women in many cultures throughout history have had sexual relations with other women, but they rarely were designated as part of a group of people based on whom they had physical relations with.", "As women have generally been political minorities in Western cultures, the added medical designation of homosexuality has been cause for the development of a subcultural identity.=== Sexuality and identity ===Lesbian feminist flag consisting of a labrys (a double-bladed axe) within the inverted black triangle, set against a violet-hue background.", "The labrys represents lesbian strength.|alt=Lesbian flag derived from the colors of the Lipstick lesbian flag design.Lesbian community flag introduced in social media in 2018, with the dark orange stripe representing gender variance.The notion that sexual activity between women is necessary to define a lesbian or lesbian relationship continues to be debated.", "According to feminist writer Naomi McCormick, women's sexuality is constructed by men, whose primary indicator of lesbian sexual orientation is sexual experience with other women.", "The same indicator is not necessary to identify a woman as heterosexual.", "McCormick states that emotional, mental, and ideological connections between women are as important or more so than the genital.", "Nonetheless, in the 1980s, a significant movement rejected the desexualization of lesbianism by cultural feminists, causing a heated controversy called the feminist sex wars.", "Butch and femme roles returned, although not as strictly followed as they were in the 1950s.", "They became a mode of chosen sexual self-expression for some women in the 1990s.", "Once again, women felt safer claiming to be more sexually adventurous, and sexual flexibility became more accepted.The focus of the debate often centers on a phenomenon named by sexologist Pepper Schwartz in 1983.Schwartz found that long-term lesbian couples report having less sexual contact than heterosexual or homosexual male couples, calling this lesbian bed death.", "Some lesbians dispute the study's definition of sexual contact, and introduced other factors such as deeper connections existing between women that make frequent sexual relations redundant, greater sexual fluidity in women causing them to move from heterosexual to bisexual to lesbian numerous times through their lives—or reject the labels entirely.", "Further arguments attested that the study was flawed and misrepresented accurate sexual contact between women, or sexual contact between women has increased since 1983 as many lesbians find themselves freer to sexually express themselves.More discussion on gender and sexual orientation identity has affected how many women label or view themselves.", "Most people in western culture are taught that heterosexuality is an innate quality in all people.", "When a woman realizes her romantic and sexual attraction to another woman, it may cause an \"existential crisis\"; many who go through this adopt the identity of a lesbian, challenging what society has offered in stereotypes about homosexuals, to learn how to function within a homosexual subculture.", "Lesbians in western cultures generally share an identity that parallels those built on ethnicity; they have a shared history and subculture, and similar experiences with discrimination which has caused many lesbians to reject heterosexual principles.", "This identity is unique from gay men and heterosexual women, and often creates tension with bisexual women.", "One point of contention are lesbians who have had sex with men, while lesbians who have never had sex with men may be referred to as \"gold star lesbians\".", "Those who have had sex with men may face ridicule from other lesbians or identity challenges with regard to defining what it means to be a lesbian.Researchers, including social scientists, state that often behavior and identity do not match: women may label themselves heterosexual but have sexual relations with women, self-identified lesbians may have sex with men, or women may find that what they considered an immutable sexual identity has changed over time.", "Research by Lisa M. Diamond et al.", "reported that \"lesbian and fluid women were more exclusive than bisexual women in their sexual behaviors\" and that \"lesbian women appeared to lean toward exclusively same-sex attractions and behaviors.\"", "It reported that lesbians \"appeared to demonstrate a 'core' lesbian orientation.", "\"A 2001 article on differentiating lesbians for medical studies and health research suggested identifying lesbians using the three characteristics of identity only, sexual behavior only, or both combined.", "The article declined to include desire or attraction as it rarely has bearing on measurable health or psychosocial issues.", "Researchers state that there is no standard definition of ''lesbian'' because \"The term has been used to describe women who have sex with women, either exclusively or in addition to sex with men (i.e., ''behavior''); women who self-identify as lesbian (i.e., ''identity''); and women whose sexual preference is for women (i.e., ''desire'' or ''attraction'')\" ... \"The lack of a standard definition of lesbian and of standard questions to assess who is lesbian has made it difficult to clearly define a population of lesbian women.\"", "How and where study samples were obtained can also affect the definition." ], [ "Female homosexuality without identity in western culture", "The varied meanings of ''lesbian'' since the early 20th century have prompted some historians to revisit historic relationships between women before the wide usage of the word was defined by erotic proclivities.", "Discussion from historians caused further questioning of what qualifies as a lesbian relationship.", "As lesbian-feminists asserted, a sexual component was unnecessary in declaring oneself a lesbian if the primary and closest relationships were with women.", "When considering past relationships within appropriate historic context, there were times when love and sex were separate and unrelated notions.", "In 1989, an academic cohort named the Lesbian History Group wrote: Because of society's reluctance to admit that lesbians exist, a high degree of certainty is expected before historians or biographers are allowed to use the label.", "Evidence that would suffice in any other situation is inadequate here... A woman who never married, who lived with another woman, whose friends were mostly women, or who moved in known lesbian or mixed gay circles, may well have been a lesbian.", "...", "But this sort of evidence is not 'proof'.", "What our critics want is incontrovertible evidence of sexual activity between women.", "This is almost impossible to find.Female sexuality is often not adequately represented in texts and documents.", "Until very recently, much of what has been documented about women's sexuality has been written by men, in the context of male understanding, and relevant to women's associations to men—as their wives, daughters, or mothers, for example.", "Often artistic representations of female sexuality suggest trends or ideas on broad scales, giving historians clues as to how widespread or accepted erotic relationships between women were.=== Ancient Greece and Rome ===''The Victory of Faith'' by Saint George Hare has been described by Kobena Mercer as depicting an interracial lesbian couple, likening it to ''Les Amis'' by Jules Robert Auguste.Women in ancient Greece were sequestered with one another, and men were segregated likewise.", "In this homosocial environment, erotic and sexual relationships between males were common and recorded in literature, art, and philosophy.", "Very little was recorded about homosexual activity between Greek women.", "There is some speculation that similar relationships existed between women and girls — the poet Alcman used the term ''aitis,'' as the feminine form of ''aites'' — which was the official term for the younger participant in a pederastic relationship.", "Aristophanes, in Plato's ''Symposium'', mentions women who are romantically attracted to other women, but uses the term ''trepesthai'' (to be focused on) instead of ''eros'', which was applied to other erotic relationships between men, and between men and women.Historian Nancy Rabinowitz argues that ancient Greek red vase images which portray women with their arms around another woman's waist, or leaning on a woman's shoulders can be construed as expressions of romantic desire.", "Much of the daily lives of women in ancient Greece is unknown, in particular their expressions of sexuality.", "Although men participated in pederastic relationships outside marriage, there is no clear evidence that women were allowed or encouraged to have same-sex relationships before or during marriage as long as their marital obligations were met.", "Women who appear on Greek pottery are depicted with affection, and in instances where women appear only with other women, their images are eroticized: bathing, touching one another, with dildos placed in and around such scenes, and sometimes with imagery also seen in depictions of heterosexual marriage or pederastic seduction.", "Whether this eroticism is for the viewer or an accurate representation of life is unknown.", "Rabinowitz writes that the lack of interest from 19th-century historians who specialized in Greek studies regarding the daily lives and sexual inclinations of women in Greece was due to their social priorities.", "She postulates that this lack of interest led the field to become over male-centric and was partially responsible for the limited information available on female topics in ancient Greece.Women in ancient Rome were similarly subject to men's definitions of sexuality.", "Modern scholarship indicates that men viewed female homosexuality with hostility.", "They considered women who engaged in sexual relations with other women to be biological oddities that would attempt to penetrate women—and sometimes men—with \"monstrously enlarged\" clitorises.", "According to scholar James Butrica, lesbianism \"challenged not only the Roman male's view of himself as the exclusive giver of sexual pleasure but also the most basic foundations of Rome's male-dominated culture\".", "No historical documentation exists of women who had other women as sex partners.=== Early modern Europe ===hermaphroditism, depicted here in an engraving , were very similar concepts during the Renaissance.|alt=A front and back illustration of a Renaissance-era hermaphrodite showing a person with female facial features, breasts, and what appears to be a small penis or large clitoris.", "She wears a small hood and open robe tied multiple times around the legs.", "Where it opens in the front, the apparent rear appearance shows it to be perhaps a shell of some kind, as one with her body.", "Two squares are missing from her the back of her head and torso.", "She has no buttocks.Female homosexuality did not receive the same negative response from religious or criminal authorities as male homosexuality or adultery did throughout history.", "Whereas sodomy between men, men and women, and men and animals was punishable by death in England, acknowledgment of sexual contact between women was nonexistent in medical and legal texts.", "The earliest law against female homosexuality appeared in France in 1270.In Spain, Italy, and the Holy Roman Empire, sodomy between women was included in acts considered unnatural and punishable by burning to death, although few instances are recorded of this taking place.The earliest such execution occurred in Speier, Germany, in 1477.Forty days' penance was demanded of nuns who \"rode\" each other or were discovered to have touched each other's breasts.", "An Italian nun named Sister Benedetta Carlini was documented to have seduced many of her sisters when possessed by a Divine spirit named \"Splenditello\"; to end her relationships with other women, she was placed in solitary confinement for the last 40 years of her life.", "Female homoeroticism was so common in English literature and theater that historians suggest it was fashionable for a period during the Renaissance.", "Englishwoman Mary Frith has been described as lesbian in academic study.Ideas about women's sexuality were linked to contemporary understanding of female physiology.", "The vagina was considered an inward version of the penis; where nature's perfection created a man, often nature was thought to be trying to right itself by prolapsing the vagina to form a penis in some women.", "These sex changes were later thought to be cases of hermaphrodites, and hermaphroditism became synonymous with female same-sex desire.", "Medical consideration of hermaphroditism depended upon measurements of the clitoris; a longer, engorged clitoris was thought to be used by women to penetrate other women.", "Penetration was the focus of concern in all sexual acts, and a woman who was thought to have uncontrollable desires because of her engorged clitoris was called a \"tribade\" (literally, one who rubs).", "Not only was an abnormally engorged clitoris thought to create lusts in some women that led them to masturbate, but pamphlets warning women about masturbation leading to such oversized organs were written as cautionary tales.", "For a while, masturbation and lesbian sex carried the same meaning.Class distinction became linked as the fashion of female homoeroticism passed.", "Tribades were simultaneously considered members of the lower class trying to ruin virtuous women, and representatives of an aristocracy corrupt with debauchery.", "Satirical writers began to suggest that political rivals (or more often, their wives) engaged in tribadism in order to harm their reputations.", "Queen Anne was rumored to have a passionate relationship with Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, her closest adviser and confidante.", "When Churchill was ousted as the queen's favorite, she purportedly spread allegations of the queen having affairs with her bedchamberwomen.", "Marie Antoinette was also the subject of such speculation for some months between 1795 and 1796.=== Female husbands ===Viola and Olivia from ''Twelfth Night'' by Frederick Pickersgill (1859).|alt=Painting of a Renaissance-era woman dressed as a man, standing and looking away, as a woman dressed as a woman holds the other's hand to her breast, looking imploringly at the other, set against a bucolic backdrop.Hermaphroditism appeared in medical literature enough to be considered common knowledge, although cases were rare.", "Homoerotic elements in literature were pervasive, specifically the masquerade of one gender for another to fool an unsuspecting woman into being seduced.", "Such plot devices were used in Shakespeare's ''Twelfth Night'' (1601), ''The Faerie Queene'' by Edmund Spenser in 1590, and James Shirley's ''The Bird in a Cage'' (1633).", "Cases during the Renaissance of women taking on male personae and going undetected for years or decades have been recorded, though whether these cases would be described as transvestism by homosexual women, or in contemporary sociology characterised as transgender, is debated and depends on the individual details of each case.If discovered, punishments ranged from death, to time in the pillory, to being ordered never to dress as a man again.", "Henry Fielding wrote a pamphlet titled ''The Female Husband'' in 1746, based on the life of Mary Hamilton, who was arrested after marrying a woman while masquerading as a man, and was sentenced to public whipping and six months in jail.", "Similar examples were procured of Catharine Linck in Prussia in 1717, executed in 1721; Swiss Anne Grandjean married and relocated with her wife to Lyons, but was exposed by a woman with whom she had had a previous affair and sentenced to time in the stocks and prison.Queen Christina of Sweden's tendency to dress as a man was well known during her time and excused because of her noble birth.", "She was brought up as a male and there was speculation at the time that she was a hermaphrodite.", "Even after Christina abdicated the throne in 1654 to avoid marriage, she was known to pursue romantic relationships with women.Some historians view cases of cross-dressing women to be manifestations of women seizing power they would naturally be unable to enjoy in feminine attire, or their way of making sense out of their desire for women.", "Lillian Faderman argues that Western society was threatened by women who rejected their feminine roles.", "Catharine Linck and other women who were accused of using dildos, such as two nuns in 16th century Spain executed for using \"material instruments\", were punished more severely than those who did not.", "Two marriages between women were recorded in Cheshire, England, in 1707 (between Hannah Wright and Anne Gaskill) and 1708 (between Ane Norton and Alice Pickford) with no comment about both parties being female.", "Reports of clergymen with lax standards who performed weddings—and wrote their suspicions about one member of the wedding party—continued to appear for the next century.Outside Europe, women were able to dress as men and go undetected.", "Deborah Sampson fought in the American Revolution under the name Robert Shurtlieff, and pursued relationships with women.", "Edward De Lacy Evans was born female in Ireland, but took a male name during the voyage to Australia and lived as a man for 23 years in Victoria, marrying three times.", "Percy Redwood created a scandal in New Zealand in 1909 when she was found to be Amy Bock, who had married a woman from Port Molyneaux; newspapers argued whether it was a sign of insanity or an inherent character flaw.=== Re-examining romantic friendships ===alt=Black and white photo of two women sitting in a hammock in turn of the 20th century dresses; one reclines and the other sits on her lap and wraps her arm around the other, both staring at each other.During the 17th through 19th centuries, a woman expressing passionate love for another woman was fashionable, accepted, and encouraged.", "These relationships were termed romantic friendships, Boston marriages, or \"sentimental friends\", and were common in the U.S., Europe, and especially in England.", "Documentation of these relationships is possible by a large volume of letters written between women.", "Whether the relationship included any genital component was not a matter for public discourse, but women could form strong and exclusive bonds with each other and still be considered virtuous, innocent, and chaste; a similar relationship with a man would have destroyed a woman's reputation.", "In fact, these relationships were promoted as alternatives to and practice for a woman's marriage to a man.One such relationship was between Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who wrote to Anne Wortley in 1709: \"Nobody was so entirely, so faithfully yours ...", "I put in your lovers, for I don't allow it possible for a man to be so sincere as I am.\"", "Similarly, English poet Anna Seward had a devoted friendship to Honora Sneyd, who was the subject of many of Seward's sonnets and poems.", "When Sneyd married despite Seward's protest, Seward's poems became angry.", "Seward continued to write about Sneyd long after her death, extolling Sneyd's beauty and their affection and friendship.", "As a young woman, writer and philosopher Mary Wollstonecraft was attached to a woman named Fanny Blood.", "Writing to another woman by whom she had recently felt betrayed, Wollstonecraft declared, \"The roses will bloom when there's peace in the breast, and the prospect of living with my Fanny gladdens my heart:—You know not how I love her.", "\"The alt=An engraved drawing of Eleanor Butler and Sarah Ponsonby, known as the \"Ladies of Llangollen\".", "They are shown sitting in a private library wearing smoking jackets, with a cat in the foreground sitting in a chair.Perhaps the most famous of these romantic friendships was between Eleanor Butler and Sarah Ponsonby, nicknamed the Ladies of Llangollen.", "Butler and Ponsonby eloped in 1778, to the relief of Ponsonby's family (concerned about their reputation had she run away with a man) to live together in Wales for 51 years and be thought of as eccentrics.", "Their story was considered \"the epitome of virtuous romantic friendship\" and inspired poetry by Anna Seward and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.", "Diarist Anne Lister, captivated by Butler and Ponsonby, recorded her affairs with women between 1817 and 1840.Some of it was written in code, detailing her sexual relationships with Marianna Belcombe and Maria Barlow.", "Both Lister and Eleanor Butler were considered masculine by contemporary news reports, and though there were suspicions that these relationships were sapphist in nature, they were nonetheless praised in literature.Romantic friendships were also popular in the U.S.", "Enigmatic poet Emily Dickinson wrote over 300 letters and poems to Susan Gilbert, who later became her sister-in-law, and engaged in another romantic correspondence with Kate Scott Anthon.", "Anthon broke off their relationship the same month Dickinson entered self-imposed lifelong seclusion.", "Nearby in Hartford, Connecticut, African American freeborn women Addie Brown and Rebecca Primus left evidence of their passion in letters: \"No ''kisses'' is like youres\".", "In Georgia, Alice Baldy wrote to Josie Varner in 1870, \"Do you know that if you touch me, or speak to me there is not a nerve of fibre in my body that does not respond with a thrill of delight?", "\"Around the turn of the 20th century, the development of higher education provided opportunities for women.", "In all-female surroundings, a culture of romantic pursuit was fostered in women's colleges.", "Older students mentored younger ones, called on them socially, took them to all-women dances, and sent them flowers, cards, and poems that declared their undying love for each other.", "These were called \"smashes\" or \"spoons\", and they were written about quite frankly in stories for girls aspiring to attend college in publications such as ''Ladies Home Journal'', a children's magazine titled ''St.", "Nicholas'', and a collection called ''Smith College Stories'', without negative views.", "Enduring loyalty, devotion, and love were major components to these stories, and sexual acts beyond kissing were consistently absent.Women who had the option of a career instead of marriage labeled themselves New Women and took their new opportunities very seriously.", "Faderman calls this period \"the last breath of innocence\" before 1920 when characterizations of female affection were connected to sexuality, marking lesbians as a unique and often unflatteringly portrayed group.", "Specifically, Faderman connects the growth of women's independence and their beginning to reject strictly prescribed roles in the Victorian era to the scientific designation of lesbianism as a type of aberrant sexual behavior." ], [ "Identity and gender role in western culture", "=== Construction ===Berlin's thriving lesbian community in the 1920s published ''alt=Reproduction of a German magazine cover with the title \"Die Freundin\" showing a nude woman sitting on a horse, looking behind her.For some women, the realization that they participated in behavior or relationships that could be categorized as lesbian caused them to deny or conceal it, such as professor Jeannette Augustus Marks at Mount Holyoke College, who lived with the college president, Mary Woolley, for 36 years.", "Marks discouraged young women from \"abnormal\" friendships and insisted happiness could only be attained with a man.", "Other women embraced the distinction and used their uniqueness to set themselves apart from heterosexual women and gay men.From the 1890s to the 1930s, American heiress Natalie Clifford Barney held a weekly salon in Paris to which major artistic celebrities were invited and where lesbian topics were the focus.", "Combining Greek influences with contemporary French eroticism, she attempted to create an updated and idealized version of Lesbos in her salon.", "Her contemporaries included artist Romaine Brooks, who painted others in her circle; writers Colette, Djuna Barnes, social host Gertrude Stein, and novelist Radclyffe Hall.Berlin had a vibrant homosexual culture in the 1920s, and about 50 clubs catered to lesbians.", "(''The Girlfriend'') magazine, published between 1924 and 1933, targeted lesbians.", "''Garçonne'' (aka (''Woman Love'')) was aimed at lesbians and male transvestites.", "These publications were controlled by men as owners, publishers, and writers.", "Around 1926, Selli Engler founded ''Die BIF – Blätter Idealer Frauenfreundschaften'' (''The BIF – Papers on Ideal Women Friendships''), the first lesbian publication owned, published and written by women.", "In 1928, the lesbian bar and nightclub guide ''Berlins lesbische Frauen'' (''The Lesbians of Berlin'') by Ruth Margarite Röllig further popularized the German capital as a center of lesbian activity.", "Clubs varied between large establishments that became tourist attractions, to small neighborhood cafes where local women went to meet other women.", "The cabaret song (\"The Lavender Song\") became an anthem to the lesbians of Berlin.", "Although it was sometimes tolerated, homosexuality was illegal in Germany and law enforcement used permitted gatherings as an opportunity to register the names of homosexuals for future reference.", "Magnus Hirschfeld's Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, which promoted tolerance for homosexuals in Germany, welcomed lesbian participation, and a surge of lesbian-themed writing and political activism in the German feminist movement became evident.Radclyffe Hall's image appeared in many newspapers discussing the content of ''The Well of Loneliness''.|alt=Reproduction of a London newspaper, headline reading \"A Book That Must Be Suppressed\" and Radclyffe Hall's portrait: a woman wearing a suit jacket and bow tie with a black matching skirt.", "Her hair is slicked back, she wears no make-up, in one hand is a cigarette and her other hand is in her skirt pocket.In 1928, Radclyffe Hall published a novel titled ''The Well of Loneliness''.", "The novel's plot centers around Stephen Gordon, a woman who identifies herself as an invert after reading Krafft-Ebing's ''Psychopathia Sexualis'', and lives within the homosexual subculture of Paris.", "The novel included a foreword by Havelock Ellis and was intended to be a call for tolerance for inverts by publicizing their disadvantages and accidents of being born inverted.", "Hall subscribed to Ellis and Krafft-Ebing's theories and rejected Freud's theory that same-sex attraction was caused by childhood trauma and was curable.", "The publicity Hall received was due to unintended consequences; the novel was tried for obscenity in London, a spectacularly scandalous event described as \"''the'' crystallizing moment in the construction of a visible modern English lesbian subculture\" by professor Laura Doan.Newspaper stories frankly divulged that the book's content includes \"sexual relations between Lesbian women\", and photographs of Hall often accompanied details about lesbians in most major print outlets within a span of six months.", "Hall reflected the appearance of a \"mannish\" woman in the 1920s: short cropped hair, tailored suits (often with pants), and monocle that became widely recognized as a \"uniform\".", "When British women supported the war effort during the First World War, they became familiar with masculine clothing, and were considered patriotic for wearing uniforms and pants.", "Postwar masculinization of women's clothing became associated primarily with lesbianism.Harlem resident Gladys Bentley was renowned for her blues songs about her affairs with women.|alt=A publicity photo of a stout African American woman in white tuxedo with tails and top hat, carrying a cane and her signature in the lower right corner.In the United States, the 1920s was a decade of social experimentation, particularly with sex.", "This was heavily influenced by the writings of Sigmund Freud, who theorized that sexual desire would be sated unconsciously, despite an individual's wish to ignore it.", "Freud's theories were much more pervasive in the U.S. than in Europe.", "With the well-publicized notion that sexual acts were a part of lesbianism and their relationships, sexual experimentation was widespread.", "Large cities that provided a nightlife were immensely popular, and women began to seek out sexual adventure.", "Bisexuality became chic, particularly in America's first gay neighborhoods.No location saw more visitors for its possibilities of homosexual nightlife than Harlem, the predominantly African American section of New York City.", "White \"slummers\" enjoyed jazz, nightclubs, and anything else they wished.", "Blues singers Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith, Ethel Waters, and Gladys Bentley sang about affairs with women to visitors such as Tallulah Bankhead, Beatrice Lillie, and the soon-to-be-named Joan Crawford.", "Homosexuals began to draw comparisons between their newly recognized minority status and that of African Americans.", "Among African American residents of Harlem, lesbian relationships were common and tolerated, though not overtly embraced.", "Some women staged lavish wedding ceremonies, even filing licenses using masculine names with New York City.", "Most homosexual women were married to men and participated in affairs with women regularly.Across town, Greenwich Village also saw a growing homosexual community; both Harlem and Greenwich Village provided furnished rooms for single men and women, which was a major factor in their development as centers for homosexual communities.", "The tenor was different in Greenwich Village than Harlem.", "Bohemians—intellectuals who rejected Victorian ideals—gathered in the Village.", "Homosexuals were predominantly male, although figures such as poet Edna St. Vincent Millay and social host Mabel Dodge were known for their affairs with women and promotion of tolerance of homosexuality.", "Women in the U.S. who could not visit Harlem or live in Greenwich Village for the first time were able to visit saloons in the 1920s without being considered prostitutes.", "The existence of a public space for women to socialize in bars that were known to cater to lesbians \"became the single most important public manifestation of the subculture for many decades\", according to historian Lillian Faderman.=== Great Depression ===The primary component necessary to encourage lesbians to be public and seek other women was economic independence, which virtually disappeared in the 1930s with the Great Depression.", "Most women in the U.S. found it necessary to marry to a \"front\" such as a gay man where both could pursue homosexual relationships with public discretion, or to a man who expected a traditional wife.", "Independent women in the 1930s were generally seen as holding jobs that men should have.The social attitude made very small and close-knit communities in large cities that centered around bars, while simultaneously isolating women in other locales.", "Speaking of homosexuality in any context was socially forbidden, and women rarely discussed lesbianism even amongst themselves; they referred to openly gay people as \"in the Life\".", "Freudian psychoanalytic theory was pervasive in influencing doctors to consider homosexuality as a neurosis afflicting immature women.", "Homosexual subculture disappeared in Germany with the rise of the Nazis in 1933.=== World War II ===alt=Two women assembling a section of a wing for a WWII fighter plane.black triangle.", "Lesbians were deemed asocial.|alt=An upside down black triangle.Many lesbians reclaimed the symbolism of the pink triangle, though the Nazis only applied it to gay men.|alt=An upside down pink triangle.The onset of World War II caused a massive upheaval in people's lives as military mobilization engaged millions of men.", "Women were also accepted into the military in the U.S. Women's Army Corps (WACs) and U.S. Navy's Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES).", "Unlike processes to screen out male homosexuals, which had been in place since the creation of the American military, there were no methods to identify or screen for lesbians; they were put into place gradually during World War II.", "Despite common attitudes regarding women's traditional roles in the 1930s, independent and masculine women were directly recruited by the military in the 1940s, and frailty discouraged.Some women arrived at the recruiting station in a man's suit, denied ever being in love with another woman, and were easily inducted.", "Sexual activity was forbidden and blue discharge was almost certain if one identified oneself as a lesbian.", "As women found each other, they formed into tight groups on base, socialized at service clubs, and began to use code words.", "Historian Allan Bérubé documented that homosexuals in the armed forces either consciously or subconsciously refused to identify themselves as homosexual or lesbian, and also never spoke about others' orientation.The most masculine women were not necessarily common, though they were visible, so they tended to attract women interested in finding other lesbians.", "Women had to broach the subject about their interest in other women carefully, sometimes taking days to develop a common understanding without asking or stating anything outright.", "Women who did not enter the military were aggressively called upon to take industrial jobs left by men, in order to continue national productivity.", "The increased mobility, sophistication, and independence of many women during and after the war made it possible for women to live without husbands, something that would not have been feasible under different economic and social circumstances, further shaping lesbian networks and environments.Lesbians were not included under Paragraph 175 of the German Criminal Code, which made homosexual acts between males a crime.", "The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM) stipulates that this is because women were seen as subordinate to men, and the Nazi state feared lesbians less than gay men.", "Many lesbians were arrested and imprisoned for \"asocial\" behaviour, a label which was applied to women who did not conform to the ideal Nazi image of a woman (child raising, kitchen work, churchgoing and passivity).", "These women were identified with an inverted black triangle.", "Although lesbianism was not specifically criminalized by Paragraph 175, some lesbians reclaimed the black triangle symbol as gay men reclaimed the pink triangle, and many lesbians also reclaimed the pink triangle.=== Postwar ===The Ladder'', mailed to hundreds of women in the San Francisco area, urged women to take off their masks.|alt=A drawn illustrated magazine cover of a woman in half shadow with short, wavy hair holding a harlequin mask under the title \"The Ladder\" and the date \"October 1957\" underneath it.Following World War II, a nationwide movement pressed to return to pre-war society as quickly as possible in the U.S.", "When combined with the increasing national paranoia about communism and psychoanalytic theory that had become pervasive in medical knowledge, homosexuality became an undesired characteristic of employees working for the U.S. government in 1950.Homosexuals were thought to be vulnerable targets to blackmail, and the government purged its employment ranks of open homosexuals, beginning a widespread effort to gather intelligence about employees' private lives.", "State and local governments followed suit, arresting people for congregating in bars and parks, and enacting laws against cross-dressing for men and women.The U.S. military and government conducted many interrogations, asking if women had ever had sexual relations with another woman and essentially equating even a one-time experience to a criminal identity, thereby severely delineating heterosexuals from homosexuals.", "In 1952, homosexuality was listed as a pathological emotional disturbance in the American Psychiatric Association's ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual''.", "The view that homosexuality was a curable sickness was widely believed in the medical community, general population, and among many lesbians themselves.Attitudes and practices to ferret out homosexuals in public service positions extended to Australia and Canada.", "A section to create an offence of \"gross indecency\" between females was added to a bill in the United Kingdom House of Commons and passed there in 1921, but was rejected in the House of Lords, apparently because they were concerned any attention paid to sexual misconduct would also promote it.==== Underground socializing ====Very little information was available about homosexuality beyond medical and psychiatric texts.", "Community meeting places consisted of bars that were commonly raided by police once a month on average, with those arrested exposed in newspapers.", "In response, eight women in San Francisco met in their living rooms in 1955 to socialize and have a safe place to dance.", "When they decided to make it a regular meeting, they became the first organization for lesbians in the U.S., titled the Daughters of Bilitis (DOB).", "The DOB began publishing a magazine titled ''The Ladder'' in 1956.Inside the front cover of every issue was their mission statement, the first of which stated was \"Education of the variant\".", "It was intended to provide women with knowledge about homosexuality—specifically relating to women and famous lesbians in history.", "By 1956, the term \"lesbian\" had such a negative meaning that the DOB refused to use it as a descriptor, choosing \"variant\" instead.The DOB spread to Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles, and ''The Ladder'' was mailed to hundreds—eventually thousands—of DOB members discussing the nature of homosexuality, sometimes challenging the idea that it was a sickness, with readers offering their own reasons why they were lesbians and suggesting ways to cope with the condition or society's response to it.", "British lesbians followed with the publication of ''Arena Three'' beginning in 1964, with a similar mission.Though marketed to heterosexual men, alt=A brightly painted book cover with the title \"The Third Sex\", with a sultry blonde wearing a red outfit showing cleavage and midriff seated on a sofa, while a redhead with short hair places her hand on the blonde's shoulder and leans over her, also displaying cleavage wearing a white blouse with rolled-up sleeves.==== Butch and femme dichotomy ====As a reflection of categories of sexuality so sharply defined by the government and society at large, early lesbian subculture developed rigid gender roles between women, particularly among the working class in the United States and Canada.", "For working class lesbians who wanted to live as homosexuals, \"A functioning couple ... meant dichotomous individuals, if not male and female, then butch and femme\", and the only models they had to go by were \"those of the traditional female-male roles\".", "Although many municipalities enacted laws against cross-dressing, some women would socialize in bars as butches: dressed in men's clothing and mirroring traditional masculine behavior.", "Others wore traditionally feminine clothing and assumed the role of femmes.", "Butch and femme modes of socialization were so integral within lesbian bars that women who refused to choose between the two would be ignored, or at least unable to date anyone, and butch women becoming romantically involved with other butch women or femmes with other femmes was unacceptable.Butch women were not a novelty in the 1950s; even in Harlem and Greenwich Village in the 1920s some women assumed these personae.", "In the 1950s and 1960s, the roles were pervasive and not limited to North America: from 1940 to 1970, butch/femme bar culture flourished in Britain, though there were fewer class distinctions.", "They further identified members of a group that had been marginalized; women who had been rejected by most of society had an inside view of an exclusive group of people that took a high amount of knowledge to function in.", "Butch and femme were considered coarse by American lesbians of higher social standing during this period.", "Many wealthier women married to satisfy their familial obligations, and others escaped to Europe to live as expatriates.==== Fiction ====Regardless of the lack of information about homosexuality in scholarly texts, another forum for learning about lesbianism was growing.", "A paperback book titled ''Women's Barracks'' describing a woman's experiences in the Free French Forces was published in 1950.It told of a lesbian relationship the author had witnessed.", "After 4.5 million copies were sold, it was consequently named in the House Select Committee on Current Pornographic Materials in 1952.Its publisher, Gold Medal Books, followed with the novel ''Spring Fire'' in 1952, which sold 1.5 million copies.", "Gold Medal Books was overwhelmed with mail from women writing about the subject matter, and followed with more books, creating the genre of lesbian pulp fiction.Between 1955 and 1969, over 2,000 books were published using lesbianism as a topic, and they were sold in corner drugstores, train stations, bus stops, and newsstands all over the U.S. and Canada.", "Literary scholar, Yvonne Keller created several subclasses for lesbian pulp fiction, to help highlight the differences between the types of pulp fiction being released.", "Virile adventures were written by authors using male pseudonyms, and almost all were marketed to heterosexual men.", "During this time, another subclass emerged called \"Pro-Lesbian\".", "The emergence of pro-lesbian fiction began with authors seeing the voyeuristic and homophobic nature of virile adventures.", "With only a handful of lesbian pulp fiction authors were women writing for lesbians, including Ann Bannon, Valerie Taylor, Paula Christian, and Vin Packer/Ann Aldrich.", "These authors deliberately defied the standard of virile adventures by focusing on the relationship between the pair, instead of writing sexually explicit material like virile adventures.", "The differences between virile adventures and pro-lesbian covers and titles were distinct enough that Bannon, who also purchased lesbian pulp fiction, later stated that women identified the material iconically by the cover art.", "Pro-lesbian covers were innocuous and hinted at their lesbian themes, and virile adventures ranged from having one woman partially undressed to sexually explicit covers, to demonstrate the invariably salacious material inside.", "In addition to this, coded words and images were used on the covers.", "Instead of \"lesbian\", terms such as \"strange\", \"twilight\", \"queer\", and \"third sex\", were used in the titles, and cover art was invariably salacious.", "Many of the books used cultural references: naming places, terms, describing modes of dress and other codes to isolated women.", "As a result, pulp fiction helped to proliferate a lesbian identity simultaneously to lesbians and heterosexual readers.===Second-wave feminism===The social rigidity of the 1950s and early 1960s encountered a backlash as social movements to improve the standing of African Americans, the poor, women, and gays all became prominent.", "Of the latter two, the gay rights movement and the feminist movement connected after a violent confrontation occurred in New York City in the 1969 Stonewall riots.", "What followed was a movement characterized by a surge of gay activism and feminist consciousness that further transformed the definition of lesbian.The sexual revolution in the 1970s introduced the differentiation between identity and sexual behavior for women.", "Many women took advantage of their new social freedom to try new experiences.", "Women who previously identified as heterosexual tried sex with women, though many maintained their heterosexual identity.", "With the advent of second-wave feminism, lesbian as a political identity grew to describe a social philosophy among women, often overshadowing sexual desire as a defining trait.", "A militant feminist organization named Radicalesbians published a manifesto in 1970 entitled \"The Woman-Identified Woman\" that declared \"A lesbian is the rage of all women condensed to the point of explosion\".Militant feminists expressed their disdain with an inherently sexist and patriarchal society, and concluded the most effective way to overcome sexism and attain the equality of women would be to deny men any power or pleasure from women.", "For women who subscribed to this philosophy—dubbing themselves lesbian-feminists—lesbian was a term chosen by women to describe any woman who dedicated her approach to social interaction and political motivation to the welfare of women.", "Sexual desire was not the defining characteristic of a lesbian-feminist, but rather her focus on politics.", "Independence from men as oppressors was a central tenet of lesbian-feminism, and many believers strove to separate themselves physically and economically from traditional male-centered culture.", "In the ideal society, named Lesbian Nation, \"woman\" and \"lesbian\" were interchangeable.Although lesbian-feminism was a significant shift, not all lesbians agreed with it.", "Lesbian-feminism was a youth-oriented movement: its members were primarily college educated, with experience in New Left and radical causes, but they had not seen any success in persuading radical organizations to take up women's issues.", "Many older lesbians who had acknowledged their sexuality in more conservative times felt maintaining their ways of coping in a homophobic world was more appropriate.", "The Daughters of Bilitis folded in 1970 over which direction to focus on: feminism or gay rights issues.As equality was a priority for lesbian-feminists, disparity of roles between men and women or butch and femme were viewed as patriarchal.", "Lesbian-feminists eschewed gender role play that had been pervasive in bars, as well as the perceived chauvinism of gay men; many lesbian-feminists refused to work with gay men, or take up their causes.", "Lesbians who held more essentialist views that they were born homosexual, and used the descriptor \"lesbian\" to define sexual attraction, often considered the separatist, angry opinions of lesbian-feminists to be detrimental to the cause of gay rights.In 1980, poet and essayist Adrienne Rich expanded upon the political meaning of lesbian by proposing a continuum of lesbian existence based on \"woman-identified experience\" in her essay \"Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence\".", "All relationships between women, Rich proposed, have some lesbian element, regardless if they claim a lesbian identity: mothers and daughters, women who work together, and women who nurse each other, for example.", "Such a perception of women relating to each other connects them through time and across cultures, and Rich considered heterosexuality a condition forced upon women by men.", "Several years earlier, DOB founders Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon similarly relegated sexual acts as unnecessary in determining what a lesbian is, by providing their definition: \"a woman whose primary erotic, psychological, emotional and social interest is in a member of her own sex, even though that interest may not be overtly expressed\"." ], [ "Outside western culture", "===Middle East===Arabic-language historical records have used various terms to describe sexual practices between women.", "A common one is \"sahq\", which refers to rubbing.", "Lesbian practices and identities are largely absent from the historical record.", "The common term to describe lesbianism in Arabic today is essentially the same term used to describe men, and thus the distinction between male and female homosexuality is to a certain extent linguistically obscured in contemporary queer discourse.", "Overall, the study of contemporary lesbian experience in the region is complicated by power dynamics in the postcolonial context, shaped even by what some scholars refer to as \"homonationalism\", the use of politicized understanding of sexual categories to advance specific national interests on the domestic and international stage.Female homosexual behavior may be present in every culture, although the concept of a lesbian as a woman who pairs exclusively with other women is not.", "Attitudes about female homosexual behavior are dependent upon women's roles in each society and each culture's definition of sex.", "Women in the Middle East have been historically segregated from men.", "In the 7th and 8th centuries, some extraordinary women dressed in male attire when gender roles were less strict, but the sexual roles that accompanied European women were not associated with Islamic women.", "The Caliphal court in Baghdad featured women who dressed as men, including false facial hair, but they competed with other women for the attentions of men.According to the 12th-century writings of Sharif al-Idrisi, highly intelligent women were more likely to be lesbians; their intellectual prowess put them on a more even par with men.", "Relations between women who lived in harems and fears of women being sexually intimate in Turkish baths were expressed in writings by men.", "Women were mostly silent, and men likewise rarely wrote about lesbian relationships.", "It is unclear to historians if the rare instances of lesbianism mentioned in literature are an accurate historical record or intended to serve as fantasies for men.", "A 1978 treatise about repression in Iran asserted that women were completely silenced: \"In the whole of Iranian history, no woman has been allowed to speak out for such tendencies ... To attest to lesbian desires would be an unforgivable crime.", "\"Although the authors of ''Islamic Homosexualities'' argued this did not mean women could not engage in lesbian relationships, a lesbian anthropologist in 1991 visited Yemen and reported that women in the town she visited were unable to comprehend her romantic relationship to another woman.", "Women in Pakistan are expected to marry men; those who do not are ostracized.", "Women may have intimate relations with other women as long as their wifely duties are met, their private matters are kept quiet, and the woman with whom they are involved is somehow related by family or logical interest to her lover.Individuals identifying with or otherwise engaging in lesbian practices in the region can face family violence and societal persecution, including what are commonly referred to as \"honor killings.\"", "The justifications provided by murderers relate to a person's perceived sexual immorality, loss of virginity (outside of acceptable frames of marriage), and target female victims primarily.===Americas===Both male and female homosexuality were known in Aztec culture.", "Although both were generally disapproved of, there is no evidence that homosexuality was actively suppressed until after the Spanish Conquest.", "Female homosexuality is described in the Florentine Codex, a 16th-century study of the Aztec world written by the Spanish Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún.", "It describes Aztec lesbians as masculine in appearance and behavior and never wishing to be married.", "The book ''Monarquía indiana'' by Fray Juan de Torquemada, published in 1615, briefly mentions the persecution of Aztec lesbians: \"The woman, who with another woman had carnal pleasures, for which they were called ''Patlache'', which means: female incubus, they both died for it.", "\"In Latin America, lesbian consciousness and associations appeared in the 1970s, increasing while several countries transitioned to or reformed democratic governments.", "Harassment and intimidation have been common even in places where homosexuality is legal, and laws against child corruption, morality, or \"the good ways\" (''faltas a la moral o las buenas costumbres''), have been used to persecute homosexuals.", "From the Hispanic perspective, the conflict between the lesbophobia of some feminists and the misogyny from gay men has created a difficult path for lesbians and associated groups.Argentina was the first Latin American country with a gay rights group, ''Nuestro Mundo'' (NM, or Our World), created in 1969.Six mostly secret organizations concentrating on gay or lesbian issues were founded around this time, but persecution and harassment were continuous and grew worse with the dictatorship of Jorge Rafael Videla in 1976, when all groups were dissolved in the Dirty War.", "Lesbian rights groups have gradually formed since 1986 to build a cohesive community that works to overcome philosophical differences with heterosexual women.The Latin American lesbian movement has been the most active in Mexico but has encountered similar problems in effectiveness and cohesion.", "While groups try to promote lesbian issues and concerns, they also face misogynistic attitudes from gay men and homophobic views from heterosexual women.", "In 1977, ''Lesbos'', the first lesbian organization for Mexicans, was formed.", "Several incarnations of political groups promoting lesbian issues have evolved; 13 lesbian organizations were active in Mexico City in 1997.Ultimately, lesbian associations had little influence on the homosexual and feminist movements.In Chile, the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet forbade the creation of lesbian groups until 1984, when ''Ayuquelén'' (\"joy of being\" in Mapuche) was first founded, prompted by the very public beating death of a woman amid shouts of \"Damned lesbian!\"", "from her attacker.", "The lesbian movement has been closely associated with the feminist movement in Chile, although the relationship has been sometimes strained.", "''Ayuquelén'' worked with the International Lesbian Information Service, the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association, and the Chilean gay rights group ''Movimiento de Integración y Liberación Homosexual'' (Movement to Integrate and Liberate Homosexuals) to remove the sodomy law still in force in Chile.Lesbian consciousness became more visible in Nicaragua in 1986, when the Sandinista National Liberation Front expelled gay men and lesbians from its midst.", "State persecution prevented the formation of associations until AIDS became a concern, when educational efforts forced sexual minorities to band together.", "The first lesbian organization was ''Nosotras'', founded in 1989.An effort to promote visibility from 1991 to 1992 provoked the government to declare homosexuality illegal in 1994, effectively ending the movement, until 2004, when ''Grupo Safo – Grupo de Mujeres Lesbianas de Nicaragua'' was created, four years before homosexuality became legal again.The meetings of feminist lesbians of Latin America and the Caribbean, sometimes shortened to \"Lesbian meetings\", have been an important forum for the exchange of ideas for Latin American lesbians since the late 1980s.", "With rotating hosts and biannual gatherings, its main aims are the creation of communication networks, to change the situation of lesbians in Latin America (both legally and socially), to increase solidarity between lesbians and to destroy the existing myths about them.Some Indigenous peoples of the Americas conceptualize a third gender for women who dress as, and fulfill the roles usually filled by, men in their cultures.", "In other cases they may see gender as a spectrum, and use different terms for feminine women and masculine women.", "These identities are rooted in the context of the ceremonial and cultural lives of the particular Indigenous cultures, and \"simply being gay and Indian does not make someone a Two-Spirit.\"", "These ceremonial and social roles, which are conferred and confirmed by the person's elders, \"do not make sense\" when defined by non-Native concepts of sexual orientation and gender identity.", "Rather, they must be understood in an Indigenous context, as traditional spiritual and social roles held by the person in their Indigenous community.===Africa===Cross-gender roles and marriage between women has also been recorded in over 30 African societies.", "Women may marry other women, raise their children, and be generally thought of as men in societies in Nigeria, Cameroon, and Kenya.", "The Hausa people of Sudan have a term equivalent to lesbian, ''kifi'', that may also be applied to males to mean \"neither party insists on a particular sexual role\".Near the Congo River, a female who participates in strong emotional or sexual relationships with another female among the Nkundo people is known as ''yaikya bonsángo'' (a woman who presses against another woman).", "Lesbian relationships are also known in matrilineal societies in Ghana among the Akan people.", "In Lesotho, females engage in what is commonly considered sexual behavior to the Western world: they kiss, sleep together, rub genitals, participate in cunnilingus, and maintain their relationships with other females vigilantly.", "Since the people of Lesotho believe sex requires a penis, they do not consider their behavior sexual, nor label themselves lesbians.In Tanzania, lesbians are known as or called \"Msagaji\" (singular), \"Wasagaji\" (plural), which in Swahili means grinder or grinding because of the perceived nature of lesbian sex that would involve the mutual rubbing of vulvas.In South Africa, lesbians are sometimes raped by heterosexual men with a goal of punishment of \"abnormal\" behavior and reinforcement of societal norms.", "The crime was first identified in South Africa where it is sometimes supervised by members of the woman's family or local community, and is a major contributor to HIV infection in South African lesbians.", "\"Corrective rape\" is not recognized by the South African legal system as a hate crime despite the fact that the South African Constitution states that no person shall be discriminated against based on their social status and identity, including sexual orientation.", "Legally, South Africa protects gay rights extensively, but the government has not taken proactive action to prevent corrective rape, and women do not have much faith in the police and their investigations.Corrective rape is reported to be on the rise in South Africa.", "The South African nonprofit \"Luleki Sizwe\" estimates that more than 10 lesbians are raped or gang-raped on a weekly basis.", "As made public by the Triangle Project in 2008, at least 500 lesbians become victims of corrective rape every year and 86% of black lesbians in the Western Cape live in fear of being sexually assaulted.", "Victims of corrective rape are less likely to report the crime because of their society's negative beliefs about homosexuality.===Asia===shunga woodblock printing from Japan depicting two women having sex.|alt=China before westernization was another society that segregated men from women.", "Historical Chinese culture has not recognized a concept of sexual orientation, or a framework to divide people based on their same-sex or opposite-sex attractions.", "Although there was a significant culture surrounding homosexual men, there was none for women.", "Outside their duties to bear sons to their husbands, women were perceived as having no sexuality at all.This did not mean that women could not pursue sexual relationships with other women, but that such associations could not impose upon women's relationships to men.", "Rare references to lesbianism were written by Ying Shao, who identified same-sex relationships between women in imperial courts who behaved as husband and wife as ''dui shi'' (paired eating).", "\"Golden Orchid Associations\" in Southern China existed into the 20th century and promoted formal marriages between women, who were then allowed to adopt children.", "Westernization brought new ideas that all sexual behavior not resulting in reproduction was aberrant.The liberty of being employed in silk factories starting in 1865 allowed some women to style themselves ''tzu-shu nii'' (never to marry) and live in communes with other women.", "Other Chinese called them ''sou-hei'' (self-combers) for adopting hairstyles of married women.", "These communes passed because of the Great Depression and were subsequently discouraged by the communist government for being a relic of feudal China.", "In contemporary Chinese society, ''tongzhi'' (same goal or spirit) is the term used to refer to homosexuals; most Chinese are reluctant to divide this classification further to identify lesbians.In Japan, the term , a Japanese pronunciation of \"lesbian\", was used during the 1920s.", "Westernization brought more independence for women and allowed some Japanese women to wear pants.", "The cognate tomboy is used in the Philippines, and particularly in Manila, to denote women who are more masculine.", "Virtuous women in Korea prioritize motherhood, chastity, and virginity; outside this scope, very few women are free to express themselves through sexuality, although there is a growing organization for lesbians named .", "The term ''pondan'' is used in Malaysia to refer to gay men, but since there is no historical context to reference lesbians, the term is used for female homosexuals as well.", "As in many Asian countries, open homosexuality is discouraged in many social levels, so many Malaysians lead double lives.In India, a 14th-century Indian text mentioning a lesbian couple who had a child as a result of their lovemaking is an exception to the general silence about female homosexuality.", "According to Ruth Vanita, this invisibility disappeared with the release of a film titled ''Fire'' in 1996, prompting some theaters in India to be attacked by religious extremists.", "Terms used to label homosexuals are often rejected by Indian activists for being the result of imperialist influence, but most discourse on homosexuality centers on men.", "Women's rights groups in India continue to debate the legitimacy of including lesbian issues in their platforms, as lesbians and material focusing on female homosexuality are frequently suppressed." ], [ "Demographics", "===Kinsey Report===Kinsey's scale of sexual responses showing exclusively heterosexual and homosexual, with the varying degrees of bisexuality in between.|alt=A graph with seven columns labeled 0 to 6.The 0 column is \"exclusively heterosexual\" and is shown completely white.", "A gradient line showing the varying degrees of bisexual responses starts at the beginning of column 1 and rises to the end of column 5.Column 6 is \"exclusively homosexual\" and is shown filled with the color blue.The most extensive early study of female homosexuality was provided by the Institute for Sex Research, who published an in-depth report of the sexual experiences of American women in 1953.More than 8,000 women were interviewed by Alfred Kinsey and the staff of the Institute for Sex Research in a book titled ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'', popularly known as part of the Kinsey Report.", "The Kinsey Report's dispassionate discussion of homosexuality as a form of human sexual behavior was revolutionary.", "Up to this study, only physicians and psychiatrists studied sexual behavior, and almost always the results were interpreted with a moral view.Kinsey and his staff reported that 28% of women had been aroused by another female, and 19% had a sexual contact with another female.", "Of women who had sexual contact with another female, half to two-thirds of them had orgasmed.", "Single women had the highest prevalence of homosexual activity, followed by women who were widowed, divorced, or separated.", "The lowest occurrence of sexual activity was among married women; those with previous homosexual experience reported they married to stop homosexual activity.Most of the women who reported homosexual activity had not experienced it more than ten times.", "Fifty-one percent of women reporting homosexual experience had only one partner.", "Women with post-graduate education had a higher prevalence of homosexual experience, followed by women with a college education; the smallest occurrence was among women with education no higher than eighth grade.", "Some criticized Kinsey's methodology.Based on Kinsey's scale where 0 represents a person with an exclusively heterosexual response and 6 represents a person with an exclusively homosexual one, and numbers in between represent a gradient of responses with both sexes, 6% of those interviewed ranked as a 6: exclusively homosexual.", "Apart from those who ranked 0 (71%), the largest percentage in between 0 and 6 was 1 at approximately 15%.", "The Kinsey Report remarked that the ranking described a period in a person's life, and that a person's orientation may change.", "Among the criticisms the Kinsey Report received, a particular one addressed the Institute for Sex Research's tendency to use statistical sampling, which facilitated an over-representation of same-sex relationships by other researchers who did not adhere to Kinsey's qualifications of data.===Hite Report===In 1976, sexologist Shere Hite published a report on the sexual encounters of 3,019 women who had responded to questionnaires, under the title ''The Hite Report''.", "Hite's questions differed from Kinsey's, focusing more on how women identified, or what they preferred rather than experience.", "Respondents to Hite's questions indicated that 8% preferred sex with women and 9% answered that they identified as bisexual or had sexual experiences with men and women, though they refused to indicate preference.Hite's conclusions are more based on respondents' comments than quantifiable data.", "She found it \"striking\" that many women who had no lesbian experiences indicated they were interested in sex with women, particularly because the question was not asked.", "Hite found the two most significant differences between respondents' experience with men and women were the focus on clitoral stimulation, and more emotional involvement and orgasmic responses.", "Since Hite performed her study during the popularity of feminism in the 1970s, she also acknowledged that women may have chosen the political identity of a lesbian.===Population estimates===Lesbians in the U.S. are estimated to be about 2.6% of the population, according to a National Opinion Research Center survey of sexually active adults who had had same-sex experiences within the past year, completed in 2000.A survey of same-sex couples in the United States showed that between 2000 and 2005, the number of people claiming to be in same-sex relationships increased by 30%—five times the rate of population growth in the U.S.", "The study attributed the jump to people being more comfortable self-identifying as homosexual to the federal government.The government of the United Kingdom does not ask citizens to define their sexuality.", "A survey by the UK Office for National Statistics (ONS) in 2010 found that 1.5% of Britons identified themselves as gay or bisexual, and the ONS suggests that this is in line with other surveys showing the number between 0.3% and 3%.", "Estimates of lesbians are sometimes not differentiated in studies of same-sex households, such as those performed by the U.S. census, and estimates of total gay, lesbian, or bisexual population by the UK government.", "Polls in Australia recorded a range of self-identified lesbian or bisexual women from 1.3% to 2.2% of the total population." ], [ "Health", "===Physical===In terms of medical issues, lesbians are referred to as women who have sex with women (WSW) because of the misconceptions and assumptions about women's sexuality and some women's hesitancy to disclose their accurate sexual histories even to a physician.", "Many self-identified lesbians neglect to see a physician because they do not participate in heterosexual activity and require no birth control, which is the initiating factor for most women to seek consultation with a gynecologist when they become sexually active.", "As a result, many lesbians are not screened regularly with Pap smears.", "The U.S. government reports that some lesbians neglect seeking medical screening in the U.S.; they lack health insurance because many employers do not offer health benefits to domestic partners.The result of the lack of medical information on WSW is that medical professionals and some lesbians perceive lesbians as having lower risks of acquiring sexually transmitted infections or types of cancer.", "When women do seek medical attention, medical professionals often fail to take a complete medical history.", "In a 2006 study of 2,345 lesbian and bisexual women, only 9.3% had claimed they had ever been asked their sexual orientation by a physician.", "A third of the respondents believed disclosing their sexual history would result in a negative reaction, and 30% had received a negative reaction from a medical professional after identifying themselves as lesbian or bisexual.", "A patient's complete history helps medical professionals identify higher risk areas and corrects assumptions about the personal histories of women.", "In a similar survey of 6,935 lesbians, 77% had had sexual contact with one or more male partners, and 6% had that contact within the previous year.Heart disease is listed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services as the number one cause of death for all women.", "Factors that add to risk of heart disease include obesity and smoking, both of which are more prevalent among lesbians.", "Studies show that lesbians have a higher body mass and are generally less concerned about weight issues than heterosexual women; and lesbians consider women with higher body masses to be more attractive than heterosexual women do.", "Lesbians are more likely to exercise regularly than heterosexual women, and lesbians do not generally exercise for aesthetic reasons, although heterosexual women do.", "Research is needed to determine specific causes of obesity in lesbians.Lack of differentiation between homosexual and heterosexual women in medical studies that concentrate on health issues for women skews results for lesbians and non-lesbian women.", "Reports are inconclusive about occurrence of breast cancer in lesbians.", "It has been determined that the lower rate of lesbians tested by regular Pap smears makes it more difficult to detect cervical cancer at early stages in lesbians.", "The risk factors for developing ovarian cancer rates are higher in lesbians than heterosexual women, perhaps because many lesbians lack protective factors of pregnancy, abortion, contraceptives, breast feeding, and miscarriages.Some sexually transmitted infections are communicable between women, including human papillomavirus (HPV)—specifically genital warts—squamous intraepithelial lesions, trichomoniasis, syphilis, and herpes simplex virus (HSV).", "Transmission of specific sexually transmitted infections among women who have sex with women depends on the sexual practices women engage in.", "Any object that comes in contact with cervical secretions, vaginal mucosa, or menstrual blood, including fingers or penetrative objects may transmit sexually transmitted infections.", "Orogenital contact may indicate a higher risk of acquiring HSV, even among women who have had no prior sex with men.Bacterial vaginosis (BV) occurs more often in lesbians, but it is unclear if BV is transmitted by sexual contact; it occurs in celibate as well as sexually active women.", "BV often occurs in both partners in a lesbian relationship; a recent study of women with BV found that 81% had partners with BV.", "Lesbians are not included in a category of frequency of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission, although transmission is possible through vaginal and cervical secretions.", "The highest rate of transmission of HIV to lesbians is among women who participate in intravenous drug use or have sexual intercourse with bisexual men.=== Mental ===Since medical literature began to describe homosexuality, it has often been approached from a view that sought to find an inherent psychopathology as the root cause, influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud.", "Although he considered bisexuality inherent in all people and said that most have phases of homosexual attraction or experimentation, exclusive same-sex attraction he attributed to stunted development resulting from trauma or parental conflicts.", "Much literature on mental health and lesbians centered on their depression, substance abuse, and suicide.", "Although these issues exist among lesbians, discussion about their causes shifted after homosexuality was removed from the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual'' in 1973.Instead, social ostracism, legal discrimination, internalization of negative stereotypes, and limited support structures indicate factors homosexuals face in Western societies that often adversely affect their mental health.Women who identify as lesbian report feeling significantly different and isolated during adolescence.", "These emotions have been cited as appearing on average at 15 years old in lesbians and 18 years old in women who identify as bisexual.", "On the whole, women tend to work through developing a self-concept internally, or with other women with whom they are intimate.", "Women also limit who they divulge their sexual identities to, and more often see being lesbian as a choice, as opposed to gay men, who work more externally and see being gay as outside their control.Anxiety disorders and depression are the most common mental health issues for women.", "Depression is reported among lesbians at a rate similar to heterosexual women, although generalized anxiety disorder is more likely to appear among lesbian and bisexual women than heterosexual women.", "Depression is a more significant problem among women who feel they must hide their sexual orientation from friends and family, or experience compounded ethnic or religious discrimination, or endure relationship difficulties with no support system.", "Men's shaping of women's sexuality has proven to have an effect on how lesbians see their own bodies.", "Studies have shown that heterosexual men and lesbians have different standards for what they consider attractive in women.", "Lesbians who view themselves with male standards of female beauty may experience lower self-esteem, eating disorders, and higher incidence of depression.", "More than half the respondents to a 1994 survey of health issues in lesbians reported they had suicidal thoughts, and 18% had attempted suicide.A population-based study completed by the National Alcohol Research Center found that women who identify as lesbian or bisexual are less likely to abstain from alcohol.", "Lesbians and bisexual women have a higher likelihood of reporting problems with alcohol, as well as not being satisfied with treatment for substance abuse programs.", "Many lesbian communities are centered in bars, and drinking is an activity that correlates to community participation for lesbians and bisexual women." ], [ "Media representation", "Lesbians portrayed in literature, film, and television often shape contemporary thought about women's sexuality.", "The majority of media about lesbians is produced by men; women's publishing companies did not develop until the 1970s, films about lesbians made by women did not appear until the 1980s, and television shows portraying lesbians written by women only began to be created in the 21st century.", "As a result, homosexuality—particularly dealing with women—has been excluded because of symbolic annihilation.", "When depictions of lesbians began to surface, they were often one-dimensional, simplified stereotypes.===Literature===In addition to Sappho's accomplishments, literary historian Jeannette Howard Foster includes the Book of Ruth, and ancient mythological tradition as examples of lesbianism in classical literature.", "Greek stories of the heavens often included a female figure whose virtue and virginity were unspoiled, who pursued more masculine interests, and who was followed by a dedicated group of maidens.", "Foster cites Camilla and Diana, Artemis and Callisto, and Iphis and Ianthe as examples of female mythological figures who showed remarkable devotion to each other, or defied gender expectations.", "The Greeks are also given credit with spreading the story of a mythological race of women warriors named Amazons.For ten centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire, lesbianism disappeared from literature.", "Foster points to the particularly strict view that Eve—representative of all women—caused the downfall of mankind; original sin among women was a particular concern, especially because women were perceived as creating life.", "During this time, women were largely illiterate and not encouraged to engage in intellectual pursuit, so men were responsible for shaping ideas about sexuality.In the 15th and 16th centuries, French and English depictions of relationships between women (''Lives of Gallant Ladies'' by Brantôme in 1665, John Cleland's 1749 erotica ''Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure'', ''L'Espion Anglais'' by various authors in 1778), writers' attitudes spanned from amused tolerance to arousal, whereupon a male character would participate to complete the act.", "Physical relationships between women were often encouraged; men felt no threat as they viewed sexual acts between women to be accepted when men were not available, and not comparable to fulfillment that could be achieved by sexual acts between men and women.", "At worst, if a woman became enamored of another woman, she became a tragic figure.", "Physical and therefore emotional satisfaction was considered impossible without a natural phallus.", "Male intervention into relationships between women was necessary only when women acted as men and demanded the same social privileges.In Bed'' by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1893).", "The Parisian artist employed the association between lesbianism and prostitution.|alt=A painting of two short-haired women in a massive bed, covered to their chins in blankets under a red top cover.", "One woman is looking sleepily at the other.Lesbianism became almost exclusive to French literature in the 19th century, based on male fantasy and the desire to shock bourgeois moral values.", "Honoré de Balzac, in ''The Girl with the Golden Eyes'' (1835), employed lesbianism in his story about three people living amongst the moral degeneration of Paris, and again in ''Cousin Bette'' and ''Séraphîta''.", "His work influenced novelist Théophile Gautier's ''Mademoiselle de Maupin'', which provided the first description of a physical type that became associated with lesbians: tall, wide-shouldered, slim-hipped, and athletically inclined.", "Charles Baudelaire repeatedly used lesbianism as a theme in his poems \"Lesbos\", (\"Damned Women\"), and .Reflecting French society, as well as employing stock character associations, many of the lesbian characters in 19th-century French literature were prostitutes or courtesans: personifications of vice who died early, violent deaths in moral endings.", "Samuel Taylor Coleridge's 1816 poem \"Christabel\" and the novella ''Carmilla'' (1872) by Sheridan Le Fanu both present lesbianism associated with vampirism.", "Portrayals of female homosexuality not only formed European consciousness about lesbianism, but Krafft-Ebing cited the characters in Gustave Flaubert's ''Salammbô'' (1862) and Ernest Feydeau's ''Le Comte de Chalis'' (1867) as examples of lesbians because both novels feature female protagonists who do not adhere to social norms and express \"contrary sexual feeling\", although neither participated in same-sex desire or sexual behavior.", "Havelock Ellis used literary examples from Balzac and several French poets and writers to develop his framework to identify sexual inversion in women.Gradually, women began to author their own thoughts and literary works about lesbian relationships.", "Until the publication of ''The Well of Loneliness'', most major works involving lesbianism were penned by men.", "Foster suggests that women would have encountered suspicion about their own lives had they used same-sex love as a topic, and that some writers including Louise Labé, Charlotte Charke, and Margaret Fuller either changed the pronouns in their literary works to male, or made them ambiguous.", "Author George Sand was portrayed as a character in several works in the 19th century; writer Mario Praz credited the popularity of lesbianism as a theme to Sand's appearance in Paris society in the 1830s.", "Charlotte Brontë's ''Villette'' in 1853 initiated a genre of boarding school stories with homoerotic themes.In the 20th century, Katherine Mansfield, Amy Lowell, Gertrude Stein, H.D., Vita Sackville-West, Virginia Woolf, and Gale Wilhelm wrote popular works that had same-sex relationships as themes.", "Some women, such as Marguerite Yourcenar and Mary Renault, wrote or translated works of fiction that focused on homosexual men, like some of the writings of Carson McCullers.", "All three were involved in same-sex relationships, but their primary friendships were with gay men.", "Foster further asserts 1928 was a \"peak year\" for lesbian-themed literature; in addition to ''The Well of Loneliness'', three other novels with lesbian themes were published in England: Elizabeth Bowen's ''The Hotel'', Woolf's ''Orlando'', and Compton Mackenzie's satirical novel ''Extraordinary Women''.", "Unlike ''The Well of Loneliness'', none of these novels were banned.As the paperback book came into fashion, lesbian themes were relegated to pulp fiction.", "Many of the pulp novels typically presented very unhappy women, or relationships that ended tragically.", "Marijane Meaker later wrote that she was told to make the relationship end badly in ''Spring Fire'' because the publishers were concerned about the books being confiscated by the U.S.", "Postal Service.", "Patricia Highsmith, writing as Claire Morgan, wrote ''The Price of Salt'' in 1951 and refused to follow this directive, but instead used a pseudonym.Following the Stonewall riots, lesbian themes in literature became much more diverse and complex, and shifted the focus of lesbianism from erotica for heterosexual men to works written by and for lesbians.", "Feminist magazines such as ''The Furies'', and ''Sinister Wisdom'' replaced ''The Ladder''.", "Serious writers who used lesbian characters and plots included Rita Mae Brown's ''Rubyfruit Jungle'' (1973), which presents a feminist heroine who chooses to be a lesbian.", "Poet Audre Lorde confronts homophobia and racism in her works, and Cherríe Moraga is credited with being primarily responsible for bringing Latina perspectives to lesbian literature.", "Further changing values are evident in the writings of Dorothy Allison, who focuses on child sexual abuse and deliberately provocative lesbian sadomasochism themes.===Film===Lesbianism, or the suggestion of it, began early in filmmaking.", "The same constructs of how lesbians were portrayed—or for what reasons—as what had appeared in literature were placed on women in the films.", "Women challenging their feminine roles was a device more easily accepted than men challenging masculine ones.", "Actresses appeared as men in male roles because of plot devices as early as 1914 in ''A Florida Enchantment'' featuring Edith Storey.", "In ''Morocco'' (1930) Marlene Dietrich kisses another woman on the lips, and Katharine Hepburn plays a man in ''Christopher Strong'' in 1933 and again in ''Sylvia Scarlett'' (1936).", "Hollywood films followed the same trend set by audiences who flocked to Harlem to see edgy shows that suggested bisexuality.Overt female homosexuality was introduced in 1929's ''Pandora's Box'' between Louise Brooks and Alice Roberts.", "After the Hays Code in 1930, most references to homosexuality in films were censored under the umbrella term \"sex perversion\".", "German films depicted homosexuality and were distributed throughout Europe, but 1931's ''Mädchen in Uniform'' was not distributed in the U.S. because of the depiction of an adolescent's love for a female teacher in boarding school.The Children's Hour'', but it is transparent why Shirley MacLaine's character hangs herself.|alt=Still shot from the film \"The Children's Hour\", showing Shirley MacLaine looking down at the left and Audrey Hepburn to her right staring at her, in a bedroom.", "The words \"Can an ugly rumor destroy what's beautiful?\"", "obscure much of MacLaine's face.Because of the Hays Code, lesbianism after 1930 was absent from most films, even those adapted with overt lesbian characters or plot devices.", "Lillian Hellman's play ''The Children's Hour'' was converted into a heterosexual love triangle and retitled ''These Three''.", "Biopic ''Queen Christina'' in 1933, starring Greta Garbo, veiled most of the speculation about Christina of Sweden's affairs with women.", "Homosexuality or lesbianism was never mentioned outright in the films while the Hays Code was enforced.", "The reason censors stated for removing a lesbian scene in 1954's ''The Pit of Loneliness'' was that it was, \"Immoral, would tend to corrupt morals\".", "The code was relaxed somewhat after 1961, and the next year William Wyler remade ''The Children's Hour'' with Audrey Hepburn and Shirley MacLaine.", "After MacLaine's character admits her love for Hepburn's, she hangs herself; this set a precedent for miserable endings in films addressing homosexuality.Gay characters also were often killed off at the end, such as the death of Sandy Dennis' character at the end of ''The Fox'' in 1968.If not victims, lesbians were depicted as villains or morally corrupt, such as portrayals of brothel madames by Barbara Stanwyck in ''Walk on the Wild Side'' from 1962 and Shelley Winters in ''The Balcony'' in 1963.Lesbians as predators were presented in ''Rebecca'' (1940), women's prison films like ''Caged'' (1950), or in the character Rosa Klebb in ''From Russia with Love'' (1963).", "Lesbian vampire themes have reappeared in ''Dracula's Daughter'' (1936), ''Blood and Roses'' (1960), ''Vampyros Lesbos'' (1971), and ''The Hunger'' (1983).", "''Basic Instinct'' (1992) featured a bisexual murderer played by Sharon Stone; it was one of several films that set off a storm of protests about the depiction of gay people as predators.The first film to address lesbianism with significant depth was ''The Killing of Sister George'' in 1968, which was filmed in The Gateways Club, a longstanding lesbian pub in London.", "It is the first to claim a film character who identifies as a lesbian, and film historian Vito Russo considers the film a complex treatment of a multifaceted character who is forced into silence about her openness by other lesbians.", "''Personal Best'' in 1982, and ''Lianna'' in 1983 treat the lesbian relationships more sympathetically and show lesbian sex scenes, though in neither film are the relationships happy ones.", "''Personal Best'' was criticized for engaging in the clichéd plot device of one woman returning to a relationship with a man, implying that lesbianism is a phase, as well as treating the lesbian relationship with \"undisguised voyeurism\".", "More ambiguous portrayals of lesbian characters were seen in ''Silkwood'' (1983), ''The Color Purple'' (1985), and ''Fried Green Tomatoes'' (1991), despite explicit lesbianism in the source material.An era of independent filmmaking brought different stories, writers, and directors to films.", "''Desert Hearts'' arrived in 1985, to be one of the most successful.", "Directed by lesbian Donna Deitch, it is loosely based on Jane Rule's novel ''Desert of the Heart''.", "It received mixed critical commentary, but earned positive reviews from the gay press.", "The late 1980s and early 1990s ushered in a series of films treating gay and lesbian issues seriously, made by gays and lesbians, nicknamed New Queer Cinema.", "Films using lesbians as a subject included Rose Troche's avant garde romantic comedy ''Go Fish'' (1994) and the first film about African American lesbians, Cheryl Dunye's ''The Watermelon Woman'', in 1995.Realism in films depicting lesbians developed further to include romance stories such as ''The Incredibly True Adventure of Two Girls in Love'' and ''When Night Is Falling'', both in 1995, ''Better Than Chocolate'' (1999), and the social satire ''But I'm a Cheerleader'' (also in 1999).", "A twist on the lesbian-as-predator theme was the added complexity of motivations of some lesbian characters in Peter Jackson's ''Heavenly Creatures'' (1994), the Oscar-winning biopic of Aileen Wuornos, ''Monster'' (2003), and the exploration of fluid sexuality and gender in ''Chasing Amy'' (1997), ''Kissing Jessica Stein'' (2001), and ''Boys Don't Cry'' (1999).", "The film ''V for Vendetta'' shows a dictatorship in future Britain that forces lesbians, homosexuals, and other \"unwanted\" people in society to be systematically slaughtered in Nazi concentration camps.", "In the film, a lesbian actress named Valerie, who was killed in such a manner, serves as inspiration for the masked rebel V and his ally Evey Hammond, who set out to overthrow the dictatorship.=== Theatre ===The first stage production to feature a lesbian kiss and open depiction of two women in love is the 1907 Yiddish play ''God of Vengeance'' (''Got fun nekome'') by Sholem Asch.", "Rivkele, a young woman, and Manke, a prostitute in her father's brothel, fall in love.", "On March 6, 1923, during a performance of the play in a New York City theatre, producers and cast were informed that they had been indicted by a Grand Jury for violating the Penal Code that defined the presentation of \"an obscene, indecent, immoral and impure theatrical production.\"", "They were arrested the following day when they appeared before a judge.", "Two months later, they were found guilty in a jury trial.", "The producers were fined $200 and the cast received suspended sentences.", "The play is considered by some to be \"the greatest drama of the Yiddish theater\".", "''God of Vengeance'' was the inspiration for the 2015 play ''Indecent'' by Paula Vogel, which features lesbian characters Rifkele and Manke.", "''Indecent'' was nominated for the 2017 Tony Award for Best Play and Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Play.Broadway musical ''The Prom'' featured lesbian characters Emma Nolan and Alyssa Greene.", "In 2019, the production was nominated for six Tony Awards, including Best Musical, and received the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Musical.", "A performance from ''The Prom'' was included in the 2018 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade and made history by showing the first same-sex kiss in the parade's broadcast.", "''Jagged Little Pill'' featured lesbian character Jo, who is dealing with her religious mother's disapproval.===Television===Television began to address homosexuality much later than film.", "Local talk shows in the late 1950s first addressed homosexuality by inviting panels of experts (usually not gay themselves) to discuss the problems of gay men in society.", "Lesbianism was rarely included.", "The first time a lesbian was portrayed on network television was the NBC drama ''The Eleventh Hour'' in the early 1960s, in a teleplay about an actress who feels she is persecuted by her female director, and in distress, calls a psychiatrist who explains she is a latent lesbian who has deep-rooted guilt about her feelings for women.", "When she realizes this, she is able to pursue heterosexual relationships, which are portrayed as \"healthy\".Invisibility for lesbians continued in the 1970s when homosexuality became the subject of dramatic portrayals, first with medical dramas (''The Bold Ones'', ''Marcus Welby, M.D.", "'', ''Medical Center'') featuring primarily male patients coming out to doctors, or staff members coming out to other staff members.", "These shows allowed homosexuality to be discussed clinically, with the main characters guiding troubled gay characters or correcting homophobic antagonists, while simultaneously comparing homosexuality to psychosis, criminal behavior, or drug use.Another stock plot device in the 1970s was the gay character in a police drama.", "They served as victims of blackmail or anti-gay violence, but more often as criminals.", "Beginning in the late 1960s with ''N.Y.P.D.", "'', ''Police Story'', and ''Police Woman'', the use of homosexuals in stories became much more prevalent, according to Vito Russo, as a response to their higher profiles in gay activism.", "Lesbians were included as villains, motivated to murder by their desires, internalized homophobia, or fear of being exposed as homosexual.", "One episode of ''Police Woman'' earned protests by the National Gay Task Force before it aired for portraying a trio of murderous lesbians who killed retirement home patients for their money.", "NBC edited the episode because of the protests, but a sit-in was staged in the head of NBC's offices.In the middle of the 1970s, gay men and lesbians began to appear as police officers or detectives facing coming out issues.", "This did not extend to CBS' groundbreaking show ''Cagney & Lacey'' in 1982, starring two female police detectives.", "CBS production made conscious attempts to soften the characters so they would not appear to be lesbians.", "In 1991, a bisexual lawyer portrayed by Amanda Donohoe on ''L.A.", "Law'' shared the first significant lesbian kiss on primetime television with Michele Greene, stirring a controversy despite being labeled \"chaste\" by ''The Hollywood Reporter''.alt=A photograph of Ellen DeGeneres with her 1997 Emmy Award.Though television did not begin to use recurring homosexual characters until the late 1980s, some early situation comedies used a stock character that author Stephen Tropiano calls \"gay-straight\": supporting characters who were quirky, did not comply with gender norms, or had ambiguous personal lives, that \"for all purposes ''should'' be gay\".", "These included Zelda from ''The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis'', Miss Hathaway from ''The Beverly Hillbillies'', and Jo from ''The Facts of Life''.", "In the mid-1980s through the 1990s, sitcoms frequently employed a \"coming out\" episode, where a friend of one of the stars admits she is a lesbian, forcing the cast to deal with the issue.", "''Designing Women'', ''The Golden Girls'', and ''Friends'' used this device with women in particular.Recurring lesbian characters who came out were seen on ''Married... with Children'', ''Mad About You'', and ''Roseanne'', in which a highly publicized episode had ABC executives afraid a televised kiss between Roseanne and Mariel Hemingway would destroy ratings and ruin advertising.", "The episode was instead the week's highest rated.", "By far the sitcom with the most significant impact to the image of lesbians was ''Ellen''.", "Publicity surrounding Ellen's coming out episode in 1997 was enormous; Ellen DeGeneres appeared on the cover of ''Time'' magazine the week before the airing of \"The Puppy Episode\" with the headline \"Yep, I'm Gay\".", "Parties were held in many U.S. cities to watch the episode, and the opposition from conservative organizations was intense.", "WBMA-LP, the ABC affiliate in Birmingham, Alabama, even refused to air the first run of the episode, citing conservative values of the local viewing audience, which earned the station some infamy and ire in the LGBT community.", "Even still, \"The Puppy Episode\" won an Emmy for writing, but as the show began to deal with Ellen Morgan's sexuality each week, network executives grew uncomfortable with the direction the show took and canceled it.Dramas following ''L.A.", "Law'' began incorporating homosexual themes, particularly with continuing storylines on ''Relativity'', ''Picket Fences'', ''ER'', and ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' and ''Deep Space Nine'', both of which tested the boundaries of sexuality and gender.", "A show directed at adolescents that had a particularly strong cult following was ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer''.", "In the fourth season of ''Buffy'', Tara and Willow admit their love for each other without any special fanfare and the relationship is treated as are the other romantic relationships on the show.What followed was a series devoted solely to gay characters from network television.", "Showtime's American rendition of ''Queer as Folk'' ran for five years, from 2000 to 2005; two of the main characters were a lesbian couple.", "Showtime promoted the series as \"No Limits\", and ''Queer as Folk'' addressed homosexuality graphically.", "The aggressive advertising paid off as the show became the network's highest rated, doubling the numbers of other Showtime programs after the first season.", "In 2004, Showtime introduced ''The L Word'', a dramatic series devoted to a group of lesbian and bisexual women, running its final season in 2009." ], [ "Chic and popular culture", "Vanity Fair'' that marked the arrival of lesbian chic as a social phenomenon in the 1990s.|alt=Cover of Vanity Fair magazine from August 1993 showing k.d.", "lang reclining in a barber chair with eyes closed and holding a compact mirror.", "She has shaving foam on her chin and is wearing an open-collar white shirt, black and white striped tie, dark color pinstripe vest and cuffed pants, and black lace boots.", "Supermodel Cindy Crawford is holding a straight razor to lang's chin while lang's head rests on her breast.", "Crawford is wearing a one-piece black bathing suit and high heel black boots, with head thrown back as her long hair cascades down her back.Lesbian visibility has improved since the early 1980s.", "This is in part due to public figures who have drawn speculation from the public and comment in the press about their sexuality and lesbianism in general.", "The primary figure earning this attention was Martina Navratilova, who served as tabloid fodder for years as she denied being lesbian, admitted to being bisexual, had very public relationships with Rita Mae Brown and Judy Nelson, and acquired as much press about her sexuality as she did her athletic achievements.", "Navratilova spurred what scholar Diane Hamer termed \"constant preoccupation\" in the press with determining the root of same-sex desire.Other public figures acknowledged their homosexuality and bisexuality, notably musicians k.d.", "lang and Melissa Etheridge, and Madonna's pushing of sexual boundaries in her performances and publications.", "In 1993, lang and self-professed heterosexual supermodel Cindy Crawford posed for the August cover of ''Vanity Fair'' in a provocative arrangement that showed Crawford shaving lang's face, as lang lounged in a barber's chair wearing a pinstripe suit.", "The image \"became an internationally recognized symbol of the phenomenon of lesbian chic\", according to Hamer.", "The year 1994 marked a rise in lesbian visibility, particularly appealing to women with feminine appearances.", "Between 1992 and 1994, ''Mademoiselle'', ''Vogue'', ''Cosmopolitan'', ''Glamour'', ''Newsweek'', and ''New York'' magazines featured stories about women who admitted sexual histories with other women.One analyst reasoned the recurrence of lesbian chic was due to the often-used homoerotic subtexts of gay male subculture being considered off-limits because of AIDS in the late 1980s and 1990s, joined with the distant memory of lesbians as they appeared in the 1970s: unattractive and militant.", "In short, lesbians became more attractive to general audiences when they ceased having political convictions.", "All the attention on feminine and glamorous women created what culture analyst Rodger Streitmatter characterizes as an unrealistic image of lesbians packaged by heterosexual men; the trend influenced an increase in the inclusion of lesbian material in pornography aimed at men.A resurgence of lesbian visibility and sexual fluidity was noted in 2009, with celebrities such as Cynthia Nixon and Lindsay Lohan commenting openly on their relationships with women, and reality television addressing same-sex relationships.", "Psychiatrists and feminist philosophers write that the rise in women acknowledging same-sex relationships is due to growing social acceptance, but also concede that \"only a certain kind of lesbian—slim and elegant or butch in just the right androgynous way—is acceptable to mainstream culture\"." ], [ "Family and politics", "Although homosexuality among females has taken place in many cultures in history, a recent phenomenon is the development of family among same-sex partners.", "Before the 1970s, the idea that same-sex adults formed long-term committed relationships was unknown to many people.", "The majority of lesbians (between 60% and 80%) report being in a long-term relationship.", "Sociologists credit the high number of paired women to gender role socialization: the inclination for women to commit to relationships doubles in a lesbian union.", "Unlike heterosexual relationships that tend to divide work based on sex roles, lesbian relationships divide chores evenly between both members.", "Studies have also reported that emotional bonds are closer in lesbian and gay relationships than heterosexual ones.Family issues were significant concerns for lesbians when gay activism became more vocal in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Custody issues in particular were of interest since often courts would not award custody to mothers who were openly homosexual, even though the general procedure acknowledged children were awarded to the biological mother.", "Several studies performed as a result of custody disputes viewed how children grow up with same-sex parents compared to single mothers who did not identify as lesbians.", "They found that children's mental health, happiness, and overall adjustment is similar to children of divorced women who are not lesbians.", "Sexual orientation, gender identity, and sex roles of children who grow up with lesbian mothers are unaffected.", "Differences that were found include the fact that divorced lesbians tend to be living with a partner, fathers visit divorced lesbian mothers more often than divorced nonlesbian mothers, and lesbian mothers report a greater fear of losing their children through legal means.Improving opportunities for growing families of same-sex couples has shaped the political landscape within the past ten years.", "A push for same-sex marriage or civil unions in western countries has replaced other political objectives.", ", ten countries and six U.S. states offer same-sex marriage; civil unions are offered as an option in some European countries, U.S. states and individual municipalities.", "The ability to adopt domestically or internationally children or provide a home as a foster parent is also a political and family priority for many lesbians, as is improving access to artificial insemination." ], [ "Lesbians of color", "Attendees at 2012 New York City Pride parade.Lesbians of color have often been a marginalized group, including Black, Latina, Asian, Arab, and other non-white lesbians; and experienced racism in addition to homophobia and misogyny.Some scholars have noted that in the past the predominant lesbian community was largely composed of white women and influenced by American culture, leading some lesbians of color to experience difficulties integrating into the community at large.", "Many lesbians of color have stated that they were often systematically excluded from lesbian spaces based on the fact that they are women of color.", "Additionally, these women face a unique set of challenges within their respective racial communities.", "Many feel abandoned, as communities of color often view homosexual identity as a \"white\" lifestyle and see the acceptance of homosexuality as a setback in achieving equality.Lesbians of color, especially those of immigrant populations, often hold the sentiment that their sexual orientation identity adversely affects assimilation into the dominant culture.", "Historically, women of color were often excluded from participating in lesbian and gay movements.", "Scholars have stated that this exclusion came as a result of the majority of whites dismissing the intersections of gender, race, and sexuality that are a core part of the lesbian of color identity.", "Lesbians that organized events were mostly white and middle-class, and largely focused their political movements on the issues of sexism and homophobia, rather than class or race issues.", "The early lesbian feminist movement was criticized for excluding race and class issues from their spaces and for a lack of focus on issues that did not benefit white women.", "Audre Lorde, Barbara Smith, and Cherrie Moraga are cited as major theorists within the various lesbians of color movements for their insistence on inclusion and equality, from both racial communities and white lesbian communities.The many intersections surrounding lesbians of color can often contribute to an increased need for mental health resources.", "Lesbians of color are more likely to experience a number of psychological issues due to the various experiences of sexism, racism, and homophobia as a part of their existence.", "Mental health providers, such as therapists, often use heteronormative standards to gauge the health of lesbian relationships, and the relationships of lesbian women of color are often subjects of judgment because they are seen as the most deviant.Within racial communities, the decision to come out can be costly, as the threat of loss of support from family, friends, and the community at large is probable.", "Lesbians of color are often exposed to a range of adverse consequences, including microaggression, discrimination, menace, and violence." ], [ "See also", "* Domestic violence in lesbian relationships* Dyke (slang)* Dyke March* History of lesbianism* History of lesbianism in the United States* Homosexual behavior in animals* Lesbian bar* Lesbian erasure* Lesbian literature* Lesbian science fiction* Lesbian Visibility Week* Lesbianism in erotica* Lesbophobia* Lipstick lesbian* List of lesbian periodicals* Women's music* Yuri (genre)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Parenthetical sources===* * * Barnes, Djuna.", "With an introduction by Susan Sniader Lanser.", "(1992).", "''Ladies Almanack'', New York University Press.", "* Berube, Allan (1990).", "''Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War II'', The Free Press.", "* * * * * * * * Foster, Jeannette H. (1956).", "''Sex Variant Women in Literature'', Naiad Press edition, 1985.", "* * Hamer, Diane, Budge, Belinda, eds.", "(1994).", "''The Good, The Bad, and the Gorgeous: Popular Culture's Romance with Lesbianism'', Pandora.", "* Hite, Shere (1976).", "''The Hite Report: A Nationwide Study on Female Sexuality '', MacMillan.", "* Holmes, King, Sparling, P., ''et al.", "'', eds.", "(2008).", "''Sexually Transmitted Diseases'', McGraw-Hill Medical.", "* Institute for Sex Research (Kinsey, ''et al.'')", "(1953).", "''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'', Saunders.", "* * * * * Mogrovejo, Norma (2004).", "\"Relevancia de las lesbianas en América Latina: la recuperación de nuestra historia\".", "In Drucker, Péter; Mercad, Enrique (in Spanish).", "''Arco iris diferentes''.", "Siglo XXI.", ".", "* * * * Rachid, María (2000).", "\"Encuentros de lesbianas\".", "In George Haggerty & Bonnie Zimmerman (Eds.", "), ''Encyclopedia of lesbian and gay histories and cultures''.", "Taylor & Francis.", "* * * * * * * * * * Verstraete, Beert; , Vernon (eds.)", "(2005).", "''Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity and In the Classical Tradition of the West'', Harrington Park Press.", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Books* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Journals* * ;Audio*" ], [ "External links", "* Bay Area Lesbian Archives (San Francisco/Oakland, California)* Eugene Lesbian Oral History Project collection at University of Oregon Libraries* June L. Mazer Lesbian Archives* Lesbian Archive at Glasgow Women's Library (Scotland)* Lesbian Herstory Archives* ''Lesbians in the Twentieth Century, 1900–1999'', Esther Newton, ''OutHistory'', 2008 (Lesbian History project, University of Michigan)* ''Lesbian'' at Curlie (DMOZ)* ''Lesbian Media''* ''Lesbians Over Everything''* ''Old Lesbian Oral Herstory Project'' (OLOHP)** ''Old Lesbian Oral Herstory Project'' collection at Smith College* Oral Herstorians Collection, Lesbian Feminist Activist Oral Herstory Project, ''Sinister Wisdom''* ''Dyke, A Quarterly'', published 1975–1979 (online annotated archive, live website)* Vintage Images, ''Isle of Lesbos'' (''Sappho.com'')* ''U.S.", "Homosexuality – Statistics & Facts'', Statista, 2017" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lambda" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lambda''' (" ], [ "Symbol", "===Upper-case letter Λ===Examples of the symbolic use of uppercase lambda include:* The lambda particle is a type of subatomic particle in subatomic particle physics.", "* Lambda is the set of logical axioms in the axiomatic method of logical deduction in first-order logic.", "* There is a poetical allusion to the use of Lambda as a shield blazon by the Spartans.", "* Lambda is the von Mangoldt function in mathematical number theory.", "* Lambda denotes the de Bruijn–Newman constant which is closely connected with Riemann's hypothesis.", "* In statistics, lambda is used for the likelihood ratio.", "* In statistics, Wilks's lambda is used in multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA analysis) to compare group means on a combination of dependent variables.", "* In the spectral decomposition of matrices, lambda indicates the diagonal matrix of the eigenvalues of the matrix.", "* In computer science, lambda is the time window over which a process is observed for determining the working memory set for a digital computer's virtual memory management.", "* In astrophysics, lambda represents the likelihood that a small body will encounter a planet or a dwarf planet leading to a deflection of a significant magnitude.", "An object with a large value of lambda is expected to have cleared its neighbourhood, satisfying the current definition of a planet.", "* In crystal optics, lambda is used to represent a lattice period.", "* In NATO military operations, a chevron (a heraldic symbol which looks like a capital letter lambda or inverted V) is painted on the vehicles of this military alliance for identification.", "* In electrochemistry, lambda denotes the \"equivalent conductance\" of an electrolyte solution.", "* In cosmology, lambda is the symbol for the cosmological constant, a term added to some dynamical equations to account for the accelerating expansion of the universe.", "* In optics, lambda denotes the grating pitch of a Bragg reflector.", "Also in optics, it denotes wavelength of light.", "* In politics, the lambda is the symbol of Identitarianism, a white nationalist movement that originated in France before spreading out to the rest of Europe and later on to North America, Australia and New Zealand.", "The Identitarian lambda represents the Battle of Thermopylae.===Lower-case letter λ===Lower-case lambdaExamples of the symbolic use of lowercase lambda include:* Lambda indicates the wavelength of any wave, especially in physics, electronic engineering, and mathematics.", "* In evolutionary algorithms, λ indicates the number of offspring that would be generated from μ current population in each generation.", "The terms μ and λ are originated from Evolution strategy notation.", "* Lambda indicates the radioactivity decay constant in nuclear physics and radioactivity.", "This constant is very simply related (by a multiplicative constant) to the half-life of any radioactive material.", "* In probability theory, lambda represents the density of occurrences within a time interval, as modelled by the Poisson distribution.", "* In mathematical logic and computer science, lambda is used to introduce anonymous functions expressed with the concepts of lambda calculus.", "* Lambda indicates an eigenvalue in the mathematics of linear algebra.", "* In the physics of particles, lambda indicates the thermal de Broglie wavelength* In the physics of electric fields, lambda sometimes indicates the linear charge density of a uniform line of electric charge (measured in coulombs per meter).", "* Lambda denotes a Lagrange multiplier in multi-dimensional calculus.", "* In solid-state electronics, lambda indicates the channel length modulation parameter of a MOSFET.", "* In ecology, lambda denotes the long-term intrinsic growth rate of a population.", "This value is often calculated as the dominant eigenvalue of the age/size class matrix.", "* In formal language theory and in computer science, lambda denotes the empty string.", "* Lambda is a nonstandard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet for the voiced alveolar lateral affricate .", "* Lambda denotes the Lebesgue measure in mathematical set theory.", "* The Goodman and Kruskal's lambda in statistics indicates the proportional reduction in error when one variable's values are used to predict the values of another variable.", "* Lambda denotes the oxygen sensor in a vehicle that measures the air-to-fuel ratio in the exhaust gases of an internal-combustion engine.", "* A Lambda 4S solid-fuel rocket was used to launch Japan's first orbital satellite in 1970.", "* Lambda denotes the failure rate of devices and systems in reliability theory, and it is measured in failure events per hour.", "Numerically, this lambda is also the reciprocal of the mean time between failures.", "* In criminology, lambda denotes an individual's frequency of offences.", "* In electrochemistry, lambda also denotes the ionic conductance of a given ion (the composition of the ion is generally shown as a subscript to the lambda character).", "* In neurobiology, lambda denotes the length constant (or exponential rate of decay) of the electric potential across the cell membrane along a length of a nerve cell's axon.", "* In the science and technology of heat transfer, lambda denotes the heat of vaporization per mole of material (a.k.a.", "its \"latent heat\").", "* In the technology and science of celestial navigation, lambda denotes the longitude as opposed to the Roman letter \"L\", which denotes the latitude.", "* A block style lambda is used as a recurring symbol in the Valve computer game series ''Half-Life'', referring to the Lambda Complex of the fictional Black Mesa Research Facility, as well as making appearances in the sequel ''Half-Life 2'', and its subsequent prequel ''Half-Life: Alyx'' as an in universe symbol of resistance.", "* In 1970, a lowercase lambda was chosen by Tom Doerr as the symbol of the New York chapter of the Gay Activists Alliance.", "The lambda symbol became associated with Gay Liberation and recognized as an LGBT symbol for some time afterwards, being used as such by the International Gay Rights Congress in Edinburgh.===Litra symbol===The Roman and Byzantine (), which served as both the pound mass unit and liter volume unit, were abbreviated in Greek using lambda with modified forms of the iota subscript ⟨λͅ⟩.", "These are variously encoded in Unicode.", "The Ancient Greek Numbers Unicode block includes 10183 (𐆃) as well as 𐅢, which is described as 10162 but was much more common as a form of the litra sign.", "A variant of the sign can be formed from 0338 and either 039B (Λ̸) or 03BB (λ̸)." ], [ "Character encodings", "Unicode uses the (Modern Greek-based) spelling \"lamda\" in character names, instead of \"lambda\", due to \"the pre-existing names in ISO 8859-7, as well as preferences expressed by the Greek National Body\".", "* Greek Lambda / Coptic Laula* Mathematical LambdaThese characters are used only as mathematical symbols.", "Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style." ], [ "See also", "* Barred lambda - ƛ* El (Cyrillic) – Л, л* Fraser alphabet#Consonants* Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lore" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lore''' may refer to:* Folklore, acquired knowledge or traditional beliefs* Oral lore or oral tradition, orally conveyed cultural knowledge and traditions" ], [ "Places", "* Loré, former French commune* Loré (East Timor), a city and subdistrict in Lautém District* Lore City, Ohio" ], [ "Arts and media", "* Lore (''Star Trek''), a fictional android* ''Lore'' (film), a 2012 Australian-German film* ''Lore'' (podcast)** ''Lore'' (TV series), based on the podcast* ''Lore'' (Clannad album)* ''Lore'' (Today I Caught the Plague album)* ''Lore'', a 2021 novel by Alexandra Bracken" ], [ "Other uses", "* Lore (name), a list of people with the given name and surname* Lore (anatomy), the region between the eyes and nostrils of birds, reptiles, and amphibians" ], [ "See also", "* Lores (disambiguation)* Loure (disambiguation)* Canon (fiction), the material accepted as officially part of a story" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lamiaceae" ], [ "Introduction", "''Lamium purpureum'', showing the bilaterally symmetrical flower''Tetradenia riparia''The '''Lamiaceae''' ( )or '''Labiatae''' are a family of flowering plants commonly known as the '''mint''', '''deadnettle''' or '''sage''' family.", "Many of the plants are aromatic in all parts and include widely used culinary herbs like basil, mint, rosemary, sage, savory, marjoram, oregano, hyssop, thyme, lavender, and perilla, as well as other medicinal herbs such as catnip, salvia, bee balm, wild dagga, and oriental motherwort.", "Some species are shrubs, trees (such as teak), or, rarely, vines.", "Many members of the family are widely cultivated, not only for their aromatic qualities, but also their ease of cultivation, since they are readily propagated by stem cuttings.", "Besides those grown for their edible leaves, some are grown for decorative foliage.", "Others are grown for seed, such as ''Salvia hispanica'' (chia), or for their edible tubers, such as ''Plectranthus edulis'', ''Plectranthus esculentus'', ''Plectranthus rotundifolius'', and ''Stachys affinis'' (Chinese artichoke).", "Many are also grown ornamentally, notably coleus, ''Plectranthus'', and many ''Salvia'' species and hybrids.The family has a cosmopolitan distribution.", "The enlarged Lamiaceae contain about 236 genera and have been stated to contain 6,900 to 7,200 species, but the World Checklist lists 7,534.The largest genera are ''Salvia'' (900), ''Scutellaria'' (360), ''Stachys'' (300), ''Plectranthus'' (300), ''Hyptis'' (280), ''Teucrium'' (250), ''Vitex'' (250), ''Thymus'' (220), and ''Nepeta'' (200).", "''Clerodendrum'' was once a genus of over 400 species, but by 2010, it had been narrowed to about 150.The family has traditionally been considered closely related to the Verbenaceae; in the 1990s, phylogenetic studies suggested that many genera classified in the Verbenaceae should be classified in the Lamiaceae or to other families in the order Lamiales.", "''Salvia jurisicii''The alternative family name Labiatae refers to the flowers typically having petals fused into an upper lip and a lower lip ('''' in Latin).", "The flowers are bilaterally symmetrical with five united petals and five united sepals.", "They are usually bisexual and verticillastrate (a flower cluster that looks like a whorl of flowers, but actually consists of two crowded clusters).", "Although this is still considered an acceptable alternative name, most botanists now use the name Lamiaceae in referring to this family.", "The leaves emerge oppositely, each pair at right angles to the previous one (decussate) or whorled.", "The stems are frequently square in cross section, but this is not found in all members of the family, and is sometimes found in other plant families." ], [ "Genera", "''Leucas aspera'' in Hyderabad, India''Orthosiphon thymiflorus'' flowerOregano''Plectranthus ecklonii''The last revision of the entire family was published in 2004.It described and provided keys to 236 genera.", "These are marked with an asterisk (*) in the list below.", "A few genera have been established or resurrected since 2004.These are marked with a plus sign (+).", "Other genera have been synonymised.", "These are marked with a minus sign (-).", "The remaining genera in the list are mostly of historical interest only and are from a source that includes such genera without explanation.", "Few of these are recognized in modern treatments of the family.Kew Gardens provides a list of genera that includes additional information.", "A list at the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website is frequently updated." ], [ "Recent changes", "The circumscription of several genera has changed since 2004.", "''Tsoongia'', ''Paravitex'', and ''Viticipremna'' have been sunk into synonymy with ''Vitex''.", "''Huxleya'' has been sunk into ''Volkameria''.", "''Kalaharia'', ''Volkameria'', ''Ovieda'', and ''Tetraclea'' have been segregated from a formerly polyphyletic ''Clerodendrum''.", "''Rydingia'' has been separated from ''Leucas''.", "The remaining ''Leucas'' is paraphyletic over four other genera." ], [ "Subfamilies and tribes", "In 2004, the Lamiaceae were divided into seven subfamilies, plus 10 genera not placed in any of the subfamilies.", "The unplaced genera are: ''Tectona'', ''Callicarpa'', ''Hymenopyramis'', ''Petraeovitex'', ''Peronema'', ''Garrettia'', ''Cymaria'', ''Acrymia'', ''Holocheila'', and ''Ombrocharis''.", "The subfamilies are the Symphorematoideae, Viticoideae, Ajugoideae, Prostantheroideae, Nepetoideae, Scutellarioideae, and Lamioideae.", "The subfamily Viticoideae is probably not monophyletic.", "The Prostantheroideae and Nepetoideae are divided into tribes.", "These are shown in the phylogenetic tree below." ], [ "Phylogeny", "Most of the genera of Lamiaceae have never been sampled for DNA for molecular phylogenetic studies.", "Most of those that have been are included in the following phylogenetic tree.", "The phylogeny depicted below is based on seven different sources." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*** Lamiaceae in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards).", "The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.", "https://delta-intkey.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Wide shot" ], [ "Introduction", "1963 film ''Cleopatra'' gives an expansive view of the set.In photography, filmmaking and video production, a '''wide shot''' (sometimes referred to as a '''full shot''' or '''long shot''') is a shot that typically shows the entire object or human figure and is usually intended to place it in some relation to its surroundings.", "These are typically shot now using wide-angle lenses (an approximately 25 mm lens in 35 mm photography and 10 mm lens in 16 mm photography).", "However, due to sheer distance, establishing shots and extremely wide shots can use almost any camera type." ], [ "History", "Sallie Gardner at a Gallop''This type of filmmaking was a result of filmmakers trying to retain the sense of the viewer watching a play in front of them, as opposed to just a series of pictures.The wide shot has been used since films have been made as it is a very basic type of cinematography.", "In 1878, one of the first true motion pictures, ''Sallie Gardner at a Gallop'', was released.", "Even though this wouldn't be considered a film in the current motion picture industry, it was a huge step towards complete motion pictures.", "It is arguable that it is very basic but it still remains that it was displayed as a wide angle as both the rider and horse are fully visible in the frame.In the 1880s, celluloid photographic film and motion picture cameras became available so more motion pictures could be created in the form of Kinetoscope or through projectors.", "These early films also maintained a wide angle layout as it was the best way to keep everything visible for the viewer.", "Once motion pictures became more available in the 1890s, there were public screenings of many different films only being around a minute long, or even less.", "These films again adhered to the wide shot style.", "One of the first competitive filming techniques came in the form of the close-up, as George Albert Smith incorporated them into his film ''Hove''.", "Though unconfirmed as the first usage of this method, it is one of the earliest recorded examples.", "Once the introduction of new framing techniques were introduced, more and more styles were developed and used for the benefits they could provide that wide shots couldn't.In the early 1900s, motion pictures evolved from short, minute long, screenings to becoming full-length motion pictures.", "More and more cinematic techniques appeared, resulting in the wide shot being less commonly used.", "However, it still remained as it is almost irreplaceable in what it can achieve.", "When television entered the home in the 1960s, it was seen as a massive hit to the cinema industry and many saw it as the decline in cinema popularity.", "This in turn resulted in films having to stay ahead of television by incorporating superior quality than that of a television.", "This was done by adding color, but importantly it implemented the use of widescreen.", "This would allow a massive increase in space usable by the director, thus allowing an even wider shot for the viewer to witness more of any given shot.Modern films will now frequently use the different types of wide shots as they are a staple in filmmaking and are almost impossible to avoid unless deliberately chosen to.", "In the current climate of films, the technical quality of any given shot will appear with much better clarity which has given life to some incredible shots from modern cinema.", "Also, given the quality of modern home entertainment mediums such as Blu-ray, 3D and Ultra HD Blu Rays, this has allowed the scope and size of any given frame to encompass more of the scene and environment in greater detail." ], [ "Types", "There are a variety of ways of framing that are considered as being wide shots; these include:;Wide shot (WS): The subject comfortably takes up the whole frame.", "In the case of a person, head to toe.", "This usually achieves a clear physical representation of a character and can describe the surroundings as it is usually visible within the frame.", "This results in the audience having a desired (by the director) view/opinion of the character or location.", ";Very wide shot (VWS): The subject is only just visible in the location.", "This can find a balance between a \"wide shot\" and an \"extreme wide shot\" by keeping an emphasis on both the characters and the environment, almost finding a harmony between the two of them.", "This enables the ability to use the benefits of both types, by allowing the scale of the environment but also maintaining an element of focus on the character(s) or object(s) in frame.", ";Extreme wide shot (EWS): The shot is so far away from the subject that they are no longer visible.", "This is used to create a sense of a character being lost or almost engulfed by the sheer size of their surroundings.", "This can result in a character being made small or insignificant due to their situation and/or surroundings.", ";Establishing shot (ES): A shot typically used to display a location and is usually the first shot in a new scene.", "These establish the setting of a film, whether that is the physical location or the time period.", "Mainly it gives a sense of place to the film and brings the viewer to wherever the story requires them to be.", ";Master shot (MS): This shot can be commonly mistaken for an establishing shot as it displays key characters and locations.", "However, it is actually a shot in which all relevant characters are in frame (usually for the whole duration of the scene), with inter-cut shots of other characters to shift focus.", "This is a very useful method for retaining audience focus as most shots in this style refrain from using cuts and therefore will keep the performances and the dialogue in the forefront of what is going on for the duration of the scene." ], [ "Notable examples", "Many directors are known for their use of the variety of wide shots.", "A key example of them is the frequent use of establishing shots and very wide shots in Peter Jackson's ''The Lord of the Rings'' trilogy, showing the vast New Zealand landscape to instil awe in the audience.In the 1993 film ''Schindler's List'', there is a running image of a small girl trapped within a concentration camp wearing a red coat (the only colour in the film).", "She is frequently pictured in a wide shot format as a way to display both her and the horrific surroundings to build a disturbing contrast.In the 1939 film ''The Wizard of Oz'', a very wide shot is used that keeps all the protagonists on screen with the Wizard's palace in clear view.", "''The Wizard of Oz'' was also one of the first mainstream motion pictures to include colour.The 1962 ''Lawrence of Arabia'' contains an enormous number of extreme wide shots which successfully induced the feeling of scale of the lead in his surrounding and aesthetically dwarfed him due to his surroundings making him seem more vulnerable and weak.The 1981 film ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'' contains the use of a wide shot to show the dangerous scale of a boulder that is chasing the protagonist.The 2008 film ''The Dark Knight'' featured a practical stunt in which a large truck and trailer are flipped nose first.", "This is shot very far back to give the shot more clarity and to see the flip through its entirety as opposed to cutting midway through.In the 2015 Ridley Scott film ''The Martian'', the protagonist Mark Watney is stranded on Mars and the film contains many wide shots.", "These are used to show the Martian landscape and give the character the sense of isolation that the film would want." ], [ "See also", "*Camera operator*Cinematographer*Film director*Long take*Video production*Videography" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Further shots and their descriptions* Images from various films – many of which are wide shots" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Logarithm" ], [ "Introduction", "Plots of logarithm functions, with three commonly used bases.", "The special points are indicated by dotted lines, and all curves intersect in .In mathematics, the '''logarithm''' is the inverse function to exponentiation.", "That means that the logarithm of a number  to the '''base'''  is the exponent to which must be raised to produce .", "For example, since , the ''logarithm base'' 10 of is , or .", "The logarithm of to ''base''  is denoted as , or without parentheses, , or even without the explicit base, , when no confusion is possible, or when the base does not matter such as in big O notation.The logarithm base is called the ''decimal'' or ''common'' logarithm and is commonly used in science and engineering.", "The ''natural'' logarithm has the number  as its base; its use is widespread in mathematics and physics, because of its very simple derivative.", "The ''binary'' logarithm uses base and is frequently used in computer science.Logarithms were introduced by John Napier in 1614 as a means of simplifying calculations.", "They were rapidly adopted by navigators, scientists, engineers, surveyors and others to perform high-accuracy computations more easily.", "Using logarithm tables, tedious multi-digit multiplication steps can be replaced by table look-ups and simpler addition.", "This is possible because the logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the factors:provided that , and are all positive and .", "The slide rule, also based on logarithms, allows quick calculations without tables, but at lower precision.", "The present-day notion of logarithms comes from Leonhard Euler, who connected them to the exponential function in the 18th century, and who also introduced the letter as the base of natural logarithms.Logarithmic scales reduce wide-ranging quantities to smaller scopes.", "For example, the decibel (dB) is a unit used to express ratio as logarithms, mostly for signal power and amplitude (of which sound pressure is a common example).", "In chemistry, pH is a logarithmic measure for the acidity of an aqueous solution.", "Logarithms are commonplace in scientific formulae, and in measurements of the complexity of algorithms and of geometric objects called fractals.", "They help to describe frequency ratios of musical intervals, appear in formulas counting prime numbers or approximating factorials, inform some models in psychophysics, and can aid in forensic accounting.The concept of logarithm as the inverse of exponentiation extends to other mathematical structures as well.", "However, in general settings, the logarithm tends to be a multi-valued function.", "For example, the complex logarithm is the multi-valued inverse of the complex exponential function.", "Similarly, the discrete logarithm is the multi-valued inverse of the exponential function in finite groups; it has uses in public-key cryptography." ], [ "Motivation", "graph of the logarithm base 2 crosses the ''x''-axis at and passes through the points , , and , depicting, e.g., and .", "The graph gets arbitrarily close to the -axis, but does not meet it.Addition, multiplication, and exponentiation are three of the most fundamental arithmetic operations.", "The inverse of addition is subtraction, and the inverse of multiplication is division.", "Similarly, a logarithm is the inverse operation of exponentiation.", "Exponentiation is when a number , the ''base'', is raised to a certain power , the ''exponent'', to give a value ; this is denotedFor example, raising to the power of gives : The logarithm of base is the inverse operation, that provides the output from the input .", "That is, is equivalent to if is a positive real number.", "(If is not a positive real number, both exponentiation and logarithm can be defined but may take several values, which makes definitions much more complicated.", ")One of the main historical motivations of introducing logarithms is the formula by which tables of logarithms allow multiplication and division to be reduced to addition and subtraction, a great aid to calculations before the invention of computers." ], [ "Definition", "Given a positive real number such that , the ''logarithm'' of a positive real number with respect to base  is the exponent by which must be raised to yield .", "In other words, the logarithm of to base  is the unique real number  such that .The logarithm is denoted \"\" (pronounced as \"the logarithm of to base \", \"the logarithm of \", or most commonly \"the log, base , of \").An equivalent and more succinct definition is that the function is the inverse function to the function .===Examples===* , since .", "* Logarithms can also be negative: since * is approximately 2.176, which lies between 2 and 3, just as 150 lies between and .", "* For any base , and , since and , respectively." ], [ "Logarithmic identities", "Several important formulas, sometimes called ''logarithmic identities'' or ''logarithmic laws'', relate logarithms to one another.===Product, quotient, power, and root===The logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the numbers being multiplied; the logarithm of the ratio of two numbers is the difference of the logarithms.", "The logarithm of the -th power of a number is '' ''times the logarithm of the number itself; the logarithm of a -th root is the logarithm of the number divided by .", "The following table lists these identities with examples.", "Each of the identities can be derived after substitution of the logarithm definitions or in the left hand sides.", "Formula Example Product Quotient Power Root ===Change of base===The logarithm can be computed from the logarithms of and with respect to an arbitrary base  using the following formula:Typical scientific calculators calculate the logarithms to bases 10 and .", "Logarithms with respect to any base  can be determined using either of these two logarithms by the previous formula:Given a number and its logarithm to an unknown base , the base is given by:which can be seen from taking the defining equation to the power of" ], [ "Particular bases", "Plots of logarithm for bases 0.5, 2, and Among all choices for the base, three are particularly common.", "These are , (the irrational mathematical constant ≈ 2.71828), and (the binary logarithm).", "In mathematical analysis, the logarithm base is widespread because of analytical properties explained below.", "On the other hand, logarithms (the common logarithm) are easy to use for manual calculations in the decimal number system:Thus, is related to the number of decimal digits of a positive integer : the number of digits is the smallest integer strictly bigger than .", "For example, is approximately 3.15.The next integer is 4, which is the number of digits of 1430.Both the natural logarithm and the binary logarithm are used in information theory, corresponding to the use of nats or bits as the fundamental units of information, respectively.", "Binary logarithms are also used in computer science, where the binary system is ubiquitous; in music theory, where a pitch ratio of two (the octave) is ubiquitous and the number of cents between any two pitches is the binary logarithm, times 1200, of their ratio (that is, 100 cents per equal-temperament semitone); and in photography to measure exposure values, light levels, exposure times, apertures, and film speeds in \"stops\".Many disciplines write as an abbreviation for when the intended base can be inferred based on the context or discipline (or when the base is indeterminate or immaterial).", "In computer science, usually refers to , and in mathematics usually refers to .", "In other contexts, often means .", "The following table lists common notations for logarithms to these bases and the fields where they are used.", "The \"ISO notation\" column lists designations suggested by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 80000-2).Base Name for log''b'' ''x''ISO notationOther notationsUsed in2 binary logarithm , , , computer science, information theory, bioinformatics, music theory, photography natural logarithm (in mathematics and many programming languages), mathematics, physics, chemistry,statistics, economics, information theory, and engineering10 common logarithm , (in engineering, biology, astronomy) various engineering fields (see decibel and see below), logarithm tables, handheld calculators, spectroscopy logarithm to base mathematics" ], [ "History", "The history of logarithms in seventeenth-century Europe saw the discovery of a new function that extended the realm of analysis beyond the scope of algebraic methods.", "The method of logarithms was publicly propounded by John Napier in 1614, in a book titled ''Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio'' (''Description of the Wonderful Canon of Logarithms'').", "Prior to Napier's invention, there had been other techniques of similar scopes, such as the prosthaphaeresis or the use of tables of progressions, extensively developed by Jost Bürgi around 1600.Napier coined the term for logarithm in Middle Latin, \"logarithmus,\" derived from the Greek, literally meaning, \"ratio-number,\" from ''logos'' \"proportion, ratio, word\" + ''arithmos'' \"number\".The common logarithm of a number is the index of that power of ten which equals the number.", "Speaking of a number as requiring so many figures is a rough allusion to common logarithm, and was referred to by Archimedes as the \"order of a number\".", "The first real logarithms were heuristic methods to turn multiplication into addition, thus facilitating rapid computation.", "Some of these methods used tables derived from trigonometric identities.", "Such methods are called prosthaphaeresis.Invention of the function now known as the natural logarithm began as an attempt to perform a quadrature of a rectangular hyperbola by Grégoire de Saint-Vincent, a Belgian Jesuit residing in Prague.", "Archimedes had written ''The Quadrature of the Parabola'' in the third century BC, but a quadrature for the hyperbola eluded all efforts until Saint-Vincent published his results in 1647.The relation that the logarithm provides between a geometric progression in its argument and an arithmetic progression of values, prompted A.", "A. de Sarasa to make the connection of Saint-Vincent's quadrature and the tradition of logarithms in prosthaphaeresis, leading to the term \"hyperbolic logarithm\", a synonym for natural logarithm.", "Soon the new function was appreciated by Christiaan Huygens, and James Gregory.", "The notation Log y was adopted by Leibniz in 1675, and the next year he connected it to the integral Before Euler developed his modern conception of complex natural logarithms, Roger Cotes had a nearly equivalent result when he showed in 1714 that" ], [ "Logarithm tables, slide rules, and historical applications{{anchor|Antilogarithm}}", "The 1797 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' explanation of logarithmsBy simplifying difficult calculations before calculators and computers became available, logarithms contributed to the advance of science, especially astronomy.", "They were critical to advances in surveying, celestial navigation, and other domains.", "Pierre-Simon Laplace called logarithms::\"...an admirable artifice which, by reducing to a few days the labour of many months, doubles the life of the astronomer, and spares him the errors and disgust inseparable from long calculations.", "\"As the function is the inverse function of , it has been called an '''antilogarithm'''.", "Nowadays, this function is more commonly called an exponential function.", "===Log tables===A key tool that enabled the practical use of logarithms was the ''table of logarithms''.", "The first such table was compiled by Henry Briggs in 1617, immediately after Napier's invention but with the innovation of using 10 as the base.", "Briggs' first table contained the common logarithms of all integers in the range from 1 to 1000, with a precision of 14 digits.", "Subsequently, tables with increasing scope were written.", "These tables listed the values of for any number  in a certain range, at a certain precision.", "Base-10 logarithms were universally used for computation, hence the name common logarithm, since numbers that differ by factors of 10 have logarithms that differ by integers.", "The common logarithm of can be separated into an integer part and a fractional part, known as the characteristic and mantissa.", "Tables of logarithms need only include the mantissa, as the characteristic can be easily determined by counting digits from the decimal point.", "The characteristic of is one plus the characteristic of , and their mantissas are the same.", "Thus using a three-digit log table, the logarithm of 3542 is approximated byGreater accuracy can be obtained by interpolation:The value of can be determined by reverse look up in the same table, since the logarithm is a monotonic function.===Computations===The product and quotient of two positive numbers and '''' were routinely calculated as the sum and difference of their logarithms.", "The product  or quotient  came from looking up the antilogarithm of the sum or difference, via the same table:andFor manual calculations that demand any appreciable precision, performing the lookups of the two logarithms, calculating their sum or difference, and looking up the antilogarithm is much faster than performing the multiplication by earlier methods such as prosthaphaeresis, which relies on trigonometric identities.Calculations of powers and roots are reduced to multiplications or divisions and lookups byandTrigonometric calculations were facilitated by tables that contained the common logarithms of trigonometric functions.===Slide rules===Another critical application was the slide rule, a pair of logarithmically divided scales used for calculation.", "The non-sliding logarithmic scale, Gunter's rule, was invented shortly after Napier's invention.", "William Oughtred enhanced it to create the slide rule—a pair of logarithmic scales movable with respect to each other.", "Numbers are placed on sliding scales at distances proportional to the differences between their logarithms.", "Sliding the upper scale appropriately amounts to mechanically adding logarithms, as illustrated here:alt=A slide rule: two rectangles with logarithmically ticked axes, arrangement to add the distance from 1 to 2 to the distance from 1 to 3, indicating the product 6.For example, adding the distance from 1 to 2 on the lower scale to the distance from 1 to 3 on the upper scale yields a product of 6, which is read off at the lower part.", "The slide rule was an essential calculating tool for engineers and scientists until the 1970s, because it allows, at the expense of precision, much faster computation than techniques based on tables." ], [ "Analytic properties", "A deeper study of logarithms requires the concept of a ''function''.", "A function is a rule that, given one number, produces another number.", "An example is the function producing the -th power of from any real number , where the base  is a fixed number.", "This function is written as .", "When is positive and unequal to 1, we show below that is invertible when considered as a function from the reals to the positive reals.===Existence===Let be a positive real number not equal to 1 and let .It is a standard result in real analysis that any continuous strictly monotonic function is bijective between its domain and range.", "This fact follows from the intermediate value theorem.", "Now, is strictly increasing (for ), or strictly decreasing (for ), is continuous, has domain , and has range .", "Therefore, is a bijection from to .", "In other words, for each positive real number , there is exactly one real number such that .We let denote the inverse of .", "That is, is the unique real number such that .", "This function is called the base- ''logarithm function'' or ''logarithmic function'' (or just ''logarithm'').=== Characterization by the product formula ===The function can also be essentially characterized by the product formulaMore precisely, the logarithm to any base is the only increasing function ''f'' from the positive reals to the reals satisfying and===Graph of the logarithm function===reflecting the graph of the function (red) at the diagonal line ().|alt=The graphs of two functions.As discussed above, the function is the inverse to the exponential function .", "Therefore, their graphs correspond to each other upon exchanging the - and the -coordinates (or upon reflection at the diagonal line ), as shown at the right: a point on the graph of yields a point on the graph of the logarithm and vice versa.", "As a consequence, diverges to infinity (gets bigger than any given number) if grows to infinity, provided that is greater than one.", "In that case, is an increasing function.", "For , tends to minus infinity instead.", "When approaches zero, goes to minus infinity for (plus infinity for , respectively).===Derivative and antiderivative===The graph of the alt=A graph of the logarithm function and a line touching it in one point.Analytic properties of functions pass to their inverses.", "Thus, as is a continuous and differentiable function, so is .", "Roughly, a continuous function is differentiable if its graph has no sharp \"corners\".", "Moreover, as the derivative of evaluates to by the properties of the exponential function, the chain rule implies that the derivative of is given byThat is, the slope of the tangent touching the graph of the logarithm at the point equals .The derivative of is ; this implies that is the unique antiderivative of that has the value 0 for .", "It is this very simple formula that motivated to qualify as \"natural\" the natural logarithm; this is also one of the main reasons of the importance of the constant .The derivative with a generalized functional argument isThe quotient at the right hand side is called the logarithmic derivative of ''''.", "Computing by means of the derivative of is known as logarithmic differentiation.", "The antiderivative of the natural logarithm is:Related formulas, such as antiderivatives of logarithms to other bases can be derived from this equation using the change of bases.===Integral representation of the natural logarithm===The alt=A hyperbola with part of the area underneath shaded in grey.The natural logarithm of can be defined as the definite integral:This definition has the advantage that it does not rely on the exponential function or any trigonometric functions; the definition is in terms of an integral of a simple reciprocal.", "As an integral, equals the area between the -axis and the graph of the function , ranging from to .", "This is a consequence of the fundamental theorem of calculus and the fact that the derivative of is .", "Product and power logarithm formulas can be derived from this definition.", "For example, the product formula is deduced as:The equality (1) splits the integral into two parts, while the equality (2) is a change of variable ().", "In the illustration below, the splitting corresponds to dividing the area into the yellow and blue parts.", "Rescaling the left hand blue area vertically by the factor  and shrinking it by the same factor horizontally does not change its size.", "Moving it appropriately, the area fits the graph of the function again.", "Therefore, the left hand blue area, which is the integral of from to is the same as the integral from 1 to .", "This justifies the equality (2) with a more geometric proof.alt=The hyperbola depicted twice.", "The area underneath is split into different parts.The power formula may be derived in a similar way:The second equality uses a change of variables (integration by substitution), .The sum over the reciprocals of natural numbers,is called the harmonic series.", "It is closely tied to the natural logarithm: as tends to infinity, the difference,converges (i.e.", "gets arbitrarily close) to a number known as the Euler–Mascheroni constant .", "This relation aids in analyzing the performance of algorithms such as quicksort.===Transcendence of the logarithm===Real numbers that are not algebraic are called transcendental; for example, and ''e'' are such numbers, but is not.", "Almost all real numbers are transcendental.", "The logarithm is an example of a transcendental function.", "The Gelfond–Schneider theorem asserts that logarithms usually take transcendental, i.e.", "\"difficult\" values." ], [ "Calculation", "TI-83 Plus graphing calculatorLogarithms are easy to compute in some cases, such as .", "In general, logarithms can be calculated using power series or the arithmetic–geometric mean, or be retrieved from a precalculated logarithm table that provides a fixed precision.", "Newton's method, an iterative method to solve equations approximately, can also be used to calculate the logarithm, because its inverse function, the exponential function, can be computed efficiently.", "Using look-up tables, CORDIC-like methods can be used to compute logarithms by using only the operations of addition and bit shifts.", "Moreover, the binary logarithm algorithm calculates recursively, based on repeated squarings of , taking advantage of the relation===Power series=======Taylor series====alt=An animation showing increasingly good approximations of the logarithm graph.For any real number that satisfies , the following formula holds:Equating the function to this infinite sum (series) is shorthand for saying that the function can be approximated to a more and more accurate value by the following expressions (known as partial sums):For example, with the third approximation yields , which is about greater than , and the ninth approximation yields , which is only about greater.", "The th partial sum can approximate with arbitrary precision, provided the number of summands is large enough.In elementary calculus, the series is said to converge to the function , and the function is the limit of the series.", "It is the Taylor series of the natural logarithm at .", "The Taylor series of provides a particularly useful approximation to when is small, , since thenFor example, with the first-order approximation gives , which is less than off the correct value .====Inverse hyperbolic tangent====Another series is based on the inverse hyperbolic tangent function:for any real number .", "Using sigma notation, this is also written asThis series can be derived from the above Taylor series.", "It converges quicker than the Taylor series, especially if is close to 1.For example, for , the first three terms of the second series approximate with an error of about .", "The quick convergence for close to 1 can be taken advantage of in the following way: given a low-accuracy approximation and puttingthe logarithm of is:The better the initial approximation is, the closer is to 1, so its logarithm can be calculated efficiently.", "can be calculated using the exponential series, which converges quickly provided is not too large.", "Calculating the logarithm of larger can be reduced to smaller values of by writing , so that .A closely related method can be used to compute the logarithm of integers.", "Putting in the above series, it follows that:If the logarithm of a large integer  is known, then this series yields a fast converging series for , with a rate of convergence of .===Arithmetic–geometric mean approximation===The arithmetic–geometric mean yields high-precision approximations of the natural logarithm.", "Sasaki and Kanada showed in 1982 that it was particularly fast for precisions between 400 and 1000 decimal places, while Taylor series methods were typically faster when less precision was needed.", "In their work is approximated to a precision of (or  precise bits) by the following formula (due to Carl Friedrich Gauss):Here denotes the arithmetic–geometric mean of and .", "It is obtained by repeatedly calculating the average (arithmetic mean) and (geometric mean) of and then let those two numbers become the next and .", "The two numbers quickly converge to a common limit which is the value of .", "is chosen such thatto ensure the required precision.", "A larger makes the calculation take more steps (the initial and are farther apart so it takes more steps to converge) but gives more precision.", "The constants and can be calculated with quickly converging series.===Feynman's algorithm===While at Los Alamos National Laboratory working on the Manhattan Project, Richard Feynman developed a bit-processing algorithm, to compute the logarithm, that is similar to long division and was later used in the Connection Machine.", "The algorithm uses the fact that every real number is representable as a product of distinct factors of the form .", "The algorithm sequentially builds that product , starting with and : if , then it changes to .", "It then increases by one regardless.", "The algorithm stops when is large enough to give the desired accuracy.", "Because is the sum of the terms of the form corresponding to those for which the factor was included in the product , may be computed by simple addition, using a table of for all .", "Any base may be used for the logarithm table." ], [ "Applications", "A alt=A photograph of a nautilus' shell.Logarithms have many applications inside and outside mathematics.", "Some of these occurrences are related to the notion of scale invariance.", "For example, each chamber of the shell of a nautilus is an approximate copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor.", "This gives rise to a logarithmic spiral.", "Benford's law on the distribution of leading digits can also be explained by scale invariance.", "Logarithms are also linked to self-similarity.", "For example, logarithms appear in the analysis of algorithms that solve a problem by dividing it into two similar smaller problems and patching their solutions.", "The dimensions of self-similar geometric shapes, that is, shapes whose parts resemble the overall picture are also based on logarithms.", "Logarithmic scales are useful for quantifying the relative change of a value as opposed to its absolute difference.", "Moreover, because the logarithmic function grows very slowly for large , logarithmic scales are used to compress large-scale scientific data.", "Logarithms also occur in numerous scientific formulas, such as the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, the Fenske equation, or the Nernst equation.===Logarithmic scale===Goldmark in Papiermarks during the German hyperinflation in the 1920s|right|thumb|alt=A graph of the value of one mark over time.", "The line showing its value is increasing very quickly, even with logarithmic scale.Scientific quantities are often expressed as logarithms of other quantities, using a ''logarithmic scale''.", "For example, the decibel is a unit of measurement associated with logarithmic-scale quantities.", "It is based on the common logarithm of ratios—10 times the common logarithm of a power ratio or 20 times the common logarithm of a voltage ratio.", "It is used to quantify the loss of voltage levels in transmitting electrical signals, to describe power levels of sounds in acoustics, and the absorbance of light in the fields of spectrometry and optics.", "The signal-to-noise ratio describing the amount of unwanted noise in relation to a (meaningful) signal is also measured in decibels.", "In a similar vein, the peak signal-to-noise ratio is commonly used to assess the quality of sound and image compression methods using the logarithm.The strength of an earthquake is measured by taking the common logarithm of the energy emitted at the quake.", "This is used in the moment magnitude scale or the Richter magnitude scale.", "For example, a 5.0 earthquake releases 32 times and a 6.0 releases 1000 times the energy of a 4.0.Apparent magnitude measures the brightness of stars logarithmically.", "In chemistry the negative of the decimal logarithm, the decimal '''''', is indicated by the letter p. For instance, pH is the decimal cologarithm of the activity of hydronium ions (the form hydrogen ions take in water).", "The activity of hydronium ions in neutral water is 10−7 mol·L−1, hence a pH of 7.Vinegar typically has a pH of about 3.The difference of 4 corresponds to a ratio of 104 of the activity, that is, vinegar's hydronium ion activity is about .Semilog (log–linear) graphs use the logarithmic scale concept for visualization: one axis, typically the vertical one, is scaled logarithmically.", "For example, the chart at the right compresses the steep increase from 1 million to 1 trillion to the same space (on the vertical axis) as the increase from 1 to 1 million.", "In such graphs, exponential functions of the form appear as straight lines with slope equal to the logarithm of .", "Log-log graphs scale both axes logarithmically, which causes functions of the form to be depicted as straight lines with slope equal to the exponent .", "This is applied in visualizing and analyzing power laws.===Psychology===Logarithms occur in several laws describing human perception: Hick's law proposes a logarithmic relation between the time individuals take to choose an alternative and the number of choices they have.", "Fitts's law predicts that the time required to rapidly move to a target area is a logarithmic function of the distance to and the size of the target.", "In psychophysics, the Weber–Fechner law proposes a logarithmic relationship between stimulus and sensation such as the actual vs. the perceived weight of an item a person is carrying.", "(This \"law\", however, is less realistic than more recent models, such as Stevens's power law.", ")Psychological studies found that individuals with little mathematics education tend to estimate quantities logarithmically, that is, they position a number on an unmarked line according to its logarithm, so that 10 is positioned as close to 100 as 100 is to 1000.Increasing education shifts this to a linear estimate (positioning 1000 10 times as far away) in some circumstances, while logarithms are used when the numbers to be plotted are difficult to plot linearly.===Probability theory and statistics===Three probability density functions (PDF) of random variables with log-normal distributions.", "The location parameter , which is zero for all three of the PDFs shown, is the mean of the logarithm of the random variable, not the mean of the variable itself.population of the 237 countries of the world.", "Black dots indicate the distribution predicted by Benford's law.|thumb|right|alt=A bar chart and a superimposed second chart.", "The two differ slightly, but both decrease in a similar fashion.Logarithms arise in probability theory: the law of large numbers dictates that, for a fair coin, as the number of coin-tosses increases to infinity, the observed proportion of heads approaches one-half.", "The fluctuations of this proportion about one-half are described by the law of the iterated logarithm.Logarithms also occur in log-normal distributions.", "When the logarithm of a random variable has a normal distribution, the variable is said to have a log-normal distribution.", "Log-normal distributions are encountered in many fields, wherever a variable is formed as the product of many independent positive random variables, for example in the study of turbulence.Logarithms are used for maximum-likelihood estimation of parametric statistical models.", "For such a model, the likelihood function depends on at least one parameter that must be estimated.", "A maximum of the likelihood function occurs at the same parameter-value as a maximum of the logarithm of the likelihood (the \"''log likelihood''\"), because the logarithm is an increasing function.", "The log-likelihood is easier to maximize, especially for the multiplied likelihoods for independent random variables.Benford's law describes the occurrence of digits in many data sets, such as heights of buildings.", "According to Benford's law, the probability that the first decimal-digit of an item in the data sample is (from 1 to 9) equals , ''regardless'' of the unit of measurement.", "Thus, about 30% of the data can be expected to have 1 as first digit, 18% start with 2, etc.", "Auditors examine deviations from Benford's law to detect fraudulent accounting.The logarithm transformation is a type of data transformation used to bring the empirical distribution closer to the assumed one.===Computational complexity===Analysis of algorithms is a branch of computer science that studies the performance of algorithms (computer programs solving a certain problem).", "Logarithms are valuable for describing algorithms that divide a problem into smaller ones, and join the solutions of the subproblems.For example, to find a number in a sorted list, the binary search algorithm checks the middle entry and proceeds with the half before or after the middle entry if the number is still not found.", "This algorithm requires, on average, comparisons, where is the list's length.", "Similarly, the merge sort algorithm sorts an unsorted list by dividing the list into halves and sorting these first before merging the results.", "Merge sort algorithms typically require a time approximately proportional to .", "The base of the logarithm is not specified here, because the result only changes by a constant factor when another base is used.", "A constant factor is usually disregarded in the analysis of algorithms under the standard uniform cost model.A function  is said to grow logarithmically if is (exactly or approximately) proportional to the logarithm of .", "(Biological descriptions of organism growth, however, use this term for an exponential function.)", "For example, any natural number  can be represented in binary form in no more than  bits.", "In other words, the amount of memory needed to store grows logarithmically with .===Entropy and chaos===Billiards on an oval billiard table.", "Two particles, starting at the center with an angle differing by one degree, take paths that diverge chaotically because of reflections at the boundary.|alt=An oval shape with the trajectories of two particles.Entropy is broadly a measure of the disorder of some system.", "In statistical thermodynamics, the entropy ''S'' of some physical system is defined asThe sum is over all possible states  of the system in question, such as the positions of gas particles in a container.", "Moreover, is the probability that the state  is attained and is the Boltzmann constant.", "Similarly, entropy in information theory measures the quantity of information.", "If a message recipient may expect any one of possible messages with equal likelihood, then the amount of information conveyed by any one such message is quantified as bits.Lyapunov exponents use logarithms to gauge the degree of chaoticity of a dynamical system.", "For example, for a particle moving on an oval billiard table, even small changes of the initial conditions result in very different paths of the particle.", "Such systems are chaotic in a deterministic way, because small measurement errors of the initial state predictably lead to largely different final states.", "At least one Lyapunov exponent of a deterministically chaotic system is positive.===Fractals===The Sierpinski triangle (at the right) is constructed by repeatedly replacing alt=Parts of a triangle are removed in an iterated way.Logarithms occur in definitions of the dimension of fractals.", "Fractals are geometric objects that are self-similar in the sense that small parts reproduce, at least roughly, the entire global structure.", "The Sierpinski triangle (pictured) can be covered by three copies of itself, each having sides half the original length.", "This makes the Hausdorff dimension of this structure .", "Another logarithm-based notion of dimension is obtained by counting the number of boxes needed to cover the fractal in question.===Music===Logarithms are related to musical tones and intervals.", "In equal temperament, the frequency ratio depends only on the interval between two tones, not on the specific frequency, or pitch, of the individual tones.", "For example, the note ''A'' has a frequency of 440 Hz and ''B-flat'' has a frequency of 466 Hz.", "The interval between ''A'' and ''B-flat'' is a semitone, as is the one between ''B-flat'' and ''B'' (frequency 493 Hz).", "Accordingly, the frequency ratios agree:Therefore, logarithms can be used to describe the intervals: an interval is measured in semitones by taking the logarithm of the frequency ratio, while the logarithm of the frequency ratio expresses the interval in cents, hundredths of a semitone.", "The latter is used for finer encoding, as it is needed for non-equal temperaments.", "'''Interval'''(the two tones are played at the same time)1/12 tone Semitone Just major third Major third Tritone Octave '''Frequency ratio''' ''r'' '''Corresponding number of semitones''' '''Corresponding number of cents''' ===Number theory===Natural logarithms are closely linked to counting prime numbers (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...), an important topic in number theory.", "For any integer , the quantity of prime numbers less than or equal to is denoted .", "The prime number theorem asserts that is approximately given byin the sense that the ratio of and that fraction approaches 1 when tends to infinity.", "As a consequence, the probability that a randomly chosen number between 1 and is prime is inversely proportional to the number of decimal digits of .", "A far better estimate of is given by the offset logarithmic integral function , defined byThe Riemann hypothesis, one of the oldest open mathematical conjectures, can be stated in terms of comparing and .", "The Erdős–Kac theorem describing the number of distinct prime factors also involves the natural logarithm.The logarithm of ''n'' factorial, , is given byThis can be used to obtain Stirling's formula, an approximation of for large ." ], [ "Generalizations", "===Complex logarithm===alt=An illustration of the polar form: a point is described by an arrow or equivalently by its length and angle to the x-axis.All the complex numbers that solve the equationare called ''complex logarithms'' of , when is (considered as) a complex number.", "A complex number is commonly represented as , where and are real numbers and is an imaginary unit, the square of which is −1.Such a number can be visualized by a point in the complex plane, as shown at the right.", "The polar form encodes a non-zero complex number  by its absolute value, that is, the (positive, real) distance  to the origin, and an angle between the real () axis'' '' and the line passing through both the origin and .", "This angle is called the argument of .The absolute value of is given byUsing the geometrical interpretation of sine and cosine and their periodicity in , any complex number  may be denoted asfor any integer number .", "Evidently the argument of is not uniquely specified: both and are valid arguments of for all integers , because adding  radians or ''k''⋅360° to corresponds to \"winding\" around the origin counter-clock-wise by  turns.", "The resulting complex number is always , as illustrated at the right for .", "One may select exactly one of the possible arguments of as the so-called ''principal argument'', denoted , with a capital , by requiring to belong to one, conveniently selected turn, e.g.", "or .", "These regions, where the argument of is uniquely determined are called ''branches'' of the argument function.The principal branch (-, ) of the complex logarithm, .", "The black point at corresponds to absolute value zero and brighter colors refer to bigger absolute values.", "The alt=A density plot.", "In the middle there is a black point, at the negative axis the hue jumps sharply and evolves smoothly otherwise.Euler's formula connects the trigonometric functions sine and cosine to the complex exponential:Using this formula, and again the periodicity, the following identities hold:where is the unique real natural logarithm, denote the complex logarithms of , and is an arbitrary integer.", "Therefore, the complex logarithms of , which are all those complex values for which the  power of equals , are the infinitely many valuesTaking such that is within the defined interval for the principal arguments, then is called the ''principal value'' of the logarithm, denoted , again with a capital .", "The principal argument of any positive real number  is 0; hence is a real number and equals the real (natural) logarithm.", "However, the above formulas for logarithms of products and powers do ''not'' generalize to the principal value of the complex logarithm.The illustration at the right depicts , confining the arguments of to the interval .", "This way the corresponding branch of the complex logarithm has discontinuities all along the negative real  axis, which can be seen in the jump in the hue there.", "This discontinuity arises from jumping to the other boundary in the same branch, when crossing a boundary, i.e.", "not changing to the corresponding -value of the continuously neighboring branch.", "Such a locus is called a branch cut.", "Dropping the range restrictions on the argument makes the relations \"argument of \", and consequently the \"logarithm of \", multi-valued functions.===Inverses of other exponential functions===Exponentiation occurs in many areas of mathematics and its inverse function is often referred to as the logarithm.", "For example, the logarithm of a matrix is the (multi-valued) inverse function of the matrix exponential.", "Another example is the ''p''-adic logarithm, the inverse function of the ''p''-adic exponential.", "Both are defined via Taylor series analogous to the real case.", "In the context of differential geometry, the exponential map maps the tangent space at a point of a manifold to a neighborhood of that point.", "Its inverse is also called the logarithmic (or log) map.In the context of finite groups exponentiation is given by repeatedly multiplying one group element  with itself.", "The discrete logarithm is the integer '''' solving the equationwhere is an element of the group.", "Carrying out the exponentiation can be done efficiently, but the discrete logarithm is believed to be very hard to calculate in some groups.", "This asymmetry has important applications in public key cryptography, such as for example in the Diffie–Hellman key exchange, a routine that allows secure exchanges of cryptographic keys over unsecured information channels.", "Zech's logarithm is related to the discrete logarithm in the multiplicative group of non-zero elements of a finite field.Further logarithm-like inverse functions include the ''double logarithm'' , the ''super- or hyper-4-logarithm'' (a slight variation of which is called iterated logarithm in computer science), the Lambert W function, and the logit.", "They are the inverse functions of the double exponential function, tetration, of , and of the logistic function, respectively.===Related concepts===From the perspective of group theory, the identity expresses a group isomorphism between positive reals under multiplication and reals under addition.", "Logarithmic functions are the only continuous isomorphisms between these groups.", "By means of that isomorphism, the Haar measure (Lebesgue measure)  on the reals corresponds to the Haar measure  on the positive reals.", "The non-negative reals not only have a multiplication, but also have addition, and form a semiring, called the probability semiring; this is in fact a semifield.", "The logarithm then takes multiplication to addition (log multiplication), and takes addition to log addition (LogSumExp), giving an isomorphism of semirings between the probability semiring and the log semiring.Logarithmic one-forms  appear in complex analysis and algebraic geometry as differential forms with logarithmic poles.The polylogarithm is the function defined byIt is related to the natural logarithm by .", "Moreover, equals the Riemann zeta function ." ], [ "See also", "* Decimal exponent (dex)* Exponential function* Index of logarithm articles" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ** * Khan Academy: Logarithms, free online micro lectures* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "L. Ron Hubbard" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lafayette Ronald Hubbard''' (March 13, 1911 – January 24, 1986) was an American author and the founder of Scientology.", "A prolific writer of pulp science fiction and fantasy novels in his early career, in 1950 he authored ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' and established organizations to promote and practice Dianetics techniques.", "Hubbard created Scientology in 1952 after losing the intellectual rights to his literature on Dianetics in bankruptcy.", "He would lead the Church of Scientology, variously described as a cult, a new religious movement, or a business, until his death in 1986.Born in Tilden, Nebraska, in 1911, Hubbard spent much of his childhood in Helena, Montana.", "While his father was posted to the U.S. naval base on Guam in the late 1920s, Hubbard traveled to Asia and the South Pacific.", "In 1930, Hubbard enrolled at George Washington University to study civil engineering but dropped out in his second year.", "He began his career as an author of pulp fiction and married Margaret Grubb, who shared his interest in aviation.Hubbard was an officer in the Navy during World War II, where he briefly commanded two ships but was removed from command both times.", "The last few months of his active service were spent in a hospital, being treated for a variety of complaints.", "In 1953, the first churches of Scientology were founded by Hubbard.", "In 1954 a Scientology church in Los Angeles was founded, which became the Church of Scientology International.", "Hubbard added organizational management strategies, principles of pedagogy, a theory of communication and prevention strategies for healthy living to the teachings of Scientology.", "As Scientology came under increasing media attention and legal pressure in a number of countries during the late 1960s and early 1970s, Hubbard spent much of his time at sea as \"commodore\" of the Sea Organization, a private, quasi-paramilitary Scientologist fleet.Hubbard returned to the United States in 1975 and went into seclusion in the California desert after an unsuccessful attempt to take over the town of Clearwater, Florida.", "In 1978, Hubbard was convicted of fraud after he was tried ''in absentia'' by France.", "In the same year, 11 high-ranking members of Scientology were indicted on 28 charges for their role in the Church's Snow White Program, a systematic program of espionage against the United States government.", "One of the indicted was Hubbard's wife Mary Sue Hubbard; he himself was named an unindicted co-conspirator.", "Hubbard spent the remaining years of his life in seclusion, attended to by a small group of Scientology officials.Following his 1986 death, Scientology leaders announced that Hubbard's body had become an impediment to his work and that he had decided to \"drop his body\" to continue his research on another plane of existence.", "The Church of Scientology describes Hubbard in hagiographic terms, though many of his autobiographical statements were fictitious.", "Sociologist Stephen Kent has observed that Hubbard \"likely presented a personality disorder known as malignant narcissism.\"" ], [ "Life", "===Before Dianetics===Lafayette Ronald Hubbard was born on March 13, 1911, the only child of Ledora May Waterbury (1885–1959), who had trained as a teacher, and Harry Ross Hubbard (1886–1975), a low-ranking United States Navy officer.", "Like many military families of the era, the Hubbards repeatedly relocated around the United States and overseas.", "After moving to Kalispell, Montana, they settled in Helena in 1913.Hubbard's father rejoined the Navy in April 1917, during World War I, while his mother worked as a clerk for the state government.", "After his father was posted to Guam, Hubbard and his mother traveled there with brief stop-overs in a couple of Chinese ports.", "In high school, Hubbard contributed to the school paper, but was dropped from enrollment due to failing grades.", "After he failed the Naval Academy entrance examination, Hubbard was enrolled in a Virginia Preparatory School to prepare him for a second attempt.", "However, after complaining of eye strain, Hubbard was diagnosed with myopia, precluding any future enrollment in the Naval Academy.", "As an adult, Hubbard would privately write to himself that his eyes had gone bad when he \"used them as an excuse to escape the naval academy\".", "Hubbard was sent to the Woodward School in D.C., as graduates qualified for admission to George Washington University without having to take the entrance exam.", "Hubbard graduated in June 1930 and entered GWU.", "Academically, Hubbard did poorly and was repeatedly warned about bad grades, but he contributed to the student newspaper and was active in the glider club.", "In 1932, Hubbard organized a student trip to the Caribbean, but amid multiple misfortunes and insufficient funding, the passengers took to burning Hubbard in effigy and the trip was canceled by the ship's owners.", "Hubbard did not return to GWU the following year.", "For much of the 1920s and 1930s, Hubbard lived in Washington D.C., and he would later claim to have interacted with multiple psychiatrists in the city.", "Hubbard described encounters in 1923 and 1930 with navy psychiatrist Joseph Thompson.", "Thompson was controversial within the American psychiatric community for his support of lay analysis, the practice of psychoanalysis by those without medical degrees.", "Hubbard also recalled interacting with William Alanson White, supervisor of the D.C. psychiatric hospital St. Elizabeth's.", "According to Hubbard, both White and Thompson had regarded his athleticism and lack of interest in psychology as signs of a good prognosis.", "Hubbard later claimed to have been trained by both Thompson and White.", "Hubbard also discussed his interactions at Chestnut Lodge, a D.C.-area facility specializing in schizophrenia, repeatedly complaining that their staff misdiagnosed an unnamed individual with the condition:====Pre-war fiction====Hubbard's adventure story \"Yukon Madness\" which was published in 1935.In 1933, Hubbard renewed a relationship with a fellow glider pilot, Margaret \"Polly\" Grubb and the two were quickly married on April 13.The following year, she gave birth to a son who was named Lafayette Ronald Hubbard, Jr., later nicknamed \"Nibs\".", "A second child, Katherine May, was born two years later.", "The Hubbards lived for a while in Laytonsville, Maryland, but were chronically short of money.", "In the spring of 1936, they moved to Bremerton, Washington.", "They lived there for a time with Hubbard's aunts and grandmother before finding a place of their own at nearby South Colby.", "According to one of his friends at the time, Robert MacDonald Ford, the Hubbards were \"in fairly dire straits for money\" but sustained themselves on the income from Hubbard's writing.Hubbard began a writing career and tried to write for mainstream publications.", "Hubbard soon found his niche in the pulp fiction magazines, becoming a prolific and prominent writer in the medium.", "From 1934 until 1940, Hubbard produced hundreds of short stories and novels.", "Hubbard is remembered for his \"prodigious output\" across a variety of genres, including adventure fiction, aviation, travel, mysteries, westerns, romance, and science fiction.", "His first full-length novel, ''Buckskin Brigades'', was published in 1937.The novel told the story of \"Yellow Hair\" a white man adopted into the Blackfeet tribe, with promotional material claiming the author had been a \"bloodbrother\" of the Blackfeet.", "The New York Times book review praised the book, writing \"Mr. Hubbard has reversed a time-honored formula and has given a thriller to which, at the end of every chapter or so, another paleface bites the dust.", "\"Museum recreation of a 1930s dentist office; the setting where Hubbard reported having a \"near-death experience\".On New Year's Day, 1938, Hubbard reportedly underwent a dental procedure and reacted to the anesthetic gas used in the procedure.", "According to his account, this triggered a revelatory near-death experience.", "Allegedly inspired by this experience, Hubbard composed a manuscript, which was never published, with working titles of ''The One Command'' and ''Excalibur''.", "Hubbard sent telegrams to several book publishers, but nobody bought the manuscript.", "Hubbard wrote to his wife:Hubbard found greater success after being taken under the supervision of editor John W. Campbell, who published many of Hubbard's short stories and serialized novelettes in his magazines ''Unknown'' and ''Astounding Science Fiction''.", "Hubbard's novel ''Final Blackout'' told the story of a low-ranking British army officer who rises to become dictator of the United Kingdom.", "In July 1940, Campbell magazine ''Unknown'' published a psychological horror by Hubbard titled ''Fear'' about an ethnologist who becomes paranoid that demons are out to get him – the work was well-received, drawing praise from Ray Bradbury, Isaac Asimov, and others.", "In November and December 1940, ''Unknown'' serialized Hubbard novel ''Typewriter in the Sky'' about a pulp fiction writer whose friend becomes trapped inside one of his stories.====Military career====Hubbard (left) in 1943.In 1941, Hubbard applied to join the United States Navy.", "His application was accepted, and he was commissioned as a lieutenant junior grade in the United States Naval Reserve on July 19, 1941.By November, he was posted to New York for training as an intelligence officer.", "The day after Pearl Harbor, Hubbard was posted to the Philippines and departed the US bound for Australia.", "But while in Australia awaiting transport to the Philippines, Hubbard was suddenly ordered back to the United States after being accused by the US Naval Attaché to Australia of sending blockade-runner ''Don Isidro'' \"three thousand miles out of her way\".In June 1942, Hubbard was given command of a patrol boat at the Boston Navy Yard, but he was relieved after the yard commandant wrote that Hubbard was \"not temperamentally fitted for independent command\".", "In 1943, Hubbard was given command of a submarine chaser, but only five hours into the shakedown cruise, Hubbard believed he had detected an enemy submarine.", "Hubbard and crew spent the next 68 hours engaged in combat.", "An investigation concluded that Hubbard had likely mistaken a \"known magnetic deposit\" for an enemy sub.", "The following month, Hubbard unwittingly fired upon Mexican territory and was relieved of command.", "In 1944, Hubbard served aboard the before being transferred.", "The night before his departure, Hubbard reported the discovery of an attempted sabotage.", "In June 1942, Navy records indicate that Hubbard suffered \"active conjunctivitis\" and later \"urethral discharges\".", "After being relieved of command of the sub-chaser, Hubbard began reporting sick, citing a variety of ailments, including ulcers, malaria, and back pains.", "In July 1943, Hubbard was admitted to the San Diego naval hospital for observation—he would remain there for months.", "Years later, Hubbard would privately write to himself: \"Your stomach trouble you used as an excuse to keep the Navy from punishing you.\"", "On April 9, 1945, Hubbard again reported sick and was re-admitted to Oak Knoll Naval Hospital, Oakland.", "He was discharged from the hospital on December 4, 1945.====After the war====Parsons in 1943.After Hubbard chose to stay in California rather than return to his family in Washington state, he moved into the Pasadena mansion of John \"Jack\" Whiteside Parsons, a rocket propulsion engineer and a leading follower of the English occultist Aleister Crowley.", "Hubbard befriended Parsons and soon became sexually involved with Parsons's 21-year-old girlfriend, Sara \"Betty\" Northrup.", "Hubbard and Parsons collaborated on \"Babalon Working\", a sex magic ritual intended to summon an incarnation of Babalon, the supreme Goddess in Crowley's pantheon.", "During this period, Hubbard authored a document which has been called the \"Affirmations\", a series of statements relating to various physical, sexual, psychological and social issues that he was encountering in his life.", "The Affirmations appear to have been intended to be used as a form of self-hypnosis with the intention of resolving the author's psychological problems and instilling a positive mental attitude.Parsons, Hubbard and Sara invested nearly their entire savings — the vast majority contributed by Parsons and Sara — in a plan for Hubbard and Sara to buy yachts on the East Coast and sail them to the West Coast to sell.", "Hubbard had a different idea, writing to the U.S. Navy requesting permission to undertake a world cruise.", "Parsons attempted to recover his money by obtaining an injunction to prevent Hubbard and Sara leaving the country or disposing of the remnants of his assets, but ultimately only received a $2,900 promissory note from Hubbard.", "Parsons returned home \"shattered\" and was forced to sell his mansion.", "Hubbard's novella \"The Kingslayer\" was reprinted in ''Two Complete Science-Adventure Books'' in 1950 after its original publication in a 1949 Hubbard collection.On August 10, 1946, Hubbard married Sara, though he was still married to his first wife Polly.", "Hubbard resumed his fiction writing to supplement his small disability allowance.", "In August 1947, Hubbard returned to the pages of ''Astounding'' with a serialized novel \"The End is Not Yet\", about a young nuclear physicist who tries to stop a world takeover by building a new philosophical system.", "In October 1947, the magazine began serializing ''Ole Doc Methuselah'', the first in a series about the \"Soldiers of Light\", supremely skilled, extremely long-lived physicians.", "In February and March 1950, Campbell's ''Astounding'' serialized the Hubbard novel ''To the Stars'' about young engineer on interstellar trading starship who learns that months aboard ship amounts to centuries on Earth, making the ship his only remaining home after his first voyage.", "During his time in California, Hubbard began acting as a sort of amateur stage hypnotist or \"swami\".Hubbard repeatedly wrote to the Veterans Administration (VA) asking for an increase in his war pension.", "Finally, in October 1947, he wrote to request psychiatric treatment:The VA eventually did increase his pension, but his money problems continued.", "In the summer of 1948, Hubbard was arrested by the San Luis Obispo sheriff on a charge of petty theft for passing a fraudulent check.", "Beginning in June 1948, the nationally-syndicated wire service United Press ran a story on an American Legion-sponsored psychiatric ward in Savannah, Georgia, which sought to keep mentally-ill war veterans out of jail.", "In late 1948, Hubbard and his second wife Sara moved from California to Savannah, Georgia, where he would later claim to have worked as a volunteer in a psychiatric clinic.", "Hubbard claimed he had \"processed an awful lot of Negroes\" and wrote of having observed a psychiatrist using the threat of institutionalization in a state hospital to solicit funds from a patient's husband.", "In letters to friends sent from Savannah, Hubbard began to make the first public mentions of what was to become Dianetics.===In the Dianetics era===Inspired by science-fiction of his friend Robert Heinlein, Hubbard announced plans to write a book which would claim to \"make supermen\".", "Hubbard announced to the public that there existed a superhuman condition which he called the state of \"Clear\".", "He claimed people in that state would have a perfectly functioning mind with an improved intelligence quotient (IQ) and photographic memory.", "The \"Clear\" would be cured of physical ailments ranging from poor eyesight to the common cold, which Hubbard asserted were purely psychosomatic.Hubbard and Sara moved into a cottage at Bay Head, New Jersey, to finish writing ''Dianetics''.", "The cottage at 666 East Avenue is now on the National Register of Historic Places.", "Hubbard's son Nibs later claimed the number '666' had special significance for his father.To promote his upcoming book, Hubbard enlisted his longtime-editor John Campbell, who had a fascination with fringe psychologies and psychic powers.", "Campbell invited Hubbard and Sara to move into a New Jersey cottage.", "Campbell, in turn, recruited an acquaintance, medical doctor Joseph Winter, to help promote the book.", "Campbell wrote Winter to extol Hubbard, claiming that Hubbard had worked with nearly 1000 cases and cured every single one.", "The birth of Hubbard's second daughter Alexis Valerie, delivered by Winter on March 8, 1950, came in the middle of the preparations to launch Dianetics.The basic content of Dianetics was a retelling of Psychoanalytic theory geared for a mass market English-speaking audience.", "Like Freud, Hubbard taught that the brain recorded memories (or \"engrams\") which were stored in the unconscious mind (which Hubbard restyled \"the reactive mind\").", "Past memories could be triggered later in life, causing psychological, emotional, or even physical problems.", "By sharing their memories with a friendly listener (or \"auditor\"), a person could overcome their past pain and thus cure themselves.", "Through Dianetics, Hubbard claimed that most illnesses were psychosomatic and caused by engrams, including arthritis, dermatitis, allergies, asthma, coronary difficulties, eye trouble, bursitis, ulcers, sinusitis and migraine headaches.", "He further claimed that dianetic therapy could treat these illnesses, and also included cancer and diabetes as conditions that Dianetic research was focused on.Hubbard conducting a Dianetics seminar in Los Angeles in 1950.Accompanied by an article in ''Astounding's'' May 1950 issue, ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' was released on May 9.Although Dianetics was poorly received by the press and the scientific and medical professions, the book was an immediate commercial success and sparked \"a nationwide cult of incredible proportions\".", "Five hundred Dianetic auditing groups were set up across the United States, and Hubbard established the \"Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation\".", "Financial controls were lax, and Hubbard himself took large sums with no explanation of what he was doing with it.Dianetics lost public credibility on August 10 when a presentation by Hubbard before an audience of 6,000 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles failed disastrously.", "He introduced a woman named Sonya Bianca and told the audience that as a result of undergoing Dianetic therapy she now possessed perfect recall, only for her to forget the color of Hubbard's necktie.", "A large part of the audience walked out, and the debacle was publicized by popular science writer Martin Gardner.", "On September 3, psychologist Erich Fromm publicly derided ''Dianetics'' as a \"mixture of some oversimplified truths, half truths and plain absurdities\"; Fromm criticized the writing as \"propagandistic\" and likened it to the quack field of patent medicines.", "By late-1950, Hubbard's foundations were in financial crisis.", "Hubbard's publisher Arthur Ceppos, his longtime promoter Joseph Campbell, and medical doctor-turned-Dianetics endorser Joseph Winter all resigned under acrimonious circumstances.In late-1950, Hubbard began an affair with employee Barbara Klowden, prompting Sara to start her own affair with Miles Hollister.", "On February 23, 1951, Sara and her lover consulted with a psychiatrist about Hubbard, who advised that Sara was in grave danger and Hubbard should be institutionalized.", "The trio telephoned Jack Maloney, the head of the Hubbard's foundation in Elizabeth, New Jersey, to request funding for the hospitalization.", "Maloney informed Hubbard of the plans to institutionalize him.", "That night, Hubbard and two trusted aides kidnapped Hubbard's one-year-old daughter Alexis and wife Sara and attempted unsuccessfully to find a doctor to examine Sara and declare her insane.", "He let Sara go but took Alexis to Cuba.", "Hubbard denounced Sara and her lover to the FBI, portraying them in a letter as communist infiltrators -- an agent annotated his correspondence with the comment, \"Appears mental\".", "On April 12, Sara's story was published in the press, leading to headlines such as \"Ron Hubbard Insane, Says His Wife\".", "Hubbard's first wife evidently saw the headlines and wrote to Sara on May 2 offering her support.", "\"Ron is not normal...", "Your charges probably sound fantastic to the average person – but I've been through it – the beatings, threats on my life, all the sadistic traits you charge – twelve years of it.\"", "In June, Sara finally secured the return of her daughter by agreeing to a settlement in which she signed a statement, written by Hubbard, declaring that she had been misrepresented in the press and that she had always believed he was \"fine and brilliant man\".The Dianetics craze \"burned itself out as quickly as it caught fire\", and the movement appeared to be on the edge of total collapse.", "However, it was temporarily saved by Don Purcell, a millionaire who agreed to support a new Foundation in Wichita, Kansas.", "In August 1951, Hubbard published ''Science of Survival''.", "In that book, Hubbard introduced such concepts as the immortal soul (or \"Thetan\") and past-life regressions (or \"Whole Track Auditing\").", "The Wichita Foundation underwrote the costs of printing the book, but it recorded poor sales when first published, with only 1,250 copies of the first edition being printed.", "The Wichita Foundation became financially nonviable after a court ruled that it was liable for the unpaid debts of its defunct predecessor in Elizabeth, New Jersey.", "The ruling prompted Purcell and the other directors of the Wichita Foundation to file for voluntary bankruptcy in February 1952.Hubbard resigned immediately and accused Purcell of having been bribed by the American Medical Association to destroy Dianetics.", "Hubbard emptied the Wichita foundation's bank accounts, in part through forgery.===Pivot to Scientology===Mary Sue Hubbard in 1957.Having lost the rights to Dianetics, Hubbard created Scientology.", "At a convention in Wichita, Hubbard announced that he had discovered a new science beyond Dianetics which he called \"Scientology\".", "Whereas the goal of Dianetics had been to reach a superhuman state of \"Clear\", Scientology promised a chance to achieve god-like powers in a state called Operating Thetan.", "Hubbard introduced a device called an \"electropsychometer\" (or e-meter), which called for users to hold two metal cans in their hands to measure changes in skin conductivity due to variance in sweat or grip.", "In 1906, Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung had famously used such a device in a study of word association.", "Rather than a mundane biofeedback device, Hubbard presented the e-meter as having \"an almost mystical power to reveal an individual's innermost thoughts\".Hubbard married a staff member, 20-year-old Mary Sue Whipp, and the pair moved to Phoenix, Arizona.", "Hubbard was joined by his 18-year-old son Nibs, who had become a Scientology staff member and \"professor\".", "Scientology was organized in a different way from the decentralized Dianetics movement — The Hubbard Association of Scientologists (HAS) was the only official Scientology organization.", "Branches or \"orgs\" were organized as franchises, rather like a fast food restaurant chain.", "Each franchise holder was required to pay ten percent of income to Hubbard's central organization.", "In July, Hubbard published \"What to Audit\" (later re-titled ''Scientology: A History of Man''), which taught everyone has subconscious traumatic memories of their past lives as clams, sloths, and cavemen which cause neuroses and health problems.", "In November 1952, Hubbard published ''Scientology 8-80'', followed up in December with ''Scientology 8-8008'', which argued that the physical universe is the creation of the mind.In December, Hubbard gave a seventy-hour series of lectures in Philadelphia that was attended by 38 people in which he delved into the occult.", "In the lectures, Hubbard connects rituals and the practice of Scientology to the magickal practices of Aleister Crowley, recommending Crowley's book ''The Master Therion''.", "During the Philadelphia course, Hubbard joked that he was \"the prince of darkness,\" which was met with laughter from the audience.", "On December 16, 1952, Hubbard was arrested in the middle of a lecture for failing to return $9,000 withdrawn from the Wichita Foundation.", "He eventually settled the debt by paying $1,000 and returning a car belonging to Wichita financier Don Purcell.In April 1953, Hubbard proposed setting up a chain of \"Spiritual Guidance Centers\" as part of what he called \"the religion angle\".", "On December 18, 1953, Hubbard incorporated the Church of Scientology in Camden, New Jersey.", "The religious transformation was explained as a way to protect Scientologists from charges of practicing medicine without a license.", "The idea may not have been new; Hubbard has been quoted as telling a science fiction convention in 1948: \"Writing for a penny a word is ridiculous.", "If a man really wants to make a million dollars, the best way would be to start his own religion.", "\"===In the Church of Scientology era===By 1954, the IRS recognized the Church of Scientology of California as a tax-exempt organization and by 1966, the Washington, D.C. 'Founding Church of Scientology' received tax-exempt status nationwide.", "The Church of Scientology became a highly profitable enterprise for Hubbard, as he was paid a percentage of the Church's gross income.", "By 1957 he was being paid about $250,000 ().", "His family grew, too, with Mary Sue giving birth to three more children—Quentin on January 6, 1954; Suzette on February 13, 1955; and Arthur on June 6, 1958.Hubbard was notorious for his policies of attacking his perceived enemies.", "Nibs recalled that Hubbard \"only knew how to do one thing and that was to destroy people.\"", "Hubbard told Scientologists to \"Don't ever defend, always attack,\" encouraging them to find or manufacture evidence and to file harassing lawsuits against enemies.", "Any individual breaking away from Scientology and setting up his own group was to be shut down.", "Most of the formerly independent Scientology and Dianetics groups were either driven out of business or were absorbed into Hubbard's organizations.", "Hubbard finally achieved victory over Don Purcell in 1954 when the latter, worn out by constant litigation, handed the copyrights of Dianetics back to Hubbard.", "After dealing with Purcell, Hubbard turned his attention to attacking psychiatrists, who he blamed for the backlash against Dianetics and Scientology.", "In 1955, Hubbard authored a text titled: ''Brain-Washing: A Synthesis of the Russian Textbook on Psychopolitics'' which purported to be a secret manual linking Psychiatry and Communism written by a Soviet secret police chief.", "Hubbard founded the \"National Academy of American Psychology\" which sought to issue a \"loyalty oath\" to psychologists and psychiatrists.", "Those who opposed the oath were to be labelled \"Subversive psychiatrists\", while those who merely refused to sign the oath would be labelled \"Potentially Subversive\".", "Hubbard denounced psychiatric abuses, writing that psychoanalysis had been \"superseded by tyrannous sadism, practiced by unprincipled men\".", "Wrote Hubbard:Today men who call themselves analysts are merrily sawing out patients' brains, shocking them with murderous drugs, striking them with high voltages, burying them underneath mounds of ice, placing them in restraints, 'sterilizing' them sexually and generally conducting themselves much as their patients would were they given the chance.", "In 1956, Hubbard released ''Fundamentals of Thought'', which teaches that life is a game and divides people into pieces, players, and game-makers.", "The following year, Hubbard published ''All About Radiation'', which falsely claimed that radiation poisoning and even cancer can be cured by vitamins.", "In 1958, amid widespread interest in Bridey Murphy case, Hubbard authored ''Have You Lived Before This Life?", "'', a collection of past life regressions.In 1958, the U.S. Internal Revenue Service withdrew the Washington, D.C., Church of Scientology's tax exemption after it found that Hubbard and his family were profiting unreasonably from Scientology's ostensibly non-profit income.", "In the spring of 1959, Hubbard purchased Saint Hill Manor, an 18th-century English country house formerly owned by the Maharaja of Jaipur.", "The house became Hubbard's permanent residence and an international training center for Scientologists.That year Hubbard learned his son Nibs had resigned from the organization, citing financial difficulties.", "Hubbard regarded the departure as a betrayal.", "Hubbard introduced \"security checking\", a structured interrogation using the e-meter, to identify those he termed \"potential trouble sources\" and \"suppressive persons\".", "Members of the Church of Scientology were interrogated with the aid of E-meters and were asked questions such as \"Have you ever practiced homosexuality?\"", "and \"Have you ever had unkind thoughts about L. Ron Hubbard?\"", "Since its inception, Hubbard marketed Dianetics and Scientology through false medical claims.", "On January 4, 1963, US Food and Drug Administration agents raided American offices of the Church of Scientology, seizing over a hundred E-meters as illegal medical devices, thousands of pills being marketed as \"radiation cures\", and tons of literature that they accused of making false medical claims.", "In November 1963 Victoria, Australia, the government opened an inquiry into the Church, which was accused of brainwashing, blackmail, extortion and damaging the mental health of its members.", "Its report, published in October 1965, condemned every aspect of Scientology and Hubbard himself.", "The report led to Scientology being banned in Victoria, Western Australia and South Australia, and led to more negative publicity around the world.", "Public perceptions of Scientology changed from \"relatively harmless, if cranky\" to an \"evil, dangerous\" group that performs hypnosis and brainwashing.", "Scientology attracted increasingly unfavorable publicity across the English-speaking world.Hubbard took major new initiatives in the face of these challenges.", "By 1965, \"Ethics Technology\" was introduced to tighten internal discipline within Scientology.", "It required Scientologists to \"disconnect\" from any organization or individual—including family members—deemed to be disruptive or \"suppressive\".", "Scientologists were also required to write \"Knowledge Reports\" on each other, reporting transgressions or misapplications of Scientology methods.", "Hubbard promulgated a long list of punishable \"Misdemeanors\", \"Crimes\", and \"High Crimes\".", "At the start of March 1966, Hubbard created the Guardian's Office (GO), a new agency within the Church of Scientology that was headed by his wife Mary Sue.", "It dealt with Scientology's external affairs, including public relations, legal actions and the gathering of intelligence on perceived threats.", "As Scientology faced increasingly negative media attention, the GO retaliated with hundreds of writs for libel and slander; it issued more than forty on a single day.", "Hubbard ordered his staff to find \"lurid, blood sex crime actual evidence on Scientology's attackers\".", "The \"fair game\" policy was codified in 1967, which was applicable to anyone deemed an \"enemy\" of Scientology: \"May be deprived of property or injured by any means by any Scientologist without any discipline of the Scientologist.", "May be tricked, sued or lied to or destroyed.", "\"Newspapers and politicians in the UK pressed the British government for action against Scientology.", "In April 1966, hoping to form a remote \"safe haven\" for Scientology, Hubbard traveled to the southern African country Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).", "Despite his attempts to curry favour with the local government, Rhodesia promptly refused to renew Hubbard's visa, compelling him to leave the country.", "Finally, at the end of 1966, Hubbard acquired his own fleet of three ships.", "In July 1968, the British Minister of Health announced that foreign Scientologists would no longer be permitted to enter the UK and Hubbard himself was excluded from the country as an \"undesirable alien\".", "Further inquiries were launched in Canada, New Zealand and South Africa.===In the Sea Org era===Enroute to the volcanic island of Las Palmas, Hubbard wrote \"OT III: The Wall of Fire\", about the evil lord Xenu who uses hydrogen bombs and volcanoes to murder his enemies and imprison their souls on Earth.", "Beginning in 1967, new editions of Dianetics featured a volcano on the cover.Hubbard purchased a ship in Las Palmas and founded the \"Sea Org\", a private navy of elite Scientologists.", "Hubbard set out to take command of the ship.", "Enroute, he wrote OT III, the esoteric story of Xenu.", "In a letter to his wife Mary Sue, Hubbard said that, in order to assist his research, he was drinking alcohol and taking stimulants and depressants.", "In OT III, Hubbard reveals the secrets of an immense disaster that had occurred \"on this planet, and on the other seventy-five planets which form this Confederacy, seventy-five million years ago\".", "It teaches that Xenu, the leader of the Galactic Confederacy, had shipped billions of people to Earth and blown them up with hydrogen bombs, following which their traumatized spirits were stuck together at \"implant stations\", brainwashed with false memories and eventually became contained within human beings.", "When Hubbard established the Sea Org he publicly declared that he had relinquished his management responsibilities over the Church of Scientology.", "In fact, he received daily telex messages from Scientology organizations around the world reporting their statistics and income.", "The Church of Scientology sent him $15,000 a week along with millions of dollars that were transferred to bank accounts.", "Church of Scientology couriers arrived regularly, conveying luxury food for Hubbard and his family or cash that had been smuggled from England to avoid currency export restrictions.", "Hubbard's fleet began sailing from port to port in the Mediterranean Sea and eastern North Atlantic, rarely staying anywhere for longer than six weeks, as Hubbard claimed he was being pursued by enemies whose interference could lead to global chaos or nuclear war.Though Scientologists around the world were presented with a glamorous picture of life in the Sea Org and many applied to join Hubbard aboard the fleet, the reality was rather different.", "Most of those joining had no nautical experience at all.", "Mechanical difficulties and blunders by the crews led to a series of embarrassing incidents and near-disasters.", "Following one incident in which the rudder of the ''Royal Scotman'' was damaged during a storm, Hubbard ordered the ship's entire crew to be reduced to a \"condition of liability\" and wear gray rags tied to their arms.", "The ship itself was treated the same way, with dirty tarpaulins tied around its funnel to symbolize its lower status.", "According to those aboard, conditions were appalling; the crew was worked to the point of exhaustion, given meager rations and forbidden to wash or change their clothes for several weeks.", "Hubbard maintained a harsh disciplinary regime aboard the fleet, punishing mistakes by confining people in the ''Royal Scotman'' bilge tanks without toilet facilities and with food provided in buckets.", "At other times erring crew members were thrown overboard with Hubbard looking on and, occasionally, filming.", "One member of the Sea Org recalled Hubbard punishing a little boy by confining him to the ship's chain locker.Aboard ship, Hubbard began dispatching teams of Sea Org members officers to search for historic evidence of his past lives; In 1973, he published ''Mission into Time'' about those searches.", "Now having his own paramilitary force, orders to use R2-45 (killing someone with a .45 pistol) on specific individuals were published.", "From about 1970, Hubbard was attended aboard ship by the children of Sea Org members, organized as the Commodore's Messenger Organization (CMO).", "They were mainly young girls dressed in hot pants and halter tops, who were responsible for running errands for Hubbard such as lighting his cigarettes, dressing him or relaying his verbal commands to other members of the crew.", "In addition to his wife Mary Sue, he was accompanied by all four of his children by her, who were all members of the Sea Org and shared its rigors.After his prior failure in Rhodesia, Hubbard again tried to establish a safe haven in a friendly country, this time Greece.", "The fleet stayed at the Greek island of Corfu for several months in 1968–1969.Hubbard, recently expelled from Britain, renamed the ships after Greek gods—the ''Royal Scotman'' was rechristened ''Apollo''—and he praised the recently established military dictatorship.", "Despite Hubbard's hopes, in March 1969 Hubbard and his ships were ordered to leave.The Scientology cross came into use in 1969.Given Hubbard's private affinity for Crowley and antipathy to Christianity; it has been suggested that the cross may have been inspired by Crowley's Rose Cross or might be a \"crossed-out cross\" (an anti-Christian symbol).The practice of prominently displaying the cross in Scientology centers was instituted in 1969 following hostile press coverage where Scientology's status as a legitimate religion was being questioned.", "In October 1969, ''The Sunday Times'' published an exposé by Australian journalist Alex Mitchell detailing Hubbard's occult experiences with Parsons and Aleister Crowley's teachings.", "The Church responded with a statement, claiming without evidence Hubbard was sent in by the US Government to \"break up Black Magic in America\" and succeeded.In mid-1972, Hubbard again tried to find a safe haven, this time in Morocco, establishing contacts with the country's secret police and training senior policemen and intelligence agents in techniques for detecting subversives.", "The program ended in failure when it became caught up in internal Moroccan politics, and Hubbard left the country hastily in December 1972.After French prosecutors charged Hubbard with fraud and customs violations, Hubbard risked extradition to France.", "In response, at the end of 1972, Hubbard left the Sea Org fleet temporarily, living incognito in Queens, New York.", "Hubbard's health deteriorated significantly during this period, as he was a overweight chain-smoker, suffered from bursitis and had a prominent growth on his forehead.", "In September 1973 when the threat of extradition had abated, Hubbard left New York, returning to his flagship.", "Hubbard suffered serious injuries in a motorcycle accident on the island of Tenerife in December 1973.In 1974, Hubbard established the Rehabilitation Project Force, a punishment program for Sea Org members who displeased him.", "Hubbard's son Quentin reportedly found it difficult to adjust and attempted suicide in mid-1974.Also in 1974, L. Ron Hubbard confessed to two top executives that \"People do not leave Scientology because of their unconfessed sins, they leave because they stop liking Scientology or stop believing it in\".", "Hubbard warned \"If any of this information ever became public, I would lose all control of the orgs and eventually Scientology as a whole.", "\"On July 8, 1977, after uncovering Operation Snow White, the FBI raided the Founding Church of Scientology in D.C. and seized thousands of documents revealing the scope of the Church's espionage operations.Throughout this period, Hubbard was heavily involved in directing the activities of the Guardian's Office (GO), the legal bureau/intelligence agency.", "In 1973, he instigated the \"Snow White Program\" and directed the GO to remove negative reports about Scientology from government files and track down their sources.", "The GO carried out covert campaigns on his behalf such as Operation Bulldozer Leak, designed to convince authorities that Hubbard had no legal liability for the actions of the church.", "Hubbard was kept informed of these operations, including as the theft of medical records from a hospital, harassment of psychiatrists, and infiltrations of organizations such as the Better Business Bureau, the American Medical Association, and American Psychiatric Association, U.S. Department of Justice, and the Internal Revenue Service.", "Paulette Cooper, a freelance journalist and scientology critic, was subjected to at least at least 19 lawsuits, framed for sending bomb threats, and was urged to climb onto a dangerous 33rd-floor ledge by a roommate later believed to be a Guardian's Office agent.===In hiding===After suffering a heart attack, Hubbard decided to relocate back to the United States.", "In October 1975, Hubbard moved into a hotel suite in Daytona Beach while the Fort Harrison Hotel in Clearwater, Florida, was secretly acquired as the location for the Sea Org \"land base\".", "According to a former member of the Sea Organization pseudonymously named \"Heidi Forrester\", in late 1975 she met with a man fitting Hubbard's description who apparently performed a Crowleyite sex magick ritual called Dianism using her.", "On June 11, 1976, the FBI apprehended two Guardian's Office agents inside the US Courthouse in D.C., prompting Hubbard to move cross country to a safe house in California, and later a nearby ranch.", "On October 28, 1976, Las Vegas police discovered Hubbard's son Quentin Hubbard unconscious in his car with a hose connected to the tailpipe.", "L. Ron Hubbard was furious at the news, shouting, \"That stupid fucking kid!", "Look what he's done to me!\"", "Scientologists were told that Quentin had died from encephalitis.", "On July 8, 1977, the FBI carried out simultaneous raids on Guardian's Office locations in Los Angeles and Washington, D.C.", "They retrieved wiretap equipment, burglary tools and some 90,000 pages of incriminating documents.", "On July 15, a week after the raid, Hubbard fled with Pat Broeker to Sparks, Nevada.", "On August 18, 1978, Hubbard suffered from a pulmonary embolism and fell into a coma, but recovered.", "Hubbard summoned his personal auditor, David Mayo, to heal him.", "In August 1979, Hubbard saw his wife for the last time.", "Hubbard was facing a possible indictment for his role in Operation Freakout, a campaign of attacks against journalist Paulette Cooper.", "In February 1980, Hubbard disappeared into deep cover in the company of two trusted messengers, Pat and Annie Broeker.", "For the first few years of the 1980s, Hubbard and the Broekers touring the Pacific Northwest in a recreational vehicle, later residing in Southern California.", "Hubbard returned to Science-Fiction, writing ''Battlefield Earth'' (1982) and ''Mission Earth'', a ten-volume series published between 1985 and 1987.In OT VIII, Hubbard discusses the Antichrist, a Christian apocalyptic figure, depicted here with the devil whispering into his left ear as visualized by Italian renaissance painter Luca Signorelli.In OT VIII, dated 1980, Hubbard explains the document is intended for circulation only after his death.", "In the document, Hubbard denounces the historic Jesus as \"a lover of young boys\" given to \"uncontrollable bursts of temper\".", "Hubbard explains that \"My mission could be said to fulfill the Biblical promise represented by this brief anti-Christ period.\"", "This was corroborated by a 1983 interview where Hubbard's son Nibs explained that his father believed he was the Anti-Christ.", "In December 1985, Hubbard allegedly attempted suicide by custom e-meter.", "On January 17, 1986, Hubbard suffered a stroke; He died a week later.", "His body was cremated and the ashes were scattered at sea." ], [ "Sources and doctrines", "Hubbard has been described as an \"eclectic and ingenious\" religious innovator who cobbled together ideas from a diverse array of sources and traditions.", "Hubbard explicitly cited Freud's psychoanalysis as a source for Dianetics and Scientology, renaming some terms.", "Hubbard's wife Sara recalled him discussing biologist Richard Semon, who had coined the term \"engram\" which became a centerpiece of Dianetics.", "Hubbard incorporated the 1920s psychoanalytic theory of birth trauma and taught his followers to maintain total silence during the birth process.", "Hubbard explicitly credited Social Darwinism pioneer Herbert Spencer who coined the phrase \"survival of the fittest\" -- Hubbard taught the 'one command' given to all life is to \"survive\" and later authored a book called ''Science of Survival''.", "Hubbard cited author Alfred Korzybski as an influence; after two years observing patients at St. Elizabeth's psychiatric hospital in D.C. in collaboration with superintendent William Alanson White, Korzybski published a tome titled ''Science and Sanity'' outlining a doctrine he called \"General Semantics\".", "After Korzybski founded an \"Institute\" to promote his teachings and began offering seminars, his ideas were incorporated into the science-fiction of Hubbard-associates Van Vogt and Heinlein, who envisioned futures where research into General Semantics had transformed some individuals into superhumans; Hubbard cited this fiction in a letter announcing the central principles of Dianetics: a book that promises to \"make supermen\".Through his exposure to both psychoanalysts and occultists, Hubbard drew inspiration from Eastern religions.", "Hubbard cited psychiatrist Joseph Thompson as teaching him the adage \"If it's not true for you, it's not true.", "\", a purportedly-Buddhist maxim which was later incorporated into Scientology.", "Reincarnation, originally a dharmic doctrine, entered Western occultism through the works of Blavatsky and numerous others.", "Fifteen years after Blavatsky followers unveiled \"The Bridge to Freedom\", Hubbard announced \"The Bridge to ''Total'' Freedom\".Hubbard's son Nibs said that Aleister Crowley was his father's most important source of inspiration, and scholar Hugh Urban has written extensively about the occult roots of Scientology.", "Nibs Hubbard said in an interview in 1983: Like Crowley, Hubbard identified himself with diabolical figures from the Book of Revelation.", "Just as Aleister Crowley taught a soul could temporarily leave their body through astral projection, Hubbard taught a thetan could journey outside the body by \"going exterior\".", "Hubbard also taught extensively about hypnosis and recommended a 1949 book on the subject.", "Hubbard told of hypnotic implants, privately teaching human religions are the product of such implants.", "The use of hypnosis or trance to remember past lives was an extant practice in occult circles prior to Dianetics.", "Crowley and Hubbard both placed emphasis on a Goddess figure, variously called Babalon, Hathor, or Diana – a name Hubbard gave to a ship and a daughter; the term Dianetics may have been inspired by the Goddess.", "Crowley taught a sex magic ritual called karezza or Dianism which Hubbard is believed to have practiced.The e-meter was constructed by inventor Volney Mathison, who introduced it to Hubbard.", "Similar devices had been in use by psychiatrists and law enforcement for decades.", "Hubbard likened his own teachings about interstellar empires and invader forces to the early 20th-century fiction genre Space Opera.", "Hubbard drew upon US Navy traditions in creating the Sea Org, and he once said the Commodore's Messenger Organization had been inspired by the Hitler Youth." ], [ "False biographical claims", "Hubbard claimed to have been wounded in combat, but was never awarded the Purple Heart (a decoration given to all US servicemen wounded in action).Throughout his lifespan, Hubbard made grossly exaggerated or outright false claims about his life.", "His estranged son Nibs reported that \"Ninety-nine percent of what my father ever wrote or said about himself\" was false.", "An acquaintance who knew Hubbard in Pasadena recalled recognizing Hubbard's epic autobiographical tales as being adapted from the writings of others.", "In October 1984, an American judge issued a ruling, writing of Hubbard that \"the evidence portrays a man who has been virtually a pathological liar when it comes to his history, background and achievements.\"", "In his private \"Affirmations\", Hubbard wrote to himself: Hubbard described his grandfather as a \"wealthy Western cattleman\", but contemporary records show that Hubbard's grandfather, Lafayette Waterbury, was a veterinarian, not a rancher, and was not wealthy.", "Hubbard claimed to be a \"blood brother\" of the Native American Blackfeet tribe, but Hubbard lived over a hundred miles from the Blackfeet reservation and the tribe did not practice blood brotherhood.", "Hubbard claimed to have been the youngest Eagle Scout in Boy Scouts history, but in fact the organization kept no records of the ages of Eagle Scouts.Hubbard claimed to have traveled to Manchuria, but his diary did not record it.", "Hubbard claimed to be a graduate engineer, but in fact he earned poor grades at university, was placed on probation in September 1931 and dropped out altogether in the fall of 1932.Hubbard used the title 'Doctor', but his only doctorate was from a diploma mill.", "Hubbard claimed to have been crippled and blinded in combat, but records show he was never wounded and never received a Purple Heart (a decoration given to all US servicemen wounded in action).", "Hubbard's Navy service records indicate that he received only four campaign medals rather than the twenty-one claimed by Church biographies." ], [ "Legacy", "Hubbard's great-grandson, slam poet Jamie DeWolf.Hubbard was survived by his wife Mary Sue and all of his children except his second son Quentin.", "His will provided a trust fund to support Mary Sue; her children Arthur, Diana and Suzette; and Katherine, the daughter of his first wife Polly.", "He disinherited two of his other children.", "L. Ron Hubbard, Jr. had become estranged, changed his name to \"Ronald DeWolf\" and, in 1982, sued unsuccessfully for control of his father's estate.", "Alexis Valerie, Hubbard's daughter by his second wife Sara, had attempted to contact her father in 1971.She was rebuffed with the implied claim that her real father was Jack Parsons rather than Hubbard, and that her mother had been a Nazi spy during the war.", "Both later accepted settlements when litigation was threatened.", "In 2001, Diana and Suzette were reported to still be Church members, while Arthur had left and become an artist.", "Hubbard's great-grandson, Jamie DeWolf, is a noted slam poet.Opinions are divided about Hubbard's literary legacy.", "One sociologist argued that even at Hubbard's peak in the late 1930s, he was regarded as merely \"a passable, familiar author but not one of the best\", while by the late-1970s \"the science fiction subculture wishes it could forget him\" and fans gave him a worse rating than any other of the \"Golden Age\" writers.", "''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction'' argues that while Hubbard could not be considered a peer of the \"prime movers\" like Asimov, Heinlein, and Sprague de Camp, Hubbard could be classed with Van Vogt as \"rogue members of the early Campbell pantheon\".", "Hubbard received various posthumous awards, having a street named after in him in Los Angeles and recognition of his birthday in Utah and New Jersey.Hubbard's beliefs and practices, drawn from a diverse set of sources, influenced numerous offshoots, splinter-groups, and new movements.Hubbard's teachings led to numerous offshoots and splinter groups.", "In 1966, two former Scientologists founded the Process Church of the Final Judgment which mixed Hubbard's teachings with Satanism.", "In 1969, a group led by former Scientologists Charles Manson and Bruce M. Davis was arrested and later convicted for their role in a series of high-profile murders.", "In 1971, former Scientologist Werner Erhard founded EST, a notable large group awareness training.", "In 1998, Keith Raniere drew upon Hubbard's writings and Erhard's techinques to create the large group awareness training ESP, a forerunner to the group NXIVM.", "Raniere offered students a chance to reach a superhuman state called \"Unified\" and taught Hubbard's doctrine of \"suppressive persons\"; Raniere was ultimately sentenced to 120 years for a pattern of crimes, including the sexual exploitation of a child, sex trafficking of women, and conspiracy to commit forced labor.", "In 2010, the Nation of Islam began introducing its followers to Hubbard's teachings, with leader Louis Farrakhan proclaiming \"I thank God for Mr. L. Ron Hubbard!", "\"===In Scientology===After his death, Scientology leaders announced that Hubbard's body had become an impediment to his work and that he had decided to \"drop his body\" to continue his research.", "The copyrights of his works and much of his estate were willed to the Church of Scientology.", "According to the church, Hubbard's entire corpus of Scientology and Dianetics texts are etched onto steel tablets in a vault under a mountain, on top of which a Hubbard-designed logo has been bulldozed, intended to be visible from space.Hubbard's presence pervades Scientology, and his birthday is celebrated annually.", "Every Church of Scientology maintains an office reserved for Hubbard, with a desk, chair and writing equipment, ready to be used.", "Hubbard is regarded as the ultimate source of Scientology -- he is often referred to as simply \"Source\", and he has no successor.per Lonnie D. Kliever Scientology has been described as \"a movement focused on the figure of Hubbard\".", "Hubbard is presented as \"the master of a multitude of disciplines\" who performed extraordinary feats as a photographer, composer, scientist, therapist, explorer, navigator, philosopher, poet, artist, humanitarian, adventurer, soldier, scout, musician and many other fields of endeavor.", "Busts and portraits of Hubbard are commonplace throughout Scientology organizations, and meetings involve a round of applause to Hubbard's portrait.", "In 2009, the American Religious Identification Survey found that 25,000 Americans identified as Scientologists.===In popular culture=== In the mid-1980s, the church began to promote Dianetics with a radio and television advertising blitz that was \"virtually unprecedented in book circles\".", "In March 1988, Dianetics topped the best-seller lists nationwide through an organized campaign of mass bookbuying -- Booksellers reported patrons buying hundreds of copies at once and later receiving ostensibly-new books from the publisher with store price stickers already attached.", "Hubbard's number of followers peaked in the early 1990s with roughly 100,000 scientologists worldwide.", "On November 21, 1997, the Fox network aired an episode of X-Files spinoff ''Millennium'' titled \"Jose Chung's Doomsday Defense\" which satirized Lafayette Ronald Hubbard's biography in an brief opening narration about a character named \"Juggernaut Onan Goopta\" who dreamt of becoming a neuroscientist only to discover that \"his own brain could not comprehend basic biology\".", "The character switches to philosophy, but \"while reading Kirkegaard's 'The Sickness unto Death', he became sick and nearly died\"; After writing an entire book in a \"single, feverish night\" that changed the course of human history, the character began lecturing to standing room only crowds, \"for he shrewdly refrained from providing chairs.\"", "In a satire of both Hubbard and George Santayana, the character explains that painful memories must be exterminated, saying \"those who cannot forget their past, are condemned to repeat it.\"", "The character establishes an institute where patients are called 'doctors' and founds a religious order called Selfosophy staffed by an elite paramilitary inspired by the US Postal Service.", "We are told the character died of cancer or \"molted his earthly encumbrance to pursue his Selfosophical research in another dimension\".On February 8, 1998, Fox comedy ''The Simpsons'' broadcast \"The Joy of Sect\", satirizing Hubbard and Scientology when the family joins a group called the Movementarians ruled over by a figure called \"The Leader\" who physically resembles L. Ron Hubbard.", "The Movementarians' use of a 10-trillion-year commitment for its members alludes to the billion-year contract and both groups make extensive use of litigation.In 2000, Hubbard's novel was adapted into a film called ''Battlefield Earth'', starring long-time Scientology celebrity John Travolta.", "In 2001, a film titled ''The Profit'' parodied Scientology and Hubbard.", "In 2005, animated comedy ''South Park'' aired the episode \"Trapped in the Closet\" in which protagonist Stan is believed to be the reincarnation of Hubbard.", "The episode broadcast the great secret behind the church—a condensed version of the Xenu story while an on-screen caption reads \"This is what Scientologists actually believe\".", "Prior to the episode, the story was almost completely unknown in mainstream culture.Paul Thomas Anderson's 2012 film ''The Master'' features a religious leader named Lancaster Dodd, played by Philip Seymour Hoffman, who is based on Hubbard and shares a physical resemblance to him.", "The film depicts a Navy washout with psychological issues who is unable to hold down steady employment after the war.", "Facing potential legal troubles, he flees California by stowing away on a ship captained by self-proclaimed nuclear physicist and philosopher Lancaster Dodd, leader of a movement called \"The Cause\".On December 5, 2013, The Eric Andre Show aired a comedy sketch titled \"Black Scientologists\" where André's character proclaims \"Not a lot of people know this, but L. Ron Hubbard was a black man.", "His real name was L. Ron Hoyabembe!", "\", while revealing an artist's conception of Hubbard wearing an afro.In April 2015, following the recent release of ''Going Clear: Scientology and the Prison of Belief'', ''Saturday Night Live'' aired a music video featuring the \"Church of Neurotology\", a parody of Scientology's 1990 music video \"We Stand Tall\".", "Bobby Moynihan played a Hubbard-lookalike in the video.", "From 2018 to 2019, the show Strange Angel dramatized the life of Jack Parsons.", "In the season 2 cliffhanger, actor Daniel Abeles played Hubbard; The series was never renewed." ], [ "Select bibliography", "Hubbard was a prolific writer and lecturer across a wide variety of genres.", "His works of fiction include several hundred short stories and many novels.", "According to the Church of Scientology, Hubbard produced some 65 million words on Dianetics and Scientology, contained in about 500,000 pages of written material, 3,000 recorded lectures and 100 films.", "; Early Fiction* ''Buckskin Brigades'' (1937) recounts the story of a white man adopted by the Blackfeet tribe.", "* ''Slaves of Sleep'' (1939) features a man, cursed by an evil genie, who instead of sleeping must now enter an Arabian Nights-like world ruled over by an evil-genie queen.", "* ''Death's Deputy'' (1940) is the story of an accident-prone pilot who seemingly cannot be killed* ''Final Blackout'' (1940) tells the story of a low-ranking British army officer who rises to the role of dictator.", "* ''Fear'' (1951), a psychological thriller, follows a professor who, after an episode of missing time, becomes paranoid that demons are haunting him.", "* ''Typewriter in the Sky'' (1951) features protagonist Mike de Wolf who finds himself inside a story being written by friend Horace Hackett.", "; Dianetics and Scientology* ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' (May 1950) introduced concepts like Engram, Reactive Mind, and the State of Clear.", "* ''Science of Survival'' (June 1951) introduced concepts like the tone scale, the Thetan, and past lives.", "* ''What to Audit'' (July 1952), later re-titled ''Scientology: A History of Man'' linked traumatic incidents throughout evolutionary history to modern health problems, for example, jaw trouble was said to result from unresolved trauma from having been a clam.", "* ''Scientology 8-80'' and ''Scientology 8-8008'' (November and December 1952) embraced the magical worldview, teaching that the physical universe is a creation of the mind.", "* ''The Fundamentals of Thought'' (1956) argued life is a game, describing some people as \"pieces\", others as \"players\", and an elite few as \"game makers\".", "* ''All About Radiation'' (1957) claimed radiation poisoning and cancer could be cured with vitamins.", "* ''Introduction to Scientology Ethics'' (1968) codified an authoritarian set of 'ethics conditions'.", "* ''Mission Into Time'' (1973) chronicled Hubbard's 1968 trip in the Mediterranean where he sought to find physical evidence of his past lives; Late fiction* ''Revolt in the Stars'' (1979), a screenplay version of the Xenu story* ''Battlefield Earth'' (1982), a novel set in the year 3000 when humanity has become an endangered species, it tells the story of tribesman Johnny Goodboy Tyler who leads humanity in rebellion against the Psychlos, an evil alien race.", "* ''Mission Earth'' (1985–87), a ten-book series, posthumously published, about an invasion of Earth by aliens called the Voltarian." ], [ "See also", "* Timeline of L. Ron Hubbard* Joseph Smith, creator of Mormonism* Helena Blavatsky, creator of Theosophy* Mary Baker Eddy, creator of Christian Science* Wallace Fard Muhammad, creator of the Nation of Islam" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "* * * * * * Evans, Christopher.", "''Cults of Unreason''.", "New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974., * * * * Melton, J. Gordon. ''", "Encyclopedic handbook of cults in America''.", "Taylor & Francis; 1992.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Biographical documentation from ''The New Yorker''* Operation Clambake.", "Critical material on Hubbard and Scientology* U.S. Government FBI Files for Hubbard via ''The Smoking Gun''* Frenschkowski, Marco, \"L. Ron Hubbard and Scientology: An annotated bibliographical survey of primary and selected secondary literature\", ''Marburg Journal of Religion'', Vol.", "1.No.", "1.July 1999, * * * Hubbard, L Ron at ''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction''* Hubbard, L Ron at the ''Encyclopedia of Fantasy''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Luddite" ], [ "Introduction", "''The Leader of the Luddites'', 1812.Hand-coloured etching.The '''Luddites''' were members of a 19th-century movement of English textile workers which opposed the use of certain types of cost-saving machinery, and often destroyed the machines in clandestine raids.", "They protested against manufacturers who used machines in \"a fraudulent and deceitful manner\" to replace the skilled labour of workers and drive down wages by producing inferior goods.", "Members of the group referred to themselves as Luddites, self-described followers of \"Ned Ludd\", a legendary weaver whose name was used as a pseudonym in threatening letters to mill owners and government officials.The Luddite movement began in Nottingham, England, and spread to the North West and Yorkshire between 1811 and 1816.Mill and factory owners took to shooting protesters and eventually the movement was suppressed by legal and military force, which included execution and penal transportation of accused and convicted Luddites.Over time, the term has been used to refer to those opposed to industrialisation, automation, computerisation, or new technologies in general." ], [ "Etymology", "The name Luddite () occurs in the movement's writings as early as 1811.The movement utilised the eponym of Ned Ludd, an apocryphal apprentice who allegedly smashed two stocking frames in 1779 after being criticized and instructed to change his method.", "The name often appears as captain, General, or King Ludd.", "Different versions of the legends place his residence in Anstey, near Leicester, or Sherwood Forest like Robin Hood.", "'Lud' or 'Ludd' (), according to Geoffrey of Monmouth's legendary ''History of the Kings of Britain'' and other medieval Welsh texts, was a Celtic King of 'The Islands of Britain' in pre-Roman times, who supposedly founded London and was buried at Ludgate.", "In the Welsh versions of Geoffrey's ''Historia'', usually called ''Brut y Brenhinedd'', he is called Lludd fab Beli, establishing the connection to the early mythological Lludd Llaw Eraint." ], [ "Historical precedents", "The machine-breaking of the Luddites followed from previous outbreaks of sabotage in the English textile industry, especially in the hosiery and woolen trades.", "Organized action by stockingers had occurred at various times since 1675.In Lancashire, new cotton spinning technologies were met with violent resistance in 1768 and 1779.These new inventions produced textiles faster and cheaper because they could be operated by less-skilled, low-wage labourers.", "These struggles sometimes resulted in government suppression, via Parliamentary acts such as the Protection of Stocking Frames, etc.", "Act 1788.Periodic uprisings relating to asset prices also occurred in other contexts in the century before Luddism.", "Irregular rises in food prices provoked the Keelmen to riot in the port of Tyne in 1710 and tin miners to steal from granaries at Falmouth in 1727.There was a rebellion in Northumberland and Durham in 1740, and an assault on Quaker corn dealers in 1756.Malcolm L. Thomas argued in his 1970 history ''The Luddites'' that machine-breaking was one of the very few tactics that workers could use to increase pressure on employers, undermine lower-paid competing workers, and create solidarity among workers.", "\"These attacks on machines did not imply any necessary hostility to machinery as such; machinery was just a conveniently exposed target against which an attack could be made.\"", "Historian Eric Hobsbawm has called their machine wrecking \"collective bargaining by riot\", which had been a tactic used in Britain since the Restoration because manufactories were scattered throughout the country, and that made it impractical to hold large-scale strikes.", "An agricultural variant of Luddism occurred during the widespread Swing Riots of 1830 in southern and eastern England, centring on breaking threshing machines." ], [ "Peak activity: 1811–1817", ":'' See also Barthélemy Thimonnier, whose sewing machines were destroyed by tailors''The Luddite movement emerged during the harsh economic climate of the Napoleonic Wars, which saw a rise in difficult working conditions in the new textile factories.", "Luddites objected primarily to the rising popularity of automated textile equipment, threatening the jobs and livelihoods of skilled workers as this technology allowed them to be replaced by cheaper and less skilled workers.", "The movement began in Arnold, Nottingham, on 11 March 1811 and spread rapidly throughout England over the following two years.", "The British economy suffered greatly in 1810 to 1812, especially in terms of high unemployment and inflation.", "The causes included the high cost of the wars with Napoleon, Napoleon's Continental System of economic warfare, and escalating conflict with the United States.", "The crisis led to widespread protest and violence, but the middle classes and upper classes strongly supported the government, which used the army to suppress all working-class unrest, especially the Luddite movement.The Luddites met at night on the moors surrounding industrial towns to practice military-like drills and manoeuvres.", "Their main areas of operation began in Nottinghamshire in November 1811, followed by the West Riding of Yorkshire in early 1812, and then Lancashire by March 1813.They wrecked specific types of machinery that posed a threat to the particular industrial interests in each region.", "In the Midlands, these were the \"wide\" knitting frames used to make cheap and inferior lace articles.", "In the North West, weavers sought to eliminate the steam-powered looms threatening wages in the cotton trade.", "In Yorkshire, workers opposed the use of shearing frames and gig mills to finish woolen cloth.Many Luddite groups were highly organized and pursued machine-breaking as one of several tools for achieving specific political ends.", "In addition to the raids, Luddites coordinated public demonstrations and the mailing of letters to local industrialists and government officials.", "These letters explained their reasons for destroying the machinery and threatened further action if the use of \"obnoxious\" machines continued.", "The writings of Midlands Luddites often justified their demands through the legitimacy of the Company of Framework Knitters, a recognized public body that already openly negotiated with masters through named representatives.", "In North West England, textile workers lacked these long-standing trade institutions and their letters composed an attempt to achieve recognition as a united body of tradespeople.", "As such, they were more likely to include petitions for governmental reforms, such as increased minimum wages and the cessation of child labor.", "Northwestern Luddites were also more likely to use radical language linking their movement to that of American and French revolutionaries.", "In Yorkshire, the letter-writing campaign shifted to more violent threats against local authorities viewed as complicit in the use of offensive machinery to exert greater commercial control over the labor market.", "Differences in the occupational composition (e.g., frameworkers, weavers, spinners) of each region manifested as variation in the Luddites' rhetoric, tactics, and degree of organization.Luddites clashed with government troops at Burton's Mill in Middleton and at Westhoughton Mill, both in Lancashire.", "The Luddites and their supporters anonymously sent death threats to, and possibly attacked, magistrates and food merchants.", "Activists smashed Heathcote's lacemaking machine in Loughborough in 1816.He and other industrialists had secret chambers constructed in their buildings that could be used as hiding places during an attack.In 1817, an unemployed Nottingham stockinger and probably ex-Luddite, named Jeremiah Brandreth led the Pentrich Rising.", "While this was a general uprising unrelated to machinery, it can be viewed as the last major Luddite act." ], [ "Government response", "The British government ultimately dispatched 12,000 troops to suppress Luddite activity, which historian Eric Hobsbawm said was a larger number than the army which the Duke of Wellington led during the Peninsular War.", "Four Luddites, led by a man named George Mellor, ambushed and assassinated mill owner William Horsfall of Ottiwells Mill in Marsden, West Yorkshire, at Crosland Moor in Huddersfield.", "Horsfall had remarked that he would \"Ride up to his saddle in Luddite blood\".", "Mellor fired the fatal shot to Horsfall's groin, and all four men were arrested.", "One of the men, Benjamin Walker, turned informant, and the other three were hanged.", "Lord Byron denounced what he considered to be the plight of the working class, the government's inane policies and ruthless repression in the House of Lords on 27 February 1812: \"I have been in some of the most oppressed provinces of Turkey; but never, under the most despotic of infidel governments, did I behold such squalid wretchedness as I have seen since my return, in the very heart of a Christian country\".Government officials sought to suppress the Luddite movement with a mass trial at York in January 1813, following the attack on Cartwrights Mill at Rawfolds near Cleckheaton.", "The government charged over 60 men, including Mellor and his companions, with various crimes in connection with Luddite activities.", "While some of those charged were actual Luddites, many had no connection to the movement.", "Although the proceedings were legitimate jury trials, many were abandoned due to lack of evidence and 30 men were acquitted.", "These trials were certainly intended to act as show trials to deter other Luddites from continuing their activities.", "The harsh sentences of those found guilty, which included execution and penal transportation, quickly ended the movement.", "Parliament made \"machine breaking\" (i.e.", "industrial sabotage) a capital crime with the Frame Breaking Act of 1812.Lord Byron opposed this legislation, becoming one of the few prominent defenders of the Luddites after the treatment of the defendants at the York trials." ], [ "Legacy", "In the 19th century, occupations that arose from the growth of trade and shipping in ports, also as \"domestic\" manufacturers, were notorious for precarious employment prospects.", "Underemployment was chronic during this period, and it was common practice to retain a larger workforce than was typically necessary for insurance against labour shortages in boom times.Moreover, the organization of manufacture by merchant capitalists in the textile industry was inherently unstable.", "While the financiers' capital was still largely invested in raw materials, it was easy to increase commitment when trade was good and almost as easy to cut back when times were bad.", "Merchant capitalists lacked the incentive of later factory owners, whose capital was invested in buildings and plants, to maintain a steady rate of production and return on fixed capital.", "The combination of seasonal variations in wage rates and violent short-term fluctuations springing from harvests and war produced periodic outbreaks of violence." ], [ "Modern usage", "Nowadays, the term \"Luddite\" often is used to describe someone who is opposed or resistant to new technologies.In 1956, during a British Parliamentary debate, a Labour spokesman said that \"organised workers were by no means wedded to a 'Luddite Philosophy'.\"", "By 2006, the term ''neo-Luddism'' had emerged to describe opposition to many forms of technology.", "According to a manifesto drawn up by the Second Luddite Congress (April 1996; Barnesville, Ohio), neo-Luddism is \"a leaderless movement of passive resistance to consumerism and the increasingly bizarre and frightening technologies of the Computer Age\".The term \"Luddite fallacy\" is used by economists about the fear that technological unemployment inevitably generates structural unemployment and is consequently macroeconomically injurious.", "If a technological innovation reduces necessary labour inputs in a given sector, then the industry-wide cost of production falls, which lowers the competitive price and increases the equilibrium supply point that, theoretically, will require an increase in aggregate labour inputs.", "During the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st century, the dominant view among economists has been that belief in long-term technological unemployment was indeed a fallacy.", "More recently, there has been increased support for the view that the benefits of automation are not equally distributed." ], [ "See also", "* Postdevelopment theory* Ted Kaczynski* Ruddington Framework Knitters' Museum – features a Luddite gallery* Simple living* Swing Riots* Technophobia* Turner Controversy – return to pre-industrial methods of production" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Anderson, Gary M., and Robert D. Tollison.", "\"Luddism as cartel enforcement.\"", "''Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics (JITE)/Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft'' 142.4 (1986): 727–738..* * * Darvall, F. ''Popular Disturbances and Public Order in Regency England'' (Oxford University Press, 1934)* Dinwiddy, John.", "\"Luddism and politics in the northern counties.\"", "''Social History'' 4.1 (1979): 33–63.", "* * * Haywood, Ian.", "\"Unruly People: The Spectacular Riot.\"", "in ''Bloody Romanticism'' (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2006) pp. 181–222.", "* * Horn, Jeff.", "\"Machine-Breaking and the 'Threat from Below' in Great Britain and France during the Early Industrial Revolution.\"", "in ''Crowd actions in Britain and France from the middle ages to the modern world'' (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2015) pp. 165–178.", "* * Linebaugh, Peter.", "''Ned Ludd & Queen Mab: machine-breaking, romanticism, and the several commons of 1811-12'' (PM Press, 2012).", "* Linton, David.", "\"The Luddites: How did they get that bad reputation?\"", "''Labor History'' 33.4 (1992): 529–537..* * Munger, Frank.", "\"Suppression of Popular Gatherings in England, 1800–1830\".", "''American Journal of Legal History'' 25 (1981): 111+.", "* Navickas, Katrina.", "\"The search for 'general Ludd': The mythology of Luddism.\"", "''Social History'' 30.3 (2005): 281–295.", "* O’Rourke, Kevin Hjortshøj, Ahmed S. Rahman, and Alan M. Taylor.", "\"Luddites, the industrial revolution, and the demographic transition.\"", "''Journal of Economic Growth'' 18.4 (2013): 373–409..* Pallas, Stephen J.", "The Hell that Bigots Frame': Queen Mab, Luddism, and the Rhetoric of Working-Class Revolution\".", "''Journal for the Study of Radicalism'' 12.2 (2018): 55–80..", ".", "* Patterson, A. Temple.", "\"Luddism, Hampden Clubs, and Trade Unions in Leicestershire, 1816–17.\"", "''English Historical Review ''63.247 (1948): 170–188.online* Poitras, Geoffrey.", "\"The Luddite trials: Radical suppression and the administration of criminal justice\".", "''Journal for the Study of Radicalism'' 14.1 (2020): 121–166.", "* * * * * Stöllinger, Roman.", "\"The Luddite rebellion: Past and present\".", "''wiiw Monthly Report'' 11 (2018): 6–11.", "* Thomis, Malcolm I.", "''The Luddites: Machine-Breaking in Regency England'' (Archon Books.", "1970).", "* Thompson, E. P. (1968).", "''The Making of the English Working Class''.", "* Wasserstrom, Jeffrey.", "Civilization' and Its Discontents: The Boxers and Luddites as Heroes and Villains.\"", "''Theory and Society'' (1987): 675–707..===Primary sources===*" ], [ "External links", "* Luddite Bicentenary – Comprehensive chronicle of the Luddite uprisings* The Luddite Link – Comprehensive historical resources for the original West Yorkshire Luddites, University of Huddersfield* ''Luddism and the Neo-Luddite Reaction'' by Martin Ryder, University of Colorado at Denver School of Education* The Luddites and the Combination Acts from the Marxists Internet Archive* ''The Luddites'' (1988)—Thames Television drama-documentary about the West Riding Luddites." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Anarchist communism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Anarchist communism''' is a political philosophy and anarchist school of thought that advocates communism.", "It calls for the abolition of private property but retention of personal property and collectively-owned items, goods, and services.", "It supports social ownership of property and the distribution of resources \"From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs\".Anarchist communism was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the International Workingmen's Association.", "The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections.", "Examples of anarchist communist societies are the anarchist territories of the Makhnovshchina during the Russian Revolution, and those of the Spanish Revolution, most notably revolutionary Catalonia." ], [ "History", "=== Forerunners ===The modern current of communism was founded by the Neo-Babouvists of the journal ''L'Humanitaire'', who drew from the \"anti-political and anarchist ideas\" of Sylvain Maréchal.", "The foundations of anarcho-communism were laid by Théodore Dézamy in his 1843 work ''Code de la Communauté'', which was formulated as a critique of Étienne Cabet's utopian socialism.", "In his ''Code'', Dézamy advocated the abolition of money, the division of labour and the state, and the introduction of common ownership of property and the distribution of resources \"from each according to their ability, to each according to their needs\".", "In anticipation of anarchist communism, Dézamy rejected the need for a transitional stage between capitalism and communism, instead calling for immediate communisation through the direct cessation of commerce.Painting of the June Days uprising, which Joseph Déjacque considered to be a social revolution by the proletariat.Following the French Revolution of 1848, Joseph Déjacque formulated a radical form of communism that opposed both the revolutionary republicanism of Auguste Blanqui and the mutualism of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.", "Déjacque opposed the authoritarian conception of a \"dictatorship of the proletariat\", which he consided to be inherently reactionary and counter-revolutionary.", "Instead, he upheld the autonomy and self-organisation of the workers, which he saw expressed during the June Days uprising, against the representative politics of governmentalism.", "Opposed not just to government, but to all forms of oppression, Déjacque advocated for a social revolution to abolish the state, as well as religion, the nuclear family and private property.", "In their place, Déjacque upheld a form of anarchy based on the free distribution of resources.Déjacque particularly focused his critique on private commerce, such as that espoused by Proudhon and the Ricardian socialists.", "He considered a worker's right to be to the satisfaction of their needs, rather than to keep the product of their own labour, as he felt the latter would inevitably lead to capital accumulation.", "He thus advocated for all property to be held under common ownership and for \"unlimited freedom of production and consumption\", subordinated only to the authority of the \"statistics book\".", "In order to guarantee the universal satisfaction of needs, Déjacque saw the need for the abolition of forced labour through workers' self-management, and the abolition of the division of labour through integrating the proletariat and the intelligentsia into a single class.", "In order to achieve this vision of a communist society, he proposed a transitionary period of in which direct democracy and direct exchange would be upheld, positions of state would undergo democratization, and the police and military would be abolished.", "Déjacque's communist platform outlined in his ''Humanisphere'' preceded the program of the Paris Commune, and would anticipate the anarcho-communism later elaborated by Errico Malatesta, Peter Kropotkin and Luigi Galleani.=== Formulation in the International Workingmen's Association ===Mikhail Bakunin, leader of the anti-authoritarian faction within the International Workingmen's Association.The International Workingmen's Association (IWA) was established in 1864, at a time when a formalised anarchist movement did not yet exist.", "Of the few individual anarchists that were influential at this time, it was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's conception of federalism and his advocacy of abstentionism that inspired many of the French delegates that founded the IWA and lay the groundwork for the growth of anarchism.", "Among the French delegates were a more radical minority that opposed Proudhon's mutualism, which held the nuclear family as its base social unit.", "Led by the trade unionist Eugène Varlin, the radicals advocated for a \"non-authoritarian communism\", which upheld the commune as the base social unit and advocated for the universal access to education.", "It was the entry of Mikhail Bakunin into the IWA that first infused the federalists with a programme of revolutionary socialism and anti-statism, which agitated for workers' self-management and direct action against capitalism and the state.By this time, the Marxists of the IWA had begun to denounce their anti-authoritarian opponents as \"anarchists\", a label previously adopted by Proudhon and Déjacque and later accepted by the anti-authoritarians themselves.", "Following the defeat of the Paris Commune in 1871, the IWA split over questions of socialist economics and the means of bringing about a classless society.", "Karl Marx, who favoured the conquest of state power by political parties, banned the anarchists from the IWA.", "The anarchist faction around the Jura Federation resolved to reconstitute as their own Anti-Authoritarian International, which was constructed as a more decentralised and federal organisation.", "Two of the IWA's largest branches, in Italy and Spain, repudiated Marxism and adopted the anti-authoritarian platform.James Guillaume, whose work set the foundation for the development of communism from collectivism.As a collectivist, Bakunin had himself opposed communism, which he considered to be an inherently authoritarian ideology.", "But with Bakunin's death in 1876, the anarchists began to shift away from his theory of collectivism and towards an anarchist communism.", "The term \"anarchist communism\" was first printed in François Dumartheray's February 1876 pamphlet, ''To manual workers, supporters of political action''.", "Élisée Reclus was quick to express his support for anarchist communism, at a meeting of the Anti-Authoritarian International in Lausanne the following month.", "James Guillaume's August 1876 pamphlet, ''Ideas on Social Organisation'', outlined a proposal by which the collective ownership of the means of production could be used in order to transition towards a communist society.", "Guillaume considered a necessary prerequisite for communism would be a general condition of abundance, which could set the foundation for the abandonment of exchange value and the free distribution of resources.", "This program for anarcho-communism was adopted by the Italian anarchists, who had already begun to question collectivism.Carlo Cafiero, who led the break from collectivist anarchism with the first programme for anarchist communism.Although Guillaume had himself remained neutral throughout the debate, in September 1877, the Italian anarcho-communists clashed with the Spanish collectivists at what would be the Anti-Authoritarian International's final congress in Verviers.", "Alongside the economic question, the two factions were also divided by the question of organisation.", "While the collectivists upheld trade unions as a means for achieving anarchy, the communists considered them to be inherently reformist and counter-revolutionary organisations that were prone to bureaucracy and corruption.", "Instead, the communists preferred small, loosely-organised affinity groups, which they believed closer conformed to anti-authoritarian principles.", "In October 1880, a Congress of the defunct International's Jura Federation adopted Carlo Cafiero's programme of ''Anarchy and Communism'', which outlined a clear break with Guillaume's collectivist programme.", "Cafiero rejected the use of an exchange value and the collective ownership of industry, which he believed would lead to capital accumulation and consequently social stratification.", "Instead Cafiero called for the abolition of all wage labour, which he saw as a relic of capitalism, and for the distribution of resources \"from each according to their ability, to each according to their needs\".=== Organizationalism vs. insurrectionarism and expansion ===As anarcho-communism emerged in the mid-19th century, it had an intense debate with Bakuninist collectivism and, within the anarchist movement, over participation in the workers' movement, as well as on other issues.", "So in \"the theory of the revolution\" of anarcho-communism as elaborated by Peter Kropotkin and others, \"it is the risen people who are the real agent and not the working class organised in the enterprise (the cells of the capitalist mode of production) and seeking to assert itself as labour power, as a more 'rational' industrial body or social brain (manager) than the employers\".Luigi Galleani was an influential anarchist advocate of insurrectionary anarchismBetween 1880 and 1890, with the \"perspective of an immanent revolution\", who was \"opposed to the official workers' movement, which was then in the process of formation (general Social Democratisation).", "They were opposed not only to political (statist) struggles but also to strikes which put forward wage or other claims, or which were organised by trade unions.\"", "However, \"while they were not opposed to strikes as such, they were opposed to trade unions and the struggle for the eight-hour day.", "This anti-reformist tendency was accompanied by an anti-organisational tendency, and its partisans declared themselves in favor of agitation amongst the unemployed for the expropriation of foodstuffs and other articles, for the expropriatory strike and, in some cases, for 'individual recuperation' or acts of terrorism.", "\"Even after Peter Kropotkin and others overcame their initial reservations and decided to enter labor unions, there remained \"the anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists, who in France were grouped around Sébastien Faure's ''Le Libertaire''.", "From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal 'expropriations'.\"", "Proponents and activists of these tactics, among others, included Johann Most, Luigi Galleani, Victor Serge, Giuseppe Ciancabilla, and Severino Di Giovanni.", "By the 1880s, anarcho-communism was already present in the United States, as seen in the journal ''Freedom: A Revolutionary Anarchist-Communist Monthly'' by Lucy Parsons and Lizzy Holmes.", "Another anarcho-communist journal later appeared in the United States called ''The Firebrand''.", "Most anarchist publications in the United States were in Yiddish, German, or Russian, but ''Free Society'' was published in English, permitting the dissemination of anarchist communist thought to English-speaking populations in the United States.", "Around that time, these American anarcho-communist sectors debated with the individualist anarchist group around Benjamin Tucker.", "According to the anarchist historian Max Nettlau, the first use of the term \"libertarian communism\" was in November 1880, when a French anarchist congress employed it to identify its doctrines more clearly.", "The French anarchist journalist Sébastien Faure, later founder and editor of the four-volume ''Anarchist Encyclopedia,'' started the weekly paper (''The Libertarian'') in 1895.=== Methods of organizing: platformism vs. synthesism ===Nestor Makhno, 1921In Ukraine, the anarcho-communist guerrilla leader Nestor Makhno led an independent anarchist army during the Russian Civil War.", "A commander of the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine, Makhno led a guerrilla campaign opposing both the Bolshevik \"Reds\" and monarchist \"Whites\".", "The Makhnovist movement made various tactical military pacts while fighting various reaction forces and organizing an anarchist society committed to resisting state authority, whether capitalist or Bolshevik.The Platform attracted strong criticism from many sectors of the anarchist movement of the time, including some of the most influential anarchists such as Volin, Errico Malatesta, Luigi Fabbri, Camillo Berneri, Max Nettlau, Alexander Berkman, Emma Goldman, and Grigorii Maksimov.", "Malatesta, after initially opposing the Platform, later agreed with the Platform, confirming that the original difference of opinion was due to linguistic confusion: \"I find myself more or less in agreement with their way of conceiving the anarchist organisation (being very far from the authoritarian spirit which the \"Platform\" seemed to reveal) and I confirm my belief that behind the linguistic differences really lie identical positions.", "\"Sébastien Faure, French anarcho-communist proponent of synthesis anarchismTwo texts made by the anarchist communists Sébastien Faure and Volin as responses to the Platform, each proposing different models, are the basis for what became known as the organization of synthesis, or simply synthesism.", "Volin published in 1924 a paper calling for \"the anarchist synthesis\" and was also the author of the article in Sébastien Faure's on the same topic.", "The primary purpose behind the synthesis was that the anarchist movement in most countries was divided into three main tendencies: communist anarchism, anarcho-syndicalism, and individualist anarchism, and so such an organization could contain anarchists of these three tendencies very well.", "Faure, in his text \"Anarchist synthesis\", has the view that \"these currents were not contradictory but complementary, each having a role within anarchism: anarcho-syndicalism as the strength of the mass organizations and the best way for the practice of anarchism; libertarian communism as a proposed future society based on the distribution of the fruits of labor according to the needs of each one; anarcho-individualism as a negation of oppression and affirming the individual right to development of the individual, seeking to please them in every way.", "The Dielo Truda platform in Spain also met with strong criticism.", "Miguel Jimenez, a founding member of the Iberian Anarchist Federation (FAI), summarized this as follows: too much influence in it of Marxism, it erroneously divided and reduced anarchists between individualist anarchists and anarcho-communist sections, and it wanted to unify the anarchist movement along the lines of the anarcho-communists.", "He saw anarchism as more complex than that, that anarchist tendencies are not mutually exclusive as the platformists saw it and that both individualist and communist views could accommodate anarchosyndicalism.", "Sébastian Faure had strong contacts in Spain, so his proposal had more impact on Spanish anarchists than the Dielo Truda platform, even though individualist anarchist influence in Spain was less intense than it was in France.", "The main goal there was reconciling anarcho-communism with anarcho-syndicalism.=== Spanish Revolution of 1936 ===CNT-FAI Anarchists during the Spanish Revolution of 1936The most extensive application of anarcho-communist ideas happened in the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution.anarcho-syndicalist CNT–FAI confederation of labor unions during the Spanish Civil War representing the anarchist faction of the conflict.", "Today, the flag is commonly used by anarcho-communists, anarcho-syndicalists, libertarian socialists, and, more generally, social anarchists alike.In Spain, the national anarcho-syndicalist trade union Confederación Nacional del Trabajo initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right-wing election victory.", "In 1936, the CNT changed its policy, and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power.", "Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939).", "In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and industrial workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and large areas of rural Spain, where they collectivized the land.", "However, even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the Stalinists, who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the Soviet Union.", "The events known as the Spanish Revolution was a workers' social revolution that began during the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 and resulted in the widespread implementation of anarchist and, more broadly, libertarian socialist organizational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three years, primarily Catalonia, Aragon, Andalusia, and parts of the Levante.", "Much of Spain's economy was put under worker control; in anarchist strongholds like Catalonia, the figure was as high as 75%, but lower in areas with heavy Communist Party of Spain influence, as the Soviet-allied party actively resisted attempts at collectivization enactment.", "Factories were run through worker committees, and agrarian areas became collectivized and ran as libertarian communes.", "Anarchist historian Sam Dolgoff estimated that about eight million people participated directly or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution, which he claimed \"came closer to realizing the ideal of the free stateless society on a vast scale than any other revolution in history\".", "Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both dissident Marxists and anarchists.anti-fascist poster from the libertarian socialist factions of Madrid, Spain, reading \"The surveillance of the city must be ensured by the Antifascist Popular Guard\" as a warning of Nationalist terrorismAlthough every sector of the stateless parts of Spain had undergone workers' self-management, collectivization of agricultural and industrial production, and in parts using money or some degree of private property, heavy regulation of markets by democratic communities, other areas throughout Spain used no money at all, and followed principles in accordance with \"From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs\".", "One such example was the libertarian communist village of Alcora in the Valencian Community, where money was absent, and the distribution of properties and services was done based upon needs, not who could afford them.=== Post-war years ===Anarcho-communism entered into internal debates over the organization issue in the post-World War II era.", "Founded in October 1935, the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina (FACA, Federación Anarco-Comunista Argentina) in 1955 renamed itself the Argentine Libertarian Federation.", "The Fédération Anarchiste (FA) was founded in Paris on 2 December 1945 and elected the platformist anarcho-communist George Fontenis as its first secretary the following year.", "It was composed of a majority of activists from the former FA (which supported Volin's Synthesis) and some members of the former Union Anarchiste, which supported the CNT-FAI support to the Republican government during the Spanish Civil War, as well as some young Resistants.", "In 1950 a clandestine group formed within the FA called Organisation Pensée Bataille (OPB), led by George Fontenis.", "The ''Manifesto of Libertarian Communism'' was written in 1953 by Georges Fontenis for the ''Federation Communiste Libertaire'' of France.", "It is one of the key texts of the anarchist-communist current known as platformism.", "The OPB pushed for a move that saw the FA change its name to the (FCL) after the 1953 Congress in Paris, while an article in indicated the end of the cooperation with the French Surrealist Group led by André Breton.The new decision-making process was founded on unanimity: each person has a right of veto on the orientations of the federation.", "The FCL published the same year .", "Several groups quit the FCL in December 1955, disagreeing with the decision to present \"revolutionary candidates\" to the legislative elections.", "On 15–20 August 1954, the Ve intercontinental plenum of the CNT took place.", "A group called appeared, which was formed of militants who did not like the new ideological orientation that the OPB was giving the FCL seeing it was authoritarian and almost Marxist.", "The FCL lasted until 1956, just after participating in state legislative elections with ten candidates.", "This move alienated some members of the FCL and thus produced the end of the organization.", "A group of militants who disagreed with the FA turning into FCL reorganized a new Federation Anarchiste established in December 1953.This included those who formed ''L'Entente anarchiste,'' who joined the new FA and then dissolved L'Entente.", "The new base principles of the FA were written by the individualist anarchist Charles-Auguste Bontemps and the non-platformist anarcho-communist Maurice Joyeux which established an organization with a plurality of tendencies and autonomy of groups organized around synthesist principles.", "According to historian Cédric Guérin, \"the unconditional rejection of Marxism became from that moment onwards an identity element of the new Federation Anarchiste\".", "This was motivated in a significant part by the previous conflict with George Fontenis and his OPB.In Italy, the Italian Anarchist Federation was founded in 1945 in Carrara.", "It adopted an \"Associative Pact\" and the \"Anarchist Program\" of Errico Malatesta.", "It decided to publish the weekly ''Umanità Nova,'' retaking the name of the journal published by Errico Malatesta.", "Inside the FAI, the Anarchist Groups of Proletarian Action (GAAP) was founded, led by Pier Carlo Masini, which \"proposed a Libertarian Party with an anarchist theory and practice adapted to the new economic, political and social reality of post-war Italy, with an internationalist outlook and effective presence in the workplaces ...", "The GAAP allied themselves with the similar development within the French Anarchist movement\", as led by George Fontenis.", "In the early seventies, a platformist tendency emerged within the Italian Anarchist Federation, which argued for more strategic coherence and social insertion in the workers' movement while rejecting the synthesist \"Associative Pact\" of Malatesta, which the FAI adhered to.", "These groups started organizing themselves outside the FAI in organizations such as O.R.A.", "from Liguria, which organized a Congress attended by 250 delegates of groups from 60 locations.", "This movement was influential in the movements of the seventies.", "They published in Bologna and from Modena.", "The Federation of Anarchist Communists (), or FdCA, was established in 1985 in Italy from the fusion of the (''Revolutionary Anarchist Organisation'') and the (''Tuscan Union of Anarchist Communists'').The International of Anarchist Federations (IAF/IFA) was founded during an international anarchist conference in Carrara in 1968 by the three existing European anarchist federations of France (), Italy (), and Spain () as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile.", "These organizations were also inspired by synthesist principles.=== Contemporary times ===The synthesist Italian Anarchist Federation and the platformist Federation of Anarchist Communists continue to exist today in Italy, but insurrectionary anarchism continues to be relevant, as the recent establishment of the Informal Anarchist Federation shows.In the 1970s, the French Fédération Anarchiste evolved into a joining of the principles of synthesis anarchism and platformism.", "Later the platformist organizations Libertarian Communist Organization (France) in 1976 and Alternative libertaire in 1991 appeared, with this last one existing until today alongside the synthesist Fédération Anarchiste.", "Recently, platformist organizations founded the now-defunct International Libertarian Solidarity network and its successor, the Anarkismo network, which is run collaboratively by roughly 30 platformist organizations worldwide." ], [ "Economic theory", "The abolition of money, prices, and wage labor are central to anarchist communism.", "With the distribution of wealth being based on self-determined needs, people would be free to engage in whatever activities they found most fulfilling and would no longer have to engage in work for which they have neither the temperament nor the aptitude.Anarcho-communists argue that there is no good way of measuring the value of any person's economic contributions because all wealth is a common product of current and preceding generations.", "For instance, one could not measure the value of a factory worker's daily production without considering how transportation, food, water, shelter, relaxation, machine efficiency, emotional mood, etc., contributed to their production.", "To honestly give numerical economic value to anything, an overwhelming amount of externalities and contributing factors would need to be considered—especially current or past labor contributing to the ability to utilize future labor.", "As Kropotkin put it: \"No distinction can be drawn between the work of each man.", "Measuring the work by its results leads us to absurdity; dividing and measuring them by hours spent on the work also leads us to absurdity.", "One thing remains: put the needs above the works, and first of all recognize the right to live, and later on, to the comforts of life, for all those who take their share in production..\"''The Conquest of Bread'' by Peter Kropotkin, an influential work that presents the economic vision of anarcho-communismCommunist anarchism shares many traits with collectivist anarchism, but the two are distinct.", "Collectivist anarchism believes in collective ownership, while communist anarchism negates the entire concept of ownership in favor of the concept of usage.=== Gift economies and commons-based organizing ===Watercolor by James G. Swan depicting the Klallam people of chief Chetzemoka at Port Townsend, with one of Chetzemoka's wives distributing potlatchTraditional societies dominated by gift exchange were small in scale and geographically remote from each other.", "Market exchange dominated as states formed to regulate trade and commerce within their boundaries.", "Nonetheless, gift exchange continues to play an essential role in modern society.", "Contrary to popular conception, there is no evidence that societies relied only on barter before using money for trade.", "Instead, non-monetary societies operated primarily along the principles of gift economics, and in more complex economies, on debt.", "When barter occurred, it was usually between strangers or would-be enemies.The expansion of the Internet has witnessed a resurgence of the gift economy, especially in the technology sector.", "Engineers, scientists, and software developers create open-source software projects.", "The Linux kernel and the GNU operating system are prototypical examples of the gift economy's prominence in the technology sector and its active role in using permissive free software and copyleft licenses, which allow free reuse of software and knowledge.", "Other examples include file-sharing, the commons, and open access.", "Anarchist scholar Uri Gordon has argued:The interest in such economic forms goes back to Peter Kropotkin, who saw in the hunter-gatherer tribes he had visited the paradigm of \"mutual aid\"." ], [ "Philosophical debates", "=== Motivation ===Anarchist communists reject the belief that wage labor is necessary because people are selfish by human nature.", "Most would point to examples of humans being willing to sacrifice time or resources for others and believe that systems of wage labor and state taxation serve more to restrict that instinct to help others rather than ensuring a society continues to function.", "Anarcho-communists generally do not agree with the belief in a pre-set \"human nature\", arguing that human culture and behavior are primarily determined by socialization and the mode of production.", "Many anarchist communists, like Peter Kropotkin, also believe that the human evolutionary tendency is for humans to cooperate for mutual benefit and survival instead of existing as lone competitors, a position that Kropotkin argued for at length.While anarchist communists such as Peter Kropotkin and Murray Bookchin believed that the members of such a society would voluntarily perform all necessary labor because they would recognize the benefits of communal enterprise and mutual aid, other anarchist communists such as Nestor Makhno and Ricardo Flores Magón argue that all those able to work in an anarchist communist society should be obligated to do so, excepting groups like children, the elderly, the sick, or the infirm.", "Kropotkin did not think laziness or sabotage would be a significant problem in an authentically anarchist-communist society.", "However, he did agree that a freely associated anarchist commune could, and probably should, deliberately disassociate from those not fulfilling their communal agreement to do their share of work.", "Peter Gelderloos, based on the Kibbutz, argues that motivation in a moneyless society would be found in the satisfaction of work, concern for the community, competition for prestige, and praise from other community members.=== Freedom, work, and leisure ===Anarchist communists support communism as a means for ensuring the greatest freedom and well-being for everyone, rather than only the wealthy and powerful.", "In this sense, anarchist communism is a profoundly egalitarian philosophy.Kropotkin said that the main authoritarian mistakes in communist experiments of the past were their being based on \"religious enthusiasm\" and the desire to live \"as a family\" where the individual had to \"submit to the dictates of a punctilious morality\".", "For him, anarcho-communism should be based on the right of free association and disassociation for individuals and groups and on significantly lowering the number of hours each individual dedicates to necessary labor.", "He says that \"to recognise a variety of occupations as the basis of all progress and to organise in such a way that man may be absolutely free during his leisure time, whilst he may also vary his work, a change for which his early education and instruction will have prepared him—this can easily be put in practice in a Communist society—this, again, means the emancipation of the individual, who will find doors open in every direction for his complete development\".=== Individualism and collectivism ===Peter Kropotkin argued that individuals sacrificing themselves for the \"greater\", or being ruled by the \"community\" or \"society\", is not possible because society is composed of individuals rather than being a cohesive unit separate from the individual and argue that collective control over the individual is tyrannical and antithetical to anarchism.", "Others such as Lucien van der Walt and Michael Schmidt argue that \"the anarchists did not ... identify freedom with the right of everybody to do exactly what one pleased but with a social order in which collective effort and responsibilities—that is to say, obligations—would provide the material basis and social nexus in which individual freedom could exist.\"", "They argued that \"genuine freedom and individuality could only exist in a free society\" and that in contrast to \"misanthropic bourgeois individualism\" anarchism was based in \"a deep love of freedom, understood as a social product, a deep respect for human rights, a profound celebration of humankind and its potential and a commitment to a form of society where a 'true individuality' was irrevocably linked to 'the highest communist socieability'\".Egoist anarchist philosophical positions are essential in anarcho-communist insurrectionary anarchism.", "After analyzing insurrectionary anarcho-communist Luigi Galleani's view on anarcho-communism, post-left anarcho-communist Bob Black went as far as saying that \"communism is the final fulfillment of individualism ...", "The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both ... Subjectivity is also objective: the individual really is subjective.", "It is nonsense to speak of 'emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual,' ... You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg.", "Anarchy is a 'method of individualization.'", "It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity.", "\"=== Property ===Alexander Berkman advocated for profit to be replaced with communities of common property, where all group members shared possessionsAnarchist communists counter the capitalist conception that communal property can only be maintained by force and that such a position is neither fixed in nature nor unchangeable in practice, citing numerous examples of communal behavior occurring naturally, even within capitalist systems.", "Anarchist communists call for the abolition of private property while maintaining respect for personal property.", "As such, the prominent anarcho-communist Alexander Berkman maintained that \"The revolution abolishes private ownership of the means of production and distribution, and with it goes capitalistic business.", "Personal possession remains only in the things you use.", "Thus, your watch is your own, but the watch factory belongs to the people.", "Land, machinery, and all other public utilities will be collective property, neither to be bought nor sold.", "Actual use will be considered the only title-not to ownership but to possession.", "The organization of the coal miners, for example, will be in charge of the coal mines, not as owners but as the operating agency.", "Similarly will the railroad brotherhoods run the railroads, and so on.", "Collective possession, cooperatively managed in the interests of the community, will take the place of personal ownership privately conducted for profit.", "\"=== Free association of communes as opposed to the nation-state ===Anarcho-communism calls for a decentralized confederal form in relationships of mutual aid and free association between communes as an alternative to the centralism of the nation-state.", "Peter Kropotkin thus suggested:=== Opposition to patriotism ===Dr Rob Sparrow outlined four main reasons why anarcho-communists oppose patriotism:* The belief in equality for all people* The use of patriotism to subjugate the working class* The association between patriotism and militarism* The use of patriotism to encourage loyalty to the state" ], [ "See also", "* Accumulation by dispossession* Anarcho-communists (category)* Communalism* Communization* Consensus democracy* Council communism* Democratic confederalism* Gift economy* ''Libertarian Communism''* Libertarian Marxism* Neozapatismo* Outline of libertarianism* Political views and activism of Rage Against the Machine* Refusal of work* Social anarchism* Workers' council" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Anarkismo.net – anarchist communist news maintained by platformist organizations with discussion and theory from across the globe* Anarchocommunism texts at The Anarchist Library* Kropotkin: The Coming Revolution – short documentary to introduce the idea of anarcho-communism in Peter Kropotkin's own words; Anarcho-communist theorist archives* Alexander Berkman* Luigi Galleani* Emma Goldman* Peter Kropotkin* Ricardo Flores Magón* Errico Malatesta* Nestor Makhno* Johann Most* Wayne Price* Lucien van der Walt" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "London" ], [ "Introduction", "'''London''' is the capital and largest city of England, and the United Kingdom, with a population of around 8.8 million, and the largest city in Western Europe by metropolitan area, with a population of 14.8 million.", "It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea and has been a major settlement for nearly two millennia.", "The City of London, its ancient core and financial centre, was founded by the Romans as ''Londinium'' and retains its medieval boundaries.", "The City of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has for centuries hosted the national government and parliament.", "Since the 19th century, the name \"London\" also refers to the metropolis around this core, historically split among the counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent, and Hertfordshire, which since 1965 has largely comprised Greater London, which is governed by 33 local authorities and the Greater London Authority.As one of the world's major global cities, London exerts a strong influence on world art, entertainment, fashion, commerce and finance, education, health care, media, science and technology, tourism, transport, and communications.", "Europe's most economically powerful city, it is one of the major financial centres in the world.", "With Europe's largest concentration of higher education institutions, it is home to some of the highest-ranked academic institutions in the world—Imperial College London in natural and applied sciences, the London School of Economics in social sciences, and the comprehensive University College London.", "London is the most visited city in Europe and has the busiest city airport system in the world.", "The London Underground is the oldest rapid transit system in the world.London's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages.", "The 2023 population of Greater London of just under 10 million made it Europe's third-most populous city, accounting for 13.4% of the population of the United Kingdom and over 16% of the population of England.", "The Greater London Built-up Area is the fourth-most populous in Europe, with about 9.8 million inhabitants at the 2011 census.", "The London metropolitan area is the third-most populous in Europe, with about 14 million inhabitants in 2016, granting London the status of a megacity.London has four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; Kew Gardens; the combined Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, and St Margaret's Church; and also the historic settlement in Greenwich, where the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, defines the prime meridian (0° longitude) and Greenwich Mean Time.", "Other landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, and Trafalgar Square.", "London has many museums, galleries, libraries, and cultural venues, including the British Museum, National Gallery, Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, British Library, and numerous West End theatres.", "Important sporting events held in London include the FA Cup Final, the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, and the London Marathon.", "In 2012, London became the first city to host three Summer Olympic Games." ], [ "Toponymy", "''London'' is an ancient name, attested in the first century AD, usually in the Latinised form .", "Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources: Latin (usually ), Old English (usually ), and Welsh (usually ), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages.", "It is agreed that the name came into these languages from Common Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as or something similar.", "This was adapted into Latin as and borrowed into Old English.Until 1889, the name \"London\" applied officially only to the City of London, but since then it has also referred to the County of London and to Greater London." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===In 1993, remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the south foreshore upstream from Vauxhall Bridge.", "Two of the timbers were radiocarbon dated to 1750–1285 BC.", "In 2010, foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4800–4500 BC, were found on the Thames's south foreshore downstream from Vauxhall Bridge.", "Both structures are on the south bank of the Thames, where the now-underground River Effra flows into the Thames.===Roman London===Reconstruction drawing of Londinium in 120 ADDespite the evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans around 47 AD, about four years after their invasion of 43 AD.", "This only lasted until about 61 AD, when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it and burnt it to the ground.The next planned incarnation of Londinium prospered, superseding Colchester as the principal city of the Roman province of Britannia in 100.At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of about 60,000.===Anglo-Saxon and Viking-period London===Lancastrian siege of London in 1471 is attacked by a Yorkist sally.With the early 5th-century collapse of Roman rule, the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, although Roman civilisation continued around St Martin-in-the-Fields until about 450.From about 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed slightly west of the old Roman city.", "By about 680 the city had become a major port again, but there is little evidence of large-scale production.", "From the 820s repeated Viking assaults brought decline.", "Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed.The Vikings applied Danelaw over much of eastern and northern England, its boundary running roughly from London to Chester as an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions formally agreed by the Danish warlord, Guthrum and the West Saxon king Alfred the Great in 886.The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' records that Alfred \"refounded\" London in 886.Archaeological research shows this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls.", "London then grew slowly until a dramatic increase in about 950.By the 11th century, London was clearly the largest town in England.", "Westminster Abbey, rebuilt in Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe.", "Winchester had been the capital of Anglo-Saxon England, but from this time London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war.", "In the view of Frank Stenton: \"It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to a national capital.", "\"===Middle Ages===Westminster Abbey, as seen in this painting (by Canaletto, 1749), is a World Heritage Site and one of London's oldest and most important buildings.After winning the Battle of Hastings, William, Duke of Normandy was crowned King of England in newly completed Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066.William built the Tower of London, the first of many such in England rebuilt in stone in the south-eastern corner of the city, to intimidate the inhabitants.", "In 1097, William II began building Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name.", "It became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster.In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto followed the royal English court around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed, for most purposes at Westminster, although the royal treasury came to rest in the Tower.", "While the City of Westminster developed into a true governmental capital, its distinct neighbour, the City of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London.", "In 1100, its population was some 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.With the Black Death in the mid-14th century, London lost nearly a third of its population.", "London was the focus of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.London was a centre of England's Jewish population before their expulsion by Edward I in 1290.Violence against Jews occurred in 1190, when it was rumoured that the new king had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.", "In 1264 during the Second Barons' War, Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.===Early modern===Map of London in 1593.There is only one bridge across the Thames, but parts of Southwark on the south bank of the river have been developed.During the Tudor period, the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism.", "Much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city.", "In 1475, the Hanseatic League set up a main trading base (''kontor'') of England in London, called the ''Stalhof'' or ''Steelyard''.", "It remained until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg sold the property to South Eastern Railway.", "Woollen cloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries.Yet English maritime enterprise hardly reached beyond the seas of north-west Europe.", "The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean was normally through Antwerp and over the Alps; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan.", "The reopening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 spurred a burst of commercial activity.", "The Royal Exchange was founded.", "Mercantilism grew and monopoly traders such as the East India Company were founded as trade expanded to the New World.", "London became the main North Sea port, with migrants arriving from England and abroad.", "The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.In the 16th century, William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London during English Renaissance theatre.", "Shakespeare's Globe Theatre was constructed in 1599 in Southwark.", "Stage performances came to a halt in London when Puritan authorities shut down the theatres in the 1640s and 1650s.", "The ban on theatre was lifted during the Restoration in 1660, and London's oldest operating theatre, Drury Lane, opened in 1663 in what is now the West End theatre district.By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still compact.", "There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster, in the Gunpowder Plot of 5 November 1605.In 1637, the government of Charles I attempted to reform administration in the London area.", "This called for the Corporation of the city to extend its jurisdiction and administration over expanding areas around the city.", "Fearing an attempt by the Crown to diminish the Liberties of London, coupled with a lack of interest in administering these additional areas or concern by city guilds of having to share power, caused the Corporation's \"The Great Refusal\", a decision which largely continues to account for the unique governmental status of the City.In the English Civil War, the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause.", "After an initial advance by the Royalists in 1642, culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of Communication.", "The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months.The fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in 1647, and they were levelled by Parliament the same year.The Great Fire of London destroyed many parts of the city in 1666.London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century, culminating in the Great Plague of 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings.", "Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by polymath Robert Hooke.", "In 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed.", "During the Georgian era, new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London.", "In the east, the Port of London expanded downstream.", "London's development as an international financial centre matured for much of the 18th century.In 1762, George III acquired Buckingham House, which was enlarged over the next 75 years.", "During the 18th century, London was said to be dogged by crime, and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force.", "Epidemics during the 1720s and 30s saw most children born in the city die before reaching their fifth birthday.Coffee-houses became a popular place to debate ideas, as growing literacy and development of the printing press made news widely available, with Fleet Street becoming the centre of the British press.", "The invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies led many financiers to relocate to London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817.Around the same time, the Royal Navy became the world's leading war fleet, acting as a major deterrent to potential economic adversaries.", "The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power.", "London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre.===Late modern and contemporary===With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, an unprecedented growth in urbanisation took place, and the number of High Streets (the primary street for retail in Britain) rapidly grew.", "London was the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925, with a population density of 802 per acre (325 per hectare).", "In addition to the growing number of stores selling goods, such as Harding, Howell & Co.—one of the first department stores—located on Pall Mall, the streets had scores of street sellers.", "London's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866.Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world's first local urban rail network.", "The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of county areas surrounding the capital.From the early years of the 20th century onwards, teashops were found on High Streets across London and the rest of Britain, with Lyons, who opened the first of their chain of teashops in Piccadilly in 1894, leading the way.", "The tearooms, such as the Criterion in Piccadilly, became a popular meeting place for women from the suffrage movement.", "The city was the target of many attacks during the suffragette bombing and arson campaign, between 1912 and 1914, which saw historic landmarks such as Westminster Abbey and St Paul's Cathedral bombed.London was bombed by the Germans in the First World War, and during the Second World War, the Blitz and other bombings by the German ''Luftwaffe'' killed over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city.", "The tomb of the Unknown Warrior, an unidentified member of the British armed forces killed during the First World War, was buried in Westminster Abbey on 11 November 1920.The Cenotaph, located in Whitehall, was unveiled on the same day, and is the focal point for the National Service of Remembrance held annually on Remembrance Sunday, the closest Sunday to 11 November.The 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, while London was still recovering from the war.", "From the 1940s, London became home to many immigrants, primarily from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, making London one of the most diverse cities in the world.", "In 1951, the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank.", "The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956, which ended the \"pea soup fogs\" for which London had been notorious, and had earned it the nickname the \"Big Smoke\".Starting mainly in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for worldwide youth culture, exemplified by the Swinging London sub-culture associated with the King's Road, Chelsea and Carnaby Street.", "The role of trendsetter revived in the punk era.", "In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded in response to the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created.", "During The Troubles in Northern Ireland, London was hit from 1973 by bomb attacks by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.", "These attacks lasted for two decades, starting with the Old Bailey bombing.", "Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot.Greater London's population declined in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s.", "The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury, with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration, including the Canary Wharf development.", "This was born out of London's increasing role as an international financial centre in the 1980s.", "Located about 2 miles (3.2 km) east of central London, the Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea.The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, leaving London with no central administration until 2000 and the creation of the Greater London Authority.", "To mark the 21st century, the Millennium Dome, London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed.", "On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics, as the first city to stage the Olympic Games three times.", "On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks.In 2008, ''Time'' named London alongside New York City and Hong Kong as Nylonkong, hailing them as the world's three most influential global cities.", "In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, its highest since 1939.During the Brexit referendum in 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union, but most London constituencies voted for remaining.", "However, Britain's exit from the EU in early 2020 only marginally weakened London's position as an international financial centre.On 6 May 2023, the coronation of Charles III and his wife, Camilla, as king and queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, took place at Westminster Abbey, London." ], [ "Administration", "===Local government===Arms of the Corporation of the City of LondonThe administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier.", "Citywide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities.", "The GLA consists of two elected components: the mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, which scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each year.", "The GLA has responsibility for the majority of London's transport system through its functional arm Transport for London (TfL), it is responsible for overseeing the city's police and fire services, and also for setting a strategic vision for London on a range of issues.", "The headquarters of the GLA is City Hall, Newham.", "The mayor since 2016 has been Sadiq Khan, the first Muslim mayor of a major Western capital.", "The mayor's statutory planning strategy is published as the London Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011.The local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation.", "They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, libraries, leisure and recreation, social services, local roads and refuse collection.", "Certain functions, such as waste management, are provided through joint arrangements.", "In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA).The London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London, run by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority.", "It is the third largest fire service in the world.", "National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in the world.", "The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required.", "Her Majesty's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames, which is under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority from Teddington Lock to the sea.===National government===10 Downing Street, official residence of the Prime MinisterLondon is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom.", "Many government departments, as well as the prime minister's residence at 10 Downing Street, are based close to the Palace of Westminster, particularly along Whitehall.", "There are 73 members of Parliament (MPs) from London; , 49 are from the Labour Party, 21 are Conservatives, and three are Liberal Democrats.", "The ministerial post of minister for London was created in 1994 and as of 2020 is held by Paul Scully.===Policing and crime===Policing in Greater London, with the exception of the City of London, is provided by the Metropolitan Police (\"The Met\"), overseen by the mayor through the Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC).", "The Met is also referred to as Scotland Yard after the location of its original headquarters in a road called Great Scotland Yard in Whitehall.", "The City of London has its own police force – the City of London Police.", "First worn by Met police officers in 1863, the custodian helmet has been called a \"cultural icon\" and a \"symbol of British law enforcement\".", "Introduced by the Met in 1929, the blue police telephone box (basis for the TARDIS in ''Doctor Who'') was once a common sight throughout London and regional cities in the UK.Headquarters of MI6, the UK's foreign intelligence service, at the SIS Building.", "Scenes featuring James Bond (the fictional MI6 agent) have been filmed here.The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail, London Underground, Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services.The Ministry of Defence Police is a special police force in London, which does not generally become involved with policing the general public.", "The UK's domestic counter-intelligence service (MI5) is headquartered in Thames House on the north bank of the River Thames, and the foreign intelligence service (MI6) is headquartered in the SIS Building on the south bank.Crime rates vary widely across different areas of London.", "Crime figures are made available nationally at Local Authority and Ward level.", "In 2015, there were 118 homicides, a 25.5% increase over 2014.Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen.", "There were 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018.Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though other factors are involved.", "However, homicide figures fell in 2022 with 109 recorded for the year, and the murder rate in London is much lower than other major cities around the world." ], [ "Geography", "===Scope===London, also known as Greater London, is one of nine regions of England and the top subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis.", "The City of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the city with its suburbs, causing \"London\" to be defined several ways.Satellite view of London in June 2018Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town, in which 'London' forms part of postal addresses.", "The London telephone area code (020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some just outside included.", "The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places.Further urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt, although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, producing a separately defined Greater London Urban Area.", "Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt.", "Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London, and by the River Thames into North and South, with an informal central London area.", "The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall, are about .===Status===Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of lieutenancies.", "The area of Greater London includes areas that are part of the historic counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire.", "London's status as the capital of England, and later the United Kingdom, has never been granted or confirmed by statute or in written form.Its status as a capital was established by constitutional convention, which means its status as ''de facto'' capital is a part of the UK's uncodified constitution.", "The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation.", "More recently, Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context is known as ''London''.===Topography===London from Primrose HillGreater London encompasses a total area of an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of .", "The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of .Modern London stands on the Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east.", "The Thames Valley is a flood plain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill.", "Historically London grew up at the lowest bridging point on the Thames.", "The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.Since the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground.", "The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.", "The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level caused by climate change and by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles as a result of post-glacial rebound.===Climate===London has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: ''Cfb'').", "Rainfall records have been kept in the city since at least 1697, when records began at Kew.", "At Kew, the most rainfall in one month is in November 1755 and the least is in both December 1788 and July 1800.Mile End also had in April 1893.The wettest year on record is 1903, with a total fall of and the driest is 1921, with a total fall of .", "The average annual precipitation amounts to about 600 mm, which is half the annual rainfall of New York City.", "Despite its relatively low annual precipitation, London still receives 109.6 rainy days on the 1.0 mm threshold annually.", "However, London is vulnerable to climate change in the United Kingdom, and there is increasing concern among hydrological experts that London households may run out of water before 2050.Temperature extremes in London range from at Heathrow on 19 July 2022 down to at Northolt on 13 December 1981.Records for atmospheric pressure have been kept at London since 1692.The highest pressure ever reported is on 20 January 2020.Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot.", "London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F).", "On average each year, London experiences 31 days above and 4.2 days above .", "During the 2003 European heat wave, prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-related deaths.", "A previous spell of 15 consecutive days above in England in 1976 also caused many heat related deaths.", "A previous temperature of in August 1911 at the Greenwich station was later disregarded as non-standard.", "Droughts can also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer, most recently in summer 2018, and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December.", "However, the most consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893.Winters are generally cool with little temperature variation.", "Heavy snow is rare but snow usually falls at least once each winter.", "Spring and autumn can be pleasant.", "As a large city, London has a considerable urban heat island effect, making the centre of London at times warmer than the suburbs and outskirts.===Areas===Places within London's vast urban area are identified using area names, such as Mayfair, Southwark, Wembley, and Whitechapel.", "These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs.The West End theatre district in 2016Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries.", "Since 1965, Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London.", "The City of London is the main financial district, and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the Docklands to the east.The West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists.", "West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds.", "The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London.The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.", "The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which was developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics.===Architecture===The Tower of London, a medieval castle, dating in part to 1078London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages.", "Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the National Gallery, are constructed from Portland stone.", "Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings.", "Few structures in central London pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, these being a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the city.", "Further out is, for example, the Tudor-period Hampton Court Palace.Part of the varied architectural heritage are the 17th-century churches by Christopher Wren, neoclassical financial institutions such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, to the early 20th century Old Bailey courthouse and the 1960s Barbican Estate.", "The 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St. Pancras and Paddington.", "The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area and Canary Wharf, high residential densities in inner London, and lower densities in Outer London.The east wing public façade of Buckingham Palace was built between 1847 and 1850; it was remodelled to its present form in 1913.Trafalgar Square and its fountains, with Nelson's Column on the rightThe Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby.", "Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane, respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington.", "Nelson's Column (built to commemorate Admiral Horatio Nelson) is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of central London.", "Older buildings are mainly brick, commonly the yellow London stock brick.In the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings.", "London's skyscrapers, such as 30 St Mary Axe (dubbed \"The Gherkin\"), Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square, are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf.", "High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul's Cathedral and other historic buildings.", "This protective policy, known as 'St Paul's Heights', has been in operation by the City of London since 1937.Nevertheless, there are a number of tall skyscrapers in central London, including the 95-storey Shard London Bridge, the tallest building in the United Kingdom and Western Europe.Other notable modern buildings include The Scalpel, 20 Fenchurch Street (dubbed \"The Walkie-Talkie\"), the former City Hall in Southwark, the Art Deco BBC Broadcasting House plus the Postmodernist British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross and No 1 Poultry by James Stirling.", "The BT Tower stands at and has a 360 degree coloured LED screen near the top.", "What was formerly the Millennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue called the O2 Arena.===Natural history===The London Natural History Society suggests that London is \"one of the World's Greenest Cities\" with more than 40 per cent green space or open water.", "They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that the tidal Thames supports 120 species of fish.", "They state that over 60 species of bird nest in central London and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London.", "London's wetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds.", "London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), two national nature reserves and 76 local nature reserves.Amphibians are common in the capital, including smooth newts living by the Tate Modern, and common frogs, common toads, palmate newts and great crested newts.", "On the other hand, native reptiles such as slowworms, common lizards, barred grass snakes and adders, are mostly only seen in Outer London.A fox on Ayres Street, Southwark, South LondonAmong other inhabitants of London are 10,000 red foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (6 per square kilometre) of London.", "Other mammals found in Greater London are hedgehog, brown rat, mice, rabbit, shrew, vole, and grey squirrel.", "In wilder areas of Outer London, such as Epping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found, including European hare, badger, field, bank and water vole, wood mouse, yellow-necked mouse, mole, shrew, and weasel, in addition to red fox, grey squirrel and hedgehog.", "A dead otter was found at The Highway, in Wapping, about a mile from the Tower Bridge, which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city.", "Ten of England's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest: soprano, Nathusius' and common pipistrelles, common noctule, serotine, barbastelle, Daubenton's, brown long-eared, Natterer's and Leisler's.Herds of red and fallow deer roam freely within much of Richmond and Bushy Park.", "A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained.", "Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest.", "A rare population of melanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois.", "Muntjac deer are also found in the forest.", "While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London's green spaces." ], [ "Demography", "+2021 Census - Population of London by country of birthCountry of Birth Population Percent 5,223,986 59.4Non-United Kingdom 3,575,739 40.6 322,644 3.7 175,991 2.0 149,397 1.7 138,895 1.6 129,774 1.5 126,059 1.4 117,145 1.3 96,566 1.1 80,379 0.9 77,715 0.9Others 2,161,174 24.6Total 8,799,725 100.0Population density mapLondon's continuous urban area extends beyond Greater London and numbered 9,787,426 people in 2011, while its wider metropolitan area had a population of 12–14 million, depending on the definition used.", "According to Eurostat, London is the second most populous metropolitan area in Europe.", "A net 726,000 immigrants arrived there in the period 1991–2001.The region covers , giving a population density of more than ten times that of any other British region.", "In population terms, London is the 19th largest city and the 18th largest metropolitan region.In tenure, 23.1% socially rent within London, 46.8% either own their house outright or with a mortgage or loan and 30% privately rent at the 2021 census.", "Many Londoner's work from home, 42.9% did so at the 2021 census while 20.6% drive a car to work.", "The biggest decrease in method of transportation was seen within those who take the train and underground, declining from 22.6% in 2011 to 9.6% in 2021.In qualifications, 46.7% of London had census classified Level 4 qualifications or higher, which is predominately university degrees.", "16.2% had no qualifications at all.===Age structure and median age===London's median age is one of the youngest regions in the UK.", "It was recorded in 2018 that London's residents were 36.5 years old, which was younger than the UK median of 40.3.Children younger than 14 constituted 20.6% of the population in Outer London in 2018, and 18% in Inner London.", "The 15–24 age group was 11.1% in Outer and 10.2% in Inner London, those aged 25–44 years 30.6% in Outer London and 39.7% in Inner London, those aged 45–64 years 24% and 20.7% in Outer and Inner London respectively.", "Those aged 65 and over are 13.6% in Outer London, but only 9.3% in Inner London.=== Country of birth ===The 2021 census recorded that 3,575,739 people or 40.6% of London's population were foreign-born, making it among the cities with the largest immigrant population in terms of absolute numbers and a growth of roughly 3 million since 1971 when the foreign born population was 668,373.13% of the total population were Asian born (32.1% of the total foreign born population), 7.1% are African born (17.5%), 15.5% are Other European born (38.2%) and 4.2% were born in the Americas and Caribbean (10.3%).", "The 5 largest single country of origin's were respectively India, Romania, Poland, Bangladesh and Pakistan.About 56.8% of children born in London in 2021 were born to a mother who was born abroad.", "This trend has been increasing in the past two decades when foreign born mothers made up 43.3% of births in 2001 in London, becoming the majority in the middle of the 2000s by 2006 comprising 52.5%.A large degree of the foreign born population who were present at the 2021 census had arrived relatively recently.", "Of the total population, those that arrived between the years of 2011 and 2021 account for 16.6% of London.", "Those who arrived between 2001 and 2010 are 10.4%, between 1991 and 2001, 5.7%, and prior to 1990, 7.3%.===Ethnic groups===According to the Office for National Statistics, based on the 2021 census, 53.8 per cent of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London were White, with 36.8% White British, 1.8% White Irish, 0.1% Gypsy/Irish Traveller, 0.4 Roma and 14.7% classified as Other White.", "Meanwhile, 22.2% of Londoners were of Asian or mixed-Asian descent, with 20.8% being of full Asian descents and 1.4% being of mixed-Asian heritage.", "Indians accounted for 7.5% of the population, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis at 3.3% and 3.7% respectively.", "Chinese people accounted for 1.7%, and Arabs for 1.6%.", "A further 4.6% were classified as \"Other Asian\".", "15.9% of London's population were of Black or mixed-Black descent.", "13.5% were of full Black descent, with persons of mixed-Black heritage comprising 2.4%.", "Black Africans accounted for 7.9% of London's population; 3.9% identified as Black Caribbean, and 1.7% as \"Other Black\".", "5.7% were of mixed race.", "This ethnic structure has changed considerably since the 1960s.", "Estimates for 1961 put the total non-White ethnic minority population at 179,109 comprising 2.3% of the population at the time, having risen since then to 1,346,119 and 20.2% in 1991 and 4,068,553 and 46.2% in 2021.Of those of a White British background, estimates for 1971 put the population at 6,500,000 and 87% of the total population, of since fell to 3,239,281 and 36.8% in 2021.As of 2021, the majority of London's school pupils come from ethnic minority backgrounds.", "23.9% were White British, 14% Other White, 23.2% Asian, 17.9% Black, 11.3% Mixed, 6.3% Other and 2.3% unclassified.", "Altogether at the 2021 census, of London's 1,695,741 population aged 0 to 15, 42% were White in total, spliting it down into 30.9% who were White British, 0.5% Irish, 10.6% Other White, 23% Asian, 16.4% Black, 12% Mixed and 6.6% another ethnic group.=== Languages ===In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that more than 300 languages were spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities had populations of more than 10,000.At the 2021 census, 78.4% spoke English as their first language.", "The 5 biggest languages outside of English were Romanian, Spanish, Polish, Bengali and Portuguese.===Religion===According to the 2021 Census, the largest religious groupings were Christians (40.66%), followed by those of no religion (20.7%), Muslims (15%), no response (8.5%), Hindus (5.15%), Jews (1.65%), Sikhs (1.64%), Buddhists (1.0%) and other (0.8%).London has traditionally been Christian, and has a large number of churches, particularly in the City of London.", "The well-known St Paul's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres, while the Archbishop of Canterbury, principal bishop of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion, has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth.Important national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey.", "The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral, the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales.", "Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is low within the denomination.", "Anglican Church attendance continues a long, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics.Notable mosques include the East London Mosque in Tower Hamlets, which is allowed to give the Islamic call to prayer through loudspeakers, the London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent's Park and the Baitul Futuh of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.", "After the oil boom, increasing numbers of wealthy Middle-Eastern Arab Muslims based themselves around Mayfair, Kensington and Knightsbridge in West London.", "There are large Bengali Muslim communities in the eastern boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Newham.Large Hindu communities are found in the north-western boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter hosting what was until 2006 Europe's largest Hindu temple, Neasden Temple.", "London is home to 44 Hindu temples, including the BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London.", "There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India.The majority of British Jews live in London, with notable Jewish communities in Stamford Hill, Stanmore, Golders Green, Finchley, Hampstead, Hendon and Edgware, all in North London.", "Bevis Marks Synagogue in the City of London is affiliated to London's historic Sephardic Jewish community.", "It is the only synagogue in Europe to have held regular services continually for over 300 years.", "Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest membership of any Orthodox synagogue in Europe.", "The London Jewish Forum was set up in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government.===Accents===Traditionally, anyone born within earshot of the bells of St Mary-le-Bow church was considered to be a true Cockney.Cockney is an accent heard across London, mainly spoken by working-class and lower-middle class Londoners.", "It is mainly attributed to the East End and wider East London, having originated there in the 18th century, although it has been suggested that the Cockney style of speech is much older.", "Some features of Cockney include, ''Th''-fronting (pronouncing \"th\" as \"f\"), \"th\" inside a word is pronounced with a \"v\", ''H''-dropping, and, like most English accents, a Cockney accent drops the \"r\" after a vowel.", "John Camden Hotten, in his ''Slang Dictionary'' of 1859, makes reference to Cockney \"use of a peculiar slang language\" (Cockney rhyming slang) when describing the costermongers of the East End.", "Since the start of the 21st century the extreme form of the Cockney dialect is less common in parts of the East End itself, with modern strongholds including other parts of London and suburbs in the home counties.", "This is particularly pronounced in areas like Romford (in the London Borough of Havering) and Southend (in Essex) which have received significant inflows of older East End residents in recent decades.Estuary English is an intermediate accent between Cockney and Received Pronunciation.", "It is widely spoken by people of all classes.Multicultural London English (MLE) is a multiethnolect becoming increasingly common in multicultural areas amongst young, working-class people from diverse backgrounds.", "It is a fusion of an array of ethnic accents, in particular Afro-Caribbean and South Asian, with a significant Cockney influence.Received Pronunciation (RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard for British English.", "It has no specific geographical correlate, although it is also traditionally defined as the standard speech used in London and south-eastern England.", "It is mainly spoken by upper-class and upper-middle class Londoners." ], [ "Economy", "The City of London, one of the largest financial centres in the worldLondon's gross regional product in 2019 was £503 billion, around a quarter of UK GDP.", "London has five major business districts: the city, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark.", "One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m2 of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m2 of office space.", "London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world.", "London is the world's most expensive office market according to world property journal (2015) report.", "the residential property in London is worth $2.2 trillion.", "The city has the highest property prices of any European city according to the Office for National Statistics and the European Office of Statistics.", "On average the price per square metre in central London is €24,252 (April 2014).", "This is higher than the property prices in other G8 European capital cities.===City of London===The London Stock Exchange at Paternoster Square and Temple BarRoyal Exchange in 1886London's finance industry is based in the City of London and Canary Wharf, the two major business districts.", "London is one of the pre-eminent financial centres of the world as the most important location for international finance.", "London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies.", "For many bankers established in Amsterdam (e.g.", "Hope, Baring), this was only time to move to London.", "Also, London's market-centred system (as opposed to the bank-centred one in Amsterdam) grew more dominant in the 18th century.", "The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time.", "This economic strength of the city was attributed to its diversity.The Bank of England, established in 1694, is the model on which most modern central banks are based.By the mid-19th century, London was the leading financial centre, and at the end of the century over half the world's trade was financed in British currency.", "Still, London tops the world rankings on the Global Financial Centres Index (GFCI), and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney's 2018 Global Cities Index.London's largest industry is finance, and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK's balance of payments.", "Around 325,000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid-2007.London has over 480 overseas banks, more than any other city in the world.", "It is the world's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37 per cent of the $5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS.", "Over 85 per cent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries.", "Because of its prominent global role, London's economy had been affected by the financial crisis of 2007–2008.However, by 2010 the city had recovered, put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance.", "Along with professional services headquarters, the City of London is home to the Bank of England, London Stock Exchange, and Lloyd's of London insurance market.Over half the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London.", "Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London.", "In a 1992 report commissioned by the London Stock Exchange, Sir Adrian Cadbury, chairman of his family's confectionery company Cadbury, produced the Cadbury Report, a code of best practice which served as a basis for reform of corporate governance around the world.===Media and technology===Broadcasting House in central London, headquarters of the BBCMedia companies are concentrated in London, and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector.", "The BBC, the world's oldest national broadcaster, is a significant employer, while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the city.", "Many national newspapers, including ''The Times'', founded in 1785, are edited in London; the term Fleet Street (where most national newspapers operated) remains a metonym for the British national press.", "London is one of the world's largest retail destinations, with the city frequently ranking at or near the top of retail sales of any city.", "In 2017 it was ranked the top city for luxury store openings.", "The Port of London is the second largest in the UK, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year.A growing number of technology companies are based in London, notably in East London Tech City, also known as Silicon Roundabout.", "In 2014 the city was among the first to receive a geoTLD.", "In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014/15 list by ''fDi Intelligence''.", "A museum in Bletchley Park, where Alan Turing was based during World War II, is in Bletchley, north of central London, as is The National Museum of Computing.The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed by National Grid plc, SGN and UK Power Networks.===Tourism===London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world and in 2015 was ranked as the most visited city in the world with over 65 million visits.", "It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US$20.23 billion in 2015.Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing 700,000 full-time workers in 2016, and contributes £36 billion a year to the economy.", "The city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spending in the UK.", "London was the world top city destination as ranked by TripAdvisor users.In 2015 the top most-visited attractions in the UK were all in London.", "The top 10 most visited attractions were: (with visits per venue)#British Museum: 6,820,686#National Gallery: 5,908,254#Natural History Museum (South Kensington): 5,284,023#Southbank Centre: 5,102,883#Tate Modern: 4,712,581#Victoria and Albert Museum (South Kensington): 3,432,325#Science Museum: 3,356,212#Somerset House: 3,235,104#Tower of London: 2,785,249#National Portrait Gallery: 2,145,486The number of hotel rooms in London in 2015 stood at 138,769, and is expected to grow over the years." ], [ "Transport", "Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London, but the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer-distance rail network that enters London.", "In 2007 the Mayor of London assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form the London Overground network, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses.", "The public transport network is administered by Transport for London (TfL).The lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when the London Passenger Transport Board or ''London Transport'' was created.", "Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London.===Aviation===Heathrow Airport is the busiest airport in Europe as well as the second busiest in the world for international passenger traffic (Terminal 5C is pictured).London is a major international air transport hub with the busiest city airspace in the world.", "Eight airports use the word ''London'' in their name, but most traffic passes through six of these.", "Additionally, various other airports also serve London, catering primarily to general aviation flights.", "*Heathrow Airport, in Hillingdon, West London, was for many years the busiest airport in the world for international traffic, and is the major hub of the nation's flag carrier, British Airways.", "In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened.", "*Gatwick Airport, south of London in West Sussex, handles flights to more destinations than any other UK airport and is the main base of easyJet, the UK's largest airline by number of passengers.", "*Stansted Airport, north-east of London in Essex, has flights that serve the greatest number of European destinations of any UK airport and is the main base of Ryanair, the world's largest international airline by number of international passengers.", "*Luton Airport, to the north of London in Bedfordshire, is used by several budget airlines (especially easyJet and Wizz Air) for short-haul flights.", "*London City Airport, the most central airport and the one with the shortest runway, in Newham, East London, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full-service short-haul scheduled flights and considerable business jet traffic.", "*Southend Airport, east of London in Essex, is a smaller, regional airport that caters for short-haul flights on a limited, though growing, number of airlines.", "In 2017, international passengers made up over 95% of the total at Southend, the highest proportion of any London airport.===Rail=======Underground and DLR====The London Underground is the world's oldest and third-longest rapid transit system.Opened in 1863, the London Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube or just the Underground, is the oldest and third longest metro system in the world.", "The system serves 272 stations, and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, the City and South London Railway, which opened in 1890.Over four million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year.", "An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the 2012 Summer Olympics.", "The Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, more local metro system using smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve the Docklands, Greenwich and Lewisham.====Suburban====There are 368 railway stations in the London Travelcard Zones on an extensive above-ground suburban railway network.", "South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines.", "Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running into eighteen terminal stations, with the exception of the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north and Brighton in the south via Luton and Gatwick airports.", "London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers—Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includes Waterloo East station) each year.", "is one of Europe's busiest rail interchanges.With the need for more rail capacity, the Elizabeth Line (also known as Crossrail) opened in May 2022.It is a new railway line running east to west through London and into the Home Counties with a branch to Heathrow Airport.", "It was Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.====Inter-city and international====St Pancras International is the main terminal for high-speed Eurostar and High Speed 1 services, as well as commuter suburban Thameslink and inter-city East Midlands Railway services.London is the centre of the National Rail network, with 70 per cent of rail journeys starting or ending in London.", "King's Cross station and Euston station, both in London, are the starting points of the East Coast Main Line and the West Coast Main Line – the two main railway lines in Britain.", "Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, directly linking London with most of Great Britain's major cities and towns.", "''The Flying Scotsman'' is an express passenger train service that has operated between London and Edinburgh since 1862; the world famous steam locomotive named after this service, ''Flying Scotsman'', was the first locomotive to reach the officially authenticated speed of 100 miles per hour (161 km/h) in 1934.Some international railway services to Continental Europe were operated during the 20th century as boat trains.", "The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowing Eurostar services to begin.", "Since 2007, high-speed trains link St. Pancras International with Lille, Calais, Paris, Disneyland Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam and other European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link and the Channel Tunnel.", "The first high-speed domestic trains started in June 2009 linking Kent to London.", "There are plans for a second high speed line linking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire.===Buses, coaches and trams===A New Routemaster (which replaced the AEC Routemaster) entered service in 2012.The red double-decker bus is an emblematic symbol of London.London's bus network runs 24 hours a day with about 9,300 vehicles, over 675 bus routes and about 19,000 bus stops.", "In 2019 the network had over 2 billion commuter trips per year.", "Since 2010 an average of £1.2 billion is taken in revenue each year.", "London has one of the largest wheelchair-accessible networks in the world and from the third quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced.London's coach hub is Victoria Coach Station, opened in 1932.Nationalised in 1970 and subsequently purchased by London Transport which then became Transport for London, Victoria Coach Station has over 14 million passengers a year and provides services across the UK and continental Europe.London has a modern tram network, known as Tramlink.", "It has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013.Since June 2008, Transport for London has completely owned and operated Tramlink.===Cable car===London's first and to date only cable car is the London Cable Car, which opened in June 2012.The cable car crosses the Thames and links Greenwich Peninsula with the Royal Docks in the east of the city.", "It is able to carry up to 2,500 passengers per hour in each direction at peak times.===Cycling===Victoria in Central LondonIn the Greater London Area, around 670,000 people use a bike every day, meaning around 7% of the total population of around 8.8 million use a bike on an average day.", "Cycling has become an increasingly popular way to get around London.", "The launch of a bicycle hire scheme in July 2010 was successful and generally well received.===Port and river boats===The Port of London, once the largest in the world, is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year as of 2009.Most of this cargo passes through the Port of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London.London has river boat services on the Thames known as Thames Clippers, which offer both commuter and tourist boat services.", "At major piers including Canary Wharf, London Bridge City, Battersea Power Station and London Eye (Waterloo), services depart at least every 20 minutes during commuter times.", "The Woolwich Ferry, with 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking the North and South Circular Roads.===Roads===Although the majority of journeys in central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs.", "The inner ring road (around the city centre), the North and South Circular roads (just within the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (the M25, just outside the built-up area in most places) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes—but very few motorways penetrate into inner London.", "The M25 is the second-longest ring-road motorway in Europe at long.", "The A1 and M1 connect London to Leeds, and Newcastle and Edinburgh.The hackney carriage (black cab) is a common sight on London streets.", "Although traditionally black, this is not a requirement with some painted in other colours or bearing advertising.The Austin Motor Company began making hackney carriages (London taxis) in 1929, and models include Austin FX3 from 1948, Austin FX4 from 1958, with more recent models TXII and TX4 manufactured by London Taxis International.", "The BBC states, \"ubiquitous black cabs and red double-decker buses all have long and tangled stories that are deeply embedded in London's traditions\".London is notorious for its traffic congestion; in 2009, the average speed of a car in the rush hour was recorded at .", "In 2003, a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre.", "With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London.", "Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass.", "Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000 cars." ], [ "Education", "===Tertiary education===University College London (UCL), established by Royal Charter in 1836, is one of the founding colleges of the University of London.Imperial College London, a technical research university in South KensingtonLondon is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe.", "According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world and its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world.", "A 2014 PricewaterhouseCoopers report termed London the global capital of higher education.A number of world-leading education institutions are based in London.", "In the 2022 ''QS World University Rankings'', Imperial College London is ranked No.", "6 in the world, University College London (UCL) is ranked 8th, and King's College London (KCL) is ranked 37th.", "All are regularly ranked highly, with Imperial College being the UK's leading university in the Research Excellence Framework ranking 2021.The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.", "The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second-best in the world by the ''Financial Times''.", "The city is also home to three of the world's top ten performing arts schools (as ranked by the 2020 QS World University Rankings): the Royal College of Music (ranking 2nd in the world), the Royal Academy of Music (ranking 4th) and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama (ranking 6th).With students in London and around 48,000 in University of London Worldwide, the federal University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the UK.", "It includes five multi-faculty universities – City, King's College London, Queen Mary, Royal Holloway and UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions including Birkbeck, the Courtauld Institute of Art, Goldsmiths, the London Business School, the London School of Economics, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Royal Academy of Music, the Central School of Speech and Drama, the Royal Veterinary College and the School of Oriental and African Studies.Universities in London outside the University of London system include Brunel University, Imperial College London, Kingston University, London Metropolitan University, University of East London, University of West London, University of Westminster, London South Bank University, Middlesex University, and University of the Arts London (the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe).", "In addition, there are three international universities – Regent's University London, Richmond, The American International University in London and Schiller International University.London is home to five major medical schools – Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry (part of Queen Mary), King's College London School of Medicine (the largest medical school in Europe), Imperial College School of Medicine, UCL Medical School and St George's, University of London – and has many affiliated teaching hospitals.", "It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK's eight academic health science centres are based in the city – Imperial College Healthcare, King's Health Partners and UCL Partners (the largest such centre in Europe).", "Additionally, many biomedical and biotechnology spin out companies from these research institutions are based around the city, most prominently in White City.", "Founded by pioneering nurse Florence Nightingale at St Thomas' Hospital in 1860, the first nursing school is now part of King's College London.", "It was at King's in 1952 where a team led by Rosalind Franklin captured ''Photo 51'', the critical evidence in identifying the structure of DNA.", "There are a number of business schools in London, including the London School of Business and Finance, Cass Business School (part of City University London), Hult International Business School, ESCP Europe, European Business School London, Imperial College Business School, the London Business School and the UCL School of Management.Opened in 1906, the Royal Central School of Speech and Drama is a member of Conservatoires UK and the Federation of Drama Schools.London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including the Central School of Ballet, London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA), London College of Contemporary Arts (LCCA), London Contemporary Dance School, National Centre for Circus Arts, Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA; president Sir Kenneth Branagh), Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, the Royal College of Art, Sylvia Young Theatre School and Trinity Laban.", "The BRIT School in the London borough of Croydon provides training for the performing arts and technologies.===Primary and secondary education===The majority of primary and secondary schools and further-education colleges in London are controlled by the London boroughs or otherwise state-funded; leading examples include Ashbourne College, Bethnal Green Academy, Brampton Manor Academy, City and Islington College, City of Westminster College, David Game College, Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College, Leyton Sixth Form College, London Academy of Excellence, Tower Hamlets College, and Newham Collegiate Sixth Form Centre.", "There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such as City of London School, Harrow, St Paul's School, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, University College School, The John Lyon School, Highgate School and Westminster School.===Royal Observatory, Greenwich and learned societies===prime meridian at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.", "The observatory has played a major role in the history of navigation and astronomy.Founded in 1675, the Royal Observatory in Greenwich was established to address the problem of calculating longitude for navigational purposes.", "This pioneering work in solving longitude featured in astronomer royal Nevil Maskelyne's ''Nautical Almanac'' which made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point, and helped lead to the international adoption of Greenwich as the prime meridian (0° longitude) in 1884.Important scientific learned societies based in London include the Royal Society—the UK's national academy of sciences and the oldest national scientific institution in the world—founded in 1660, and the Royal Institution, founded in 1799.Since 1825, the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures have presented scientific subjects to a general audience, and speakers have included aerospace engineer Frank Whittle, naturalist David Attenborough and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins." ], [ "Culture", "===Leisure and entertainment===Leisure is a major part of the London economy.", "A 2003 report attributed a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to London at 25.6 events per 1000 people.", "The city is one of the four fashion capitals of the world, and, according to official statistics, is the world's third-busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city, and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world.Harrods department store in KnightsbridgeWithin the City of Westminster in London, the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square, where London and world film premieres are held, and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements.", "London's theatre district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs, and restaurants, including the city's Chinatown district (in Soho), and just to the east is Covent Garden, an area housing speciality shops.", "The city is the home of Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have dominated West End theatre since the late 20th century.", "Agatha Christie's ''The Mousetrap'', the world's longest-running play, has been performed in the West End since 1952.The Laurence Olivier Awards–named after Laurence Olivier–are given annually by the Society of London Theatre.", "The Royal Ballet, English National Ballet, Royal Opera, and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House, the London Coliseum, Sadler's Wells Theatre, and the Royal Albert Hall, as well as touring the country.Islington's long Upper Street, extending northwards from Angel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK.", "Europe's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street, a shopping street nearly long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK.", "It is home to vast numbers of retailers and department stores, including Selfridges flagship store.", "Knightsbridge, home to the equally renowned Harrods department store, lies to the south-west.", "Opened in 1760 with its flagship store on Regent Street since 1881, Hamleys is the oldest toy store in the world.", "Madame Tussauds wax museum opened in Baker Street in 1835, an era viewed as being when London's tourism industry began.Scene of the annual Notting Hill Carnival, 2014London is home to designers John Galliano, Stella McCartney, Manolo Blahnik, and Jimmy Choo, among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it one of the four international centres of fashion.", "Mary Quant designed the miniskirt in her King's Road boutique in Swinging Sixties London.", "London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population.", "Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese restaurants of Chinatown.", "There are Chinese takeaways throughout London, as are Indian restaurants which provide Indian and Anglo-Indian cuisine.", "Around 1860, the first fish and chips shop in London was opened by Joseph Malin, a Jewish immigrant, in Bow.", "The full English breakfast dates from the Victorian era, and many cafes in London serve a full English breakfast throughout the day.", "London has five 3-Michelin star restaurants, including Restaurant Gordon Ramsay in Chelsea.", "Many hotels in London provide a traditional afternoon tea service, such as the Oscar Wilde Lounge at the Hotel Café Royal in Piccadilly, and a themed tea service is also available, for example an ''Alice in Wonderland'' themed afternoon tea served at the Egerton House Hotel, and ''Charlie and the Chocolate Factory'' themed afternoon tea at One Aldwych in Covent Garden.", "The nation's most popular biscuit to dunk in tea, chocolate digestives have been manufactured by McVitie's at their Harlesden factory in north-west London since 1925.Shakespeare's Globe is a modern reconstruction of the Globe Theatre on the south bank of the Thames.There is a variety of annual events, beginning with the relatively new New Year's Day Parade, a fireworks display at the London Eye; the world's second largest street party, the Notting Hill Carnival, is held on the late August Bank Holiday each year.", "Traditional parades include November's Lord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the city, and June's Trooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the King's Official Birthday.", "The Boishakhi Mela is a Bengali New Year festival celebrated by the British Bangladeshi community.", "It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe.", "After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the United Kingdom attracting over 80,000 visitors.", "First held in 1862, the RHS Chelsea Flower Show (run by the Royal Horticultural Society) takes place in May every year.===LGBT scene===The first gay bar in London in the modern sense was The Cave of the Golden Calf, established as a night club in an underground location at 9 Heddon Street, just off Regent Street, in 1912 and \"which developed a reputation for sexual freedom and tolerance of same-sex relations.\"", "Comptons of Soho during London Pride in 2010While London has been an LGBT tourism destination, after homosexuality was decriminalised in England in 1967 gay bar culture became more visible, and from the early 1970s Soho (and in particular Old Compton Street) became the centre of the London LGBT community.", "G-A-Y, previously based at the Astoria, and now Heaven, is a long-running night club.Wider British cultural movements have influenced LGBT culture: for example, the emergence of glam rock in the UK in the early 1970s, via Marc Bolan and David Bowie, saw a generation of teenagers begin playing with the idea of androgyny, and the West End musical ''The Rocky Horror Show'', which debuted in London in 1973, is also widely said to have been an influence on countercultural and sexual liberation movements.", "The Blitz Kids (which included Boy George) frequented the Tuesday club-night at Blitz in Covent Garden, helping launch the New Romantic subcultural movement in the late 1970s.", "Today, the annual London Pride Parade and the London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival are held in the city.===Literature, film and television===Sherlock Holmes Museum in Baker Street, bearing the number 221BLondon has been the setting for many works of literature.", "The pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-century ''Canterbury Tales'' set out for Canterbury from London.", "William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based there, and some of his work, most notably his play ''The Alchemist'', was set in the city.", "''A Journal of the Plague Year'' (1722) by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague.The literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and (since the early 20th century) Bloomsbury.", "Writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire; Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has influenced people's vision of early Victorian London; and Virginia Woolf, regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the 20th century.", "Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories.", "Robert Louis Stevenson mixed in London literary circles, and in 1886 he wrote the ''Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde'', a gothic novella set in Victorian London.", "In 1898, H. G. Wells' sci-fi novel ''The War of the Worlds'' sees London (and the south of England) invaded by Martians.", "Letitia Elizabeth Landon wrote ''Calendar of the London Seasons'' in 1834.Modern writers influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of a \"biography\" of London, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography.", "In the 1940s, George Orwell wrote essays in the ''London Evening Standard'', most notably \"A Nice Cup of Tea\" (method for making tea) and \"The Moon Under Water\" (an ideal pub).", "The WWII evacuation of children from London is depicted in C. S. Lewis' first Narnia book ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' (1950).", "On Christmas Eve 1925, Winnie-the-Pooh debuted in London's ''Evening News'', with the character based on a stuffed toy A.", "A. Milne bought for his son Christopher Robin in Harrods.", "In 1958, author Michael Bond created Paddington Bear, a refugee found in London Paddington station.", "A screen adaptation, ''Paddington'' (2014), features the calypso song \"London is the Place for Me\".Odeon cinema in Leicester Square hosts numerous European and world film premieres.London has played a significant role in the film industry.", "Major studios within or bordering London include Pinewood, Elstree, Ealing, Shepperton, Twickenham, and Leavesden, with the ''James Bond'' and ''Harry Potter'' series among many notable films produced here.", "Working Title Films has its headquarters in London.", "A post-production community is centred in Soho, and London houses six of the world's largest visual effects companies, such as Framestore.", "The Imaginarium, a digital performance-capture studio, was founded by Andy Serkis.", "London has been the setting for films including ''Oliver Twist'' (1948), ''Scrooge'' (1951), ''Peter Pan'' (1953), ''One Hundred and One Dalmatians'' (1961), ''My Fair Lady'' (1964), ''Mary Poppins'' (1964), ''Blowup'' (1966), ''A Clockwork Orange'' (1971), ''The Long Good Friday'' (1980), ''The Great Mouse Detective'' (1986), ''Notting Hill'' (1999), ''Love Actually'' (2003), ''V for Vendetta'' (2005), ''Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street'' (2008) and ''The King's Speech'' (2010).", "Notable actors and filmmakers from London include Charlie Chaplin, Alfred Hitchcock, Michael Caine, Julie Andrews, Peter Sellers, David Lean, Julie Christie, Gary Oldman, Emma Thompson, Guy Ritchie, Christopher Nolan, Alan Rickman, Jude Law, Helena Bonham Carter, Idris Elba, Tom Hardy, Daniel Radcliffe, Keira Knightley, Daniel Kaluuya and Daniel Day-Lewis.", "Post-war Ealing comedies featured Alec Guinness, from the 1950s Hammer Horrors starred Christopher Lee, films by Michael Powell included the London-set early slasher ''Peeping Tom'' (1960), the 1970s comedy troupe Monty Python had film editing suites in Covent Garden, while since the 1990s Richard Curtis's rom-coms have featured Hugh Grant.", "The largest cinema chain in the country, Odeon Cinemas was founded in London in 1928 by Oscar Deutsch.", "The British Academy Film Awards (BAFTAs) have been held in London since 1949, with the BAFTA Fellowship the Academy's highest accolade.", "Founded in 1957, the BFI London Film Festival takes place over two weeks every October.London is a major centre for television production, with studios including Television Centre, ITV Studios, Sky Campus and Fountain Studios; the latter hosted the original talent shows, ''Pop Idol'', ''The X Factor'', and ''Britain's Got Talent'', before each format was exported around the world.", "Formerly a franchise of ITV, Thames Television featured comedians such as Benny Hill and Rowan Atkinson (''Mr.", "Bean'' was first screened by Thames), while Talkback produced ''Da Ali G Show'' which featured Sacha Baron Cohen as Ali G. Many television shows have been set in London, including the popular television soap opera ''EastEnders''.===Museums, art galleries and libraries===Aerial view of Albertopolis.", "The Albert Memorial, Royal Albert Hall, Royal Geographical Society, and Royal College of Art are visible near the top; Victoria and Albert Museum and Natural History Museum at the lower end; Imperial College, Royal College of Music, and Science Museum lying in between.London is home to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role.", "The first of these to be established was the British Museum in Bloomsbury, in 1753.Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe.", "In 1824, the National Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position in Trafalgar Square.The British Library is the second largest library in the world, and the national library of the United Kingdom.", "There are many other research libraries, including the Wellcome Library and Dana Centre, as well as university libraries, including the British Library of Political and Economic Science at LSE, the Abdus Salam Library at Imperial, the Maughan Library at King's, and the Senate House Libraries at the University of London.In the latter half of the 19th century the locale of South Kensington was developed as \"Albertopolis\", a cultural and scientific quarter.", "Three major national museums are there: the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Natural History Museum, and the Science Museum.", "The National Portrait Gallery was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits.", "The national gallery of British art is at Tate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897.The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art.", "In 2000, this collection moved to Tate Modern, a new gallery housed in the former Bankside Power Station which is accessed by pedestrians north of the Thames via the Millennium Bridge.===Music===The Royal Albert Hall hosts concerts and musical events, including The Proms which are held every summer, as well as cinema screenings of films accompanied with live orchestral music.|thumbLondon is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and hosts major music corporations, such as Universal Music Group International and Warner Music Group, and countless bands, musicians and industry professionals.", "The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as the Barbican Arts Centre (principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus), the Southbank Centre (London Philharmonic Orchestra and the Philharmonia Orchestra), Cadogan Hall (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and the Royal Albert Hall (The Proms).", "The Proms, an eight-week summer season of daily orchestral classical music first held in 1895, ends with the Last Night of the Proms.", "London's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the London Coliseum (home to the English National Opera).", "The UK's largest pipe organ is at the Royal Albert Hall.", "Other significant instruments are in cathedrals and major churches—the church bells of St Clement Danes feature in the 1744 nursery rhyme \"Oranges and Lemons\".", "Several conservatoires are within the city: Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of Music, Guildhall School of Music and Drama and Trinity Laban.", "The record label EMI was formed in the city in 1931, and an early employee for the company, Alan Blumlein, created stereo sound that year.Abbey Road Studios in Abbey RoadLondon has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest indoor venue, the O2 Arena, and Wembley Arena, as well as many mid-sized venues, such as Brixton Academy, the Hammersmith Apollo and the Shepherd's Bush Empire.", "Several music festivals, including the Wireless Festival, Lovebox and Hyde Park's British Summer Time, are held in London.The city is home to the original Hard Rock Cafe and the Abbey Road Studios, where the Beatles recorded many of their hits.", "In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups like Elton John, Pink Floyd, David Bowie, the Rolling Stones, the Kinks, Queen, Eric Clapton, the Who, Cliff Richard, Led Zeppelin, Iron Maiden, Deep Purple, T. Rex, the Police, Elvis Costello, Dire Straits, Cat Stevens, Fleetwood Mac, the Cure, Madness, Culture Club, Dusty Springfield, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, Status Quo and Sade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London.London was instrumental in the development of punk music, with figures such as the Sex Pistols, the Clash and fashion designer Vivienne Westwood all based in the city.", "Other artists to emerge from the London music scene include George Michael, Kate Bush, Seal, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bush, the Spice Girls, Jamiroquai, Blur, the Prodigy, Gorillaz, Mumford & Sons, Coldplay, Dido, Amy Winehouse, Adele, Sam Smith, Ed Sheeran, Leona Lewis, Ellie Goulding, Dua Lipa and Florence and the Machine.", "Artists from London played a prominent role in the development of synth-pop, including Gary Numan, Depeche Mode, the Pet Shop Boys and Eurythmics; the latter's \"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)\" was recorded in the attic of their north London home, heralding a trend for home recording methods.", "Artists from London with a Caribbean influence include Hot Chocolate, Billy Ocean, Soul II Soul and Eddy Grant, with the latter fusing reggae, soul and samba with rock and pop.", "London is also a centre for urban music.", "In particular the genres UK garage, drum and bass, dubstep and grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of house, hip hop, and reggae, alongside local drum and bass.", "Music station BBC Radio 1Xtra was set up to support the rise of local urban contemporary music both in London and in the rest of the United Kingdom.", "The British Phonographic Industry's annual popular music awards, the Brit Awards, are held in London." ], [ "Recreation", "===Parks and open spaces===Hyde Park (with Kensington Gardens in foreground) has been a popular public space since it opened in 1637.A 2013 report by the City of London Corporation said that London is the \"greenest city\" in Europe with 35,000 acres (14,164 hectares) of public parks, woodlands and gardens.", "The largest parks in the central area of London are three of the eight Royal Parks, namely Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens in the west, and Regent's Park to the north.", "Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open-air concerts.", "Regent's Park contains London Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is near Madame Tussauds Wax Museum.", "Primrose Hill is a popular spot from which to view the city skyline.Close to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks, Green Park and St. James's Park.", "A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including Hampstead Heath and the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the southeast, and Bushy Park and Richmond Park (the largest) to the southwest.", "Hampton Court Park is also a royal park, but, because it contains a palace, it is administered by the Historic Royal Palaces, unlike the eight Royal Parks.Close to Richmond Park is Kew Gardens, which has the world's largest collection of living plants.", "In 2003, the gardens were put on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.", "There are also parks administered by London's borough Councils, including Victoria Park in the East End and Battersea Park in the centre.", "Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest, both controlled by the City of London Corporation.", "Hampstead Heath incorporates Kenwood House, a former stately home and a popular location in the summer months when classical musical concerts are held by the lake.", "Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering.", "Three of the UK's most-visited theme parks, Thorpe Park near Staines-upon-Thames, Chessington World of Adventures in Chessington and Legoland Windsor, are located within of London.===Walking===The Horse Ride is a tree tunnel (route overhung by trees) on the western side of Wimbledon Common.Walking is a popular recreational activity in London.", "Areas that provide for walks include Wimbledon Common, Epping Forest, Hampton Court Park, Hampstead Heath, the eight Royal Parks, canals and disused railway tracks.", "Access to canals and rivers has improved recently, including the creation of the Thames Path, some of which is within Greater London, and The Wandle Trail along the River Wandle.Other long-distance paths, linking green spaces, have also been created, including the Capital Ring, the Green Chain Walk, London Outer Orbital Path (\"Loop\"), Jubilee Walkway, Lea Valley Walk, and the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Walk." ], [ "Sport", "London has hosted the Summer Olympics three times: in 1908, 1948, and 2012, making it the first city to host the modern Games three times.", "The city was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934.In 2017, London hosted the World Championships in Athletics for the first time.London's most popular sport is football, and it has seven clubs in the Premier League in the 2022–23 season: Arsenal, Brentford, Chelsea, Crystal Palace, Fulham, Tottenham Hotspur, and West Ham United.", "Other professional men's teams in London are AFC Wimbledon, Barnet, Bromley, Charlton Athletic, Dagenham & Redbridge, Leyton Orient, Millwall, Queens Park Rangers and Sutton United.", "Four London-based teams are in the Women's Super League: Arsenal, Chelsea, Tottenham and West Ham United.Two Premiership Rugby union teams are based in Greater London: Harlequins and Saracens.", "Ealing Trailfinders and London Scottish play in the RFU Championship; other rugby union clubs in the city include Richmond, Rosslyn Park, Westcombe Park and Blackheath.", "Twickenham Stadium in south-west London hosts home matches for the England national rugby union team.", "While rugby league is more popular in the north of England, the sport has one professional club in London – the London Broncos who play in the Super League.One of London's best-known annual sports competitions is the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, held at the All England Club in the south-western suburb of Wimbledon since 1877.Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and widely considered the most prestigious.London has two Test cricket grounds which host the England cricket team, Lord's (home of Middlesex C.C.C.)", "and the Oval (home of Surrey C.C.C.).", "Lord's has hosted four finals of the Cricket World Cup and is known as the ''Home of Cricket''.", "In golf, the Wentworth Club is located in Virginia Water, Surrey on the south-west fringes of London, while the closest venue to London that is used as one of the courses for the Open Championship, the oldest major and tournament in golf, is Royal St George's in Sandwich, Kent.", "Alexandra Palace in north London hosts the PDC World Darts Championship and the Masters snooker tournament.", "Other key annual events are the mass-participation London Marathon and the University Boat Race on the Thames contested between Oxford and Cambridge." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "See also", "*Outline of England*Outline of London" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===**" ], [ "External links", "* London.gov.uk – Greater London Authority* VisitLondon.com – official tourism site* Museum of London* London in ''British History Online'', with links to numerous authoritative online sources** \"London\", ''In Our Time'', BBC Radio 4 discussion with Peter Ackroyd, Claire Tomalin and Iain Sinclair (28 September 2000)** Old maps of London, from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, National Library of Israel" ] ]
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[ [ "Lagâri Hasan Çelebi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lagâri Hasan Çelebi''' was an Ottoman scientist, engineer and aviator who, according to the account written by traveller Evliya Çelebi, made a successful crewed rocket flight." ], [ "Account", "Evliya Çelebi reported that in 1633, Lagari Hasan Çelebi blasted off from Sarayburnu, (the promontory below the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul) in a 7-winged rocket propelled by 50 okka (140 lbs) of gunpowder.", "The flight was said to have been undertaken at the time of the birth of Sultan Murad IV's daughter.", "As Evliya Celebi wrote, Lagari proclaimed before launching his craft \"O my sultan!", "Be blessed, I am going to talk to Jesus!", "\"; after ascending in the rocket, he landed in the sea, swimming ashore and joking \"O my sultan!", "Jesus sends his regards to you!", "\"; he was rewarded by the Sultan with silver and the rank of sipahi in the Ottoman army.Evliya Çelebi also wrote of Lagari's brother, Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi, making a flight by glider a year earlier.Modern islamic miniature depicting the first ever crewed rocket flight performed by Lagâri Hasan Çelebi by miniature artist Ferhat Akıl" ], [ "Popular culture", "''Istanbul Beneath My Wings'' is a 1996 film about the lives of Lagari Hasan Çelebi, his brother and fellow aviator Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi, and Ottoman society in the early 17th century as witnessed and narrated by Evliya Çelebi.The legend was addressed in an experiment by the television show ''MythBusters'', on November 11, 2009, in the episode \"Crash and Burn\"; however, the team noted that Evliya Çelebi had not sufficiently specified the alleged design used by Lagâri Hasan and said that it would have been \"extremely difficult\" for a 17th-century figure, unequipped with modern steel alloys and welding, to land safely or even achieve thrust at all.", "Although the re-imagined rocket rose, it exploded midflight." ], [ "See also", "*Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi*Wan Hu" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Letterboxing (filming)" ], [ "Introduction", "A 2.35:1 widescreen image letter-boxed in a 1.33:1 screen'''Letter-boxing''' is the practice of transferring film shot in a widescreen aspect ratio to standard-width video formats while preserving the film's original aspect ratio.", "The resulting video-graphic image has mattes empty space above and below it; these mattes are part of each frame of the video signal." ], [ "Etymology", "The term refers to the shape of a letter-box, a slot in a wall or door through which mail is delivered, being rectangular and wider than it is high." ], [ "Early home video use", "The first use of letter-boxing in consumer video appeared with the RCA Capacitance Electronic Disc (CED) videodisc format.", "Initially, letter-boxing was limited to several key sequences of a film such as opening and closing credits, but was later used for entire films.", "The first fully letter-boxed CED release was ''Amarcord'' in the past century, and several others followed including ''The Long Goodbye'', ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' and ''The King of Hearts''.", "Each disc contains a label noting the use of \"RCA's innovative wide-screen mastering technique.\"" ], [ "In cinema and home video", "The term \"SmileBox\" is a registered trademark used to describe a type of letter-boxing for Cinerama films, such as on the Blu-ray release of ''How the West Was Won''.", "The image is produced by using a map projection-like technique to approximate how the picture might look if projected onto a curved Cinerama screen." ], [ "On television", "Digital broadcasting allows 1.78:1 widescreen format transmissions without losing resolution, and thus widescreen is the television norm.", "Most television channels in Europe are broadcasting standard-definition programming in 1.78:1, while in the USA, these are down-scaled to letterbox.", "When using a 1.33:1 screen, it is possible to display such programming in either a letter-boxing format or in a 1.33:1 center-cut format (where the edges of the picture are lost).A letter-boxed 1.56:1 compromise ratio was often broadcast in analogue transmissions in European countries making the transition from 1.33:1 to 1.78:1.In addition, recent years have seen an increase of \"fake\" 2.40:1 letterbox mattes on television to give the impression of a cinema film, often seen in adverts, trailers or tv such as ''Top Gear''.Current high-definition television systems use video displays with a wider aspect ratio than older television sets, making it easier to accurately display widescreen films.", "In addition to films produced for the cinema, some television programming is produced in high definition and therefore widescreen.On a widescreen television set, a 1.78:1 image fills the screen; however, 21:9 aspect ratio films are letter-boxed with narrow mattes.", "Because the 1.85:1 aspect ratio does not match the 1.78:1 aspect ratio of widescreen video, slight letter-boxing occurs.", "Usually, such matting of 1.85:1 film is eliminated to match the 1.78:1 aspect ratio in the image transference.Letterbox mattes are not necessarily black.", "IBM has used blue mattes for many of their TV ads, yellow mattes in their \"I am Superman\" Lotus ads, and green mattes in ads about efficiency & environmental sustainability.", "Others uses of colored mattes appear in ads from Allstate, Aleve, and Kodak among others, and in music videos such as Zebraheads, \"Playmate of the Year\".", "In other instances mattes are animated, such as in the music video for \"Never Gonna Stop (The Red Red Kroovy)\", and even parodied such as the final scene of the Crazy Frog Axel F music video in which Crazy Frog peeks over the matte on the lower edge of the screen with part of his hands overlapping the matte.", "Similar to breaking the border of a comic's panel, it is a form of breaking the fourth wall.", "The 2016 ''Ghost-busters'' exploited the edges for its 3D effects, with visual effects that \"spilled over\" into the letter-boxed areas.The table below shows which TV lines will contain picture information when letterbox pictures are displayed on either 1.33:1 or 1.78:1 screens.", "Aspect Ratio on 1.33:1 screen 525 Line System 625 Line System Aspect Ratio on 1.78:1 screen 525 Line System 625 Line System 1080 HD Line System 1.33:121–263 284–525 23–310 336–623 ——————— 1.56:140–245 302–508 44–289 357–602 ——————— 1.78:152–232 315–495 59–282 372–587 '''1.78:1''' 21–263 284–525 23–310 336–623 21–560 584–1123 1.85:156–229 320–491 64–270 376–582 '''1.85:1''' 26–257 289–520 29–304 342–617 31–549 594–1112 2.40:173–209 336–472 85–248 398–561 '''2.40:1''' 50–231 313–495 58–275 371–588 86–494 649–1057" ], [ "Pillar-boxing and window-boxing", "window-boxing imagePillar-boxing is the display of an image within a wider image frame by adding lateral mattes (vertical bars at the sides); for example, a 1.33:1 image has lateral mattes when displayed on a 16:9 aspect ratio television screen.An alternative to pillar-boxing is \"tilt-and-scan\" (reversed pan and scan), horizontally matting the original 1.33:1 television images to the 1.78:1 aspect ratio, which at any given moment crops part of the top and/or bottom of the frame, hence the need for the \"tilt\" component.", "A tilt is a camera move in which the camera tilts up or down.Window-boxing occurs when an image appears centered in a television screen, with blank space on all four sides of the image, such as when a widescreen image that has been previously letter-boxed to fit 1.33:1 is then pillar-boxed to fit 1.78:1.It is also called \"matchbox\", \"gutter box\", and \"postage stamp\" display.", "This occurs on the DVD editions of the ''Star Trek'' films on a 1.33:1 tv when the included widescreen documentaries show footage from the original series.", "It is also seen in ''The Crocodile Hunter: Collision Course'', which displays widescreen pillar-boxing with 1.85:1 scenes in a 2.40:1 frame that is subsequently letter-boxed.", "It is common to see window-boxed commercials on tv networks, because many commercials are shot in 1.78:1 but distributed to networks in non-widescreen, letter-boxed to fit 1.33:1." ], [ "Use as a privacy measure", "A specific kind of letter-boxing is used as an anti-fingerprinting technique so that it becomes harder to uniquely identify internet users based on the screen resolution of their browsers or devices.", "The idea is that, when a user resizes or maximizes their browser window, the window's real dimensions are masked by keeping the window width and height at multiples of a certain ratio.", "The remaining space of the page on either top, bottom, left, or right are then left empty.", "As a result, individual users will have the same reported window dimensions as many others.", "A working example of this technique was developed by Mozilla, based on an earlier experiment by Tor Project, and is used in the Tor Browser." ], [ "See also", "*Active Format Description*List of film formats*Motion picture terminology" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Widescreen and Letterbox Advocacy Page" ] ]
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[ [ "Lincoln" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lincoln''' most commonly refers to:* Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865), the sixteenth president of the United States* Lincoln, England, cathedral city and county town of Lincolnshire, England* Lincoln, Nebraska, the capital of Nebraska, U.S.* Lincoln (name), a surname and given name* Lincoln Motor Company, a Ford brand'''Lincoln''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "=== Canada ===* Lincoln, Alberta* Lincoln, New Brunswick* Lincoln Parish, New Brunswick* Lincoln, Ontario** Lincoln (federal electoral district) (former), Ontario** Lincoln (provincial electoral district) (former), Ontario=== United Kingdom ===* Lincoln, England** Lincoln (UK Parliament constituency)=== United States ===* Lincoln, Alabama* Lincoln, Arkansas* Lincoln, California, in Placer County* Lincoln, former name of Clinton, California, in Amador County* Lincoln, Delaware* Lincoln, Idaho* Lincoln, Illinois* Lincoln, Indiana* Lincoln, Iowa* Lincoln Center, Kansas* Lincoln Parish, Louisiana* Lincoln, Maine, a New England town** Lincoln (CDP), Maine, the primary village in the town* Lincoln Plantation, Maine* Lincoln, Massachusetts* Lincoln, Michigan, a village in Alcona County* Lincoln, Washtenaw County, Michigan, an unincorporated community* Lincoln, Missouri* Lincoln, Minnesota* Lincoln, Montana* Lincoln, Nebraska, capital of the state* Lincoln, New Hampshire** Lincoln (CDP), New Hampshire, the main village in the town* Lincoln, Gloucester County, New Jersey* Lincoln, New Mexico* Lincoln, New York* Lincoln, North Dakota* Lincoln, Jackson County, Oregon* Lincoln, Pennsylvania* Lincoln, Rhode Island* Lincoln, Texas* Lincoln, Vermont* Lincoln, Virginia* Lincoln, Washington* Lincoln, West Virginia* Lincoln, Adams County, Wisconsin, a town* Lincoln, Bayfield County, Wisconsin, a town* Lincoln, Buffalo County, Wisconsin, a town* Lincoln, Burnett County, Wisconsin, a town* Lincoln, Eau Claire County, Wisconsin, a town* Lincoln, Forest County, Wisconsin, a town* Lincoln, Kewaunee County, Wisconsin, a town** Lincoln (community), Wisconsin, Kewaunee County town* Lincoln, Monroe County, Wisconsin, a town* Lincoln, Polk County, Wisconsin, a town* Lincoln, Trempealeau County, Wisconsin, a town* Lincoln, Vilas County, Wisconsin, a town* Lincoln, Wood County, Wisconsin, a town* Mount Lincoln (disambiguation), various mountains====Memorials and monuments====* Abraham Lincoln Memorial Monument* Lincoln Memorial* Lincoln Monument (Dixon, Illinois)* Lincoln Monument of Wabash, Indiana====Proposed states====* Lincoln (proposed Northwestern state)* Lincoln (proposed Southern state)=== Elsewhere ===* Lincoln, Buenos Aires, Argentina* Lincoln Partido, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, a ''partido''* Lincoln, Tasmania, Australia* Motu One (Marquesas Islands) or Lincoln, French Polynesia* Lincoln, New Zealand, in the Canterbury Region** Lincoln (New Zealand electorate) (former), Canterbury* Lincoln, Auckland, New Zealand" ], [ "Arts, entertainment and media", "===Music===* Lincoln Records, an American record label in the 1920s* ''Lincoln'' (album), a 1988 album by They Might Be Giants* Lincoln (band), an American alternative rock band of the late 1990s===Television===* ''Lincoln'' or ''Carl Sandburg's Lincoln'', a 1974 miniseries with Hal Holbrook* ''Lincoln'' (miniseries), a 1988 American TV miniseries starring Sam Waterston* ''Lincoln'' (TV series), a 2005–2013 Japanese variety television show===Other uses in art, entertainment, and media===* ''Lincoln'' (play), a 1906 Broadway play by Benjamin Chapin* ''Lincoln'' (novel), a 1984 novel by Gore Vidal* Lincoln Island, a fictional island in Jules Verne's novel ''The Mysterious Island''* ''Lincoln'' (film), a 2012 film by Steven Spielberg* Lincoln, one of the Grounders in ''The 100'' TV series" ], [ "Businesses and brands", "* Lincoln Electric, an American company* Lincoln International, an investment banking firm* Lincoln Logs, a children's toy* Lincoln Motor Car Works, making cars sold exclusively by Sears Roebuck 1908–1912* Lincoln Motor Company, a Ford brand* Lincoln National Corporation, an insurance company* Lincoln Snacks Company* Lincoln (surveillance), a brand of electronic data interception products" ], [ "Educational institutions", "* Lincoln Academy (disambiguation)* Lincoln Christ's Hospital School, Lincolnshire* Lincoln College (disambiguation)* Lincoln Elementary School (disambiguation)* Lincoln Group of Schools, U.S.* Lincoln High School (disambiguation)* Lincoln School (disambiguation)* Lincoln Tech, a group of schools in New Jersey, US* Lincoln University (disambiguation)* Old Lincoln High School, Tallahassee, Florida, US* University of Lincoln, UK" ], [ "Military", "* Avro Lincoln, a Second World War RAF bomber* HMS ''Lincoln'', several Royal Navy warships* USS ''Abraham Lincoln'', two US Navy vessels and several fictitious vessels" ], [ "Sports", "* Lincoln City F.C., an English football club* Lincoln Red Imps F.C., a semi-professional football club of Gibraltar* Lincoln (footballer, born 1979), Brazilian midfielder Lincoln Cássio de Souza Soares* Lincoln (footballer, born 1996), Brazilian defender Lincoln Fernando Rocha da Silva* Lincoln (footballer, born 1998), Brazilian midfielder Lincoln Henrique Oliveira dos Santos* Lincoln (footballer, born 2000), Brazilian forward Lincoln Corrêa dos Santos" ], [ "Transport", "=== Rail stations ===* Lincoln Depot, Springfield, Illinois train station at which Abraham Lincoln gave a farewell address* Lincoln station (Illinois), an Amtrak station in Lincoln, Illinois, United States* Lincoln station (MBTA), Lincoln, Massachusetts, United States* Lincoln station (Nebraska), an Amtrak station in Lincoln, Nebraska, United States* Lincoln station (Nebraska, 1926–2012), Lincoln, Nebraska, United States* Lincoln station (RTD), a transit station in Lone Tree, Colorado, United States* Lincoln station (SkyTrain), Coquitlam, British Columbia, Canada* Lincoln railway station, Lincoln, England* Lincoln St Marks railway station, a closed station in Lincoln, England===Roadways===* Lincoln Highway, South Australia* Lincoln Highway, US** Lincoln Highway (Delaware)** Lincoln Highway (Omaha)** Lincoln Highway in Greene County, Iowa* Lincoln Tunnel, between New Jersey and New York* Lincoln Drive in Philadelphia=== Other transport ===* Lincoln (1914 automobile), built by the Lincoln Motor Car Company" ], [ "Other uses", "* Lincoln Temple United Church of Christ, a church in Washington, D.C., US* Lincoln (tree), a sequoia in Giant Forest, California* Lincoln sheep* Lincoln (grape) or Catawba grape* Lincoln biscuit* Lincoln cent, U.S. coinage* Lincoln green, a dyed woollen cloth* Lincoln Way (San Francisco)" ], [ "See also", "* Camp Lincoln (disambiguation)* Lincoln Bridge (disambiguation)* Lincoln Cemetery (disambiguation)* Lincoln Center (disambiguation)* Lincoln City (disambiguation)* Lincoln County (disambiguation)* Lincoln Green, Leeds* Lincoln Institute (disambiguation)* Lincoln Heights (disambiguation)* Lincoln Park (disambiguation)* Lincoln Speedway (disambiguation)* Lincoln Square (disambiguation)* Lincoln Township (disambiguation)* Lincoln Village (disambiguation)* Port Lincoln, South Australia* Lincoln Logs, a children's toy" ] ]
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[ [ "Ligament" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''ligament''' is the fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones.", "It is also known as ''articular ligament'', ''articular larua'', ''fibrous ligament'', or ''true ligament''.", "Other ligaments in the body include the:* Peritoneal ligament: a fold of peritoneum or other membranes.", "* Fetal remnant ligament: the remnants of a fetal tubular structure.", "* Periodontal ligament: a group of fibers that attach the cementum of teeth to the surrounding alveolar bone.Ligaments are similar to tendons and fasciae as they are all made of connective tissue.", "The differences among them are in the connections that they make: ligaments connect one bone to another bone, tendons connect muscle to bone, and fasciae connect muscles to other muscles.", "These are all found in the skeletal system of the human body.", "Ligaments cannot usually be regenerated naturally; however, there are periodontal ligament stem cells located near the periodontal ligament which are involved in the adult regeneration of periodontist ligament.The study of ligaments is known as ." ], [ "Articular ligaments", "Articular ligament\"Ligament\" most commonly refers to a band of dense regular connective tissue bundles made of collagenous fibers, with bundles protected by dense irregular connective tissue sheaths.", "Ligaments connect bones to other bones to form joints, while tendons connect bone to muscle.", "Some ligaments limit the mobility of articulations or prevent certain movements altogether.Capsular ligaments are part of the articular capsule that surrounds synovial joints.", "They act as mechanical reinforcements.", "Extra-capsular ligaments join in harmony with the other ligaments and provide joint stability.", "Intra-capsular ligaments, which are much less common, also provide stability but permit a far larger range of motion.", "Cruciate ligaments are paired ligaments in the form of a cross.Ligaments are viscoelastic.", "They gradually strain when under tension and return to their original shape when the tension is removed.", "However, they cannot retain their original shape when extended past a certain point or for a prolonged period of time.", "This is one reason why dislocated joints must be set as quickly as possible: if the ligaments lengthen too much, then the joint will be weakened, becoming prone to future dislocations.", "Athletes, gymnasts, dancers, and martial artists perform stretching exercises to lengthen their ligaments, making their joints more supple.The term ''hypermobility'' refers to the characteristic of people with more-elastic ligaments, allowing their joints to stretch and contort further; this is sometimes still called ''double-jointedness''.Hypermobile fingerThe consequence of a broken ligament can be instability of the joint.", "Not all broken ligaments need surgery, but, if surgery is needed to stabilise the joint, the broken ligament can be repaired.", "Scar tissue may prevent this.", "If it is not possible to fix the broken ligament, other procedures such as the Brunelli procedure can correct the instability.", "Instability of a joint can over time lead to wear of the cartilage and eventually to osteoarthritis.=== Artificial ligaments ===One of the most often torn ligaments in the body is the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL).", "The ACL is one of the ligaments crucial to knee stability and persons who tear their ACL often undergo reconstructive surgery, which can be done through a variety of techniques and materials.", "One of these techniques is the replacement of the ligament with an artificial material.", "Artificial ligaments are a synthetic material composed of a polymer, such as polyacrylonitrile fiber, polypropylene, PET (polyethylene terephthalate), or polyNaSS poly(sodium styrene sulfonate).=== Examples ===There are about 900 ligaments in an average adult human body, of which about 25 are listed here.", ";Head and neck* Cricothyroid ligament* Periodontal ligament* Suspensory ligament of the lens;Thorax* Phrenoesophageal ligament* Suspensory ligament of the breast;Pelvis* Anterior sacroiliac ligament* Posterior sacroiliac ligament* Sacrotuberous ligament* Sacrospinous ligament* Inferior pubic ligament* Reflex inguinal ligament* Superior pubic ligament* Suspensory ligament of the penis;Wrist* Palmar radiocarpal ligament* Dorsal radiocarpal ligament* Ulnar collateral ligament* Radial collateral ligament* Scapholunate ligament;Knee* Anterior cruciate ligament * Lateral collateral ligament * Posterior cruciate ligament * Medial collateral ligament * Cranial cruciate ligament — quadruped equivalent of anterior cruciate ligament* Caudal cruciate ligament — quadruped equivalent of posterior cruciate ligament * Oblique popliteal ligament* Patellar ligament" ], [ "Peritoneal ligaments", "Certain folds of peritoneum are referred to as ''ligaments''.", "Examples include:* The hepatoduodenal ligament, that surrounds the hepatic portal vein and other vessels as they travel from the duodenum to the liver.", "* The broad ligament of the uterus, also a fold of peritoneum." ], [ "Fetal remnant ligaments", "Certain tubular structures from the fetal period are referred to as ''ligaments'' after they close up and turn into cord-like structures: Fetal Adult ductus arteriosus ligamentum arteriosum extra-hepatic portion of the fetal left umbilical vein ligamentum teres hepatis (the \"round ligament of the liver\").", "intra-hepatic portion of the fetal left umbilical vein (the ductus venosus) ligamentum venosum distal portions of the fetal left and right umbilical arteries medial umbilical ligaments==See also== * Ligamentous laxity* Broström procedure" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Loch Ness Monster" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Loch Ness Monster''' (), affectionately known as '''Nessie''', is a mythical creature in Scottish folklore that is said to inhabit Loch Ness in the Scottish Highlands.", "It is often described as large, long-necked, and with one or more humps protruding from the water.", "Popular interest and belief in the creature has varied since it was brought to worldwide attention in 1933.Evidence of its existence is anecdotal with a number of disputed photographs and sonar readings.The scientific community explains alleged sightings of the Loch Ness Monster as hoaxes, wishful thinking, and the misidentification of mundane objects.", "The pseudoscience and subculture of cryptozoology has placed particular emphasis on the creature." ], [ "Origin of the name", "In August 1933, the ''Courier'' published the account of George Spicer's alleged sighting.", "Public interest skyrocketed, with countless letters being sent in detailing different sightings describing a \"monster fish,\" \"sea serpent,\" or \"dragon,\" with the final name ultimately settling on \"'''Loch Ness monster'''.\"", "Since the 1940s, the creature has been affectionately called '''Nessie''' ()." ], [ "Sightings", "===Saint Columba (565)===The earliest report of a monster in the vicinity of Loch Ness appears in the ''Life of St. Columba'' by Adomnán, written in the 7th century AD.", "According to Adomnán, writing about a century after the events described, Irish monk Saint Columba was staying in the land of the Picts with his companions when he encountered local residents burying a man by the River Ness.", "They explained that the man was swimming in the river when he was attacked by a \"water beast\" that mauled him and dragged him underwater despite their attempts to rescue him by boat.", "Columba sent a follower, Luigne moccu Min, to swim across the river.", "The beast approached him, but Columba made the sign of the cross and said: \"Go no further.", "Do not touch the man.", "Go back at once.\"", "The creature stopped as if it had been \"pulled back with ropes\" and fled, and Columba's men and the Picts gave thanks for what they perceived as a miracle.Believers in the monster point to this story, set in the River Ness rather than the loch itself, as evidence for the creature's existence as early as the 6th century.", "Skeptics question the narrative's reliability, noting that water-beast stories were extremely common in medieval hagiographies, and Adomnán's tale probably recycles a common motif attached to a local landmark.", "According to skeptics, Adomnán's story may be independent of the modern Loch Ness Monster legend and became attached to it by believers seeking to bolster their claims.", "Ronald Binns considers that this is the most serious of various alleged early sightings of the monster, but all other claimed sightings before 1933 are dubious and do not prove a monster tradition before that date.", "Christopher Cairney uses a specific historical and cultural analysis of Adomnán to separate Adomnán's story about St. Columba from the modern myth of the Loch Ness Monster, but finds an earlier and culturally significant use of Celtic \"water beast\" folklore along the way.", "In doing so he also discredits any strong connection between kelpies or water-horses and the modern \"media-augmented\" creation of the Loch Ness Monster.", "He also concludes that the story of Saint Columba may have been impacted by earlier Irish myths about the Caoránach and an Oilliphéist.===D.", "Mackenzie (1871 or 1872)===In October 1871 (or 1872), D. Mackenzie of Balnain reportedly saw an object resembling a log or an upturned boat \"wriggling and churning up the water,\" moving slowly at first before disappearing at a faster speed.", "The account was not published until 1934, when Mackenzie sent his story in a letter to Rupert Gould shortly after popular interest in the monster increased.===Alexander Macdonald (1888)===In 1888, mason Alexander Macdonald of Abriachan sighted \"a large stubby-legged animal\" surfacing from the loch and propelling itself within of the shore where Macdonald stood.", "Macdonald reported his sighting to Loch Ness water bailiff Alex Campbell, and described the creature as looking like a salamander.=== Aldie Mackay (1933) ===The best-known article that first attracted a great deal of attention about a creature was published on 2 May 1933 in ''The Inverness Courier'', about a large \"beast\" or \"whale-like fish\".", "The article by Alex Campbell, water bailiff for Loch Ness and a part-time journalist, discussed a sighting by Aldie Mackay of an enormous creature with the body of a whale rolling in the water in the loch while she and her husband John were driving on the A82 on 15 April 1933.The word \"monster\" was reportedly applied for the first time in Campbell's article, although some reports claim that it was coined by editor Evan Barron.", "''The Courier'' in 2017 published excerpts from the Campbell article, which had been titled \"Strange Spectacle in Loch Ness\".", "\"The creature disported itself, rolling and plunging for fully a minute, its body resembling that of a whale, and the water cascading and churning like a simmering cauldron.", "Soon, however, it disappeared in a boiling mass of foam.", "Both onlookers confessed that there was something uncanny about the whole thing, for they realised that here was no ordinary denizen of the depths, because, apart from its enormous size, the beast, in taking the final plunge, sent out waves that were big enough to have been caused by a passing steamer.", "\"According to a 2013 article, Mackay said that she had yelled, \"Stop!", "The Beast!\"", "when viewing the spectacle.", "In the late 1980s, a naturalist interviewed Aldie Mackay and she admitted to knowing that there had been an oral tradition of a \"beast\" in the loch well before her claimed sighting.", "Alex Campbell's 1933 article also stated that \"Loch Ness has for generations been credited with being the home of a fearsome-looking monster\".===George Spicer (1933)===Modern interest in the monster was sparked by a sighting on 22 July 1933, when George Spicer and his wife saw \"a most extraordinary form of animal\" cross the road in front of their car.", "They described the creature as having a large body (about high and long) and a long, wavy, narrow neck, slightly thicker than an elephant's trunk and as long as the width of the road.", "They saw no limbs.", "It lurched across the road toward the loch away, leaving a trail of broken undergrowth in its wake.", "Spicer described it as \"the nearest approach to a dragon or pre-historic animal that I have ever seen in my life,\" and as having \"a long neck, which moved up and down in the manner of a scenic railway.\"", "It had \"an animal\" in its mouth and had a body that \"was fairly big, with a high back, but if there were any feet they must have been of the web kind, and as for a tail I cannot say, as it moved so rapidly, and when we got to the spot it had probably disappeared into the loch.\"", "Though he was the first to describe the creature as a plesiosaur-like dinosaur, evidence suggested by researchers at Columbia University in 2013 proved his story to be fake.", "The university and Daniel Loxton suggested that Spicer's sighting was fictionalized and inspired by a long-necked dinosaur that rises out of a lake in ''King Kong'', a film that was extremely popular in theaters in his home city of London during August 1933, when Spicer reported the sighting.", "Loxton and Donald Prothero later cited ''King Kong'' as evidently an influence on the Loch Ness Monster myth.On 4 August 1933 the ''Courier'' published a report of Spicer's sighting.", "This sighting triggered a massive amount of public interest and an uptick in alleged sightings, leading to the solidification of the actual name \"Loch Ness Monster.", "\"It has been claimed that sightings of the monster increased after a road was built along the loch in early 1933, bringing workers and tourists to the formerly isolated area.", "However, Binns has described this as \"the myth of the lonely loch\", as it was far from isolated before then, due to the construction of the Caledonian Canal.", "In the 1930s, the existing road by the side of the loch was given a serious upgrade.===Hugh Gray (1933)===Hugh Gray's photograph taken near Foyers on 12 November 1933 was the first photograph alleged to depict the monster.", "It was slightly blurred, and it has been noted that if one looks closely the head of a dog can be seen.", "Gray had taken his Labrador for a walk that day and it is suspected that the photograph depicts his dog fetching a stick from the loch.", "Others have suggested that the photograph depicts an otter or a swan.", "The original negative was lost.", "However, in 1963, Maurice Burton came into \"possession of two lantern slides, contact positives from the original negative\" and when projected onto a screen they revealed an \"otter rolling at the surface in characteristic fashion.", "\"===Arthur Grant (1934)===Sketch of the Arthur Grant sightingOn 5 January 1934 a motorcyclist, Arthur Grant, claimed to have nearly hit the creature while approaching Abriachan (near the north-eastern end of the loch) at about 1 a.m. on a moonlit night.", "According to Grant, it had a small head attached to a long neck; the creature saw him, and crossed the road back to the loch.", "Grant, a veterinary student, described it as a cross between a seal and a plesiosaur.", "He said he dismounted and followed it to the loch, but saw only ripples.Grant produced a sketch of the creature that was examined by zoologist Maurice Burton, who stated it was consistent with the appearance and behavior of an otter.", "Regarding the long size of the creature reported by Grant; it has been suggested that this was a faulty observation due to the poor light conditions.", "Paleontologist Darren Naish has suggested that Grant may have seen either an otter or a seal and exaggerated his sighting over time.===\"Surgeon's photograph\" (1934)===The \"surgeon's photograph\" is reportedly the first photo of the creature's head and neck.", "Supposedly taken by Robert Kenneth Wilson, a London gynaecologist, it was published in the ''Daily Mail'' on 21 April 1934.Wilson's refusal to have his name associated with it led to it being known as the \"surgeon's photograph\".", "According to Wilson, he was looking at the loch when he saw the monster, grabbed his camera and snapped four photos.", "Only two exposures came out clearly; the first reportedly shows a small head and back, and the second shows a similar head in a diving position.", "The first photo became well known, and the second attracted little publicity because of its blurriness.For 60 years, the photo was considered evidence of the monster's existence, although skeptics dismissed it as driftwood, an elephant, an otter or a bird.", "The photo's scale was controversial; it is often shown cropped (making the creature seem large and the ripples like waves), while the uncropped shot shows the other end of the loch and the monster in the centre.", "The ripples in the photo were found to fit the size and pattern of small ripples, rather than large waves photographed up close.", "Analysis of the original image fostered further doubt.", "In 1993, the makers of the Discovery Communications documentary ''Loch Ness Discovered'' analyzed the uncropped image and found a white object visible in every version of the photo (implying that it was on the negative).", "It was believed to be the cause of the ripples, as if the object was being towed, although the possibility of a blemish on the negative could not be ruled out.", "An analysis of the full photograph indicated that the object was small, about long.Since 1994, most agree that the photo was an elaborate hoax.", "It had been described as fake in a 7 December 1975 ''Sunday Telegraph'' article that fell into obscurity.", "Details of how the photo was taken were published in the 1999 book, ''Nessie – the Surgeon's Photograph Exposed'', which contains a facsimile of the 1975 ''Sunday Telegraph'' article.", "The creature was reportedly a toy submarine built by Christian Spurling, the son-in-law of Marmaduke Wetherell.", "Spurling admitted the photograph was a hoax in January 1991.Wetherell had been publicly ridiculed by his employer, the ''Daily Mail'', after he found \"Nessie footprints\" that turned out to be a hoax.", "To get revenge on the ''Mail'', Wetherell perpetrated his hoax with co-conspirators Spurling (sculpture specialist), Ian Wetherell (his son, who bought the material for the fake), and Maurice Chambers (an insurance agent).", "The toy submarine was bought from F. W. Woolworth, and its head and neck were made from wood putty.", "After testing it in a local pond the group went to Loch Ness, where Ian Wetherell took the photos near the Altsaigh Tea House.", "When they heard a water bailiff approaching, Duke Wetherell sank the model with his foot and it is \"presumably still somewhere in Loch Ness\".", "Chambers gave the photographic plates to Wilson, a friend of his who enjoyed \"a good practical joke\".", "Wilson brought the plates to Ogston's, an Inverness chemist, and gave them to George Morrison for development.", "He sold the first photo to the ''Daily Mail'', who then announced that the monster had been photographed.Little is known of the second photo; it is often ignored by researchers, who believe its quality too poor and its differences from the first photo too great to warrant analysis.", "It shows a head similar to the first photo, with a more turbulent wave pattern, and possibly taken at a different time and location in the loch.", "Some believe it to be an earlier, cruder attempt at a hoax, and others (including Roy Mackal and Maurice Burton) consider it a picture of a diving bird or otter that Wilson mistook for the monster.", "According to Morrison, when the plates were developed, Wilson was uninterested in the second photo; he allowed Morrison to keep the negative, and the photo was rediscovered years later.", "When asked about the second photo by the ''Ness Information Service Newsletter'', Spurling \"... was vague, thought it might have been a piece of wood they were trying out as a monster, but was not sure.", "\"===Taylor film (1938)===On 29 May 1938, South African tourist G. E. Taylor filmed something in the loch for three minutes on 16 mm colour film.", "The film was obtained by popular science writer Maurice Burton, who did not show it to other researchers.", "A single frame was published in his 1961 book, ''The Elusive Monster''.", "His analysis concluded it was a floating object, not an animal.===William Fraser (1938)===On 15 August 1938, William Fraser, chief constable of Inverness-shire, wrote a letter that the monster existed beyond doubt and expressed concern about a hunting party that had arrived (with a custom-made harpoon gun) determined to catch the monster \"dead or alive\".", "He believed his power to protect the monster from the hunters was \"very doubtful\".", "The letter was released by the National Archives of Scotland on 27 April 2010.===Sonar readings (1954)===In December 1954, sonar readings were taken by the fishing boat ''Rival III''.", "Its crew noted a large object keeping pace with the vessel at a depth of .", "It was detected for before contact was lost and regained.", "Previous sonar attempts were inconclusive or negative.===Peter MacNab (1955)===Peter MacNab at Urquhart Castle on 29 July 1955 took a photograph that depicted two long black humps in the water.", "The photograph was not made public until it appeared in Constance Whyte's 1957 book on the subject.", "On 23 October 1958 it was published by the ''Weekly Scotsman''.", "Author Ronald Binns wrote that the \"phenomenon which MacNab photographed could easily be a wave effect resulting from three trawlers travelling closely together up the loch.", "\"Other researchers consider the photograph a hoax.", "Roy Mackal requested to use the photograph in his 1976 book.", "He received the original negative from MacNab, but discovered it differed from the photograph that appeared in Whyte's book.", "The tree at the bottom left in Whyte's was missing from the negative.", "It is suspected that the photograph was doctored by re-photographing a print.===Dinsdale film (1960)===Aeronautical engineer Tim Dinsdale filmed what he believed to be a dark hump that left a wake crossing Loch Ness on 23 April 1960.Dinsdale, who reportedly had the sighting on his final day of search, described it as mahogany red with a blotch on its side when viewed through binoculars.", "He said that when he mounted his camera the object began to move, and he shot of film.", "According to JARIC, who published a 1966 report analyzing the film, the object was \"probably animate\".", "After the film, Dinsdale continued to pursue finding the Loch Ness Monster but while he claimed to have had additional sightings he was unable to produce more photographic evidence.In 1993, Discovery Communications produced a documentary, ''Loch Ness Discovered'', with a digital enhancement of the Dinsdale film.", "A person who enhanced the film noticed a shadow in the negative that was not obvious in the developed film.", "By enhancing and overlaying frames, he found what appeared to be the rear body of a creature underwater: \"Before I saw the film, I thought the Loch Ness Monster was a load of rubbish.", "Having done the enhancement, I'm not so sure.", "\"However, additional analyses of the Dinsdale film have indicated that his sighting was a case of mistaken identity and that he likely filmed a boat under poor lighting conditions.", "Although Dinsdale attempted to rule this out by organizing for a fishing boat to sail a similar route later that morning, this comparison was filmed under different lighting conditions, with a white boat.", "JARIC's estimates of the size and speed of the object are now believed to be overestimates, due to miscalculations of the angle of the camera and cuts in the film, and overlaying multiple frames seems to show a pale blob towards the rear end of the object, which appears in multiple frames and matches with the position of the helmsman of a boat as demonstrated in Dinsdale's boat comparison.", "It has also been noted that the object in his film does not actually submerge as often perceived but blends into the greyer reflections on the water.", "Additionally, Dick Raynor has noted that Dinsdale's binoculars were actually a wider field of view than his telephoto camera.", "Additionally, critics consider the dark shape noticed by the Discovery documentary analysis to be unlikely to be the shadow or a body underwater due the low angle of view, and it is more likely to be reflections of the shore behind the object.Although most researchers do not believe Dinsdale to be a hoaxer, his susceptibility to confirmation bias and trusting dubious sources as evidence has been criticized.===\"Loch Ness Muppet\" (1977)===On 21 May 1977, Anthony \"Doc\" Shiels, camping next to Urquhart Castle, took \"some of the clearest pictures of the monster until this day\".", "Shiels, a magician, claimed to have summoned the animal out of the water.", "He later described it as an \"elephant squid\", claiming the long neck shown in the photograph is actually the squid's \"trunk\" and that a white spot at the base of the neck is its eye.", "Due to the lack of ripples, it has been declared a hoax by a number of people and received its name because of its staged look.===Holmes video (2007)===On 26 May 2007, 55-year-old laboratory technician Gordon Holmes videotaped what he said was \"this jet black thing, about long, moving fairly fast in the water.\"", "Adrian Shine, a marine biologist at the Loch Ness 2000 Centre in Drumnadrochit, described it as among \"the best footage he had ever seen.\"", "BBC Scotland broadcast the video on 29 May 2007.", "''STV News North Tonight'' aired it on 28 May 2007 and interviewed Holmes.", "Shine was also interviewed, and suggested that the footage was an otter, seal or water bird.===Sonar image (2011)===On 24 August 2011, Loch Ness boat captain Marcus Atkinson photographed a sonar image of a , unidentified object that seemed to follow his boat for two minutes at a depth of , and ruled out the possibility of a small fish or seal.", "In April 2012, a scientist from the National Oceanography Centre said that the image is a bloom of algae and zooplankton.===George Edwards photograph (2011)===On 3 August 2012, skipper George Edwards claimed that a photo he took on 2 November 2011 shows \"Nessie\".", "Edwards claims to have searched for the monster for 26 years, and reportedly spent 60 hours per week on the loch aboard his boat, ''Nessie Hunter IV'', taking tourists for rides.", "Edwards said, \"In my opinion, it probably looks kind of like a manatee, but not a mammal.", "When people see three humps, they're probably just seeing three separate monsters.", "\"Other researchers have questioned the photograph's authenticity, and Loch Ness researcher Steve Feltham suggested that the object in the water is a fibreglass hump used in a National Geographic Channel documentary in which Edwards had participated.", "Researcher Dick Raynor has questioned Edwards' claim of discovering a deeper bottom of Loch Ness, which Raynor calls \"Edwards Deep\".", "He found inconsistencies between Edwards' claims for the location and conditions of the photograph and the actual location and weather conditions that day.", "According to Raynor, Edwards told him he had faked a photograph in 1986 that he claimed was genuine in the Nat Geo documentary.", "Although Edwards admitted in October 2013 that his 2011 photograph was a hoax, he insisted that the 1986 photograph was genuine.A survey of the literature about other hoaxes, including photographs, published by ''The Scientific American'' on 10 July 2013, indicates many others since the 1930s.", "The most recent photo considered to be \"good\" appeared in newspapers in August 2012; it was allegedly taken by George Edwards in November 2011 but was \"definitely a hoax\" according to the science journal.===David Elder video (2013)===On 27 August 2013, tourist David Elder presented a five-minute video of a \"mysterious wave\" in the loch.", "According to Elder, the wave was produced by a \"solid black object\" just under the surface of the water.", "Elder, 50, from East Kilbride, South Lanarkshire, was taking a picture of a swan at the Fort Augustus pier on the south-western end of the loch, when he captured the movement.", "He said, \"The water was very still at the time and there were no ripples coming off the wave and no other activity on the water.\"", "Sceptics suggested that the wave may have been caused by a wind gust.===Apple Maps photograph (2014)===On 19 April 2014, it was reported that a satellite image on Apple Maps showed what appeared to be a large creature (thought by some to be the Loch Ness Monster) just below the surface of Loch Ness.", "At the loch's far north, the image appeared about long.", "Possible explanations were the wake of a boat (with the boat itself lost in image stitching or low contrast), seal-caused ripples, or floating wood.===Drone footage (2021)===In September 2021, it was reported that a creature was captured on a live-stream near the loch." ], [ "{{anchor|Searches for the monster|Andrew Carroll's sonar study (1969)|Submersible investigations|\"Big Expedition\" of 1970|Discovery Loch Ness (1993)}}Searches", "===Edward Mountain expedition (1934)===Loch Ness, reported home of the monsterAfter reading Rupert Gould's ''The Loch Ness Monster and Others'', Edward Mountain financed a search.", "Twenty men with binoculars and cameras positioned themselves around the loch from 9 am to 6 pm for five weeks, beginning on 13 July 1934.Although 21 photographs were taken, none was considered conclusive.", "Supervisor James Fraser remained by the loch, filming, on 15 September 1934; the film is now lost.", "Zoologists and professors of natural history concluded that the film showed a seal, possibly a grey seal.===Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau (1962–1972)===The ''Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau'' (LNPIB) was a UK-based society formed in 1962 by Norman Collins, R. S. R. Fitter, politician David James, Peter Scott and Constance Whyte \"to study Loch Ness to identify the creature known as the Loch Ness Monster or determine the causes of reports of it\".", "In 1967 it received a grant of $20,000 from World Book Encyclopedia to fund a 2-year programme of daylight watches from May to October.", "The principal equipment was 35 mm movie cameras on mobile units with 20-inch lenses, and one with a 36-inch lens at Achnahannet, near the midpoint of the loch.", "With the mobile units in laybys about 80% of the loch surface was covered.", "The society's name was later shortened to the Loch Ness Investigation Bureau (LNIB), and it disbanded in 1972.The LNIB had an annual subscription charge, which covered administration.", "Its main activity was encouraging groups of self-funded volunteers to watch the loch from vantage points with film cameras with telescopic lenses.", "From 1965 to 1972 it had a caravan camp and viewing platform at Achnahannet, and sent observers to other locations up and down the loch.", "According to the bureau's 1969 annual report it had 1,030 members, of whom 588 were from the UK.===Sonar study (1967–1968)===D.", "Gordon Tucker, chair of the Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering at the University of Birmingham, volunteered his services as a sonar developer and expert at Loch Ness in 1968.His gesture, part of a larger effort led by the LNPIB from 1967 to 1968, involved collaboration between volunteers and professionals in a number of fields.", "Tucker had chosen Loch Ness as the test site for a prototype sonar transducer with a maximum range of .", "The device was fixed underwater at Temple Pier in Urquhart Bay and directed at the opposite shore, drawing an acoustic \"net\" across the loch through which no moving object could pass undetected.", "During the two-week trial in August, multiple targets were identified.", "One was probably a shoal of fish, but others moved in a way not typical of shoals at speeds up to 10 knots.===Robert Rines studies (1972, 1975, 2001, 2008)===In 1972, a group of researchers from the Academy of Applied Science led by Robert H. Rines conducted a search for the monster involving sonar examination of the loch depths for unusual activity.", "Rines took precautions to avoid murky water with floating wood and peat.", "A submersible camera with a floodlight was deployed to record images below the surface.", "If Rines detected anything on the sonar, he turned the light on and took pictures.On 8 August, Rines' Raytheon DE-725C sonar unit, operating at a frequency of 200 kHz and anchored at a depth of , identified a moving target (or targets) estimated by echo strength at in length.", "Specialists from Raytheon, Simrad (now Kongsberg Maritime), Hydroacoustics, Marty Klein of MIT and Klein Associates (a side-scan sonar producer) and Ira Dyer of MIT's Department of Ocean Engineering were on hand to examine the data.", "P. Skitzki of Raytheon suggested that the data indicated a protuberance projecting from one of the echoes.", "According to author Roy Mackal, the shape was a \"highly flexible laterally flattened tail\" or the misinterpreted return from two animals swimming together.Concurrent with the sonar readings, the floodlit camera obtained a pair of underwater photographs.", "Both depicted what appeared to be a rhomboid flipper, although sceptics have dismissed the images as depicting the bottom of the loch, air bubbles, a rock, or a fish fin.", "The apparent flipper was photographed in different positions, indicating movement.", "The first flipper photo is better-known than the second, and both were enhanced and retouched from the original negatives.", "According to team member Charles Wyckoff, the photos were retouched to superimpose the flipper; the original enhancement showed a considerably less-distinct object.", "No one is sure how the originals were altered.", "During a meeting with Tony Harmsworth and Adrian Shine at the Loch Ness Centre & Exhibition, Rines admitted that the flipper photo may have been retouched by a magazine editor.British naturalist Peter Scott announced in 1975, on the basis of the photographs, that the creature's scientific name would be ''Nessiteras rhombopteryx'' (Greek for \"Ness inhabitant with diamond-shaped fin\").", "Scott intended that the name would enable the creature to be added to the British register of protected wildlife.", "Scottish politician Nicholas Fairbairn called the name an anagram for \"Monster hoax by Sir Peter S\".", "However, Rines countered that when rearranged, the letters could also spell \"Yes, both pix are monsters – R.\"Another sonar contact was made, this time with two objects estimated to be about .", "The strobe camera photographed two large objects surrounded by a flurry of bubbles.", "Some interpreted the objects as two plesiosaur-like animals, suggesting several large animals living in Loch Ness.", "This photograph has rarely been published.A second search was conducted by Rines in 1975.Some of the photographs, despite their obviously murky quality and lack of concurrent sonar readings, did indeed seem to show unknown animals in various positions and lightings.", "One photograph appeared to show the head, neck, and upper torso of a plesiosaur-like animal, but sceptics argue the object is a log due to the lump on its \"chest\" area, the mass of sediment in the full photo, and the object's log-like \"skin\" texture.", "Another photograph seemed to depict a horned \"gargoyle head\", consistent with that of some sightings of the monster; however, sceptics point out that a tree stump was later filmed during Operation Deepscan in 1987, which bore a striking resemblance to the gargoyle head.In 2001, Rines' Academy of Applied Science videotaped a V-shaped wake traversing still water on a calm day.", "The academy also videotaped an object on the floor of the loch resembling a carcass and found marine clamshells and a fungus-like organism not normally found in freshwater lochs, a suggested connection to the sea and a possible entry for the creature.In 2008, Rines theorised that the creature may have become extinct, citing the lack of significant sonar readings and a decline in eyewitness accounts.", "He undertook a final expedition, using sonar and an underwater camera in an attempt to find a carcass.", "Rines believed that the animals may have failed to adapt to temperature changes resulting from global warming.===Operation Deepscan (1987)===Operation Deepscan was conducted in 1987.Twenty-four boats equipped with echo sounding equipment were deployed across the width of the loch, and simultaneously sent acoustic waves.", "According to BBC News the scientists had made sonar contact with an unidentified object of unusual size and strength.", "The researchers returned, re-scanning the area.", "Analysis of the echosounder images seemed to indicate debris at the bottom of the loch, although there was motion in three of the pictures.", "Adrian Shine speculated, based on size, that they might be seals that had entered the loch.Sonar expert Darrell Lowrance, founder of Lowrance Electronics, donated a number of echosounder units used in the operation.", "After examining a sonar return indicating a large, moving object at a depth of near Urquhart Bay, Lowrance said: \"There's something here that we don't understand, and there's something here that's larger than a fish, maybe some species that hasn't been detected before.", "I don't know.", "\"===''Searching for the Loch Ness Monster'' (2003)===In 2003, the BBC sponsored a search of the loch using 600 sonar beams and satellite tracking.", "The search had sufficient resolution to identify a small buoy.", "No animal of substantial size was found and, despite their reported hopes, the scientists involved admitted that this proved the Loch Ness Monster was a myth.", "''Searching for the Loch Ness Monster'' aired on BBC One.=== Adrian Shine and Kongsberg Maritime (2016) ===Adrian Shine of The Loch Ness Project and VisitScotland supported a survey of the Loch using an underwater robot operated by Kongsberg Maritime.", "While investigating the depths of the loch, they found the resting place of a Nessie prop created for Billy Wilder's 1970 film ''The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes''.", "Wally Veevers had designed the prop initially with a neck and two humps but Wilder disliked the humps and ordered them removed.", "This change altered the buoyancy and the prop promptly sank into the loch during a filming test.===DNA survey (2018)===An international team consisting of researchers from the universities of Otago, Copenhagen, Hull and the Highlands and Islands, did a DNA survey of the lake in June 2018, looking for unusual species.", "The results were published in 2019; no DNA of large fish such as sharks, sturgeons and catfish could be found.", "No otter or seal DNA were obtained either, though there was a lot of eel DNA.", "The leader of the study, Prof Neil Gemmell of the University of Otago, said he could not rule out the possibility of eels of extreme size, though none were found, nor were any ever caught.", "The other possibility is that the large amount of eel DNA simply comes from many small eels.", "No evidence of any reptilian sequences were found, he added, \"so I think we can be fairly sure that there is probably not a giant scaly reptile swimming around in Loch Ness\", he said.===High-Tech 2023 90th Anniversary Search===In August 2023 a weekend of high-tech searching was done in observance of the 90th anniversary of the 1933 Aldie Mackay sighting.", "The event was coordinated by Loch Ness Exploration volunteers in collaboration with the Loch Ness visitor’s centre.", "The high tech used included “sonar for mapping the loch bed; thermal imaging drones to scan the surface; and hydrophones (underwater microphones)” which did record some sounds, but were “probably ducks”.", "Despite a large turnout of searchers onsite and hundreds more viewing Internet livestream cameras pointed at the Loch, there were no conclusive sightings." ], [ "Explanations", "A number of explanations have been suggested to account for sightings of the creature.", "According to Ronald Binns, a former member of the Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau, there is probably no single explanation of the monster.", "Binns wrote two sceptical books, the 1983 ''The Loch Ness Mystery Solved'', and his 2017 ''The Loch Ness Mystery Reloaded''.", "In these he contends that an aspect of human psychology is the ability of the eye to see what it wants, and expects, to see.", "They may be categorised as misidentifications of known animals, misidentifications of inanimate objects or effects, reinterpretations of Scottish folklore, hoaxes, and exotic species of large animals.", "A reviewer wrote that Binns had \"evolved into the author of ... the definitive, skeptical book on the subject\".", "Binns does not call the sightings a hoax, but \"a myth in the true sense of the term\" and states that the \"'monster is a sociological ... phenomenon.", "...After 1983 the search ... (for the) possibility that there just ''might'' be continues to enthrall a small number for whom eye-witness evidence outweighs all other considerations\".===Misidentification of known animals=======Eels====A large European eel was an early suggestion for what the \"monster\" was.", "Eels are found in Loch Ness, and an unusually large one would explain many sightings.", "Dinsdale dismissed the hypothesis because eels undulate side to side like snakes.", "Sightings in 1856 of a \"sea-serpent\" (or kelpie) in a freshwater lake near Leurbost in the Outer Hebrides were explained as those of an oversized eel, also believed common in \"Highland lakes\".", "From 2018 to 2019, scientists from New Zealand undertook a massive project to document every organism in Loch Ness based on DNA samples.", "Their reports confirmed that European eels are still found in the Loch.", "No DNA samples were found for large animals such as catfish, Greenland sharks, or plesiosaurs.", "Many scientists now believe that giant eels account for many, if not most of the sightings.====Elephant====In a 1979 article, California biologist Dennis Power and geographer Donald Johnson claimed that the \"surgeon's photograph\" was the top of the head, extended trunk and flared nostrils of a swimming elephant photographed elsewhere and claimed to be from Loch Ness.", "In 2006, palaeontologist and artist Neil Clark suggested that travelling circuses might have allowed elephants to bathe in the loch; the trunk could be the perceived head and neck, with the head and back the perceived humps.", "In support of this, Clark provided an example painting.====Greenland shark====Zoologist, angler and television presenter Jeremy Wade investigated the creature in 2013 as part of the series ''River Monsters'', and concluded that it is a Greenland shark.", "The Greenland shark, which can reach up to 20 feet in length, inhabits the North Atlantic Ocean around Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, and possibly Scotland.", "It is dark in colour, with a small dorsal fin.", "According to biologist Bruce Wright, the Greenland shark could survive in fresh water (possibly using rivers and lakes to find food) and Loch Ness has an abundance of salmon and other fish.====Wels catfish====In July 2015 three news outlets reported that Steve Feltham, after a vigil at the loch that was recognized by the Guinness Book of Records, theorised that the monster is an unusually large specimen of Wels catfish (''Silurus glanis''), which may have been released during the late 19th century.====Other resident animals====It is difficult to judge the size of an object in water through a telescope or binoculars with no external reference.", "Loch Ness has resident otters, and photos of them and deer swimming in the loch, which were cited by author Ronald Binns may have been misinterpreted.", "According to Binns, birds may be mistaken for a \"head and neck\" sighting.===Misidentifications of inanimate objects or effects=======Boat wakes====Wakes have been reported when the loch is calm, with no boats nearby.", "Bartender David Munro reported a wake he believed was a creature zigzagging, diving, and reappearing; there were reportedly 26 other witnesses from a nearby car park.", "Although some sightings describe a V-shaped wake similar to a boat's, others report something not conforming to the shape of a boat.====Trees====In 1933, the ''Daily Mirror'' published a picture with the caption: \"This queerly-shaped tree-trunk, washed ashore at Foyers on Loch Ness may, it is thought, be responsible for the reported appearance of a 'Monster.", "In a 1982 series of articles for ''New Scientist'', Maurice Burton proposed that sightings of Nessie and similar creatures may be fermenting Scots pine logs rising to the surface of the loch.", "A decomposing log could not initially release gases caused by decay because of its high resin level.", "Gas pressure would eventually rupture a resin seal at one end of the log, propelling it through the water (sometimes to the surface).", "According to Burton, the shape of tree logs (with their branch stumps) closely resembles descriptions of the monster.====Seiches and wakes====Loch Ness, because of its long, straight shape, is subject to unusual ripples affecting its surface.", "A seiche is a large oscillation of a lake, caused by water reverting to its natural level after being blown to one end of the lake (resulting in a standing wave); the Loch Ness oscillation period is 31.5 minutes.", "Earthquakes in Scotland are too weak to cause observable seiches, but extremely massive earthquakes far away could cause large waves.", "The seiche created in Loch Ness by the catastrophic 1755 Lisbon earthquake was reportedly \"so violent as to threaten destruction to some houses built on the sides of it\", while the 1761 aftershock caused two-foot (60 cm) waves.", "However, no sightings of the monster were reported in 1755.====Optical effects====Wind conditions can give a choppy, matt appearance to the water with calm patches appearing dark from the shore (reflecting the mountains and clouds).", "In 1979, W. H. Lehn showed that atmospheric refraction could distort the shape and size of objects and animals, and later published a photograph of a mirage of a rock on Lake Winnipeg that resembled a head and neck.====Seismic gas====Italian geologist Luigi Piccardi has proposed geological explanations for ancient legends and myths.", "Piccardi noted that in the earliest recorded sighting of a creature (the ''Life of Saint Columba''), the creature's emergence was accompanied \"''cum ingenti fremitu''\" (\"with loud roaring\").", "The Loch Ness is along the Great Glen Fault, and this could be a description of an earthquake.", "Many reports consist only of a large disturbance on the surface of the water; this could be a release of gas through the fault, although it may be mistaken for something swimming below the surface.===Folklore===In 1980 Swedish naturalist and author Bengt Sjögren wrote that present beliefs in lake monsters such as the Loch Ness Monster are associated with kelpie legends.", "According to Sjögren, accounts of loch monsters have changed over time; originally describing horse-like creatures, they were intended to keep children away from the loch.", "Sjögren wrote that the kelpie legends have developed into descriptions reflecting a modern awareness of plesiosaurs.The kelpie as a water horse in Loch Ness was mentioned in an 1879 Scottish newspaper, and inspired Tim Dinsdale's ''Project Water Horse''.", "A study of pre-1933 Highland folklore references to kelpies, water horses and water bulls indicated that Ness was the loch most frequently cited.===Hoaxes===A number of hoax attempts have been made, some of which were successful.", "Other hoaxes were revealed rather quickly by the perpetrators or exposed after diligent research.", "A few examples follow.In August 1933, Italian journalist Francesco Gasparini submitted what he said was the first news article on the Loch Ness Monster.", "In 1959, he reported sighting a \"strange fish\" and fabricated eyewitness accounts: \"I had the inspiration to get hold of the item about the strange fish.", "The idea of the monster had never dawned on me, but then I noted that the strange fish would not yield a long article, and I decided to promote the imaginary being to the rank of monster without further ado.", "\"In the 1930s, big-game hunter Marmaduke Wetherell went to Loch Ness to look for the monster.", "Wetherell claimed to have found footprints, but when casts of the footprints were sent to scientists for analysis they turned out to be from a hippopotamus; a prankster had used a hippopotamus-foot umbrella stand.In 1972, a team of zoologists from Yorkshire's Flamingo Park Zoo, searching for the monster, discovered a large body floating in the water.", "The corpse, long and weighing as much as 1.5 tonnes, was described by the Press Association as having \"a bear's head and a brown scaly body with clawlike fins.\"", "The creature was placed in a van to be carried away for testing, but police seized the cadaver under an act of parliament prohibiting the removal of \"unidentified creatures\" from Loch Ness.", "It was later revealed that Flamingo Park education officer John Shields shaved the whiskers and otherwise disfigured a bull elephant seal that had died the week before and dumped it in Loch Ness to dupe his colleagues.On 2 July 2003, Gerald McSorely discovered a fossil, supposedly from the creature, when he tripped and fell into the loch.", "After examination, it was clear that the fossil had been planted.", "''Cryptoclidus'' model used in the Five TV programme, ''Loch Ness Monster: The Ultimate Experiment''In 2004, a Five TV documentary team, using cinematic special-effects experts, tried to convince people that there was something in the loch.", "They constructed an animatronic model of a plesiosaur, calling it \"Lucy\".", "Despite setbacks (including Lucy falling to the bottom of the loch), about 600 sightings were reported where she was placed.In 2005, two students claimed to have found a large tooth embedded in the body of a deer on the loch shore.", "They publicised the find, setting up a website, but expert analysis soon revealed that the \"tooth\" was the antler of a muntjac.", "The tooth was a publicity stunt to promote a horror novel by Steve Alten, ''The Loch.", "''===Exotic large-animal species=======Plesiosaur====Reconstruction of Nessie as a plesiosaur outside the Museum of NessieIn 1933, it was suggested that the creature \"bears a striking resemblance to the supposedly extinct plesiosaur\", a long-necked aquatic reptile that became extinct during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.", "A popular explanation at the time, the following arguments have been made against it:* In an October 2006 ''New Scientist'' article, \"Why the Loch Ness Monster is no plesiosaur\", Leslie Noè of the Sedgwick Museum in Cambridge said: \"The osteology of the neck makes it absolutely certain that the plesiosaur could not lift its head up swan-like out of the water\".", "* The loch is only about 10,000 years old, dating to the end of the last ice age.", "Before then, it was frozen for about 20,000 years.", "* If creatures similar to plesiosaurs lived in Loch Ness they would be seen frequently, since they would have to surface several times a day to breathe.In response to these criticisms, Tim Dinsdale, Peter Scott and Roy Mackal postulate a trapped marine creature that evolved from a plesiosaur directly or by convergent evolution.", "Robert Rines explained that the \"horns\" in some sightings function as breathing tubes (or nostrils), allowing it to breathe without breaking the surface.", "Also new discoveries have shown that Plesiosaurs had the ability to swim in fresh waters, but the cold temperatures would make it hard for it to live.====Long-necked giant amphibian====R.", "T. Gould suggested a long-necked newt; Roy Mackal examined the possibility, giving it the highest score (88 percent) on his list of possible candidates.====Invertebrate====In 1968 F. W. Holiday proposed that Nessie and other lake monsters, such as Morag, may be a large invertebrate such as a bristleworm; he cited the extinct ''Tullimonstrum'' as an example of the shape.", "According to Holiday, this explains the land sightings and the variable back shape; he likened it to the medieval description of dragons as \"worms\".", "Although this theory was considered by Mackal, he found it less convincing than eels, amphibians or plesiosaurs." ], [ "{{anchor|Popular culture}}See also", "* Bear Lake monster* Beithir* Bigfoot* Bunyip* Chessie (sea monster)* Gaasyendietha* Jiaolong* Lake Bumbunga* Lake Tianchi Monster* Lake Van Monster* Lariosauro* Leviathan* List of reported lake monsters* List of topics characterised as pseudoscience* Living fossils* Loch Ness Monster in popular culture* Manipogo* Memphre* Mishipeshu* Mokele-mbembe* Morag* Nahuel Huapi Lake Monster* Ogopogo* Plesiosauria* Sea monster* Selma (lake monster)* Stronsay Beast* Wani (dragon)* Zegrze Reservoir Monster" ], [ "Footnotes", "===Notes======References===" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Bauer, Henry H. ''The Enigma of Loch Ness: Making Sense of a Mystery'', Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 1986* Binns, Ronald, ''The Loch Ness Mystery Solved'', Great Britain, Open Books, 1983, and Star Books, 1984, * Binns, Ronald, ''The Loch Ness Mystery Reloaded'', London, Zoilus Press, 2017, * Burton, Maurice, ''The Elusive Monster: An Analysis of the Evidence from Loch Ness'', London, Rupert Hart-Davis, 1961* Campbell, Steuart.", "''The Loch Ness Monster – The Evidence'', Buffalo, New York, Prometheus Books, 1985.", "* Dinsdale, Tim, ''Loch Ness Monster'', London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1961, SBN 7100 1279 9* Harrison, Paul ''The encyclopaedia of the Loch Ness Monster'', London, Robert Hale, 1999* Gould, R. T., ''The Loch Ness Monster and Others'', London, Geoffrey Bles, 1934 and paperback, Lyle Stuart, 1976, * Holiday, F. W., ''The Great Orm of Loch Ness'', London, Faber & Faber, 1968, SBN 571 08473 7* Perera, Victor, ''The Loch Ness Monster Watchers'', Santa Barbara, Capra Press, 1974.", "* Whyte, Constance, ''More Than a Legend: The Story of the Loch Ness Monster'', London, Hamish Hamilton, 1957" ], [ "Documentary", "* ''Secrets of Loch Ness''.", "Produced & Directed by Christopher Jeans (ITN/Channel 4/A&E Network, 1995)." ], [ "External links", "* Nova Documentary On Nessie* Smithsonian Institution*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Laser science" ], [ "Introduction", "A laser experiment on an optical tableLaser modules (bottom to top: 405, 445, 520, 532, 635, and 660 nm)'''Laser science''' or '''laser physics''' is a branch of optics that describes the theory and practice of lasers.Laser science is principally concerned with quantum electronics, laser construction, optical cavity design, the physics of producing a population inversion in laser media, and the temporal evolution of the light field in the laser.", "It is also concerned with the physics of laser beam propagation, particularly the physics of Gaussian beams, with laser applications, and with associated fields such as nonlinear optics and quantum optics." ], [ "History", "Laser science predates the invention of the laser itself.", "Albert Einstein created the foundations for the laser and maser in 1917, via a paper in which he re-derived Max Planck’s law of radiation using a formalism based on probability coefficients (Einstein coefficients) for the absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.", "The existence of stimulated emission was confirmed in 1928 by Rudolf W. Ladenburg.", "In 1939, Valentin A. Fabrikant made the earliest laser proposal.", "He specified the conditions required for light amplification using stimulated emission.", "In 1947, Willis E. Lamb and R. C. Retherford found apparent stimulated emission in hydrogen spectra and effected the first demonstration of stimulated emission; in 1950, Alfred Kastler (Nobel Prize for Physics 1966) proposed the method of optical pumping, experimentally confirmed, two years later, by Brossel, Kastler, and Winter.The theoretical principles describing the operation of a microwave laser (a maser) were first described by Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov at the ''All-Union Conference on Radio Spectroscopy'' in May 1952.The first maser was built by Charles H. Townes, James P. Gordon, and Herbert J. Zeiger in 1953.Townes, Basov and Prokhorov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 for their research in the field of stimulated emission.", "Arthur Ashkin, Gérard Mourou, and Donna Strickland were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2018 for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics.The first working laser (a pulsed ruby laser) was demonstrated on May 16, 1960, by Theodore Maiman at the Hughes Research Laboratories." ], [ "See also", "*Laser acronyms*List of laser types" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A very detailed tutorial on lasers" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lincoln, England" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lincoln''' () is a cathedral city and district in Lincolnshire, England, of which it is the county town.", "In the 2021 Census, the Lincoln district had a population of 103,813.The 2021 census gave the urban area of Lincoln, including North Hykeham and Waddington, a recorded population of 127,540.Roman ''Lindum Colonia'' developed from an Iron Age settlement of Britons on the River Witham, near the Fosse Way road.", "Over time its name was shortened to Lincoln, after successive settlements, including by Saxons and Danes.", "Landmarks include Lincoln Cathedral (English Gothic architecture; for over 200 years the world's tallest building) and the 11th-century Norman Lincoln Castle.", "The city hosts the University of Lincoln, Bishop Grosseteste University, Lincoln City F.C.", "and Lincoln United F.C.", "Lincoln is the largest settlement in Lincolnshire, with the towns of Grimsby second largest and Scunthorpe third." ], [ "History", "===Earliest history===The earliest origins of Lincoln can be traced to remains of an Iron Age settlement of round wooden dwellings, discovered by archaeologists in 1972, which have been dated to the 1st century BCE.", "It was built by Brayford Pool on the River Witham at the foot of a large hill, on which the Normans later built Lincoln Cathedral and Lincoln Castle.The name Lincoln may come from this period, when the settlement is thought to have been named in the Brittonic language of Iron Age Britain's Celtic inhabitants as ''Lindon'', \"The Pool\", presumably referring to Brayford Pool (compare the etymology of Dublin, from the Gaelic ''dubh linn'' \"black pool\").", "The extent of the original settlement is unknown, as its remains are buried beneath the later Roman and medieval ruins and modern Lincoln.===Lindum Colonia===Newport Arch, a 3rd-century Roman gateThe Romans conquered this part of Britain in 48 CE and soon built a legionary fortress high on a hill overlooking the natural lake, Brayford Pool, formed by the widening of the River Witham, and the northern end of the Fosse Way Roman road (A46).", "Celtic ''Lindon'' was later Latinised to ''Lindum'' and the title ''Colonia'' added when it became settled by army veterans.The conversion to a ''colonia'' occurred when the legion moved on to York (''Eboracum'') in 71 CE.", "'''Lindum colonia''' or more fully, '''Colonia Domitiana Lindensium''', after the then Emperor Domitian, was set up within the walls of the hilltop fortress by extending it with about an equal area, down the hillside to the waterside.It became a flourishing settlement accessible from the sea through the River Trent and through the River Witham.", "On the basis of a patently corrupt list of British bishops said to have attended the 314 Council of Arles, the city is often seen as having been the capital of the province of Flavia Caesariensis, formed during the late 3rd-century Diocletian Reforms.", "Subsequently, the town and its waterways declined.", "By the close of the 5th century, it was largely deserted, although some occupation continued under a ''Praefectus Civitatis'' – Saint Paulinus visited a man holding this office in Lincoln in 629 CE.===Lincylene===East Gate, Lincoln CastleGermanic tribes from the North Sea area settled Lincolnshire in the 5th to 6th centuries.", "The Latin ''Lindum Colonia'' shrank in Old English to Lindocolina, then to Lincylene.After the first Viking raids, the city again rose to some importance with overseas trading ties.", "In Viking times Lincoln had its own mint, by far the most important in Lincolnshire and by the end of the 10th century, comparable in output to that of York.", "After establishment of the Danelaw in 886, Lincoln became one of the Five East Midland Boroughs.", "Excavations at Flaxengate reveal that an area deserted since Roman times received timber-framed buildings fronting a new street system in about 900.Lincoln underwent an economic explosion with the settlement of the Danes.", "Like York, the Upper City seems to have had purely administrative functions up to 850 or so, while the Lower City, down the hill towards the River Witham, may have been largely deserted.", "By 950, however, the Witham banks were developed, the Lower City resettled and the suburb of Wigford emerging as a trading centre.", "In 1068, two years after the Norman conquest of England, William I ordered Lincoln Castle to be built on the site of the old Roman settlement, for the same strategic reasons and controlling the same road, the Fosse Way.===Green cloth===Coat of arms of King James I added in 1617 when the monarch visited the city for nine daysDuring the Anarchy, in 1141 Lincoln was the site of a battle between King Stephen and the forces of Empress Matilda, led by her illegitimate half-brother Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester.", "After fierce fighting in the city streets, Stephen's forces were defeated and Stephen himself captured and taken to Bristol.By 1150, Lincoln was among the wealthiest towns in England, based economically on cloth and wool exported to Flanders; Lincoln weavers had set up a guild in 1130 to produce Lincoln Cloth, especially the fine dyed \"scarlet\" and \"green\", whose reputation was later enhanced by the legendary Robin Hood wearing woollens of Lincoln green.", "In the Guildhall, surmounting the city gate called the Stonebow, the ancient Council Chamber contains Lincoln's civic insignia, a fine collection of civic regalia.Outside the precincts of cathedral and castle, the old quarter clustered round the Bailgate and down Steep Hill to the High Street and High Bridge, whose half-timbered housing juts out over the river.", "There are three ancient churches: St Mary le Wigford and St Peter at Gowts, both 11th century in origin, and St Mary Magdalene, from the late 13th century.", "The last is an unusual English dedication to a saint whose cult was coming into vogue on the European continent at the time.Lincoln was home to one of five main Jewish communities in England, well established before it was officially noted in 1154.In 1190, anti-Semitic riots that started in King's Lynn, Norfolk, spread to Lincoln; the Jewish community took refuge with royal officials, but their homes were plundered.", "The so-called House of Aaron has a two-storey street frontage that is essentially 12th century and the nearby Jew's House likewise bears witness to the Jewish population.", "In 1255, the affair called \"The Libel of Lincoln\" in which prominent Lincoln Jews, accused of ritual murder of a Christian boy (Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln in medieval folklore) were sent to the Tower of London and 18 executed.", "The Jews were all expelled in 1290.Frontage of Jews' Court on Steep HillThirteenth-century Lincoln was England's third largest city and a favourite of more than one king.", "In the First Barons' War it was caught in the strife between the king and rebel barons allied with the French.", "Here and at Dover the French and Rebel army was defeated.", "Thereafter the town was pillaged for having sided with Prince Louis.", "In the Second Barons' War, of 1266, the disinherited rebels attacked the Jews of Lincoln, ransacked the synagogue and burned the records that registered debts.===Decline, dissolution and damage===Some historians have the city's fortunes declining from the 14th century, but others argue that it remained buoyant in trade and communications well into the 15th.", "In 1409, the city became a county corporate: the County of the City of Lincoln, formerly part of the West Riding of Lindsey since at least the time of the ''Domesday Book''.", "Additional rights were then conferred by successive monarchs, including those of an assay town (controlling metal manufacturing, for example).", "The oldest surviving secular drama in English, ''The Interlude of the Student and the Girl'' (), may have originated from Lincoln.Lincoln's coat of arms, not officially endorsed by the College of Arms, is believed to date from the 14th century.", "It is ''Argent on a cross gules a fleur-de-lis or''.", "The cross is believed to derive from the Diocese.", "The fleur-de-lis symbolises the cathedral dedication to the Virgin Mary.", "The motto is CIVITAS LINCOLNIA (\"City of Lincoln\").16th-century High BridgeThe dissolution of the monasteries cut Lincoln's main source of diocesan income and dried up the network of patronage controlled by the bishop.", "Seven monasteries closed in the city alone, as did several nearby abbeys, which further diminished the region's political power.", "A symbol of Lincoln's economic and political decline came in 1549, when the cathedral's great spire rotted and collapsed and was not replaced.", "However, the comparative poverty of post-medieval Lincoln preserved pre-medieval structures that would probably have been lost under more prosperous conditions.Between 1642 and 1651 in the English Civil War, Lincoln was on a frontier between the Royalist and Parliamentary forces and changed hands several times.", "Many buildings were badly damaged.", "Lincoln now had no major industry and no easy access to the sea.", "It suffered as the rest of the country was beginning to prosper in the early 18th century, travellers often commenting on what had essentially become a one-street town.===Revolutions===By the Georgian era, Lincoln's fortunes began to pick up, thanks in part to the Agricultural Revolution.", "Reopening of the Foss Dyke canal eased imports of coal and other raw materials vital to industry.", "Along with the economic growth of Lincoln in this period, the city boundaries were spread to include the West Common.", "To this day, an annual Beat the Boundaries walk takes place along its perimeter.Coupled with the arrival of railway links, Lincoln boomed again during the Industrial Revolution, and several famous companies arose, such as Ruston's, Clayton's, Proctor's and William Foster's.", "Lincoln began to excel in heavy engineering, by building locomotives, steam shovels and all manner of heavy machinery.It was also around this time that the town’s name became overshadowed in the world’s consciousness by a different meaning of the word “Lincoln”: namely, U. S. President Abraham Lincoln, who led his country through their brutal Civil War and succeeded in abolishing all slavery within its borders.", "Abraham Lincoln’s surname does trace back to the English town of Lincoln, but his family had migrated to America long before his birth.", "Many locations in the U. S. now bear the name Lincoln, such as Lincoln, Nebraska.", "But the shared name with England’s Lincoln is only coincidental, as the U. S. place names were named in honor of Abraham Lincoln.A permanent military presence came with the 1857 completion of the \"Old Barracks\" (now held by the Museum of Lincolnshire Life).", "They were replaced by the \"New Barracks\" (now Sobraon Barracks) in 1890, when Lincoln Drill Hall in Broadgate also opened.===20th and 21st centuries===Westgate water towerLincoln was hit by typhoid in November 1904 – August 1905 caused by polluted drinking water from Hartsholme Lake and the River Witham.", "Over 1,000 people contracted the disease and fatalities totalled 113, including the man responsible for the city's water supply, Liam Kirk of Baker Crescent.", "Near the beginning of the epidemic, Dr Alexander Cruickshank Houston installed a chlorine disinfection system just ahead of the poorly operating, slow sand filter, to kill the fatal bacteria.", "Chlorination of the water continued until 1911, when a new supply was implemented.", "Lincoln's chlorination episode was an early use of chlorine to disinfect a water supply.", "Westgate Water Tower was built to provide new supplies.In the two world wars, Lincoln switched to war production.", "The first ever tanks were invented, designed and built in Lincoln by William Foster & Co. in the First World War and population growth provided more workers for greater expansion.", "The tanks were tested on land now covered by Tritton Road in the south-west suburbs.", "In the Second World War, Lincoln produced an array of war goods: tanks, aircraft, munitions and military vehicles.In World War II 26 high explosive bombs were dropped on the city, with around 500 incendiary bombs, over five occasions, with eight people killed.", "50 houses were destroyed, with the worst night being 9 May 1941.Also much damage occurred in the Dixon Street area on Friday 15 January 1943.Two parachute mines landed in fields on South Common on the night of 19 November 1940, which exploded and broke many windows in the town, but with no more damage.", "n 8 May 1941, nine high explosive bombs were dropped on around Westwick Gardens in Boultham Park, east of the former Ancaster High School, killing three people.Ruston & Hornsby produced diesel engines for ships and locomotives, then by teaming up with former colleagues of Frank Whittle and Power Jets Ltd, in the early 1950s, R & H (which became RGT) opened the first production line for gas turbine engines for land-based and sea-based energy production.", "Its success made it the city's largest single employer, providing over 5,000 jobs in its factory and research facilities, making it a rich takeover target for industrial conglomerates.", "It was subsumed by English Electric in November 1966, which was then bought by GEC in 1968, with diesel engine production being transferred to the Ruston Diesels Division in Newton-le-Willows, Lancashire, at the former Vulcan Foundry.Pelham Works merged with Alstom of France in the late 1980s and was then bought in 2003 by Siemens of Germany as Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery.", "This includes what is left of Napier Turbochargers.", "Plans came early in 2008 for a new plant outside the city at Teal Park, North Hykeham.", "Still, Siemens made large redundancies and moved jobs to Sweden and the Netherlands.", "The factory now employs 1300.R & H's former Beevor Foundry is now owned by Hoval Group, making industrial boilers (wood chip).", "The Aerospace Manufacturing Facility (AMF) in Firth Road passed from Alstom Aerospace Ltd to ITP Engines UK in January 2009.Lincoln's second largest private employer is James Dawson and Son, a belting and hose maker founded in the late 19th century.", "Its two sites are in Tritton Road.", "The main one, next to the University of Lincoln, used Lincoln's last coal-fired boiler until it was replaced by gas in July 2018.New suburbs appeared after 1945, but heavy industry declined towards the end of the 20th century.", "Much development, notably around the Brayford area, has followed the construction of the University of Lincoln's Brayford Campus, which opened in 1996.In 2012, Bishop Grosseteste teaching college was also awarded university status." ], [ "Economy", "34 per cent of Lincoln's workforce are in public administration, education and health; distribution, restaurants and hotels account for 25 per cent.Industrial relics like Ruston (now Siemens) remain, with empty industrial warehouse buildings becoming multi-use units, with the likes of the University of Lincoln, local Lincs FM radio station (in the ''Titanic Works'') and gyms using some of the space.", "The old Corn Exchange, completed in 1848, is now used as a shopping arcade, and the newer Corn Exchange, completed in 1879, is now used as a restaurant and shops.Like many other cities, Lincoln has a growing IT economy, with many e-commerce mail order companies.", "Two electronics firms are e2V and Dynex Semiconductor.", "Bifrangi, an Italian maker of crankshafts for off-road vehicles using a screw press, is based at the former ''Tower Works'' owned by Smith-Clayton Forge Ltd.Lincoln is the hub for settlements such as Welton, Saxilby, Skellingthorpe and Washingborough, which look to it for most services and employment needs.", "Added they raise the population to 165,000.Lincoln is the main centre for jobs and facilities in Central Lincolnshire and performs a regional role over much of Lincolnshire and parts of Nottinghamshire.", "According to a document entitled \"Central Lincolnshire Local Plan Core Strategy\", Lincoln has a \"travel-to-work\" area with a population of about 300,000.In 2021, Lincoln City Council joined the UK's Key Cities network to help the city's public sector.The University of Lincoln and Lincoln's colleges contributes to the cities growth in the small firms, services, restaurants and entertainment venues.", "A small business unit next door to a student accommodation, the Think Tank, opened in June 2009.Some entertainment venues linked to the university include The Engine Shed and The Venue Cinema.", "Its presence has also built-up the area around the Brayford Pool.===Tourism===A view up ''Steep Hill'' towards the historic quarter of BailgateEmpowerment'' 2002 sculptureThe city is a tourist centre for visitors to historic buildings that include the cathedral, the castle and the medieval Bishop's Palace.The Collection, of which the Usher Gallery is now part, is an important attraction, partly in a purpose-built venue.", "It currently contains over 2,000,000 objects, and was one of the four finalists for the 2006 Gulbenkian Prize.", "Any material from official archaeological excavations in Lincolnshire is eventually deposited there.", "Other attractions include the Museum of Lincolnshire Life and the International Bomber Command Centre.Tranquil destinations close by are Whisby Nature Reserve and Hartsholme Country Park (including the Swanholme Lakes SSSI), while noisier entertainment can be found at Scampton airfield, Waddington airfield (base of the RAF's Red Arrows jet aerobatic team), the County Showground or the Cadwell Park motor racing circuit near Louth.Early each December the Bailgate area holds a Christmas Market in and around the Castle grounds, shaped by the traditional German-style Christmas markets, including that of Lincoln's twin town Neustadt an der Weinstrasse.", "In 2010, for the first time, the event was cancelled due to \"atrocious\" snowfalls across most of the United Kingdom.", "It succumbed again in December 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic." ], [ "Demographics", "'''Ethnicity'''Lincoln population pyramid in 2021In the 2021 census, the population of Lincoln district was 103,813.The largest ethnic group was White British at 82.7%, with all ‘other white’ groups constituting 9.5%, followed by South Asian at 3.2%, Mixed race at 2%, Black British at 1.4%, other ethnic minorities made up 0.9% and Arab were 0.2%.", "This makes the ethnic makeup of the city 92% White and 8% ethnic minorities.15.1% of the people living in Lincoln were born outside of the UK, of which 9.6% are from ‘other European countries’.", "The most common countries of birth aside from the UK are Poland at 2.6%, Romania at 1.4%, and Lithuania at 1.1%.", "'''Lincoln: Ethnicity''': 2021 Census Ethnic group Population %White95,66592.2%Asian or Asian British3,3473.5%Mixed2,0682%Black or Black British1,4661.4%Arab3200.3%Other Ethnic Group9480.9%Total103,813100%" ], [ "Religious sites", "St Swithin's Church, in the city centreLincoln is home to many active and former churches.", "These serve the city centre and outer suburbs of the city and urban area.", "Lincoln Central Mosque and Cultural Centre is on Dixon Street.", "The city has no Sikh or Hindu temples, with the nearest ones being in Scunthorpe, Grimsby, Nottingham and Doncaster.", "The Jewish Lincoln Synagogue is on Steep Hill, in the ancient building, Jews' Court, which is believed to be the site of the original medieval synagogue.", "There is also an international temple on James Street.Churches in the city include: St Mary le Wigford, St Giles, St Benedicts, St Swithin's, Lincoln Cathedral, St Hugh's, St Katherine's, Alive Church, Saint Peter at Gowts, Central Methodist Church, St Nicholas Lincoln Unitarian Chapel and Greek Orthodox Church of St Basil the Great and St Paisios and others in the city and outer suburbs.===Cathedral===Construction of the first Lincoln Cathedral within a ''close'' or walled precinct facing the castle began when the see was removed from the quiet backwater of Dorchester-on-Thames, Oxfordshire.", "It was completed in 1092 and rebuilt after a fire, but succumbed to an earthquake in 1185.The rebuilt minster, enlarged eastwards several times, was on a grand scale, its crossing tower crowned by a spire reputedly Europe's highest at .", "When complete, the central spire is widely accepted to have succeeded the Great Pyramids of Egypt as the world's tallest man-made structure.The Lincoln bishops were among the magnates of medieval England.", "The Diocese of Lincoln, the largest in England, had more monasteries than the rest of England put together, and the diocese was supported by large estates.", "When Magna Carta was drawn up in 1215, one of the witnesses was Hugh of Wells, Bishop of Lincoln.", "One of only four surviving originals of the document is preserved in Lincoln Castle.Lincoln CathedralAmong the famous bishops of Lincoln were Robert Bloet, the magnificent justiciar to Henry I, Hugh of Avalon, the cathedral builder canonised as St Hugh of Lincoln, Robert Grosseteste, the 13th-century intellectual, Henry Beaufort, chancellor of Henry V and Henry VI, Thomas Rotherham, a politician deeply involved in the Wars of the Roses, Philip Repyngdon, chaplain to Henry IV and defender of Wycliffe, and Thomas Wolsey, the lord chancellor of Henry VIII.", "Theologian William de Montibus headed the cathedral school and was its chancellor until he died in 1213.The administrative centre was the Bishop's Palace, the third element in the central complex.", "When built in the late 12th century by Hugh of Lincoln, the Bishop's Palace was one of the most important buildings in England.", "Its East Hall over a vaulted undercroft is the earliest surviving example of a roofed domestic hall.", "The chapel range and entrance tower were built by Bishop William of Alnwick, who modernised the palace in the 1430s.", "Both Henry VIII and James I were guests there.", "The palace was sacked in 1648 by royalist troops during the civil war." ], [ "Geography and environment", "Lincoln lies at an altitude of by the River Witham up to on Castle Hill.", "It fills a gap in the Lincoln Cliff escarpment, which runs north and south through Central Lincolnshire, with altitudes up to .", "The city lies on the River Witham, which flows through this gap.", "The city is southwest of Hull, north-east of Nottingham, north of Peterborough, southeast of Leeds and east south-east of Sheffield.===Uphill and Downhill===Due to the variation in altitude, which presents something of an obstacle, Lincoln is divided informally into two zones: uphill and downhill.The uphill area comprises the northern part of the city, on top of the Lincoln Cliff (to the north of the gap).", "This includes the historical quarter, including Lincoln Cathedral, Lincoln Castle and the Medieval Bishop's Palace, known locally as The Bail (though described in tourist literature as the Cathedral Quarter).", "It also has residential suburbs to the north and north-east.", "The downhill area comprises the city centre and suburbs to the south and south-west.", "Steep Hill is a narrow, pedestrian street directly connecting the two.", "It passes through an archway known as the Stonebow.This divide, peculiar to Lincoln, was once an important class distinction, with uphill more affluent and downhill less so.", "The distinction dates from the time of the Norman conquest, when the religious and military elite occupied the hilltop.", "The expansion of suburbs in both parts of the city since the mid-19th century has diluted the distinction.===Ecology===The mute swan is an iconic species for Lincoln.", "Many pairs nest each year beside the Brayford, and they feature on the university's heraldic emblem.", "Other bird life within the city includes peregrine falcon, tawny owl and common kingfisher.Mammals on the city edges include red fox, roe deer and least weasel.", "European perch, northern pike and bream are among fishes seen in the Witham and Brayford.", "Nature reserves around the city include Greetwell Hollow SSSI, Swanholme SSSI, Whisby Nature Park, Boultham Mere and Hartsholme Country Park.Since 2016, little egrets have nested in the Birchwood area and otters appeared in the River Witham.", "Both are native to Britain and repopulating the area after near extermination.Several invasive species of plants and animals have reached Lincoln.", "Japanese knotweed and Himalayan balsam are Asian plant species around the River Witham.", "Galinsoga and Amsinckia are American species found among city weeds, also American mink which are occasionally seen on the Witham.===Built-up area===The Lincoln built-up area extends outside of the city boundaries and includes the town of North Hykeham and the villages of Bracebridge, Bracebridge Heath, Canwick, South Hykeham and Waddington.", "It had a population of 115,000 according to the 2011 census." ], [ "Transport", "Lincoln railway station===Rail===Lincoln is served by Lincoln station.", "Other railway stations near the city are Hykeham and Saxilby.", "Lincoln St Marks to the south of the city closed and its site is part of a shopping park.The city was served by three other railway lines: the Lincolnshire loop line, the Lancashire, Derbyshire and East Coast Railway and the Grantham and Lincoln railway line===Road===The city lies on the A57, A46, A15 and A158 roads.", "These bring high levels of through traffic and bypasses have been built.", "To the north west is the £19-million A46 bypass opened in December 1985.On 19 December 2020 the £122-million A15 Eastern bypass was completed.", "A southern bypass, the North Hykeham relief road, is due to start construction in 2025 and will be the final section of a complete ring road around the city.Until the 1980s, two trunk roads passed through Lincoln: the A46 and A15, both feeding traffic along the High Street.", "At the intersection of Guildhall Street and the High Street, the roads met at the termination of the A57.North of the city centre, the former A15 (Riseholme Road) is now the B1226, and the old A46 (Nettleham Road) is now the B1182.The early northern inner ring-road, formed of Yarborough Road and Yarborough Crescent, is numbered B1273.===Air===East Midlands Airport, 43 miles from Lincoln, is the main international airport serving the county.", "It mainly handles European flights with low-cost airlines.", "Humberside Airport, 29 miles north of Lincoln, is the only airport located in the county.", "It has a small number of flights mainly to hub airports such as Amsterdam.", "From 2005 until 2022, Doncaster Sheffield Airport also served Lincoln." ], [ "Education", "===Higher education===The older of Lincoln's two higher education institutions, Bishop Grosseteste University, was started as a teacher training college linked to the Anglican Church in 1862.During the 1990s it branched out into other subject areas with a focus on the arts and drama.", "It became a university college in 2006 with degree powers taken over from the University of Leicester.", "It gained university status in 2012.An annual graduation celebration takes place in Lincoln Cathedral.", "}The larger University of Lincoln started as the University of Lincolnshire and Humberside in 1996, when the University of Humberside opened a Lincoln campus next to Brayford Pool.", "Lincoln School of Art and Design (which was Lincolnshire's main outlet for higher education) and Riseholme Agricultural College, previously been part of De Montfort University in Leicester, were absorbed into the University of Lincoln in 2001, and subsequently the Lincoln campus took priority over the Hull campus.The name changed to the University of Lincoln in September 2002.In the 2021–2022 academic year, a total of 18,705 university students studied in the city.===Further education===Further education in Lincoln is provided by Lincoln College, Lincolnshire's largest education institution with 18,500 students, 2,300 of them full-time.", "There is a specialist creative college, Access Creative, offering courses in music, media and games design to some 180 students, all full-time.===Schools===Lincoln University Technical CollegeThe school system in Lincoln is anomalous within Lincolnshire despite being part of the same local education authority (LEA), as most of the county retained the grammar-school system.In 1952, William Farr School was founded in Welton, a nearby village.", "Lincoln itself had four single-sex grammar schools until September 1974.The Priory Academy LSST converted to academy status in 2008, in turn establishing The Priory Federation of Academies.", "The Priory Witham Academy was formed when the federation absorbed Moorlands Infant School, Usher Junior School and Ancaster High School.", "The Priory City of Lincoln Academy was formed when the City of Lincoln Community College merged into the federation.", "Both schools were rebuilt after substantial investment by the federation.", "Cherry Willingham School joined the federation in 2017, becoming The Priory Pembroke Academy.The Lincolnshire LEA was ranked 32nd in the country based on its proportion of pupils attaining at least 5 A–C grades at GCSE including maths and English (62.2% compared with a national average of 58.2%).There are four special-needs schools in Lincoln: Fortuna Primary School (5–11 year olds), Sincil Sports College (11–16), St Christopher's School (3–16) and St Francis Community Special School (2–18)." ], [ "Media", "The local newspaper, the ''Lincolnshire Echo'', was founded in 1894.Local radio stations are BBC Radio Lincolnshire on 94.9 FM, its commercial rival Greatest Hits Radio Lincolnshire on 102.2FM (formerly held by Lincs FM, but continues on DAB) and Lincoln City Radio on 103.6 FM a community radio station catering mainly for listeners over 50.", "''The Lincolnite'' is an online mobile publication covering the greater-Lincoln area.", "Local listeners can also receive Siren FM, on 107.3 FM from the University of Lincoln.The student publication ''The Linc'' is available online and in print and targets the University of Lincoln's student population.Local TV coverage is provided by BBC Yorkshire and Lincolnshire and ITV Yorkshire which is received from the Belmont TV transmitter.", "The Waltham TV transmitter can also be received in the city that broadcast BBC East Midlands and ITV Central." ], [ "Sport", "Sincil Bank, home of Lincoln City F.C.Lincoln's professional football team is Lincoln City FC, nicknamed \"The Imps\", which plays at the Sincil Bank stadium on the southern edge of the city.", "The collapse of ITV Digital, which owed Lincoln City FC more than £100,000, in 2002 saw the team faced with bankruptcy, but it was saved by a fund-raising venture among fans, which returned ownership of the club to them, where it has remained since.", "The club was the first to be relegated from the English Football League, when automatic relegation to the Football Conference was introduced from the 1986–87 season.", "Lincoln City regained its league place at the first attempt and held onto it until the 2010–11 season, when it was again relegated to the Football Conference.Lincoln City was the first club managed by Graham Taylor, who went on to manage the England national football team from 1990 to 1993.He was at Lincoln City from 1972 to 1977, during which time the club won promotion from the Fourth Division as champions in 1976.The club also won the Football League Division Three North title on three separate occasions, a joint record.", "Its most successful era was in the early 1980s, winning promotion from the Fourth Division in 1981 and narrowly missing promotion to the Second Division in the two years that followed.", "It reached the quarter-finals of the FA Cup in 2017, beating several teams in the top two tiers of English football before being defeated by Arsenal.", "More recently Lincoln City won Football League Two in the 2018–2019 season and the EFL Trophy in 2018.It is currently managed by Michael Appleton.Lincoln is also home to Lincoln United FC, Lincoln Moorlands Railway FC and Lincoln Griffins Ladies FC.Lincoln hosts upcoming sports facilities such American football's Lincolnshire Bombers, which plays in the BAFA National Leagues, the Lincolnshire Bombers Roller Girls, the Imposters Rollergirls, and hosts Lincoln Rowing centre on the River Witham.", "Lindum Hockey Club plays in the north of the city.", "Since 1956 the city has played host to the Lincoln Grand Prix one-day cycle race, which for some 30 years has used a city-centre finishing circuit incorporating the challenging 1-in-6 cobbled ascent of Michaelgate.", "Since 2013 the city has had a professional wrestling promotion and training academy, Lincoln Fight Factory Wrestling.", "The Lincoln Lions rugby union team has been playing since 1902.Two short-lived greyhound racing tracks were opened by Lincolnshire Greyhound Racing Association.", "One was the Highfield track in Hykeham Road, which opened on 13 September 1931, and the second the Lincoln Speedway on the Rope Walk, which opened on 4 June 1932.Racing at both was independent, as they were \"flapping\" tracks unaffiliated to the sport's governing body, the National Greyhound Racing Club." ], [ "Notable people", "In alphabetical order:*Aaron of Lincoln (c. 1125–1186), medieval Jewish financier*Marlon Beresford (born 1969), professional footballer.", "*Gary Blades (born 1980), professional darts player competing in the Professional Darts Corporation*George Boole (1815–1864), mathematician, developer of Boolean logic, born in Lincoln in 1815*Peter Buravytskiy (born 2001), trampoline gymnast*William Byrd (c. 1539–40 or 1543–1623), composer, organist attached to Lincoln Cathedral from 1563 to 1572*George Francis Carline (1855–1920), artist, born in Lincoln*Jamie Clapham (born 1975), former professional footballer.", "He currently a first-team coach at Barnsley F.C.", "*Sam Clucas (born 1990), footballer, who currently plays with Stoke City F.C.", "He was born and attended school in Lincoln.", "*Peter Day (born 1947), broadcaster.", "He attended Lincoln Grammar School.", "*Penelope Fitzgerald (1916–2000), novelist, biographer, born in Penelope Mary Knox in 1916*Keith Fordyce (1928–2011), broadcaster, born in Lincoln*Lee Frecklington (born 1985), footballer.", "He last played for the League One side Lincoln City.", "*James Hall (historian) (1846–1914), born and raised in Lincoln before leaving for teacher training in 1864, he subsequently settled in Cheshire*Francis Hill (1899–1980), local historian, mayor of Lincoln and Chancellor of the University of Nottingham, born in Lincoln in 1899*William Hilton (1786–1839), portrait and history painter, born in Lincoln*John Hurt (1940–2017), actor.", "He attended Lincoln School.", "*Colonel John Hutchinson (1615–1664), Roundhead politician and signatory to the death warrant of King Charles I.", "He attended Lincoln Free School.", "*Benjamin Lany (1591–1675), academic, royal chaplain and religious writer.", "He was Bishop of Lincoln in 1663–1667.", "*William Logsdail (1859–1944), painter, born in Lincoln*Mary Mackie (née Kathleen Mary Whitlam, living), novelist and non-fiction writer, born in Lincoln in the Second World War, she attended Lincoln Christ's Hospital High School*Karen Maitland (born 1956), English author of medieval thriller fiction*Neville Marriner (1924–2016), violinist, conductor, founder of the Academy of St Martin in the Fields, born in Lincoln and educated at Lincoln Grammar School*Ross McLaren (born 1991), actor, born in Lincoln and trained at the Joyce Mason School of Dance*Rose Mead (1867–1946), portrait painter.", "She attended Lincoln School of Art.", "*Henry Whitehead Moss (1841–1917), born at Lincoln, he went to Lincoln School before attending Shrewsbury School where he became headmaster*Paul Palmer (born 1974), swimmer who won an Olympic silver medal at the Atlanta Olympic Games in 1996, he was twice a short-course world champion*William Pool (c. 1783–1856), maritime inventor.", "He worked in Lincoln in the 1820s and 1830s.", "*Thomas Pownall (1722–1805), politician, Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay*Philip Priestley (1936–2018), chemist and author.", "He attended City School.", "*Steve Race (1921–2009), musician, broadcaster, host of Radio 4's ''My Music'' 1967–1993.He was born in Lincoln and attended Lincoln School in 1932–1939.", "*Fanny Robertson (1765–1855), actress and theatre owner, manager of The Lincoln Circuit of theatres*Charlotte Scott (1858–1931), mathematician, born in Lincoln*Lee Swaby (born 1976), former professional boxer at both cruiserweight and heavyweight divisions*John Taylor (1781–1864), publisher of John Keats and John Clare.", "He attended Lincoln Grammar School.", "*William Tritton (1875–1946), Chairman of William Foster & Co. Ltd from 1911 to 1939, directly involved in developing the military vehicle, the tank*James Ward Usher (1845–1921), jeweller and philanthropist.", "He spent his life in the city.", "*William T. Warrener (1861–1934), English painter, born in Lincoln in 1861.He attended Lincoln School of Art.", "*Juan Watterson (born 1980), Manx politician, Speaker of the House of Keys.", "He studied at the University of Lincoln.", "*Victor Wells-Cole (1897–1987), first-class cricketer, British Army officer" ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns===Lincoln is twinned with:* Neustadt an der Weinstraße, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany (since 1969)* Port Lincoln, SA, Australia (since 1991)* Radomsko, Łódź Voivodeship, Poland (since 2007)* Tangshan, Hebei, China (since 1988)* Nanchang, Jiangxi, China (since 2014)" ], [ "Freedom of the city", "The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Lincoln.===Individuals===* Lord Cormack: 18 March 2022.===Military units===* RAF Waddington: 25 April 1959.", "* RAF Scampton: 14 May 1993.", "* 2nd Battalion The Royal Anglian Regiment: 1997.", "* The Grenadier Guards: 8 May 2008." ], [ "Climate", "Lincoln has a typical East Midland maritime climate of warm summers and mild winters.", "The nearest Met Office weather station is at RAF Waddington, to the south.", "Temperature extremes since 1948 have ranged between on 19 July 2022, and in February 1956.A former weather station holds the record for the lowest daytime maximum temperature recorded in England in the month of December: on 17 December 1981.The coldest recent temperature was in December 2010, although another weather station at Scampton, a similar distance north of the city centre, fell to , so equalling Waddington's record low set in 1956." ], [ "See also", "===Attractions===*Empowerment*Jew's House*Jew's Court*Lincoln Arboretum*Lincoln Castle*Lincoln Cathedral*Lincoln City F.C.", "*Lincoln Imp*Museum of Lincolnshire Life*Newport Arch*Norman House*Steep Hill*The Collection (Lincolnshire)*The Lawn, Lincoln*Usher Gallery*Viking Way===Places===*Boultham, Lincoln*Engine Shed*Hartsholme Country Park*High Street, Lincoln*Theatre Royal, Lincoln*Ritz Theatre (Lincoln, England)*Lincoln Drill Hall*Lincoln Medieval Bishop's Palace*Lincoln Performing Arts Centre*Lincoln Racecourse*St Catherine's, Lincoln*St Hugh's Church, Lincoln*St Swithin's Church, Lincoln*Steep Hill*University of Lincoln*Bishop Grosseteste University*Sincil Bank===People===*Aaron of Lincoln*Hugh of Lincoln*Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln*Jason Maxwell===Societies and groups===*The Lincoln Philosophy Café*Lincoln Record Society*Society for Lincolnshire History and Archaeology at Jew's Court" ], [ "Arms" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===**Francis Hill, 1948.", "''Medieval Lincoln'' (Cambridge: University Press)**===Footnotes===" ], [ "External links", "* City of Lincoln Council* University of Lincoln* Bishop Grosseteste University*===Video links===* Pathe Newsreel, 1950, Europes largest foundry opens in Lincoln* Pathe newsreel, 1934, about Lincoln" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Luftwaffe" ], [ "Introduction", "Hermann Göring, the first Supreme Commander of the ''Luftwaffe'' (in office: 1935–1945)Robert Ritter von Greim, the second and last Supreme Commander of the ''Luftwaffe'' (in office: April–May 1945)The '''''' () was the aerial-warfare branch of the ''Wehrmacht'' before and during World War II.", "Germany's military air arms during World War I, the ''Luftstreitkräfte'' of the Imperial Army and the ''Marine-Fliegerabteilung'' of the Imperial Navy, had been disbanded in May 1920 in accordance with the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles which banned Germany from having any air force.During the interwar period, German pilots were trained secretly in violation of the treaty at Lipetsk Air Base in the Soviet Union.", "With the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Versailles Treaty, the ''Luftwaffe''s existence was publicly acknowledged on 26 February 1935, just over two weeks before open defiance of the Versailles Treaty through German rearmament and conscription would be announced on 16 March.", "The Condor Legion, a ''Luftwaffe'' detachment sent to aid Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, provided the force with a valuable testing ground for new tactics and aircraft.", "Partially as a result of this combat experience, the ''Luftwaffe'' had become one of the most sophisticated, technologically advanced, and battle-experienced air forces in the world when World War II broke out in September 1939.By the summer of 1939, the ''Luftwaffe'' had twenty-eight ''Geschwader'' (wings).", "The ''Luftwaffe'' also operated a paratrooper force known as the .The ''Luftwaffe'' proved instrumental in the German victories across Poland and Western Europe in 1939 and 1940.During the Battle of Britain, however, despite inflicting severe damage to the RAF's infrastructure and, during the subsequent Blitz, devastating many British cities, the German Air Force failed to batter the beleaguered British into submission.", "From 1942, Allied bombing campaigns gradually destroyed the ''Luftwaffe''s fighter arm.", "From late 1942, the ''Luftwaffe'' used its surplus ground support and other personnel to raise ''Luftwaffe'' Field Divisions.", "In addition to its service in the West, the ''Luftwaffe'' operated over the Soviet Union, North Africa, and Southern Europe.", "Despite its belated use of advanced turbojet and rocket-propelled aircraft for the destruction of Allied bombers, the ''Luftwaffe'' was overwhelmed by the Allies' superior numbers and improved tactics, and a lack of trained pilots and aviation fuel.", "In January 1945, during the closing stages of the Battle of the Bulge, the ''Luftwaffe'' made a last-ditch effort to win air superiority, and met with failure.", "With rapidly dwindling supplies of petroleum, oil, and lubricants after this campaign, and as part of the entire combined ''Wehrmacht'' military forces as a whole, the ''Luftwaffe'' ceased to be an effective fighting force.After the defeat of Nazi Germany, the ''Luftwaffe'' was disbanded in 1946.During World War II, German pilots claimed roughly 70,000 aerial victories, while over 75,000 ''Luftwaffe'' aircraft were destroyed or significantly damaged.", "Of these, nearly 40,000 were lost entirely.", "The ''Luftwaffe'' had only two commanders-in-chief throughout its history: ''Reichsmarschall'' Hermann Göring and later ''Generalfeldmarschall'' Robert Ritter von Greim for the last two weeks of the war.The ''Luftwaffe'' was deeply involved in Nazi war crimes.", "By the end of the war, a significant percentage of aircraft production originated in concentration camps, an industry employing tens of thousands of prisoners.", "The ''Luftwaffe''s demand for labour was one of the factors that led to the deportation and murder of hundreds of thousands of Hungarian Jews in 1944.The ''Luftwaffe'' frequently bombed non-military targets, the ''Oberkommando der Luftwaffe'' organised Nazi human experimentation, and ''Luftwaffe'' ground troops committed massacres in Italy, Greece, and Poland." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Manfred von Richthofen with other members of ''Jasta 11'', 1917 as part of the ''Luftstreitkräfte''The Imperial German Army Air Service was founded in 1910 with the name ''Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches'', most often shortened to ''Fliegertruppe''.", "It was renamed the ''Luftstreitkräfte'' on 8 October 1916.The air war on the Western Front received the most attention in the annals of the earliest accounts of military aviation, since it produced aces such as Manfred von Richthofen, Ernst Udet, Oswald Boelcke, and Max Immelmann.", "After the defeat of Germany, the service was dissolved on 8 May 1920 under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which also mandated the destruction of all German military aircraft.Since the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany to have an air force, German pilots trained in secret.", "Initially, civil aviation schools within Germany were used, yet only light trainers could be used in order to maintain the façade that the trainees were going to fly with civil airlines such as ''Deutsche Luft Hansa''.", "To train its pilots on the latest combat aircraft, Germany solicited the help of the Soviet Union, which was also isolated in Europe.", "A secret training airfield was established at Lipetsk in 1924 and operated for approximately nine years using mostly Dutch and Soviet, but also some German, training aircraft before being closed in 1933.This base was officially known as the 4th squadron of the 40th wing of the Red Army.", "Hundreds of ''Luftwaffe'' pilots and technical personnel visited, studied, and were trained at Soviet Air Force schools in several locations in Central Russia.", "Roessing, Blume, Fosse, Teetsemann, Heini, Makratzki, Blumendaat, and many other future ''Luftwaffe'' aces were trained in the USSR in joint Soviet-German schools that were set up under the patronage of Ernst August Köstring.The first steps towards the ''Luftwaffe''s formation were undertaken just months after Adolf Hitler came to power.", "Hermann Göring, a World War I ace, became National ''Kommissar'' for aviation with former ''Luft Hansa'' director Erhard Milch as his deputy.", "In April 1933 the Reich Aviation Ministry (''Reichsluftfahrtministerium'' or RLM) was established.", "The RLM was in charge of the development and production of aircraft.", "Göring's control over all aspects of aviation became absolute.", "On 25 March 1933 the German Air Sports Association absorbed all private and national organisations, while retaining its 'sports' title.", "On 15 May 1933, all military aviation organisations in the RLM were merged, forming the ''Luftwaffe''; its official 'birthday'.", "The National Socialist Flyers Corps (''Nationalsozialistisches Fliegerkorps'' or NSFK) was formed in 1937 to give pre-military flying training to male youths, and to engage adult sport aviators in the Nazi movement.", "Military-age members of the NSFK were drafted into the ''Luftwaffe''.", "As all such prior NSFK members were also Nazi Party members, this gave the new ''Luftwaffe'' a strong Nazi ideological base in contrast to the other branches of the ''Wehrmacht'' (the ''Heer'' (army) and the ''Kriegsmarine'' (navy)).", "Göring played a leading role in the buildup of the ''Luftwaffe'' in 1933–36, but had little further involvement in the development of the force after 1936, and Milch became the \"''de facto''\" minister until 1937.The absence of Göring in planning and production matters was fortunate.", "Göring had little knowledge of current aviation, had last flown in 1922, and had not kept himself informed of the latest events.", "Göring also displayed a lack of understanding of doctrine and technical issues in aerial warfare which he left to others more competent.", "The Commander-in-Chief left the organisation and building of the ''Luftwaffe'', after 1936, to Erhard Milch.", "However Göring, as a part of Hitler's inner circle, provided access to financial resources and materiel for rearming and equipping the ''Luftwaffe''.Another prominent figure in German air power construction this time was Helmuth Wilberg.", "Wilberg later played a large role in the development of German air doctrine.", "Having headed the air staff for eight years in the 1920s, Wilberg had considerable experience and was ideal for a senior staff position.", "Göring considered making Wilberg Chief of Staff (CS).", "However, it was revealed Wilberg had a Jewish mother.", "For that reason, Göring could not have him as CS.", "Not wishing his talent to go to waste, Göring ensured the racial policy of Nazi Germany did not apply to him.", "Wilberg remained in the air staff, and under Walther Wever helped draw up the ''Luftwaffe''s principle doctrinal texts, \"The Conduct of the Aerial War\" and \"Regulation 16\".===Preparing for war: 1933–1939=======Wever years, 1933–1936====Walther Wever, Chief of the ''Luftwaffe'' General Staff, 1933–1936The German officer corps was keen to develop strategic bombing capabilities against its enemies.", "However, economic and geopolitical considerations had to take priority.", "The German air power theorists continued to develop strategic theories, but emphasis was given to army support, as Germany was a continental power and expected to face ground operations following any declaration of hostilities.For these reasons, between 1933 and 1934, the ''Luftwaffe''s leadership was primarily concerned with tactical and operational methods.", "In aerial terms, the army concept of ''Truppenführung'' was an operational concept, as well as a tactical doctrine.", "In World War I, the ''Fliegertruppe's'' initial, 1914–15 era ''Feldflieger Abteilung'' observation/reconnaissance air units, each with six two-seater aircraft apiece, had been attached to specific army formations and acted as support.", "Dive bomber units were considered essential to ''Truppenführung'', attacking enemy headquarters and lines of communications.", "''Luftwaffe'' \"Regulation 10: The Bomber\" (''Dienstvorschrift 10: Das Kampfflugzeug''), published in 1934, advocated air superiority and approaches to ground attack tactics without dealing with operational matters.", "Until 1935, the 1926 manual \"Directives for the Conduct of the Operational Air War\" continued to act as the main guide for German air operations.", "The manual directed OKL to focus on limited operations (not strategic operations): the protection of specific areas and support of the army in combat.With an effective tactical-operational concept, the German air power theorists needed a strategic doctrine and organisation.", ", a serviceman (not a pilot) in the ''Luftstreitkräfte'' during World War I, and later an experienced pilot with ''Lufthansa'', was a prominent theorist of air power.", "Knauss promoted the Giulio Douhet theory that air power could win wars alone by destroying enemy industry and breaking enemy morale by \"terrorising the population\" of major cities.", "This advocated attacks on civilians.", "The General Staff blocked the entry of Douhet's theory into doctrine, fearing revenge strikes against German civilians and cities.In December 1934, Chief of the ''Luftwaffe'' General Staff Walther Wever sought to mold the ''Luftwaffe''s battle doctrine into a strategic plan.", "At this time, Wever conducted war games (simulated against France) in a bid to establish his theory of a strategic bombing force that would, he thought, prove decisive by winning the war through the destruction of enemy industry, even though these exercises also included tactical strikes against enemy ground forces and communications.", "In 1935, \"''Luftwaffe'' Regulation 16: The Conduct of the Air War\" was drawn up.", "In the proposal, it concluded, \"The mission of the ''Luftwaffe'' is to serve these goals.", "\"Historian James Corum states that under this doctrine, the ''Luftwaffe'' leadership rejected the practice of \"terror bombing\" (see ''Luftwaffe'' strategic bombing doctrine).", "According to Corum, terror bombing was deemed to be \"counter-productive\", increasing rather than destroying the enemy's will to resist.", "Such bombing campaigns were regarded as diversion from the ''Luftwaffe''s main operations; destruction of the enemy armed forces.Nevertheless, Wever recognised the importance of strategic bombing.", "In newly introduced doctrine, ''The Conduct of the Aerial Air War'' in 1935, Wever rejected the theory of Douhet and outlined five key points to air strategy:#To destroy the enemy air force by bombing its bases and aircraft factories, and defeating enemy air forces attacking German targets#To prevent the movement of large enemy ground forces to the decisive areas by destroying railways and roads, particularly bridges and tunnels, which are indispensable for the movement and supply of forces#To support the operations of the army formations, independent of railways, i.e, armoured forces and motorised forces, by impeding the enemy advance and participating directly in ground operations#To support naval operations by attacking naval bases, protecting Germany's naval bases and participating directly in naval battles#To paralyze the enemy armed forces by stopping production in the armaments factoriesWever began planning for a strategic bomber force and sought to incorporate strategic bombing into a war strategy.", "He believed that tactical aircraft should only be used as a step to developing a strategic air force.", "In May 1934, Wever initiated a seven-year project to develop the so-called \"Ural bomber\", which could strike as far as into the heart of the Soviet Union.", "In 1935, this design competition led to the Dornier Do 19 and Junkers Ju 89 prototypes, although both were underpowered.", "In April 1936, Wever issued requirements for the 'Bomber A' design competition: a range of with a bomb load.", "However Wever's vision of a \"Ural\" bomber was never realised, and his emphasis on strategic aerial operations was lost.", "The only design submittal for Wever's 'Bomber A' that reached production was Heinkel's ''Projekt 1041'', which culminated in the production and frontline service as Germany's only operational heavy bomber, the Heinkel He 177, on 5 November 1937, the date on which it received its RLM airframe number.In 1935, the military functions of the RLM were grouped into the ''Oberkommando der Luftwaffe'' (OKL; \"Air Force High Command\").Following the untimely death of Wever in early June 1936 in an aviation-related accident, by the late 1930s the ''Luftwaffe'' had no clear purpose.", "The air force was not subordinated to the army support role, and it was not given any particular strategic mission.", "German doctrine fell between the two concepts.", "The ''Luftwaffe'' was to be an organisation capable of carrying out broad and general support tasks rather than any specific mission.", "Mainly, this path was chosen to encourage more flexible use of air power and offer the ground forces the right conditions for a decisive victory.", "In fact, on the outbreak of war, only 15% of the ''Luftwaffe''s aircraft were devoted to ground support operations, counter to the long-held myth that the ''Luftwaffe'' was designed for only tactical and operational missions.====Change of direction, 1936–37====General Ernst Udet.", "Along with Albert Kesselring, Udet was responsible for establishing the design trend of German aircraft.", "His focus was on tactical army support air forces.Wever's participation in the construction of the ''Luftwaffe'' came to an abrupt end on 3 June 1936 when he was killed along with his engineer in a Heinkel He 70 Blitz, ironically on the very day that his \"Bomber A\" heavy bomber design competition was announced.", "After Wever's death, Göring began taking more of an interest in the appointment of ''Luftwaffe'' staff officers.", "Göring appointed his successor Albert Kesselring as Chief of Staff and Ernst Udet to head the Reich's Air Ministry Technical Office (''Technisches Amt''), although he was not a technical expert.", "Despite this Udet helped change the ''Luftwaffe''s tactical direction towards fast medium bombers to destroy enemy air power in the battle zone rather than through industrial bombing of its aviation production.Kesselring and Udet did not get on.", "During Kesselring's time as CS, 1936–1937, a power struggle developed between the two as Udet attempted to extend his own power within the ''Luftwaffe''.", "Kesselring also had to contend with Göring appointing \"yes men\" to positions of importance.", "Udet realised his limitations, and his failures in the production and development of German aircraft would have serious long term consequences.The failure of the ''Luftwaffe'' to progress further towards attaining a strategic bombing force was attributable to several reasons.", "Many in the ''Luftwaffe'' command believed medium bombers to be sufficient power to launch strategic bombing operations against Germany's most likely enemies; France, Czechoslovakia, and Poland.", "The United Kingdom presented greater problems.", "Hellmuth Felmy, commander of ''Luftflotte 2'' in 1939, was charged with devising a plan for an air war over the British Isles.", "Felmy was convinced that Britain could be defeated through morale bombing.", "Felmy noted the alleged panic that had broken out in London during the Munich crisis, evidence he believed of British weakness.", "A second reason was technical.", "German designers had never solved the issues of the Heinkel He 177A's design difficulties, brought on by the requirement from its inception on 5 November 1937 to have moderate dive-bombing capabilities in a 30-meter wingspan aircraft.", "Moreover, Germany did not possess the economic resources to match the later British and American effort of 1943–1944, particularly in large-scale mass production of high power output aircraft engines (with output of over least 1,500 kW (2,000 hp).", "In addition, the OKL had not foreseen the industrial and military effort strategic bombing would require.", "By 1939 the ''Luftwaffe'' was not much better prepared than its enemies to conduct a strategic bombing campaign, with fatal results during the Battle of Britain.The German rearmament programme faced difficulties acquiring raw materials.", "Germany imported most of its essential materials for rebuilding the ''Luftwaffe'', in particular rubber and aluminum.", "Petroleum imports were particularly vulnerable to blockade.", "Germany pushed for synthetic fuel plants but still failed to meet demands.", "In 1937 Germany imported more fuel than it had at the start of the decade.", "By summer 1938, only 25% of the requirements could be covered.", "In steel materials, industry was operating at barely 83% of capacity, and by November 1938 Göring reported the economic situation was serious.", "The ''Oberkommando der Wehrmacht'' (OKW), the overall command for all German military forces, ordered reductions in raw materials and steel used for armament production.", "The figures for reduction were substantial: 30% steel, 20% copper, 47% aluminum, and 14% rubber.", "Under such circumstances, it was not possible for Milch, Udet, or Kesselring to produce a formidable strategic bombing force even had they wanted to do so.The development of aircraft was now confined to the production of twin-engined medium bombers that required much less material, manpower, and aviation production capacity than Wever's \"Ural Bomber\".", "German industry could build two medium bombers for one heavy bomber and the RLM would not gamble on developing a heavy bomber which would also take time.", "Göring remarked, \"the ''Führer'' will not ask how big the bombers there are, but only how many there are.\"", "The premature death of Wever, one of the ''Luftwaffe''s finest officers, left the ''Luftwaffe'' without a strategic air force during World War II, which eventually proved fatal to the German war effort.The lack of strategic capability should have been apparent much earlier.", "The Sudeten Crisis highlighted German unpreparedness to conduct a strategic air war (although the British and French were in a much weaker position), and Hitler ordered the ''Luftwaffe'' be expanded to five times its earlier size.", "The OKL badly neglected the need for transport aircraft; even in 1943, transport units were described as ''Kampfgeschwadern zur besonderen Verwendung'' (Bomber Units on Special Duties, KGzbV).", "and only grouping them together into dedicated cargo and personnel transport wings (''Transportgeschwader'') during that year.", "In March 1938, as the ''Anschluss'' was taking place, Göring ordered Felmy to investigate the prospect of air raids against Britain.", "Felmy concluded it was not possible until bases in Belgium and the Netherlands were obtained and the ''Luftwaffe'' had heavy bombers.", "It mattered little, as war was avoided by the Munich Agreement, and the need for long-range aircraft did not arise.These failures were not exposed until wartime.", "In the meantime, German designs of mid-1930s origin such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109, the Heinkel He 111, the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka, and the Dornier Do 17, performed very well.", "All first saw active service in the Condor Legion against Soviet-supplied aircraft.", "The ''Luftwaffe'' also quickly realised the days of the biplane fighter were finished, the Heinkel He 51 being switched to service as a trainer.", "Particularly impressive were the Heinkel and Dornier, which fulfilled the ''Luftwaffe''s requirements for bombers that were faster than 1930s-era fighters, many of which were biplanes or strut-braced monoplanes.Despite the participation of these aircraft (mainly from 1938 onward), it was the venerable Junkers Ju 52 (which soon became the backbone of the ''Transportgruppen'') that made the main contribution.", "During the Spanish Civil War Hitler remarked, \"Franco ought to erect a monument to the glory of the Junkers Ju 52.It is the aircraft which the Spanish revolution has to thank for its victory.", "\"====Dive-bombing====Junkers Ju 87Ds over the Eastern Front, winter 1943–44Poor accuracy from level bombers in 1937 led the ''Luftwaffe'' to grasp the benefits of dive-bombing.", "The latter could achieve far better accuracy against tactical ground targets than heavier conventional bombers.", "Range was not a key criterion for this mission.", "It was not always feasible for the army to move heavy artillery over recently captured territory to bombard fortifications or support ground forces, and dive bombers could do the job faster.", "Dive bombers, often single-engine two-man machines, could achieve better results than larger six or seven-man aircraft, at a tenth of the cost and four times the accuracy.", "This led to Udet championing the dive bomber, particularly the Junkers Ju 87.Udet's \"love affair\" with dive-bombing seriously affected the long-term development of the ''Luftwaffe'', especially after Wever's death.", "The tactical strike aircraft programmes were meant to serve as interim solutions until the next generation of aircraft arrived.", "In 1936 the Junkers Ju 52 was the backbone of the German bomber fleet.", "This led to a rush on the part of the RLM to produce the Junkers Ju 86, the Heinkel He 111, and the Dornier Do 17 before a proper evaluation was made.", "The Ju 86 was poor while the He 111 showed the most promise.", "The Spanish Civil War convinced Udet (along with limited output from the German munitions industry) that wastage was not acceptable in munition terms.", "Udet sought to build dive-bombing into the Junkers Ju 88 and conveyed the same idea, initiated specifically by the OKL for the Heinkel He 177, approved in early November 1937.In the case of the Ju 88, 50,000 modifications had to be made.", "The weight was increased from seven to twelve tons.", "This resulted in a speed loss of 200 km/h.", "Udet merely conveyed the OKL's own dive-bombing capability request to Ernst Heinkel concerning the He 177, who vehemently opposed such an idea, which ruined its development as a heavy bomber.", "Göring was not able to rescind the dive-bombing requirement for the He 177A until September 1942.====Mobilisation, 1938–1941====By the summer of 1939, the ''Luftwaffe'' had ready for combat nine ''Jagdgeschwader'' (fighter wings) mostly equipped with the Messerschmitt Bf 109E, four ''Zerstörergeschwader'' (destroyer wings) equipped with the Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters, 11 ''Kampfgeschwader'' (bomber wings) equipped mainly with the Heinkel He 111 and the Dornier Do 17Z, and four ''Sturzkampfgeschwader'' (dive bomber wing\") primarily armed with the iconic Junkers Ju 87B ''Stuka''.", "The ''Luftwaffe'' was just starting to accept the Junkers Ju 88A for service, as it had encountered design difficulties, with only a dozen aircraft of the type considered combat-ready.", "The ''Luftwaffe''s strength at this time stood at 373,000 personnel (208,000 flying troops, 107,000 in the Flak Corps, and 58,000 in the Signals Corps).", "Aircraft strength was 4,201 operational aircraft: 1,191 bombers, 361 dive bombers, 788 fighters, 431 heavy fighters, and 488 transports.", "Despite deficiencies, it was an impressive force.However, even by the spring of 1940, the ''Luftwaffe'' still had not mobilised fully.", "Despite the shortage of raw materials, Udet had increased production through introducing a 10-hour working day for aviation industries and rationalising production.", "During this period 30 ''Kampfstaffeln'' and 16 ''Jagdstaffeln'' were raised and equipped.", "A further five ''Zerstörergruppen'' (\"Destroyer groups\") were created (JGr 101, 102, 126, 152 and 176), all equipped with the Bf 110.The ''Luftwaffe'' also greatly expanded its aircrew training programmes by 42%, to 63 flying schools.", "These facilities were moved to eastern Germany, away from possible Allied threats.", "The number of aircrew reached 4,727, an increase of 31%.", "However, the rush to complete this rapid expansion scheme resulted in the deaths of 997 personnel and another 700 wounded.", "946 aircraft were also destroyed in these accidents.", "The number of aircrew completing their training was up to 3,941, The ''Luftwaffe''s entire strength was now 2.2 million personnel.In April and May 1941, Udet headed the ''Luftwaffe'' delegation inspecting the Soviet aviation industry in compliance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.", "Udet informed Göring \"that Soviet air forces are very strong and technically advanced.\"", "Göring decided not to report the facts to Hitler, hoping that a surprise attack would quickly destroy the USSR.", "Udet realised that the upcoming war with the USSR might cripple Germany.", "Udet, torn between truth and loyalty, suffered a psychological breakdown and even tried to tell Hitler the truth, but Göring told Hitler that Udet was lying, then took Udet under control by giving him drugs at drinking parties and hunting trips.", "Udet's drinking and psychological condition became a problem, but Göring used Udet's dependency to manipulate him.===''Luftwaffe'' organisation=======''Luftwaffe'' commanders====Defendants in the dock during the Nuremberg trials.", "The main target of the prosecution was Hermann Göring (at the left edge on the first row of benches), considered to be the most important surviving Nazi official after Adolf Hitler's death.Throughout the history of Nazi Germany, the ''Luftwaffe'' had only two commanders-in-chief.", "The first was Göring, with the second and last being ''Generalfeldmarschall'' Robert Ritter von Greim.", "His appointment as commander-in-chief of the ''Luftwaffe'' was concomitant with his promotion to ''Generalfeldmarschall'', the last German officer in World War II to be promoted to the highest rank.", "Other officers promoted to the second highest military rank in Germany were Kesselring, Hugo Sperrle, Milch, and Wolfram von Richthofen.At the end of the war, with Berlin surrounded by the Red Army, Göring suggested to Hitler that he take over leadership of the Reich.", "Hitler ordered his arrest and execution, but Göring's SS guards did not carry out the order, and Göring survived to be tried at Nuremberg.Sperrle was prosecuted at the OKW Trial, one of the last twelve of the Nuremberg trials after the war.", "He was acquitted on all four counts.", "He died in Munich in 1953.===Organisation and chain of command===At the start of the war the ''Luftwaffe'' had four ''Luftflotten'' (air fleets), each responsible for roughly a quarter of Germany.", "As the war progressed more air fleets were created as the areas under German rule expanded.", "As one example, ''Luftflotte'' 5 was created in 1940 to direct operations in Norway and Denmark, and other ''Luftflotten'' were created as necessary.", "Each ''Luftflotte'' would contain several ''Fliegerkorps'' (Air Corps), ''Fliegerdivision'' (Air Division), ''Jagdkorps'' (Fighter Corps), ''Jagddivision'' (Air Division), or ''Jagdfliegerführer'' (Fighter Air Command).", "Each formations would have attached to it a number of units, usually several ''Geschwader'', but also independent ''Staffeln'' and ''Kampfgruppen''.", "''Luftflotten'' were also responsible for the training aircraft and schools in their operational areas.A ''Geschwader'' was commanded by a ''Geschwaderkommodore'', with the rank of either major, ''Oberstleutnant'' (lieutenant colonel) or ''Oberst'' (colonel).", "Other \"staff\" officers within the unit with administrative duties included the adjutant, technical officer, and operations officer, who were usually (though not always) experienced aircrew or pilots still flying on operations.", "Other specialist staff were navigation, signals, and intelligence personnel.", "A ''Stabschwarm'' (headquarters flight) was attached to each ''Geschwader''.A ''Jagdgeschwader'' (hunting wing) (JG) was a single-seat day fighter ''Geschwader'', typically equipped with Bf 109 or Fw 190 aircraft flying in the fighter or fighter-bomber roles.", "Late in the war, by 1944–45, JG 7 and JG 400 (and the jet specialist JV 44) flew much more advanced aircraft, with JG 1 working up with the Heinkel He 162 \"emergency fighter\" at war's end.", "A ''Geschwader'' consisted of groups (''Gruppen''), which in turn consisted of ''Jagdstaffel'' (fighter squadrons).", "Hence, Fighter Wing 1 was JG 1, its first ''Gruppe'' (group) was I./JG 1, using a Roman numeral for the ''Gruppe'' number only, and its first ''Staffel'' (squadron) was 1./JG 1.", "''Geschwader'' strength was usually 120–125 aircraft.Each ''Gruppe'' was commanded by a ''Kommandeur'', and a ''Staffel'' by a ''Staffelkapitän''.", "However, these were \"appointments\", not ranks, within the ''Luftwaffe''.", "Usually, the ''Kommodore'' would hold the rank of ''Oberstleutnant'' or, exceptionally, an ''Oberst''.", "Even a ''Leutnant'' (second lieutenant) could find himself commanding a ''Staffel''.Similarly, a bomber wing was a ''Kampfgeschwader'' (KG), a night fighter wing was a ''Nachtjagdgeschwader'' (NJG), a dive bomber wing was a ''Stukageschwader'' (StG), and units equivalent to those in RAF Coastal Command, with specific responsibilities for coastal patrols and search and rescue duties, were ''Küstenfliegergruppen'' (Kü.Fl.", "Gr.).", "Specialist bomber groups were known as ''Kampfgruppen'' (KGr).", "The strength of a bomber ''Geschwader'' was about 80–90 aircraft.===Personnel===+''Luftwaffe'' strength during the fall of 1941 Forces Personnel strength Flying units 500,000 Anti-aircraft units 500,000 Air signal units 250,000 Construction units 150,000 ''Landsturm'' (militia) units 36,000The peacetime strength of the ''Luftwaffe'' in the spring of 1939 was 370,000 men.", "After mobilisation in 1939 almost 900,000 men served, and just before Operation Barbarossa in 1941 personnel strength had reached 1.5 million men.", "The ''Luftwaffe'' reached its largest personnel strength during the period November 1943 to June 1944, with almost three million men and women in uniform; 1.7 million of these were male soldiers, 1 million male ''Wehrmachtsbeamte'' and civilian employees, and almost 300,000 female and male auxiliaries (''Luftwaffenhelfer'').", "In October 1944, the anti-aircraft units had 600,000 soldiers and 530,000 auxiliaries, including 60,000 male members of the ''Reichsarbeitsdienst'', 50,000 ''Luftwaffenhelfer'' (males age 15–17), 80,000 ''Flakwehrmänner'' (males above military age) and ''Flak-V-soldaten'' (males unfit for military service), and 160,000 female ''Flakwaffenhelferinnen'' and ''RAD-Maiden'', as well as 160,000 foreign personnel (Hiwis).===Spanish Civil War===Ruins of Guernica, 1937The ''Luftwaffe''s Condor Legion experimented with new doctrine and aircraft during the Spanish Civil War.", "It helped the ''Falange'' under Francisco Franco to defeat the Republican forces.", "Over 20,000 German airmen gained combat experience that would give the ''Luftwaffe'' an important advantage going into the Second World War.", "One infamous operation was the bombing of Guernica in the Basque country.", "It is commonly assumed this attack was the result of a \"terror doctrine\" in ''Luftwaffe'' doctrine.", "The raids on Guernica and Madrid caused many civilian casualties and a wave of protests from abroad.", "It has been suggested that the bombing of Guernica was carried out for military tactical reasons, in support of ground operations, but the town was not directly involved in any fighting at that point in time.", "It was not until 1942 that the Germans started to develop a bombing policy in which civilians were the primary targets, although the Blitz on London and many other British cities involved indiscriminate bombing of civilian areas, 'nuisance raids' which could even involve the machine-gunning of civilians and livestock.===World War II===Gun camera film showing tracer ammunition from a Supermarine Spitfire hitting a Heinkel He 111 bomber on its starboard quarterWhen World War II began in 1939, the ''Luftwaffe'' was one of the most technologically advanced air forces in the world.", "During the Polish Campaign that triggered the war, it quickly established air superiority, and then air supremacy.", "It supported the German Army operations which ended the campaign in five weeks.", "The ''Luftwaffe''s performance was as the OKL had hoped.", "The ''Luftwaffe'' rendered invaluable support to the army, mopping up pockets of resistance.", "Göring was delighted with the performance.", "Command and control problems occurred, but flexibility and improvisation in both the army and the ''Luftwaffe'' solved these problems.", "The ''Luftwaffe'' was to have in place a ground-to-air communication system, which played a vital role in the success of 1940's ''Fall Gelb''.In the spring of 1940 the ''Luftwaffe'' assisted the ''Kriegsmarine'' and ''Heer'' in the invasion of Norway.", "Flying in reinforcements and winning air superiority, the ''Luftwaffe'' contributed decisively to the German conquest.In May and June 1940, the ''Luftwaffe'' contributed to the unexpected German success in the Battle of France.", "It destroyed three Allied Air Forces and helped secure the defeat of France in just over six weeks.", "However, it could not destroy the British Expeditionary Force at Dunkirk despite intense bombing.", "The BEF escaped to continue the war.During the Battle of Britain in summer 1940, the ''Luftwaffe'' inflicted severe damage on Britain's Royal Air Force, but did not achieve the air superiority that Hitler had demanded for the proposed invasion of Britain, which was postponed and then canceled in December 1940.The ''Luftwaffe'' ravaged British cities during the Blitz of 1940–1941, but failed to break British morale, and the RAF shot down German planes by over a two to one ratio.", "Hitler had already ordered preparations for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union.In spring 1941 the ''Luftwaffe'' helped its Axis partner, Italy, secure victory in the Balkans Campaign and continued to support Italy or the Italian Social Republic in the Mediterranean, Middle East and African theaters until May 1945.In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union.", "Despite destroying thousands of Soviet aircraft, the ''Luftwaffe'' failed to destroy the Red Air Force altogether.", "Lacking strategic bombers (the very \"Ural bombers\" that Wever had asked for six years before) the ''Luftwaffe'' could not strike at Soviet production-centres regularly or with the needed force.", "The Axis and Soviet air operations during Operation Barbarossa consumed vast numbers of men and planes.", "As the war dragged on, the ''Luftwaffe'' was eroded in strength.", "German defeats at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942 and in the Battle of Kursk in 1943 ensured the gradual decline of the ''Wehrmacht'' on the Eastern Front.British historian Frederick Taylor asserts that \"all sides bombed each other's cities during the war.", "Half a million Soviet citizens, for example, died from German bombing during the invasion and occupation of Russia.", "That's roughly equivalent to the number of German citizens who died from Allied raids.", "\"The ''Luftwaffe'' defended German-occupied Europe against the growing offensive power of RAF Bomber Command and, starting in the summer of 1942, the steadily building strength of the United States Army Air Forces.", "The mounting demands of the Defence of the Reich campaign gradually destroyed the ''Luftwaffe''s fighter arm.", "Despite its belated use of advanced turbojet and rocket-propelled aircraft for bomber-destroyer duties, it was overwhelmed by Allied numbers and a lack of trained pilots and fuel.", "A last-ditch attempt, known as Operation Bodenplatte, to win air superiority on 1 January 1945 failed.", "After the ''Bodenplatte'' effort, the ''Luftwaffe'' ceased to be an effective fighting force.German day- and night-fighter pilots claimed more than 70,000 aerial victories during World War II.", "Of these, an estimated 745 victories were attributed to Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighters.", "Flak shot down 25,000–30,000 Allied planes.", "Broken down according to the different Allied forces, about 25,000 were American planes, about 20,000 British, 46,100 Soviet, 1,274 French, 375 Polish, and 81 Dutch as well as aircraft from other Allied nationalities.The highest-scoring day-fighter pilot was Erich Hartmann with 352 confirmed kills, all of them on the Eastern front against the Soviets.", "The leading aces in the west were Hans-Joachim Marseille with 158 kills (most of which were against British Commonwealth forces in the Desert campaign), and Georg-Peter Eder with 56 kills of aircraft from the USAAF (of a total of 78).", "The most successful night-fighter pilot, Heinz-Wolfgang Schnaufer, is credited with 121 kills.", "103 German fighter pilots shot down more than 100 enemy aircraft for a total of roughly 15,400 aerial victories.", "Roughly a further 360 pilots claimed between 40 and 100 aerial victories for round about 21,000 victories.", "Another 500 fighter pilots claimed between 20 and 40 victories for a total of 15,000 victories.", "Part of the reason German pilots scored such high victory totals was that they were in combat for the duration of the war-unlike the Allies, who rotated their flyers out of combat after a certain amount of time to recuperate or to impart their skills in training other pilots - German pilots flew until they were killed, captured, or too badly wounded to keep flying.", "It is relatively certain that 2,500 German fighter pilots attained ace status, having achieved at least five aerial victories.", "These achievements were honored with 453 German single and twin-engine (Messerschmitt Bf 110) day-fighter pilots receiving the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.", "85 night-fighter pilots, including 14 crew members, were awarded the Knight's Cross.", "Some bomber pilots were also highly successful.", "''Stuka'' and ''Schlachtflieger'' pilot Hans-Ulrich Rudel flew 2,530 ground-attack missions and claimed the destruction of more than 519 tanks and a battleship, among others.", "He became the most highly decorated German serviceman of the Second World War.", "Bomber pilot Hansgeorg Bätcher flew more than 658 combat missions, destroying numerous ships and other targets.", "''Luftwaffe'' losses, on the other hand, were high as well.", "The estimated total number of destroyed and damaged for the war totalled 76,875 aircraft.", "Of these, about 43,000 were lost in combat, the rest in operational accidents and during training.", "By type, losses totalled 21,452 fighters, 12,037 bombers, 15,428 trainers, 10,221 twin-engine fighters, 5,548 ground attack craft, 6,733 reconnaissance planes, and 6,141 transports.According to the General Staff of the ''Wehrmacht'' the losses of the flight personnel until February 1945 amounted to:OfficersEnlistedKilled in action 6,52743,517Wounded in action 4,19427,811Missing in action 4,36127,240Total15,08298,568According to official statistics, total ''Luftwaffe'' casualties, including ground personnel, amounted to 138,596 killed and 156,132 missing through 31 January 1945." ], [ "Omissions and failures", "===Lack of aerial defence===The failure of the ''Luftwaffe'' in the Defence of the Reich campaign was a result of a number of factors.", "The ''Luftwaffe'' lacked an effective air defence system early in the war.", "Hitler's foreign policy had pushed Germany into war before these defences could be fully developed.", "The ''Luftwaffe'' was forced to improvise and construct its defences during the war.The daylight actions over German-controlled territory were sparse in 1939–1940.The responsibility of the defence of German air space fell to the ''Luftgaukommandos'' (air district commands).", "The defence systems relied mostly on the \"flak\" arm.", "The defences were not coordinated and communication was poor.", "This lack of understanding between the flak and flying branches of the defence would plague the ''Luftwaffe'' throughout the war.", "Hitler, in particular, wanted the defence to rest on anti-aircraft artillery as it gave the civilian population a \"psychological crutch\" no matter how ineffective the weapons.Most of the battles fought by the ''Luftwaffe'' on the Western Front were against the RAF's \"Circus\" raids and the occasional daylight raid into German air space.", "This was a fortunate position since the ''Luftwaffe''s strategy of focusing its striking power on one front started to unravel with the failure of the invasion of the Soviet Union.", "The \"peripheral\" strategy of the ''Luftwaffe'' between 1939 and 1940 had been to deploy its fighter defences at the edges of Axis occupied territory, with little protecting the inner depths.", "Moreover, the front line units in the West were complaining about the poor numbers and performance of aircraft.", "Units complained of lack of ''Zerstörer'' aircraft with all-weather capabilities and the \"lack of climbing power of the Bf 109\".", "The ''Luftwaffe''s technical edge was slipping as the only formidable new aircraft in the German arsenal was the Focke-Wulf Fw 190.Milch was to assist Udet with aircraft production increases and the introduction of more modern types of fighter aircraft.", "However, they explained at a meeting of the Reich Industrial Council on 18 September 1941 that the new next-generation aircraft had failed to materialise, and production of obsolete types had to continue to meet the growing need for replacements.The buildup of the ''Jagdwaffe'' (\"Fighter Force\") was too rapid and its quality suffered.", "It was not put under a unified command until 1943, which also affected the performance of the nine ''Jagdgeschwader'' fighter wings in existence in 1939.No further units were formed until 1942, and the years of 1940–1941 were wasted.", "The OKL failed to construct a strategy; instead, its command style was reactionary, and its measures not as effective without thorough planning.", "This was particularly apparent with the ''Sturmböck'' squadrons, formed to replace the increasingly ineffective twin-engined ''Zerstörer'' heavy fighter wings as the primary defence against USAAF daylight raids.", "The ''Sturmböcke'' flew Fw 190A fighters armed with heavy 20mm and 30mm cannon to destroy heavy bombers, but this increased the weight and affected the performance of the Fw 190 at a time when the aircraft were meeting large numbers of equal if not superior Allied types.Daytime aerial defence against the USAAF's strongly defended heavy bomber forces, particularly the Eighth Air Force and the Fifteenth Air Force, had its successes through the calendar year of 1943.But at the start of 1944, Eighth AF commander Jimmy Doolittle made a major change in offensive fighter tactics, which defeated the ''Luftwaffe''s day fighter force from that time onwards.", "Steadily increasing numbers of the superlative North American P-51 Mustang single-engine fighter, leading the USAAF's bombers into German airspace defeated first the Bf 110 ''Zerstörer'' wings, then the Fw 190A Sturmböcke.===Development and equipment===He 177A ''Greif'' heavy bomber.In terms of technological development, the failure to develop a long-range bomber and capable long-range fighters during this period left the ''Luftwaffe'' unable to conduct a meaningful strategic bombing campaign throughout the war.", "However, Germany at that time suffered from limitations in raw materials such as oil and aluminum, which meant that there were insufficient resources for much beyond a tactical air force: given these circumstances, the ''Luftwaffe''s reliance on tactical mid-range, twin-engined medium bombers and short-range dive-bombers was a pragmatic choice of strategy.", "It might also be argued that the ''Luftwaffe''s ''Kampfgeschwader'' medium and heavy bomber wings were perfectly capable of attacking strategic targets, but the lack of capable long-range escort fighters left the bombers unable to carry out their missions effectively against determined and well-organised fighter opposition.The greatest failure for the ''Kampfgeschwader'', however, was being saddled with an aircraft intended as a capable four-engined heavy bomber: the perpetually troubled Heinkel He 177, whose engines were prone to catch fire in flight.", "Of the three parallel proposals from the Heinkel engineering departments for a four-engined version of the A-series He 177 by February 1943, one of these being the Heinkel firm's ''Amerikabomber'' candidate, only one, the He 177B, emerged in the concluding months of 1943.Only three airworthy prototypes of the B-series He 177 design were produced by early 1944, by which point the Avro Lancaster, the most successful RAF heavy bomber, was already in widespread service.Focke-Wulf Fw 200 C Condor).Another failure of procurement and equipment was the lack of a dedicated naval air arm.", "Felmy had already expressed a desire to build a naval air arm to support ''Kriegsmarine'' operations in the Atlantic and British waters.", "Britain was dependent on food and raw materials from its Empire and North America.", "Felmy pressed this case firmly throughout 1938 and 1939, and, on 31 October 1939, ''Großadmiral'' Erich Raeder sent a strongly worded letter to Göring in support of such proposals.", "The early-war twin-engined Heinkel He 115 floatplane and Dornier Do 18 flying boat were too slow and short-ranged.", "The then-contemporary Blohm & Voss BV 138 ''Seedrache'' (\"seadragon\") flying boat became the ''Luftwaffe''s primary seaborne maritime patrol platform, with nearly 300 examples built; it had a 4,300 km (2,670 mi) maximum range.", "Another Blohm und Voss design of 1940, the enormous, 46-meter wingspan Blohm & Voss BV 222 ''Wiking'' maritime patrol flying boat was capable of a 6,800 km (4,200-mile) range at maximum endurance.", "The Dornier Do 217 would have been ideal as a land-based choice but suffered production problems.", "Raeder also complained about the poor standard of aerial torpedoes, although their design was the responsibility of the ''Kriegsmarine'', even considering production of the Japanese Type 91 torpedo used in the Attack on Pearl Harbor as the ''Lufttorpedo'' '''LT 850''' by August 1942 .Without specialised naval or land-based, purpose-designed maritime patrol aircraft, the ''Luftwaffe'' was forced to improvise.", "The Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor – developed as a civilian airliner – lacked the structural strength for combat maneuvering at lower altitudes, making it unsuitable for use as a bomber in maritime patrol duties.", "The Condor lacked speed, armor and bomb load capacity.", "Sometimes the fuselage literally \"broke its back\" or a wing panel dropped loose from the wing root after a hard landing.", "Nevertheless, it was adapted for the long-range reconnaissance and anti-shipping roles and, between August 1940 and February 1941, Fw 200s sank 85 vessels for a claimed total of 363,000 GRT.", "Had the ''Luftwaffe'' focused on naval aviation – particularly maritime patrol aircraft with long range, Germany might well have been in a position to win the Battle of the Atlantic.", "However, Raeder and the ''Kriegsmarine'' failed to press for naval air power until the war began, mitigating the ''Luftwaffe''s responsibility.", "At the same time Göring regarded any other branch of the German military developing its own aviation as an encroachment on his authority and continually frustrated the navy's attempts to build its own airpower.The absence of a strategic bomber force for the ''Luftwaffe'', following Wever's death in 1936 and the end of the Ural bomber programme was not addressed until the authorisation of the \"Bomber B\" design competition in July 1939, which sought to replace the medium bomber force with which the ''Luftwaffe'' would begin the war, and the partly achieved ''Schnellbomber'' high-speed medium bomber concept with more advanced, twin-engined high-speed bomber aircraft fitted with pairs of relatively \"high-power\" engines of 1,500 kW (2,000 hp) and upwards as a follow-on to the earlier ''Schnellbomber'' project, that would also be able to function as shorter-range heavy bombers.", "''Oberst'' Edgar Petersen, head of the ''Luftwaffe''s ''Erprobungsstellen'' network of test facilities late in the war The spring 1942 ''Amerikabomber'' programme sought to produce strategic bomber designs for the ''Luftwaffe'' to directly attack the United States from Europe or the Azores.", "Inevitably, both the ''Bomber B'' and ''Amerikabomber'' programmes were victims of the continued emphasis of the ''Wehrmacht'' combined military's insistence for its ''Luftwaffe'' air arm to support the ''Heer'' as its primary mission, and the damage to the German aviation industry from Allied bomber attacks.====Challenges in directly addressing combat pilots' issues====The RLM's apparent lack of a dedicated \"technical-tactical\" department, that would have directly been in contact with combat pilots to assess their needs for weaponry upgrades and tactical advice, had never been seriously envisioned as a critically ongoing necessity in the planning of the original German air arm.", "The RLM did have its own ''Technisches Amt'' (T-Amt) department to handle aviation technology issues, but this was tasked with handling all aviation technology issues in Nazi Germany, both military and civilian in nature, and also not known to have ever had any clear and actively administrative and consultative links with the front-line forces established for such purposes.", "On the front-line combat side of the issue, and for direct contact with the German aviation firms making the ''Luftwaffe''s warplanes, the ''Luftwaffe'' did have its own reasonably effective system of four military aviation test facilities, or ''Erprobungstellen'' located at three coastal sites – Peenemünde-West (also incorporating a separate facility in nearby Karlshagen), Tarnewitz and Travemünde – and the central inland site of Rechlin, itself first established as a military airfield in late August 1918 by the German Empire, with the four-facility system commanded later in World War II by ''Oberst'' Edgar Petersen.", "However, due to lack of co-ordination between the RLM and the OKL, all fighter and bomber development was oriented toward short-range aircraft, as they could be produced in greater numbers, rather than quality long-range aircraft, something that put the ''Luftwaffe'' at a disadvantage as early as the Battle of Britain.", "The \"ramp-up\" to production levels required to fulfill the ''Luftwaffe''s front-line needs was also slow, not reaching maximum output until 1944.Production of fighters was not given priority until the Emergency Fighter Program was begun in 1944; Adolf Galland commented that this should have occurred at least a year earlier.", "Galland also pointed to the mistakes and challenges made in the development of the Messerschmitt Me 262 including the protracted development time required for its Junkers Jumo 004 jet engines to achieve reliability.", "German combat aircraft types that were first designed and flown in the mid-1930s had become obsolete, yet were kept in production, in particular the Ju 87 Stuka, and the Bf 109, because there were no well-developed replacement designs.===Production failures===The failure of German production was evident from the start of the Battle of Britain.", "By the end of 1940, the ''Luftwaffe'' had suffered heavy losses and needed to regroup.", "Deliveries of new aircraft were insufficient to meet the drain on resources; the ''Luftwaffe'', unlike the RAF, was failing to expand its pilot and aircraft numbers.", "This was partly owing to production planning failures before the war and the demands of the army.", "Nevertheless, the German aircraft industry was being outproduced in 1940.In terms of fighter aircraft production, the British exceeded their production plans by 43%, while the Germans remained 40% \"behind\" target by summer 1940.In fact, German production in fighters fell from 227 to 177 per month between July and September 1940.One of the many reasons for the failure of the ''Luftwaffe'' in 1940 was that it did not have the operational and material means to destroy the British aircraft industry, something that the much-anticipated ''Bomber B'' design competition was intended to address.The so-called \"Göring programme\", had largely been predicated on the defeat of the Soviet Union in 1941.After the ''Wehrmacht'''s failure in front of Moscow, industrial priorities for a possibility in increasing aircraft production were largely abandoned in favor to support the army's increased attrition rates and heavy equipment losses.", "Milch's reforms expanded production rates.", "In 1941 an average of 981 aircraft (including 311 fighters) were produced each month.", "In 1942 this rose to 1,296 aircraft of which 434 were fighters.", "Milch's planned production increases were initially opposed.", "But in June, he was granted materials for 900 fighters per month as the average output.", "By the summer of 1942, the ''Luftwaffe's'' operational fighter force had recovered from a low of 39% (44% for fighters and 31% for bombers) in the winter of 1941–1942, to 69% by late June (75% for fighters and 66% for bombers) in 1942.However, after increased commitments in the east, overall operational ready rates fluctuated between 59% and 65% for the remaining year.", "Throughout 1942 the ''Luftwaffe'' was out produced in fighter aircraft by 250% and in twin-engine aircraft by 196%.The appointment of Albert Speer as Minister of Armaments increased production of existing designs and the few new designs that had originated from earlier in the war.", "However, the intensification of Allied bombing caused the dispersion of production and prevented an efficient acceleration of expansion.", "German aviation production reached about 36,000 combat aircraft for 1944.However, by the time this was achieved the ''Luftwaffe'' lacked the fuel and trained pilots to make this achievement worthwhile.The failure to maximise production immediately after the failures in the Soviet Union and North Africa ensured the ''Luftwaffe''s effective defeat in the period of September 1943 – February 1944.Despite the tactical victories won, they failed to achieve a decisive victory.", "By the time production reached acceptable levels, as so many other factors had for the ''Luftwaffe'' – and for the entire ''Wehrmacht'''s weapons and ordnance technology as a whole – late in the war, it was \"too little, too late\".===Engine development===A restored DB 610 \"power system\" engine, comprising a pair of DB 605 inverted V12s – the top of its central space-frame motor-mount structure can be seen.By the late 1930s, airframe construction methods had progressed to the point where airframes could be built to any required size, especially in Germany with aircraft like the Dornier Do X flying boat and the Junkers G 38 airliner.", "However, powering such designs was a major challenge.", "Mid-1930s aero engines were limited to about 600 hp and the first 1000 hp engines were just entering the prototype stagefor Nazi Germany's then-new ''Luftwaffe'' air arm, this meant liquid-cooled inverted V12 designs like the Daimler-Benz DB 601.Nazi Germany's initial need for substantially more powerful aviation engines originated with the private venture Heinkel He 119 high-speed reconnaissance design, and the Messerschmitt Me 261 for maritime reconnaissance duties.", "To give enough power in each engine installation, Daimler-Benz coupled two DB 601 engines as single \"power system\" with the propeller gear reduction housing across the front ends of the two engines.", "The combined powerplant, known as the DB 606, gave maximum output in February 1937, for a total weight of around 1.5 tonnes.Daimler-Benz's was at the same time developing a 1,500 kW class X-configuration engine design resulting in the twenty-four cylinder Daimler-Benz DB 604 (four banks of six cylinders each).", "Possessing essentially the same displacement of as the initial version of the liquid-cooled Junkers Jumo 222 multibank engine, six banks of four inline cylinders apiece instead; coincidentally, both the original Jumo 222 design and the DB 604 each weighed about a third less (at some of dry weight) than the DB 606.The DB 604's protracted development was diverting valuable German aviation powerplant research resources, and with more development of the \"twinned-DB 605\" based DB 610 coupled engine (itself initiated in June 1940 with a top output level of , and brought together in the same way – with the same all-up weight of 1.5 tonnes – as the DB 606 had been) giving improved results at the time, the Reich Air Ministry stopped all work on the DB 604 in September 1942.Such \"coupled powerplants\" were the exclusive choice of power for the Heinkel He 177A ''Greif'' heavy bomber, mistasked from its beginnings in being intended to do moderate-angle \"dive bombing\" for a 30-meter wingspan class, heavy bomber design – the twin nacelles for a pair of DB 606s or 610s did reduce drag for such a combat \"requirement\", but the poor design of the He 177A's engine accommodations for these twin-crankcase \"power systems\" caused repeated outbreaks of engine fires, causing the \"dive bombing\" requirement for the He 177A to be cancelled by mid-September 1942.BMW worked on what was essentially an enlarged version of its highly successful BMW 801 design from the Focke-Wulf Fw 190A.", "This led to the 53.7-litre displacement BMW 802 in 1943, an eighteen-cylinder air-cooled radial, weighing matching that of the 24-cylinder liquid-cooled inline DB 606; and the even larger, 83.5-litre displacement BMW 803 28-cylinder liquid-cooled radial, which from post-war statements from BMW development personnel were each considered to be \"secondary priority\" development programmes at best.", "This situation with the 802 and 803 designs led to the company's engineering personnel being redirected to place all efforts on improving the 801 to develop it to its full potential.", "The BMW 801F radial development, through its use of features coming from the 801E subtype, was able to substantially exceed the over-1,500 kW output level.", "The twinned-up Daimler-Benz DB 601-based, 1,750 kW output DB 606, and its more powerful descendant, the 2,130 kW output DB 605-based DB 610, weighing some 1.5 tonnes apiece, were the only 1,500 kW-plus output level aircraft powerplants to ever be produced by Germany for ''Luftwaffe'' combat aircraft, mostly for the Heinkel He 177A heavy bomber.", "Even the largest-displacement inverted V12 aircraft powerplant built in Germany, the 44.52-litre (2,717 cu.", "in.)", "Daimler-Benz DB 603, which saw widespread use in twin-engined designs, could not exceed 1,500 kW output without more development.", "By March 1940, even the DB 603 was being \"twinned-up\" as the 601/606 and 605/610 had been, to become their replacement \"power system\": this was the strictly experimental, approximately 1.8-tonne weight apiece, twin-crankcase DB 613; capable of over 2,570 kW (3,495 PS) output, but which never left its test phase.The proposed over-1,500 kW output subtypes of German aviation industry's existing piston aviation engine designs—which adhered to using just a single crankcase that ''were'' able to substantially exceed the aforementioned over-1,500 kW output level—were the DB 603 LM (1,800 kW at take-off, in production), the DB 603 N (2,205 kW at take-off, planned for 1946) and the BMW 801F (1,765 kW (2,400 PS) engines.", "The pioneering nature of jet engine technology in the 1940s resulted in numerous development problems for both of Germany's major jet engine designs to see mass production, the Jumo 004 and BMW 003 (both axial flow designs), with the more powerful Heinkel HeS 011 never leaving the test phase.===Personnel and leadership===The bomber arm was given preference and received the \"better\" pilots.", "Later, fighter pilot leaders were few in numbers as a result of this.", "As with the late shift to fighter production, the ''Luftwaffe'' pilot schools did not give the fighter pilot schools preference soon enough.", "The ''Luftwaffe'', the OKW argued, was still an offensive weapon, and its primary focus was on producing bomber pilots.", "This attitude prevailed until the second half of 1943.During the Defence of the Reich campaign in 1943 and 1944, there were not enough commissioned fighter pilots and leaders to meet attrition rates; as the need arose to replace aircrew (as attrition rates increased), the quality of pilot training deteriorated rapidly.", "Later this was made worse by fuel shortages for pilot training caused by the Allied strategic bombing campaign against German oil production.", "Overall this meant reduced training on operational types, formation flying, gunnery training, and combat training, and a total lack of instrument training.At the beginning of the war, commanders were replaced with younger commanders too quickly.", "These younger commanders had to learn \"in the field\" rather than entering a front-line post fully qualified.", "Training of formation leaders was not systematic until 1943, which was far too late, with the ''Luftwaffe'' already stretched.", "The ''Luftwaffe'' thus lacked a cadre of staff officers to set up new combat units with carefully selected and skilled combat personnel, and pass on experience.Moreover, ''Luftwaffe'' leadership from the start poached the training command, which undermined its ability to replace losses, while also planning for \"short sharp campaigns\", which did not pertain.", "Moreover, no plans were laid for night fighters.", "In fact, when protests were raised, Hans Jeschonnek, Chief of the General Staff of the ''Luftwaffe'', said, \"First we've got to beat Russia, then we can start training!\"" ], [ "''Luftwaffe'' ground forces", "The ''Luftwaffe'' was unusual among contemporary independent air forces in possessing an organic paratrooper force called .", "Established in 1938, they were deployed in parachute operations in 1940 and 1941 and participated in the Battle of Fort Eben-Emael and the Battle for The Hague (alongside the German Army's 22nd Air Landing Division) in May 1940, and en masse during the Battle of Crete in May 1941.However, more than 4,000 were killed during the Crete operation.", "The associated losses of aircraft and the belief that paratroops no longer enjoyed the advantage of surprise led to reduction in airborne operations.", "Afterwards, although continuing to be trained in parachute delivery, paratroopers were only used in a parachute role for smaller-scale operations, such as the rescue of Benito Mussolini in 1943.formations were mainly used as light infantry in all theatres of the war.", "Their losses up to February 1945 were 22,041 killed, 57,594 wounded and 44,785 missing.During 1942 surplus ''Luftwaffe'' personnel was used to form ''Luftwaffe'' Field Divisions, standard infantry divisions that were used chiefly as rear echelon units to free up front line troops.", "From 1943, the ''Luftwaffe'' also had an armoured division called ''Fallschirm-Panzer'' Division 1 Hermann Göring, which was expanded to a ''Panzerkorps'' in 1944.Ground support and combat units from the ''Reichsarbeitsdienst'' (RAD), the ''Luftschutzpolizei'' (LSP), the National Socialist Flyers Corps (NSFK), and the National Socialist Motor Corps (NSKK) were also put at the ''Luftwaffe''s disposal during the war.", "In 1942 56 RAD companies served with the ''Luftwaffe'' in the West as airfield construction troops.", "In 1943 420 RAD companies were trained as crews of anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) and posted to existing ''Luftwaffe'' AAA battalions in the homeland.", "At the end of the war, these units were also fighting Allied tanks.", "Beginning in 1939 with a transport regiment, the NSKK had in 1942 a complete division-sized transportation unit serving the ''Luftwaffe'', the ''NSKK Transportgruppe Luftwaffe'' serving in France and at the Eastern front.", "The overwhelming number of its 12,000 members were Belgian, Dutch, and French collaborators." ], [ "War crimes", "===Forced labour=== Concentration camp prisoners forced to work at a Messerschmitt aircraft factoryIn 1943 and 1944, aircraft production was moved to concentration camps in order to alleviate labour shortages and to protect production from Allied air raids.", "The two largest aircraft factories in Germany were located at Mauthausen-Gusen and Mittelbau-Dora concentration camps.", "Aircraft parts were also manufactured at Flossenbürg, Buchenwald, Dachau, Ravensbrück, Gross-Rosen, Natzweiler, Herzogenbusch, and Neuengamme.", "In 1944 and 1945, as many as 90,000 concentration prisoners worked in the aviation industry, and were about one tenth of the concentration camp population over the winter of 1944–45.Partly in response to the ''Luftwaffe''s demand for more forced labourers to increase fighter production, the concentration camp more than doubled between mid-1943 (224,000) and mid-1944 (524,000).", "Part of this increase was due to the deportation of Hungarian Jews; the ''Jägerstab'' programme was used to justify the deportations to the Hungarian government.", "Of the 437,000 Hungarian Jews deported between May and July 1944, about 320,000 were gassed on arrival at Auschwitz and the remainder forced to work.", "Only 50,000 survived.Almost 1,000 fuselages of the jet fighter Messerschmitt Me 262 were produced at Gusen, a subcamp of Mauthausen and a brutal labour camp, where the average life expectancy was six months.", "By 1944, one-third of production at the crucial Regensburg plant that produced the Bf 109, the backbone of the ''Luftwaffe'' fighter arm, originated in Gusen and Flossenbürg alone.", "Synthetic oil was produced from shale oil deposits by prisoners of Mittlebau-Dora as part of Operation Desert directed by Edmund Geilenberg in order to make up for the decrease in oil production due to Allied bombing.", "For oil production, three subcamps were constructed and 15,000 prisoners forced to work in the plant.", "More than 3,500 people died.", "Vaivara concentration camp in Estonia was also established for shale oil extraction; about 20,000 prisoners worked there and more than 1,500 died at Vaivara.V-1 cruise missiles and V-2 rockets in the Mittelwerk tunnels resulted in the deaths of more than 12,000 people.", "''Luftwaffe'' airfields were frequently maintained using forced labour.", "Thousands of inmates from five subcamps of Stutthof worked on the airfields.", "Airfields and bases near several other concentration camps and ghettos were constructed or maintained by prisoners.", "On the orders of the ''Luftwaffe'', prisoners from Buchenwald and Herzogenbusch were forced to defuse bombs that had fallen around Düsseldorf and Leeuwarden respectively.Thousands of ''Luftwaffe'' personnel worked as concentration camp guards.", "Auschwitz included a munitions factory guarded by ''Luftwaffe'' soldiers; 2,700 ''Luftwaffe'' personnel worked as guards at Buchenwald.", "Dozens of camps and subcamps were staffed primarily by ''Luftwaffe'' soldiers.", "According to the ''Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos'', it was typical for camps devoted to armaments production to be run by the branch of the ''Wehrmacht'' that used the products.", "In 1944, many ''Luftwaffe'' soldiers were transferred to concentration camps to alleviate personnel shortages.===Massacres===''Luftwaffe'' paratroopers in Kondomari, Crete''Luftwaffe'' paratroopers committed many war crimes in Crete following the Battle of Crete, including the Alikianos executions, the Massacre of Kondomari, and the Razing of Kandanos.", "Several ''Luftwaffe'' divisions, including the 1st Parachute Division, 2nd Parachute Division, 4th Parachute Division, 19th Luftwaffe Field Division, 20th Luftwaffe Field Division and the 1st ''Fallschirm-Panzer'' Division, committed war crimes in Italy, murdering hundreds of civilians.", "''Luftwaffe'' troops participated in the murder of Jews imprisoned in ghettos in Eastern Europe.", "For example, they assisted in the murder of 2,680 Jews at the Nemirov ghetto, participated in a series of massacres at the Opoczno ghetto, and helped to liquidate the Dęblin–Irena Ghetto by deporting thousands of Jews to Treblinka extermination camp.", "Between 1942 and 1944, two ''Luftwaffe'' security battalions were stationed in the Białowieża Forest for ''Bandenbekämpfung'' operations.", "Encouraged by Göring, they murdered thousands of Jews and other civilians.", "''Luftwaffe'' soldiers frequently executed Polish civilians at random with baseless accusations of being \"Bolshevik agents\", in order to keep the population in line, or as reprisal for partisan activities.", "The performance of the troops was measured by the body count of people murdered.", "10,000 ''Luftwaffe'' troops were stationed on the Eastern Front for such \"anti-partisan\" operations.===Human experimentation===Throughout the war, concentration camp prisoners were forced to serve as human subjects in testing ''Luftwaffe'' equipment.", "Some of these experiments were carried out by ''Luftwaffe'' personnel and others were performed by the SS on the orders of the OKL.In 1941, experiments with the intent of discovering how to prevent and treat hypothermia were carried out for the ''Luftwaffe'', which had lost aircrew to immersion hypothermia after ditchings.", "The experiments were conducted at Dachau and Auschwitz.", "Sigmund Rascher, a ''Luftwaffe'' doctor based at Dachau, published the results at the 1942 medical conference entitled \"Medical Problems Arising from Sea and Winter\".", "Of about 400 prisoners forced to participate in cold-water experiments, 80 to 90 were killed.In early 1942, prisoners at Dachau were used by Rascher in experiments to perfect ejection seats at high altitudes.", "A low-pressure chamber containing these prisoners was used to simulate conditions at altitudes of up to .", "It was rumored that Rascher performed vivisections on the brains of victims who survived the initial experiment.", "Of the 200 subjects, 80 died from the experimentation, and the others were executed.", "Eugen Hagen, head doctor of the ''Luftwaffe'', infected inmates of Natzweiler concentration camp with typhus in order to test the efficacy of proposed vaccines.===Aerial bombing of non-military targets===thumbNo positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed prior to or during World War II.", "This is also why no ''Luftwaffe'' officers were prosecuted at the post-World War II Allied war crime trials for the aerial raids.The bombing of Wieluń was an air raid on the Polish town of Wieluń by the ''Luftwaffe'' on 1 September 1939.The ''Luftwaffe'' started bombing Wieluń at 04:40, five minutes before the shelling of Westerplatte, which has traditionally been considered the beginning of World War II in Europe.", "The air raid on the town was one of the first aerial bombings of the war.", "About 1,300 civilians were killed, hundreds were injured, and 90 percent of the town centre was destroyed.", "The casualty rate was more than twice as high as Guernica.", "A 1989 Sender Freies Berlin documentary stated that there were no military or industrial targets in the area, except for a small sugar factory in the outskirts of the town.", "Furthermore, Trenkner stated that German bombers first destroyed the town's hospital.", "Two attempts, in 1978 and 1983, to prosecute individuals for the bombing of the Wieluń hospital were dismissed by West German judges when prosecutors stated that the pilots had been unable to make out the nature of the structure due to fog.Operation Retribution was the April 1941 German bombing of Belgrade, the capital of Yugoslavia.", "The bombing deliberately targeted the killing of civilians as punishment and resulted in 17,000 civilian deaths.", "It occurred in the first days of the German-led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia.", "The operation commenced on 6 April and concluded on 7 or 8 April, resulting in the paralysis of Yugoslav civilian and military command and control, widespread destruction in the centre of the city and many civilian casualties.", "Following the Yugoslav capitulation, ''Luftwaffe'' engineers conducted a bomb damage assessment in Belgrade.", "The report stated that of bombs were dropped, with 10 to 14 percent being incendiaries.", "It listed all the targets of the bombing, which included: the royal palace, the war ministry, military headquarters, the central post office, the telegraph office, passenger and goods railway stations, power stations, and barracks.", "It also mentioned that seven aerial mines were dropped and that areas in the centre and northwest of the city had been destroyed, comprising 20 to 25 percent of its total area.", "Some aspects of the bombing remain unexplained, particularly the use of aerial mines.", "In contrast, Pavlowitch states that almost 50 percent of housing in Belgrade was destroyed.", "After the invasion, the Germans forced between 3,500 and 4,000 Jews to collect rubble that was caused by the bombing.The biggest attacks at civilian targets occurred in the Battle of Britain when the ''Luftwaffe'' attacked the British Isles and primarily hit non military targets.", "This resulted in over 22,000 civilians being killed and over 30,000 being wounded.===Trials===Several prominent ''Luftwaffe'' commanders were convicted of war crimes, including General Alexander Löhr and Field Marshal Albert Kesselring." ], [ "See also", "* ''Der Adler'', Luftwaffe's propaganda magazine* Emergency Fighter Program* German Air Fleets in World War II* List of flags of the Luftwaffe (1933–45)* List of German aircraft projects, 1939-45* List of German World War II jet aces* List of German World War II night fighter aces* List of Luftwaffe personnel convicted of war crimes* List of weapons of military aircraft of Germany during World War II* List of World War II aces from Germany* List of World War II military aircraft of Germany* Luftwaffe serviceable aircraft strengths (1940–45)* Luftnachrichten Abteilung 350 - the ''Luftwaffe'' signal intelligence organization* Military Ranks of the Luftwaffe (1935–45)* Milch Trial* Uniforms of the Luftwaffe (1935–45)" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * Bekkerm Cajus.", "''Angriffshohe 4000'' (in German).", "Munich, Germany: Heyne, 1964.", "* * Bergstrom, Christer.", "''Stalingrad: The Air Battle: November 1942 – February 1943.''", "London: Chevron/Ian Allan, 2008..* Bergström, Christer, ''Kursk: The Air Battle: July 1943.''", "London: Chevron/Ian Allan, 2008..* Bergström, Christer and Andrey Mikhailov.", "Black Cross/Red Star-Vol.", "1, Operation Barbarossa 1941.London: Classic Colours, 2003..* Bergström, Christer and Martin Pegg.", "''Jagdwaffe: The War in Russia: January–October 1942''.", "London: Classic Colours, 2003..* * * Bowman, Martin and Theo Boiten.", "''Battles with the Luftwaffe: The Air War Over Germany 1942–1945''.", "London: Collins, 2001..* * * * * Bungay, Stephen.", "''The Most Dangerous Enemy: A History of the Battle of Britain''.", "London: Aurum Press, 2000..* .", "* * Cooper, Matthew.", "''The German Air Force 1933–1945: An Anatomy of Failure''.", "New York: Jane's Publishing Incorporated, 1981..* Corum, James.", "\"The Luftwaffe's Army Support Doctrine, 1918–1941\".", "''The Journal of Military History'', Vol.", "59, No.", "1, January 1995, pp. 53–76.", "* * Corum, James.", "''The Roots of Blitzkrieg: Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform.", "Modern War Studies''.", "Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.", "1992..* Corum, James F. (Mueller, R. and H.E.", "Volkmann, eds.).", "\"Staerken und Schwaechen der Luftwaffe\". ''", "Die Wehrmacht: Mythos und Realitaet'' (in German).", "Munich, Germany: Oldenbourg Verlag, 1999.", "* Crawford, Steve.", "''Eastern Front, Day by Day''.", "London: Spellmount Publications, 2006..* de Zeng IV, Henry L. and Douglas G. Stankey.", "''Bomber Units of the Luftwaffe 1933–1945: A Reference Source: Volume 1''.", "London: Midland Publishing, 2007..* * * Drabkin, Artem.", "''The Red Air Force at War: Barbarossa and the Retreat to Moscow: Recollections of Soviet Fighter Pilots on the Eastern Front''.", "Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Pen & Sword Books, 2007..* .", "* Dye, Peter J.", "\"Logistics in the Battle of Britain\".", "''Air Force Journal of Logistics'', Winter 2000.", "* Faber, Harold.", "''Luftwaffe: An analysis by Former Luftwaffe Generals''.", "London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1979..* * Goss, Chris.", "''Dornier 17'' (In Focus).", "Surrey, UK: Red Kite, 2005..* Goss, Chris.", "''The Bombers' Battle: Personal Accounts of the Battle of Britain by Luftwaffe Bomber Crews July–October 1940''.", "London: Crécy Publishing, 2000..* .", "* Hayward, Joel S. ''Stopped at Stalingrad: The Luftwaffe and Hitler's Defeat in the East 1942–1943''.", "Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 2001..* Hall, Steve and Lionel Quinlan.''KG55''.", "Surrey, UK: Red Kite, 2000.. photo history of a bomber group* Hess, William N. ''B-17 Flying Fortress: Combat and Development History''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbook International, 1994.", "* Holmes, Tony.", "''Spitfire vs Bf 109: Battle of Britain''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2007..* * Hooton, E.R.", "''Phoenix Triumphant: The Rise and Rise of the Luftwaffe''.", "London: Brockhampton Press, 1994..* * * * Hooton, E.R.", "''Eagle in Flames: The Fall of the Luftwaffe''.", "London: Weidenfeld Military, 1997..* * * * * Manrho, John and Ron Putz.", "''Bodenplatte: The Luftwaffe's Last Hope–The Attack on Allied Airfields, New Year's Day 1945''.", "Aldershot, UK: Hikoki Publications, 2004..* Macksey, K. ''The Memoirs of Field-Marshal Kesselring''.", "London: Greenhill Books, 2006.", "* * * * Neitzel, Söhnke.", "''Der Einsatz der Deutschen Luftwaffe über der Nordsee und dem Atlantik: 1939–45'' (in German).", "Bonn, Germany: Bernard & Graefe, 1995..* .", "* * * * Pegg, M. ''Transporter Vol.", "1: Luftwaffe Transport Units 1937–1943''.", "London: Classic Publications, 2007..* Price, Alfred.", "''The Last Year of the Luftwaffe: May 1944 – May 1945''.", "London: Greenhill Books, 2001..* * * * Ruffner, Kevin.", "''Luftwaffe Field Divisions, 1941–45''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey, 1997.", "* Scutts, Jerry.", "''Mustang Aces of the Eighth Air Force''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1994..* Scutts, Jerry.", "''Bf 109 Aces of North Africa and the Mediterranean''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1994..* Smith, Peter.", "''Luftwaffe at War: Defeat in the West 1943–1945'' (Luftwaffe at War, Vol.", "6).", "London: Greenhill Books, 1998..* Smith, Peter.", "''Luftwaffe at War: The Sea Eagles: The Luftwaffe's Maritime Operations''.", "London: Greenhill Books, 2001..* Smith, Peter.", "''Luftwaffe at War: Stukas Over Steppe, Blitzkrieg in the East 1941–1944'' (Luftwaffe at War Series, Vol.", "9).", "London: Greenhill Books, 1999..* Smith, Peter and E.J.", "Creek.", "''Kampfflieger: Bombers of the Luftwaffe: 1942–1943''.", "London: Classic Publications, 2004..* * * Stenman, K. ''Luftwaffe Over Finland'' (Luftwaffe at War Series, Vol.", "18).", "London: Greenhill Books, 2002..* * Tooze, Adam.", "''The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy''.", "London: Allen Lane, 2006..* ** \"US Strategic Bombing Survey\".", "Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press (US Air Force), 1987.", "(Reprint of the Summary Reports (Europe and the Pacific) of the strategic bombing surveys conducted near the close of World War II.", ")* ** van Creveld, M., S. Cranby and K. Brower.", "''Airpower and Maneuver Warfare Air''.", "Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press (US Air Force), 1994.", "* Vasco, John.", "''Zerstorer: Luftwaffe Fighter Bombers and Destroyers 1939–1945: Volume 1''.", "London: Classic Publications, 2005..*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Murry, Williamson (January 1983) '' Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe 1933-1945,'' Air University Press, Maxwell Air Force Base, via Hyperwar Foundation" ], [ "External links", "* Myths of the Luftwaffe: lecture on YouTube, via the Museum of Flight* The Nazi German Air Force 1935-1945 (Luftwaffe)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lafora disease" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lafora disease''' is a rare, adult-onset and autosomal recessive genetic disorder which results in myoclonus epilepsy and usually results in death several years after the onset of symptoms.", "The disease is characterized by the accumulation of inclusion bodies, known as Lafora bodies, within the cytoplasm of the cells in the heart, liver, muscle, and skin.", "Lafora disease is also a neurodegenerative disease that causes impairment in the development of brain (cerebral) cortical neurons and is a glycogen metabolism disorder.Lafora disease (LD) was described by the Spanish neuropathologist Gonzalo Rodríguez Lafora (1886–1971) in 1911, while directing the Neuropathology Section at the Government Hospital for Mental Insane (current NIH, US).Lafora is a rare disease, meaning it is very rare in children, adolescents and adults worldwide.", "However, Lafora disease has a higher incidence among children and adolescents with ancestry from regions where consanguineous relationships are common, namely the Mediterranean (North Africa, Southern Europe), the Middle East, India, and Pakistan.", "Dogs can also have the condition.", "In dogs, Lafora disease can spontaneously occur in any breed, but the miniature wire-haired dachshund, bassett hound, and the beagle are predisposed to LD.Most human patients with this disease do not live past the age of twenty-five, and it often leads to death within ten years of symptoms appearing.", "Late onset symptoms of this disease can begin at any age depending on the genes affected.", "At present, there is no cure for this disease, but there are ways to deal with symptoms through treatments and medications." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Symptoms of Lafora disease begin to develop during the early adolescent years, and symptoms progress as time passes.", "Prior to this, there is generally no indication of the presence of the disease, though in a few cases, the disease presents as a learning disorder around five years of age.", "In extremely rare cases, symptoms may not show at all until as late as the third decade of life, though these cases have slower progression than typical LD.", "The most common feature of Lafora disease is seizures that have been reported mainly as occipital seizures and myoclonic seizures with some cases of generalized tonic-clonic seizures, atypical absence seizures, and atonic and complex partial seizures.", "Other symptoms common with the seizures are drop attacks, ataxia, temporary blindness, visual hallucinations, and a quickly-developing and dramatic dementia.Other common signs and symptoms associated with Lafora disease are behavioral changes due to the frequency of seizures.", "Over time those affected with Lafora disease have brain changes that cause confusion, speech difficulties, depression, decline in intellectual function, impaired judgement and impaired memory.", "If areas of the cerebellum are affected by seizures, it is common to see problems with speech, coordination, and balance in Lafora patients.For dogs that are affected with Lafora disease, common symptoms are rapid shuddering, shaking, or jerking of the canine's head backwards, high pitched vocalizations that could indicate the dog is panicking, seizures, and – as the disease progresses – dementia, blindness, and loss of balance.Within ten years of developing symptoms, life expectancy declines.", "People who advance to adulthood tend to lose their ability to do daily tasks by themselves, which can require comprehensive care.", "If their symptoms progress extremely quickly or at an early age, patients receive comprehensive care, which – besides medication – means support during daily activities both physically and mentally." ], [ "Genetics", "Lafora disease is an autosomal recessive disorder, caused by loss of function mutations in either the laforin glycogen phosphatase gene (''EPM2A'') or malin E3 ubiquitin ligase gene (''NHLRC1'').", "These mutations in either of these two genes lead to polyglucosan formation or lafora body formation in the cytoplasm of heart, liver, muscle, and skin.", "'Graph 1' shows the data for 250 families that have been affected by Lafora disease and the distribution of cases around the world.", "The graph shows that there is a very large number of cases in Italy because of a higher occurrence of EPM2A gene mutation compared to any other country in the world.", "'''Graph 1''' Represents data that shows how Lafora disease has been distributed throughout not just the United States but the world as a whole.", "This particular graph shows 250 families that have been affected by Lafora Disease.", "'''Graph 2''' Represents data that shows how the gene mutation for both EPM2A and EPM2B has been distributed around the world.", "The data goes to show that there are more cases caused by EPM2B than there are for EPM2B (NHLRC1).", "'Graph 2' shows the percentage distribution of the cases from either an EPM2A gene mutation or an EPM2B (NHLRC1) gene mutation.", "42% of the cases are caused by EPM2A and 58% are caused by EPM2B (NHLRC1).", "The most common mutation on the EPM2A gene is the R241X mutation.", "This genetic mutation is the cause for 17% of the EPM2A-caused Lafora disease cases.", "''EPM2A'' codes for the protein laforin, a dual-specificity phosphatase that acts on carbohydrates by taking phosphates off.", "''NHLRC1'' encodes the protein malin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, that regulates the amount of laforin.Laforin is essential for making the normal structure of a glycogen molecule.", "When the mutation occurs on the ''EPM2A'' gene, laforin protein is down-regulated and less of this protein is present or none is made at all.", "If there is also a mutation in the ''NHLRC1'' gene that makes the protein malin, then laforin cannot be regulated and thus less of it is made.Less laforin means more phosphorylation of glycogen, causing conformational changes, rendering it insoluble, leading to an accumulation of misformed glycogen, which has neurotoxic effects.", "Lafora disease has an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance.", "EPM2A gene found on chromosome 6q24 and NHLRC1 gene found on chromosome 6p22.3.In a laforin mutation, glycogen would be hyperphosphorylated; this has been confirmed in laforin knock-out mice.Research literature also suggests that over-activity of glycogen synthase, the key enzyme in synthesizing glycogen, can lead to the formation of polyglucosans and it can be inactivated by phosphorylation at various amino acid residues by many molecules, including GSK-3beta, Protein phosphatase 1, and malin.As defective enzyme molecules participate in the production of these molecules (GSK-3beta, PP1, and malin), excessive glycogen synthase activity occurs in combination with mutations in laforin that phosphorylates the excess glycogen being made, rendering it insoluble.", "The key player missing is ubiquitin.", "It is not able to degrade the excess amount of the insoluble lafora bodies.", "Since mutations arise in malin, an e3 ubiquitin ligase, this directly interferes with the degradation of laforin, causing the laforin not to be degraded.", "In this case laforin is then hyperphosphorylated." ], [ "Lafora bodies", "Lafora disease is distinguished by the presence of inclusions called '''Lafora bodies''' within the cytoplasm of cells.", "Lafora bodies are aggregates of polyglucosans or abnormally shaped glycogen molecules.", "Glycogen in Lafora disease patients has abnormal chain lengths, which causes them to be insoluble, accumulate, and have a neurotoxic effect.For glycogen to be soluble, there must be short chains and a high frequency of branching points, but this is not found in the glycogen in Lafora patients.", "LD patients have longer chains that have clustered arrangement of branch points that form crystalline areas of double helices making it harder for them to clear the blood-brain barrier.", "The glycogen in LD patients also has higher phosphate levels and is present in greater quantities." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Lafora disease is diagnosed by conducting a series of tests by a neurologist, epileptologist (person who specializes in epilepsy), or geneticist.", "To confirm the diagnosis, an EEG, MRI, and genetic testing are needed.", "A biopsy may be necessary as well to detect and confirm the presence of Lafora bodies in the skin." ], [ "Epidemiology", "All the reports that have been published on Lafora disease have shown that the overall prevalence of the disease is about 4 cases per million individuals around the world.", "Lafora disease is much more prevalent in countries that have higher cases of inbreeding.", "Usually, these locations are geographically or culturally more isolated from the world at large." ], [ "Treatment", "There is no cure for Lafora disease with treatment being limited to controlling seizures through anti-epileptic and anti-convulsant medications.", "The treatment is usually based on the individual's specific symptoms and the severity of those symptoms.", "Some examples of medications include valproate, levetiracetam, topiramate, benzodiazepines, or perampanel.", "Although the symptoms and seizures can be controlled for a long period by using anti-epileptic drugs, the symptoms will progress and patients lose their ability to perform daily activities leading to the survival rate of approximately 10 years after symptoms begin.", "Quality of life worsens as the years go on, with some patients requiring a feeding tube so that they can get the nutrition and medication they need in order to keep living, but not necessarily functioning.", "Recently Metformin is approved for the treatment." ], [ "Research", "Gonzalo Rodríguez Lafora, discoverer of the diseaseThe disease is named after Gonzalo Rodríguez Lafora (1886–1971), a Spanish neuropathologist who first recognized small inclusion bodies in Lafora patients in the early to mid 1900s.", "Recent research has investigated whether inhibition of glycogen synthesis through restriction of glucose intake could potentially stop the formation of the Lafora Bodies in neurons in laforin-deficient mice models while also reducing the chances of seizures.", "Researchers in the U.S., Canada, and Europe formed the Lafora Epilepsy Cure Initiative with funding from the National Institutes of Health.", "The group aims to interrupt the process of how the mutations in laforin and malin interfere with normal carbohydrate metabolism in mice models." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* GeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Progressive Myoclonus Epilepsy, Lafora Type" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lassa fever" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lassa fever''', also known as '''Lassa hemorrhagic fever''', is a type of viral hemorrhagic fever caused by the Lassa virus.", "Many of those infected by the virus do not develop symptoms.", "When symptoms occur they typically include fever, weakness, headaches, vomiting, and muscle pains.", "Less commonly there may be bleeding from the mouth or gastrointestinal tract.", "The risk of death once infected is about one percent and frequently occurs within two weeks of the onset of symptoms.", "Of those who survive, about a quarter have hearing loss, which improves within three months in about half of these cases.The disease is usually initially spread to people via contact with the urine or feces of an infected multimammate mouse.", "Spread can then occur via direct contact between people.", "Diagnosis based on symptoms is difficult.", "Confirmation is by laboratory testing to detect the virus's RNA, antibodies for the virus, or the virus itself in cell culture.", "Other conditions that may present similarly include Ebola, malaria, typhoid fever, and yellow fever.", "The Lassa virus is a member of the ''Arenaviridae'' family of viruses.There is no vaccine.", "Prevention requires isolating those who are infected and decreasing contact with the mice.", "Other efforts to control the spread of disease include having a cat to hunt vermin, and storing food in sealed containers.", "Treatment is directed at addressing dehydration and improving symptoms.", "The antiviral medication ribavirin has been recommended, but evidence to support its use is weak.Descriptions of the disease date from the 1950s.", "The virus was first described in 1969 from a case in the town of Lassa, in Borno State, Nigeria.", "Lassa fever is relatively common in West Africa including the countries of Nigeria, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Ghana.", "There are about 300,000 to 500,000 cases which result in 5,000 deaths a year." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Onset of symptoms is typically 7 to 21 days after exposure.", "In 80% of those who are infected few or no symptoms occur.", "These mild symptoms may include fever, tiredness, weakness, and headache.", "In 20% of people more severe symptoms such as bleeding gums, breathing problems, vomiting, chest pain, or dangerously low blood pressure may occur.", "Long term complications may include hearing loss.", "In those who are pregnant, miscarriage may occur in 95% of child-bearing females .", "Lassa fever can be difficult to distinguish clinically from other viral hemorrhagic fevers, such as Ebola virus disease.", "A combination of pharyngitis, pain behind the sternum, presence of excess protein in the urine and fever can indicate Lassa fever with higher specificity.In cases in which death occurs, this typically occurs within 14 days of onset.", "About 1% of all Lassa virus infections result in death.", "Approximately 15%-20% of those who have required hospitalization for Lassa fever die.", "The risk of death is greater in those who are pregnant.", "A \"Swollen baby syndrome\" may occur in newborns, infants and toddlers with pitting edema, abdominal distension and bleeding." ], [ "Cause", "===Virology===A transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of a number of Lassa virus virions adjacent to some cell debris.Lassa virus is a member of the Arenaviridae, a family of negative-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses.", "Specifically it is an old world arenavirus, which is enveloped, single-stranded, and bi-segmented RNA.", "Lassa virus contains both a large and a small genome section, with seven lineages identified to date: Lineages I, II, and III from Nigeria; Lineage IV from Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Liberia; Lineage V from Cote D’Ivoire and Mali Lineage VI from Togo; and Lineage VII from Benin.===Spread===''Mastomys natalensis'', the natural reservoir of the Lassa fever virusLassa virus commonly spreads to humans from other animals, specifically the ''Natal multimammate mouse'' or African rat, also called the Natal multimammate rat (''Mastomys natalensis'').", "This is probably the most common mouse in equatorial Africa, common in human households and eaten as a delicacy in some areas.The multimammate mouse can quickly produce a large number of offspring, tends to colonize human settlements, increasing the risk of rodent-human contact, and is found throughout the west, central and eastern parts of the African continent.Once the mouse has become a carrier, it will excrete the virus throughout the rest of its lifetime through feces and urine creating ample opportunity for exposure.", "The virus is probably transmitted by contact with the feces or urine of animals accessing grain stores in residences.", "No study has proven presence in breast milk, but the high level of viremia suggests it may be possible.Individuals who are at a higher risk of contracting the infection are those who live in rural areas where Mastomys are discovered, and where sanitation is not prevalent.", "Infection typically occurs by direct or indirect exposure to animal excrement through the respiratory or gastrointestinal tracts.", "Inhalation of tiny particles of infectious material (aerosol) is believed to be the most significant means of exposure.", "It is possible to acquire the infection through broken skin or mucous membranes that are directly exposed to infectious material.", "Transmission from person to person has been established, presenting a disease risk for healthcare workers.", "The virus is present in urine for between three and nine weeks after infection, and it can be transmitted in semen for up to three months after becoming infected." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Liberian laboratory technicians in personal protective equipment preparing to test Lassa fever samples.A range of laboratory investigations are performed, where possible, to diagnose the disease and assess its course and complications.", "The confidence of a diagnosis can be compromised if laboratory tests are not available.", "One comprising factor is the number of febrile illnesses present in Africa, such as malaria or typhoid fever that could potentially exhibit similar symptoms, particularly for non-specific manifestations of Lassa fever.", "In cases with abdominal pain, in countries where Lassa is common, Lassa fever is often misdiagnosed as appendicitis and intussusception which delays treatment with the antiviral ribavirin.", "In West Africa, where Lassa is most common, it is difficult to diagnose due to the absence of proper equipment to perform testing.The FDA has yet to approve a widely validated laboratory test for Lassa, but there are tests that have been able to provide definitive proof of the presence of the LASV virus.", "These tests include cell cultures, PCR, ELISA antigen assays, plaque neutralization assays, and immunofluorescence essays.", "However, immunofluorescence essays provide less definitive proof of Lassa infection.", "An ELISA test for antigen and Immunoglobulin M antibodies give 88% sensitivity and 90% specificity for the presence of the infection.", "Other laboratory findings in Lassa fever include lymphocytopenia (low white blood cell count), thrombocytopenia (low platelets), and elevated aspartate transaminase levels in the blood.", "Lassa fever virus can also be found in cerebrospinal fluid." ], [ "Prevention", "Community education material for Lassa feverControl of the ''Mastomys'' rodent population is impractical, so measures focus on keeping rodents out of homes and food supplies, encouraging effective personal hygiene, storing grain and other foodstuffs in rodent-proof containers, and disposing of garbage far from the home to help sustain clean households.", "Gloves, masks, laboratory coats, and goggles are advised while in contact with an infected person, to avoid contact with blood and body fluids.", "These issues in many countries are monitored by a department of public health.", "In less developed countries, these types of organizations may not have the necessary means to effectively control outbreaks.===Vaccine===There is no vaccine for humans as of 2023.Researchers at the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases facility had a promising vaccine candidate in 2002.They have developed a replication-competent vaccine against Lassa virus based on recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus vectors expressing the Lassa virus glycoprotein.", "After a single intramuscular injection, test primates have survived lethal challenge, while showing no clinical symptoms." ], [ "Treatment", "Treatment is directed at addressing dehydration and improving symptoms.", "All persons suspected of Lassa fever infection should be admitted to isolation facilities and their body fluids and excreta properly disposed of.===Medications===The antiviral medication ribavirin has been recommended, but evidence to support its use is weak.", "Some evidence has found that it may worsen outcomes in certain cases.", "Fluid replacement, blood transfusions, and medication for low blood pressure may be required.", "Intravenous interferon therapy has also been used.===Pregnancy===When Lassa fever infects pregnant women late in their third trimester, inducing delivery is necessary for the mother to have a good chance of survival.", "This is because the virus has an affinity for the placenta and other highly vascular tissues.", "The fetus has only a one in ten chance of survival no matter what course of action is taken; hence, the focus is always on saving the life of the mother.", "Following delivery, women should receive the same treatment as other people with Lassa fever." ], [ "Prognosis", "About 15–20% of hospitalized people with Lassa fever will die from the illness.", "The overall case fatality rate is estimated to be 1%, but during epidemics, mortality can climb as high as 50%.", "The mortality rate is greater than 80% when it occurs in pregnant women during their third trimester; fetal death also occurs in nearly all those cases.", "Abortion decreases the risk of death to the mother.", "Some survivors experience lasting effects of the disease, and can include partial or complete deafness.Because of treatment with ribavirin, fatality rates have declined." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Lassa fever distribution.", "Countries reporting continued spread of disease and outbreaks in blue.", "Countries reporting a few cases, periodic isolation of virus, or serological evidence of infection in green.", "Countries with unknown status in grey.There are about 300,000 to 500,000 cases which result in 5,000 deaths a year.", "One estimate places the number as high as 3 million cases per year.Estimates of Lassa fever are complicated by the lack of easy-available diagnosis, limited public health surveillance infrastructure, and high clustering of incidence near high intensity sampling.The infection affects females 1.2 times more than males.", "The age group predominantly infected is 21–30 years.===Geography===Lassa high risk areas are near the western and eastern extremes of West Africa.", "As of 2018, the Lassa belt includes Guinea, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Liberia.", "As of 2003, 10-16% of people in Sierra Leone and Liberia admitted to hospital had the virus.", "The case fatality rate for those who are hospitalized for the disease is about 15-20%.", "Research showed a twofold increase risk of infection for those living in close proximity to someone with infection symptoms within the last year.The high risk areas cannot be well defined by any known biogeographical or environmental breaks except for the multimammate rat, particularly Guinea (Kindia, Faranah and Nzérékoré regions), Liberia (mostly in Lofa, Bong, and Nimba counties), Nigeria (in about 10 of 36 states) and Sierra Leone (typically from Kenema and Kailahun districts).", "It is less common in the Central African Republic, Mali, Senegal and other nearby countries, and less common yet in Ghana and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "Benin had its first confirmed cases in 2014, and Togo had its first confirmed cases in 2016.As of 2013, the spread of Lassa outside of West Africa had been very limited.", "Twenty to thirty cases had been described in Europe, as being caused by importation through infected individuals.", "These cases found outside of West Africa were found to have a high fatality risk because of the delay of diagnosis and treatment due to being unaware of the risk associated with the symptoms.", "Imported cases have not manifested in larger epidemics outside of Africa due to a lack of human to human transmission in hospital settings.", "An exception had occurred in 2003 when a healthcare worker became infected before the person showed clear symptoms.=== Nigeria =======2018 outbreak====An outbreak of Lassa fever occurred in Nigeria during 2018 and spread to 18 of the country's states; it was the largest outbreak of Lassa recorded.", "On 25 February 2018, there were 1081 suspected cases and 90 reported deaths; 317 of the cases and 72 deaths were confirmed as Lassa which increased to a total of 431 reported cases in 2018.==== 2019 outbreak ====The total cases in Nigeria in 2019 was 810 with 167 deaths, the largest case fatality rate (23.3%) until then.==== 2020 outbreak ====The epidemic started from the second week of the January.", "By the tenth week the total number of cases has risen to 855 and deaths to 144, the case fatality rate of 16.8%.====2021 outbreak====On the 8th of December 2021, the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) was notified of the death of two persons from Lassa fever.====2022 outbreak====The epidemic took a new form, from 3 to 30 January 2022, 211 laboratory confirmed Lassa fever cases including 40 deaths (case fatality ratio: 19%) have been cumulatively reported in 14 of the 36 Nigerian states and the Federal Capital Territory across the country.", "In total from January until March, 132 deaths have been reported with a case fatality rate (CFR) of 19.1% which is lower than the CFR for the same period in 2021 (21.0%)." ], [ "Liberia", "Lassa fever is endemic in Liberia.", "From 1 January 2017 through 23 January 2018, 91 suspected cases were reported from six counties: Bong, Grand Bassa, Grand Kru, Lofa, Margibi, and Nimba.", "Thirty-three of these cases were laboratory confirmed, including 15 deaths (case fatality rate for confirmed cases = 45.4%).In February 2020, a total of 24 confirmed cases with nine associated deaths has been reported from nine health districts in six counties.", "Grand Bossa and Bong counties account for 20 of the confirmed cases." ], [ "History", "The disease was identified in Nigeria in 1969.It is named after the town of Lassa, where it was discovered.A prominent expert in the disease, Aniru Conteh, died from the disease." ], [ "Research", "The Lassa virus is one of several viruses identified by WHO as a likely cause of a future epidemic.", "They therefore list it for urgent research and development to develop new diagnostic tests, vaccines, and medicines.In 2007, SIGA Technologies, studied a medication in guinea pig with Lassa fever.", "Work on a vaccine is continuing, with multiple approaches showing positive results in animal trials." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Leon Trotsky" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lev Davidovich Bronstein''' ( – 21 August 1940), better known as '''Leon Trotsky''', was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician, journalist and political theorist.", "He was a central figure in the 1905 Revolution, October Revolution, Russian Civil War, and the establishment of the Soviet Union.", "Alongside Vladimir Lenin, Trotsky was widely considered the most prominent Soviet figure and was ''de facto'' second-in-command during the early years of the Russian Soviet Republic.", "Ideologically a Marxist and a Leninist, his thought and writings inspired a school of Marxism known as Trotskyism.Born into a wealthy Jewish family in Yanovka in what was then the Russian Empire, Trotsky was initially a narodnik, but embraced Marxism soon after moving to Nikolayev in 1896.In 1898, he was arrested for revolutionary activities and exiled to Siberia, but in 1902 escaped to London, where he met Lenin and wrote for the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party's paper ''Iskra''.", "Trotsky initially sided with Julius Martov's Mensheviks against Lenin's Bolsheviks during the party's 1903 split, but was non-factional from 1904.During the 1905 Revolution, Trotsky returned to Russia and became chairman of the Saint Petersburg Soviet.", "He was again exiled to Siberia, but escaped in 1907 and spent time in London, Vienna, Switzerland, Paris, and New York.", "After the February Revolution of 1917, which overthrew the tsar, Trotsky returned to Russia and joined the Bolsheviks.", "As chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, he played an important role in the October Revolution that overthrew the Provisional Government.In Lenin's first government, Trotsky was appointed the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and led the negotiations for the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, by which Russia withdrew from World War I.", "From 1918 to 1925, he served as the People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs, founding the Red Army; establishing conscription, training, and discipline; and leading it to victory in the Russian Civil War.", "In 1922, Trotsky and Lenin formed an alliance against the emerging Soviet bureaucracy; Lenin proposed that Trotsky become his Deputy Chairman at the Council of People's Commissars, but he declined the post.", "During the New Economic Policy, Trotsky led the party's Left Opposition, which advocated a programme of rapid industrialisation, voluntary collectivisation of agriculture, and expansion of workers' democracy.", "After Lenin's death in 1924, Trotsky was outmaneuvered by Joseph Stalin and his allies and lost his positions: he was expelled from the Politburo in 1926 and from the party in 1927, internally exiled to Alma Ata in 1928, and deported in 1929.He lived in Turkey, France, and Norway before settling in Mexico in 1937.In exile, Trotsky wrote extensively and polemically against Stalinism, supporting proletarian internationalism against Stalin's theory of \"socialism in one country\".", "Trotsky's own theory of \"permanent revolution\" posited that the revolution could only survive if extended to advanced capitalist countries.", "In ''The Revolution Betrayed'' (1936), Trotsky argued that the Soviet Union had become a \"degenerated workers' state\" due to its isolation, and called for an end to Stalin's bureaucratic dictatorship.", "He founded the Fourth International in 1938 as an alternative to the Comintern.", "In 1936, Trotsky was sentenced to death ''in absentia'' at the first of the Moscow show trials, and in 1940, he was assassinated at his home in Mexico City by NKVD agent Ramón Mercader.", "Written out of Soviet history books under Stalin, Trotsky was one of the few of his rivals who never received political rehabilitation from later leaders.", "In the West, he emerged as a hero of the anti-Stalinist left for his defense of a more democratic, internationalist form of socialism against Stalinist totalitarianism and intellectual contributions to left-wing movements.", "Whilst some of his wartime measures have proved controversial and have been criticised along with his ideological defence of the Red Terror.", "Modern scholarship generally rank his leadership of the Red Army highly among historical figures and credits his major involvement with the military, economic, cultural and political development of the Soviet Union." ], [ "Childhood and family (1879–1895)", "8-year-old Lev Bronstein, 1888Leon Trotsky was born Lev Davidovich Bronstein to David Leontyevich Bronstein (1847–1922) and Anna Lvovna (née Zhivotovskaya, 1850–1910) on 7 November 1879, the fifth child of a wealthy Jewish landowner family in Yanovka, Kherson governorate, Russian Empire (now Bereslavka, Ukraine).", "His father, David Leontyevich, had lived in Poltava, and later moved to Bereslavka, as it had a large Jewish community.", "Trotsky's younger sister, Olga, who also grew up to be a Bolshevik and a Soviet politician, married the prominent Bolshevik Lev Kamenev.Some authors, notably Robert Service, have claimed that Trotsky's childhood first name was the Yiddish ''Leiba''.", "The American Trotskyist David North said that this was an assumption based on Trotsky's Jewish birth, but, contrary to Service's claims, there is no documentary evidence to support his using a Yiddish name, when that language was not spoken by his family.", "Both North and political historian Walter Laqueur wrote that Trotsky's childhood name was ''Lyova'', a standard Russian diminutive of the name ''Lev''.", "North has compared the speculation on Trotsky's given name to the undue emphasis given to his having a Jewish surname.", "The language spoken at home was not Yiddish but a mixture of Russian and Ukrainian (known as Surzhyk).", "Although Trotsky spoke French, English, and German to a good standard, he said in his autobiography ''My Life'' that he was never perfectly fluent in any language but Russian.", "Raymond Molinier wrote that Trotsky spoke French fluently.When Trotsky was eight, his father sent him to Odessa to be educated.", "He was enrolled in a Lutheran German-language school (''Realschule zum Heiligen Paulus'' or school of the Lutheran St. Pauls Cathedral, a school of Black Sea Germans which also admitted students of other faiths and backgrounds,) which became Russified during his years in Odessa as a result of the Imperial government's policy of Russification.", "Trotsky and his wife Natalia later registered their children as Lutheran, since Austrian law at the time required children to be given religious education \"in the faith of their parents\".", "As Isaac Deutscher notes in his biography of Trotsky, Odessa was then a bustling cosmopolitan port city, very unlike the typical Russian city of the time.", "This environment contributed to the development of the young man's international outlook." ], [ "Early political activities and life (1896–1917)", "=== Revolutionary activity and imprisonment (1896–1898) ===Lev Davidovich Bronstein, 1897Trotsky became involved in revolutionary activities in 1896 after moving to the harbor town of Nikolayev on the Ukrainian coast of the Black Sea.", "At first a ''narodnik'' (revolutionary agrarian socialist populist), he initially opposed Marxism but was won over to Marxism later that year by his future first wife, Aleksandra Sokolovskaya.", "In 1897, he graduated from his high school with a first class honours.", "According to his relative, Valery Bronstein, his father had intended for Trotsky to become a mechanical engineer after leaving modern school.Trotsky briefly attended Odessa University studying engineering and mathematics.", "He dropped out in early 1897 to help organize the South Russian Workers' Union in Nikolayev.", "Trotsky's university colleague and a prominent engineer who served as the Technical Director of the Baltic Shipyard had noted that he displayed an exceptional gift for mathematics.", "Using the name \"Lvov\", he wrote and printed leaflets and proclamations, distributed revolutionary pamphlets, and popularized socialist ideas among industrial workers and revolutionary students.In January 1898, more than 200 members of the union, including Trotsky, were arrested.", "He was held for the next two years in prison awaiting trial, first in Nikolayev, then Kherson, then Odessa, and finally in Moscow.", "In the Moscow prison, he came into contact with other revolutionaries, heard about Lenin and read Lenin's book, ''The Development of Capitalism in Russia''.", "Two months into his imprisonment, on 1–3 March 1898, the first Congress of the newly formed Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) was held.", "From then on Trotsky identified as a member of the party.=== First marriage and Siberian exile (1899–1902) ===Trotsky's first wife Aleksandra Sokolovskaya with her brother (sitting on the left) and Trotsky (sitting on the right) in 1897While in the prison in Moscow, in the summer of 1899, Trotsky married Aleksandra Sokolovskaya (1872–1938), a fellow Marxist.", "The wedding ceremony was performed by a Jewish chaplain.In 1900, he was sentenced to four years in exile in Siberia.", "Because of their marriage, Trotsky and his wife were allowed to be exiled to the same location in Siberia.", "They were exiled to Ust-Kut and the Verkholensk in the Baikal Lake region of Siberia.", "They had two daughters, Zinaida (1901–1933) and Nina (1902–1928), both born in Siberia.In Siberia, Trotsky studied philosophy.", "He became aware of the differences within the party, which had been decimated by arrests in 1898 and 1899.Some social democrats known in Leninist phraseology as \"economists\" argued that the party should focus on helping industrial workers improve their lot in life and were not so worried about changing the government.", "They believed that societal reforms would grow out of the worker's struggle for higher pay and better working conditions.", "Others argued that overthrowing the monarchy was more important and that a well-organized and disciplined revolutionary party was essential.", "The latter position was expressed by the London-based newspaper ''Iskra'' (''The Spark''), which was founded in 1900.Trotsky quickly sided with the ''Iskra'' position and began writing for the paper.In the summer of 1902, at the urging of his wife, Aleksandra, Trotsky escaped from Siberia hidden in a load of hay on a wagon.", "Aleksandra later escaped from Siberia with their daughters.", "Both daughters married, and Zinaida had children, but the daughters died before their parents.", "Nina Nevelson died from tuberculosis in 1928, cared for in her last months by her older sister.", "Zinaida Volkova followed her father into exile in Berlin, taking her son by her second marriage but leaving behind a daughter in Russia.", "Suffering also from tuberculosis and depression, Zinaida committed suicide in 1933.Aleksandra disappeared in 1935 during the Great Purges in the Soviet Union under Stalin and was murdered by Soviet forces three years later.=== First emigration and second marriage (1902–1903) ===Until this point in his life, Trotsky had used his birth name: Lev (Leon) Bronstein.", "He changed his surname to \"Trotsky\", the name he would use for the rest of his life.", "It is said he adopted the name of a jailer of the Odessa prison in which he had earlier been held.", "This became his primary revolutionary pseudonym.", "After his escape from Siberia, Trotsky moved to London, joining Georgi Plekhanov, Vladimir Lenin, Julius Martov, and other editors of ''Iskra''.", "Under the pen name ''Pero'' (\"feather\" or \"pen\"), Trotsky soon became one of the paper's leading writers.Unknown to Trotsky, the six editors of ''Iskra'' were evenly split between the \"old guard\" led by Plekhanov and the \"new guard\" led by Lenin and Martov.", "Plekhanov's supporters were older (in their 40s and 50s), and had spent the previous 20 years together in exile in Europe.", "Members of the new guard were in their early 30s and had only recently emigrated from Russia.", "Lenin, who was trying to establish a permanent majority against Plekhanov within ''Iskra,'' expected Trotsky, then 23, to side with the new guard.", "In March 1903 Lenin wrote:Because of Plekhanov's opposition, Trotsky did not become a full member of the board.", "But from then on, he participated in its meetings in an advisory capacity, which earned him Plekhanov's enmity.In late 1902, Trotsky met Natalia Sedova (1882–1962), who soon became his companion.", "They married in 1903, and she was with him until his death.", "They had two children together, Lev Sedov (1906–1938) and Sergei Sedov (1908–1937), both of whom would predecease their parents.", "Regarding his sons' surnames, Trotsky later explained that after the 1917 revolution:Trotsky never used the name \"Sedov\" either privately or publicly.", "Natalia Sedova sometimes signed her name \"Sedova-Trotskaya\".=== Split with Lenin (1903–1904) ===Trotsky in 1902In the meantime, after a period of secret police repression and internal confusion that followed the First Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1898, ''Iskra'' succeeded in convening the party's Second Congress in London in August 1903.Trotsky and other ''Iskra'' editors attended.", "The first congress went as planned, with ''Iskra'' supporters handily defeating the few \"economist\" delegates.", "Then the congress discussed the position of the Jewish Bund, which had co-founded the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) in 1898 but wanted to remain autonomous within the party.Shortly after that, the pro-Iskra delegates unexpectedly split into two factions.", "The split was initially over an organisational issue.", "Lenin and his supporters, the Bolsheviks, argued for a smaller but highly organized party where only party members would be seen as members, while Martov and his supporters, the Mensheviks, argued for a bigger and less disciplined party where people who assisted the party would also be seen as members.", "In a surprise development, Trotsky and most of the Iskra editors supported Martov and the Mensheviks, while Plekhanov supported Lenin and the Bolsheviks.", "During 1903 and 1904, many members changed sides in the factions.", "Plekhanov soon parted ways with the Bolsheviks.", "Trotsky left the Mensheviks in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks.From 1904 until 1917, Trotsky described himself as a \"non-factional social democrat\".", "He worked between 1904 and 1917, trying to reconcile different groups within the party, which resulted in many clashes with Lenin and other prominent party members.", "Trotsky later maintained that he had been wrong in opposing Lenin on the issue of the party.", "During these years, Trotsky began developing his theory of permanent revolution and developed a close working relationship with Alexander Parvus in 1904–07.During their split, Lenin referred to Trotsky as \"Little Judas\" (''Iudushka'', based on the character from Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin's novel ''The Golovlyov Family''), a \"scoundrel\" and a \"swine\".=== 1905 revolution and trial (1905–1906) ===The unrest and agitation against the Russian government came to a head in Saint Petersburg on 3 January 1905 (Julian Calendar), when a strike broke out at the Putilov Works in the city.", "This single strike grew into a general strike, and by 7 January 1905, there were 140,000 strikers in Saint Petersburg.On Sunday, 9 January 1905, Father Georgi Gapon knowingly led a procession of radicals mixed within larger groups of ordinary working citizens through the streets to the Winter Palace to supposedly beseech the Tsar for food and relief from the government.", "According to Gapon himself, he led the people into a Palace Guard already on the defensive due to the crowd instigating violence against them.", "They eventually fired on the demonstration, resulting in the deaths of an unknown number of violent radicals, peaceful demonstrators and police caught within the melee.", "Although Sunday, 9 January 1905, became known as Bloody Sunday, Gapon's own biography points to a conspiracy.", "This was later confirmed by Russian police records listing the number of known militant radicals found among the dead.Police mugshots of Trotsky in 1905 after Soviet members were arrested during a meeting in the Free Economic Society buildingFollowing the events of Bloody Sunday, Trotsky secretly returned to Russia in February 1905, by way of Kiev.", "At first he wrote leaflets for an underground printing press in Kiev, but soon moved to the capital, Saint Petersburg.", "There he worked with both Bolsheviks, such as Central Committee member Leonid Krasin, and the local Menshevik committee, which he pushed in a more radical direction.", "The latter, however, were betrayed by a secret police agent in May, and Trotsky had to flee to rural Finland.", "There he worked on fleshing out his theory of permanent revolution.On 19 September 1905, the typesetters at the Ivan Sytin's printing house in Moscow went out on strike for shorter hours and higher pay.", "By the evening of 24 September, the workers at 50 other printing shops in Moscow were also on strike.", "On 2 October 1905, the typesetters in printing shops in Saint Petersburg decided to strike in support of the Moscow strikers.", "On 7 October 1905, the railway workers of the Moscow–Kazan Railway went out on strike.", "Amid the resulting confusion, Trotsky returned from Finland to Saint Petersburg on 15 October 1905.On that day, Trotsky spoke before the Saint Petersburg Soviet Council of Workers Deputies, which was meeting at the Technological Institute in the city.", "Also attending were some 200,000 people crowded outside to hear the speeches—about half of all workers in Saint Petersburg.Trotsky in prison, awaiting trial, 1906After his return, Trotsky and Parvus took over the newspaper ''Russian Gazette,'' increasing its circulation to 500,000.Trotsky also co-founded, together with Parvus and Julius Martov and other Mensheviks, \"Nachalo\" (\"The Beginning\"), which also proved to be a very successful newspaper in the revolutionary atmosphere of Saint Petersburg in 1905.Just before Trotsky's return, the Mensheviks had independently come up with the same idea that Trotsky had: an elected non-party revolutionary organization representing the capital's workers, the first Soviet (\"Council\") of Workers.", "By the time of Trotsky's arrival, the Saint Petersburg Soviet was already functioning, headed by Khrustalyev-Nosar (Georgy Nosar, alias Pyotr Khrustalyov).", "Khrustalyev-Nosar had been a compromise figure when elected as the head of the Saint Petersburg Soviet.", "He was a lawyer that stood above the political factions contained in the Soviet.However, since his election, he proved to be very popular with the workers in spite of the Bolsheviks' original opposition to him.", "Khrustalev-Nosar became famous in his position as spokesman for the Saint Petersburg Soviet.", "Indeed, to the outside world, Khrustalev-Nosar was the embodiment of the Saint Petersburg Soviet.", "Trotsky joined the Soviet under the name \"Yanovsky\" (after the village he was born in, Yanovka) and was elected vice-chairman.", "He did much of the actual work at the Soviet and, after Khrustalev-Nosar's arrest on 26 November 1905, was elected its chairman.", "On 2 December, the Soviet issued a proclamation which included the following statement about the Tsarist government and its foreign debts: The following day, on 3 December 1905, the Soviet was surrounded by troops loyal to the government and the deputies were arrested.", "Trotsky and other Soviet leaders were tried in 1906 on charges of supporting an armed rebellion.", "On 4 October 1906 he was convicted and sentenced to internal exile to Siberia.=== Second emigration (1907–1914) ===Trotsky with Alexander Parvus (left) and Leo Deutsch (right) in Saint Peter and Paul Fortress prison at Saint Petersburg in 1906While en route to exile in Obdorsk, Siberia, in January 1907, Trotsky escaped at Berezov and once again made his way to London.", "He attended the 5th Congress of the RSDLP.", "In October, he moved to Vienna, Austria-Hungary.", "For the next seven years, he often took part in the activities of the Austrian Social Democratic Party and, occasionally, of the German Social Democratic Party.In Vienna, Trotsky became close to Adolph Joffe, his friend for the next 20 years, who introduced him to psychoanalysis.Trotsky reading ''Pravda'' in Vienna, circa 1910In October 1908 he was asked to join the editorial staff of ''Pravda'' (\"Truth\"), a bi-weekly, Russian-language social democratic paper for Russian workers, which he co-edited with Adolph Joffe and Matvey Skobelev.", "It was smuggled into Russia.", "The paper appeared very irregularly; only five issues were published in its first year.Avoiding factional politics, the paper proved popular with Russian industrial workers.", "Both the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks split multiple times after the failure of the 1905–1907 revolution.", "Money was very scarce for the publication of ''Pravda''.", "Trotsky approached the Russian Central Committee to seek financial backing for the newspaper throughout 1909.A majority of Bolsheviks controlled the Central Committee in 1910.Lenin agreed to the financing of \"Pravda\", but required a Bolshevik to be appointed as co-editor of the paper.", "When various Bolshevik and Menshevik factions tried to re-unite at the January 1910 RSDLP Central Committee meeting in Paris over Lenin's objections, Trotsky's ''Pravda'' was made a party-financed 'central organ'.", "Lev Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910.Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.", "Trotsky continued publishing ''Pravda'' for another two years until it finally folded in April 1912.The Bolsheviks started a new workers-oriented newspaper in Saint Petersburg on 22 April 1912 and also called it ''Pravda''.", "Trotsky was so upset by what he saw as a usurpation of his newspaper's name that in April 1913, he wrote a letter to Nikolay Chkheidze, a Menshevik leader, bitterly denouncing Lenin and the Bolsheviks.", "Though he quickly got over the disagreement, the message was intercepted by the Russian secret police, and a copy was put into their archives.", "Shortly after Lenin's death in 1924, the letter was found and publicized by Trotsky's opponents within the Communist Party to portray him as Lenin's enemy.The 1910s were a period of heightened tension within the RSDLP, leading to numerous frictions between Trotsky, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks.", "The most serious disagreement that Trotsky and the Mensheviks had with Lenin at the time was over the issue of \"expropriations\", i.e., armed robbery of banks and other companies by Bolshevik groups to procure money for the Party.", "These actions had been banned by the 5th Congress, but were continued by the Bolsheviks.Trotsky in ViennaIn January 1912, the majority of the Bolshevik faction, led by Lenin, as well as a few defecting Mensheviks, held a conference in Prague and decided to break away from the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, and formed a new party, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks).", "In response, Trotsky organized a \"unification\" conference of social democratic factions in Vienna in August 1912 (a.k.a.", "\"The August Bloc\") and tried to re-unite the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks into one party.", "The attempt was generally unsuccessful.In Vienna, Trotsky continuously published articles in radical Russian and Ukrainian newspapers, such as ''Kievskaya Mysl,'' under a variety of pseudonyms, often using \"Antid Oto\".", "In September 1912, ''Kievskaya Mysl'' sent him to the Balkans as its war correspondent, where he covered the two Balkan Wars for the next year.", "While there, Trotsky chronicled the ethnic cleansing carried out by the Serbian army against the Albanian civilian population.", "He became a close friend of Christian Rakovsky, later a leading Soviet politician and Trotsky's ally in the Soviet Communist Party.", "On 3 August 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, in which Austria-Hungary fought against the Russian Empire, Trotsky was forced to flee Vienna for neutral Switzerland to avoid arrest as a Russian émigré.=== World War I (1914–1917) ===The outbreak of World War I caused a sudden realignment within the RSDLP and other European social democratic parties over the issues of war, revolution, pacifism and internationalism, redividing the party into defeatists and defencists.", "Within the RSDLP, Lenin, Trotsky and Martov advocated various internationalist anti-war positions that saw defeat for your own country's ruling class imperialists as the \"lesser evil\" in the war, while they opposed all imperialists in the imperialist war.", "These anti-war believers were known as \"defeatists\".", "Those who supported one side over the other in the war were known as \"defencists\".", "Plekhanov and many other defencist social democrats (both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks) supported the Russian government to some extent and wanted them to win the war, while Trotsky's ex-colleague Parvus, now a defencist, sided against Russia so strongly that he wanted Germany to win the war.", "In Switzerland, Trotsky briefly worked within the Swiss Socialist Party, prompting it to adopt an internationalist resolution.", "He wrote a book opposing the war, ''The War and the International,'' and the pro-war position taken by the European social democratic parties, primarily the German party.Leon Trotsky with his daughter Nina in 1915As a war correspondent for the ''Kievskaya Mysl'', Trotsky moved to France on 19 November 1914.In January 1915 in Paris, he began editing (at first with Martov, who soon resigned as the paper moved to the left) ''Nashe Slovo'' (\"Our Word\"), an internationalist socialist newspaper.", "He adopted the slogan of \"peace without indemnities or annexations, peace without conquerors or conquered.\"", "Lenin advocated Russia's defeat in the war and demanded a complete break with the Second International.Trotsky attended the Zimmerwald Conference of anti-war socialists in September 1915 and advocated a middle course between those who, like Martov, would stay within the Second International at any cost and those who, like Lenin, would break with the Second International and form a Third International.", "The conference adopted the middle line proposed by Trotsky.", "At first opposed, in the end Lenin voted for Trotsky's resolution to avoid a split among anti-war socialists.In September 1916, Trotsky was deported from France to Spain for his anti-war activities.", "Spanish authorities did not want him and deported him to the United States on 25 December 1916.He arrived in New York City on 13 January 1917.He stayed for over two months at 1522 Vyse Avenue in The Bronx.", "In New York he wrote articles for the local Russian language socialist newspaper, ''Novy Mir,'' and the Yiddish-language daily, ''Der Forverts'' (''The Jewish Daily Forward''), in translation.", "He also made speeches to Russian émigrés.Trotsky was living in New York City when the February Revolution of 1917 led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II.", "He left New York on 27 March 1917, but his ship, the ''SS Kristianiafjord,'' was intercepted by British naval officials in Canada at Halifax, Nova Scotia.", "He was detained for a month at Amherst Internment Camp in Nova Scotia.", "While imprisoned in the camp, Trotsky established an increasing friendship with the workers and sailors amongst his fellow inmates, describing his month at the camp as \"one continual mass meeting\".Trotsky's speeches and agitation incurred the wrath of German officer inmates who complained to the British camp commander, Colonel Morris, about Trotsky's \"anti-patriotic\" attitude.", "Morris then forbade Trotsky to make any more public speeches, leading to 530 prisoners protesting and signing a petition against Morris' order.", "Back in Russia, after initial hesitation and facing pressure from the workers' and peasants' Soviets, the Russian foreign minister Pavel Milyukov was compelled to demand the release of Trotsky as a Russian citizen, and the British government freed him on 29 April 1917.Trotsky arriving in Petrograd by train in May 1917He reached Russia on 17 May 1917.After his return, Trotsky substantially agreed with the Bolshevik position, but did not join them right away.", "Russian social democrats were split into at least six groups, and the Bolsheviks were waiting for the next party Congress to determine which factions to merge with.", "Trotsky temporarily joined the Mezhraiontsy, a regional social democratic organization in Petrograd, and became one of its leaders.", "At the First Congress of Soviets in June, he was elected a member of the first All-Russian Central Executive Committee (\"VTsIK\") from the Mezhraiontsy faction.After an unsuccessful pro-Bolshevik uprising in Petrograd, Trotsky was arrested on 7 August 1917.He was released 40 days later in the aftermath of the failed counter-revolutionary uprising by Lavr Kornilov.", "After the Bolsheviks gained a majority in the Petrograd Soviet, Trotsky was elected chairman on .", "Trotsky sided with Lenin against Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev when the Bolshevik Central Committee discussed staging an armed uprising, and he led the efforts to overthrow the Russian Provisional Government headed by socialist Aleksandr Kerensky.The following summary of Trotsky's role in 1917 was written by Joseph Stalin in ''Pravda'', 6 November 1918.Although this passage was quoted in Stalin's book ''The October Revolution'' (1934), it was expunged from Stalin's ''Works'' (1949).After the success of the Bolshevik insurrection on 7–8 November 1917, Trotsky led the efforts to repel a counter-attack by Cossacks under General Pyotr Krasnov and other troops still loyal to the overthrown Provisional Government at Gatchina.", "Allied with Lenin, he defeated attempts by other Bolshevik Central Committee members (Zinoviev, Kamenev, Rykov, etc.)", "to share power with other moderate, socialist parties.", "Trotsky was an outspoken advocate for a predominantly Bolshevik government and was reluctant to recall Mensheviks as partners after their voluntary withdrawal from the Congress of the Soviets.", "However, he released several, socialist ministers from prison and neither did Trotsky nor his colleagues in 1917 wish to suppress these parties.", "The Bolsheviks also reserved a number of vacant seats in the Soviets and Central Executive for the parties in proportion to their vote share at the Congress.At the same time, a number of prominent members of the Left Socialist Revolutionaries had assumed positions in Lenin's government and lead commissariats in several areas.", "This included agriculture (Kolegaev), property (Karelin), justice (Steinberg), post offices and telegraphs (Proshian) and local government (Trutovsky).According to Deutscher, the Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries presented a number of demands for a coalition government.", "These demands proposed disarming the Bolshevik detachments and excluding Lenin and Trotsky from the coalition.", "This was seen as unacceptable to even the most moderate, Bolshevik negotiators such as Kamenev and Sokolnikov.By the end of 1917, Trotsky was unquestionably the second man in the Bolshevik Party after Lenin.", "He overshadowed the ambitious Zinoviev, who had been Lenin's top lieutenant over the previous decade, but whose star appeared to be fading.", "This reversal of position contributed to continuing competition and enmity between the two men, which lasted until 1926 and did much to destroy them both." ], [ "Russian Revolution and aftermath", "=== Commissar for Foreign Affairs and Brest-Litovsk (1917–1918) ===Constituent Assembly on 6 January 1918.The Tauride Palace is locked and guarded by Trotsky, Sverdlov, Zinoviev, and Lashevich.After the Bolsheviks came to power, Trotsky became the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and published the secret treaties previously signed by the Triple Entente that detailed plans for post-war reallocation of colonies and redrawing state borders.", "On 23 November 1917, Trotsky revealed the secret treaty arrangements which had been made between the Tsarist government, Britain and France, causing them considerable embarrassment.==== Brest-Litovsk ====Leon Trotsky and Lev Kamenev at the Brest-Litovsk negotiations (c. 1917–1918)In preparation for peace talks with the representatives of the Imperial German government and the representatives of the other Central Powers leading up to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Leon Trotsky appointed his old friend Joffe to represent the Bolsheviks.", "When the Soviet delegation learned that Germans and Austro-Hungarians planned to annex slices of Polish territory and to set up a rump Polish state with what remained, while the Baltic provinces were to become client states ruled by German princes, the talks were recessed for 12 days.", "The Soviets' only hopes were that, given time, their allies would agree to join the negotiations or that the western European proletariat would revolt, so their best strategy was to prolong the negotiations.", "As Foreign Minister Leon Trotsky wrote, \"To delay negotiations, there must be someone to do the delaying\".", "Therefore, Trotsky replaced Joffe as the leader of the Soviet delegation during the peace negotiations in Brest-Litovsk from 22 December 1917 to 10 February 1918.At that time the Soviet government was split on the issue.", "Left Communists, led by Nikolai Bukharin, continued to believe that there could be no peace between a Soviet republic and a capitalist empire, and that only a revolutionary war leading to a pan-European Soviet republic would bring a durable peace.They cited the successes of the newly formed (15 January 1918) voluntary Red Army against Polish forces of Gen. Józef Dowbor-Muśnicki in Belarus, White forces in the Don region, and newly independent Ukrainian forces as proof that the Red Army could repel German forces, especially if propaganda and asymmetrical warfare were used.They were willing to hold talks with the Germans as a means of exposing German imperial ambitions (territorial gains, reparations, etc.)", "in the hope of accelerating the hoped−for Soviet revolution in the West.", "Still, they were dead set against signing any peace treaty.", "In the case of a German ultimatum, they advocated proclaiming a revolutionary war against Germany to inspire Russian and European workers to fight for socialism.", "This opinion was shared by Left Socialist Revolutionaries, who were then the Bolsheviks' junior partners in a coalition government.Treaty of Brest-LitovskLenin, who had earlier hoped for a speedy Soviet revolution in Germany and other parts of Europe, quickly decided that the Imperial government of Germany was still firmly in control and that, without a strong Russian military, an armed conflict with Germany would lead to a collapse of the Soviet government in Russia.", "He agreed with the Left Communists that ultimately a pan-European Soviet revolution would solve all problems, but until then the Bolsheviks had to stay in power.", "Lenin did not mind prolonging the negotiating process for maximum propaganda effect, but, from January 1918 on, advocated signing a separate peace treaty if faced with a German ultimatum.", "Trotsky's position was between these two Bolshevik factions.", "Like Lenin, he admitted that the old Russian military, inherited from the monarchy and the Provisional Government and in advanced stages of decomposition, was unable to fight:But he agreed with the Left Communists that a separate peace treaty with an imperialist power would be a terrible morale and material blow to the Soviet government, negate all its military and political successes of 1917 and 1918, resurrect the notion that the Bolsheviks secretly allied with the German government, and cause an upsurge of internal resistance.", "He argued that any German ultimatum should be refused, and that this might well lead to an uprising in Germany, or at least inspire German soldiers to disobey their officers since any German offensive would be a naked land grab for territories.", "Trotsky wrote in 1925:Trotsky, in a letter he wrote to Lenin during the negotiations, which must have been written before January 18, 1918, described its policy, summarily, as follows:However, even though Lenin was in favor of a peace, due to party opposition, he basically responded with these messages from January 18, 1918:As it was remarked by Trotsky that, \"... possibly this answer already showed that he did not agree with my proposition (...)\", Trotsky returned to Petrograd to debate with Lenin.", "During his debate with Trotsky, Lenin concluded: \"(...) In any case, I stand for the immediate signing of peace; it is safer.", "\"However, after debates with the German delegation, Trotsky and the Russian delegation withdrew from peace talks on 10 February 1918, by declaring ending the war on the side of Soviet Russia, and not signing a peace treaty.", "Contrary to Russia's declaration, Germany resumed military operations on 18 February.", "Within a day, it became clear that the German army was capable of conducting offensive operations and that Red Army detachments, which were relatively small, poorly organized, and poorly led, were no match for it.", "On the evening of 18 February 1918, Trotsky and his supporters in the committee abstained, and Lenin's proposal was accepted 7–4.The Soviet government sent a radiogram to the German side, taking the final Brest-Litovsk peace terms.Germany did not respond for three days and continued its offensive, encountering little resistance.", "The response arrived on 21 February, but the proposed terms were so harsh that even Lenin briefly thought that the Soviet government had no choice but to fight.", "But in the end, the committee again voted 7–4 on 23 February 1918; the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on 3 March and ratified on 15 March 1918.Since Trotsky was so closely associated with the policy previously followed by the Soviet delegation at Brest-Litovsk, he resigned from his position as Commissar for Foreign Affairs to remove a potential obstacle to the new policy.=== Head of the Red Army (spring 1918) ===his armoured train during the Russian Civil War in 1920On 13 March 1918, Trotsky's resignation as Commissar for Foreign Affairs was officially accepted, and he was appointed People's Commissar of Army and Navy Affairs—in place of Podvoisky—and chairman of the Supreme Military Council.", "The post of commander-in-chief was abolished, and Trotsky gained full control of the Red Army, responsible only to the Communist Party leadership, whose Left Socialist Revolutionary allies had left the government over the controversial treaty of Brest-Litovsk.The entire Bolshevik leadership of the Red Army, including People's Commissar (defence minister) Nikolai Podvoisky and commander-in-chief Nikolai Krylenko, protested vigorously against Trotsky's appointment and eventually resigned.", "They believed that the Red Army should consist only of dedicated revolutionaries, rely on propaganda and force, and have elected officers.", "They viewed former imperial officers and generals as potential traitors who should be kept out of the new military, much less put in charge of it.", "Their views continued to be popular with many Bolsheviks throughout most of the Russian Civil War, and their supporters, including Podvoisky, who became one of Trotsky's deputies, were a constant thorn in Trotsky's side.", "The discontent with Trotsky's policies of strict discipline, forced conscription and reliance on carefully supervised non-Communist military experts eventually led to the Military Opposition, which was active within the Communist Party in late 1918–1919.=== Civil War (1918–1920) ======= 1918 ====antisemitic 1919 White Army propaganda poster depicting Trotsky as Satan wearing a pentagram and portraying the Bolsheviks' Chinese supporters as mass murderers.", "The caption reads, \"Peace and Liberty in Sovdepiya\".The military situation soon tested Trotsky's managerial and organization-building skills.", "In May–June 1918, the Czechoslovak Legions ''en route'' from European Russia to Vladivostok rose against the Soviet government.", "This left the Bolsheviks with the loss of most of the country's territory, an increasingly well-organized resistance by Russian anti-Communist forces (usually referred to as the White Army after their best-known component) and widespread defection by the military experts whom Trotsky relied on.Trotsky and the government responded with a full-fledged mobilization, which increased the size of the Red Army from fewer than 300,000 in May 1918 to one million in October, and an introduction of political commissars into the army.", "The latter had the task of ensuring the loyalty of military experts (mostly former officers in the Imperial Army) and co-signing their orders.", "Trotsky regarded the organisation of the Red Army as built on the ideas of the October Revolution.", "As he later wrote in his autobiography:Another controversial feature of his military decisions was to inaugurate hostage-taking of relatives of ex-Tsarist officials working in the Red Army to avert the risk of defection or betrayal.", "Service pointed out that this practice was exercised by both Red and White armies during the Civil War.Trotsky would later defend his decision and argue that none of the families of ex-officials who did betray the army and contribute to additional human casualties were themselves ever executed.", "He would also insist that had these draconian measures been adopted rather than excess “magnanimity” to opponents at the start of the October Revolution then Russia would have experienced far less casualties.", "Deutscher draws attention to the fact that Trotsky preferred to exchange hostages and prisoners rather than execute them.", "He recounts that Trotsky had released General Krasnov on parole in 1918 after the Kerensky–Krasnov uprising during the initial stage of the civil war but the general would take up arms against the Soviets shortly again afterwards.===== Red Terror =====European theatre of the Russian Civil War in 1918–19Arising after assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin and Trotsky along with the successful assassinations of Petrograd Cheka leader Moisei Uritsky and party editor V. Volodarsky, the Red Terror was enacted.", "The French Reign of Terror has been viewed as an influence and a model for the civil war repressions.", "The decision to enact the Red Terror was also driven by initial White Army massacres of \"Red\" prisoners in 1917, allied intervention in the Russian Civil War and the large-scale massacres of Reds during the Finnish Civil War in which 10,00-20,000 workers had been liquidated by the Finnish Whites.In his book, ''Terrorism and Communism: A Reply to Karl Kautsky,'' Trotsky argued that the reign of terror in Russia began with the White Terror under the White Guard forces and the Bolsheviks responded with the Red Terror.In December 1917, Felix Dzerzhinsky was appointed to the duty of rooting out counter-revolutionary threats to the Soviet government.", "He was the director of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (aka Cheka), a predecessor of the KGB that served as the secret police for the Soviets.From early 1918, the Bolsheviks started physical elimination of opposition and other socialist and revolutionary fractions, anarchists among the first.", "On 11 August 1918, prior to the events that would officially catalyze the Terror, Vladimir Lenin had sent telegrams \"to introduce mass terror\" in Nizhny Novgorod in response to a suspected civilian uprising there, and to \"crush\" landowners in Penza who resisted, sometimes violently, the requisitioning of their grain by military detachments.Leonid Kannegisser, a young military cadet of the Imperial Russian Army, assassinated Moisey Uritsky on August 17, 1918, outside the Petrograd Cheka secret police headquarters in retaliation for the execution of his friend and other officers.On August 30, Socialist Revolutionary Fanny Kaplan unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate Vladimir Lenin.During interrogation by the Cheka, she made the following statement:In September 1918, Trotsky rushed back from the far-eastern front of the civil war to reach Moscow after the second day of the shooting and Stalin remained in Tsaritsyn.Kaplan referenced the Bolsheviks' growing authoritarianism, citing their forcible shutdown of the Constituent Assembly in January 1918, the elections to which they had lost.", "When it became clear that Kaplan would not implicate any accomplices, she was executed in Alexander Garden.", "The order was carried out by the commander of the Kremlin, the former Baltic sailor P. D. Malkov and a group of Latvian Bolsheviks on September 3, 1918, with a bullet to the back of the head.", "Her corpse was bundled into a barrel and set alight.", "The order came from Yakov Sverdlov, who only six weeks earlier had ordered the murder of the Tsar and his family.These events persuaded the government to heed Dzerzhinsky's lobbying for greater terror against opposition.", "The campaign of mass repressions would officially begin thereafter.", "The Red Terror is considered to have officially begun between 17 and 30 August 1918.Regarding the Red Terror Trotsky wrote:===== Desertions =====In dealing with deserters, Trotsky often appealed to them politically, arousing them with the ideas of the Revolution.The first use of the punitive barrier troops by the Red Army occurred in the late summer and fall of 1918 in the Eastern front during the Russian Civil War, when People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs (War Commissar) Leon Trotsky of the Communist Bolshevik government authorized Mikhail Tukhachevsky, the commander of the 1st Army, to station blocking detachments behind unreliable Red Army infantry regiments in the 1st Red Army, with orders to shoot if front-line troops either deserted or retreated without permission.", "The barrier troops comprised personnel drawn from Cheka punitive detachments or from regular Red Army infantry regiments.In December 1918 Trotsky ordered that detachments of additional barrier troops be raised for attachment to each infantry formation in the Red Army.", "On December 18 he cabled: How do things stand with the blocking units?", "As far as I am aware they have not been included in our establishment and it appears they have no personnel.", "It is absolutely essential that we have at least an embryonic network of blocking units and that we work out a procedure for bringing them up to strength and deploying them.", "The barrier troops were also used to enforce Bolshevik control over food supplies in areas controlled by the Red Army, a role which soon earned them the hatred of the Russian civilian population.Trotsky with Demyan Bedny near Kazan, 1918Given the lack of manpower and the 16 opposing foreign armies, Trotsky also insisted on the use of former Tsarist officers as military specialists within the Red Army, in combination with Bolshevik political commissars to ensure the revolutionary nature of the Red Army.", "Lenin commented on this:Trotsky with Lenin and KamenevIn September 1918, the Bolshevik government, facing continuous military difficulties, declared what amounted to martial law and reorganized the Red Army.", "The Supreme Military Council was abolished, and the position of commander-in-chief was restored, filled by the commander of the Latvian Riflemen, Ioakim Vatsetis (a.k.a.", "Jukums Vācietis), who had formerly led the Eastern Front against the Czechoslovak Legions.", "Vatsetis took charge of the day-to-day operations of the army.", "At the same time, Trotsky became chairman of the newly formed Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic and retained overall control of the military.", "Trotsky and Vatsetis had clashed earlier in 1918, while Vatsetis and Trotsky's adviser Mikhail Bonch-Bruevich were also on unfriendly terms.", "Nevertheless, Trotsky eventually established a working relationship with the often prickly Vatsetis.The reorganization caused yet another conflict, this time between Trotsky and Stalin, in late September.", "Trotsky appointed former imperial general Pavel Pavlovich Sytin to command the Southern Front, but in early October 1918 Stalin refused to accept him and so he was recalled from the front.", "Lenin and Yakov Sverdlov tried to make Trotsky and Stalin reconcile, but their meeting proved unsuccessful.In 1919, 616 \"hardcore\" deserters of the total 837,000 draft dodgers and deserters were executed following Trotsky's dracionan measures.", "According to historian Orlando Figes, \"a majority of deserters (most registered as \"weak-willed\") were handed back to the military authorities, and formed into units for transfer to one of the rear armies or directly to the front\".", "Even those registered as \"malicious\" deserters were returned to the ranks when the demand for reinforcements became desperate\".", "Forges also noted that the Red Army instituted amnesty weeks to prohibit punitive measures against desertion which encouraged the voluntary return of 98,000-132,000 deserters to the army.==== 1919 ====Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, Lev Kamenev motivate the troops to fight in the Soviet-Polish war, 1 May 1920Trotsky addressing soldiers of the Red Army during the Polish-Soviet WarThroughout late 1918 and early 1919, there were a number of attacks on Trotsky's leadership of the Red Army, including veiled accusations in newspaper articles inspired by Stalin and a direct attack by the Military Opposition at the VIIIth Party Congress in March 1919.On the surface, he weathered them successfully and was elected one of only five full members of the first Politburo after the Congress.", "But he later wrote:In mid-1919, the dissatisfied had an opportunity to mount a serious challenge to Trotsky's leadership: the Red Army grew from 800,000 to 3,000,000 and fought simultaneously on sixteen fronts.At the 3–4 July Central Committee meeting, after a heated exchange, the majority supported Kamenev and Smilga against Vācietis and Trotsky.", "Trotsky's plan was rejected, and he was much criticized for various alleged shortcomings in his leadership style, much of it of a personal nature.", "Stalin used this opportunity to pressure Lenin to dismiss Trotsky from his post.However, some significant changes to the leadership of the Red Army were made.", "Trotsky was temporarily sent to the Southern Front, while Smilga informally coordinated the work in Moscow.", "Most members of the Revolutionary Military Council who were not involved in its day-to-day operations were relieved of their duties on 8 July, and new members, including Smilga, were added.", "The same day, while Trotsky was in the south, Vācietis was suddenly arrested by the Cheka on suspicion of involvement in an anti-Soviet plot, and replaced by Sergey Kamenev.", "After a few weeks in the south, Trotsky returned to Moscow and resumed control of the Red Army.", "A year later, Smilga and Tukhachevsky were defeated during the Battle of Warsaw, but Trotsky refused this opportunity to pay Smilga back, which earned him Smilga's friendship and later his support during the intra-Party battles of the 1920s.By October 1919, the government was in the worst crisis of the Civil War: Denikin's troops approached Tula and Moscow from the south, and General Nikolay Yudenich's troops approached Petrograd from the west.", "Lenin decided that since it was more important to defend Moscow, Petrograd would have to be abandoned.", "Trotsky argued that Petrograd needed to be defended, at least in part to prevent Estonia and Finland from intervening.", "In a rare reversal, Trotsky was supported by Stalin and Zinoviev, and prevailed against Lenin in the Central Committee.==== 1920 ====Béla Kun, Alfred Rosmer, Leon Trotsky, Mikhail Frunze and Sergey Gusev, Kharkov, Ukraine, 1920With the defeat of Denikin and Yudenich in late 1919, the Soviet government's emphasis shifted to the economy.", "Trotsky spent the winter of 1919–20 in the Urals region trying to restart its economy.", "A false rumor of his assassination circulated in Germany and the international press on New Year's Day 1920.Based on his experiences, he proposed abandoning the policies of War Communism, which included confiscating grain from peasants, and partially restoring the grain market.", "Still committed to War Communism, Lenin rejected his proposal.Mikhail Kalinin and Leon Trotsky greet Red Army troops.", "Polish–Soviet War.anti-Soviet Polish poster titled \"Bolshevik freedom\" which depicts him on a pile of skulls and holding a bloody knife, during the Polish–Soviet War of 1920.Small caption in the lower right corner reads:The Bolsheviks promised:We'll give you peaceWe'll give you freedomWe'll give you landWork and breadDespicably they cheatedThey started a warWith PolandInstead of freedom they broughtThe fistInstead of land – confiscationInstead of work – miseryInstead of bread – famine.In early 1920, Soviet–Polish tensions eventually led to the Polish–Soviet War.", "In the run-up and during the war, Trotsky argued that the Red Army was exhausted and the Soviet government should sign a peace treaty with Poland as soon as possible.", "He did not believe that the Red Army would find much support in Poland proper.", "Lenin later wrote that he and other Bolshevik leaders believed the Red Army's successes in the Russian Civil War and against the Poles meant \"The defensive period of the war with worldwide imperialism was over, and we could, and had the obligation to, exploit the military situation to launch an offensive war.", "\"Poland defeated the Red Army, and the offensive was turned back during the Battle of Warsaw in August 1920.Back in Moscow, Trotsky again argued for a peace treaty, and this time prevailed.=== Trade union debate (1920–1921) ===Trotsky's position formed while he led a special commission on the Soviet transportation system, Tsektran.", "He was appointed there to rebuild the rail system ruined by the Civil War.", "Being the Commissar of War and a revolutionary military leader, he saw a need to create a militarized \"production atmosphere\" by incorporating trade unions directly into the State apparatus.", "His unyielding stance was that in a worker's state, the workers should have nothing to fear from the State, and the State should fully control the unions.", "In the Ninth Party Congress, he argued for: \"....a regime in which every worker feels himself a soldier of labour, who cannot dispose of himself freely; if the order is given to transfer him, he must carry it out; if he does not carry it out, he will be a deserter who is punished.", "Who looks after this?", "The trade unions.", "It creates the new regime.", "This is the militarisation of the working class.", "\"Trotsky with Vladimir Lenin and Klim Voroshilov among soldiers in Petrograd in 1921.Lenin sharply criticized Trotsky and accused him of \"bureaucratically nagging the trade unions\" and of staging \"factional attacks.\"", "His view did not focus on State control as much as the concern that a new relationship was needed between the State and the rank-and-file workers.", "He said, \"Introduction of genuine labour discipline is conceived only if the whole mass of participants in productions takes a conscious part in the fulfillment of these tasks.", "Bureaucratic methods and orders from above cannot achieve this.\"", "This was a debate that Lenin thought the party could not afford.", "His frustration with Trotsky was used by Stalin and Zinoviev with their support for Lenin's position, to improve their standing within the Bolshevik leadership at Trotsky's expense.Disagreements threatened to get out of hand, and many Bolsheviks, including Lenin, feared that the party would splinter.", "The Central Committee was split almost evenly between Lenin's and Trotsky's supporters, with all three Secretaries of the Central Committee (Krestinsky, Yevgeny Preobrazhensky and Leonid Serebryakov) supporting Trotsky.At a meeting of his faction at the Tenth Party Congress in March 1921, Lenin's faction won a decisive victory, and a number of Trotsky's supporters (including all three secretaries of the Central Committee) lost their leadership positions.", "Krestinsky was replaced as a member of the Politburo by Zinoviev, who had supported Lenin.", "Krestinsky's place in the secretariat was taken by Vyacheslav Molotov.", "The congress also adopted a secret resolution on \"Party unity\", which banned factions within the Party except during pre-Congress discussions.", "The resolution was later published and used by Stalin against Trotsky and other opponents.Red Army troops attack Kronstadt sailors in March 1921.Disappointed in the direction of the Bolshevik government, the rebels from Kronstadt—whom Leon Trotsky himself had praised earlier as \"adornment and pride of the revolution\"—demanded a series of reforms: reduction in Bolshevik power, newly elected ''soviet'' councils to include socialist and anarchist groups, economic freedom for peasants and workers, dissolution of the bureaucratic governmental organs created during the civil war, and the restoration of civil rights for the working class.Convinced of the popularity of the reforms they were fighting for (which they partially tried to implement during the revolt), the Kronstadt seamen waited in vain for the support of the population in the rest of the country and rejected aid from emigrants.", "Although the council of officers advocated a more offensive strategy, the rebels maintained a passive attitude as they waited for the government to take the first step in negotiations.", "By contrast, the authorities took an uncompromising stance, presenting an ultimatum demanding unconditional surrender on March 5.Once this period expired, the Bolsheviks raided the island several times and suppressed the revolt on March 18 after killing several thousand people.At the end of the Tenth Congress, Trotsky himself gave the order for the suppression of the Kronstadt rebellion, which was the last major revolt against Bolshevik rule.", "Trotsky presented alleged French press articles announcing the revolt two weeks before its outbreak as proof that the rebellion was a plan devised by the emigre and the forces of the Entente.", "Lenin used the same tactic to accuse the rebels a few days later at the 10th Party Congress.", "Trotsky's role was questioned by other socialists, including ex-Trotskyists.", "In the United States, Dwight Macdonald broke with Trotsky and left the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party by noting the Kronstadt rebellion.", "A similar critique of Trotsky's role in the Kronstadt rebellion was raised by American anarchist Emma Goldman.", "In her essay \"Trotsky Protests Too Much\", she states, \"I admit, the dictatorship under Stalin's rule has become monstrous.", "That does not, however, lessen the guilt of Leon Trotsky as one of the actors in the revolutionary drama of which Kronstadt was one of the bloodiest scenes\".", "Some Trotskyists, most notably Abbie Bakan, have argued that the claim that the Kronstadt rebels were \"counterrevolutionary\" has been supported by evidence of White Army and French government support for the Kronstadt sailors' March rebellion.", "Other historians, most notably Paul Avrich, claimed the evidence did not point towards this conclusion, and saw the Kronstadt Rebellion as spontaneous.=== Trotsky's contribution to the Russian Revolution ===Leon Trotsky, the People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs, as the Guard of the October Revolution on 14 May 1923Vladimir Cherniaev, a leading Russian historian, sums up Trotsky's main contributions to the Russian Revolution:Historian Geoffrey Swain argues that:Lenin said in 1921 that Trotsky was \"in love with organisation,\" but in working politics, \"he has not got a clue.\"", "Swain explains the paradox by arguing that Trotsky was not good at teamwork; he was a loner who had mostly worked as a journalist, not as a professional revolutionary like the others.=== Lenin's illness (1922–1923) ===Trotsky with Red Army soldiers in Moscow, 1922In late 1921, Lenin's health deteriorated and he was absent from Moscow for longer periods of time.", "He had three strokes between 25 May 1922 and 9 March 1923, which caused paralysis, loss of speech and finally death on 21 January 1924.With Lenin increasingly sidelined throughout 1922, Stalin was elevated to the newly created position of the Central Committee general secretary.", "Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev became part of the ''troika'' (triumvirate) formed by Stalin to ensure that Trotsky, publicly the number-two man in the country and Lenin's heir presumptive, would not succeed Lenin.The rest of the recently expanded Politburo (Rykov, Mikhail Tomsky, Bukharin) was at first uncommitted, but eventually joined the ''troika.''", "Stalin's power of patronage in his capacity as general secretary clearly played a role, but Trotsky and his supporters later concluded that a more fundamental reason was the process of slow bureaucratisation of the Soviet regime once the extreme conditions of the Civil War were over.", "Much of the Bolshevik elite wanted 'normality,' while Trotsky was personally and politically personified as representing a turbulent revolutionary period that they would much rather leave behind.Although the exact sequence of events is unclear, evidence suggests that at first the ''troika'' nominated Trotsky to head second-rate government departments (e.g., Gokhran, the State Depository for Valuables).", "In mid-July 1922, Kamenev wrote a letter to the recovering Lenin to the effect that \"(the Central Committee) is throwing or is ready to throw a good cannon overboard\".", "Lenin was shocked and responded:From then until his final stroke, Lenin spent much of his time trying to devise a way to prevent a split within the Communist Party leadership, which was reflected in ''Lenin's Testament.''", "As part of this effort, on 11 September 1922 Lenin proposed that Trotsky become his deputy at the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom).", "The Politburo approved the proposal, but Trotsky \"categorically refused\".", "Lenin's proposal has been interpreted by various scholars as evidence that he designated Trotsky as a successor as head of government.Trotsky with Rakovsky, In late 1922, Trotsky secured an alliance with Lenin against Stalin and the emerging Soviet bureaucracy.", "Stalin had recently engineered the creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), further centralising state control.", "The alliance proved effective on the issue of foreign trade but was hindered by Lenin's progressing illness.In January 1923, Lenin amended his Testament to suggest that Stalin should be removed as the party's general secretary, while also mildly criticising Trotsky and other Bolshevik leaders.", "The relationship between Stalin and Lenin had broken down completely by this time, as was demonstrated during an event where Stalin crudely insulted Lenin's wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya.", "In March 1923, days before his third stroke, Lenin asked Trotsky to denounce Stalin and his so-called \"Great-Russian nationalistic campaign\" at the XIIth Party Congress.At the XIIth Party Congress in April 1923, however, just after Lenin's final stroke, Trotsky did not raise the issue.", "Instead, he made a speech about intra-party democracy while avoiding any direct confrontation of the ''troika.''", "Stalin had prepared for the congress by replacing many local party delegates with those loyal to him, mostly at the expense of Zinoviev and Kamenev's backers.The delegates, most of whom were unaware of the divisions within the Politburo, gave Trotsky a standing ovation.", "This upset the ''troika'', already infuriated by Karl Radek's article, \"Leon Trotsky – Organiser of Victory\" published in ''Pravda'' on 14 March 1923.Stalin delivered the key reports on organisational structure and questions of nationality; while Zinoviev delivered the Central Committee political report, traditionally Lenin's prerogative.", "Among the resolutions adopted by the XIIth Congress were those calling for greater democracy within the Party, but these were vague and remained unimplemented.The power struggle in the Soviet Union which emerged during Lenin's illness and eventual death would also determine the prospect of world revolution.", "In particular, the leadership of the German Communist party had requested that Moscow send Trotsky to Germany to direct the 1923 insurrection.", "However, this proposal was rejected by the Politburo which was controlled by Stalin, Zinoviev and Kamenev who decided to send a commission of lower-ranking Russian Communist party members.=== Left opposition (1923–1924) ===Trotsky in a 1922 cubist portrait by Yury Annenkov – a version of this appeared on one of the earliest covers of ''Time'' magazine.Starting in mid-1923, the Soviet economy ran into significant difficulties, which led to numerous strikes countrywide.", "Two secret groups within the Communist Party, \"Workers' Truth\" and \"Workers' Group\", were uncovered and suppressed by the Soviet secret police.", "On 8 October 1923 Trotsky sent a letter to the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission, attributing these difficulties to lack of intra-Party democracy.", "Trotsky wrote:Other senior communists who had similar concerns sent ''The Declaration of 46'' to the Central Committee on 15 October, in which they wrote:Although the text of these letters remained secret at the time, they had a significant effect on the Party leadership and prompted a partial retreat by the ''troika'' and its supporters on the issue of intra-Party democracy, notably in Zinoviev's ''Pravda'' article published on 7 November.", "Throughout November, the ''troika'' tried to come up with a compromise to placate, or at least temporarily neutralise, Trotsky and his supporters.", "(Their task was made easier by the fact that Trotsky was sick in November and December.)", "The first draft of the resolution was rejected by Trotsky, which led to the formation of a special group consisting of Stalin, Trotsky and Kamenev, which was charged with drafting a mutually acceptable compromise.", "On 5 December, the Politburo and the Central Control Commission unanimously adopted the group's final draft as its resolution.", "On 8 December, Trotsky published an open letter, in which he expounded on the recently adopted resolution's ideas.", "The ''troika'' used his letter as an excuse to launch a campaign against Trotsky, accusing him of factionalism, setting \"the youth against the fundamental generation of old revolutionary Bolsheviks\" and other sins.Trotsky defended his position in a series of seven letters which were collected as ''The New Course'' in January 1924.The illusion of a \"monolithic Bolshevik leadership\" was thus shattered and a lively intra-Party discussion ensued, both in local Party organizations and in the pages of ''Pravda''.", "The discussion lasted most of December and January until the XIIIth Party Conference of 16–18 January 1924.Those who opposed the Central Committee's position in the debate were thereafter referred to as members of the Left Opposition.", "In 1924, in a series of conferences at Sverdlov University; Stalin cited several times, in a critical way 'the Permanentists', as the followers of Trotsky 'Permanent revolution'.Leon Trotsky with Soviet leaders write the letter of defiance to British Foreign Secretary Marquess Curzon of Kedleston in 1923, in a parody of Ilya Repin's ''Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks''Since the ''troika'' controlled the Party apparatus through Stalin's Secretariat and ''Pravda'' through its editor Bukharin, it was able to direct the discussion and the process of delegate selection.", "Although Trotsky's position prevailed within the Red Army and Moscow universities and received about half the votes in the Moscow Party organisation, it was defeated elsewhere, and the Conference was packed with pro-''troika'' delegates.", "In the end, only three delegates voted for Trotsky's position, and the Conference denounced \"Trotskyism\" as a \"petty bourgeois deviation\".Internationally, Trotsky's opposition and criticism of the ruling troika received support from several, Central Committee members of foreign communist parties.", "This included Christian Rakovsky, Chairman of the Ukraine Sovnarkom, Boris Souvarine of the French Communist Party and the Central Committee of the Polish Communist Party which was led by prominent theoreticians such as Maksymilian Horwitz, Maria Koszutska and Adolf Warski.=== After Lenin's death (1924) ===There was little overt political disagreement within the Soviet leadership throughout most of 1924.On the surface, Trotsky remained the most prominent and popular Bolshevik leader, although his \"mistakes\" were often alluded to by ''troika'' partisans.", "Behind the scenes, he was completely cut off from the decision-making process.", "Politburo meetings were pure formalities since all key decisions were made ahead of time by the ''troika'' and its supporters.", "Trotsky's control over the military was undermined by reassigning his deputy, Ephraim Sklyansky, and appointing Mikhail Frunze, who was being groomed to take Trotsky's place.At the thirteenth Party Congress in May, Trotsky delivered a conciliatory speech:Andrei Bubnov, Kliment Voroshilov, Leon Trotsky, Mikhail Kalinin, and Mikhail Frunze attend the October Revolution parade in Red Square on 7 November 1924In the meantime, the Left Opposition, which had coagulated somewhat unexpectedly in late 1923 and lacked a definite platform aside from general dissatisfaction with the intra-Party \"regime\", began to crystallise.", "It lost some less dedicated members to the harassment by the ''troika'', but it also began formulating a program.Economically, the Left Opposition and its theoretician Yevgeni Preobrazhensky came out against further development of capitalist elements in the Soviet economy and in favour of faster industrialisation.", "That put them at odds with Bukharin and Rykov, the \"Right\" group within the Party, who supported the ''troika'' at the time.", "On the question of world revolution, Trotsky and Karl Radek saw a period of stability in Europe while Stalin and Zinoviev confidently predicted an \"acceleration\" of revolution in Western Europe in 1924.On the theoretical plane, Trotsky remained committed to the Bolshevik idea that the Soviet Union could not create a true socialist society in the absence of the world revolution, while Stalin gradually came up with a policy of building \"socialism in one country\".", "These ideological divisions provided much of the intellectual basis for the political divide between Trotsky and the Left Opposition on the one hand and Stalin and his allies on the other.At the thirteenth Congress Kamenev and Zinoviev helped Stalin defuse Lenin's Testament, which belatedly came to the surface.", "But just after the congress, the ''troika'', always an alliance of convenience, showed signs of weakness.", "Stalin began making poorly veiled accusations about Zinoviev and Kamenev.", "Yet in October 1924, Trotsky published ''Lessons of October,'' an extensive summary of the events of the 1917 revolution.In it, he described Zinoviev's and Kamenev's opposition to the Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917, something that the two would have preferred be left unmentioned.", "This started a new round of intra-party struggle, which became known as the ''Literary Discussion'', with Zinoviev and Kamenev again allied with Stalin against Trotsky.", "Their criticism of Trotsky was concentrated in three areas:* Trotsky's disagreements and conflicts with Lenin and the Bolsheviks prior to 1917.", "* Trotsky's alleged distortion of the events of 1917 in order to emphasise his role and diminish the roles played by other Bolsheviks.", "* Trotsky's harsh treatment of his subordinates and other alleged mistakes during the Russian Civil War.Trotsky was again sick and unable to respond while his opponents mobilised all of their resources to denounce him.", "They succeeded in damaging his military reputation so much that he was forced to resign as People's Commissar of Army and Fleet Affairs and Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council on 6 January 1925.Zinoviev demanded Trotsky's expulsion from the Communist Party, but Stalin refused to go along and played the role of a moderate.", "Trotsky kept his Politburo seat, but was effectively put on probation.=== A year in the wilderness (1925) ===Leon Trotsky and Leonid Serebryakov attend the Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union in May 1925For Trotsky, 1925 was a difficult year.", "After the bruising ''Literary Discussion'' and losing his Red Army posts, he was effectively unemployed throughout the winter and spring.", "In May 1925, he was given three posts: chairman of the Concessions Committee, head of the electro-technical board, and chairman of the scientific-technical board of industry.", "Trotsky wrote in ''My Life'' that he \"was taking a rest from politics\" and \"naturally plunged into the new line of work up to my ears\".", "Trotsky would also deliver a tribute to Lenin in his 1925 short book, \"Lenin\".Some contemporary accounts paint a picture of a remote and distracted man.", "Later in the year, Trotsky resigned his two technical positions (maintaining Stalin-instigated interference and sabotage) and concentrated on his work in the Concessions Committee.In one of the few political developments that affected Trotsky in 1925, the circumstances of the controversy over Lenin's Testament were described by American Marxist Max Eastman in his book ''Since Lenin Died'' (1925).", "Trotsky denied these statements made by Eastman in an article he wrote.In the meantime, the ''troika'' finally broke up.", "Bukharin and Rykov sided with Stalin while Krupskaya and Soviet Commissar of Finance Grigory Sokolnikov aligned with Zinoviev and Kamenev.", "The struggle became open at the September 1925 meeting of the Central Committee and came to a head at the XIV Party Congress in December 1925.With only the Leningrad Party organization behind them, Zinoviev and Kamenev, dubbed ''The New Opposition'', were thoroughly defeated, while Trotsky refused to get involved in the fight and did not speak at the Congress.Leon Trotsky addresses a meeting in the House of the Unions in March 1926=== United Opposition (1926–1927) ===In early 1926, Zinoviev, Kamenev and their supporters in the \"New Opposition\" gravitated closer to Trotsky's supporters, and the two groups soon formed an alliance, which also incorporated some smaller opposition groups within the Communist Party.", "The alliance became known as the United Opposition.The United Opposition was repeatedly threatened with sanctions by the Stalinist leadership of the Communist Party, and Trotsky had to agree to tactical retreats, mostly to preserve his alliance with Zinoviev and Kamenev.", "The opposition remained united against Stalin throughout 1926 and 1927, especially on the issue of the Chinese Revolution.", "The methods used by the Stalinists against the Opposition became more and more extreme.", "At the XV Party Conference in October 1926, Trotsky could barely speak because of interruptions and catcalls, and at the end of the Conference he lost his Politburo seat.", "In 1927, Stalin started using the GPU (Soviet secret police) to infiltrate and discredit the opposition.", "Rank-and-file oppositionists were increasingly harassed, sometimes expelled from the Party and even arrested.Soviet policy toward the Chinese Revolution became the ideological line of demarcation between Stalin and the United Opposition.", "The Chinese Revolution began on 10 October 1911, resulting in the abdication of the Chinese Emperor, Puyi, on 12 February 1912.Sun Yat-sen established the Republic of China.", "In reality, however, the Republic controlled very little of the country.", "Much of China was divided between various regional warlords.", "The Republican government established a new \"nationalist people's army and a national people's party\"—the Kuomintang.", "In 1920, the Kuomintang opened relations with Soviet Russia.", "With Soviet help, the Republic of China built up the nationalist people's army.", "With the development of the nationalist army, a Northern Expedition was planned to smash the power of the warlords of the northern part of the country.", "This Northern Expedition became a point of contention over foreign policy by Stalin and Trotsky.", "Stalin tried to persuade the small Chinese Communist Party to merge with the Kuomintang (KMT) Nationalists to bring about a bourgeois revolution before attempting to bring about a Soviet-style working class revolution.Kalinin and Stalin bearing the coffin of Felix Dzerzhinsky on 22 July 1926.Trotsky can be seen over Kalinin's left shoulder.|alt=Trotsky wanted the Communist Party to complete an orthodox proletarian revolution and have clear class independence from the KMT.", "Stalin funded the KMT during the expedition.", "Stalin countered Trotskyist criticism by making a secret speech in which he said that Chiang Kai-shek's right-wing Kuomintang were the only ones capable of defeating the imperialists, that Chiang had funding from the rich merchants, and that his forces were to be utilized until squeezed for all usefulness like a lemon before being discarded.", "However, Chiang quickly reversed the tables in the Shanghai massacre of 12 April 1927 by massacring the Communist Party in Shanghai midway through the Northern Expedition.=== Defeat and exile (1927–1928) ===Trotsky with his wife Natalia and son Lev in Alma Ata, 1928On the tenth anniversary of the October Revolution, the Opposition held a street demonstration, and Trotsky was expelled from the Communist Party shortly after.", "Trotsky gave the eulogy at the funeral of his friend, the Soviet diplomat Adolph Joffe, in November 1927.It would be the last speech that Trotsky would give in the Soviet Union.", "When the XV Party Congress made United Opposition views incompatible with membership in the Communist Party, Zinoviev, Kamenev, and their supporters capitulated and renounced their alliance with the Left Opposition.", "Trotsky and most of his followers, on the other hand, refused to surrender and stayed the course.", "Trotsky was exiled to Alma Ata, Kazakhstan on 31 January 1928.He was expelled from the Soviet Union to Turkey in February 1929, accompanied by his wife Natalia Sedova and their eldest son, Lev.=== Fate of Left Oppositionists after Trotsky's exile (1929–1941) ===My Life'' as reported in the Soviet Union in August 1929, with the editors of ''Projector'' titled the publication: \"On the service of bourgeoisie\"After Trotsky's expulsion from the Soviet Union, Trotskyists within the Soviet Union began to waver.", "Between 1929 and 1932, most leading members of the Left Opposition surrendered to Stalin, \"admitted their mistakes\" and were reinstated in the Communist Party.", "One initial exception to this was Christian Rakovsky, who inspired Trotsky between 1929 and 1934 with his refusal to capitulate as state suppression of any remaining opposition to Stalin increased by the year.", "In late 1932, Rakovsky had failed with an attempt to flee the Soviet Union and was exiled to Yakutia in March 1933.Answering Trotsky's request, the French mathematician and Trotskyist Jean Van Heijenoort, together with his fellow activist Pierre Frank, unsuccessfully called on the influential Soviet author Maxim Gorky to intervene in favor of Christian Rakovsky, and boarded the ship he was traveling on near Constantinople.", "According to Heijenoort, they only managed to meet Gorky's son, Maxim Peshkov, who reportedly told them that his father was indisposed, but promised to pass on their request.", "Rakovsky was the last prominent Trotskyist to capitulate to Stalin in April 1934, when Rakovsky formally \"admitted his mistakes\" (his letter to ''Pravda'', titled ''There Should Be No Mercy'', depicted Trotsky and his supporters as \"agents of the German Gestapo\").", "Rakovsky was appointed to high office in the Commissariat for Health and allowed to return to Moscow, also serving as Soviet ambassador to Japan in 1935.However, Rakovsky was cited in allegations involving the killing of Sergey Kirov, and was arrested and imprisoned in late 1937, during the Great Purge.Almost all Trotskyists who were still within the Soviet Union's borders were executed in the Great Purges of 1936–1938, although Rakovsky survived until the Medvedev Forest massacre of September 1941, where he was shot dead along with 156 other prisoners on Stalin's orders, less than three months into the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union.", "Also among the Medvedev Forest victims was Trotsky's sister/Kamenev's first wife, Olga Kameneva." ], [ "Exile (1929–1940)", "===Turkey===After being deported from the Soviet Union, in February 1929, Trotsky arrived in Turkey.", "During his first two months in Turkey, Trotsky lived with his wife and eldest son at the Soviet Union Consulate in Istanbul and then at a nearby hotel in the city.", "In April 1929, Trotsky, his wife and son were moved to the island of Büyükada by the Turkish authorities.", "On Büyükada, they were moved into a house called the Yanaros mansion.", "During his exile in Turkey, Trotsky was under the surveillance of the Turkish police forces of Mustafa Kemal Pasha.", "Trotsky was also at risk from the many former White Army officers who lived on Prinkipo, officers who had opposed the October Revolution and who had been defeated by Trotsky and the Red Army in the Russian Civil War.", "However, Trotsky's European supporters volunteered to serve as bodyguards and assured his safety.", "At this time, he made requests to enter Belgium, France, Norway, Germany, and the United Kingdom, but all refused access.Trotsky's house, the Yanaros mansion on the island of Büyükada in Turkey, as it appears today.", "Trotsky lived at the house from April 1929 until July 1933.In 1931, Trotsky wrote a letter to a friend entitled \"What is Fascism\" in which he attempted to define fascism and asserted that the Communist International was wrong to describe the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera as \"fascist\" because it was not a mass movement arising from a base in the lower classes.On 20 February 1932, Trotsky and all of his family lost their Soviet citizenship and were forbidden to enter the Soviet Union.", "In 1932, Trotsky entered via a port into the fascist Kingdom of Italy on his way to a socialist conference in Denmark.", "By the end of 1932, Trotsky had made contact with the anti-Stalin opposition inside the USSR and discussed the possibility of forming a bloc.", "There was no evidence of any alliance with Nazi Germany or Japan, as the Soviet Union government claimed.", "The alleged members of the anti-Stalin bloc were Zinovievites, rightists and Trotskyists who \"capitulated\" to Stalin.", "Kamenev and Zinoviev were also alleged members of the bloc.", "Trotsky wanted by no means that the alliance became a fusion, and he was afraid of the right gaining much power inside the bloc.", "Historian Pierre Broué concluded that the bloc dissolved in early 1933, since some of its members like Zinoviev and Kamenev joined Stalin again, and because there were no letters in the Trotsky Harvard archive mentioning the bloc after 1932.===France===In July 1933, Trotsky was offered asylum in France by Prime Minister Édouard Daladier.", "Trotsky accepted the offer, but he was forbidden to live in Paris and soon found himself under the surveillance of the French police.", "From July 1933 to February 1934, Trotsky and his wife lived in Royan.", "The philosopher and activist Simone Weil also arranged for Trotsky and his bodyguards to stay for a few days at her parents' house.", "Following the 6 February 1934 crisis in France, the French minister of internal affairs, Albert Sarraut, signed a decree to deport Trotsky from France.", "However, no foreign government was found willing to accept Trotsky within its borders.", "Accordingly, the French authorities instructed Trotsky to move to a residence in the tiny village of Barbizon under the strict surveillance of the French police, where Trotsky found his contact with the outside world to be even worse than during his exile in Turkey.In May 1935, soon after the French government had agreed to the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union government, Trotsky was officially told that he was no longer welcome in France.", "After weighing his options, Trotsky applied to move to Norway.===Norway===Konrad Knudsen's House in Veksal, Norderhov, Norway, where Trotsky lived from June 1935 to September 1936After obtaining permission from Justice Minister Trygve Lie to enter the country, Trotsky and his wife became a guest of Konrad Knudsen at Norderhov, near Hønefoss, and spent over a year living at Knudsen's house, from 18 June 1935 to 2 September 1936.Trotsky was hospitalized for a few weeks at the nearby Oslo Community Hospital, from 19 September 1935.Following French media complaints about Trotsky's role in encouraging the mass strikes in France in May and June 1936 with his articles, the Johan Nygaardsvold-led Norwegian government began to exhibit disquiet about Trotsky's actions.", "In the summer of 1936, Trotsky's asylum was increasingly made a political issue by the fascist Nasjonal Samling, led by Vidkun Quisling, along with an increase in pressure from the Soviet government on the Norwegian authorities.", "On 5 August 1936, Knudsen's house was burgled by fascists from the Nasjonal Samling while Trotsky and his wife were out on a seashore trip with Knudsen and his wife.", "The burglars targeted Trotsky's works and archives for vandalism.", "The raid was largely thwarted by Knudsen's daughter, Hjørdis, although the burglars did take a few papers from the nearest table as they left.", "Although the perpetrators were caught and put on trial, the \"evidence\" obtained in the burglary was used by the government to make claims against Trotsky.", "On 14 August 1936, the Soviet Press Agency TASS announced the discovery of a \"Trotskyist–Zinovievist\" plot and the imminent start of the Moscow trials of the accused.", "Trotsky demanded a complete and open enquiry into Moscow's accusations.", "The accused were sentenced to death, including Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev, and executed on 25 August 1936.On 26 August 1936, eight policemen arrived at Knudsen's house demanding that Trotsky sign new conditions for residing in Norway.", "These conditions included agreeing to write no more about current political matters, to give no interviews, and to have all his correspondence (incoming and outgoing) inspected by the police.", "Trotsky categorically refused the conditions, and Trotsky was then told that he and his wife would soon be moved to another residence.", "The following day Trotsky was interrogated by the police about his political activities, with the police officially citing Trotsky as a \"witness\" to the fascist raid of 5 August 1936.On 2 September 1936, four weeks after the break-in at Knudsen's house, Trygve Lie ordered that Trotsky and his wife be transferred to a farm in Hurum, where they were under house arrest.", "The treatment of Trotsky and his wife at Hurum was harsh, as they were forced to stay indoors for 22 hours per day under the constant guard of thirteen policemen, with only one hour permitted twice a day for a walk on the farm.", "Trotsky was prevented from posting any letters and prevented from arguing back against his critics in Norway and beyond.", "Only Trotsky's lawyers and the Norwegian Labour Party Parliamentary leader, Olav Scheflo, were permitted to visit.", "From October 1936, even the outdoor walks were prohibited for Trotsky and his wife.", "Trotsky did eventually manage to smuggle out one letter on 18 December 1936, titled ''The Moscow \"Confessions\"''.", "On 19 December 1936, Trotsky and his wife were deported from Norway after being put on the Norwegian oil tanker ''Ruth'', under guard by Jonas Lie.", "When later living in Mexico, Trotsky was utterly scathing about the treatment he received during his 108 days at Hurum, and accused the Norwegian government of trying to prevent him from publicly voicing his strong opposition to the Moscow Trials and other show trials, saying:===Mexico===Trotsky's house in Mexico City from April 1939 until his assassination in August 1940Trotsky arrives in Mexico, January 1937 with his wife.", "Artist Frida Kahlo behind them.A speech of Trotsky in Mexico, where he thanks Mexico and President Lázaro Cárdenas for receiving him, and says that Stalin's trial against him is based on false evidenceThe ''Ruth'' arrived in Mexico on 9 January 1937.On Trotsky's arrival, the Mexican president, Lázaro Cárdenas, welcomed Trotsky to Mexico and arranged for his special train ''The Hidalgo'' to bring Trotsky to Mexico City from the port of Tampico.From January 1937 to April 1939, Trotsky and his wife lived in the Coyoacán area of Mexico City at La Casa Azul (The Blue House), the home of the painter Diego Rivera and Rivera's wife and fellow painter, Frida Kahlo, with whom Trotsky had an affair.", "She later presented him with ''Self-Portrait Dedicated to Leon Trotsky'' on his birthday, the 20th anniversary of the October Revolution.", "His final move was a few blocks away to a residence on Avenida Viena in April 1939, following a break with Rivera.James Cannon and Felix Morrow with a bust of TrotskyTrotsky wrote prolifically while in exile, penning several key works, including his ''History of the Russian Revolution'' (1930) and ''The Revolution Betrayed'' (1936), a critique of the Soviet Union under Stalinism.", "He argued that the Soviet state had become a \"degenerated workers' state\" controlled by an undemocratic bureaucracy, which would eventually either be overthrown via a political revolution establishing a workers' democracy, or degenerate into a capitalist class.While in Mexico, Trotsky also worked closely with James Cannon, Joseph Hansen, and Farrell Dobbs of the Socialist Workers Party of the United States, and other supporters.", "Cannon, a long-time leading member of the American communist movement, had supported Trotsky in the struggle against Stalinism since he had first read Trotsky's criticisms of the Soviet Union in 1928.Trotsky's critique of the Stalinist regime, though banned, was distributed to leaders of the Comintern.", "Among his other supporters was Chen Duxiu, founder of the Chinese Communist Party.While in Mexico, Trotsky worked with André Breton and Diego Rivera to write the Manifesto for an Independent Revolutionary Art, which inspired the creation of the organization, the International Federation of Independent Revolutionary Art (FIARI) in 1938.This organization was short-lived and ended before 1940.=== Moscow show trials ===In August 1936, the first Moscow show trial of the so-called \"Trotskyite–Zinovievite Terrorist Center\" was staged in front of an international audience.", "During the trial, Zinoviev, Kamenev and 14 other accused, most of them prominent Old Bolsheviks, confessed to having plotted with Trotsky to kill Stalin and other members of the Soviet leadership.", "The court found every defendant guilty,in absentia, including Trotsky, sentencing them to death.", "The second show trial of Karl Radek, Grigori Sokolnikov, Yuri Pyatakov, and 14 others, took place in January 1937, during which more alleged conspiracies and crimes were linked to Trotsky.", "The findings were published in the book \"Not Guilty\".=== Fourth International ===For fear of splitting the communist movement, Trotsky initially opposed the idea of establishing parallel communist parties or a parallel international communist organization that would compete with the Third International.", "In mid-1933, after the Nazi takeover in Germany and the Comintern's response to it, he changed his mind.", "He said:In 1938, Trotsky and his supporters founded the Fourth International, which was intended to be a revolutionary and internationalist alternative to the Stalinist Comintern.=== The Dies Committee ===Trotsky with American comrades, including Harry DeBoer (left) in Mexico, shortly before his assassination, 1940Towards the end of 1939, Trotsky agreed to go to the United States to appear as a witness before the Dies Committee of the House of Representatives, a forerunner of the House Committee on Un-American Activities.", "Representative Martin Dies Jr., chairman of the committee, demanded the suppression of the American Communist Party.", "Trotsky intended to use the forum to expose the NKVD's activities against him and his followers.He made it clear that he also intended to argue against the suppression of the American Communist Party and to use the committee as a platform for a call to transform World War II into a world revolution.", "Many of his supporters argued against his appearance.", "When the committee learned the nature of the testimony Trotsky intended to present, it refused to hear him, and he was denied a visa to enter the United States.", "On hearing about it, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union immediately accused Trotsky of being in the pay of the oil magnates and the Federal Bureau of Investigation.=== Final months ===After quarreling with Diego Rivera, Trotsky moved to his final residence on Avenida Viena in April 1939.On 27 February 1940, Trotsky wrote a document known as \"Trotsky's Testament\", in which he expressed his final thoughts and feelings for posterity.", "He was suffering from high blood pressure, and feared that he would suffer a cerebral haemorrhage.", "After forcefully denying Stalin's accusations that he had betrayed the working class, he thanked his friends and above all his wife, Natalia Sedova, for their loyal support:" ], [ "Assassination", "The study where Leon Trotsky was assassinated with an ice axe on 20 August 1940After a failed attempt to have Trotsky murdered in March 1939, Stalin assigned the overall organization of implementing the task to the NKVD officer Pavel Sudoplatov, who, in turn, co-opted Nahum Eitingon.", "According to Sudoplatov's ''Special Tasks'', the NKVD proceeded to set up three NKVD agent networks to carry out the murder; these three networks were designed to operate entirely autonomously from the NKVD's hitherto-established spy networks in the U.S. and Mexico.On 24 May 1940, Trotsky survived a raid on his villa by armed assassins led by the NKVD agent Iosif Grigulevich and Mexican painter David Alfaro Siqueiros.", "Trotsky's 14-year-old grandson, Vsevolod Platonovich \"Esteban\" Volkov (7 March 1926 – 16 June 2023), was shot in the foot.", "A young assistant and bodyguard of Trotsky, Robert Sheldon Harte, disappeared with the attackers and was later found murdered; it is probable that he was an accomplice who granted them access to the villa.", "Trotsky's other guards fended off the attackers.", "Following the failed assassination attempt, Trotsky wrote an article titled \"Stalin Seeks My Death\" on 8 June 1940, in which he stated that another assassination attempt was certain.On 20 August 1940, Trotsky was attacked in his study by Spanish-born NKVD agent Ramón Mercader, who used an ice axe as a weapon.", "The operation was known within the NKVD as \"Operation Utka\" (Operation Duck).A mountaineering ice axe has a narrow end, called the pick, and a flat wide end called the adze.", "The adze of the axe wounded Trotsky, fracturing his parietal bone and penetrating into his brain.", "The blow to his head was bungled and failed to kill Trotsky instantly.", "Witnesses stated that Trotsky spat on Mercader and began struggling fiercely with him, which resulted in Mercader's hand being broken.", "Hearing the commotion, Trotsky's bodyguards burst into the room and nearly beat Mercader to death, but Trotsky stopped them, laboriously stating that the assassin should be made to answer questions.", "Trotsky was then taken to a hospital and operated on, surviving for more than a day, but dying, at the age of 60, on 21 August 1940 from exsanguination and shock.", "Mercader later testified at his trial:According to James Cannon, the Trotskyist secretary of the American Socialist Workers Party, Trotsky's last words were \"I will not survive this attack.", "Stalin has finally accomplished the task he attempted unsuccessfully before.\"", "Mercader was tried and convicted of the murder and spent the next 20 years in a Mexican prison.", "Stalin wrote that the assassin of Trotsky was a dangerous Trotskyist.", "This is why Mercader had no awards initially, though his mother was presented with the Order of Lenin for her own part of the operation.", "Ramón Mercader could not be either assassinated or freed from prison by the Soviets.", "When he was released from jail in 1960 and arrived in the USSR in 1961, Leonid Brezhnev signed a sentence to award Mercader the Order of Lenin, the Gold Star, and the title of the Hero of the Soviet Union \"for the special deed\".", "The KGB boss Alexander Shelepin presented all these awards to Ramón Mercader in person.In the aftermath of Trotsky's assassination, an estimated 300,000 people had passed by his funeral casket in Mexico City over several days by 27 August 1940." ], [ "Personality and characteristics", "Portrait of Leon Trotsky as Commander of the Red Army, 1920Trotsky was regarded as an outstanding orator, preeminent theoretician and organiser that, in the view of historian Michael Kort, \"forged and directed the Red Army\".", "He served as one of the original Politburo members in Lenin's government.", "Biographer Isaac Deutscher considered him to be the \"prompter of the planned economy and industrialization\" during the early years of the Soviet Union.", "Historian Laura Engelstein judged Trotsky to be personally fastidious, but possessing the qualities of vanity and volatility which were not shared with Lenin.", "Engelstein also described him as talented and dynamic, \"but only a second in command\".Political theorist Ernest Mandel summarised the dominant image of Trotsky as \"self-confident\", \"unshakeable in the conviction of his historic mission\", \"strict with others and himself\" and \"indifferent to material privileges and to the small joys and sorrows of life\".", "Mandel argued this image reflected \"certain aspects of Trotsky's personality, strengths and weaknesses\".Historian Simon Sebag Montefiore described Trotsky as the \"genius of the revolution\" and biographer Dmitri Volkogonov characterised him as a \"vivid, complex, multi-faceted personality in the gallery of world figures\" who was remembered \"with hatred and respect, anger and admiration\" decades after his assassination in Mexico.", "Volkogonov also found Trotsky to be a constant \"spectre\" for Stalin, after his exile, and also wrote that he was \"of a different calibre intellectually, with his grasp of organization and his talents as a speaker and writer\".", "Volkogonov considered Trotsky \"far superior\" to figures such as Molotov, Kaganovich, Khrushchev, Zhdanov and \"also superior to Stalin and Stalin knew it\".Biographer Robert Service commented that he was a \"volatile and untrustworthy\", \"arrogant individual\" that impressed supporters even during the periods of \"personal adversity in the 1920s and 1930s\" but failed to \"coax and encourage them to the full\".", "Service stated that Trotsky gave the \"minimum time to the Jewish question\" and believed that \"he ceased to be a Jew in any important sense because Marxism had burned out the fortuitous residues of his origins\".Political scientist August Nimtz regarded Trotsky to have had better foresight than Marxist and some non-Marxist intellectual observers with his work \"The Revolution Betrayed\" in 1936.Trotsky argued that the Stalinist regime was a \"ephemeral phenomenon\" and Nimtz believed this had later been proven with the Soviet collapse after 1989.Other scholars have similarly described Trotsky as having a prescient judgement of events such as the rise of Nazi Germany and The Spanish Civil War through his political writings and levels of military accuracy.", "Deutscher also referenced his \"uncanny clear sightedness\" in predicting the emergence of a single dictator who would \"substitute himself\" for the Central Committee, the party and the working class.Trotsky with his second wife in 1932Trotsky was a Marxist intellectual.", "Russian historian Vladimir Buldakov considered Trotsky, in some respect, a \"typical representative\" of \"Russia's radical intelligentsia\" who had \"elements of bourgeois origin\".", "He had a diverse and profound range of interests which exceeded that of other Bolshevik theoreticians such as Nikolai Bukharin.", "He also had a notable interest in literature and wrote on \"everyday life and cultural progress as well as on the more customary Marxism of the day\".", "Trotsky and his second wife, Natalia Sedova enjoyed Viennese galleries and made frequent visits to museums such as the Louvre and the Tate Gallery across Europe to view specific art collections.", "He also retained a personal interest in science which stemmed from his youth when he considered studying mathematics and physics at the New Russian University in Odessa.His personal secretary and later a historian of mathematical logic, Jean van Heijenoort, considered him to be amicable, inquisitive and occasionally charming with new acquaintances during his final years in Mexico.", "Old Bolshevik Anatoly Lunacharsky viewed Trotsky as the best prepared among the Social-Democratic leaders during the 1905–07 revolution and stated that he \"emerged from the revolution having acquired an enormous degree of popularity, whereas neither Lenin nor Martov had effectively gained any at all\".His arch enemy, Stalin, even read and sometimes appreciated a great deal of his writings.", "According to Rubenstein, Stalin had even acknowledged that \"after Lenin, Trotsky was the most popular figure in the country\" at the end of the Civil War.", "He also recognized the prominent role of Trotsky during the October revolution in the 1917 Pravda editorial.", "Stalin himself wrote: \"All practical work in connection with the organization of the uprising was done under the immediate direction of Comrade Trotsky, the president of the Petrograd Soviet\".", "Upon his exile in 1929, eighteen of his close relatives remained in the Soviet Union and all were subjected to repressive measures with seven of his family members including his son Sergei Sedov, sister Olga Kameneva and brother Aleksandr Bronstein having been shot.", "He spoke several European languages \"with a markedly Russian accent\" and identified as a cosmopolitan and internationalist.", "In the course of his life, Trotsky wrote about 30,000 documents, most of which are contained in various archives.", "Deutscher stated that Trotsky wrote most of the Soviet's manifestos and resolutions, edited its Izvestia newspaper and also composed the oath of loyalty for the Red Army.", "According to Mandel, Trotsky wrote the Zimmerwald Manifesto for the Zimmerwald Conference because he was radically opposed to World War I and drafted the Appeal for the Convocation of the First Comintern Congress due to his active involvement with the Third International.", "He also served as a member of the Executive Committee of the Communist International for the initial Congress sessions.Aside from his interest in political activism, Trotsky also worked as a statistician and a journalist.", "Trotsky stated that he worked for three newspapers and oversaw the ''\"Russian Gazette\"'' with Alexander Parvus.", "He claimed that the circulation under his tenure had increased from 30,000 to 500,000.However, historians Anthony Heywood and Jonathan Smele believe this was an exaggerated claim and cited circulation figures from the editors of Trotsky's collected works that the figures had in fact increased to 100,000 which they still regarded as impressive and comparatively ahead of Lenin's ''New Life'' newspaper by 20,000." ], [ "Political stature and conflicts with Stalin", "Historian Robert Vincent Daniels expressed the view that Trotsky was \"undoubtedly the most brilliant intellect brought to prominence by the Russian Revolution, outdistancing Lenin and other theoreticians both in the range of his interests and in the imaginativeness of his perceptions\".", "Yet, he emphasised his personal arrogance as an underlying weakness which antagonised other members of the communist movement.", "Daniels also argued that had Trotsky assumed the role of Lenin's successor then he would have presided over an alternate Soviet Union markedly distinct from Stalin's regime.", "Contrarily, Service asserted that the succession of Trotsky would have resulted in a similar totalitarian dictatorship akin to Stalin's rule and increased the likelihood of conflict across the European continent.", "Although, historian Sheila Fitzpatrick found it implausible that Trotsky like Stalin would have launched an anti-semitic campaign after World War II or initiated the Great Purge.", "Rather, she suggested Trotsky would presumably have provided good leadership during the Second World War but may have struggled to maintain party cohesion as seen during the succession struggle after 1924.Political theorist David North argued that Trotsky's military policies would have averted the dismantlement of Soviet defenses alongside the high levels of human casualties associated with Operation Barbarossa and the Second World War.", "Biographer Geoffrey Swain believed that the Soviet Union under the leadership of Trotsky would have been far more technocratic due to his reliance on \"bourgeois experts\" in the planning process.", "Other scholars have pointed to the fact that Trotsky opposed the policy of forced collectivisation under Stalin and favoured a voluntary, gradual approach towards agricultural production as an area of differentiation.People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs with the Soviet delegation at Brest-Litovsk, 1917His enmity with Stalin developed during the Civil War with the latter's disregard of military specialists whom Trotsky considered indispensable for the success of the Red Army.", "In Tsaritsyn, Stalin ordered the imprisonment of several specialists on a barge in the Volga river and oversaw the sinking of the floating prison in which the officers perished.", "Bazhanov also claimed that Stalin's antagonism towards Trotsky stemmed from the fact that he was Jewish and that the former would refuse to obey military orders during the Russian Civil War.", "According to Rogovin, Trotsky received hundreds of letters reporting the use of anti-semitic methods during the inter-party struggle between Stalin and the United Opposition.Trotsky lacked the political acumen to succeed against Stalin's machinations.", "Lenin had encouraged Trotsky, in his absence, to challenge Stalin at the Twelfth Party Congress over the Georgian Affair but the latter relented.", "Historian Peter Kenez believed that Trotsky could probably have removed Stalin with the use of Lenin's testament but he \"stupidly\" acquiesced to the collective decision not to publish the document.", "Historian Martin McCauley commented that Trotsky \"displayed a lamentable lack of political judgement\" on multiple occasions such as declining Lenin's proposal to become deputy chairman of Sovnarkom, failing to build a power base before forming a bloc with Lenin against the Orgburo and not immediately recognising that a triumvirate had been established to prevent his succession.", "Rubenstein differed in his interpretation and attributed Trotsky's decision to decline Lenin's proposal because he believed the position had \"little authority of its own\" and overlapped with other government and party officials.", "Deutscher believed he had underestimated Stalin's cunning, ruthlessness and tenacity on several occasions.", "Political scientist Richard B.Day argued that it was more probable that Trotsky's interest in building socialism outweighted his desire for personal power.Historian Orlando Figes noted that Trotsky never held a party post and rarely attended party meetings despite serving as a member of the Politburo.", "Figes also described him as having \"too many characteristics that made it extraordinarily hard to work collectively with him\".", "Biographer Joshua Rubenstein regarded Trotsky's position among the Soviet elites as largely dependent on Lenin.", "Rubenstein also added that he had an image of an outsider within party circles as he had previously been an \"outspoken critic of Lenin\".", "Conversely, Volkongov stated that Trotsky had the support of many party intellectuals but this was overshadowed by the huge apparatus which included the GPU and the party cadres who were at the disposal of Stalin.", "Historian Paul Dukes considered it a debatable notion that his personal \"sophistication\" as a political figure led to \"his defeat in the great struggle of 1923 and after\".", "He also reached the view that Trotsky did not share Stalin's understanding of the party in which \"fewer than 10 percent of its members were fully literate\" and this was in spite of the fact that Stalin \"was a man of narrower outlook in virtually every respect\".", "Trotsky himself ascribed his political defeat to external, objective conditions rather than the individual qualities of Stalin.", "He specifically argued that the failed series of international insurrections as seen in Bulgaria in 1923 and China in 1927 had diminished the prospect of world socialism and demoralised the Russian working class which in turn strengthened the growth of an internal, Soviet bureaucracy.", "Russian historian Vadim Rogovin also remarked that Trotsky, in the 1930s, did not abandon hope for the spread of the revolution.", "Rogovin argued that Trotsky's prognosis of world events was plausible as a majority of European countries such as Germany, France, and especially Spain, \"went through a period of revolutionary crisis\".", "Although, Daniels contended that Trotsky would have in reality been no more prepared than other Bolshevik figures to risk war or the loss of trade opportunities despite his support for world revolution." ], [ "Relations with Lenin", "Lenin delivering a speech to a crowd in Moscow Square, with Trotsky and Kamenev in the background, May 1920.His relations with Lenin have been a source of intense historical debate.", "Historian Paul Le Blanc and philosopher Michael Lowy described Lenin and Trotsky as the \"widely leading figures in the Russia's Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 as well as in the final years of the rising world communist movement\".", "They characterized Lenin and Trotsky as \"fierce adversaries\" during the early years of the Russian socialist movement but described the duo as having reached a convergence and a substantial agreement in 1917 before colliding their efforts to achieve the October Revolution.", "They also highlighted the mutual appreciation and respect between Lenin and Trotsky with the former seeking to work closely with Trotsky on the Iskra newspaper, prior to their polemical disagreements, and Lenin acknowledging that his theory on permanent revolution \"happened to be right\" after 1917.However, Swain viewed the notion that Trotsky was Lenin's natural heir a myth and cited several scholars such as Erik Van Rees, James White and Richard B.Day who Swain claimed had challenged the traditional characterization of their relationship.", "North specifically rejected this position and argued Swain sought to discredit historical works appreciative of Trotsky.", "North continued to argue that Swain gave an insufficient consideration of the \"complex historical, political, social and theoretical issues that arise in any serious study of the Lenin-Trotsky relationship\".", "He also asserted that Swain had distorted and misrepresented the positions of the cited scholars.", "Le Blanc also disputed Swain's representation of Trotsky and referenced various historians which included E.H. Carr, Isaac Deutscher, Moshe Lewin, Ronald Suny and W. Bruce Lincoln across different generations.", "According to Le Blanc, these historians on balance had tilted \"toward the view that Lenin's desired \"heir\" was collective responsibility in which Trotsky placed an important role and within which Stalin would be dramatically demoted (if not removed)\".", "Similarly, historian Roy Medvedev noted the close association of Trotsky and Lenin in the Soviet republic throughout the period of 1921–24.Medvedev mentioned a number of public commendations such as \"greetings in honour of comrades Lenin and Trotsky were announced at many rallies and meetings, and portraits of Lenin and Trotsky hung on the walls of many Soviet and party institutions\".", "Initially, Lenin turned down the leading position of Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars when the Bolsheviks formed a new government, after the October Revolution in 1917, and suggested Trotsky for the position.", "However, Trotsky refused the position and other Bolsheviks insisted that Lenin assume principal responsibility which thereafter resulted in Lenin eventually accepting the role of chairman.", "On a separate occasion, Lenin expressed hostility to the early attempts by the triumvirate to remove Trotsky from the leadership.", "In a 1922 memo written to Kamenev, he chastised the efforts by the Central Committee to \"throw Trotsky overboard\" as the \"height of stupidity.", "If you do not consider me already hopelessly foolish, how can you think of that ?", "\".", "In his last testament, Lenin urged the wider party circles to not use and hold Trotsky's non-Bolshevik past against him.Soviet writer Maxim Gorky recollected Lenin in the first version of his sketch, ''V.I.", "Lenin'', dismissing rumours of an alleged political difference between himself and Trotsky with the words: \"There are many lies, and it seems, particularly many lies about me and Trotsky\".", "Gorky also stated that Lenin made an approving assessment of Trotsky due to his military organisation of the army in a single year.", "In the view of Lenin's wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya, Lenin was \"pleased with the definite manner\" of Trotsky's theoretical comprehension of diverging Russian revolutionary movements during their first meeting in 1902.She similarly expressed this view in a personal note after Lenin's death that her husband's attitude towards Trotsky had \"not changed until his death\" since their initial meeting in London.", "In his final months, Lenin read several of Trotsky's works among a wider collection of books which interested him.", "Lenin read ''Problems of Everyday Life'' in the last month of his life and instructed Krupskaya to read him a passage from another of Trotsky's books that characterised Marxism and Leninism.", "Lenin also read Trotsky's pamphlet, ''The New Course'', on the day prior to his death.", "According to Stalin's secretary, Boris Bazhanov, Lenin \"in general leaned towards a collegial leadership, with Trotsky in the first position\".===Lenin's succession===Trotsky was generally viewed as Lenin's choice as a successor in 1923.According to Mccauley, Lenin had revealed that he planned to retire to the Central Committee and made an arrangement for Trotsky to speak on his behalf as his natural successor which in turn triggered the formation of the troika.", "Forges drew focus to the increasing alignment between Lenin and Trotsky in 1923.He cited Lenin's testament which was critical of Stalin and the bureaucracy along with their shared position on foreign trade, party reform and the Georgian affair.", "Yet, historian Richard Pipes dismissed the view that Trotsky was Lenin's successor due to his proposed and joint appointment as deputy chairman with Kamenev in 1922.Pipes attributed this overstated claim to Trotsky's supporters and explained that he had in fact been reprimanded by the party for \"categorically refusing\" the post.", "Conversely, Medvedev stated that Trotsky \"undoubtedly would have been first among Lenin's deputies\" given his authority in 1922 and noted that Kamenev lacked any personal desire to become Chairman upon Lenin's death.", "Rogovin interpreted Lenin's proposal to the Politburo that Trotsky be confirmed as the \"First Deputy Chairman of the Council of the Sovnarkom\" as signifying that he was entrusted \"with the highest government post\" and he argued that this was also considerable given Lenin's illness at the time.", "Rogovin also referenced a previous proposal by Lenin in 1917 to appoint Trotsky with another senior position as People's Commissar of Internal Affairs.Slavic studies scholar Derek Watson presumed that Trotsky would have been the first Vice-Chairman of an additional RSFSR body working alongside with the other deputies.Deutscher argued that had Trotsky assumed the post of deputy, then it would have been difficult for Rykov to have been promoted above him as chairman after Lenin's death in 1924.Polish historian Marian Kamil Dziewanowski also echoed these views and argued that had Trotsky accepted the post of Vice-Chairman then his prestige and power would have been strengthened as a counter-weight to Stalin's growing influence.", "Dziewanowski expressed the view that Trotsky as Vice-Chairman would have been a natural successor to Lenin as Chairman of the Soviet Union.", "However, his rejection of the position enabled Stalin to place Rykov as Lenin's successor and serve as a key ally in the Politburo against Trotsky.Russian peasants holding banners of Lenin (left), Marx (centre) and Trotsky (right) in early Soviet Russia.Similarly, Soviet historian Victor Danilov believed that Lenin's proposed appointment of Trotsky as deputy \"would have made him in effect Lenin's successor\".", "Danilov also cited Politburo Secretary Bazhanov's notes of a concluding speech delivered by Trotsky in 1923 to the wider party membership.", "Trotsky explained his decision to decline the proposed position of Lenin's chief deputy due to concerns about his \"Jewish origins\" which could accentuate anti-semitic attitudes towards the Soviet Union.", "Mccauley stated that Trotsky would \"almost certainly\" have become the successor had Lenin succumbed to his first stroke in 1922.Deutscher noted that Zinoviev had been Lenin's closest discipline rather than Trotsky between 1907 and 1917.However, Zinoviev's opposition to the October revolution had strained his relations with Lenin.Opponents such as Winston Churchill even argued that \"Lenin had indeed regarded Trotsky as his political heir\" and sought to protect him before his passing in 1924.Zinoviev and Kamenev also viewed Trotsky as Lenin's most likely successor and sided with Stalin out of fear that Trotsky would remove them from the party leadership.", "However, his chief adversary Stalin, strongly denied claims that Trotsky was the succeeding chairman following Lenin's illness.", "He pointed out that Trotsky was expected to serve as one of several deputy chairmen under Lenin which included Kamenev, Rykov and Tsiurupa.", "Although, he did reference a written document signed by Lenin in 1922 which assigned Trotsky and Kamenev different areas of focus as deputy chairmen.", "Lenin's authorised document proposed Trotsky as deputy chairman of the Council of Commissars rather than Kamenev who was intended to serve only as a deputy chairman of the Labour Defence Council." ], [ "Legacy", "Leon Trotsky's grave in Coyoacán, where his ashes are buriedIn 1923, the historic town of Gatchina in Petrograd Governorate (now Leningrad Oblast) was renamed Trotsk () by the Soviet authorities after Lev Trotsky.", "After Joseph Stalin became General Secretary of the Russian Communist Party (b), Trotsky was gradually exiled, and the town was renamed '''Krasnogvardeysk''' (, ''Red Guard City'') in 1929.In 1944, to increase the morale of Russian troops, the town's historic name was restored.Trotsky's house in Coyoacán has been preserved in much the same condition as it was on the day he was assassinated there, and is now the Leon Trotsky House Museum in Mexico City, run by a board which included his grandson Esteban Volkov (1926–2023).", "Trotsky's grave is located on its grounds.", "The foundation \"International Friends of the Leon Trotsky Museum\" has been organized to raise funds to improve the museum further.Shortly before his assassination, Trotsky agreed to sell the bulk of the papers he still had to Harvard University.", "After his assassination, his widow, Natalya Sedova collected his remaining papers and shipped them to Harvard, and in the years following, Harvard managed to collect additional papers that had been hidden from both Soviet and Nazi agents in Europe.", "These papers now occupy of shelf space in Harvard's Houghton Library.Trotsky was never rehabilitated during the rule of the Soviet government, despite the de-Stalinization-era rehabilitation of most other Old Bolsheviks killed during the Great Purges.", "His son, Sergei Sedov, who died in 1937, was rehabilitated in 1988, as was Nikolai Bukharin.", "Beginning in 1989, Trotsky's books, forbidden until 1987, were published in the Soviet Union.Trotsky was rehabilitated on 16 June 2001 by the General Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation (Certificates of Rehabilitation No.", "13/2182-90, No.", "13-2200-99 in Archives Research Center \"Memorial\").West German students holding a placard of Trotsky in 1968Trinidadian historian CLR James wrote, in the aftermath of Trotsky's death, that he evoked strong feelings of enmity and fear from several political figures.", "According to James, this included Joseph Stalin, Adolf Hitler and Winston Churchill because \"these men knew his stature, the power of what he stood for, and were never lulled by the smallness of his forces\".Historian Harold Shukman assessed the conflicting perspectives on Trotsky's legacy in the Soviet Union and the Western world.", "He also commented on the lack of a balanced view.", "Specifically, he stated:Trotsky's legacy, unlike those of Stalin and Lenin, had long been submerged and obliterated as a topic of debate, and his place in Soviet history books had correspondingly diminished to one of no importance.", "For Western readers, however, Trotsky has always been one of the most enigmatic and powerful personalities of the Russian revolution, a Mephistophelian figure whose life ended in an appropriately dramatic way.Political theorist David North attributed his diminished influence and historical role to the \"virtually unlimited resources of the Soviet regime, and of Stalinist-run parties throughout the world, which were devoted to blackguarding Trotsky as an anti-Soviet saboteur, terrorist and fascist agent.", "Within the Soviet Union, his political co-thinkers, past and present, were ruthlessly exterminated\".", "North was also critical of the biographical literature on Trotsky's legacy written by some historians such as Ian Thatcher, Geoffrey Swain and Robert Service.", "He viewed these recent trends in historiography as \"manifestations of the confluence of neo-Stalinist falsification and traditional Anglo-American anti-Communism\".In 2018, John Kelly wrote that \"almost 80 years after Leon Trotsky founded the Fourth International, there are now Trotskyite organisations in 57 countries, including most of Western Europe and Latin America\".", "However, he also argued that no Trotskyite group had ever led a revolution or built an enduring mass political party.Robert Alexander made a similar observation in 1991 that Trotskyists had never assumed power in any nation but explained that the international movement did \"not enjoy the support of a well-established regime, as did the heirs of Stalinism\".", "Alexander also recognised that the \"persistence of the movement in a wide variety of countries\" and the instability of political events across most of the world means the \"possibility that a Trotskyist party might come to power in the foreseeable future cannot be totally ruled out\".On the other hand, British historian and socialist Christian Høgsbjerg believed that academic literature on Trotskyism had minimised its historical role in building wider social movements.", "Høgsbjerg stressed the key role of British Trotskyists in various movements such as the Vietnam Solidarity Campaign (1966-71), the Anti-Nazi League (1977-81), the Anti Poll Tax Federation (1989-91) and the Stop the War Coalition (2001)." ], [ "Historical reputation", "Trotsky in his office, 1922In modern historiography, Trotsky's legacy has evoked a range of conflicting and diverse views.", "Biographer Paul Le Blanc stated \"for millions of people throughout the world, Trotsky was initially seen as a revolutionary liberator\".", "He was viewed by contemporaries in the initial Soviet period and later historians as the hero of the revolution.", "Historian Betrand Patenaunde also noted his social appeal among the Petrograd workers in which he drew \"vast crowds of workers, soldiers and sailors in Petrograd with his spellbinding oratory in 1917\".", "In the Soviet Union, his reputation gradually deteriorated over the course of the succession struggle as his views were presented as sectarian and anti-Leninist.", "Throughout the Stalin era, his name and image would be erased from history books, museums and films.", "At the same time, Trotsky became a convenient bogeyman for Soviet affairs and was associated with ideological heresy.", "The works of Trotsky also remained banned until the Gorbachev era.", "Following the de-Stalinization period, later generations of Soviet and Russian historians would reevaluate his role in the history of the revolution with varying interpretations.Scholarly consensus holds Trotsky to have demonstrated remarkable leadership of the Red Army during the Civil War.", "He had been awarded the Order of the Red Banner for his role in the Red Army such as organising the defence of Petrograd when other members of the Bolshevik leadership were prepared to abandon the former capital.", "According to military scholar William C. Martel, scholars view Trotsky as \"one of the outstanding figures in modern military history\" and a \"directing genius\".", "Martell also regarded Trotsky alongside Marx, Engels and Lenin as instrumental in the development of principles which translated grand strategy into a guiding framework for revolutionary movements.A number of scholars and Western socialists have regarded Trotsky as a democratic alternative rather than a forerunner to Stalin with particular emphasis drawn to his activities in the pre-Civil War period and as leader of the Left Opposition.", "Prior to the October Revolution, Trotsky had been part of an old radical democracy which included both Left Mensheviks and Left Bolsheviks.", "He had also proposed the election of a new Soviet presidium with other socialist parties on the basis of proportional representation in September 1917.Deutscher described Trotsky as the \"Soviet's moving spirit\" in 1905 and highlighted his representation of Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and the rest of the Soviets on major occasions.", "Rogovin stated that the Left Opposition, led by Trotsky, was a political movement that \"offered a real alternative to Stalinism, and that to crush this movement was the primary function of the Stalinist terror\".", "He also argued that the establishment of the one-party Soviet socialist system was due to the conditions which were \"imposed on Bolshevism by hostile political forces\".", "Conversely, other figures such as Volkogonov have strongly criticised his defence of the Red Terror and dictatorship of the proletariat.", "Service argued that his \"ideas and practices laid several foundation stones for the erection of the Stalinist political, economic, social and even cultural edifice\".", "Cherniaev considered Trotsky to be partly responsible for the establishment of a one-party, authoritarian state and initiating several military practices such as summary executions which later became standard practice during the Stalinist era.", "Thatcher cited his defence of terror in his work, ''Terrorism and Communism: A Reply to Karl Kautsky,'' but also acknowledged that Trotsky was capable of leniency and had personally urged that White army deserters be treated with understanding.Bust of Trotsky at the Leon Trotsky House Museum in Mexico City, MexicoThis view has been disputed by some writers such as French socialist historian Pierre Broue who criticised Western representations of Trotsky's role in the Kronstadt rebellion which he argued had falsely presented Trotsky as the principal figure that led and was responsible for the repression.", "He also added that military tribunals and executions for desertions were a common feature of every war and not exclusive to the actions of the Red Army under Trotsky.", "Dukes believed Trotsky had been maligned and caricatured as a historical figure which necessitated a historical reappraisal.", "Patenaude regarded Service's characterisation of Trotsky as a \"mass murderer and a terrorist\" to be reflective of a wider attempt to discredit Trotsky as a historical figure and noted his work featured several inaccuracies and distortions of the historical record.", "Daniels argued that many of the distinctive features of Stalin's rule such as his campaigns against \"bourgeois experts\" as seen with \"the Shakhty trials, his contemptuous anti-intellectualism and the dogmatization of Marxism, the purges—run totally counter to Trotsky's thought\".Various historians have credited Trotsky and the Left Opposition with shifting the Soviet economic orientation from the NEP policy towards a planned economy through their proposals for mass industrialization.", "Trotsky had delivered a joint report to the April Plenum of the Central Committee in 1926 which proposed a program for national industrialization and the replacement of annual plans with five-year plans.", "His proposals were rejected by the Central Committee majority which was controlled by the troika and derided by Stalin at the time.", "The eventual adoption of the five year plans in 1928 would serve as the basis for Soviet modernization.Several scholars have regarded his historical writings on the Soviet bureaucracy as having a considerable influence in shaping the receptive, attitudes of later Marxists and many non-Marxists.", "Trotsky associated bureaucratism with authoritarianism, excessive centralism and conservatism.", "Political scientist Baruch Knei-Paz argued that Trotsky had done more than any other political figure to \"show the historical and social roots of Stalinism\" as a bureaucratic system.", "British cybernetician Stafford Beer who worked on a decentralized form of economic planning, Project Cybersyn from 1970 to 1973, was reported to have read and been influenced by Trotsky's critique of the Soviet bureaucracy.", "Other historians have noted the literary value of his account of historical events and social analysis with works such as ''1905'' and ''The History of the Russian Revolution'' for wider historiography." ], [ "Political ideology and contributions to Marxist theory", "Trotsky reading The Militant, a socialist newsweekly, circa 1936Trotsky considered himself to be a \"Bolshevik-Leninist\", arguing for the establishment of a vanguard party.", "He viewed himself as an advocate of orthodox Marxism.", "Trotsky also adhered to scientific socialism and viewed this as a conscious expression of historical processes.His politics differed in some aspects from those of Stalin or Mao Zedong, most importantly in his rejection of the theory of \"socialism in one country\" and his declaring of the need for an international \"permanent revolution\".", "Numerous Fourth Internationalist groups around the world continue to describe themselves as Trotskyists and see themselves as standing in this tradition.", "However, they have different interpretations of the conclusions to be drawn from this.Supporters of the Fourth International echo Trotsky's opposition to Stalinist totalitarianism, advocating political revolution and arguing that socialism cannot sustain itself without democracy.", "In particular, Trotsky called for the restoration of the right of criticism in areas such as economic matters, the revitalization of trade unions and free elections of the Soviet parties.Trotsky also formulated a theory of fascism based on a dialectical interpretation of events to analyze the manifestation of Italian fascism and the early emergence of Nazi Germany from 1930 to 1933.=== Economic programme ===The Scissor crisis: retail and wholesale prices of agricultural and industrial goods in the Soviet Union July 1922 to November 1923Trotsky was an early proponent of economic planning since 1923 and favored an accelerated pace of industrialization.", "His position differed from the majority of Soviet leaders at the time who supported the New Economic policy.", "He specified the need for the \"overall guidance in planning i.e.", "the systematic co-ordination of the fundamental sectors of the state economy in the process of adapting to the present market\" and urged for a national plan alongside currency stabilization.", "Trotsky also rejected the Stalinist conception of industrialisation which favoured heavy industry.", "Rather, he proposed the use of foreign trade as an accelerator and to direct investments by means of a system of comparative coefficients.Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev pictured in the mid-1920s as members of the United OppositionTrotsky and the Left Opposition developed a number of economic proposals in response to the scissor crisis which had undermined relations between the workers and peasants in 1923–1924.This included a progressive tax on the wealthier sections of populations such as the kulaks and NEPmen alongside an equilibrium of the import-export balance to access accumulated reserves to purchase machinery from abroad to increase the pace of industrialization.The policy was later adopted by members of the United Opposition which also advocated a programme of rapid industrialization during the debates of 1924 and 1927.The United Opposition proposed a progressive tax on wealthier peasants, the encouragement of agricultural cooperatives and the formation of collective farms on a voluntary basis.", "According to Fitzpatrick, the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the Left Opposition on such matters as industrialisation and collectivisation.", "Other scholars have argued that the economic programme of Trotsky differed from the forced policy of collectivisation implemented by Stalin after 1928 due to the levels of brutality associated with its enforcement.Trotsky elaborated on the need of Soviet democracy for the industrialization period when questioned by the Dewey Commission in 1937:The successes are very important, and I affirmed it every time.", "They are due to the abolition of private property and to the possibilities inherent in planned economy.", "But, they – I cannot say exactly – but I will say two or three times less than they could be under a regime of Soviet democracyTrotsky warned against the danger of market spontaneity and called for a well-thought out strategy of commercial balance.", "He was sharply critical of Bukharin and Stalin's views on the state of the Soviet economy.", "Russian historian, Vladimir Buldakov found that some historical research had supported the view that Trotsky advocated the most rational decisions for industrial development.=== Permanent Revolution ===A Diego Rivera mural (''Man, Controller of the Universe'') depicts Trotsky with Marx and Engels as a true champion of the workers' struggleThe Permanent Revolution concept is the theory that the bourgeois democratic tasks in countries with delayed bourgeois democratic development can only be accomplished through the establishment of a workers' state, and that the creation of a workers' state would inevitably involve inroads against capitalist property.", "Thus, the accomplishment of bourgeois democratic tasks passes over into proletarian tasks.", "Although most closely associated with Leon Trotsky, the call for a \"Permanent Revolution\" is first found in the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in March 1850, in the aftermath of the 1848 Revolution, in their Address of the Central Committee to the Communist League:Trotsky's conception of the Permanent Revolution is based on his understanding, drawing on the work of the founder of Russian Marxism Georgy Plekhanov, that in \"backward\" countries the tasks of the Bourgeois Democratic Revolution could not be achieved by the bourgeoisie itself.", "Trotsky first developed this conception in collaboration with Alexander Parvus in late 1904–1905.The relevant articles were later collected in Trotsky's books ''1905'' and in \"Permanent Revolution\", which also contains his essay \"Results and Prospects.\"", "Some Trotskyists have argued that the state of the Third World shows that capitalism offers no way forward for underdeveloped countries, thus again proving the central tenet of the theory.=== United front ===Trotsky was a central figure in the Comintern during its first four congresses.", "During this time, he helped to generalize the strategy and tactics of the Bolsheviks to newly formed Communist parties across Europe and further afield.", "From 1921 onwards, the united front, a method of uniting revolutionaries and reformists in the common struggle while winning some of the workers to revolution, was the central tactic put forward by the Comintern after the defeat of the German revolution.", "Trotsky was a strong critic of the shifting Comintern policy position under Stalin which directed German Communists to treat social democrats as \"social fascists\".", "Historian Bertrand Patenaude believed that the Comintern policy following the \"Great Break\" facilitated the rise of Hitler's party.", "Marxist theorist and economist Hillel Ticktin argued that Trotsky's political strategy and approach to fascism such as the emphasis on an organisational bloc between the German Communist Party and Social-Democratic party during the interwar period would very likely have prevented Hitler from ascending to political power.", "After he was exiled and politically marginalized by Stalinism, Trotsky continued to argue for a united front against fascism in Germany and Spain.", "According to Joseph Choonara of the British Socialist Workers Party in ''International Socialism'', his articles on the united front represent an essential part of his political legacy.=== Uneven and combined development ===The concept of uneven and combined development derived from the political theories of Trotsky.", "This concept was developed in combination with the related theory of permanent revolution to explain the historical context of Russia.", "He would later elaborate on this theory to explain the specific laws of uneven development in 1930 and the conditions for a possible revolutionary scenario.", "According to biographer Ian Thatcher, this theory would be later generalised to \"the entire history of mankind\".Political scientists Emanuele Saccarelli and Latha Varadarajan valued his theory as a \"signal contribution\" to the discipline of international relations.", "They argued his theory presented \"a specific understanding of capitalist development as 'uneven', insofar as it systematically featured geographically divergent 'advanced' and 'backward' regions\" across the world economy.=== Literary criticism and socialist culture ===In ''Literature and Revolution'', Trotsky examined aesthetic issues in relation to class and the Russian revolution.", "Soviet scholar Robert Bird considered his work as the \"first systematic treatment of art by a Communist leader\" and a catalyst for later, Marxist cultural and critical theories.", "Trotsky's writings on literature such as his 1923 survey which advocated tolerance, limited censorship and respect for literary tradition had strong appeal to the New York Intellectuals.Trotsky presented a critique of contemporary literary movements such as Futurism and emphasised a need of cultural autonomy for the development of a socialist culture.", "According to literary critic Terry Eagleton, Trotsky recognised \"like Lenin on the need for a socialist culture to absorb the finest products of bourgeois art\".", "Trotsky himself viewed the proletarian culture as \"temporary and transitional\" which would provide the foundations for a culture above classes.", "He also argued that the pre-conditions for artistic creativity were economic well-being and emancipation from material constraints.Political scientist Baruch Knei-Paz characterised his view on the role of the party as transmitters of culture to the masses and raising the standards of education, as well as entry into the cultural sphere, but that the process of artistic creation in terms of language and presentation should be the domain of the practitioner.", "Knei-Paz also noted key distinctions between Trotsky's approach on cultural matters and Stalin's policy in the 1930s." ], [ "In popular culture", "* The comedic film, ''The Trotsky'', centers around a protagonist named Leon Bronstein, played by Jay Baruchel, who believes himself to be the reincarnation of Leon Trotsky.", "* The characters of Snowball and Emmanuel Goldstein in George Orwell's novels, ''Animal Farm'' and ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' respectively, are based on Trotsky.", "* Trotsky's final days and death was dramatized in the 1972 film ''The Assassination of Trotsky'', directed by Joseph Losey and starring Richard Burton as Trotsky.", "* The 8-episode biographical drama Trotsky debuted on the Russian Channel One in 2017, Netflix purchased the distribution rights to the series in 2018 and made it available on its platform.", "* 1980s UK band The Redskins debut single was entitled \"Lev Bronstein\", released on the CNT record label in 1982." ], [ "See also", "* Anti-Stalinist left* Fourth International* Foreign relations of the Soviet Union* Group of Democratic Centralism* Labor army* Left Opposition* Lenin's Testament* Leon Trotsky bibliography* List of Trotskyist internationals* List of Trotskyist organizations by country* Petrograd Soviet* Primitive socialist accumulation* Russian Revolution of 1905* Scissors Crisis* Socialist democracy* Trotsky's train, armoured train carriage which was used for logistical travel and oration speeches.", "* Uneven and combined development* World socialism; In popular culture* ''The Assassination of Trotsky'', 1972 film* ''Reds'', 1981 film about the October Revolution* ''Variations on the Death of Trotsky'', 1991 play* ''Frida'', 2002 film* ''The Chosen'', 2016 film* ''Trotsky'', 2017 TV series" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works by Trotsky===* === Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * *** * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Trotsky in Havana by Dimitri Prieto from ''Havana Times''* FBI records relating to Trotsky's murder* ''The Contradiction of Trotsky'' by Claude Lefort* ''Uncommon Knowledge''.", "Interview with Christopher Hitchens and Robert Service about Leon Trotsky* * \"How We Made the October Revolution\" by Leon Trotsky.", "The New York Times, 1919.=== Works ===* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Latin (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Latin''' is an Italic language, originally spoken in ancient Rome and its empire.", "'''Latin''' may also refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Latins, the Italic or Romance peoples collectively across various historical periods** Latins (Italic tribe), an ancient Italic tribe that inhabited central Italy from about 1000 to 300 BC* Latins (Middle Ages), common name for followers of Western Christianity during the Middle Ages* Latin Americans, the citizens of the Latin American countries and dependencies* Latin Europeans, citizens of Latin Europe countries and dependencies" ], [ "People with the surname", "* Denis Latin (born 1966), a Croatian television host* Ivo Latin (1929–2002), former speaker of the Parliament of Croatia and Mayor of Zagreb" ], [ "Language", "* Latin languages or Romance languages, modern languages that evolved from Vulgar Latin* Latin alphabet, writing system used by the ancient Romans* Latin script, writing system used for most contemporary European languages* Old Latin, Latin language before 75 BC* Classical Latin, literary Latin language of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire* Late Latin, written Latin of late antiquity* Vulgar Latin, non-standard Latin language variety spoken by the people of Ancient Rome* Medieval Latin, Latin language of the Medieval era* Renaissance Latin, Latin language of the Renaissance era* Neo-Latin, revival of the Latin language between c. 1375 and c. 1900* Contemporary Latin, the form of the Latin language used since the end of the 19th century" ], [ "Music", "* Latin music, a popular music genre associated with and having roots in Ibero-America* ''Latin'' (George Dalaras album), 1987* ''Latin'' (Holy Fuck album), an album by the band Holy Fuck* \"Latin\", the fourth movement of Mike Oldfield's ''Tubular Bells 2003'' album" ], [ "Other uses", "* , a village in Plaški, Croatia* LATIN, a Latin American newspaper association* Latin Church, the portion of the Catholic Church employing the Latin liturgical rites" ], [ "See also", "* Latin Quarter (disambiguation)* Latina (disambiguation)* Latino (disambiguation)* Latinization (disambiguation)* Ladin (disambiguation)* Lattin (disambiguation)* Latin America, a group of countries and dependencies in the Western Hemisphere* Latinus, a figure in Greek and Roman mythology associated with Odysseus and Aeneas* Lateen or latin-rig, a type of sail rigging* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Reference desk" ], [ "Introduction", "Librarian, Ballard Carnegie Library, Seattle, Washington The '''reference desk''' or '''information desk''' of a library is a public service counter where professional librarians provide library users with direction to library materials, advice on library collections and services, and expertise on multiple kinds of information from multiple sources." ], [ "Purpose and usage", "Library users can consult the staff at the reference desk for help in finding information.", "Using a structured reference interview, the librarian works with the library user to clarify their needs and determine what information sources will fill them.", "To borrow a medical analogy, reference librarians diagnose and treat information deficiencies.The ultimate help provided may consist of reading material in the form of a book or journal article, instruction in the use of specific searchable information resources such as the library's online catalog or subscription bibliographic/fulltext databases, or simply factual information drawn from the library's print or online reference collection.", "Information is also provided to patrons through electronic resources.", "Typically, a reference desk can be consulted either in person, by telephone, through email or online chat, although a library user may be asked to come to the library in person for help with more involved research questions.", "A staffed and knowledgeable reference desk is an essential part of a library.The services that are provided at a reference desk may vary depending on the type of library, its purpose, its resources, and its staff." ], [ "History", "Reference services did not become commonplace in libraries until the late 1800s.", "These services initially began in public libraries.", "At first librarians were hesitant to offer reference services because many libraries did not have a large enough staff to provide the services without other duties being neglected.", "Beginning in 1883 with the Boston Public Library, libraries began to hire librarians whose primary duty was to provide reference services.One of the earliest proponents of references services was Samuel Swett Green.", "He wrote an article titled \"Personal Relations Between Librarians and Readers\" which had a large impact on the future of reference services.Utor (2008) defined reference services as a direct personal assistance to readers seeking information through direct contact between the reference librarian and the user.", "Reference desks changed dramatically with the emergence of information technology." ], [ "Resources", "Resources that are often kept at a library reference desk may include:* A computer with internet access.", "Librarians use both the public web and subscription databases to find and evaluate information and research sources.", "* A small collection of reference books (called ''ready reference'') that are most often used, so that the librarians can reach them quickly, especially when they are on the phone, and so that the books will be returned in time for someone else to use later the same day.", "The library's full reference collection is usually nearby as well.", "* Newspaper clipping files and other rare or restricted items that must be returned to the reference desk.", "* Index cards with the answers to frequently asked questions, and/or drawers with folders of pamphlets and photocopies of pages that, from previous experience, were difficult to find.", "These enable librarians to find such information quickly without leaving the desk—even faster than they could look it up in a reference book or using the Internet.", "* Books and other items that are being held for library users who asked the librarian by phone to set them aside for them to pick up later the same day, or within the next few days.", "* Books from the circulating collection that have been set aside for students working on a special assignment, and are temporarily designated to be used only within the library until the project is due.", "* Printed lists of items in the library that are not in the catalogue, such as newspapers, school yearbooks, old telephone directories, college course catalogues, and local history sources." ], [ "Services", "Services that are often available at a library reference desk include:* A sign-up sheet for reserving computers with Internet access, or word processing software.", "* The ability to place the book 'on hold', which prevents the person who has borrowed it from renewing it.", "The person who placed the 'hold' is notified when the book has been returned.", "(Some libraries provide this service at the circulation desk.", ")* The ability to request interlibrary loan of books and other material from other branch libraries in the same library system, or from a cooperating library anywhere in the world.", "(Some libraries provide this service at the circulation desk.", ")* The opportunity to recommend that the library purchase something for its collection that it does not have, which may be needed or of interest to other library users.The librarian who staffs the reference desk can usually do the following by virtue of their professional training and experience:* The librarian can look up a brief, factual answer to a specific question.", "* The librarian can use the catalogue to find out whether the library owns an item with a particular title or author, or that contains a short story, chapter, song, or poem with a particular title, or to compile a list of books by a particular author or on a particular subject.", "* The librarian can briefly teach the user how to use the catalogue and how to use its advanced features, or recommend the proper subject words or terms that are used in the catalogue for the topic the user has in mind.", "* The librarian can often take the library user directly to the shelves with books on a certain topic without using the catalogue.", "* The librarian is familiar with the contents of hundreds of reference books, and can recommend books that might contain the answer to a particular question.", "* The librarian can teach the library user to use online databases such as for magazine and newspaper articles, and recommend words and search strategies for the topic the user has in mind.", "* The librarian can recommend reliable web sites, give advice on searching the Internet for information, and evaluate the reliability of the information on web sites.", "* If the library does not have information on a given topic, or if the library user wants more information, the librarian can refer the library user to another library or to an organization that can be contacted by phone or mail.", "*Offer aid with devices such as tablets and e-readers.", "This can range from general assistance with questions on how to navigate e-reader and tablet devices to instructing classes.", "Questions can vary from what devices are compatible with the library's e-book platform, how to check out books, and how to read electronic books." ], [ "Staff qualifications", "In the United States, those who staff library reference desks are usually required to have a master's degree in library science from a program accredited by the American Library Association.", "However, if there is a lack of qualified applicants, particularly in rural areas, a person with an associate degree, a certificate in library technology, or a bachelor's degree in library science may perform these duties.", "In many academic libraries, student assistants are used as the primary contact, sometimes at an \"information desk.", "\"In Sri Lanka, librarians at reference desks typically have master's degrees from the Sri Lankan Library Association's accredited programs." ], [ "Electronic reference services", "With the development of the Web, digital reference services are beginning to take over some of the roles of the traditional reference desk in a library.", "There is disagreement over whether or not this development is desirable or inevitable." ], [ "See also", "*Internet search engines and libraries*Reference scenario*Current awareness service" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* UCLA DIS 245 \"Info Access\" Wiki on Reference Services, edited by John V. Richardson Jr. and Debbie Weismann* 24 Hour Reference Service article by Ben Chan* Trends and Issues in Digital Reference Services * Building and Maintaining Digital Reference Services * Management by Wandering Around: Reference Rovering and Quality Reference Service * Reference and User Services Association Guidelines * Personal Relations Between Librarians and Readers by Samuel Swett Green" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Leap year" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''leap year''' (also known as an '''intercalary year''' or '''bissextile year''') is a calendar year that contains an additional day (or, in the case of a lunisolar calendar, a month) compared to a common year.", "The 366th day (or 13th month) is added to keep the calendar year synchronized with the astronomical year or seasonal year.", "Because astronomical events and seasons do not repeat in a whole number of days, calendars that have a constant number of days in each year will unavoidably drift over time with respect to the event that the year is supposed to track, such as seasons.", "By inserting (\"intercalating\") an additional day, a '''leap day''', or month, a leap month, into some years, the drift between a civilization's dating system and the physical properties of the Solar System can be corrected.", "An astronomical year lasts slightly less than 365 days.", "The historic Julian calendar has three common years of 365 days followed by a leap year of 366 days, by extending February to 29 days rather than the common 28.The Gregorian calendar, the world's most widely used civil calendar, makes a further adjustment for the small error in the Julian algorithm.", "Each leap year has 366 days instead of 365.This extra leap day occurs in each year that is a multiple of 4 (except for years evenly divisible by 100, but not by 400).In the lunisolar Hebrew calendar, Adar Aleph, a 13th lunar month, is added seven times every 19 years to the twelve lunar months in its common years to keep its calendar year from drifting through the seasons.", "In the Solar Hijri and Bahá'í calendars, a leap day is added when needed to ensure that the following year begins on the March equinox.The term ''leap year'' probably comes from the fact that a fixed date in the Gregorian calendar normally advances one day of the week from one year to the next, but the day of the week in the 12 months following the leap day (from 1 March through 28 February of the following year) will advance two days due to the extra day, thus leaping over one day in the week.", "For example, Christmas Day (25 December) fell on a Friday in 2020, Saturday in 2021, Sunday in 2022, and Monday in 2023, but then will \"leap\" over Tuesday to fall on a Wednesday in 2024.The length of a day is also occasionally corrected by inserting a leap second into Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) because of variations in Earth's rotation period.", "Unlike leap days, leap seconds are not introduced on a regular schedule because variations in the length of the day are not entirely predictable.Leap years can present a problem in computing, known as the leap year bug, when a year is not correctly identified as a leap year or when 29 February is not handled correctly in logic that accepts or manipulates dates." ], [ "Julian calendar", "On , by edict, Julius Caesar reformed the historic Roman calendar to make it a consistent solar calendar (rather than one which was neither strictly lunar nor strictly solar), thus removing the need for frequent intercalary months.", "His rule for leap years was a simple one: add a leap day every four years.", "This algorithm is close to reality: a Julian year lasts 365.25 days, a mean tropical year about 365.2422 days.", "Consequently, even this Julian calendar drifts out of 'true' by about three days every 400 years.", "The Julian calendar continued in use unaltered for about 1600 years until the Catholic Church became concerned about the widening divergence between the March Equinox and 21 March, as explained at Gregorian calendar, below.Prior to Caesar's creation of what would be the Julian calendar, February was already the shortest month of the year for Romans.", "In the Roman calendar (after the reform of Numa Pompilius that added January and February), all months except February had an odd number of days29 or 31.This was because of a Roman superstition that even numbers were unlucky.", "When Caesar changed the calendar to follow the solar year closely, he made all months have 30 or 31 days, leaving February unchanged except in leap years." ], [ "Gregorian calendar", "An image showing which century years are leap years in the Gregorian calendarIn the Gregorian calendar, the standard calendar in most of the world, almost every fourth year is a leap year.", "Each leap year, the month of February has 29 days instead of 28.Adding one extra day in the calendar every four years compensates for the fact that a period of 365 days is shorter than a tropical year by almost 6 hours.", "However, this correction is excessive and the Gregorian reform modified the Julian calendar's scheme of leap years as follows:Every year that is exactly divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are exactly divisible by 100, but these centurial years are leap years if they are exactly divisible by 400.For example, the years 1700, 1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are.Whereas the Julian calendar year incorrectly summarized Earth's tropical year as 365.25 days, the Gregorian calendar makes these exceptions to follow a calendar year of 365.2425 days.", "This more closely resembles a mean tropical year of 365.2422 days.", "Over a period of four centuries, the accumulated error of adding a leap day ''every'' four years amounts to about three extra days.", "The Gregorian calendar therefore omits three leap days every 400 years, which is the length of its ''leap cycle''.", "This is done by omitting 29 February in the three century years (multiples of 100) that are not multiples of 400.The years 2000 and 2400 are leap years, but not 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200 and 2300.By this rule, an entire leap cycle is 400 years which total 146,097 days, and the average number of days per year is 365 +  −  +  =  = 365.2425.", "(This rule could be applied to years before the Gregorian reform to create a proleptic Gregorian calendar, though the result would not match any historical records.", ")File:Gregoriancalendarleap solstice.svgThis graph shows the variations in date and time of the June Solstice.The Gregorian calendar was designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that falls on or after 21 March) remains close to the vernal equinox.", "The \"Accuracy\" section of the \"Gregorian calendar\" article discusses how well the Gregorian calendar achieves this design goal, and how well it approximates the tropical year." ], [ "Leap day in the Julian and Gregorian calendars <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Leap day\"></span>", "A Swedish pocket calendar from 2008 showing 29 FebruaryFebruary 1900 calendar showing that 1900 was not a leap yearThe intercalary day that usually occurs every four years is called the leap day and is created by adding an extra day to February.", "This day is added to the calendar in leap years as a corrective measure because the Earth does not orbit the Sun in precisely 365 days.", "Since about the fifteenth century, this extra day is 29 February, but when the Julian calendar was introduced, leap day was handled differently in two respects.", "First, leap day fell February and not at the end: 24 February was doubled to create the (strange to modern eyes) two days both dated 24 February.", "Second, the leap day was simply not counted so that a leap year still had 365 days.===Early Roman practice=== The early Roman calendar was a lunisolar one that consisted of 12 months, for a total of 355 days.", "In addition, a 27- or 28-day intercalary month, the , was sometimes inserted into February, at the first or second day after the , (23 February), to resynchronise the lunar and solar cycles.", "The remaining days of Februarius were discarded.", "This intercalary month, named or , contained 27 days.", "The religious festivals that were normally celebrated in the last five days of February were moved to the last five days of Intercalaris.", "The lunisolar calendar was abandoned about 450 BC by the , who implemented the Roman Republican calendar, used until 46 BC.", "The days of these calendars were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so 24 February was \"the sixth day before the calends of March\" often abbreviated The Romans counted days inclusively in their calendars, so this was actually the fifth day before 1 March when counted in the modern exclusive manner (i.e., not including both the starting and ending day).", "Because only 22 or 23 days were effectively added, not a full lunation, the calends and ides of the Roman Republican calendar were no longer associated with the new moon and full moon.===Julian reform===In Caesar's revised calendar, there was just one intercalary daynowadays called the leap day to be inserted every fourth year, and this too was done after 23 February.", "To create the intercalary day, the existing (sixth day (inclusive: i.e.", "what we would call the fifth day before) before the (first day) of March, i.e.", "what we would call 24 February) was doubled, producing a second sixth day before the ''Kalends'' .", "This (\"twice sixth\") was rendered in later languages as \"bissextile\": the \"bissextile day\" is the leap day, and a \"bissextile year\" is a year which includes a leap day.", "This second instance of the sixth day before the Kalends of March was inserted in calendars between the \"normal\" fifth and sixth days.", "By a legal fiction, the Romans treated both the first \"sixth day\" and the additional \"sixth day\" before the Kalends of March as one day.", "Thus a child born on either of those days in a leap year would have its first birthday on the following sixth day before the Kalends of March.", "In a leap year in the original Julian calendar, there were indeed two days both numbered 24 February.", "This practice continued for another fifteen to seventeen centuries, even after most countries had adopted the Gregorian calendar.", "For legal purposes, the two days of the were considered to be a single day, with the second sixth being intercalated; but in common practice by the year 238, when Censorinus wrote, the intercalary day was followed by the last five days of February, and (the days numbered 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28 from the beginning of February in a common year), so that the intercalated day was the ''first'' of the doubled pair.", "Thus the intercalated day was effectively inserted between the 23rd and 24th days of February.", "All later writers, including Macrobius about 430, Bede in 725, and other medieval computists (calculators of Easter), continued to state that the bissextum (bissextile day) occurred before the last five days of February.In England, the Church and civil society continued the Roman practice whereby the leap day was simply not counted, so that a leap year was only reckoned as 365 days.", "Henry III's 1236 instructed magistrates to treat the leap day and the day before as one day.", "The practical application of the rule is obscure.", "It was regarded as in force in the time of the famous lawyer Sir Edward Coke (1552–1634) because he cites it in his ''Institutes of the Lawes of England''.", "However, Coke merely quotes the Act with a short translation, and does not give practical examples.===29 February===Replacement (by 29 February) of the awkward practice of having two days with the same date appears to have evolved by custom and practice, the etymological origin of the term \"bissextile\" seeming to have been lost.", "In England in the course of the fifteenth century, \"29 February\" appears increasingly often in legal documents although the records of the proceedings of the House of Commons of England continued to use the old system until the middle of the sixteenth century.", "It was not until passage of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 that 29 February was formally recognised in British law.===Liturgical practices===In the older Roman Missal, feast days falling on or after 24 February are celebrated one day later in a leap year.In the liturgical calendar of the Christian churches, the placement of the leap day is significant because of the date of the feast of Saint Matthias, which is defined as the sixth day before 1 March (counting inclusively).", "The Church of England's ''Book of Common Prayer'' was still using the \"two days with the same date\" system in its 1542 edition; it first included a calendar which used entirely consecutive day counting from 1662 and showed leap day as falling on February 29.In the 1680s, the Church of England declared 25 February to be the feast of St Matthias.Until 1970, the Roman Catholic Church always celebrated the feast of Saint Matthias on , so if the days were numbered from the beginning of the month, it was named 24 February in common years, but the presence of the in a bissextile year immediately before shifted the latter day to 25 February in leap years, with the Vigil of St. Matthias shifting from 23 February to the leap day of 24 February.", "This shift did not take place in pre-Reformation Norway and Iceland; Pope Alexander III ruled that either practice was lawful.", "Other feasts normally falling on 25–28 February in common years are also shifted to the following day in a leap year (although they would be on the same day according to the Roman notation).", "The practice is still observed by those who use the older calendars.===Folk traditions===A spinster eagerly awaits the upcoming leap day, in this 1903 cartoon by Bob Satterfield.In Ireland and Britain, it is a tradition that women may propose marriage only in leap years.", "While it has been claimed that the tradition was initiated by Saint Patrick or Brigid of Kildare in 5th century Ireland, this is dubious, as the tradition has not been attested before the 19th century.", "Supposedly, a 1288 law by Queen Margaret of Scotland (then age five and living in Norway), required that fines be levied if a marriage proposal was refused by the man; compensation was deemed to be a pair of leather gloves, a single rose, £1, and a kiss.", "In some places the tradition was tightened to restricting female proposals to the modern leap day, 29 February, or to the medieval (bissextile) leap day, 24 February.According to Felten: \"A play from the turn of the 17th century, 'The Maydes Metamorphosis,' has it that 'this is leape year/women wear breeches.'", "A few hundred years later, breeches wouldn't do at all: Women looking to take advantage of their opportunity to pitch woo were expected to wear a scarlet petticoat fair warning, if you will.", "\"In Finland, the tradition is that if a man refuses a woman's proposal on leap day, he should buy her the fabrics for a skirt.In France, since 1980, a satirical newspaper titled ''La Bougie du Sapeur'' is published only on leap year, on 29 February.In Greece, marriage in a leap year is considered unlucky.", "One in five engaged couples in Greece will plan to avoid getting married in a leap year.In February 1988 the town of Anthony in Texas, declared itself \"leap year capital of the world\", and an international leapling birthday club was started.File:PostcardLeapYearBeCarefulClara1908.jpg|Woman capturing man with butterfly-netFile:PostcardLeapYearMaidensAre1908.jpg|Women anxiously awaiting January 1File:PostcardTheMaidensVowIn1908.jpg|Histrionically preparing===Birthdays===A person born on February 29 may be called a \"leapling\" or a \"leaper\".", "In common years, they usually celebrate their birthdays on 28 February.", "In some situations, 1 March is used as the birthday in a non-leap year, since it is the day following 28 February.Technically, a leapling will have fewer ''birthday anniversaries'' than their age in years.", "This phenomenon may be exploited for dramatic effect when a person is declared to be only a quarter of their actual age, by counting their leap-year birthday anniversaries only.", "For example, in Gilbert and Sullivan's 1879 comic opera ''The Pirates of Penzance'', Frederic (the pirate apprentice) discovers that he is bound to serve the pirates until his 21st ''birthday'' (that is, when he turns 88 years old, since 1900 was not a leap year) rather than until his 21st ''year''.For legal purposes, legal birthdays depend on how local laws count time intervals.==== Taiwan ====The Civil Code of Taiwan since 10 October 1929, implies that the legal birthday of a leapling is 28 February in common years:==== Hong Kong ====Since 1990 non-retroactively, Hong Kong considers the legal birthday of a leapling 1 March in common years:===Revised Julian calendar===The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years that are multiples of four, except for years that are multiples of 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900.This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799.The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar.This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222 days.", "This is a very good approximation to the ''mean'' tropical year, but because the ''vernal equinox'' year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar, for the time being, does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar at keeping the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March." ], [ "Baháʼí calendar", "The Baháʼí calendar is a solar calendar composed of 19 months of 19 days each (361 days).", "Years begin at Naw-Rúz, on the vernal equinox, on or about 21 March.", "A period of \"Intercalary Days\", called Ayyam-i-Ha, is inserted before the 19th month.", "This period normally has 4 days, but an extra day is added when needed to ensure that the following year starts on the vernal equinox.", "This is calculated and known years in advance." ], [ "Bengali, Indian and Thai calendars", "The Revised Bengali Calendar of Bangladesh and the Indian National Calendar organise their leap years so that every leap day is close to 29 February in the Gregorian calendar and vice versa.", "This makes it easy to convert dates to or from Gregorian.The Thai solar calendar uses the Buddhist Era (BE) but has been synchronized with the Gregorian since AD 1941." ], [ "Chinese calendar", "The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an ''embolismic'' month after the Greek word for it.", "In the Chinese calendar, the leap month is added according to a rule which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice.", "The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month (二月) then it is simply called \"leap second month\" i.e.", ".==Hebrew calendar==The Hebrew calendar is lunisolar with an embolismic month.", "This extra month is called ''Adar Rishon'' (first Adar) and is added before ''Adar'', which then becomes ''Adar Sheini'' (second Adar).", "According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years (specifically, in years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19).", "This is to ensure that Passover () is always in the spring as required by the Torah (Pentateuch) in many verses relating to Passover.In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days.", "These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting days of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath.", "In particular, the first day of the Hebrew year can never be Sunday, Wednesday or Friday.", "This rule is known in Hebrew as \"\" (), i.e., \"Rosh ha-Shanah, first day of the year is not Sunday, Wednesday or Friday\" (as the Hebrew word is written by three Hebrew letters signifying Sunday, Wednesday and Friday).", "Accordingly, the first day of Passover is never Monday, Wednesday or Friday.", "This rule is known in Hebrew as \"\" (), which has a double meaning — \"Passover is not a legend\", but also \"Passover is not Monday, Wednesday or Friday\" (as the Hebrew word is written by three Hebrew letters signifying Monday, Wednesday and Friday).One reason for this rule is that Yom Kippur, the holiest day in the Hebrew calendar and the tenth day of the Hebrew year, now must never be adjacent to the weekly Sabbath (which is Saturday), i.e., it must never fall on Friday or Sunday, in order not to have two adjacent Sabbath days.", "However, Yom Kippur can still be on Saturday.", "A second reason is that Hoshana Rabbah, the 21st day of the Hebrew year, will never be on Saturday.", "These rules for the Feasts do not apply to the years from the Creation to the deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt under Moses.", "It was at that time (cf.", "Exodus 13) that the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob gave the Hebrews their \"Law\" including the days to be kept holy and the feast days and Sabbaths.Years consisting of 12 months have between 353 and 355 days.", "In a (\"in order\") 354-day year, months have alternating 30 and 29 day lengths.", "In a (\"lacking\") year, the month of Kislev is reduced to 29 days.", "In a (\"filled\") year, the month of Marcheshvan is increased to 30 days.", "13-month years follow the same pattern, with the addition of the 30-day Adar Alef, giving them between 383 and 385 days." ], [ "Islamic calendars", "The observed and calculated versions of the lunar Islamic calendar do not have regular leap days, even though both have lunar months containing 29 or 30 days, generally in alternating order.", "However, the tabular Islamic calendar used by Islamic astronomers during the Middle Ages and still used by some Muslims does have a regular leap day added to the last month of the lunar year in 11 years of a 30-year cycle.", "This additional day is found at the end of the last month, Dhu al-Hijjah, which is also the month of the Hajj.Image:Jalaali_Leap_Year.svgThe Solar Hijri calendar is the modern Iranian calendar.", "It is an observational calendar that starts on the spring equinox (Northern Hemisphere) and adds a single intercalated day to the last month (Esfand) once every four or five years; the first leap year occurs as the fifth year of the typical 33-year cycle and the remaining leap years occur every four years through the remainder of the 33-year cycle.", "This system has less periodic deviation or jitter from its mean year than the Gregorian calendar and operates on the simple rule that its New Year's Day must fall in the 24-hour period of vernal equinox .", "The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 years.The Hijri-Shamsi calendar, also adopted by the Ahmadiyya Community, is based on solar calculations and is similar to the Gregorian calendar in its structure with the exception that its epoch is the Hijra." ], [ "Coptic and Ethiopian calendars", "The Coptic calendar has 13 months, 12 of 30 days each and one at the end of the year of 5 days, or 6 days in leap years.", "The Coptic Leap Year follows the same rules as the Julian Calendar so that the extra month always has six days in the year before a Julian Leap Year.", "The Ethiopian calendar has twelve months of thirty days plus five or six epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth month." ], [ "See also", "* Century leap year* Calendar reform includes proposals that have not (yet) been adopted.", "* Leap second* Leap week calendar* Leap year bug* Sansculottides* Zeller's congruence* February 30* Leap year starting on Monday* Leap year starting on Tuesday* Leap year starting on Wednesday* Leap year starting on Thursday* Leap year starting on Friday* Leap year starting on Saturday* Leap year starting on Sunday" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "* *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Famous Leapers* Leap Day Campaign: Galileo Day* History Behind Leap Year National Geographic Society" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ludwig Mies van der Rohe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ludwig Mies van der Rohe''' ( ; ; born '''Maria Ludwig Michael Mies'''; March 27, 1886August 17, 1969) was a German-American architect, academic, and interior designer.", "He was commonly referred to as '''Mies''', his surname.", "He is regarded as one of the pioneers of modern architecture.In the 1930s, Mies was the last director of the Bauhaus, a ground-breaking school of modernist art, design and architecture.", "After Nazism's rise to power, with its strong opposition to modernism, Mies emigrated to the United States.", "He accepted the position to head the architecture school at what is today the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT).Mies sought to establish his own particular architectural style that could represent modern times.", "His buildings made use of modern materials such as industrial steel and plate glass to define interior spaces.", "He is often associated with his fondness for the aphorisms \"less is more\" and \"God is in the details\"." ], [ "Early career", "Mies was born March 27, 1886, in Aachen, Germany.", "He worked in his father's stone carving shop and at several local design firms before he moved to Berlin, where he joined the office of interior designer Bruno Paul.", "He began his architectural career as an apprentice at the studio of Peter Behrens from 1908 to 1912, where he was exposed to the current design theories and to progressive German culture.", "He worked alongside Le Corbusier and Walter Gropius, who was later also involved in the development of the Bauhaus.", "Mies served as construction manager of the Embassy of the German Empire in Saint Petersburg under Behrens.Ludwig Mies renamed himself as part of his transformation from a tradesman's son to an architect working with Berlin's cultural elite, adding \"van der\" and his mother's maiden name \"Rohe\" and using the Dutch \"van der\", because the German form \"von\" was a nobiliary particle legally restricted to those of German nobility lineage.", "He began his independent professional career designing upper-class homes." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1913 Mies married Adele Auguste (Ada) Bruhn (1885–1951), the daughter of a wealthy industrialist.", "The couple separated in 1918, after having three daughters: Dorothea (1914–2008), an actress and dancer who was known as Georgia, Marianne (1915–2003), and Waltraut (1917–1959), who was a research scholar and curator at the Art Institute of Chicago.", "During his military service in 1917, Mies fathered a son out of wedlock.In 1925, Mies began a relationship with designer Lilly Reich that ended when he moved to the United States; from 1940 until his death, artist Lora Marx (1900–1989) was his primary companion.", "Mies carried on a romantic relationship with sculptor and art collector Mary Callery for whom he designed an artist's studio in Huntington, Long Island, New York.", "He had a brief romantic relationship with Nelly van Doesburg.", "After having met in Europe many years prior, they met again in New York in 1947 during a dinner with Josep Lluís Sert where he promised her he would help organize an exhibition in Chicago featuring the work of her late husband Theo van Doesburg.", "This exhibition took place from October 15 until November 8, 1947, with their romance officially ending not much later.", "Nevertheless they remained on good terms, spending Easter together in 1948 at a modern farmhouse renovated by Mies on Long Island, as well as meeting several more times that year." ], [ "Transition from traditionalism to Modernism", "Villa Wolf, built in 1926 in Guben (now Gubin in Poland) for Erich and Elisabeth Wolf.", "The villa was destroyed in the aftermath of World War II, and there are joint German-Polish plans for its reconstruction.Barcelona Pavilion in Barcelona, constructed in 1929 for the world exposition.", "Never intended to be permanent, it was demolished in 1930 as was typically done for exhibition structures, but it was re-erected in 1986 by a team of local architects.Villa Tugendhat built in 1930 in Brno for Fritz TugendhatAfter World War I, while still designing traditional neoclassical homes, Mies began a parallel experimental effort.", "He joined his avant-garde peers in the long-running search for a new style that would be suitable for the modern industrial age.", "The weak points of traditional styles had been under attack by progressive theorists since the mid-nineteenth century, primarily for the contradictions of hiding modern construction technology with a facade of ornamented traditional styles.The mounting criticism of the historical styles gained substantial cultural credibility after World War I, a disaster widely seen as a failure of the old world order of imperial leadership of Europe.", "The aristocratic classical revival styles were particularly reviled by many as the architectural symbol of a now-discredited and outmoded social system.", "Progressive thinkers called for a completely new architectural design process guided by rational problem-solving and an exterior expression of modern materials and structure rather than what they considered the superficial application of classical facades.While continuing his traditional neoclassical design practice, Mies began to develop visionary projects that, though mostly unbuilt, rocketed him to fame as an architect capable of giving form that was in harmony with the spirit of the emerging modern society.", "Boldly abandoning ornament altogether, Mies made a dramatic modernist debut in 1921 with his stunning competition proposal for the faceted all-glass Friedrichstraße skyscraper, followed by a taller curved version in 1922 named the Glass Skyscraper.He constructed his first modernist house with the Villa Wolf in 1926 in Guben (today Gubin, Poland) for Erich and Elisabeth Wolf.", "This was shortly followed by Haus Lange and Haus Esters in 1928.He continued with a series of pioneering projects, culminating in his two European masterworks: the temporary German Pavilion for the Barcelona exposition (often called the Barcelona Pavilion) in 1929 (a 1986 reconstruction is now built on the original site) and the elegant Villa Tugendhat in Brno, Czechoslovakia, completed in 1930.He joined the German avant-garde, working with the progressive design magazine ''G'', which started in July 1923.He developed prominence as architectural director of the Werkbund, organizing the influential Weissenhof Estate prototype modernist housing exhibition.", "He was also one of the founders of the architectural association Der Ring.", "He joined the avant-garde Bauhaus design school as their director of architecture, adopting and developing their functionalist application of simple geometric forms in the design of useful objects.", "He served as its last director.Like many other avant-garde architects of the day, Mies based his architectural mission and principles on his understanding and interpretation of ideas developed by theorists and critics who pondered the declining relevance of the traditional design styles.", "He selectively adopted theoretical ideas such as the aesthetic credos of Russian Constructivism with their ideology of \"efficient\" sculptural assembly of modern industrial materials.", "Mies found appeal in the use of simple rectilinear and planar forms, clean lines, pure use of color, and the extension of space around and beyond interior walls expounded by the Dutch De Stijl group.", "In particular, the layering of functional sub-spaces within an overall space and the distinct articulation of parts as expressed by Gerrit Rietveld appealed to Mies.As households in the middle class and upper class could increasingly afford household appliances modern architects like Mies, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, and Adolf Loos rejected decorative architecture and became drivers of a modern Arts and Crafts movement in Europe.Mies and Le Corbusier later acknowledged the lasting impact Frank Lloyd Wright's ''Wasmuth Portfolio'' had after it was exhibited in Berlin." ], [ "Emigration to the United States", "Crown Hall at Illinois Institute of TechnologyStarting in 1930, Mies served as the last director of the faltering Bauhaus, at the request of his colleague and competitor Walter Gropius.", "In 1932, the Nazis forced the state-sponsored school to leave its campus in Dessau, and Mies moved it to an abandoned telephone factory in Berlin.", "In April 1933, the school was raided by the Gestapo, and in July of that year, because the Nazis had made the continued operation of the school untenable, Mies and the faculty \"voted\" to close the Bauhaus.", "The Nazis deemed his style to be insufficiently \"German\" (meaning Aryan) in character.", "As a result, he was unable to receive commissions in Germany and built very little in these years (one built commission was Philip Johnson's New York apartment).", "As a result of these actions by the Nazis, Mies reluctantly left his homeland in 1937, accepting a residential commission in Wyoming and then an offer to head the department of architecture of the newly established Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) in Chicago.", "Mies was allowed to combine ideological conviction with commerce.", "Already in 1919 he had drawn up plans for a office glass tower.", "In New York he found investors for the Seagram Building, which was completed in 1958.The building was regarded as the prototype of scientific management with Tom Wolfe complaining that Mies put \"half of America inside German worker-housing cubes\"." ], [ "Career in the United States", "IBM Plaza, Chicago, IllinoisMies settled in Chicago, Illinois, where he was appointed head of the architecture school at Chicago's Armour Institute of Technology (later renamed Illinois Institute of Technology).", "One of the benefits of taking this position was that he would be commissioned to design the new buildings and master plan for the campus.", "All his buildings still stand there, including Alumni Hall, the chapel, and his masterpiece the S.R.", "Crown Hall, built as the home of IIT's School of Architecture.In 1944, he became an American citizen, completing his severance from his native Germany.", "His thirty years as an American architect reflect a more structural, pure approach toward achieving his goal of a new architecture for the twentieth century.", "He focused his efforts on enclosing open and adaptable \"universal\" spaces with clearly arranged structural frameworks, featuring prefabricated steel shapes filled in with large sheets of glass.His early projects at the IIT campus, and for developer Herbert Greenwald, presented to Americans a style that seemed a natural progression of the almost forgotten nineteenth century Chicago School style.", "His architecture, with origins in the German Bauhaus and western European International Style, became an accepted mode of building for American cultural and educational institutions, developers, public agencies, and large corporations." ], [ "Notable buildings", "===Chicago Federal Complex===Chicago Federal Center, built 1964–1974Chicago Federal Center Plaza, also known as Chicago Federal Plaza, unified three buildings of varying scales: the mid-rise Everett McKinley Dirksen United States Courthouse, the high-rise John C. Kluczynski Building, and the single-story Post Office building.", "The complex's plot area extends over two blocks; a one-block site, bounded by Jackson, Clark, Adams, and Dearborn streets, contains the Kluczynski Federal Building and U.S. Post Office Loop Station, while a parcel on an adjacent block to the east contains the Dirksen U.S.", "Courthouse.", "The structural framing of the buildings is formed of high-tensile bolted steel and concrete.", "The exterior curtain walls are defined by projecting steel I-beam mullions covered with flat black graphite paint, characteristic of Mies's designs.", "The balance of the curtain walls are of bronze-tinted glass panes, framed in shiny aluminum, and separated by steel spandrels, also covered with flat black graphite paint.", "The entire complex is organized on a 28-foot grid pattern subdivided into six 4-foot, 8-inch modules.", "This pattern extends from the granite-paved plaza into the ground-floor lobbies of the two tower buildings with the grid lines continuing vertically up the buildings and integrating each component of the complex.", "Associated architects that have played a role in the complex's long history from 1959 to 1974 include Schmidt, Garden & Erickson; C.F.", "Murphy Associates; and A. Epstein & Sons.===Farnsworth House===Farnsworth House by Mies Van Der Rohe (1946–1951)Between 1946 and 1951, Mies van der Rohe designed and built the Farnsworth House, a weekend retreat outside Chicago for an independent professional woman, Dr. Edith Farnsworth.", "Here, Mies explored the relationship between people, shelter, and nature.", "The glass pavilion is raised six feet above a floodplain next to the Fox River, surrounded by forest and rural prairies.The highly crafted pristine white structural frame and all-glass walls define a simple rectilinear interior space, allowing nature and light to envelop the interior space.", "A wood-paneled fireplace (also housing mechanical equipment, kitchen, and toilets) is positioned within the open space to suggest living, dining and sleeping spaces without using walls.", "No partitions touch the surrounding all-glass enclosure.", "Without solid exterior walls, full-height draperies on a perimeter track allow freedom to provide full or partial privacy when and where desired.", "The house has been described as sublime, a temple hovering between heaven and earth, a poem, a work of art.The Farnsworth House and its wooded site was purchased at auction for US$7.5 million by preservation groups in 2004 and is now owned and operated by the National Trust for Historic Preservation as a public museum.", "The building influenced the creation of hundreds of modernist glass houses, most notably the Glass House by Philip Johnson, located near New York City and also now owned by the National Trust.===860–880 Lake Shore Drive===860–880 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois (1949–1951)The 860–880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments were built between 1948 and 1951 and came to define postwar US Modernism.", "These towers, with façades of steel and glass, were radical departures from the typical residential brick apartment buildings.Mies designed a series of four middle-income high-rise apartment buildings for developer Herbert Greenwald.", "The towers were simple rectangular boxes with a non-hierarchical wall enclosure, raised on stilts above a glass-enclosed lobby.", "The lobby is set back from the perimeter columns, which were exposed around the perimeter of the building above, creating a modern colonnade.", "This configuration created a feeling of light, openness, and freedom of movement at the ground level that became the prototype for countless new high rises designed both by Mies's office and his followers.===Seagram Building===Seagram BuildingAlthough now acclaimed and widely influential as an urban design feature, Mies had to convince Bronfman's bankers that a taller tower with significant \"unused\" open space at ground level would enhance the presence and prestige of the building.", "Mies' design included a bronze curtain wall with external H-shaped mullions that were exaggerated in depth beyond what was structurally necessary.", "Detractors criticized it as having committed Adolf Loos's \"crime of ornamentation\".", "Philip Johnson had a role in interior materials selections, and he designed the sumptuous Four Seasons Restaurant.", "The Seagram Building is said to be an early example of the innovative \"fast-track\" construction process, where design documentation and construction are done concurrently.During 1951–1952, Mies' designed the steel, glass, and brick McCormick House, located in Elmhurst, Illinois (15 miles west of the Chicago Loop), for real-estate developer Robert Hall McCormick, Jr. A one-story adaptation of the exterior curtain wall of his famous 860–880 Lake Shore Drive towers, it served as a prototype for an unbuilt series of speculative houses to be constructed in Melrose Park, Illinois.", "The house has been moved and reconfigured as a part of the public Elmhurst Art Museum.", "He also built a residence for John M. van Beuren on a family estate near Morristown, New Jersey.===Museum of Fine Arts, Houston===Caroline Wiess Law Building of the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TexasMies designed two buildings for the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (MFAH) as additions to the Caroline Wiess Law Building.", "In 1953, the MFAH commissioned Mies van der Rohe to create a master plan for the institution.", "He designed two additions to the building—Cullinan Hall, completed in 1958, and the Brown Pavilion, completed in 1974.A renowned example of the International Style, these portions of the Caroline Wiess Law Building comprise one of only two Mies-designed museums in the world.=== Two buildings in Baltimore, MD ===The One Charles Center, built in 1962, is a 23-story aluminum and glass building that heralded the beginning of Baltimore's downtown modern buildings.", "The Highfield House, just to the northeast of the Johns Hopkins Homewood campus, was built in 1964 as a rental apartment building.", "The 15-story concrete tower became a residential condominium building in 1979.Both buildings are now on the National Register of Historic Places.===National Gallery, Berlin===Neue Nationalgalerie BerlinMies's last work was the Neue Nationalgalerie art museum, the New National Gallery for the Berlin National Gallery.", "Considered one of the most perfect statements of his architectural approach, the upper pavilion is a precise composition of monumental steel columns and a cantilevered (overhanging) roof plane with a glass enclosure.", "The simple square glass pavilion is a powerful expression of his ideas about flexible interior space, defined by transparent walls and supported by an external structural frame.===Mies Building at Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana===In 1952, a fraternity commissioned Mies to design a building on the Indiana University campus in Bloomington, Indiana.", "The plan was not realized during his lifetime, but the design was rediscovered in 2013, and in 2019 the university's Eskenazi School of Art, Architecture + Design announced they would be constructing it with blessing of his grandchildren.", "As of June 2022, the building is completed and open.===Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library===Mies designed Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library in Washington, DC.", "The building was completed in 1972 at a cost of $18 million and three years after Mies death.", "It is the central facility of the District of Columbia Public Library (DCPL), it is his only realized library and only building in Washington D.C." ], [ "Furniture", "Furniture in the Tugendhat House, including Tugendhat chairsMies, often in collaboration with Lilly Reich, designed modern furniture pieces using new industrial technologies that have become popular classics, such as the Barcelona chair and table, the Brno chair, and the Tugendhat chair.", "These pieces are manufactured under licence by the Knoll furniture company.His furniture is known for fine craftsmanship, a mix of traditional luxurious fabrics like leather combined with modern chrome frames, and a distinct separation of the supporting structure and the supported surfaces, often employing cantilevers to enhance the feeling of lightness created by delicate structural frames." ], [ "Educator", "Interior of Farnsworth HouseIn 1953 the ''House Beautiful'' editor Elizabeth Gordon published an editorial under the title \"The Threat to the Next America\".", "In it, she critizised Mies' Villa Tugendhat as cold barren design dismissed Mies as European Architect.Mies served as the last director of Berlin's Bauhaus, and then headed the department of architecture, Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago, where he developed the Second Chicago School.", "He played a significant role as an educator, believing his architectural language could be learned, then applied to design any type of modern building.", "He set up a new education at the department of architecture of the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago replacing the traditional Ecole des Beaux-Art curriculum by a three-step-education beginning with crafts of drawing and construction leading to planning skills and finishing with theory of architecture.", "He worked personally and intensively on prototype solutions, and then allowed his students, both in school and his office, to develop derivative solutions for specific projects under his guidance.Mies placed great importance on education of architects who could carry on his design principles.", "He devoted a great deal of time and effort leading the architecture program at Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT).", "Mies served on the initial Advisory Board of the Graham Foundation in Chicago.", "His own work as architect focused on intensive personal involvement in design efforts to create prototype solutions for building types." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Mies van der Rohe's grave marker in Graceland CemeteryIn 1961, a program at Columbia University's School of Architecture celebrated the four great founders of contemporary architecture: Charles-Edouard Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Frank Lloyd Wright.", "It included addresses by Le Corbusier and Gropius as well as an interview with Mies van der Rohe.", "Discussion focused upon philosophies of design, aspects of their various architectural projects, and the juncture of architecture and city planning.In 1963, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.", "In 1966 Robert Venturi coined the postmodern motto \"less is a bore\" as countervision to Mies' motto \"less is more\".Technological advances in the manufacturing of architectural glass generated renewed interest in Mies' 1922 designs for a high-rise block on Friedrichstrasse in Berlin.", "Mies' Farnsworth House in Plano Illinois became a recurrent theme in 20th century architecture because it resembled a glass house.", "Technological limits meant that Mies' vision for a \"skin and bones\" architecture, were the steel frame was exposed internally and externally could never be fully realized.", "Mies also inspired the minimalism movement which fused Japanese architecture with zen gardens.Mies van der Rohe died on August 17, 1969, from esophageal cancer caused by his smoking habit.", "After cremation, his ashes were buried near Chicago's other famous architects in Chicago's Graceland Cemetery.", "His grave is marked by an intentionally unadorned, clean-line black slab of polished granite.While Mies' work had enormous influence and critical recognition, his approach failed to sustain a creative force as a style after his death and was eclipsed by the new wave of Post Modernism by the 1980s." ], [ "Archives", "The Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Archive, an administratively independent section of the Museum of Modern Art's department of architecture and design, was established in 1968 by the museum's trustees.", "It was founded in response to the architect's desire to bequeath his entire work to the museum.", "The archive consists of about nineteen thousand drawings and prints, one thousand of which are by the designer and architect Lilly Reich (1885–1947), Mies van der Rohe's close collaborator from 1927 to 1937; of written documents (primarily, the business correspondence) covering nearly the entire career of the architect; of photographs of buildings, models, and furniture; and of audiotapes, books, and periodicals.Archival materials are also held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago.", "The Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Collection, 1929–1969 (bulk 1948–1960) includes correspondence, articles, and materials related to his association with the Illinois Institute of Technology.", "The Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Metropolitan Structures Collection, 1961–1969, includes scrapbooks and photographs documenting Chicago projects.Other archives are held at the University of Illinois at Chicago (personal book collection), the Canadian Centre for Architecture (drawings and photos) in Montreal, the Newberry Library in Chicago (personal correspondence), and at the Library of Congress in Washington D.C. (professional correspondence)." ], [ "Tribute", "On March 27, 2012, Google celebrated Mies van der Rohe’s 126th Birthday with a doodle." ], [ "List of works", "A memorial to the assassinated Spartacist revolutionary leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, commissioned by Eduard Fuchs, president of the German Communist Party in Germany designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, built by Wilhelm Pieck, and inaugurated on June 13, 1926, later destroyed by the Nazis; Early career in Europe (1907–1938)* 1908 Riehl House – Residential home, Potsdam, Germany* 1911 Perls House – Residential home, Zehlendorf * 1913 Werner House – Residential home, Zehlendorf * 1917 Urbig House – Residential home, Potsdam* 1922 Kempner House – Residential home, Charlottenburg * 1922 Eichstaedt House – Residential home, Wannsee * 1922 Feldmann House – Residential home, Wilmersdorf * 1923 Ryder House – Residential home, Wiesbaden* 1925 Villa Wolf – Residential home, Guben* 1926 Mosler House – Residential home, Babelsberg * 1926 – Monument dedicated to Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, ''Zentralfriedhof Friedrichsfelde'', Berlin* 1927 Afrikanische Straße Apartments – Multi-Family Residential, Berlin, Germany * 1927 Weissenhof Estate – Housing Exhibition coordinated by Mies and with a contribution by him, Stuttgart * 1928 Haus Lange and Haus Esters – Residential home and an art museum, Krefeld * 1929 Barcelona Pavilion – World's Fair Pavilion, Barcelona, Spain* 1930 Villa Tugendhat – Residential home, Brno, Czechia, designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2001* 1930 Verseidag Factory – Dyeing and HE Silk Mill building Krefeld, Germany * 1932 Lemke House – Residential home, Weissensee; Buildings after emigration to the United States (1939–1960)* 1939–1958 – Illinois Institute of Technology Campus Master Plan, academic campus & buildings, Chicago, Illinois* 1949 The Promontory Apartments – Residential apartment complex, Chicago, Illinois* 1951 Sheridan-Oakdale Apartments (2933 N Sheridan Rd ) – Residential apartment complex, Chicago, Illinois* 1951 Lake Shore Drive Apartments – Residential apartment towers, Chicago* 1951 Algonquin Apartments – Residential apartments, Chicago, Illinois* 1951 Farnsworth House – Vacation home, Plano, Illinois* 1952 Arts Club of Chicago Interior Renovation – Art gallery, demolished in 1997, Chicago, Illinois* 1952 Robert H. McCormick House – Residential home, relocated to the Elmhurst Art Museum, Elmhurst, Illinois* 1954 Cullinan Hall – Museum of Fine Arts, Houston* 1956 Crown Hall, Illinois Institute of Technology College of Architecture – Academic building, Chicago, Illinois* 1956 900-910 North Lake Shore (Esplanade Apartments) – Residential apartment complex, Chicago, Illinois * 1957 Commonwealth Promenade Apartments (330–330 W Diversey Parkway) – Residential apartment complex, Chicago (1957)* 1958 Seagram Building – Office tower, New York City, New York* 1958 Caroline Wiess Law Building, Museum of Fine Art, Houston* 1959 Home Federal Savings and Loan Association Building – Office building, Des Moines, Iowa* 1959 Lafayette Park – Residential development, Detroit, Michigan.", "* 1960 Pavilion and Colonnade Apartments– Residential complex, Newark, New Jersey; Late career Worldwide (1961–69)* 1961 Bacardi Office Building – Office Building, Mexico City* 1962 Tourelle-Sur-Rive – Residential apartment complex of three towers, Nuns' Island, Montreal, Quebec, Canada* 1962 Home Federal Savings and Loan Association of Des Moines Building – Office Building, Des Moines, Iowa* 1962 One Charles Center – Office Tower, Baltimore, Maryland* 1963 2400 North Lakeview Apartments – Residential Apartment Complex, Chicago, Illinois * 1963 Morris Greenwald House – Vacation Home, Weston, Connecticut* 1964 Chicago Federal Center – Civic Complex, Chicago, Illinois** 1960–1964 Dirksen Federal Building – Office Tower, Chicago** Kluczynski Federal Building – Office Tower, Chicago** United States Post Office Loop Station – General Post Office, Chicago* 1964 Highfield House, 4000 North Charles – Originally Rental Apartments, and now Condominium Apartments, Baltimore, Maryland* 1965 University of Chicago School of Social Service Administration – Academic Building Chicago, Illinois* 1965 Richard King Mellon Hall – Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA* 1965 Meredith Hall – School of Journalism and Mass Communication, Drake University, Des Moines, IA* 1967 Westmount Square – Office & Residential Tower Complex, Westmount, Island of Montreal, Quebec, Canada* 1968 Neue Nationalgalerie – Modern Art Museum, Berlin, Germany* 1965–1968 Brown Pavilion, Museum of Fine Art, Houston* 1967–1969 Toronto-Dominion Centre – Office Tower Complex, Toronto, Ontario, Canada* 1969 Filling station – Nuns' Island, Montreal, Quebec, Canada (closed)* 1970 One Illinois Center – Office Tower, Chicago, Illinois (completed post-mortem)* 1972 Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial Library – District of Columbia Public Library, Washington, D.C. (completed post-mortem)* 1973 American Life Building – Louisville, Kentucky (completed after Mies's death by Bruno Conterato)* 1973 IBM Plaza – Office Tower, Chicago (completed post-mortem); Buildings on the Illinois Institute of Technology Campus (1939–1958)* 1943 Minerals & Metals Research Building – Research* 1945 Engineering Research Building – Research* 1946 Alumni Memorial Hall – Classroom* 1946 Wishnick Hall – Classroom* 1946 Perlstein Hall – Classroom* 1950 I.I.T.", "Boiler Plant – Academic* 1950 Institute of Gas Technology Building – Research* 1950 American Association of Railroads Administration Building (now the College of Music Building) – Administration* 1952 Mechanical Engineering Research Building I – Research* 1952 Carr Memorial Chapel – Religious* 1953 American Association of Railroads Mechanical Engineering Building – Research* 1953 Carman Hall at IIT – Dormitory* 1955 Cunningham Hall – Dormitory* 1955 Bailey Hall – Dormitory* 1955 I.I.T.", "Commons Building* 1956 Crown Hall – Academic, College of Architecture* 1957 Physics & Electrical Engineering Research Building – Research* 1957 Siegel Hall – Classroom* 1953 American Association of Railroads Laboratory Building – Research* 1958 Metals Technology Building Extension – Research" ], [ "See also", "*International style (architecture)*Barcelona chair" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Mies van der Rohe Society* Mies van der Rohe Foundation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Laundering" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Laundering''' may refer to:* Money laundering, disguising the origin of illegally gained wealth* Doing laundry, or washing clothes* Child laundering, the illegal acquisition of children through monetary transactions, etc.", "* Policy laundering, disguising the origin of legislation" ], [ "See also", "* List of laundry articles" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Le Corbusier" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Charles-Édouard Jeanneret''' (6 October 188727 August 1965), known as '''Le Corbusier''' ( , , ), was a Swiss-French architect, designer, painter, urban planner and writer, who was one of the pioneers of what is now regarded as modern architecture.", "He was born in Switzerland and acquired French nationality by naturalization on 19 September 1930.His career spanned five decades, in which he designed buildings in Europe, Japan, India, as well as North and South America.", "He considered that \"the roots of modern architecture are to be found in Viollet-le-Duc\".Dedicated to providing better living conditions for the residents of crowded cities, Le Corbusier was influential in urban planning, and was a founding member of the (CIAM).", "Le Corbusier prepared the master plan for the city of Chandigarh in India, and contributed specific designs for several buildings there, especially the government buildings.On 17 July 2016, seventeen projects by Le Corbusier in seven countries were inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites as The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement.Le Corbusier remains a controversial figure.", "Some of his urban planning ideas have been criticized for their indifference to pre-existing cultural sites, societal expression and equality, and his alleged ties with fascism, antisemitism, eugenics, and the dictator Benito Mussolini have resulted in some continuing contention.Le Corbusier also designed well-known furniture such as the LC4 Chaise Lounge Chair, and the ALC-3001 chair, both made of leather with metal framing." ], [ "Early life (1887–1904)", "Le Corbusier (Charles-Édouard Jeanneret), 1920, ''Nature morte'' (''Still Life''), oil on canvas, , Museum of Modern Art, New YorkCharles-Édouard Jeanneret was born on 6 October 1887 in La Chaux-de-Fonds, a small city in the French-speaking Neuchâtel canton in north-western Switzerland, in the Jura mountains, across the border from France.", "It was an industrial town, devoted to manufacturing watches.", "Among the unifying social structures of La Chaux-de-Fonds was the Loge L'Amitié, the Masonic lodge with its francophone moral, social, and philosophical ideas, including the symbolic iconography of the right angle (rectitude) and the compass (exactitude).", "Le Corbusier would later describe these as \"my guide, my choice\" and as his \"time-honored ideas, ingrained and deep-rooted in the intellect, like entries from a catechism.\"", "(He adopted the pseudonym ''Le Corbusier'' in 1920.)", "His father was an artisan who enamelled boxes and watches, and his mother taught piano.", "His elder brother Albert was an amateur violinist.", "He attended a kindergarten that used Fröbelian methods.Like his contemporaries Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier lacked formal training as an architect.", "He was attracted to the visual arts; at the age of fifteen, he entered the municipal art school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds which taught the applied arts connected with watchmaking.", "Three years later he attended the higher course of decoration, founded by the painter Charles L'Eplattenier, who had studied in Budapest and Paris.", "Le Corbusier wrote later that L'Eplattenier had made him \"a man of the woods\" and taught him about painting from nature.", "His father frequently took him into the mountains around the town.", "He wrote later, \"we were constantly on mountaintops; we grew accustomed to a vast horizon.\"", "His architecture teacher in the Art School was architect René Chapallaz, who had a large influence on Le Corbusier's earliest house designs.", "He reported later that it was the art teacher L'Eplattenier who made him choose architecture.", "\"I had a horror of architecture and architects,\" he wrote.", "\"...I was sixteen, I accepted the verdict and I obeyed.", "I moved into architecture.\"" ], [ "Travel and first houses (1905–1914)", "File:Cdffallet.jpg|Le Corbusier's student project, the Villa Fallet, a chalet in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland (1905)File:Maison blanche 01.jpg|The \"Maison Blanche\", built for Le Corbusier's parents in La Chaux-de-Fonds (1912)File:Maison blanche 05.jpg|Open interior of the \"Maison Blanche\" (1912)File:Villa Favre-Jacot 2.JPG|The Villa Favre-Jacot in Le Locle, Switzerland (1912)Le Corbusier began teaching himself by going to the library to read about architecture and philosophy, visiting museums, sketching buildings, and constructing them.", "In 1905, he and two other students, under the supervision of their teacher, René Chapallaz, designed and built his first house, the Villa Fallet, for the engraver Louis Fallet, a friend of his teacher Charles L'Eplattenier.", "Located on the forested hillside near Chaux-de-fonds, it was a large chalet with a steep roof in the local alpine style and carefully crafted coloured geometric patterns on the façade.", "The success of this house led to his construction of two similar houses, the Villas Jacquemet and Stotzer, in the same area.In September 1907, he made his first trip outside of Switzerland, going to Italy; then that winter travelling through Budapest to Vienna, where he stayed for four months and met Gustav Klimt and tried, without success, to meet Josef Hoffmann.", "In Florence, he visited the Florence Charterhouse in Galluzzo, which made a lifelong impression on him.", "\"I would have liked to live in one of what they called their cells,\" he wrote later.", "\"It was the solution for a unique kind of worker's housing, or rather for a terrestrial paradise.\"", "He travelled to Paris, and for fourteen months between 1908 and 1910 he worked as a draftsman in the office of the architect Auguste Perret, the pioneer of the use of reinforced concrete in residential construction and the architect of the Art Deco landmark Théâtre des Champs-Élysées.", "Two years later, between October 1910 and March 1911, he travelled to Germany and worked for four months in the office Peter Behrens, where Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius were also working and learning.In 1911, he travelled again with his friend August Klipstein for five months; this time he journeyed to the Balkans and visited Serbia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece, as well as Pompeii and Rome, filling nearly 80 sketchbooks with renderings of what he saw—including many sketches of the Parthenon, whose forms he would later praise in his work ''Vers une architecture'' (1923).", "He spoke of what he saw during this trip in many of his books, and it was the subject of his last book, ''Le Voyage d'Orient''.In 1912, he began his most ambitious project; a new house for his parents, also located on the forested hillside near La-Chaux-de-Fonds.", "The Jeanneret-Perret house was larger than the others, and in a more innovative style; the horizontal planes contrasted dramatically with the steep alpine slopes, and the white walls and lack of decoration were in sharp contrast with the other buildings on the hillside.", "The interior spaces were organized around the four pillars of the salon in the centre, foretelling the open interiors he would create in his later buildings.", "The project was more expensive to build than he imagined; his parents were forced to move from the house within ten years, and relocate to a more modest house.", "However, it led to a commission to build an even more imposing villa in the nearby village of Le Locle for a wealthy watch manufacturer, Georges Favre-Jacot.", "Le Corbusier designed the new house in less than a month.", "The building was carefully designed to fit its hillside site, and the interior plan was spacious and designed around a courtyard for maximum light, a significant departure from the traditional house." ], [ "Dom-ino House and Schwob House (1914–1918)", "''Maison Dom-Ino (Dom-ino House)'' During World War I, Le Corbusier taught at his old school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds.", "He concentrated on theoretical architectural studies using modern techniques.", "In December 1914, along with the engineer Max Dubois, he began a serious study of the use of reinforced concrete as a building material.", "He had first discovered concrete working in the office of Auguste Perret, the pioneer of reinforced concrete architecture in Paris, but now wanted to use it in new ways.", "\"Reinforced concrete provided me with incredible resources,\" he wrote later, \"and variety, and a passionate plasticity in which by themselves my structures will be the rhythm of a palace, and a Pompieen tranquillity.\"", "This led him to his plan for the Dom-Ino House (1914–15).", "This model proposed an open floor plan consisting of three concrete slabs supported by six thin reinforced concrete columns, with a stairway providing access to each level on one side of the floor plan.", "The system was originally designed to provide large numbers of temporary residences after World War I, producing only slabs, columns and stairways, and residents could build exterior walls with the materials around the site.", "He described it in his patent application as \"a juxtiposable system of construction according to an infinite number of combinations of plans.", "This would permit, he wrote, \"the construction of the dividing walls at any point on the façade or the interior.", "\"The Anatole Schwob House in La-Chaux-de-Fonds (1916–1918)Under this system, the structure of the house did not have to appear on the outside but could be hidden behind a glass wall, and the interior could be arranged in any way the architect liked.", "After it was patented, Le Corbusier designed several houses according to the system, which was all white concrete boxes.", "Although some of these were never built, they illustrated his basic architectural ideas which would dominate his works throughout the 1920s.", "He refined the idea in his 1927 book on the ''Five Points of a New Architecture''.", "This design, which called for the disassociation of the structure from the walls, and the freedom of plans and façades, became the foundation for most of his architecture over the next ten years.In August 1916, Le Corbusier received his largest commission ever, to construct a villa for the Swiss watchmaker Anatole Schwob, for whom he had already completed several small remodelling projects.", "He was given a large budget and the freedom to design not only the house but also to create the interior decoration and choose the furniture.", "Following the precepts of Auguste Perret, he built the structure out of reinforced concrete and filled the gaps with brick.", "The centre of the house is a large concrete box with two semicolumn structures on both sides, which reflects his ideas of pure geometrical forms.", "A large open hall with a chandelier occupied the centre of the building.", "\"You can see,\" he wrote to Auguste Perret in July 1916, \"that Auguste Perret left more in me than Peter Behrens.", "\"Le Corbusier's grand ambitions collided with the ideas and budget of his client and led to bitter conflicts.", "Schwob went to court and denied Le Corbusier access to the site, or the right to claim to be the architect.", "Le Corbusier responded, \"Whether you like it or not, my presence is inscribed in every corner of your house.\"", "Le Corbusier took great pride in the house and reproduced pictures in several of his books." ], [ "Painting, Cubism, Purism and ''L'Esprit Nouveau'' (1918–1922)", "Le Corbusier, 1921, ''Nature morte'' (''Still Life''), oil on canvas, 54 x 81 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne, ParisLe Corbusier, 1922, ''Nature morte verticale'' (''Vertical Still Life''), oil on canvas, , Kunstmuseum Basel Le Corbusier, 1920, ''Guitare verticale'' (2ème version), oil on canvas, , Fondation Le Corbusier, ParisLe Corbusier moved to Paris definitively in 1917 and began his architectural practise with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret (1896–1967), a partnership that would last until the 1950s, with an interruption in the World War II years.In 1918, Le Corbusier met the Cubist painter Amédée Ozenfant, in whom he recognised a kindred spirit.", "Ozenfant encouraged him to paint, and the two began a period of collaboration.", "Rejecting Cubism as irrational and \"romantic\", the pair jointly published their manifesto, ''Après le cubisme'' and established a new artistic movement, Purism.", "Ozenfant and Le Corbusier began writing for a new journal, ''L'Esprit Nouveau'', and promoted with energy and imagination his ideas of architecture.In the first issue of the journal, in 1920, Charles-Edouard Jeanneret adopted '''Le Corbusier''' (an altered form of his maternal grandfather's name, Lecorbésier) as a pseudonym, reflecting his belief that anyone could reinvent themselves.", "Adopting a single name to identify oneself was in vogue by artists in many fields during that era, especially in Paris.Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier did not build anything, concentrating his efforts on Purist theory and painting.", "In 1922, he and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Sèvres.They set up an architectural practice together.", "From 1927 to 1937 they worked together with Charlotte Perriand at the Le Corbusier-Pierre Jeanneret studio.", "In 1929 the trio prepared the \"House fittings\" section for the Decorative Artists Exhibition and asked for a group stand, renewing and widening the 1928 avant-garde group idea.", "This was refused by the Decorative Artists Committee.", "They resigned and founded the Union of Modern Artists (\"Union des artistes modernes\": UAM).His theoretical studies soon advanced into several different single-family house models.", "Among these, was the Maison \"Citrohan.\"", "The project's name was a reference to the French Citroën automaker, for the modern industrial methods and materials, Le Corbusier advocated using in the house's construction as well as how he intended the homes would be consumed, similar to other commercial products, like the automobile.As part of the Maison Citrohan model, Le Corbusier proposed a three-floor structure, with a double-height living room, bedrooms on the second floor, and a kitchen on the third floor.", "The roof would be occupied by a sun terrace.", "On the exterior, Le Corbusier installed a stairway to provide second-floor access from the ground level.", "Here, as in other projects from this period, he also designed the façades to include large uninterrupted banks of windows.", "The house used a rectangular plan, with exterior walls that were not filled by windows but left as white, stuccoed spaces.", "Le Corbusier and Jeanneret left the interior aesthetically spare, with any movable furniture made of tubular metal frames.", "Light fixtures usually comprised single, bare bulbs.", "Interior walls also were left white." ], [ "''Toward an Architecture'' (1920–1923)", "In 1922 and 1923, Le Corbusier devoted himself to advocating his new concepts of architecture and urban planning in a series of polemical articles published in ''L'Esprit Nouveau''.", "At the Paris Salon d'Automne in 1922, he presented his plan for the Ville Contemporaine, a model city for three million people, whose residents would live and work in a group of identical sixty-story tall apartment buildings surrounded by lower zig-zag apartment blocks and a large park.", "In 1923, he collected his essays from ''L'Esprit Nouveau'' published his first and most influential book, ''Towards an Architecture''.", "He presented his ideas for the future of architecture in a series of maxims, declarations, and exhortations, pronouncing that \"a grand epoch has just begun.", "There exists a new spirit.", "There already exist a crowd of works in the new spirit, they are found especially in industrial production.", "Architecture is suffocating in its current uses.", "\"Styles\" are a lie.", "Style is a unity of principles which animates all the work of a period and which result in a characteristic spirit...Our epoch determines each day its style..-Our eyes, unfortunately, don't know how to see it yet,\" and his most famous maxim, \"A house is a machine to live in.\"", "Most of the many photographs and drawings in the book came from outside the world of traditional architecture; the cover showed the promenade deck of an ocean liner, while others showed racing cars, aeroplanes, factories, and the huge concrete and steel arches of zeppelin hangars." ], [ "L'Esprit Nouveau Pavilion (1925)", "The Pavilion of the Esprit Nouveau (1925)The model of the Plan Voisin for the reconstruction of Paris displayed at the Pavilion of the Esprit NouveauAn important early work of Le Corbusier was the Esprit Nouveau Pavilion, built for the 1925 Paris International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts, the event which later gave Art Deco its name.", "Le Corbusier built the pavilion in collaboration with Amédée Ozenfant and with his cousin Pierre Jeanneret.", "Le Corbusier and Ozenfant had broken with Cubism and formed the Purism movement in 1918 and in 1920 founded their journal ''L'Esprit Nouveau''.", "In his new journal, Le Corbusier vividly denounced the decorative arts: \"Decorative Art, as opposed to the machine phenomenon, is the final twitch of the old manual modes, a dying thing.\"", "To illustrate his ideas, he and Ozenfant decided to create a small pavilion at the Exposition, representing his idea of the future urban housing unit.", "A house, he wrote, \"is a cell within the body of a city.", "The cell is made up of the vital elements which are the mechanics of a house...Decorative art is antistandardizational.", "Our pavilion will contain only standard things created by industry in factories and mass-produced, objects truly of the style of today...my pavilion will therefore be a cell extracted from a huge apartment building.", "\"Le Corbusier and his collaborators were given a plot of land located behind the Grand Palais in the centre of the Exposition.", "The plot was forested, and exhibitors could not cut down trees, so Le Corbusier built his pavilion with a tree in the centre, emerging through a hole in the roof.", "The building was a stark white box with an interior terrace and square glass windows.", "The interior was decorated with a few cubist paintings and a few pieces of mass-produced commercially available furniture, entirely different from the expensive one-of-a-kind pieces in the other pavilions.", "The chief organizers of the Exposition were furious and built a fence to partially hide the pavilion.", "Le Corbusier had to appeal to the Ministry of Fine Arts, which ordered that fence be taken down.Besides the furniture, the pavilion exhibited a model of his 'Plan Voisin', his provocative plan for rebuilding a large part of the centre of Paris.", "He proposed to bulldoze a large area north of the Seine and replace the narrow streets, monuments and houses with giant sixty-story cruciform towers placed within an orthogonal street grid and park-like green space.", "His scheme was met with criticism and scorn from French politicians and industrialists, although they were favourable to the ideas of Taylorism and Fordism underlying his designs.", "The plan was never seriously considered, but it provoked discussion concerning how to deal with the overcrowded poor working-class neighbourhoods of Paris, and it later saw the partial realization in the housing developments built in the Paris suburbs in the 1950s and 1960s.The Pavilion was ridiculed by many critics, but Le Corbusier, undaunted, wrote: \"Right now one thing is sure.", "1925 marks the decisive turning point in the quarrel between the old and new.", "After 1925, the antique-lovers will have virtually ended their lives .", ".", ".", "Progress is achieved through experimentation; the decision will be awarded on the field of battle of the 'new'.\"" ], [ "''The Decorative Art of Today'' (1925)", "In 1925, Le Corbusier combined a series of articles about decorative art from \"L'Esprit Nouveau\" into a book, ''L'art décoratif d'aujourd'hui'' (''The Decorative Art of Today'').", "The book was a spirited attack on the very idea of decorative art.", "His basic premise, repeated throughout the book, was: \"Modern decorative art has no decoration.\"", "He attacked with enthusiasm the styles presented at the 1925 Exposition of Decorative Arts: \"The desire to decorate everything about one is a false spirit and an abominable small perversion....The religion of beautiful materials is in its final death agony...The almost hysterical onrush in recent years toward this quasi-orgy of decor is only the last spasm of a death already predictable.\"", "He cited the 1912 book of the Austrian architect Adolf Loos \"Ornament and crime\", and quoted Loos's dictum, \"The more a people are cultivated, the more decor disappears.\"", "He attacked the deco revival of classical styles, what he called \"Louis Philippe and Louis XVI moderne\"; he condemned the \"symphony of color\" at the Exposition, and called it \"the triumph of assemblers of colors and materials.", "They were swaggering in colors...", "They were making stews out of fine cuisine.\"", "He condemned the exotic styles presented at the Exposition based on the art of China, Japan, India and Persia.", "\"It takes energy today to affirm our western styles.\"", "He criticized the \"precious and useless objects that accumulated on the shelves\" in the new style.", "He attacked the \"rustling silks, the marbles which twist and turn, the vermilion whiplashes, the silver blades of Byzantium and the Orient...Let's be done with it!", "\"\"Why call bottles, chairs, baskets and objects decorative?\"", "Le Corbusier asked.", "\"They are useful tools....The decor is not necessary.", "Art is necessary.\"", "He declared that in the future the decorative arts industry would produce only \"objects which are perfectly useful, convenient, and have a true luxury which pleases our spirit by their elegance and the purity of their execution and the efficiency of their services.", "This rational perfection and precise determinate creates the link sufficient to recognize a style.\"", "He described the future of decoration in these terms: \"The idea is to go work in the superb office of a modern factory, rectangular and well-lit, painted in white Ripolin (a major French paint manufacturer); where healthy activity and laborious optimism reign.\"", "He concluded by repeating \"Modern decoration has no decoration\".The book became a manifesto for those who opposed the more traditional styles of the decorative arts; In the 1930s, as Le Corbusier predicted, the modernized versions of Louis Philippe and Louis XVI furniture and the brightly coloured wallpapers of stylized roses were replaced by a more sober, more streamlined style.", "Gradually the modernism and functionality proposed by Le Corbusier overtook the more ornamental style.", "The shorthand titles that Le Corbusier used in the book, ''1925 Expo: Arts Deco'' were adapted in 1966 by the art historian Bevis Hillier for a catalogue of an exhibition on the style, and in 1968 in the title of a book, ''Art Deco of the 20s and 30s''.", "And thereafter the term \"Art Deco\" was commonly used as the name of the style." ], [ "Five Points of Architecture to Villa Savoye (1923–1931)", "File:Villa La Roche 2013.jpg|The Villa La Roche-Jeanneret (now Fondation Le Corbusier) in Paris (1923)File:Weissenhofsiedlung.jpg|Corbusier Haus (right) and Citrohan Haus in Weissenhof, Stuttgart, Germany (1927)File:VillaSavoye.jpg|The Villa Savoye in Poissy (1928–1931)The notoriety that Le Corbusier achieved from his writings and the Pavilion at the 1925 Exposition led to commissions to build a dozen residences in Paris and the Paris region in his \"purist style.\"", "These included the Maison La Roche/Albert Jeanneret (1923–1925), which now houses the Fondation Le Corbusier; the Maison Guiette in Antwerp, Belgium (1926); a residence for Jacques Lipchitz; the Maison Cook, and the Maison Planeix.", "In 1927, he was invited by the German Werkbund to build three houses in the model city of Weissenhof near Stuttgart, based on the Citroen House and other theoretical models he had published.", "He described this project in detail in one of his best-known essays, the ''Five Points of Architecture''.The following year he began the Villa Savoye (1928–1931), which became one of the most famous of Le Corbusier's works, and an icon of modernist architecture.", "Located in Poissy, in a landscape surrounded by trees and a large lawn, the house is an elegant white box poised on rows of slender pylons, surrounded by a horizontal band of windows which fill the structure with light.", "The service areas (parking, rooms for servants and laundry room) are located under the house.", "Visitors enter a vestibule from which a gentle ramp leads to the house itself.", "The bedrooms and salons of the house are distributed around a suspended garden; the rooms look both out at the landscape and into the garden, which provides additional light and air.", "Another ramp leads up to the roof, and a stairway leads down to the cellar under the pillars.Villa Savoye succinctly summed up the five points of architecture that he had elucidated in ''L'Esprit Nouveau'' and the book ''Vers une architecture'', which he had been developing throughout the 1920s.", "First, Le Corbusier lifted the bulk of the structure off the ground, supporting it by ''pilotis'', reinforced concrete stilts.", "These ''pilotis'', in providing the structural support for the house, allowed him to elucidate his next two points: a free façade, meaning non-supporting walls that could be designed as the architect wished, and an open floor plan, meaning that the floor space was free to be configured into rooms without concern for supporting walls.", "The second floor of the Villa Savoye includes long strips of ribbon windows that allow unencumbered views of the large surrounding garden, which constitute the fourth point of his system.", "The fifth point was the roof garden to compensate for the green area consumed by the building and replace it on the roof.", "A ramp rising from ground level to the third-floor roof terrace allows for a promenade architecturale through the structure.", "The white tubular railing recalls the industrial \"ocean-liner\" aesthetic that Le Corbusier much admired.Le Corbusier was quite rhapsodic when describing the house in ''Précisions'' in 1930: \"the plan is pure, exactly made for the needs of the house.", "It has its correct place in the rustic landscape of Poissy.", "It is Poetry and lyricism, supported by technique.\"", "The house had its problems; the roof persistently leaked, due to construction faults; but it became a landmark of modern architecture and one of the best-known works of Le Corbusier." ], [ "League of Nations Competition and Pessac Housing Project (1926–1930)", "Thanks to his passionate articles in L'Esprit Nouveau, his participation in the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition and the conferences he gave on the new spirit of architecture, Le Corbusier had become well known in the architectural world, though he had only built residences for wealthy clients.", "In 1926, he entered the competition for the construction of a headquarters for the League of Nations in Geneva with a plan for an innovative lakeside complex of modernist white concrete office buildings and meeting halls.", "There were 337 projects in competition.", "It appeared that the Corbusier's project was the first choice of the architectural jury, but after much behind-the-scenes manoeuvring, the jury declared it was unable to pick a single winner, and the project was given instead to the top five architects, who were all neoclassicists.", "Le Corbusier was not discouraged; he presented his plans to the public in articles and lectures to show the opportunity that the League of Nations had missed.=== The ''Cité Frugès'' ===In 1926, Le Corbusier received the opportunity he had been looking for; he was commissioned by a Bordeaux industrialist, Henry Frugès, a fervent admirer of his ideas on urban planning, to build a complex of worker housing, the Cité Frugès, at Pessac, a suburb of Bordeaux.", "Le Corbusier described Pessac as \"A little like a Balzac novel\", a chance to create a whole community for living and working.", "The Fruges quarter became his first laboratory for residential housing; a series of rectangular blocks composed of modular housing units located in a garden setting.", "Like the unit displayed at the 1925 Exposition, each housing unit had its own small terrace.", "The earlier villas he constructed all had white exterior walls, but for Pessac, at the request of his clients, he added colour; panels of brown, yellow and jade green, coordinated by Le Corbusier.", "Originally planned to have some two hundred units, it finally contained about fifty to seventy housing units, in eight buildings.", "Pessac became the model on a small scale for his later and much larger Cité Radieuse projects." ], [ "Founding of CIAM (1928) and Athens Charter", "In 1928, Le Corbusier took a major step toward establishing modernist architecture as the dominant European style.", "Le Corbusier had met with many of the leading German and Austrian modernists during the competition for the League of Nations in 1927.In the same year, the German Werkbund organized an architectural exposition at the Weissenhof Estate Stuttgart.", "Seventeen leading modernist architects in Europe were invited to design twenty-one houses; Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe played a major part.", "In 1927 Le Corbusier, Pierre Chareau and others proposed the foundation of an international conference to establish the basis for a common style.", "The first meeting of the ''Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne'' or International Congresses of Modern Architects (CIAM), was held in a château on Lake Leman in Switzerland 26–28 June 1928.Those attending included Le Corbusier, Robert Mallet-Stevens, Auguste Perret, Pierre Chareau and Tony Garnier from France; Victor Bourgeois from Belgium; Walter Gropius, Erich Mendelsohn, Ernst May and Mies van der Rohe from Germany; Josef Frank from Austria; Mart Stam and Gerrit Rietveld from the Netherlands, and Adolf Loos from Czechoslovakia.", "A delegation of Soviet architects was invited to attend, but they were unable to obtain visas.", "Later members included Josep Lluís Sert of Spain and Alvar Aalto of Finland.", "No one attended from the United States.", "A second meeting was organized in 1930 in Brussels by Victor Bourgeois on the topic \"Rational methods for groups of habitations\".", "A third meeting, on \"The functional city\", was scheduled for Moscow in 1932, but was cancelled at the last minute.", "Instead, the delegates held their meeting on a cruise ship travelling between Marseille and Athens.", "On board, they together drafted a text on how modern cities should be organized.", "The text, called The Athens Charter, after considerable editing by Le Corbusier and others, was finally published in 1943 and became an influential text for city planners in the 1950s and 1960s.", "The group met once more in Paris in 1937 to discuss public housing and was scheduled to meet in the United States in 1939, but the meeting was cancelled because of the war.", "The legacy of the CIAM was a roughly common style and doctrine which helped define modern architecture in Europe and the United States after World War II." ], [ "Projects (1928–1963)", "===Moscow projects (1928–1934)===Tsentrosoyuz, headquarters of Soviet trade unions, Moscow (1928–34)Le Corbusier saw the new society founded in the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution as a promising laboratory for his architectural ideas.", "He met the Russian architect Konstantin Melnikov during the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition in Paris, and admired the construction of Melnikov's constructivist USSR pavilion, the only truly modernist building in the Exposition other than his own Esprit Nouveau pavilion.", "At Melnikov's invitation, he travelled to Moscow, where he found that his writings had been published in Russian; he gave lectures and interviews and between 1928 and 1932 he constructed an office building for the Tsentrosoyuz, the headquarters of Soviet trade unions.In 1932, he was invited to take part in an international competition for the new Palace of the Soviets in Moscow, which was to be built on the site of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, demolished on Stalin's orders.", "Le Corbusier contributed a highly original plan, a low-level complex of circular and rectangular buildings and a rainbow-like arch from which the roof of the main meeting hall was suspended.", "To Le Corbusier's distress, his plan was rejected by Stalin in favour of a plan for a massive neoclassical tower, the highest in Europe, crowned with a statue of Vladimir Lenin.", "The Palace was never built; construction was stopped by World War II, a swimming pool took its place, and after the collapse of the USSR the cathedral was rebuilt on its original site.===Cité Universitaire, Immeuble Clarté and Cité de Refuge (1928–1933)===The Immeuble Clarté in Geneva (1930–1932)Between 1928 and 1934, as Le Corbusier's reputation grew, he received commissions to construct a wide variety of buildings.", "In 1928 he received a commission from the Soviet government to construct the headquarters of the Tsentrosoyuz, or central office of trade unions, a large office building whose glass walls alternated with plaques of stone.", "He built the Villa de Madrot in Le Pradet (1929–1931); and an apartment in Paris for Charles de Bestigui at the top of an existing building on the Champs-Élysées 1929–1932, (later demolished).", "In 1929–1930 he constructed a floating homeless shelter for the Salvation Army on the left bank of the Seine at the Pont d'Austerlitz.", "Between 1929 and 1933, he built a larger and more ambitious project for the Salvation Army, the Cité de Refuge, on rue Cantagrel in the 13th arrondissement of Paris.", "He also constructed the Swiss Pavilion in the Cité Universitaire in Paris with 46 units of student housing, (1929–33).", "He designed furniture to go with the building; the main salon was decorated with a montage of black-and-white photographs of nature.", "In 1948, he replaced this with a colourful mural he painted himself.", "In Geneva, he built a glass-walled apartment building with 45 units, the Immeuble Clarté.", "Between 1931 and 1945 he built an apartment building with fifteen units, including an apartment and studio for himself on the 6th and 7th floors, at 24 rue Nungesser-et-Coli in the 16th arrondissement in Paris.", "overlooking the Bois de Boulogne.", "His apartment and studio are owned today by the Fondation Le Corbusier and can be visited.===Ville Contemporaine, Plan Voisin and Cité Radieuse (1922–1939)===As the global Great Depression enveloped Europe, Le Corbusier devoted more and more time to his ideas for urban design and planned cities.", "He believed that his new, modern architectural forms would provide an organizational solution that would raise the quality of life for the working classes.", "In 1922 he had presented his model of the Ville Contemporaine, a city of three million inhabitants, at the Salon d'Automne in Paris.", "His plan featured tall office towers surrounded by lower residential blocks in a park setting.", "He reported that \"analysis leads to such dimensions, to such a new scale, and to such the creation of an urban organism so different from those that exist, that it that the mind can hardly imagine it.\"", "The Ville Contemporaine, presenting an imaginary city in an imaginary location, did not attract the attention that Le Corbusier wanted.", "For his next proposal, the Plan Voisin (1925), he took a much more provocative approach; he proposed to demolish a large part of central Paris and replace it with a group of sixty-story cruciform office towers surrounded by parkland.", "This idea shocked most viewers, as it was certainly intended to do.", "The plan included a multi-level transportation hub that included depots for buses and trains, as well as highway intersections, and an airport.", "Le Corbusier had the fanciful notion that commercial airliners would land between the huge skyscrapers.", "He segregated pedestrian circulation paths from the roadways and created an elaborate road network.", "Groups of lower-rise zigzag apartment blocks, set back from the street, were interspersed among the office towers.", "Le Corbusier wrote: \"The centre of Paris, currently threatened with death, threatened by exodus, is, in reality, a diamond mine...To abandon the centre of Paris to its fate is to desert in face of the enemy.\"", "As no doubt Le Corbusier expected, no one hurried to implement the Plan Voisin, but he continued working on variations of the idea and recruiting followers.", "In 1929, he travelled to Brazil where he gave conferences on his architectural ideas.", "He returned with drawings of his vision for Rio de Janeiro; he sketched serpentine multi-story apartment buildings on pylons, like inhabited highways, winding through Rio de Janeiro.In 1931, he developed a visionary plan for another city Algiers, then part of France.", "This plan, like his Rio Janeiro plan, called for the construction of an elevated viaduct of concrete, carrying residential units, which would run from one end of the city to the other.", "This plan, unlike his early Plan Voisin, was more conservative, because it did not call for the destruction of the old city of Algiers; the residential housing would be over the top of the old city.", "This plan, like his Paris plans, provoked discussion but never came close to realization.In 1935, Le Corbusier made his first visit to the United States.", "He was asked by American journalists what he thought about New York City skyscrapers; he responded, characteristically, that he found them \"much too small\".", "He wrote a book describing his experiences in the States, ''Quand Les cathédrales étaient blanches, Voyage au pays des timides'' (When Cathedrals were White; voyage to the land of the timid) whose title expressed his view of the lack of boldness in American architecture.He wrote a great deal but built very little in the late 1930s.", "The titles of his books expressed the combined urgency and optimism of his messages: ''Cannons?", "Munitions?", "No thank you, Lodging please!''", "(1938) and ''The lyricism of modern times and urbanism'' (1939).In 1928, the French Minister of Labour, Louis Loucheur, won the passage of French law on public housing, calling for the construction of 260,000 new housing units within five years.", "Le Corbusier immediately began to design a new type of modular housing unit, which he called the Maison Loucheur, which would be suitable for the project.", "These units were in size, made with metal frames, and were designed to be mass-produced and then transported to the site, where they would be inserted into frameworks of steel and stone; The government insisted on stone walls to win the support of local building contractors.", "The standardisation of apartment buildings was the essence of what Le Corbusier termed the ''Ville Radieuse'' or \"radiant city\", in a new book published in 1935.The Radiant City was similar to his earlier Contemporary City and Plan Voisin, with the difference that residences would be assigned by family size, rather than by income and social position.", "In his 1935 book, he developed his ideas for a new kind of city, where the principal functions; heavy industry, manufacturing, habitation and commerce, would be separated into their neighbourhoods, carefully planned and designed.", "However, before any units could be built, World War II intervened.===World War II and Reconstruction; ''Unité d'Habitation'' in Marseille (1939–1952)===File:Módulo de vivienda tipo de Unité d´Habitation.jpg|The modular design of the apartments inserted into the buildingFile:Cité radieuse.", "Intérieur 1.JPG|Internal \"street\" within the ''Unité d'Habitation'', Marseille (1947–1952)File:Unite d'Habitation salon.jpg|Salon and Terrace of an original unit of the ''Unité d'Habitation'', now at the ''Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine'' in Paris (1952)During the War and the German occupation of France, Le Corbusier did his best to promote his architectural projects.", "He moved to Vichy for a time, where the collaborationist government of Marshal Philippe Petain was located, offering his services for architectural projects, including his plan for the reconstruction of Algiers, but they were rejected.", "He continued writing, completing ''Sur les Quatres routes'' (On the Four Routes) in 1941.After 1942 Le Corbusier left Vichy for Paris.", "He became for a time a technical adviser at Alexis Carrel's eugenics foundation but resigned on 20 April 1944.In 1943 he founded a new association of modern architects and builders, the Ascoral, the Assembly of Constructors for a renewal of architecture, but there were no projects to build.When the war ended Le Corbusier was nearly sixty years old and he had not had a single project realized for ten years.", "He tried, without success, to obtain commissions for several of the first large reconstruction projects, but his proposals for the reconstruction of the town of Saint-Dié and for La Rochelle were rejected.", "Still, he persisted and finally found a willing partner in Raoul Dautry, the new Minister of Reconstruction and Town Planning.", "Dautry agreed to fund one of his projects, a \"''Unité habitation de grandeur conforme''\", or housing units of standard size, with the first one to be built in Marseille, which had been heavily damaged during the war.This was his first public commission and was a breakthrough for Le Corbusier.", "He gave the building the name of his pre-war theoretical project, the ''Cité Radieuse'', and followed the principles that he had studied before the war, proposing a giant reinforced-concrete framework into which modular apartments would fit like bottles into a bottle rack.", "Like the Villa Savoye, the structure was poised on concrete pylons though, because of the shortage of steel to reinforce the concrete, the pylons were more massive than usual.", "The building contained 337 duplex apartment modules to house a total of 1,600 people.", "Each module was three storeys high and contained two apartments, combined so each had two levels (see diagram above).", "The modules ran from one side of the building to the other and each apartment had a small terrace at each end.", "They were ingeniously fitted together like pieces of a Chinese puzzle, with a corridor slotted through the space between the two apartments in each module.", "Residents had a choice of twenty-three different configurations for the units.", "Le Corbusier designed furniture, carpets and lamps to go with the building, all purely functional; the only decoration was a choice of interior colours.", "The only mildly decorative features of the building were the ventilator shafts on the roof, which Le Corbusier made to look like the smokestacks of an ocean liner, a functional form that he admired.The building was designed not just to be a residence but to offer all the services needed for living.", "On every third floor, between the modules, there was a wide corridor, like an interior street, which ran the length of the building.", "This served as a sort of commercial street, with shops, eating places, a nursery school and recreational facilities.", "A running track and small stage for theatre performances were located on the roof.", "The building itself was surrounded by trees and a small park.Le Corbusier wrote later that the ''Unité d'Habitation'' concept was inspired by the visit he had made to the Florence Charterhouse at Galluzzo in Italy, in 1907 and 1910 during his early travels.", "He wanted to recreate, he wrote, an ideal place \"for meditation and contemplation\".", "He also learned from the monastery, he wrote, that \"standardization led to perfection\", and that \"all of his life a man labours under this impulse: to make the home the temple of the family\".", "The ''Unité d'Habitation'' marked a turning point in the career of Le Corbusier; in 1952, he was made a Commander of the Légion d'Honneur in a ceremony held on the roof of his new building.", "He had progressed from being an outsider and critic of the architectural establishment to its centre, as the most prominent French architect.===Postwar projects, United Nations headquarters (1947–1952)===The headquarters of the United Nations designed by Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer and Wallace K. Harrison (1947–1952)Le Corbusier made another almost identical Unité d'Habitation in Rezé-les-Nantes in the Loire-Atlantique Department between 1948 and 1952, and three more over the following years, in Berlin, Briey-en-Forêt and Firminy; and he designed a factory for the company of Claude and Duval, in Saint-Dié in the Vosges.", "In the post-Second World War decades, Le Corbusier's fame moved beyond architectural and planning circles as he became one of the leading intellectual figures of the time.In early 1947 Le Corbusier submitted a design for the headquarters of the United Nations, which was to be built beside the East River in New York.", "Instead of competition, the design was to be selected by a Board of Design Consultants composed of leading international architects nominated by member governments, including Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer of Brazil, Howard Robertson from Britain, Nikolai Bassov of the Soviet Union, and five others from around the world.", "The committee was under the direction of the American architect Wallace K. Harrison, who was also the architect for the Rockefeller family, which had donated the site for the building.Le Corbusier had submitted his plan for the Secretariat, called Plan 23 of the 58 submitted.", "In Le Corbusier's plan offices, council chambers and General Assembly Hall were in a single block in the centre of the site.", "He lobbied hard for his project, and asked the younger Brazilian architect, Niemeyer, to support and assist him with his plan.", "Niemeyer, to help Le Corbusier, refused to submit his design and did not attend the meetings until the Director, Harrison, insisted.", "Niemeyer then submitted his plan, Plan 32, with the office building and councils and General Assembly in separate buildings.", "After much discussion, the Committee chose Niemeyer's plan but suggested that he collaborate with Le Corbusier on the final project.", "Le Corbusier urged Niemeyer to put the General Assembly Hall in the centre of the site, though this would eliminate Niemeyer's plan to have a large plaza in the centre.", "Niemeyer agreed with Le Corbusier's suggestion, and the headquarters was built, with minor modifications, according to their joint plan.===Religious architecture (1950–63)===File:RonchampCorbu.jpg|The chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut in Ronchamp (1950–1955)File:Sainte Marie de La Tourette 2007.jpg|The convent of Sainte Marie de La Tourette near Lyon (1953–1960)File:Couvent de la Tourette - 11.JPG|Meeting room inside the Convent of Sainte Marie de la TouretteFile:EgliseSaintPierreLeCorbusierFirminy.jpg|Church of Saint-Pierre, Firminy (1960–2006)Le Corbusier was an avowed atheist, but he also had a strong belief in the ability of architecture to create a sacred and spiritual environment.", "In the postwar years, he designed two important religious buildings; the chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut at Ronchamp (1950–1955); and the Convent of Sainte Marie de La Tourette (1953–1960).", "Le Corbusier wrote later that he was greatly aided in his religious architecture by a Dominican father, Marie-Alain Couturier, who had founded a movement and review of modern religious art.Le Corbusier first visited the remote mountain site of Ronchamp in May 1950, saw the ruins of the old chapel, and drew sketches of possible forms.", "He wrote afterwards: \"In building this chapel, I wanted to create a place of silence, of peace, of prayer, of interior joy.", "The feeling of the sacred animated our effort.", "Some things are sacred, others aren't, whether they're religious or not.", "\"The second major religious project undertaken by Le Corbusier was the Convent of Sainte Marie de La Tourette in L'Arbresle in the Rhone Department (1953–1960).", "Once again it was Father Couturier who engaged Le Corbusier in the project.", "He invited Le Corbusier to visit the starkly simple and imposing 12th–13th century Le Thoronet Abbey in Provence, and also used his memories of his youthful visit to the Erna Charterhouse in Florence.", "This project involved not only a chapel, but a library, refectory, rooms for meetings and reflection, and dormitories for the nuns.", "For the living space he used the same Modulor concept for measuring the ideal living space that he had used in the Unité d'Habitation in Marseille; height under the ceiling of ; and width .Le Corbusier used raw concrete to construct the convent, which is placed on the side of a hill.", "The three blocks of dormitories are U, closed by the chapel, with a courtyard in the centre.", "The Convent has a flat roof and is placed on sculpted concrete pillars.", "Each of the residential cells has a small loggia with a concrete sunscreen looking out at the countryside.", "The centrepiece of the convent is the chapel, a plain box of concrete, which he called his \"Box of miracles.\"", "Unlike the highly finished façade of the Unité d'Habitation, the façade of the chapel is raw, unfinished concrete.", "He described the building in a letter to Albert Camus in 1957: \"I'm taken with the idea of a \"box of miracles\"....as the name indicates, it is a rectangular box made of concrete.", "It doesn't have any of the traditional theatrical tricks, but the possibility, as its name suggests, to make miracles.\"", "The interior of the chapel is extremely simple, only benches in a plain, unfinished concrete box, with light coming through a single square in the roof and six small bands on the sides.", "The Crypt beneath has intense blue, red and yellow walls, and illumination by sunlight channelled from above.", "The monastery has other unusual features, including floor to ceiling panels of glass in the meeting rooms, window panels that fragmented the view into pieces, and a system of concrete and metal tubes like gun barrels which aimed sunlight through coloured prisms and projected it onto the walls of the sacristy and to the secondary altars of the crypt on the level below.", "These were whimsically termed the \"\"machine guns\" of the sacristy and the \"light cannons\" of the crypt.In 1960, Le Corbusier began a third religious building, the Church of Saint Pierre in the new town of Firminy-Vert, where he had built a Unité d'Habitation and a cultural and sports centre.", "While he made the original design, construction did not begin until five years after his death, and work continued under different architects until it was completed in 2006.The most spectacular feature of the church is the sloping concrete tower that covers the entire interior, similar to that in the Assembly Building in his complex at Chandigarh.", "Windows high in the tower illuminates the interior.", "Le Corbusier originally proposed that tiny windows also project the form of a constellation on the walls.", "Later architects designed the church to project the constellation Orion.===Chandigarh (1951–1956)===File:Chandigarh High Court.jpg|The High Court of Justice, Chandigarh (1951–1956)File:Chandigarh Secretariat.jpg|Secretariat Building, Chandigarh (1952–1958)File:Palace of Assembly Chandigarh 2006.jpg|Palace of Assembly (Chandigarh) (1952–1961)Making of Chandigarh - A Vintage History.", "Title pageLe Corbusier's largest and most ambitious project was the design of Chandigarh, the capital city of the Punjab and Haryana States of India, created after India received independence in 1947.Le Corbusier was contacted in 1950 by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, and invited to propose a project.", "An American architect, Albert Mayer, had made a plan in 1947 for a city of 150,000 inhabitants, but the Indian government wanted a grander and more monumental city.", "Corbusier worked on the plan with two British specialists in urban design and tropical climate architecture, Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, and with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, who moved to India and supervised the construction until his death.Le Corbusier, as always, was rhapsodic about his project; \"It will be a city of trees,\" he wrote, \"of flowers and water, of houses as simple as those at the time of Homer, and of a few splendid edifices of the highest level of modernism, where the rules of mathematics will reign.\"", "His plan called for residential, commercial and industrial areas, along with parks and transportation infrastructure.", "In the middle was the capitol, a complex of four major government buildings; the Palace of the National Assembly, the High Court of Justice; the Palace of Secretariat of Ministers, and the Palace of the Governor.", "For financial and political reasons, the Palace of the Governor was dropped well into the construction of the city, throwing the final project somewhat off-balance.", "From the beginning, Le Corbusier worked, as he reported, \"Like a forced labourer.\"", "He dismissed the earlier American plan as \"Faux-Moderne\" and overly filled with parking spaces and roads.", "He intended to present what he had learned in forty years of urban study, and also to show the French government the opportunities they had missed in not choosing him to rebuild French cities after the War.", "His design made use of many of his favourite ideas: an architectural promenade, incorporating the local landscape and the sunlight and shadows into the design; the use of the Modulor to give a correct human scale to each element somewhat based on the proportions of the human body; and his favourite symbol, the open hand (\"The hand is open to give and to receive\").", "He placed a monumental open hand statue in a prominent place in the design.Le Corbusier's design called for the use of raw concrete, whose surface was not smoothed or polished and which showed the marks of the forms in which it dried.", "Pierre Jeanneret wrote to his cousin that he was in a continual battle with the construction workers, who could not resist the urge to smooth and finish the raw concrete, particularly when important visitors were coming to the site.", "At one point one thousand workers were employed on the site of the High Court of Justice.", "Le Corbusier wrote to his mother, \"It is an architectural symphony which surpasses all my hopes, which flashes and develops under the light in a way which is unimaginable and unforgettable.", "From far, from up close, it provokes astonishment; all made with raw concrete and a cement cannon.", "Adorable, and grandiose.", "In all the centuries no one has seen that.", "\"The High Court of Justice, begun in 1951, was finished in 1956.The building was radical in its design; a parallelogram topped with an inverted parasol.", "Along the walls were high concrete grills thick which served as sunshades.", "The entry featured a monumental ramp and columns that allowed the air to circulate.", "The pillars were originally white limestone, but in the 1960s they were repainted in bright colours, which better resisted the weather.The Secretariat, the largest building that housed the government offices, was constructed between 1952 and 1958.It is an enormous block long and eight levels high, served by a ramp which extends from the ground to the top level.", "The ramp was designed to be partly sculptural and partly practical.", "Since there were no modern building cranes at the time of construction, the ramp was the only way to get materials to the top of the construction site.", "The Secretariat had two features which were borrowed from his design for the Unité d'Habitation in Marseille: concrete grill sunscreens over the windows and a roof terrace.The most important building of the capitol complex was the Palace of Assembly (1952–61), which faced the High Court at the other end of a five hundred meter esplanade with a large reflecting pool in the front.", "This building features a central courtyard, over which is the main meeting hall for the Assembly.", "On the roof on the rear of the building is a signature feature of Le Corbusier, a large tower, similar in form to the smokestack of a ship or the ventilation tower of a heating plant.", "Le Corbusier added touches of colour and texture with an immense tapestry in the meeting hall and a large gateway decorated with enamel.", "He wrote of this building, \"A Palace magnificent in its effect, from the new art of raw concrete.", "It is magnificent and terrible; terrible meaning that there is nothing cold about it to the eyes.\"" ], [ "Later life and work (1955–1965)", "File:National museum of western art05s3200.jpg|The National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo (1954–1959)File:2023-0323-Harvard-Carpenter_Center_for_the_Visual_Arts-02-East_view.jpg|Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts in Cambridge, Massachusetts (1960–1963)File:Centre Le Corbusier - 'Teich' - Blatterwiese 2013-09-21 17-48-26.JPG|The Centre Le Corbusier in Zürich (1962–1967)The 1950s and 1960s were a difficult period for Le Corbusier's personal life: his wife Yvonne died in 1957 and his mother, to whom he was closely attached, died in 1960.He remained active in a wide variety of fields: in 1955 he published ''Poéme de l'angle droit'', a portfolio of lithographs, published in the same collection as the book ''Jazz'' by Henri Matisse.", "In 1958 he collaborated with the composer Edgar Varèse on a work called ''Le Poème électronique'', a show of sound and light, for the Philips Pavilion at the International Exposition in Brussels.", "In 1960 he published a new book, ''L'Atelier de la recherché patiente'' ''The workshop of patient research''), simultaneously published in four languages.", "He received growing recognition for his pioneering work in modernist architecture: in 1959 a successful international campaign was launched to have his Villa Savoye, threatened with demolition, declared a historic monument; it was the first time that a work by a living architect had received this distinction.", "In 1962, in the same year as the dedication of the Palace of the Assembly in Chandigarh, the first retrospective exhibit on his work was held at the National Museum of Modern Art in Paris.", "In 1964, in a ceremony held in his atelier on rue de Sèvres, he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur by Culture Minister André Malraux.His later architectural work was extremely varied and often based on designs of earlier projects.", "In 1952–1958 he designed a series of tiny holiday cabins, in size, for a site next to the Mediterranean at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin.", "He built a similar cabin for himself but the rest of the project was not realized until after his death.", "From 1953–to 1957 he designed a residential building for Brazilian students for the Cité de la Université in Paris.", "Between 1954 and 1959 he built the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo.", "His other projects included a cultural centre and stadium for the town of Firminy, where he had built his first housing project (1955–1958), and a stadium in Baghdad, Iraq (much altered since its construction).", "He also constructed three new ''Unités d'Habitation'' apartment blocks on the model of the original in Marseille, the first in Berlin (1956–1958), the second in Briey-en-Forêt in the Meurthe-et-Moselle Department and the third (1959–1967) in Firminy.", "From 1960–to 1963 he built his only building in the United States, the Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts in Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "Jørn Utzon, the architect of the Sydney Opera House, commissioned Le Corbusier to create furnishings for the nascent opera house.", "Le Corbusier designed a tapestry, ''Les Dés Sont Jetés'', which was completed in 1960.Le Corbusier died of a heart attack at age 77 in 1965 after swimming on the French Riviera.", "At the time of his death several projects were on the drawing board: the church of Saint-Pierre in Firminy, finally completed in modified form in 2006, a Palace of Congresses for Strasbourg (1962–65) and a hospital in Venice (1961–1965), which were never built.", "Le Corbusier designed an art gallery beside the lake in Zürich for gallery owner Heidi Weber in 1962–1967.Now called the Centre Le Corbusier, it is one of his last finished works." ], [ "Estate", "The holiday cabin where he spent his last days in Roquebrune-Cap-MartinThe Fondation Le Corbusier (FLC) functions as his official estate.", "The US copyright representative for the ''Fondation Le Corbusier'' is the Artists Rights Society." ], [ "Ideas", "===''The Five Points of a Modern Architecture''===Barrio de las Flores, Coruña, Galicia, (Spain), built under the influence of Le Corbusier.Le Corbusier defined the principles of his new architecture in ''Les cinq points de l'architecture moderne'', published in 1927, and co-authored by his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret.", "They summarized the lessons he had learned in the previous years, which he put literally into concrete form in his villas constructed in the late 1920s, most dramatically in the Villa Savoye (1928–1931).The five points are:* The '''Pilotis''', or pylon.", "The building is raised on reinforced concrete pylons, which allows for free circulation on the ground level, and eliminates dark and damp parts of the house.", "* The '''Roof Terrace'''.", "The sloping roof is replaced by a flat roof; the roof can be used as a garden, for promenades, for sports or a swimming pool.", "* The '''Free Plan'''.", "Load-bearing walls are replaced by steel or reinforced concrete columns, so the interior can be freely designed, and interior walls can be put anywhere, or left out entirely.", "The structure of the building is not visible from the outside.", "* The '''Ribbon Window'''.", "Since the walls do not support the house, the windows can run the entire length of the house, so all rooms can get equal light.", "* The '''Free Façade'''.", "Since the building is supported by columns in the interior, the façade can be much lighter and more open or made entirely of glass.", "There is no need for lintels or other structures around the windows.===\"Architectural Promenade\"===The \"Architectural Promenade\" was another idea dear to Le Corbusier, which he particularly put into play in his design of the Villa Savoye.", "In 1928, in ''Une Maison, un Palais'', he described it: \"Arab architecture gives us a precious lesson: it is best appreciated in walking, on foot.", "It is in walking, in going from one place to another, that you see develop the features of the architecture.", "In this house (Villa Savoye) you find a veritable architectural promenade, offering constantly varying aspects, unexpected, sometimes astonishing.\"", "The promenade at Villa Savoye, Le Corbusier wrote, both in the interior of the house and on the roof terrace, often erased the traditional difference between the inside and outside.===''Ville Radieuse'' and Urbanism===In the 1930s, Le Corbusier expanded and reformulated his ideas on urbanism, eventually publishing them in ''La Ville radieuse'' (The Radiant City) in 1935.Perhaps the most significant difference between the Contemporary City and the Radiant City is that the latter abandoned the class-based stratification of the former; housing was now assigned according to family size, not economic position.", "Some have read dark overtones into ''The Radiant City'': from the \"astonishingly beautiful assemblage of buildings\" that was Stockholm, for example, Le Corbusier saw only \"frightening chaos and saddening monotony.\"", "He dreamed of \"cleaning and purging\" the city, bringing \"a calm and powerful architecture\"—referring to steel, plate glass, and reinforced concrete.", "Although Le Corbusier's designs for Stockholm did not succeed, later architects took his ideas and partly \"destroyed\" the city with them.Le Corbusier hoped that politically minded industrialists in France would lead the way with their efficient Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models to reorganize society.", "As Norma Evenson has put it, \"the proposed city appeared to some an audacious and compelling vision of a brave new world, and to others, a frigid megalomaniacally scaled negation of the familiar urban ambient.", "\"Le Corbusier \"His ideas—his urban planning and his architecture—are viewed separately,\" Perelman noted, \"whereas they are the same thing.", "\"In ''La Ville radieuse'', he conceived an essentially apolitical society, in which the bureaucracy of economic administration effectively replaces the state.Le Corbusier was heavily indebted to the thought of the 19th-century French utopians Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier.", "There is a noteworthy resemblance between the concept of the unité and Fourier's phalanstery.", "From Fourier, Le Corbusier adopted at least in part his notion of administrative, rather than political, government.===Modulor===The Modulor was a standard model of the human form which Le Corbusier devised to determine the correct amount of living space needed for residents in his buildings.", "It was also his rather original way of dealing with differences between the metric system and the British or American system since the Modulor was not attached to either one.Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his Modulor system for the scale of architectural proportion.", "He saw this system as a continuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's \"Vitruvian Man\", the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others who used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and function of architecture.", "In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusier based the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the double unit.", "Many scholars see the Modulor as a humanistic expression but it is also argued that: \"It's exactly the opposite (...) It's the mathematization of the body, the standardization of the body, the rationalization of the body.", "\"He took Leonardo's suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor system.Le Corbusier's 1927 Villa Stein in Garches exemplified the Modulor system's application.", "The villa's rectangular ground plan, elevation, and inner structure closely approximate golden rectangles.Le Corbusier placed systems of harmony and proportion at the centre of his design philosophy, and his faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden section and the Fibonacci series, which he described as \"rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another.", "And these rhythms are at the very root of human activities.", "They resound in Man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability which causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages, and the learned.", "\"===Open Hand===''Open Hand Monument'' in Chandigarh, IndiaThe Open Hand (La Main Ouverte) is a recurring motif in Le Corbusier's architecture, a sign for him of \"peace and reconciliation.", "It is open to give and open to receive.\"", "The largest of the many Open Hand sculptures that Le Corbusier created is a version in Chandigarh, India, known as ''Open Hand Monument''." ], [ "Furniture", "Le Corbusier was an eloquent critic of the finely crafted, hand-made furniture, made with rare and exotic woods, inlays and coverings, presented at the 1925 Exposition of Decorative Arts.", "Following his usual method, Le Corbusier first wrote a book with his theories of furniture, complete with memorable slogans.", "In his 1925 book ''L'Art Décoratif d'aujourd'hui'', he called for furniture that used inexpensive materials and could be mass-produced.", "Le Corbusier described three different furniture types: ''type-needs'', ''type-furniture'', and ''human-limb objects''.", "He defined human-limb objects as: \"Extensions of our limbs and adapted to human functions that are type-needs and type-functions, therefore type-objects and type-furniture.", "The human-limb object is a docile servant.", "A good servant is discreet and self-effacing to leave his master free.", "Certainly, works of art are tools, beautiful tools.", "And long live the good taste manifested by choice, subtlety, proportion, and harmony\".", "He further declared: \"Chairs are architecture, sofas are bourgeois\".Frame of an LC4 chair by Le Corbusier and Perriand (1927–28) at Museum of Decorative Arts, ParisLe Corbusier first relied on ready-made furniture from Thonet to furnish his projects, such as his pavilion at the 1925 Exposition.", "In 1928, following the publication of his theories, he began experimenting with furniture design.", "In 1928, he invited the architect Charlotte Perriand to join his studio as a furniture designer.", "His cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, also collaborated on many of the designs.", "For the manufacture of his furniture, he turned to the German firm Gebrüder Thonet, which had begun making chairs with tubular steel, a material originally used for bicycles, in the early 1920s.", "Le Corbusier admired the design of Marcel Breuer and the Bauhaus, who in 1925 had begun making sleek modern tubular club chairs.", "Mies van der Rohe had begun making his version in a sculptural curved form with a cane seat in 1927.The first results of the collaboration between Le Corbusier and Perriand were three types of chairs made with chrome-plated tubular steel frames: The LC4, Chaise Longue, (1927–28), with a covering of cowhide, which gave it a touch of exoticism; the ''Fauteuil Grand Confort'' (LC3) (1928–29), a club chair with a tubular frame which resembled the comfortable Art Deco club chairs that became popular in the 1920s; and the ''Fauteuil à dossier vascular'' (LC4) (1928–29), a low seat suspended in a tubular steel frame, also with cowhide upholstery.", "These chairs were designed specifically for two of his projects, the ''Maison la Roche'' in Paris and a pavilion for Barbara and Henry Church.", "All three clearly showed the influence of Mies van der Rohe and Marcel Breuer.", "The line of furniture was expanded with additional designs for Le Corbusier's 1929 installation, 'Equipment for the Home'.", "Despite the intention of Le Corbusier that his furniture should be inexpensive and mass-produced, his pieces were originally costly to make and were not mass-produced until many years later, when he was famous." ], [ "Controversies", "There is debate over the apparently variable or contradictory nature of Le Corbusier's political views.", "In the 1920s, he co-founded and contributed articles about urbanism to the fascist journals ''Plans'', ''Prélude'' and ''L'Homme Réel''.", "He also penned pieces in favour of Nazi antisemitism for those journals, as well as \"hateful editorials\".", "Between 1925 and 1928, Le Corbusier had connections to Le Faisceau, a short-lived French fascist party led by Georges Valois.", "(Valois later became an anti-fascist.)", "Le Corbusier knew another former member of Faisceau, Hubert Lagardelle, a former labor leader and syndicalist who had become disaffected with the political left.", "In 1934, after Lagardelle had obtained a position at the French embassy in Rome, he arranged for Le Corbusier to lecture on architecture in Italy.", "Lagardelle later served as minister of labor in the pro-Axis Vichy regime.", "While Le Corbusier sought commissions from the Vichy regime, particularly the redesign of Marseille after its Jewish population had been forcefully removed, he was unsuccessful, and the only appointment he received from it was membership of a committee studying urbanism.", "Alexis Carrel, a eugenicist surgeon, appointed Le Corbusier to the Department of Bio-Sociology of the ''Foundation for the Study of Human Problems'', an institute promoting eugenics policies under the Vichy regime.Le Corbusier has been accused of antisemitism.", "He wrote to his mother in October 1940, as the Vichy government enacted anti-Jewish laws: \"The Jews are having a bad time.", "I occasionally feel sorry.", "But it appears their blind lust for money has rotted the country.\"", "He was also accused of belittling the Muslim population of Algeria, then part of France.", "When Le Corbusier proposed a plan for the rebuilding of Algiers, he condemned the existing housing for European Algerians, complaining that it was inferior to that inhabited by indigenous Algerians: \"the civilized live like rats in holes\" while \"the barbarians live in solitude, in well-being.\"", "His plan for rebuilding Algiers was rejected, and thereafter Le Corbusier mostly avoided politics." ], [ "Criticism", "In his eulogy to Le Corbusier at the memorial ceremony for the architect in the courtyard of the Louvre on 1 September 1965, French Culture Minister André Malraux declared, \"Le Corbusier had some great rivals, but none of them had the same significance in the revolution of architecture, because none bore insults so patiently and for so long.", "\"Later criticism of Le Corbusier was directed at his ideas on urban planning.", "In 1998, the architectural historian Witold Rybczynski wrote in ''Time'' magazine: \"He called it the Ville Radieuse, the Radiant City.", "Despite the poetic title, his urban vision was authoritarian, inflexible and simplistic.", "Wherever it was tried—in Chandigarh by Le Corbusier himself or in Brasilia by his followers—it failed.", "Standardization proved inhuman and disorienting.", "The open spaces were inhospitable; the bureaucratically imposed plan was socially destructive.", "In the US, the Radiant City took the form of vast urban-renewal schemes and regimented public housing projects that damaged the urban fabric beyond repair.", "Today, these megaprojects are being dismantled, as superblocks give way to rows of houses fronting streets and sidewalks.", "Downtowns have discovered that combining, not separating, different activities is the key to success.", "So is the presence of lively residential neighbourhoods, old as well as new.", "Cities have learned that preserving history makes more sense than starting from zero.", "It has been an expensive lesson, and not one that Le Corbusier intended, but it too is part of his legacy.", "\"Technological historian and architecture critic Lewis Mumford wrote in ''Yesterday's City of Tomorrow'' that the extravagant heights of Le Corbusier's skyscrapers had no reason for existence apart from the fact that they had become technological possibilities.", "The open spaces in his central areas had no reason for existence either, Mumford wrote, since on the scale he imagined, there was no motive during the business day for pedestrian circulation in the office quarter.", "By \"mating utilitarian and financial image of the skyscraper city to the romantic image of the organic environment, Le Corbusier had produced a sterile hybrid.", "\"The public housing projects influenced by his ideas have been criticized for isolating poor communities in monolithic high-rises and breaking the social ties integral to a community's development.", "One of his most influential detractors has been Jane Jacobs, who delivered a scathing critique of Le Corbusier's urban design theories in her seminal work ''The Death and Life of Great American Cities''.For some critics, the urbanism of Le Corbusier was the model for a fascist state.", "These critics cited Le Corbusier himself when he wrote that \"not all citizens could become leaders.", "The technocratic elite, the industrialists, financiers, engineers, and artists would be located in the city centre, while the workers would be removed to the fringes of the city\".Alessandro Hseuh-Bruni wrote in \"Le Corbusier's Fatal Flaws – A Critique of Modernism\" that \"In addition to setting the stage for infrastructural developments to come, Le Corbusier's blueprints and models, while not so well-regarded by urban planners and street dwellers alike, also examined the sociological side of cities in great detail.", "World War II left millions dead and transformed the urban landscape throughout much of Europe, from England to the Soviet Union, and housing on a mass scale was necessary.", "Le Corbusier personally took this as a challenge to accommodate the masses on an unprecedented scale.", "This mission statement manifested itself in the form of \"Cité Radieuse\" (The Radiant City), located in Marseille, France.", "The construction of this utopian sanctuary was dependent on the destruction of traditional neighbourhoods – he showed no regard for French cultural heritage and tradition.", "Entire neighbourhoods were ravaged to make way for these dense, uniform concrete blocks.", "If he had his way, Paris' elite Marais community would have been destroyed.", "In addition, the theme of segregation that plagued earlier models of Le Corbusier's continued in this supposed utopian vision, with the wealthy elite being the only ones to access the luxuries of modernism.\"" ], [ "Influence", "Gustavo Capanema Palace, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)Le Corbusier was concerned about problems he saw in industrial cities at the turn of the 20th century.", "He thought that industrial housing techniques led to crowding, dirtiness, and a lack of a moral landscape.", "He was a leader of the modernist movement to create better-living conditions and a better society through housing.", "Ebenezer Howard's ''Garden Cities of Tomorrow'' heavily influenced Le Corbusier and his contemporaries.Le Corbusier revolutionized urban planning, and was a founding member of the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM).", "One of the first to realize how the automobile would change human society, Le Corbusier conceived the city of the future with large apartment buildings isolated in a park-like setting on pilotis.", "Le Corbusier's plans were adopted by builders of public housing in Europe and the United States.", "In Great Britain, urban planners turned to Le Corbusier's \"Cities in the Sky\" as a cheaper method of building public housing from the late 1950s.", "Le Corbusier criticized any effort at ornamentation of the buildings.Many skyscrapers in Hong Kong and Frankfurt have been inspired by Le Corbusier, and his style is still used as influence for buildings worldwide." ], [ "Fondation Le Corbusier", "Le Corbusier, work reproduced in Život 2 (1922)The Fondation Le Corbusier is a private foundation and archive honoring the work of Le Corbusier.", "It operates Maison La Roche, a museum located in the 16th arrondissement at 8–10, square du Dr Blanche, Paris, France, which is open daily except for Sunday.The foundation was established in 1968.It now owns Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (which form the foundation's headquarters), as well as the apartment occupied by Le Corbusier from 1933 to 1965 at rue Nungesser et Coli in Paris 16e, and the \"Small House\" he built for his parents in Corseaux on the shores of Lac Leman (1924).Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (1923–24), also known as the La Roche-Jeanneret house, is a pair of semi-detached houses that was Le Corbusier's third commission in Paris.", "They are laid out at right angles to each other, with iron, concrete, and blank, white façades setting off a curved two-story gallery space.", "Maison La Roche is now a museum containing about 8,000 original drawings, studies and plans by Le Corbusier (in collaboration with Pierre Jeanneret from 1922 to 1940), as well as about 450 of his paintings, about 30 enamels, about 200 other works on paper, and a sizable collection of written and photographic archives.", "It describes itself as the world's largest collection of Le Corbusier drawings, studies, and plans." ], [ "Awards", "* In 1937, Le Corbusier was named Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur.", "In 1945, he was promoted to Officier of the Légion d'honneur.", "In 1952, he was promoted to Commandeur of the Légion d'honneur.", "Finally, on 2 July 1964, Le Corbusier was named Grand Officier of the Légion d'honneur.", "* He received the Frank P. Brown Medal and AIA Gold Medal in 1961.", "* The University of Cambridge awarded Le Corbusier an honorary degree in June 1959." ], [ "World Heritage Site", "In 2016, seventeen of Le Corbusier's buildings spanning seven countries were identified as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, reflecting \"outstanding contribution to the Modern Movement\"." ], [ "Memorials", "Le Corbusier's portrait was featured on the 10 Swiss francs banknote, pictured with his distinctive eyeglasses.The following place-names carry his name:* Place Le Corbusier, Paris, near the site of his ''atelier'' on the Rue de Sèvres* Le Corbusier Boulevard, Laval, Quebec, Canada* Place Le Corbusier in his hometown of La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland* Le Corbusier Street in the ''partido'' of Malvinas Argentinas, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina* Le Corbusier Street in ''Le Village Parisien'' of Brossard, Quebec, Canada* Le Corbusier Promenade, a promenade along the water at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin* Le Corbusier Museum, Sector – 19 Chandigarh, India* Le Corbusier Museum in Stuttgart am Weissenhof" ], [ "Works", "* 1923: Villa La Roche, Paris, France* 1925: Villa Jeanneret, Paris, France* 1926: Cité Frugès, Pessac, France* 1928: Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine, France* 1928: Villa Baizeau, Tunis, Tunisia* 1929: Cité du Refuge, Armée du Salut, Paris, France* 1931: Palace of the Soviets, Moscow, USSR (project)* 1931: Immeuble Clarté, Geneva, Switzerland* 1933: Tsentrosoyuz, Moscow, USSR* 1947–1952: Unité d'Habitation, Marseille, France* 1949–1952: United Nations headquarters, New York City, U.S. (Consultant)* 1949–1953: Curutchet House, La Plata, Argentina (project manager: Amancio Williams)* 1950–1954: Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, France* 1951: Maisons Jaoul, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France* 1951: Buildings in Ahmedabad, India** 1951: Sanskar Kendra Museum, Ahmedabad** 1951: ATMA House** 1951: Villa Sarabhai, Ahmedabad** 1951: Villa Shodhan, Ahmedabad** 1951: Villa of Chinubhai Chimanlal, Ahmedabad* 1952: Unité d'Habitation of Nantes-Rezé, Nantes, France* 1952–1959: Buildings in Chandigarh, India** 1952: Palace of Justice** 1952: Museum and Gallery of Art** 1953: Secretariat Building** 1953: Governor's Palace** 1955: Palace of Assembly** 1959: Government College of Art (GCA) and the Chandigarh College of Architecture (CCA)* 1957: Maison du Brésil, Cité Universitaire, Paris, France* 1957–1960: Sainte Marie de La Tourette, near Lyon, France (with Iannis Xenakis)* 1957: Unité d'Habitation of Berlin-Charlottenburg, Flatowallee 16, Berlin, Germany* 1962: Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.* 1964–1969: Firminy-Vert, France** 1964: Unité d'Habitation of Firminy-Vert** 1965: Maison de la Culture de Firminy* 1967: Heidi Weber Museum (Centre Le Corbusier), Zürich, Switzerland" ], [ "Books by Le Corbusier", "* 1918: ''Après le cubisme'' (''After Cubism''), with Amédée Ozenfant* 1923: ''Vers une architecture'' (''Towards an Architecture'') (frequently mistranslated as \"Towards a New Architecture\")* 1925: ''Urbanisme'' (''Urbanism'')* 1925: ''La Peinture moderne'' (''Modern Painting''), with Amédée Ozenfant* 1925: ''L'Art décoratif d'aujourd'hui'' (''The Decorative Arts of Today'')* 1930: ''Précisions sur un état présent de l'architecture et de l'urbanisme'' (''Precisions on the present state of architecture and urbanism'')* 1931: ''Premier clavier de couleurs'' (''First Color Keyboard'')* 1935: ''Aircraft''* 1935: ''La Ville radieuse'' (''The Radiant City'')* 1942: ''Charte d'Athènes'' (''Athens Charter'')* 1943: ''Entretien avec les étudiants des écoles d'architecture'' (''A Conversation with Architecture Students'')* 1945: ''Les Trois établissements Humains'' (''The Three Human Establishments'')* 1948: ''Le Modulor'' (''The Modulor'')* 1953: ''Le Poeme de l'Angle Droit'' (''The Poem of the Right Angle'')* 1955: ''Le Modulor 2'' (''The Modulor 2'')* 1959: ''Deuxième clavier de couleurs'' (''Second Colour Keyboard'')* 1964: ''Quand les Cathédrales Etáient Blanches'' (''When the Cathedrals were White'')* 1966: ''Le Voyage d'Orient'' (''The Voyage to the East'')" ], [ "See also", "* Butterfly roof* Crystal Cubism* Fabien Vienne* Mathematics and art* Raoul Albert La Roche - Swiss donator and collector of art" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * Sarbjit Bahga, Surinder Bahga (2014) ''Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret: The Indian Architecture'', CreateSpace, .", "* * Behrens, Roy R. (2005).", "''Cook Book: Gertrude Stein, William Cook and Le Corbusier''.", "Dysart, Iowa: Bobolink Books.", ".", "* Brooks, H. Allen (1999) ''Le Corbusier's Formative Years: Charles-Edouard Jeanneret at La Chaux-de-Fonds'', Paperback Edition, University of Chicago Press, * Eliel, Carol S. (2002).", "''L'Esprit Nouveau: Purism in Paris, 1918–1925''.", "New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.", ".", "* Curtis, William J.R. (1994) ''Le Corbusier: Ideas and Forms'', Phaidon, .", "* * Frampton, Kenneth.", "(2001).", "''Le Corbusier'', London, Thames and Hudson.", "* Jencks, Charles (2000) ''Le Corbusier and the Continual Revolution in Architecture'', The Monacelli Press, .", "* Jornod, Naïma and Jornod, Jean-Pierre (2005) ''Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret), catalogue raisonné de l'oeuvre peint'', Skira, .", "* * Korolija Fontana-Giusti, Gordana.", "(2015) 'Transgression and Ekphrasis in Le Corbusier's ''Journey to the East''' in ''Transgression: Towards the Expanded Field in Architecture'', edited by Louis Rice and David Littlefield, London: Routledge, 57–75, .", "* * * Solitaire, Marc (2016) ''Au retour de La Chaux-de-Fonds: Le Corbusier & Froebel'', editions Wiking, .", "* * Von Moos, Stanislaus (2009) ''Le Corbusier: Elements of A Synthesis'', Rotterdam, 010 Publishers.", "* Weber, Nicholas Fox (2008) ''Le Corbusier: A Life'', Alfred A. Knopf, ." ], [ "External links", "* Le Corbusier architectural drawings, 1935–1961.Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University.", "* Fondation Le Corbusier – Official site* Projects by Le Corbusier – ArchDaily* Le Corbusier's Working Lifestyle: 'Working with Le Corbusier'* Plummer, Henry.", "''Cosmos of Light: The Sacred Architecture of Le Corbusier''.", "Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ludovico Ariosto" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ludovico Ariosto''' (; 8 September 1474 – 6 July 1533) was an Italian poet.", "He is best known as the author of the romance epic ''Orlando Furioso'' (1516).", "The poem, a continuation of Matteo Maria Boiardo's ''Orlando Innamorato'', describes the adventures of Charlemagne, Orlando, and the Franks as they battle against the Saracens with diversions into many sideplots.", "The poem is transformed into a satire of the chivalric tradition.", "Ariosto composed the poem in the ottava rima rhyme scheme and introduced narrative commentary throughout the work.Ariosto also coined the term \"humanism\" (in Italian, ''umanesimo'') for choosing to focus upon the strengths and potential of humanity, rather than only upon its role as subordinate to God.", "This led to Renaissance humanism." ], [ "Birth and early life", "Entrance to the villa where Ariosto was bornAriosto was born in Reggio nell'Emilia, where his father Niccolò Ariosto was commander of the citadel.", "He was the oldest of 10 children and was seen as the successor to the patriarchal position of his family.", "From his earliest years, Ludovico was very interested in poetry, but he was obliged by his father to study law.After five years of law, Ariosto was allowed to read classics under Gregorio da Spoleto.", "Ariosto's studies of Greek and Latin literature were cut short by Spoleto's move to France to tutor Francesco Sforza.", "Shortly after this, Ariosto's father died." ], [ "Education and patronage", "Memorial statue and park, FerraraAfter the death of his father, Ludovico Ariosto was compelled to forgo his literary occupations and take care of his family, whose affairs were in disarray.", "Despite his family obligations, Ariosto managed to write some comedies in prose as well as lyrical pieces.", "Some of these attracted the notice of Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, who took the young poet under his patronage and appointed him one of the gentlemen of his household.", "Este compensated Ariosto poorly for his efforts; the only reward he gave the poet for ''Orlando Furioso'', dedicated to him, was the question, \"Where did you find so many stories, Master Ludovico?\"", "Ariosto later said that the cardinal was ungrateful, that he deplored the time which he spent under his yoke, and that if he received some small pension, it was not to reward him for his poetry – which the prelate despised – but for acting as a messenger.Ludovico Ariosto and Leonardo da Vinci shared a patron in Cardinal Ippolito d'Este's older sister the Marchioness Isabella d'Este, the \"First Lady of the Renaissance.\"", "Isabella d'Este appears in Ludovico's masterpiece, ''Orlando Furioso''.", "She also appears in Leonardo's ''Sketch for a Portrait of Isabella d'Este'' at the Louvre.Portrait of Isabella d'Este, Leonardo da Vinci, 1499–1500The cardinal went to Hungary in 1518, and wished Ariosto to accompany him.", "The poet excused himself, pleading ill health, his love of study, and the need to care for his elderly mother.", "His excuses were not well-received, and he was denied even an interview.", "Ariosto and d'Este got into a heated argument, and Ariosto was promptly dismissed from service." ], [ "New patronage and diplomatic career", "Titian, ''A Man with a Quilted Sleeve'', long believed to be Ludovico AriostoAriosto's play '''', first published in verse form in 1551The cardinal's brother, Alfonso, duke of Ferrara, now took Ariosto under his patronage.", "By then, Ariosto had already distinguished himself as a diplomat, chiefly on the occasion of two visits to Rome as ambassador to Pope Julius II.", "The fatigue of one of these journeys brought on an illness from which he never recovered, and on his second mission he was nearly killed by order of the Pope, who happened at the time to be in conflict with Alfonso.On account of the war, his salary of 84 crowns a year was suspended, and it was withdrawn altogether after the peace.", "Because of this, Ariosto asked the duke either to provide for him, or to allow him to seek employment elsewhere.", "He was appointed to the province of Garfagnana, then without a governor, situated on the Apennines, an appointment he held for three years.", "The province was distracted by factions and bandits, the governor lacked the requisite means to enforce his authority and the duke did little to support his minister.", "Ariosto's government satisfied both the sovereign and the people given over to his care, however; indeed, there is a story about a time when he was walking alone and fell into the company of a group of bandits, the chief of which, on discovering that his captive was the author of ''Orlando Furioso'', apologized for not having immediately shown him the respect due his rank.In 1508 Ariosto's play ''Cassaria'' appeared, and the next year '''' was first acted in Ferrara and ten years later in the Vatican.", "A prose edition was published in Rome in 1524, and the first verse edition was published at Venice in 1551.The play, which was translated by George Gascoigne and acted at Gray's Inn in London in 1566 and published in 1573, was later used by Shakespeare as a source for ''The Taming of the Shrew''.In 1516 the first version of the ''Orlando Furioso'' in 40 cantos, was published at Ferrara.", "The third and final version of the ''Orlando Furioso'', in 46 cantos, appeared on 8 September 1532." ], [ "Poetic style", "Statue of the poet in Reggio EmiliaThroughout Ariosto's writing are narratorial comments dubbed by Daniel Javitch as \"Cantus Interruptus\".", "Javitch's term refers to Ariosto's narrative technique to break off one plot line in the middle of a canto, only to pick it up again in another, often much later, canto.", "Javitch argues that while many critics have assumed Ariosto does this so as to build narrative tension and keep the reader turning pages, the poet in reality defuses narrative tension because so much time separates the interruption and the resumption.", "By the time the reader gets to the continuation of the story, he or she has often forgotten or ceased to care about the plot and is usually wrapped up in another plot.", "Ariosto does this, Javitch argues, to undermine \"man's foolish but persistent desire for continuity and completion\".", "Ariosto uses it throughout his works.For example, in Canto II, stanza 30, of ''Orlando Furioso'', the narrator says:Portrait of Ludovico Ariosto by Cristofano dell'AltissimoSome have attributed this piece of metafiction as one component of the \"Sorriso ariostesco\" or Ariosto's smile, the wry sense of humor that Ariosto adds to the text.In explaining this humor, Thomas Greene, in ''Descent from Heaven'', says:" ], [ "In literature and popular culture", "Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem (1836) is supposed to be his address to some unknown beauty on presenting her with his completed ''Orlando Furioso''.In his poem ''Childe Harold's Pilgrimage'', Canto the Fourth (1818), Lord Byron described poet and novelist Walter Scott as \"The Ariosto of the North\", and Ariosto as \"The southern Scott\".", "In doing so, Byron connected Ariosto and the Italian Renaissance with early-nineteenth century Scottish and British Romantic writing, emphasising an enduring European literary tradition.", "Scott, in turn, was influenced by Ariosto and expressed his admiration for the ''Orlando Furioso''.The paperback edition of ''Orlando Furioso'' can be briefly glimpsed on table in the dinner scene of the episode \"A Ghost\" in Jim Jarmusch's film ''Mystery Train'' (1989).Lodovico Ariosto is mentioned in the novelization of the video game ''Assassin's Creed: Revelations'' (2011) as a member of the fictional Italian Brotherhood of Assassins.", "When the protagonist Ezio Auditore retires from the Brotherhood following the events of the game in 1512, he appoints Lodovico to succeed him as Mentor." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Albert R. Ascoli, ''Ariosto's bitter harmony : crisis and evasion in the Italian renaissance'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987.", "* Charles P. Brand, ''Ludovico Ariosto : a preface to the 'Orlando furioso''', Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1974.", "* Giulio Ferroni, ''Ludovico Ariosto'', Roma: Salerno Editrice, 2008.", "* Robert Durling, ''The figure of the poet in Renaissance epic'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965.", "* Jane E. Everson, Andrew Hiscock, and Stefano Jossa (eds), '' Ariosto, the Orlando Furioso and English Culture''.", "(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019).", "* Greene, Thomas.", "''The Descent from Heaven, a Study in Epic Continuity''.", "New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963.", "* * , ''Ariosto'', Bologna: il Mulino, 2009.", "* Giuseppe Sangirardi, ''Ludovico Ariosto'', Firenze: Le Monnier, 2006." ], [ "External links", "* Ludovico Ariosto's works, translations and chronology* * * * * Ludovico Ariosto's works: text, concordances and frequency lists* LitWeb: Ludovico Ariosto* The Medieval & Classical Literature Library: ''Orlando Furioso'': Canto 1 & Canto 2" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Leonhard Euler" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leonhard Euler''' ( , , ; 15 April 170718 September 1783) was a Swiss mathematician, physicist, astronomer, geographer, logician, and engineer who founded the studies of graph theory and topology and made pioneering and influential discoveries in many other branches of mathematics such as analytic number theory, complex analysis, and infinitesimal calculus.", "He introduced much of modern mathematical terminology and notation, including the notion of a mathematical function.", "He is also known for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, astronomy, and music theory.Euler is held to be one of the greatest mathematicians in history and the greatest of the 18th century.", "Several great mathematicians who produced their work after Euler's death have recognised his importance in the field as shown by quotes attributed to many of them: Pierre-Simon Laplace expressed Euler's influence on mathematics by stating, \"Read Euler, read Euler, he is the master of us all.\"", "Carl Friedrich Gauss wrote: \"The study of Euler's works will remain the best school for the different fields of mathematics, and nothing else can replace it.\"", "Euler is also widely considered to be the most prolific; his 866 publications as well as his correspondences are being collected in the ''Opera Omnia Leonhard Euler'' which, when completed, will consist of 81 ''quarto'' volumes.", "He spent most of his adult life in Saint Petersburg, Russia, and in Berlin, then the capital of Prussia.Euler is credited for popularizing the Greek letter (lowercase pi) to denote the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter, as well as first using the notation for the value of a function, the letter to express the imaginary unit , the Greek letter (capital sigma) to express summations, the Greek letter (capital delta) for finite differences, and lowercase letters to represent the sides of a triangle while representing the angles as capital letters.", "He gave the current definition of the constant , the base of the natural logarithm, now known as Euler's number.Euler is also credited with being the first to develop graph theory (partly as a solution for the problem of the Seven Bridges of Königsberg, which is also by many considered the first practical application of Topology).", "He also became famous for, among many other accomplishments, providing a solution to several unsolved problems in number theory and analysis, including the Basel problem, which had remained unsolved for 150 years.", "The Basel problem consists of finding the sum of the reciprocals of the squares of the natural numbers.", "Euler found that this sum equals exactly .", "Euler has also been credited for discovering that the sum of the numbers of vertices and faces minus the number of edges of a polyhedron equals 2, a number now commonly known as the Euler characteristic.", "In the field of physics, Euler reformulated Newton's laws of physics into new laws in his two-volume work ''Mechanica'' to better explain the motion of rigid bodies.", "He also made substantial contributions to the study of elastic deformations of solid objects." ], [ "Early life", "Leonhard Euler was born on 15 April 1707, in Basel to Paul III Euler, a pastor of the Reformed Church, and Marguerite (née Brucker), whose ancestors include a number of well-known scholars in the classics.", "He was the oldest of four children, having two younger sisters, Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena, and a younger brother, Johann Heinrich.", "Soon after the birth of Leonhard, the Euler family moved from Basel to the town of Riehen, Switzerland, where his father became pastor in the local church and Leonhard spent most of his childhood.From a young age, Euler received schooling in mathematics from his father, who had taken courses from Jacob Bernoulli some years earlier at the University of Basel.", "Around the age of eight, Euler was sent to live at his maternal grandmother's house and enrolled in the Latin school in Basel.", "In addition, he received private tutoring from Johannes Burckhardt, a young theologian with a keen interest in mathematics.In 1720, at thirteen years of age, Euler enrolled at the University of Basel.", "Attending university at such a young age was not unusual at the time.", "The course on elementary mathematics was given by Johann Bernoulli, the younger brother of the deceased Jacob Bernoulli (who had taught Euler's father).", "Johann Bernoulli and Euler soon got to know each other better.", "Euler described Bernoulli in his autobiography::\"the famous professor Johann Bernoulli ... made it a special pleasure for himself to help me along in the mathematical sciences.", "Private lessons, however, he refused because of his busy schedule.", "However, he gave me a far more salutary advice, which consisted in myself getting a hold of some of the more difficult mathematical books and working through them with great diligence, and should I encounter some objections or difficulties, he offered me free access to him every Saturday afternoon, and he was gracious enough to comment on the collected difficulties, which was done with such a desired advantage that, when he resolved one of my objections, ten others at once disappeared, which certainly is the best method of making happy progress in the mathematical sciences.", "\"It was during this time that Euler, backed by Bernoulli, obtained his father's consent to become a mathematician instead of a pastor.In 1723, Euler received a Master of Philosophy with a dissertation that compared the philosophies of René Descartes and Isaac Newton.", "Afterwards, he enrolled in the theological faculty of the University of Basel.In 1726, Euler completed a dissertation on the propagation of sound with the title ''De Sono'' with which he unsuccessfully attempted to obtain a position at the University of Basel.", "In 1727, he entered the Paris Academy prize competition (offered annually and later biennially by the academy beginning in 1720) for the first time.", "The problem posed that year was to find the best way to place the masts on a ship.", "Pierre Bouguer, who became known as \"the father of naval architecture\", won and Euler took second place.", "Over the years, Euler entered this competition 15 times, winning 12 of them." ], [ "Career", "===Saint Petersburg===1957 Soviet Union stamp commemorating the 250th birthday of Euler.", "The text says: 250 years from the birth of the great mathematician, academician Leonhard Euler.Johann Bernoulli's two sons, Daniel and Nicolaus, entered into service at the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg in 1725, leaving Euler with the assurance they would recommend him to a post when one was available.", "On 31 July 1726, Nicolaus died of appendicitis after spending less than a year in Russia.", "When Daniel assumed his brother's position in the mathematics/physics division, he recommended that the post in physiology that he had vacated be filled by his friend Euler.", "In November 1726, Euler eagerly accepted the offer, but delayed making the trip to Saint Petersburg while he unsuccessfully applied for a physics professorship at the University of Basel.Euler arrived in Saint Petersburg in May 1727.He was promoted from his junior post in the medical department of the academy to a position in the mathematics department.", "He lodged with Daniel Bernoulli with whom he worked in close collaboration.", "Euler mastered Russian, settled into life in Saint Petersburg and took on an additional job as a medic in the Russian Navy.The academy at Saint Petersburg, established by Peter the Great, was intended to improve education in Russia and to close the scientific gap with Western Europe.", "As a result, it was made especially attractive to foreign scholars like Euler.", "The academy's benefactress, Catherine I, who had continued the progressive policies of her late husband, died before Euler's arrival to Saint Petersburg.", "The Russian conservative nobility then gained power upon the ascension of the twelve-year-old Peter II.", "The nobility, suspicious of the academy's foreign scientists, cut funding for Euler and his colleagues and prevented the entrance of foreign and non-aristocratic students into the Gymnasium and universities.Conditions improved slightly after the death of Peter II in 1730 and the German-influenced Anna of Russia assumed power.", "Euler swiftly rose through the ranks in the academy and was made a professor of physics in 1731.He also left the Russian Navy, refusing a promotion to lieutenant.", "Two years later, Daniel Bernoulli, fed up with the censorship and hostility he faced at Saint Petersburg, left for Basel.", "Euler succeeded him as the head of the mathematics department.", "In January 1734, he married Katharina Gsell (1707–1773), a daughter of Georg Gsell.", "Frederick II had made an attempt to recruit the services of Euler for his newly established Berlin Academy in 1740, but Euler initially preferred to stay in St Petersburg.", "But after Empress Anna died and Frederick II agreed to pay 1600 ecus (the same as Euler earned in Russia) he agreed to move to Berlin.", "In 1741, he requested permission to leave to Berlin, arguing he was in need of a milder climate for his eyesight.", "The Russian academy gave its consent and would pay him 200 rubles per year as one of its active members.=== Berlin ===Concerned about the continuing turmoil in Russia, Euler left St. Petersburg in June 1741 to take up a post at the Berlin Academy, which he had been offered by Frederick the Great of Prussia.", "He lived for 25 years in Berlin, where he wrote several hundred articles.", "In 1748 his text on functions called the ''Introductio in analysin infinitorum'' was published and in 1755 a text on differential calculus called the ''Institutiones calculi differentialis'' was published.", "In 1755, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and of the French Academy of Sciences.", "Notable students of Euler in Berlin included Stepan Rumovsky, later considered as the first Russian astronomer.", "In 1748 he declined an offer from the University of Basel to succeed the recently deceased Johann Bernoulli.", "In 1753 he bought a house in Charlottenburg, in which he lived with his family and widowed mother.Euler became the tutor for Friederike Charlotte of Brandenburg-Schwedt, the Princess of Anhalt-Dessau and Frederick's niece.", "He wrote over 200 letters to her in the early 1760s, which were later compiled into a volume entitled ''Letters of Euler on different Subjects in Natural Philosophy Addressed to a German Princess''.", "This work contained Euler's exposition on various subjects pertaining to physics and mathematics and offered valuable insights into Euler's personality and religious beliefs.", "It was translated into multiple languages, published across Europe and in the United States, and became more widely read than any of his mathematical works.", "The popularity of the ''Letters'' testifies to Euler's ability to communicate scientific matters effectively to a lay audience, a rare ability for a dedicated research scientist.Despite Euler's immense contribution to the academy's prestige and having been put forward as a candidate for its presidency by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Frederick II named himself as its president.", "The Prussian king had a large circle of intellectuals in his court, and he found the mathematician unsophisticated and ill-informed on matters beyond numbers and figures.", "Euler was a simple, devoutly religious man who never questioned the existing social order or conventional beliefs.", "He was, in many ways, the polar opposite of Voltaire, who enjoyed a high place of prestige at Frederick's court.", "Euler was not a skilled debater and often made it a point to argue subjects that he knew little about, making him the frequent target of Voltaire's wit.", "Frederick also expressed disappointment with Euler's practical engineering abilities, stating:However, the disappointment was almost surely unwarranted from a technical perspective.", "Euler's calculations look likely to be correct, even if Euler's interactions with Frederick and those constructing his fountain may have been dysfunctional.Throughout his stay in Berlin, Euler maintained a strong connection to the academy in St. Petersburg and also published 109 papers in Russia.", "He also assisted students from the St. Petersburg academy and at times accommodated Russian students in his house in Berlin.", "In 1760, with the Seven Years' War raging, Euler's farm in Charlottenburg was sacked by advancing Russian troops.", "Upon learning of this event, General Ivan Petrovich Saltykov paid compensation for the damage caused to Euler's estate, with Empress Elizabeth of Russia later adding a further payment of 4000 rubles—an exorbitant amount at the time.", "Euler decided to leave Berlin in 1766 and return to Russia.During his Berlin years (1741–1766), Euler was at the peak of his productivity.", "He wrote 380 works, 275 of which were published.", "This included 125 memoirs in the Berlin Academy and over 100 memoirs sent to the St. Petersburg Academy, which had retained him as a member and paid him an annual stipend.", "Euler's ''Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum'' was published in two parts in 1748.In addition to his own research, Euler supervised the library, the observatory, the botanical garden, and the publication of calendars and maps from which the academy derived income.", "He was even involved in the design of the water fountains at Sanssouci, the King's summer palace.===Return to Russia===The political situation in Russia stabilized after Catherine the Great's accession to the throne, so in 1766 Euler accepted an invitation to return to the St. Petersburg Academy.", "His conditions were quite exorbitant—a 3000 ruble annual salary, a pension for his wife, and the promise of high-ranking appointments for his sons.", "At the university he was assisted by his student Anders Johan Lexell.", "While living in St. Petersburg, a fire in 1771 destroyed his home." ], [ "Personal life", "On 7 January 1734, he married Katharina Gsell (1707–1773), daughter of Georg Gsell, a painter from the Academy Gymnasium in Saint Petersburg.", "The young couple bought a house by the Neva River.Of their thirteen children, only five survived childhood, three sons and two daughters.", "Their first son was Johann Albrecht Euler, whose godfather was Christian Goldbach.Three years after his wife's death in 1773, Euler married her half-sister, Salome Abigail Gsell (1723–1794).", "This marriage lasted until his death in 1783.His brother Johann Heinrich settled in St. Petersburg in 1735 and was employed as a painter at the academy.===Eyesight deterioration===Euler's eyesight worsened throughout his mathematical career.", "In 1738, three years after nearly expiring from fever, he became almost blind in his right eye.", "Euler blamed the cartography he performed for the St. Petersburg Academy for his condition, but the cause of his blindness remains the subject of speculation.", "Euler's vision in that eye worsened throughout his stay in Germany, to the extent that Frederick referred to him as \"Cyclops\".", "Euler remarked on his loss of vision, stating \"Now I will have fewer distractions.\"", "In 1766 a cataract in his left eye was discovered.", "Though couching of the cataract temporarily improved his vision, complications ultimately rendered him almost totally blind in the left eye as well.", "However, his condition appeared to have little effect on his productivity.", "With the aid of his scribes, Euler's productivity in many areas of study increased; and, in 1775, he produced, on average, one mathematical paper every week.=== Death ===In St. Petersburg on 18 September 1783, after a lunch with his family, Euler was discussing the newly discovered planet Uranus and its orbit with Anders Johan Lexell when he collapsed and died from a brain hemorrhage.", "wrote a short obituary for the Russian Academy of Sciences and Russian mathematician Nicolas Fuss, one of Euler's disciples, wrote a more detailed eulogy, which he delivered at a memorial meeting.", "In his eulogy for the French Academy, French mathematician and philosopher Marquis de Condorcet, wrote:Alexander Nevsky MonasteryEuler was buried next to Katharina at the Smolensk Lutheran Cemetery on Vasilievsky Island.", "In 1837, the Russian Academy of Sciences installed a new monument, replacing his overgrown grave plaque.", "To commemorate the 250th anniversary of Euler's birth in 1957, his tomb was moved to the Lazarevskoe Cemetery at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery." ], [ "Contributions to mathematics and physics", "Euler worked in almost all areas of mathematics, including geometry, infinitesimal calculus, trigonometry, algebra, and number theory, as well as continuum physics, lunar theory, and other areas of physics.", "He is a seminal figure in the history of mathematics; if printed, his works, many of which are of fundamental interest, would occupy between 60 and 80 quarto volumes.", "Euler's name is associated with a large number of topics.", "Euler's work averages 800 pages a year from 1725 to 1783.He also wrote over 4500 letters and hundreds of manuscripts.", "It has been estimated that Leonard Euler was the author of a quarter of the combined output in mathematics, physics, mechanics, astronomy, and navigation in the 18th century.===Mathematical notation===Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions through his numerous and widely circulated textbooks.", "Most notably, he introduced the concept of a function and was the first to write ''f''(''x'') to denote the function ''f'' applied to the argument ''x''.", "He also introduced the modern notation for the trigonometric functions, the letter for the base of the natural logarithm (now also known as Euler's number), the Greek letter Σ for summations and the letter to denote the imaginary unit.", "The use of the Greek letter ''π'' to denote the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was also popularized by Euler, although it originated with Welsh mathematician William Jones.===Analysis===The development of infinitesimal calculus was at the forefront of 18th-century mathematical research, and the Bernoullis—family friends of Euler—were responsible for much of the early progress in the field.", "Thanks to their influence, studying calculus became the major focus of Euler's work.", "While some of Euler's proofs are not acceptable by modern standards of mathematical rigour (in particular his reliance on the principle of the generality of algebra), his ideas led to many great advances.Euler is well known in analysis for his frequent use and development of power series, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such asEuler's use of power series enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735 (he provided a more elaborate argument in 1741):He introduced the constantnow known as Euler's constant or the Euler–Mascheroni constant, and studied its relationship with the harmonic series, the gamma function, and values of the Riemann zeta function.A geometric interpretation of Euler's formulaEuler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytic proofs.", "He discovered ways to express various logarithmic functions using power series, and he successfully defined logarithms for negative and complex numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope of mathematical applications of logarithms.", "He also defined the exponential function for complex numbers and discovered its relation to the trigonometric functions.", "For any real number (taken to be radians), Euler's formula states that the complex exponential function satisfieswhich was called \"the most remarkable formula in mathematics\" by Richard P. Feynman.A special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity,Euler elaborated the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma function and introduced a new method for solving quartic equations.", "He found a way to calculate integrals with complex limits, foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis.", "He invented the calculus of variations and formulated the Euler–Lagrange equation for reducing optimization problems in this area to the solution of differential equations.Euler pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems.", "In doing so, he united two disparate branches of mathematics and introduced a new field of study, analytic number theory.", "In breaking ground for this new field, Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series, hyperbolic trigonometric functions, and the analytic theory of continued fractions.", "For example, he proved the infinitude of primes using the divergence of the harmonic series, and he used analytic methods to gain some understanding of the way prime numbers are distributed.", "Euler's work in this area led to the development of the prime number theorem.===Number theory===Euler's interest in number theory can be traced to the influence of Christian Goldbach, his friend in the St. Petersburg Academy.", "Much of Euler's early work on number theory was based on the work of Pierre de Fermat.", "Euler developed some of Fermat's ideas and disproved some of his conjectures, such as his conjecture that all numbers of the form (Fermat numbers) are prime.Euler linked the nature of prime distribution with ideas in analysis.", "He proved that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges.", "In doing so, he discovered the connection between the Riemann zeta function and prime numbers; this is known as the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function.Euler invented the totient function φ(''n''), the number of positive integers less than or equal to the integer ''n'' that are coprime to ''n''.", "Using properties of this function, he generalized Fermat's little theorem to what is now known as Euler's theorem.", "He contributed significantly to the theory of perfect numbers, which had fascinated mathematicians since Euclid.", "He proved that the relationship shown between even perfect numbers and Mersenne primes (which he had earlier proved) was one-to-one, a result otherwise known as the Euclid–Euler theorem.", "Euler also conjectured the law of quadratic reciprocity.", "The concept is regarded as a fundamental theorem within number theory, and his ideas paved the way for the work of Carl Friedrich Gauss, particularly ''Disquisitiones Arithmeticae''.", "By 1772 Euler had proved that 231 − 1 = 2,147,483,647 is a Mersenne prime.", "It may have remained the largest known prime until 1867.Euler also contributed major developments to the theory of partitions of an integer.===Graph theory===Map of Königsberg in Euler's time showing the actual layout of the seven bridges, highlighting the river Pregel and the bridgesIn 1735, Euler presented a solution to the problem known as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg.", "The city of Königsberg, Prussia was set on the Pregel River, and included two large islands that were connected to each other and the mainland by seven bridges.", "The problem is to decide whether it is possible to follow a path that crosses each bridge exactly once and returns to the starting point.", "It is not possible: there is no Eulerian circuit.", "This solution is considered to be the first theorem of graph theory.Euler also discovered the formula relating the number of vertices, edges, and faces of a convex polyhedron, and hence of a planar graph.", "The constant in this formula is now known as the Euler characteristic for the graph (or other mathematical object), and is related to the genus of the object.", "The study and generalization of this formula, specifically by Cauchy and L'Huilier, is at the origin of topology.===Physics, astronomy, and engineering===Some of Euler's greatest successes were in solving real-world problems analytically, and in describing numerous applications of the Bernoulli numbers, Fourier series, Euler numbers, the constants and , continued fractions, and integrals.", "He integrated Leibniz's differential calculus with Newton's Method of Fluxions, and developed tools that made it easier to apply calculus to physical problems.", "He made great strides in improving the numerical approximation of integrals, inventing what are now known as the Euler approximations.", "The most notable of these approximations are Euler's method and the Euler–Maclaurin formula.Euler helped develop the Euler–Bernoulli beam equation, which became a cornerstone of engineering.", "Besides successfully applying his analytic tools to problems in classical mechanics, Euler applied these techniques to celestial problems.", "His work in astronomy was recognized by multiple Paris Academy Prizes over the course of his career.", "His accomplishments include determining with great accuracy the orbits of comets and other celestial bodies, understanding the nature of comets, and calculating the parallax of the Sun.", "His calculations contributed to the development of accurate longitude tables.Euler made important contributions in optics.", "He disagreed with Newton's corpuscular theory of light, which was the prevailing theory of the time.", "His 1740s papers on optics helped ensure that the wave theory of light proposed by Christiaan Huygens would become the dominant mode of thought, at least until the development of the quantum theory of light.In fluid dynamics, Euler was the first to predict the phenomenon of cavitation, in 1754, long before its first observation in the late 19th century, and the Euler number used in fluid flow calculations comes from his related work on the efficiency of turbines.", "In 1757 he published an important set of equations for inviscid flow in fluid dynamics, that are now known as the Euler equations.Euler is well known in structural engineering for his formula giving Euler's critical load, the critical buckling load of an ideal strut, which depends only on its length and flexural stiffness.===Logic===Euler is credited with using closed curves to illustrate syllogistic reasoning (1768).", "These diagrams have become known as Euler diagrams.An Euler diagramAn Euler diagram is a diagrammatic means of representing sets and their relationships.", "Euler diagrams consist of simple closed curves (usually circles) in the plane that depict sets.", "Each Euler curve divides the plane into two regions or \"zones\": the interior, which symbolically represents the elements of the set, and the exterior, which represents all elements that are not members of the set.", "The sizes or shapes of the curves are not important; the significance of the diagram is in how they overlap.", "The spatial relationships between the regions bounded by each curve (overlap, containment or neither) corresponds to set-theoretic relationships (intersection, subset, and disjointness).", "Curves whose interior zones do not intersect represent disjoint sets.", "Two curves whose interior zones intersect represent sets that have common elements; the zone inside both curves represents the set of elements common to both sets (the intersection of the sets).", "A curve that is contained completely within the interior zone of another represents a subset of it.Euler diagrams (and their refinement to Venn diagrams) were incorporated as part of instruction in set theory as part of the new math movement in the 1960s.", "Since then, they have come into wide use as a way of visualizing combinations of characteristics.===Music===One of Euler's more unusual interests was the application of mathematical ideas in music.", "In 1739 he wrote the ''Tentamen novae theoriae musicae'' (''Attempt at a New Theory of Music''), hoping to eventually incorporate musical theory as part of mathematics.", "This part of his work, however, did not receive wide attention and was once described as too mathematical for musicians and too musical for mathematicians.", "Even when dealing with music, Euler's approach is mainly mathematical, for instance, his introduction of binary logarithms as a way of numerically describing the subdivision of octaves into fractional parts.", "His writings on music are not particularly numerous (a few hundred pages, in his total production of about thirty thousand pages), but they reflect an early preoccupation and one that remained with him throughout his life.A first point of Euler's musical theory is the definition of \"genres\", i.e.", "of possible divisions of the octave using the prime numbers 3 and 5.Euler describes 18 such genres, with the general definition 2mA, where A is the \"exponent\" of the genre (i.e.", "the sum of the exponents of 3 and 5) and 2m (where \"m is an indefinite number, small or large, so long as the sounds are perceptible\"), expresses that the relation holds independently of the number of octaves concerned.", "The first genre, with A = 1, is the octave itself (or its duplicates); the second genre, 2m.3, is the octave divided by the fifth (fifth + fourth, C–G–C); the third genre is 2m.5, major third + minor sixth (C–E–C); the fourth is 2m.32, two-fourths and a tone (C–F–B–C); the fifth is 2m.3.5 (C–E–G–B–C); etc.", "Genres 12 (2m.33.5), 13 (2m.32.52) and 14 (2m.3.53) are corrected versions of the diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic, respectively, of the Ancients.", "Genre 18 (2m.33.52) is the \"diatonico-chromatic\", \"used generally in all compositions\", and which turns out to be identical with the system described by Johann Mattheson.", "Euler later envisaged the possibility of describing genres including the prime number 7.Euler devised a specific graph, the ''Speculum musicum'', to illustrate the diatonico-chromatic genre, and discussed paths in this graph for specific intervals, recalling his interest in the Seven Bridges of Königsberg (see above).", "The device drew renewed interest as the Tonnetz in Neo-Riemannian theory (see also Lattice (music)).Euler further used the principle of the \"exponent\" to propose a derivation of the ''gradus suavitatis'' (degree of suavity, of agreeableness) of intervals and chords from their prime factors – one must keep in mind that he considered just intonation, i.e.", "1 and the prime numbers 3 and 5 only.", "Formulas have been proposed extending this system to any number of prime numbers, e.g.", "in the formwhere ''p''''i'' are prime numbers and ''k''''i'' their exponents." ], [ "Personal philosophy and religious beliefs", "Euler was a religious person throughout his life.", "Much of what is known of Euler's religious beliefs can be deduced from his ''Letters to a German Princess'' and an earlier work, ''Rettung der Göttlichen Offenbahrung gegen die Einwürfe der Freygeister'' (''Defense of the Divine Revelation against the Objections of the Freethinkers'').", "These works show that Euler was a devout Christian who believed the Bible to be inspired; the ''Rettung'' was primarily an argument for the divine inspiration of scripture.Euler opposed the concepts of Leibniz's monadism and the philosophy of Christian Wolff.", "Euler insisted that knowledge is founded in part on the basis of precise quantitative laws, something that monadism and Wolffian science were unable to provide.", "Euler also labelled Wolff's ideas as \"heathen and atheistic\".There is a famous legend inspired by Euler's arguments with secular philosophers over religion, which is set during Euler's second stint at the St. Petersburg Academy.", "The French philosopher Denis Diderot was visiting Russia on Catherine the Great's invitation.", "However, the Empress was alarmed that the philosopher's arguments for atheism were influencing members of her court, and so Euler was asked to confront the Frenchman.", "Diderot was informed that a learned mathematician had produced a proof of the existence of God: he agreed to view the proof as it was presented in court.", "Euler appeared, advanced toward Diderot, and in a tone of perfect conviction announced this non-sequitur: \"Sir, , hence God exists—reply!", "\"Diderot, to whom (says the story) all mathematics was gibberish, stood dumbstruck as peals of laughter erupted from the court.", "Embarrassed, he asked to leave Russia, a request that was graciously granted by the Empress.", "However amusing the anecdote may be, it is apocryphal, given that Diderot himself did research in mathematics.The legend was apparently first told by Dieudonné Thiébault with embellishment by Augustus De Morgan." ], [ "Commemorations", "10 Franc banknoteEuler portrait on the seventh series of the 10 Franc banknoteEuler was featured on both the sixth and seventh series of the Swiss 10-franc banknote and on numerous Swiss, German, and Russian postage stamps.", "In 1782 he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "The asteroid 2002 Euler was named in his honour." ], [ "Selected bibliography", "Euler has an extensive bibliography.", "His books include:* ''Mechanica'' (1736)* ''Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas maximi minimive proprietate gaudentes, sive solutio problematis isoperimetrici latissimo sensu accepti'' (1744) (''A method for finding curved lines enjoying properties of maximum or minimum, or solution of isoperimetric problems in the broadest accepted sense'')* ''Introductio in analysin infinitorum'' (1748) (''Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite'')* ''Institutiones calculi differentialis'' (1755) (''Foundations of differential calculus'')* ''Vollständige Anleitung zur Algebra'' (1765) (''Elements of Algebra'')* ''Institutiones calculi integralis'' (1768–1770) (''Foundations of integral calculus'')* ''Letters to a German Princess'' (1768–1772)* ''Dioptrica'', published in three volumes beginning in 1769It took until 1830 for the bulk of Euler's posthumous works to be individually published, with an additional batch of 61 unpublished works discovered by Paul Heinrich von Fuss (Euler's great-grandson and Nicolas Fuss's son) and published as a collection in 1862.A chronological catalog of Euler's works was compiled by Swedish mathematician Gustaf Eneström and published from 1910 to 1913.The catalog, known as the Eneström index, numbers Euler's works from E1 to E866.The Euler Archive was started at Dartmouth College before moving to the Mathematical Association of America and, most recently, to University of the Pacific in 2017.In 1907, the Swiss Academy of Sciences created the Euler Commission and charged it with the publication of Euler's complete works.", "After several delays in the 19th century, the first volume of the ''Opera Omnia'', was published in 1911.However, the discovery of new manuscripts continued to increase the magnitude of this project.", "Fortunately, the publication of Euler's Opera Omnia has made steady progress, with over 70 volumes (averaging 426 pages each) published by 2006 and 80 volumes published by 2022.These volumes are organized into four series.", "The first series compiles the works on analysis, algebra, and number theory; it consists of 29 volumes and numbers over 14,000 pages.", "The 31 volumes of Series II, amounting to 10,660 pages, contain the works on mechanics, astronomy, and engineering.", "Series III contains 12 volumes on physics.", "Series IV, which contains the massive amount of Euler's correspondences, unpublished manuscripts, and notes only began compilation in 1967.The series is projected to span 16 volumes, eight volumes of which have been released .File:Acta Eruditorum - II geometria, 1744 – BEIC 13411238.jpg|Illustration from ''Solutio problematis... a.", "1743 propositi'' published in Acta Eruditorum, 1744File:Methodus inveniendi - Leonhard Euler - 1744.jpg|The title page of Euler's ''Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas''File:Leonhard Euler World Map AD1760.jpg|Euler's 1760 world mapFile:Euler Tab.", "Geogr.", "Africae 1753 UTA.jpg|Euler's 1753 map of Africa" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * The Euler Archive: Composition of Euler works with translations into English* Opera-Bernoulli-Euler (compiled works of Euler, Bernoulli family, and contemporary peers)* Euler Tercentenary 2007* The Euler Society* Euleriana at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities* Euler Family Tree* Euler's Correspondence with Frederick the Great, King of Prussia* * * (talk given by William Dunham at )*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Linear model" ], [ "Introduction", "In statistics, the term '''linear model''' refers to any model which assumes linearity in the system.", "The most common occurrence is in connection with regression models and the term is often taken as synonymous with linear regression model.", "However, the term is also used in time series analysis with a different meaning.", "In each case, the designation \"linear\" is used to identify a subclass of models for which substantial reduction in the complexity of the related statistical theory is possible." ], [ "Linear regression models", "For the regression case, the statistical model is as follows.", "Given a (random) sample the relation between the observations and the independent variables is formulated as:where may be nonlinear functions.", "In the above, the quantities are random variables representing errors in the relationship.", "The \"linear\" part of the designation relates to the appearance of the regression coefficients, in a linear way in the above relationship.", "Alternatively, one may say that the predicted values corresponding to the above model, namely:are linear functions of the .Given that estimation is undertaken on the basis of a least squares analysis, estimates of the unknown parameters are determined by minimising a sum of squares function:From this, it can readily be seen that the \"linear\" aspect of the model means the following::*the function to be minimised is a quadratic function of the for which minimisation is a relatively simple problem;:*the derivatives of the function are linear functions of the making it easy to find the minimising values;:*the minimising values are linear functions of the observations ;:*the minimising values are linear functions of the random errors which makes it relatively easy to determine the statistical properties of the estimated values of ." ], [ "Time series models", "An example of a linear time series model is an autoregressive moving average model.", "Here the model for values {} in a time series can be written in the form:where again the quantities are random variables representing innovations which are new random effects that appear at a certain time but also affect values of at later times.", "In this instance the use of the term \"linear model\" refers to the structure of the above relationship in representing as a linear function of past values of the same time series and of current and past values of the innovations.", "This particular aspect of the structure means that it is relatively simple to derive relations for the mean and covariance properties of the time series.", "Note that here the \"linear\" part of the term \"linear model\" is not referring to the coefficients and , as it would be in the case of a regression model, which looks structurally similar." ], [ "Other uses in statistics", "There are some other instances where \"nonlinear model\" is used to contrast with a linearly structured model, although the term \"linear model\" is not usually applied.", "One example of this is nonlinear dimensionality reduction." ], [ "See also", "* General linear model* Generalized linear model* Linear predictor function* Linear system* Linear regression* Statistical model" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Likelihood principle" ], [ "Introduction", "In statistics, the '''likelihood principle''' is the proposition that, given a statistical model, all the evidence in a sample relevant to model parameters is contained in the likelihood function.A likelihood function arises from a probability density function considered as a function of its distributional parameterization argument.", "For example, consider a model which gives the probability density function of observable random variable as a function of a parameter .", "Then for a specific value of , the function is a likelihood function of : it gives a measure of how \"likely\" any particular value of is, if we know that has the value .", "The density function may be a density with respect to counting measure, i.e.", "a probability mass function.Two likelihood functions are ''equivalent'' if one is a scalar multiple of the other.The '''likelihood principle''' is this: All information from the data that is relevant to inferences about the value of the model parameters is in the equivalence class to which the likelihood function belongs.", "The '''strong likelihood principle''' applies this same criterion to cases such as sequential experiments where the sample of data that is available results from applying a stopping rule to the observations earlier in the experiment." ], [ "Example", "Suppose* is the number of successes in twelve independent Bernoulli trials with probability of success on each trial, and* is the number of independent Bernoulli trials needed to get three successes, again with probability of success on each trial ( for the toss of a fair coin).Then the observation that induces the likelihood function:,while the observation that induces the likelihood function:.The likelihood principle says that, as the data are the same in both cases, the inferences drawn about the value of should also be the same.", "In addition, all the inferential content in the data about the value of is contained in the two likelihoods, and is the same if they are proportional to one another.", "This is the case in the above example, reflecting the fact that the difference between observing and observing lies not in the actual data collected, nor in the conduct of the experimenter, but in the two different designs of the experiment.Specifically, in one case, the decision in advance was to try twelve times, regardless of the outcome; in the other case, the advance decision was to keep trying until three successes were observed.", "''If you support the likelihood principle'' then inference about should be the same for both cases because the two likelihoods are proportional to each other: Except for a constant leading factor of 220 vs. 55, the two likelihood functions are the same.This equivalence is not always the case, however.", "The use of frequentist methods involving p-values leads to different inferences for the two cases above, showing that the outcome of frequentist methods depends on the experimental procedure, and thus violates the likelihood principle." ], [ "<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"law of likelihood\"></span>The law of likelihood", "A related concept is the '''law of likelihood''', the notion that the extent to which the evidence supports one parameter value or hypothesis against another is indicated by the ratio of their likelihoods, their likelihood ratio.", "That is,:is the degree to which the observation supports parameter value or hypothesis against .", "If this ratio is 1, the evidence is indifferent; if greater than 1, the evidence supports the value against ; or if less, then vice versa.In Bayesian statistics, this ratio is known as the Bayes factor, and Bayes' rule can be seen as the application of the law of likelihood to inference.In frequentist inference, the likelihood ratio is used in the likelihood-ratio test, but other non-likelihood tests are used as well.", "The Neyman–Pearson lemma states the likelihood-ratio test is equally statistically powerful as the most powerful test for comparing two simple hypotheses at a given significance level, which gives a frequentist justification for the law of likelihood.Combining the likelihood principle with the law of likelihood yields the consequence that the parameter value which maximizes the likelihood function is the value which is most strongly supported by the evidence.", "This is the basis for the widely used method of maximum likelihood." ], [ "History", "The likelihood principle was first identified by that name in print in 1962 (Barnard et al., Birnbaum, and Savage et al.", "), but arguments for the same principle, unnamed, and the use of the principle in applications goes back to the works of R.A. Fisher in the 1920s.", "The law of likelihood was identified by that name by I. Hacking (1965).", "More recently the likelihood principle as a general principle of inference has been championed by A. W. F. Edwards.", "The likelihood principle has been applied to the philosophy of science by R. Royall.Birnbaum (1962) initially argued that the likelihood principle follows from two more primitive and seemingly reasonable principles, the ''conditionality principle'' and the ''sufficiency principle'':* The conditionality principle says that if an experiment is chosen by a random process independent of the states of nature , then only the experiment actually performed is relevant to inferences about .", "* The sufficiency principle says that if is a sufficient statistic for , and if in two experiments with data and we have , then the evidence about given by the two experiments is the same.However, upon further consideration Birnbaum rejected both his conditionality principle and the likelihood principle.", "The adequacy of Birnbaum's original argument has also been contested by others (''see below for details'')." ], [ "Arguments for and against", "Some widely used methods of conventional statistics, for example many significance tests, are not consistent with the likelihood principle.Let us briefly consider some of the arguments for and against the likelihood principle.===The original Birnbaum argument===According to Giere (1977), Birnbaum rejected both his own conditionality principle and the likelihood principle because they were both incompatible with what he called the “confidence concept of statistical evidence”, which Birnbaum (1970) describes as taking “from the Neyman-Pearson approach techniques for systematically appraising and bounding the probabilities (under respective hypotheses) of seriously misleading interpretations of data” (p. 1033).", "The confidence concept incorporates only limited aspects of the likelihood concept and only some applications of the conditionality concept.", "Birnbaum later notes that it was the unqualified equivalence formulation of his 1962 version of the conditionality principle that led “to the monster of the likelihood axiom” (p. 263).", "Birnbaum's original argument for the likelihood principle has also been disputed by other statisticians including Akaike,Evans and philosophers of science, including Deborah Mayo.", "Dawid points out fundamental differences between Mayo's and Birnbaum's definitions of the conditionality principle, arguing Birnbaum's argument cannot be so readily dismissed.", "A new proof of the likelihood principle has been provided by Gandenberger that addresses some of the counterarguments to the original proof.===Experimental design arguments on the likelihood principle===Unrealized events play a role in some common statistical methods.", "For example, the result of a significance test depends on the -value, the probability of a result as extreme or more extreme than the observation, and that probability may depend on the design of the experiment.", "To the extent that the likelihood principle is accepted, such methods are therefore denied.Some classical significance tests are not based on the likelihood.", "The following are a simple and more complicated example of those, using a commonly cited example called ''the optional stopping problem''.", ";Example 1 – simple version:Suppose I tell you that I tossed a coin 12 times and in the process observed 3 heads.", "You might make some inference about the probability of heads and whether the coin was fair.Suppose now I tell that I tossed the coin ''until'' I observed 3 heads, and I tossed it 12 times.", "Will you now make some different inference?The likelihood function is the same in both cases: It is proportional to:.So according to the ''likelihood principle'', in either case the inference should be the same.", ";Example 2 – a more elaborated version of the same statistics:Suppose a number of scientists are assessing the probability of a certain outcome (which we shall call 'success') in experimental trials.", "Conventional wisdom suggests that if there is no bias towards success or failure then the success probability would be one half.", "Adam, a scientist, conducted 12 trials and obtains 3 successes and 9 failures.", "'''One of those successes was the 12th and last observation.'''", "Then Adam left the lab.Bill, a colleague in the same lab, continued Adam's work and published Adam's results, along with a significance test.", "He tested the null hypothesis that , the success probability, is equal to a half, versus  .", "If we ignore the information that the third success was the 12th and last observation, the probability of the observed result that out of 12 trials 3 or something fewer (i.e.", "more extreme) were successes, if is true, is:,which is  .", "Thus the null hypothesis is not rejected at the 5% significance level if we ignore the knowledge that the third success was the 12th result.However observe that this first calculation also includes 12 token long sequences that end in tails contrary to the problem statement!If we redo this calculation we realize the likelihood according to the null hypothesis must be the probability of a fair coin landing 2 or fewer heads on 11 trials multiplied with the probability of the fair coin landing a head for the 12th trial::,which is  .", "Now the result ''is'' statistically significant at the level.Charlotte, another scientist, reads Bill's paper and writes a letter, saying that it is possible that Adam kept trying until he obtained 3 successes, in which case the probability of needing to conduct 12 or more experiments is given by:,which is  .", "Now the result ''is'' statistically significant at the level.", "Note that there is no contradiction between the latter two correct analyses; both computations are correct, and result in the same p-value.To these scientists, whether a result is significant or not does not depend on the design of the experiment, but does on the likelihood (in the sense of the likelihood function) of the parameter value being  .", ";Summary of the illustrated issues:Results of this kind are considered by some as arguments against the likelihood principle.", "For others it exemplifies the value of the likelihood principle and is an argument against significance tests.Similar themes appear when comparing Fisher's exact test with Pearson's chi-squared test.===The voltmeter story===An argument in favor of the likelihood principle is given by Edwards in his book ''Likelihood''.", "He cites the following story from J.W.", "Pratt, slightly condensed here.", "Note that the likelihood function depends only on what actually happened, and not on what ''could'' have happened.", ": An engineer draws a random sample of electron tubes and measures their voltages.", "The measurements range from 75 to 99 Volts.", "A statistician computes the sample mean and a confidence interval for the true mean.", "Later the statistician discovers that the voltmeter reads only as far as 100 Volts, so technically, the population appears to be “''censored''”.", "If the statistician is orthodox this necessitates a new analysis.", ": However, the engineer says he has another meter reading to 1000 Volts, which he would have used if any voltage had been over 100.This is a relief to the statistician, because it means the population was effectively uncensored after all.", "But later, the statistician infers that the second meter had not been working when the measurements were taken.", "The engineer informs the statistician that he would not have held up the original measurements until the second meter was fixed, and the statistician informs him that new measurements are required.", "The engineer is astounded.", "“''Next you'll be asking about my oscilloscope!", "''”;Throwback to ''Example 2'' in the prior section:This story can be translated to Adam's stopping rule above, as follows: Adam stopped immediately after 3 successes, because his boss Bill had instructed him to do so.", "After the publication of the statistical analysis by Bill, Adam realizes that he has missed a later instruction from Bill to instead conduct 12 trials, and that Bill's paper is based on this second instruction.", "Adam is very glad that he got his 3 successes after exactly 12 trials, and explains to his friend Charlotte that by coincidence he executed the second instruction.", "Later, Adam is astonished to hear about Charlotte's letter, explaining that ''now'' the result is significant." ], [ "See also", "* Conditionality principle* Likelihoodist statistics" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Anthony W.F.", "Edwards. \"", "Likelihood\".", "* Jeff Miller.", "Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (L)* John Aldrich.", "Likelihood and Probability in R. A. Fisher’s Statistical Methods for Research Workers" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Led Zeppelin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Led Zeppelin''' were an English rock band formed in London in 1968.The group comprised vocalist Robert Plant, guitarist Jimmy Page, bassist and keyboardist John Paul Jones, and drummer John Bonham.", "With a heavy, guitar-driven sound, they are cited as one of the progenitors of hard rock and heavy metal, although their style drew from a variety of influences, including blues and folk music.", "Led Zeppelin have been credited as significantly impacting the nature of the music industry, particularly in the development of album-oriented rock (AOR) and stadium rock.Originally named the New Yardbirds, Led Zeppelin signed a deal with Atlantic Records that gave them considerable artistic freedom.", "Initially unpopular with critics, they achieved significant commercial success with eight studio albums over ten years.", "Their 1969 debut, ''Led Zeppelin'', was a top-ten album in several countries and featured such tracks as \"Good Times Bad Times\", \"Dazed and Confused\" and \"Communication Breakdown\".", "''Led Zeppelin II'' (1969) was their first number-one album, and yielded \"Whole Lotta Love\" and \"Ramble On\".", "In 1970, they released ''Led Zeppelin III'' which featured \"Immigrant Song\".", "Their untitled fourth album, commonly known as ''Led Zeppelin IV'' (1971), is one of the best-selling albums in history with 37 million copies sold.", "The album includes \"Black Dog\", \"Rock and Roll\" and \"Stairway to Heaven\", with the latter being among the most popular and influential works in rock history.", "''Houses of the Holy'' (1973) yielded \"The Song Remains the Same\" and \"Over the Hills and Far Away\".", "''Physical Graffiti'' (1975), a double album, featured \"The Rover\" and \"Kashmir\".Page wrote most of Led Zeppelin's music, particularly early in their career, while Plant wrote most of the lyrics.", "Jones's keyboard-based compositions later became central to their music, which featured increasing experimentation.", "The latter half of their career saw a series of record-breaking tours that earned the group a reputation for excess and debauchery.", "Although they remained commercially and critically successful, their touring and output, which included ''Presence'' (1976) and ''In Through the Out Door'' (1979), grew limited, and the group disbanded following Bonham's death in 1980, feeling that they would not be \"Led Zeppelin\" without him.", "Since then, the surviving former members have sporadically collaborated and participated in one-off concerts.", "The most successful of these was the 2007 Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert in London, with Bonham's son Jason Bonham on drums.Led Zeppelin are one of the best-selling music artists of all time; their total record sales are estimated to be between 200 and 300 million units worldwide.", "They achieved eight consecutive UK number-one albums and six number-one albums on the US ''Billboard'' 200, with five of their albums certified Diamond in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).", "''Rolling Stone'' magazine described them as \"the heaviest band of all time\", \"the biggest band of the Seventies\", and \"unquestionably one of the most enduring bands in rock history\".", "They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995; the museum's biography of the band states that they were \"as influential\" during the 1970s as the Beatles were during the 1960s." ], [ "History", "=== Formation: 1966–1968 ===alt=The name Led Zeppelin in irregular capitals in black and whiteIn 1966, London-based session guitarist Jimmy Page joined the blues-influenced rock band the Yardbirds to replace bassist Paul Samwell-Smith.", "Page soon switched from bass to lead guitar, creating a dual lead guitar line-up with Jeff Beck.", "Following Beck's departure in October 1966, the Yardbirds became a four-piece with Page as the sole guitarist.", "This new line-up recorded an album, ''Little Games'', in 1967, before embarking on a tour of the United States, during which they performed several songs which would later be part of Led Zeppelin's early repertoire, including covers of Johnny Burnette's \"Train Kept A-Rollin'\" and \"Dazed and Confused\", a song originally written and recorded by Jake Holmes.", "In early April 1968, the Yardbirds recorded a number of tracks at Columbia Studios in New York City, including a Page composition initially titled \"Knowing That I'm Losing You\", which would eventually be re-recorded by Led Zeppelin as \"Tangerine\".The Yardbirds' 1968 tour proved to be exhausting for the band.", "Drummer Jim McCarty and vocalist Keith Relf aimed to embark in a more acoustic direction, forming a folk rock duo called Together, whereas Page wanted to continue the heavier blues-based sound of the Yardbirds.", "Page, with the support of the Yardbirds' new manager Peter Grant, planned to form a supergroup with Beck and himself on guitars, and the Who's Keith Moon and John Entwistle on drums and bass, respectively.", "Vocalists Steve Winwood and Steve Marriott were also considered for the project.", "The group never formed, although Page, Beck, and Moon did record a song together in 1966, \"Beck's Bolero\", in a session that also included bassist-keyboardist John Paul Jones.The Yardbirds played their final gig on 14 July 1968 at Luton College of Technology in Bedfordshire.", "They were still committed to several concerts in Scandinavia, so drummer Jim McCarty and vocalist Keith Relf authorised Page and bassist Chris Dreja to use the Yardbirds' name to fulfill the band's obligations.", "Page and Dreja began putting a new line-up together.", "Page's first choice for the lead singer was Terry Reid, but Reid declined the offer and suggested Robert Plant, a singer for the Band of Joy and Hobbstweedle.", "Plant eventually accepted the position, recommending former Band of Joy drummer John Bonham.", "John Paul Jones enquired about the vacant position of bass guitarist, at the suggestion of his wife, after Dreja dropped out of the project to become a photographer.", "Page had known Jones since they were both session musicians, and agreed to let him join as the final member.A 1937 photograph of the burning LZ 129 Hindenburg taken by news photographer Sam Shere, used on the cover of the band's debut album and extensively on later merchandiseIn August 1968, the four played together for the first time in a room below a record store on Gerrard Street in London.", "Page suggested that they attempt \"Train Kept A-Rollin'\", originally a jump blues song popularised in a rockabilly version by Johnny Burnette, which had been covered by the Yardbirds.", "\"As soon as I heard John Bonham play\", Jones recalled, \"I knew this was going to be great ... We locked together as a team immediately\".", "Before leaving for Scandinavia, the group took part in a recording session for the P. J. Proby album ''Three Week Hero''.", "The album's track \"Jim's Blues\", with Plant on harmonica, was the first studio track to feature all four future members of Led Zeppelin.The band completed the Scandinavian tour as the New Yardbirds, playing together for the first time in front of a live audience at Gladsaxe Teen Club at the Egegård School (today Gladsaxe School) festive hall, Gladsaxe, Denmark, on 7 September 1968.Later that month, they began recording their first album, which was based on their live set.", "The album was recorded and mixed in nine days, and Page covered the costs.", "After the album's completion, the band were forced to change their name after Dreja issued a cease and desist letter, stating that Page was allowed to use the New Yardbirds moniker for the Scandinavian dates only.", "One account of how the new band's name was chosen held that Moon and Entwistle had suggested that a supergroup with Page and Beck would go down like a \"lead balloon\", an idiom for being very unsuccessful or unpopular.", "The group dropped the 'a' in ''lead'' at the suggestion of Peter Grant, so that those unfamiliar with the term would not pronounce it \"leed\".", "The word \"balloon\" was replaced by \"zeppelin\", a word which, according to music journalist Keith Shadwick, brought \"the perfect combination of heavy and light, combustibility and grace\" to Page's mind.Grant secured a $143,000 advance contract ($ today) from Atlantic Records in November 1968—at the time, the biggest deal of its kind for a new band.", "Atlantic was a label with a catalogue of mainly blues, soul, and jazz artists, but in the late 1960s, it began to take an interest in British progressive rock acts.", "At the recommendation of British singer Dusty Springfield, a friend of Jones who at the time was completing her first Atlantic album, ''Dusty in Memphis'', record executives signed Led Zeppelin without having ever seen them.", "Under the terms of their contract, the band had autonomy in deciding when they would release albums and tour and had the final say over the contents and design of each album.", "They would also decide how to promote each release and which tracks to release as singles.", "They formed their own company, Superhype, to handle all publishing rights.=== Early years: 1968–1970 ===Still billed as the New Yardbirds, the band began their first tour of the UK on 4 October 1968, when they played at the Mayfair Ballroom in Newcastle upon Tyne.", "Their first show as Led Zeppelin was at the University of Surrey in Battersea on 25 October.", "Tour manager Richard Cole, who would become a major figure in the touring life of the group, organised their first North American tour at the end of the year.", "Their debut album, ''Led Zeppelin'', was released in the US during the tour on 12 January 1969, and peaked at number 10 on the ''Billboard'' chart; it was released in the UK, where it peaked at number 6, on 31 March.", "According to Steve Erlewine, the album's memorable guitar riffs, lumbering rhythms, psychedelic blues, groovy, bluesy shuffles and hints of English folk music made it \"a significant turning point in the evolution of hard rock and heavy metal\".Bron-Yr-Aur, near Machynlleth, the Welsh cottage to which Page and Plant retired in 1970 to write many of the tracks that appeared on the band's third and fourth albums|alt=A colour photograph of a stone cottage on a hillIn their first year, Led Zeppelin completed four US and four UK concert tours, and also released their second album, ''Led Zeppelin II''.", "Recorded mostly on the road at various North American studios, it was an even greater commercial success than their first album and reached the number one chart position in the US and the UK.", "The album further developed the mostly blues-rock musical style established on their debut release, creating a sound that was \"heavy and hard, brutal and direct\", and which would be highly influential and frequently imitated.", "Steve Waksman has suggested that ''Led Zeppelin II'' was \"the musical starting point for heavy metal\".The band saw their albums as indivisible, complete listening experiences, disliking the re-editing of existing tracks for release as singles.", "Grant maintained an aggressive pro-album stance, particularly in the UK, where there were few radio and TV outlets for rock music.", "Without the band's consent, however, some songs were released as singles, particularly in the US.", "In 1969, an edited version of \"Whole Lotta Love\", a track from their second album, was released as a single in the US.", "It reached number four in the ''Billboard'' chart in January 1970, selling over one million copies and helping to cement the band's popularity.", "The group also increasingly shunned television appearances, citing their preference that their fans hear and see them in live concerts.Following the release of their second album, Led Zeppelin completed several more US tours.", "They played initially in clubs and ballrooms, and then in larger auditoriums as their popularity grew.", "Some early Led Zeppelin concerts lasted more than four hours, with expanded and improvised live versions of their repertoire.", "Many of these shows have been preserved as bootleg recordings.", "It was during this period of intensive concert touring that the band developed a reputation for off-stage excess.In 1970, Page and Plant retired to Bron-Yr-Aur, a remote cottage in Wales, to commence work on their third album, ''Led Zeppelin III''.", "The result was a more acoustic style that was strongly influenced by folk and Celtic music, and showcased the band's versatility.", "The album's rich acoustic sound initially received mixed reactions, with critics and fans surprised at the turn from the primarily electric arrangements of the first two albums, further fuelling the band's hostility to the musical press.", "It reached number one in the UK and US charts, but its stay would be the shortest of their first five albums.", "The album's opening track, \"Immigrant Song\", was released as a US single in November 1970 against the band's wishes, reaching the top twenty on the ''Billboard'' chart.=== \"The Biggest Band in the World\": 1970–1975 ===Plant and Page perform acoustically in Hamburg in March 1973, just before the release of the band's fifth album, ''Houses of the Holy''.|alt=A black and white photograph of Robert Plant with a tambourine and Jimmy Page with an acoustic guitar seated and performing.During the 1970s, Led Zeppelin reached new heights of commercial and critical success that made them one of the most influential groups of the era, eclipsing their earlier achievements.", "The band's image also changed as the members began to wear elaborate, flamboyant clothing, with Page taking the lead on the flamboyant appearance by wearing a glittering moon-and-stars outfit.", "Led Zeppelin changed their show by using things such as lasers, professional light shows and mirror balls.", "They began travelling in a private jet airliner, a Boeing 720 (nicknamed ''the Starship''), rented out entire sections of hotels (including the Continental Hyatt House in Los Angeles, known colloquially as the \"Riot House\"), and became the subject of frequently repeated stories of debauchery.", "One involved John Bonham riding a motorcycle through a rented floor of the Riot House, while another involved the destruction of a room in the Tokyo Hilton, leading to the group being banned from that establishment for life.", "Although Led Zeppelin developed a reputation for trashing their hotel suites and throwing television sets out of the windows, some suggest that these tales have been exaggerated.", "According to music journalist Chris Welch, \"Led Zeppelin's travels spawned many stories, but it was a myth that they were constantly engaged in acts of wanton destruction and lewd behaviour\".Led Zeppelin released their fourth album on 8 November 1971.It is variously referred to as ''Led Zeppelin IV'', ''Untitled'', ''IV'', or, due to the four symbols appearing on the record label, as ''Four Symbols'', ''Zoso'' or ''Runes''.", "The band had wanted to release the fourth album with no title or information, in response to the music press \"going on about Zeppelin being a hype\", but the record company wanted something on the cover, so in discussions, it was agreed to have four symbols to represent both the four members of the band and that it was the fourth album.", "With 37 million copies sold, ''Led Zeppelin IV'' is one of the best-selling albums in history, and its massive popularity cemented Led Zeppelin's status as superstars in the 1970s.", "By 2021, it had sold 24 million copies in the United States alone.", "The track \"Stairway to Heaven\", never released as a single, was the most requested and most played song on American rock radio in the 1970s.", "The group followed up the album's release with tours of the UK, Australasia, North America, Japan, and the UK again from late 1971 through early 1973.Led Zeppelin perform at Chicago Stadium in January 1975, a few weeks before the release of ''Physical Graffiti''.|alt=A colour photograph of the four members of Led Zeppelin performing onstage, with some other figures visible in the background.Led Zeppelin's next album, ''Houses of the Holy'', was released in March 1973.It featured further experimentation by the band, who expanded their use of synthesisers and mellotron orchestration.", "The predominantly orange album cover, designed by the London-based design group Hipgnosis, depicts images of nude children climbing the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland.", "Although the children are not shown from the front, the cover was controversial at the time of the album's release.", "As with the band's fourth album, neither their name nor the album title was printed on the sleeve.", "''Houses of the Holy'' topped charts worldwide, and the band's subsequent concert tour of North America in 1973 broke records for attendance, as they consistently filled large auditoriums and stadiums.", "At Tampa Stadium in Florida, they played to 56,800 fans, breaking the record set by the Beatles' 1965 Shea Stadium concert and grossing $309,000.Three sold-out shows at Madison Square Garden in New York City were filmed for a motion picture, but the theatrical release of this project (''The Song Remains the Same'') was delayed until 1976.Before the final night's performance, $180,000 ($ today) of the band's money from gate receipts was stolen from a safe deposit box at the Drake Hotel.In 1974, Led Zeppelin took a break from touring and launched their own record label, Swan Song, named after an unreleased song.", "The record label's logo is based on a drawing called ''Evening: Fall of Day'' (1869) by William Rimmer.", "The drawing features a figure of a winged human-like being interpreted as either Apollo or Icarus.", "The logo can be found on Led Zeppelin memorabilia, especially T-shirts.", "In addition to using Swan Song as a vehicle to promote their own albums, the band expanded the label's roster, signing artists such as Bad Company, the Pretty Things and Maggie Bell.", "The label was successful while Led Zeppelin existed, but folded less than three years after they disbanded.In 1975, Led Zeppelin's double album ''Physical Graffiti'' was their first release on the Swan Song label.", "It consisted of fifteen songs, of which eight had been recorded at Headley Grange in 1974 and seven had been recorded earlier.", "A review in ''Rolling Stone'' magazine referred to ''Physical Graffiti'' as Led Zeppelin's \"bid for artistic respectability\", adding that the only bands Led Zeppelin had to compete with for the title \"The World's Best Rock Band\" were the Rolling Stones and the Who.", "The album was a massive commercial and critical success.", "Shortly after the release of ''Physical Graffiti'', all previous Led Zeppelin albums simultaneously re-entered the top-200 album chart, and the band embarked on another North American tour, now employing sophisticated sound and lighting systems.", "In May 1975, Led Zeppelin played five sold-out nights at the Earls Court Arena in London, at the time the largest arena in Britain.=== Hiatus from touring and return: 1975–1977 ===Plant and Page performing in alt=A colour photograph of Robert Plant with microphone and Jimmy Page with a double necked guitar performing on stage.Following their triumphant Earls Court appearances, Led Zeppelin took a holiday and planned an autumn tour in America, scheduled to open with two outdoor dates in San Francisco.", "In August 1975, however, Plant and his wife Maureen were involved in a serious car crash while on holiday in Rhodes, Greece.", "Plant suffered a broken ankle and Maureen was badly injured; a blood transfusion saved her life.", "Unable to tour, he headed to the Channel Island of Jersey to spend August and September recuperating, with Bonham and Page in tow.", "The band then reconvened in Malibu, California.", "During this forced hiatus, much of the material for their next album, ''Presence'', was written.By this time, Led Zeppelin were the world's number one rock attraction, having outsold most bands of the time, including the Rolling Stones.", "''Presence'', released in March 1976, marked a change in the Led Zeppelin sound towards more straightforward, guitar-based jams, departing from the acoustic ballads and intricate arrangements featured on their previous albums.", "Though it was a platinum seller, ''Presence'' received a mixed reaction among fans and the music press, with some critics suggesting that the band's excesses may have caught up with them.", "Page had begun using heroin during recording sessions for the album, a habit which may have affected the band's later live shows and studio recordings, although he has since denied this.The Pontiac alt=a colour photograph of a large domed stadiumBecause of Plant's injuries, Led Zeppelin did not tour in 1976.Instead, the band completed the concert film ''The Song Remains the Same'' and the accompanying soundtrack album.", "The film premiered in New York City on 20 October 1976, but was given a lukewarm reception by critics and fans.", "The film was particularly unsuccessful in the UK, where, unwilling to tour since 1975 because of their tax exile status, Led Zeppelin faced an uphill battle to recapture the public's affection.In 1977, Led Zeppelin embarked on another major concert tour of North America.", "The band set another attendance record, with an audience of 76,229 at their Silverdome concert on 30 April.", "It was, according to the ''Guinness Book of Records'', the largest attendance to that date for a single act show.", "Although the tour was financially profitable, it was beset by off-stage problems.", "On 19 April, over 70 people were arrested as about 1,000 fans tried to gatecrash Cincinnati Riverfront Coliseum for two sold-out concerts, while others tried to gain entry by throwing rocks and bottles through glass doors.", "On 3 June, a concert at Tampa Stadium was cut short because of a severe thunderstorm, despite tickets indicating \"Rain or Shine\".", "A riot broke out, resulting in arrests and injuries.After 23 July show at the Day on the Green festival at the Oakland Coliseum in Oakland, California, Bonham and members of Led Zeppelin's support staff were arrested after a member of promoter Bill Graham's staff was badly beaten during the band's performance.", "The following day's second Oakland concert was the group's final live appearance in the United States.", "Two days later, as they checked in at a French Quarter hotel for their 30 July performance at the Louisiana Superdome, Plant received news that his five-year-old son, Karac, had died from a stomach virus.", "The rest of the tour was immediately cancelled, prompting widespread speculation about Led Zeppelin's future.=== Bonham's death and break-up: 1978–1980 ===alt=A black and white photograph of John Bonham playing drumsIn November 1978, the group recorded at Polar Studios in Stockholm, Sweden.", "The resulting album, ''In Through the Out Door'', featured sonic experimentation that again drew mixed reactions from critics.", "Nevertheless, the album reached number one in the UK and the US in just its second week of release.", "With this album's release, Led Zeppelin's entire catalogue returned to the ''Billboard'' Top 200 in the weeks of 27 October and 3 November 1979.In August 1979, after two warm-up shows in Copenhagen, Led Zeppelin headlined two concerts at the Knebworth Music Festival, playing to a crowd of approximately 104,000 on the first night.", "A brief, low-key European tour was undertaken in June and July 1980, featuring a stripped-down set without the usual lengthy jams and solos.", "On 27 June, at a show in Nuremberg, Germany, the concert came to an abrupt halt in the middle of the third song, when Bonham collapsed onstage and was rushed to hospital.", "Speculation in the press suggested that his collapse had been the result of excessive alcohol and drug use, but the band claimed that he had simply overeaten.A North American tour, the band's first since 1977, was scheduled to commence on 17 October 1980.On 24 September, Bonham was picked up by Led Zeppelin assistant Rex King to attend rehearsals at Bray Studios.", "During the journey, Bonham asked to stop for breakfast, where he downed four quadruple vodkas (from ), with a ham roll.", "After taking a bite of the ham roll he said to his assistant, \"breakfast\".", "He continued to drink heavily after arriving at the studio.", "The rehearsals were halted late that evening and the band retired to Page's house—the Old Mill House in Clewer, Windsor.After midnight, Bonham, who had fallen asleep, was taken to bed and placed on his side.", "At 1:45 pm the next day, Benji LeFevre (Led Zeppelin's new tour manager) and John Paul Jones found Bonham dead.", "The cause of death was asphyxiation from vomit; the finding was accidental death.", "An autopsy found no other recreational drugs in Bonham's body.", "Although he had recently begun to take Motival (a cocktail of the antipsychotic fluphenazine and the tricyclic antidepressant nortriptyline) to combat his anxiety, it is unclear if these substances interacted with the alcohol in his system.", "Bonham's remains were cremated and his ashes interred on 12 October 1980, at Rushock parish church, Worcestershire.The planned North American tour was cancelled, and despite rumours that Cozy Powell, Carmine Appice, Barriemore Barlow, Simon Kirke, Ric Lee or Bev Bevan would join the group as his replacement, the remaining members decided to disband.", "A 4 December 1980 press statement stated that, \"We wish it to be known that the loss of our dear friend, and the deep sense of undivided harmony felt by ourselves and our manager, have led us to decide that we could not continue as we were.\"", "The statement was signed simply \"Led Zeppelin\".=== Post-breakup ======= 1980s ====Page performs at the Cow Palace in Daly City, California in 1983.|alt=A colour photograph of Jimmy Page performing on stage with a double-necked guitarFollowing Led Zeppelin's dissolution, the first significant musical project by one of its members was the Honeydrippers, which Plant initially formed in 1981.The group, featuring Page on lead guitar, along with studio musicians and friends of the pair, including Jeff Beck, Paul Shaffer, and Nile Rodgers, released its only album in 1984.Plant focused on a different direction from Zeppelin, playing standards and in a more R&B style, highlighted by a cover of \"Sea of Love\" that peaked at number three on the ''Billboard'' chart in early 1985.", "''Coda'' – a collection of Zeppelin outtakes and unused tracks – was issued in November 1982.It included two tracks from the Royal Albert Hall in 1970, one each from the ''Led Zeppelin III'' and ''Houses of the Holy'' sessions, and three from the ''In Through the Out Door'' sessions.", "It also featured a 1976 Bonham drum instrumental with electronic effects added by Page, called \"Bonzo's Montreux\".Page, Plant, and Jones performing at Live Aid in PhiladelphiaOn 13 July 1985, Page, Plant, and Jones reunited for the Live Aid concert at JFK Stadium, Philadelphia, playing a short set featuring drummers Tony Thompson and Phil Collins, and bassist Paul Martinez.", "Collins had contributed to Plant's first two solo albums while Martinez was a member of Plant's solo band.", "The performance was marred by a lack of rehearsal with the two drummers, Page's struggles with an out-of-tune guitar, poorly functioning monitors, and Plant's hoarse voice.", "Page described the performance as \"pretty shambolic\", while Plant characterised it as an \"atrocity\".The three members reunited again on 14 May 1988, for the Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary concert, with Bonham's son Jason on drums.", "The result was again disjointed: Plant and Page had argued immediately prior to taking the stage about whether to play \"Stairway to Heaven\", and Jones' keyboards were absent from the live television feed.", "Page described the performance as \"one big disappointment\" and Plant said \"the gig was foul\".==== 1990s ====alt=A colour photograph of Jason Bonham playing drumsThe first Led Zeppelin box set, featuring tracks remastered under Page's supervision, was released in 1990 and bolstered the band's reputation, leading to abortive discussions among members about a reunion.", "This set included four previously unreleased tracks, including a version of Robert Johnson's \"Travelling Riverside Blues\".", "The song peaked at number seven on the ''Billboard'' Album Rock Tracks chart.", "''Led Zeppelin Boxed Set 2'' was released in 1993; the two box sets together contained all known studio recordings, as well as some rare live tracks.In 1994, Page and Plant reunited for a 90-minute \"UnLedded\" MTV project.", "They later released an album called ''No Quarter: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded'', which featured some reworked Led Zeppelin songs, and embarked on a world tour the following year.", "This is said to be the beginning of a rift between the band members, as Jones was not even told of the reunion.In 1995, Led Zeppelin were inducted into the United States Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Steven Tyler and Joe Perry of Aerosmith.", "Jason and Zoë Bonham also attended, representing their late father.", "At the induction ceremony, the band's inner rift became apparent when Jones joked upon accepting his award, \"Thank you, my friends, for finally remembering my phone number\", causing consternation and awkward looks from Page and Plant.", "Afterwards, they played one brief set with Tyler and Perry, with Jason Bonham on drums, and then a second with Neil Young, this time with Michael Lee playing the drums.In 1997, Atlantic released a single edit of \"Whole Lotta Love\" in the US and the UK, the only single the band released in their homeland, where it peaked at number 21.November 1997 saw the release of ''Led Zeppelin BBC Sessions'', a two-disc set largely recorded in 1969 and 1971.Page and Plant released another album called ''Walking into Clarksdale'' in 1998, featuring all new material, but after disappointing sales, the partnership dissolved before a planned Australian tour.==== 2000s ====Led Zeppelin performing at the alt=A colour photograph of John Paul Jones, Robert Plant and Jimmy Page performing on stage, with Jason Bonham partially visible on drums in the backgroundThe year 2003 saw the release of the triple live album ''How the West Was Won'', and ''Led Zeppelin DVD'', a six-hour chronological set of live footage that became the best-selling music DVD in history.", "In July 2007, Atlantic/Rhino and Warner Home Video announced three Zeppelin titles to be released that November: ''Mothership'', a 24-track best-of spanning the band's career; a reissue of the soundtrack ''The Song Remains the Same'', including previously unreleased material; and a new DVD.", "Zeppelin also made their catalogue legally available for download, becoming one of the last major rock bands to do so.On 10 December 2007, Zeppelin reunited for the Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert at the O2 Arena in London, with Jason Bonham again taking his father's place on drums.", "According to ''Guinness World Records 2009'', the show set a record for the \"Highest Demand for Tickets for One Music Concert\" as 20 million requests were submitted online.", "Critics praised the performance and there was widespread speculation about a full reunion.", "Page, Jones and Jason Bonham were reported to be willing to tour and to be working on material for a new Zeppelin project.", "Plant continued his touring commitments with Alison Krauss, stating in September 2008 that he would not record or tour with the band.", "\"I told them I was busy and they'd simply have to wait,\" he recalled in 2014.", "\"I would come around eventually, which they were fine with – at least to my knowledge.", "But it turns out they weren't.", "And what's even more disheartening, Jimmy used it against me.", "\"Jones and Page reportedly looked for a replacement for Plant; candidates including Steven Tyler of Aerosmith, and Myles Kennedy of Alter Bridge.", "However, in January 2009, it was confirmed that the project had been abandoned.", "\"Getting the opportunity to play with Jimmy Page, John Paul Jones and Jason Bonham was pretty special,\" Kennedy recalled.", "\"That is pretty much the zenith right there.", "That was a crazy, good experience.", "It's something I still think of often ...", "It's so precious to me.", "\"==== 2010s ====Celebration Day'' at the Hammersmith Apollo in London, October 2012A film of the O2 performance, ''Celebration Day'', premiered on 17 October 2012 and was released on DVD on 19 November.", "The film grossed $2 million in one night, and the live album peaked at number 4 and 9 in the UK and US, respectively.", "Following the film's premiere, Page revealed that he had been remastering the band's discography.", "The first wave of albums, ''Led Zeppelin'', ''Led Zeppelin II'', and ''Led Zeppelin III'', were released on 2 June 2014.The second wave of albums, ''Led Zeppelin IV'' and ''Houses of the Holy'', were released on 27 October 2014.", "''Physical Graffiti'' was released on 23 February 2015, almost exactly forty years to the day after the original release.", "The fourth and final wave of studio album reissues, ''Presence'', ''In Through the Out Door'', and ''Coda'', were released on 31 July 2015.Through this remastering project, each studio album was reissued on CD and vinyl and was also available in a Deluxe Edition, which contained a bonus disc of previously unheard material (''Coda's'' Deluxe Edition would include two bonus discs).", "Each album was also available in a Super Deluxe Edition Box Set, which included the remastered album and bonus disc on both CD and 180-gram vinyl, a high-definition audio download card of all content at 96 kHz/24 bit, a hardbound book filled with rare and previously unseen photos and memorabilia, and a high-quality print of the original album cover.On 6 November 2015, the ''Mothership'' compilation was reissued using the band's newly remastered audio tracks.", "The reissuing campaign continued the next year with the re-release of ''BBC Sessions'' on 16 September 2016.The reissue contained a bonus disc with nine unreleased BBC recordings, including the heavily bootlegged but never officially released \"Sunshine Woman\".To commemorate the band's 50th anniversary, Page, Plant and Jones announced an official illustrated book celebrating 50 years since the formation of the band.", "Also released for the celebration was a reissue of ''How the West Was Won'' on 23 March 2018, which includes the album's first pressing on vinyl.", "For Record Store Day on 21 April 2018, Led Zeppelin released a 7\" single \"Rock and Roll\" (Sunset Sound Mix)/\"Friends\" (Olympic Studio Mix), their first single in 21 years.==== 2020s ====In October 2020, Page released a photo collection called ''Jimmy Page: The Anthology'', confirming a band documentary for the band's 50th anniversary.", "An upcoming documentary film, ''Becoming Led Zeppelin'', is in post production.", "It is the first time band members have agreed to participate in a biographical documentary." ], [ "Musical style", "alt=A black and white photograph of John Bonham wearing a headband and behind the cymbals of a drum kitLed Zeppelin's music was rooted in the blues.", "The influence of American blues artists such as Muddy Waters and Skip James was particularly apparent on their first two albums, as was the distinct country blues style of Howlin' Wolf.", "Tracks were structured around the twelve-bar blues on every studio album except for one, and the blues directly and indirectly influenced other songs both musically and lyrically.", "The band were also strongly influenced by the music of the British, Celtic, and American folk revivals.", "Scottish folk guitarist Bert Jansch helped inspire Page, and from him he adapted open tunings and aggressive strokes into his playing.", "The band also drew on a wide variety of genres, including world music, and elements of early rock and roll, jazz, country, funk, soul, and reggae, particularly on ''Houses of the Holy'' and the albums that followed.The material on the first two albums was largely constructed out of extended jams of blues standards and folk songs.", "This method led to the mixing of musical and lyrical elements of different songs and versions, as well as improvised passages, to create new material, but would lead to later accusations of plagiarism and legal disputes over copyright.", "Usually the music was developed first, sometimes with improvised lyrics that might then be rewritten for the final version of the song.", "From the visit to Bron-Yr-Aur in 1970, the songwriting partnership between Page and Plant became predominant, with Page supplying the music, largely via his acoustic guitar, and Plant emerging as the band's chief lyricist.", "Jones and Bonham then added to the material, in rehearsal or in the studio, as a song was developed.", "In the later stages of the band's career, Page took a back seat in composition and Jones became increasingly important in producing music, often composed on the keyboard.", "Plant would then add lyrics before Page and Bonham developed their parts.Page with the double-neck alt=A black and white photograph of Jimmy Page playing a double-necked guitarEarly lyrics drew on the band's blues and folk roots, often mixing lyrical fragments from different songs.", "Many of the band's songs dealt with themes of romance, unrequited love and sexual conquest, which were common in rock, pop and blues music.", "Some of their lyrics, especially those derived from the blues, have been interpreted as misogynistic.", "Particularly on ''Led Zeppelin III'', they incorporated elements of mythology and mysticism into their music, which largely grew out of Plant's interest in legends and history.", "These elements were often taken to reflect Page's interest in the occult, which resulted in accusations that the recordings contained subliminal satanic messages, some of which were said to be contained in backmasking; these claims were generally dismissed by the band and music critics.", "The pastoral fantasies in Plant's songwriting were inspired by the landscape of the Black Country region and J. R. R. Tolkien's high fantasy novel ''The Lord of the Rings''.", "Susan Fast argues that as Plant emerged as the band's main lyricist, the songs more obviously reflected his alignment with the West Coast counterculture of the 1960s.", "In the later part of the band's career Plant's lyrics became more autobiographical, and less optimistic, drawing on his own experiences and circumstances.According to musicologist Robert Walser, \"Led Zeppelin's sound was marked by speed and power, unusual rhythmic patterns, contrasting terraced dynamics, singer Robert Plant's wailing vocals, and guitarist Jimmy Page's heavily distorted crunch\".", "These elements mean that they are often cited as one of the originators of hard rock and heavy metal and they have been described as the \"definitive heavy metal band\", although the band members have often eschewed the label.", "Led Zeppelin, together with Deep Purple and Black Sabbath, have been referred to as the \"unholy trinity of British hard rock and heavy metal in the early to mid- seventies\".", "Part of this reputation depends on the band's use of distorted guitar riffs on songs like \"Whole Lotta Love\" and \"The Wanton Song\".", "Often riffs were not doubled by guitar, bass and drums exactly, but instead there were melodic or rhythmic variations.", "Page's guitar playing incorporated elements of the blues scale with those of eastern music.", "Plant's use of high-pitched shrieks has been compared to Janis Joplin's vocal technique.", "Robert Christgau found him integral to the group's heavy \"power blues\" aesthetic, functioning as a \"mechanical effect\" similarly to Page's guitar parts.", "While noting Plant \"hints at real feeling\" on some of their acoustic songs, Christgau believed he abandoned traditional blues singing's emphasis on emotional projection in favour of vocal precision and dynamics: \"Whether he is mouthing sexist blues cliches or running through one of the band's half-audible, half-comprehensible ... lyrics about chivalry or the counter-culture, his voice is devoid of feeling.", "Like the tenors and baritones of yore, he wants his voice to be an instrument—specifically, an electric guitar.\"", "Bonham's drumming was noted for its power, his rapid rolls and his fast beats on a single bass drum; while Jones' basslines have been described as melodic and his keyboard playing added a classical touch to the band's sound.Led Zeppelin have been widely viewed as a hard rock band, although Christgau regarded them as art rock as well.", "According to popular music scholar Reebee Garofalo, \"because hip critics could not find a constructive way of positioning themselves in relation to Led Zeppelin's ultra-macho presentation, they were excluded from the art rock category despite their broad range of influences.\"", "Christgau wrote in 1972, the band could be considered art rock because they \"relate to rock and roll not organically but intellectually\", idealising the \"amplified beat\" as \"a kind of formal challenge\".", "Unlike their contemporaries in Jethro Tull and Yes, who use \"the physical compulsion of beat and volume to involve the mind\", Led Zeppelin \"make body music of an oddly cerebral cast, arousing aggression rather than sexuality.\"", "As such, along with other second-generation English hard rock bands like Black Sabbath and Mott the Hoople, they can attract both intellectuals and working-class youths in \"a strange potential double audience.\"", "Years later, ''In Through the Out Door''s \"tuneful synthesizer pomp\" further confirmed for Christgau they were an art rock band.Page stated that he wanted Led Zeppelin to produce music that had \"light and shade\".", "This began to be more clearly realised beginning with ''Led Zeppelin III'', which made greater use of acoustic instruments.", "This approach has been seen as exemplified in the fourth album, particularly on \"Stairway to Heaven\", which begins with acoustic guitar and recorder and ends with drums and heavy electric sounds.", "Towards the end of their recording career, they moved to a more mellow and progressive sound, dominated by Jones' keyboard motifs.", "They also increasingly made use of various layering and production techniques, including multi-tracking and overdubbed guitar parts.", "Their emphasis on the sense of dynamics and ensemble arrangement has been seen as producing an individualistic style that transcends any single music genre.", "Ian Peddie argues that they were \"... loud, powerful and often heavy, but their music was also humorous, self-reflective and extremely subtle\"." ], [ "Legacy", "Plant's vocal style has been highly influential in rock music, while his mane of long blond hair and powerful, bare-chested appearance, helped to create the \"rock god\" archetype.", "A 2011 ''alt=A black and white photograph showing a headshot of Robert Plant with a microphone in handMany have considered Led Zeppelin to be one of the most successful, innovative, and influential bands in the history of rock music.", "Rock critic Mikal Gilmore said, \"Led Zeppelin—talented, complex, grasping, beautiful and dangerous—made one of the most enduring bodies of composition and performance in twentieth-century music, despite everything they had to overpower, including themselves\".Led Zeppelin have influenced hard rock and heavy metal bands such as Deep Purple, Black Sabbath, Rush, Queen, Scorpions, Aerosmith, the Black Crowes, and Megadeth as well as progressive metal bands like Tool and Dream Theater.", "They influenced some early punk and post-punk bands, among them the Ramones, Joy Division and the Cult.", "They were also an important influence on the development of alternative rock, as bands adapted elements from the \"Zeppelin sound\" of the mid-1970s, including the Smashing Pumpkins, Nirvana, Pearl Jam, and Soundgarden.", "Bands and artists from diverse genres have acknowledged the influence of Led Zeppelin, such as Madonna, Shakira, Lady Gaga, Kesha, and Katie Melua.Jones performing with the band in alt=A red tinged photograph of John Paul Jones playing a bass guitarLed Zeppelin have been credited with a major impact on the nature of the music business, particularly in the development of album-oriented rock (AOR) and stadium rock.", "In 1988 John Kalodner, then-A&R executive of Geffen Records, remarked thatAndrew Loog Oldham, the former producer and manager of the Rolling Stones, commented on how Led Zeppelin had a major influence on the record business, and the way rock concerts were managed and presented to huge audiences.", "In 2007, they were a featured artist in the stadium rock episode of the BBC/VH1 series ''Seven Ages of Rock''.The band have sold over 200 million albums worldwide according to some sources, while others state that they have sold in excess of 300 million records, including 111.5 million certified units in the United States.", "According to the Recording Industry Association of America, Led Zeppelin are the third-highest-selling band, the fifth highest selling music act in the US, and one of only four acts to earn five or more Diamond albums.", "They achieved eight consecutive number-ones on the UK Albums Chart, a record for most consecutive UK number-one albums shared with ABBA.", "Led Zeppelin remain one of the most bootlegged artists in the history of rock music.Led Zeppelin also made a significant cultural impact.", "Jim Miller, editor of ''Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll'', argues that \"on one level, Led Zeppelin represents the final flowering of the sixties' psychedelic ethic, which casts rock as passive sensory involvement\".", "Led Zeppelin have also been described as \"the quintessential purveyors\" of masculine and aggressive \"cock rock\", although this assertion has been challenged.", "The band's fashion-sense has been seminal; Simeon Lipman, head of pop culture at Christie's auction house, has commented that \"Led Zeppelin have had a big influence on fashion because the whole aura surrounding them is so cool, and people want a piece of that\".", "Led Zeppelin laid the foundation for the big hair of the 1980s glam metal bands such as Mötley Crüe and Skid Row.", "Other musicians have also adapted elements from Led Zeppelin's attitude to clothes, jewellery and hair, such as the hipster flares and tight band T-shirts of Kings of Leon, shaggy hair, clingy T-shirts and bluesman hair of Jack White of the White Stripes, and Kasabian guitarist Sergio Pizzorno's silk scarves, trilbies and side-laced tight jeans." ], [ "Achievements", "Led Zeppelin were honoured by US President Barack Obama at the 2012 Kennedy Center Honors.Led Zeppelin have collected many honours and awards throughout the course of their career.", "They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995, and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2006.Among the band's awards are an American Music Award in 2005, and the Polar Music Prize in 2006.Led Zeppelin were the recipient of a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2005, and four of their recordings have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.", "They have been awarded five Diamond albums, as well as fourteen Multi-Platinum, four Platinum and one Gold album in the United States, while in the UK they have five Multi-Platinum, six Platinum, one Gold and four Silver albums.", "''Rolling Stone'' named Led Zeppelin the 14th-greatest artist of all time in 2004.In 2003, ''Rolling Stone''s 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list included ''Led Zeppelin'' at number 29, ''Led Zeppelin IV'' at number 66, ''Physical Graffiti'' at number 70, ''Led Zeppelin II'' at number 75, and ''Houses of the Holy'' at number 149.And in 2004, on their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list, ''Rolling Stone'' included \"Stairway to Heaven\" at number 31, \"Whole Lotta Love\" at number 75, \"Kashmir\" at number 140, \"Black Dog\" at number 294, \"Heartbreaker\" at number 320, and \"Ramble On\" at number 433.In 2005, Page was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in recognition of his charity work, and in 2009 Plant was honoured as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his services to popular music.", "The band are ranked number one on VH1's ''100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock'' and ''Classic Rock''s \"50 best live acts of all time\".", "They were named as the best Rock band in a poll by BBC Radio 2.They were awarded an Ivor Novello Award for \"Outstanding Contribution to British Music\" in 1977, as well as a \"Lifetime Achievement Award\" at the 42nd Annual Ivor Novello awards ceremony in 1997.The band were honoured at the 2008 MOJO Awards with the \"Best Live Act\" prize for their one-off reunion, and were described as the \"greatest rock and roll band of all time\".", "In 2010, ''Led Zeppelin IV'' was one of ten classic album covers from British artists commemorated on a UK postage stamp issued by the Royal Mail; they were unveiled by Jimmy Page.", "Led Zeppelin were named as 2012 recipients of the Kennedy Center Honors." ], [ "Band members", "* Robert Plant – vocals, harmonica* Jimmy Page – guitars* John Paul Jones – bass, keyboards* John Bonham – drums, percussion'''Guest musicians post-breakup'''* Tony Thompson – drums (1985; died 2003)* Phil Collins – drums (1985)* Paul Martinez – bass (1985)* Jason Bonham – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1988, 1995, 2007)* Michael Lee – drums (1995; died 2008)" ], [ "Discography", "* ''Led Zeppelin'' (1969)* ''Led Zeppelin II'' (1969)* ''Led Zeppelin III'' (1970)* Untitled album (1971) (de facto ''Led Zeppelin IV'')* ''Houses of the Holy'' (1973)* ''Physical Graffiti'' (1975)* ''Presence'' (1976)* ''In Through the Out Door'' (1979)" ], [ "See also", "* List of cover versions of Led Zeppelin songs* List of Led Zeppelin songs written or inspired by others" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Led Zeppelin at Atlantic Records* Led Zeppelin on the Internet Archive* (Official)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lord Dunsany" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Edward John Moreton Drax Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany''', (; 24 July 1878 – 25 October 1957), commonly known as '''Lord Dunsany''', was an Anglo-Irish writer and dramatist.", "He published more than 90 books during his lifetime, and his output consisted of hundreds of short stories, plays, novels, and essays.", "He gained a name in the 1910s as a great writer in the English-speaking world.", "Best known today are the 1924 fantasy novel, ''The King of Elfland's Daughter'', and his first book, ''The Gods of Pegāna'', which depicts a fictional pantheon.", "Many critics feel his early work laid grounds for the fantasy genre.Born in London as heir to an old Irish peerage, he was raised partly in Kent, but later lived mainly at Ireland's possibly longest-inhabited home, Dunsany Castle near Tara.", "He worked with W. B. Yeats and Lady Gregory supporting the Abbey Theatre and some fellow writers.", "He was a chess and pistol champion of Ireland, and travelled and hunted.", "He devised an asymmetrical game called Dunsany's chess.", "In later life, he gained an honorary doctorate from Trinity College Dublin.", "He retired to Shoreham, Kent, in 1947.In 1957 he took ill when visiting Ireland and died in Dublin of appendicitis." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Edward Plunkett (''Dunsany''), known to his family as \"Eddie\", was the first son of John William Plunkett, 17th Baron of Dunsany (1853–1899), and his wife, Ernle Elizabeth Louisa Maria Grosvenor Ernle-Erle-Drax (née Burton) (1855–1916).From a historically wealthy and famous family, Lord Dunsany was related to many well-known Irish figures.", "He was a kinsman of the Catholic Saint Oliver Plunkett, the martyred Archbishop of Armagh whose ring and crozier head are still held by the Dunsany family.", "He was also related to the prominent Anglo-Irish unionist and later nationalist / Home Rule politician Sir Horace Plunkett and George Count Plunkett, Papal Count and Republican politician, father of Joseph Plunkett, executed for his part in the 1916 Rising.His mother was a cousin of Sir Richard Burton, and he inherited from her considerable height, being 1.93 metres tall (6'4\").", "The Countess of Fingall, wife of Dunsany's cousin, the Earl of Fingall, wrote a best-selling account of the life of the aristocracy in Ireland in the late 19th century and early 20th century called ''Seventy Years Young''.Plunkett's only adult sibling, a younger brother, from whom he was estranged from about 1916, for reasons not fully clear but connected to his mother's will, was the noted British naval officer Sir Reginald Drax.", "Another younger brother died in infancy.Edward Plunkett grew up at the family properties, notably Dunstall Priory in Shoreham, Kent, and Dunsany Castle in County Meath, but also in family homes such as in London.", "His schooling was at Cheam, Eton College and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, which he entered in 1896.===Title and marriage===Beatrice Child Villiers, Lady DunsanyThe title passed to him at his father's death in 1899 at a fairly young age.", "The young Lord Dunsany returned to Dunsany Castle after war duty, in 1901.In that year he was also confirmed as an elector for the Representative Peers for Ireland in the House of Lords.In 1903, he met Lady Beatrice Child Villiers (1880–1970), youngest daughter of The 7th Earl of Jersey (head of the Jersey banking family), who was then living at Osterley Park.", "They married in 1904.Their one child, Randal, was born in 1906.Lady Beatrice was supportive of Dunsany's interests and helped him by typing his manuscripts, selecting work for his collections, including the 1954 retrospective short story collection, and overseeing his literary heritage after his death.The Dunsanys were socially active in Dublin and London and travelled between homes in Meath, London and Kent, other than during the First and Second world wars and the Irish War of Independence.", "Dunsany circulated with many literary figures of the time.", "To many of these in Ireland he was first introduced by his uncle, the co-operative pioneer Sir Horace Plunkett, who also helped to manage his estate and investments for a time.", "He was friendly, for example, with George William Russell, Oliver St. John Gogarty, and for a time, W. B. Yeats.", "He also socialised at times with George Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells, and was a friend of Rudyard Kipling.In 1910 Dunsany commissioned a two-storey extension to Dunsany Castle, with a billiard room, bedrooms and other facilities.", "The billiard room includes the crests of all the Lords Dunsany up to the 18th.===Military experience===Dunsany as captain, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, in the First World WarDunsany served as a second lieutenant in the Coldstream Guards in the Second Boer War.", "Volunteering in the First World War and appointed Captain in the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, he was stationed for a time at Ebrington Barracks in Derry.", "Hearing while on leave of disturbances in Dublin during the Easter Rising of 1916, he drove in to offer help and was wounded by a bullet lodged in his skull.", "After recovery at Jervis Street Hospital and what was then the King George V Hospital (now St. Bricin's Military Hospital), he returned to duty.", "His military belt was lost in the episode and later used at the burial of Michael Collins.", "Having been refused forward positioning in 1916 and listed as valuable as a trainer, he served in the later war stages in the trenches and in the final period writing propaganda material for the War Office with MI7b(1).", "There is a book at Dunsany Castle with wartime photographs, on which lost members of his command are marked.During the Irish War of Independence, Dunsany was charged with violating the Restoration of Order in Ireland Regulations, tried by court-martial on 4 February 1921, convicted, and sentenced to pay a fine of 25 pounds or serve three months in prison without labour.", "The Crown Forces had searched Dunsany Castle and had found two double-barrelled shotguns, two rook rifles, four Very pistols, an automatic pistol and a large quantity of pistol ammunition, along with shotgun and rifle ammunition.During the Second World War, Dunsany signed up for the Irish Army Reserve and the British Home Guard, the two countries' local defence forces, and was especially active in Shoreham, Kent, the English village bombed most during the Battle of Britain.===Literary life===Photograph of Dunsany from the Bain News ServiceDunsany's fame arose chiefly from his prolific writings.", "He was involved in the Irish Literary Revival.", "Supporting the Revival, Dunsany was a major donor to the Abbey Theatre and he moved in Irish literary circles.", "He was well acquainted with W. B. Yeats (who rarely acted as editor but gathered and published a Dunsany selection), Lady Gregory, Percy French, George \"AE\" Russell, Oliver St John Gogarty, Padraic Colum (with whom he jointly wrote a play) and others.", "He befriended and supported Francis Ledwidge, to whom he gave the use of his library, and Mary Lavin.Dunsany made his first literary tour to the United States in 1919 and further such visits up to the 1950s, in the early years mostly to the eastern seaboard and later, notably, to California.Dunsany's own work and contribution to the Irish literary heritage were recognised with an honorary degree from Trinity College Dublin.===Early 1940s===In 1940, Dunsany was appointed Byron Professor of English in Athens University, Greece.", "Having reached Athens by a circuitous route, he was so successful that he was offered a post as Professor of English in Istanbul.", "However, he had to be evacuated due to the German invasion of Greece in April 1941, returning home by an even more complex route, his travels forming a basis for a long poem published in book form (''A Journey, in 5 cantos: The Battle of Britain, The Battle of Greece, The Battle of the Mediterranean, Battles Long Ago, The Battle of the Atlantic'', special edition January 1944).", "Olivia Manning's character Lord Pinkrose in her novel sequence the ''Fortunes of War'' was a mocking portrait of Dunsany in that period.===Later life===Portrait Lord Dunsany by Serge Ivanoff, San Francisco, 1953.In 1947, Dunsany transferred his Meath estate in trust to his son and heir Randal and settled in Kent at his Shoreham house, Dunstall Priory.", "He visited Ireland only occasionally thereafter, and engaged actively in life in Shoreham and London.", "He also began a new series of visits to the United States, notably California, as recounted in Hazel Littlefield-Smith's biographical ''Dunsany, King of Dreams''.===Death===In 1957, Lord Dunsany became ill while dining with the Earl and Countess of Fingall at Dunsany, in what proved to be an attack of appendicitis.", "He died in hospital in Dublin, at the age of 79.He was buried in the churchyard of the ancient church of St Peter and St Paul, Shoreham, Kent.", "His funeral was attended by many family members (including Pakenhams, Jerseys and Fingals), representatives of his old regiment and various bodies in which he had taken an interest, and figures from Shoreham.", "A memorial service was held at Kilmessan in Meath, with a reading of \"Crossing the Bar\", which coincided with the passing of a flock of geese.Beatrice survived Dunsany, living mainly at Shoreham and overseeing his literary legacy until her death in 1970.Their son Randal succeeded to the barony and was in turn succeeded by his grandson, the artist Edward Plunkett.", "Dunsany's literary rights passed from Beatrice to Edward.===Interests===Aside from his literary work, Dunsany was a keen chess player, setting chess puzzles for journals such as ''The Times'' of London, playing José Raúl Capablanca to a draw in a simultaneous exhibition, and inventing Dunsany's Chess, an asymmetrical chess variant notable for not involving any fairy pieces, unlike the many variants that require the player to learn unconventional piece movements.", "He was president of both the Irish Chess Union and the Kent County Chess Association for some years and of Sevenoaks Chess Club for 54 years.Dunsany was an avid horseman and hunter, for many years hosting the hounds of a local hunt and hunting in parts of Africa.", "He was at one time the pistol-shooting champion of Ireland.", "Dunsany also campaigned for animal rights, being known especially for his opposition to the \"docking\" of dogs' tails, and presided over the West Kent branch of the RSPCA in his later years.", "He enjoyed cricket, provided the local cricket ground situated near Dunsany Crossroads, and later played for and presided at Shoreham Cricket Club in Kent.", "He was a supporter of Scouting for many years, serving as President of the Sevenoaks district Boy Scouts Association.", "He also supported an amateur drama group, the Shoreham Players.Dunsany provided support for the British Legion in both Ireland and Kent, including grounds in Trim and poetry for the Irish branch's annual memorial service on a number of occasions." ], [ "Writings", "Dunsany was a prolific writer of short stories, novels, plays, poetry, essays and autobiography.", "He published over 90 books in his lifetime, not including individual plays.", "Books have continued to appear, with more than 120 having been issued by 2017.Dunsany's works have been published in many languages.===Early career===Dunsany began his literary career in the late 1890s writing under his given name, with published verses such as \"Rhymes from a Suburb\" and \"The Spirit of the Bog\".", "In 1905, writing as Lord Dunsany, he produced the well-received collection ''The Gods of Pegāna.", "''===Early fantasy===Dunsany's most notable fantasy short stories appeared in collections from 1905 to 1919, before fantasy had been recognised as a distinct genre.", "He paid for the publication of the first collection, ''The Gods of Pegāna,'' earning a commission on sales.The stories in his first two books, and perhaps the beginning of his third, were set in an invented world, Pegāna, with its own gods, history and geography.", "Starting with this, Dunsany's name is linked to that of Sidney Sime, his chosen artist, who illustrated much of his work, notably up to 1922.===Drama===After ''The Book of Wonder'' (1912), Dunsany began to write plays – many of which were even more successful at the time than his early story collections – while continuing to write short stories.", "He carried on writing plays for the theatre into the 1930s, including the famous ''If'' (1921), and also some radio productions.Although many of Dunsany's plays were successfully staged in his lifetime, he also wrote \"chamber plays\" or closet dramas.", "Some of these chamber or radio plays involve supernatural events – a character appearing out of thin air or vanishing in full view of the audience, without an explanation of how the effect is to be staged, a matter of no importance, as Dunsany did not intend them to be performed live.===Middle period===After a successful US lecture tour in 1919–1920, Dunsany's reputation was now related principally to his plays.", "He temporarily reduced his output of short stories, concentrating on plays, novels and poetry for a time.", "His poetry, now little seen, was for a time so popular that it is recited by the lead character of F. Scott Fitzgerald's ''This Side of Paradise''.", "His sonnet ''A Dirge of Victory'' was the only poem included in the Armistice Day edition of the Times of London.Launching another phase of his work, Dunsany's first novel, ''Don Rodriguez: Chronicles of Shadow Valley'' appeared in 1922.It is set in \"a Romantic Spain that never was\" and follows the adventures of a young nobleman, Don Rodriguez, and his servant in their search for a castle for Rodriguez.", "In 1924, Dunsany published his second novel, ''The King of Elfland's Daughter,'' a return to his early style of writing.", "In his next novel, ''The Charwoman's Shadow,'' Dunsany returned to the Spanish milieu and the light style of ''Don Rodriguez''.Among his best-known characters was Joseph Jorkens, an obese, middle-aged raconteur who frequented the fictional Billiards Club in London and would tell fantastic stories if anyone bought him a large whiskey and soda.", "From his tales, it was clear that Jorkens had travelled to all seven continents, was extremely resourceful and well-versed in world cultures, but always came up short on becoming rich and famous.", "The ''Jorkens'' books, which sold well, were among the first of a type that would become popular in fantasy and science fiction writing: highly improbable \"club tales\" told at a gentleman's club or bar.Some saw Dunsany's writing habits as peculiar.", "Lady Beatrice said, \"He always sat on a crumpled old hat while composing his tales\".", "(The hat was eventually stolen by a visitor to Dunsany Castle.)", "Dunsany almost never rewrote anything; everything he published was a first draft.", "Much of his work was written with a quill pen he made himself; Lady Beatrice was usually the first to see the writings and would help to type them.", "It has been said that Lord Dunsany sometimes conceived stories while hunting and would return to the Castle and draw in his family and servants to re-enact his visions before he set them on paper.===Translations===Dunsany's work was translated from early on into languages that include Spanish, French, Japanese, German, Italian, Dutch, Russian, Czech and Turkish – his uncle, Horace Plunkett, suggested 14 languages by the 1920s.===Style and themes===Dunsany's style varied significantly throughout his writing career.", "Prominent Dunsany scholar S. T. Joshi has described these shifts as Dunsany moving on after he felt he had exhausted the potential of a style or medium.", "From the naïve fantasy of his earliest writings, through his early short-story work in 1904–1908, he turned to the self-conscious fantasy of ''The Book of Wonder'' in 1912, in which he almost seems to be parodying his lofty early style.Each of his collections varies in mood; ''A Dreamer's Tales'' varies from the wistfulness of \"Blagdaross\" to the horrors of \"Poor Old Bill\" and \"Where the Tides Ebb and Flow\" to the social satire of \"The Day of the Poll.\"", "The opening paragraph of \"The Hoard of the Gibbelins\" from ''The Book of Wonder,'' (1912) gives a good indication of both the tone and tenor of Dunsany's style at the time:The Gibbelins eat, as is well known, nothing less good than man.", "Their evil tower is joined to Terra Cognita, to the lands we know, by a bridge.", "Their hoard is beyond reason; avarice has no use for it; they have a separate cellar for emeralds and a separate cellar for sapphires; they have filled a hole with gold and dig it up when they need it.", "And the only use that is known for their ridiculous wealth is to attract to their larder a continual supply of food.", "In times of famine, they have even been known to scatter rubies abroad, a little trail of them to some city of Man, and sure enough, their larders would soon be full again.Despite his frequent shifts of style and medium, Dunsany's thematic concerns remained essentially the same.", "Many of his later novels had an explicitly Irish theme, from the semi-autobiographical ''The Curse of the Wise Woman'' to ''His Fellow Men.''" ], [ "Dramatisations and media", "===Theatre===*Most of Dunsany's plays were performed in his lifetime, some many times in many venues, including the West End, Broadway and Off-Broadway.", "At one time, five ran simultaneously in New York, possibly all on Broadway, On another occasion he was being performed in four European capitals as well as New York.===Radio===*Dunsany wrote several plays for radio, most being broadcast on the BBC and some collected in ''Plays for Earth and Air''.", "The BBC had recordings of the broadcasts, but according to articles on the author, these are not extant.", "*Dunsany is known to have read short stories and poetry on air and for private recording by Hazel Littlefield-Smith and friends in California.", "It is thought that one or two of these recordings survive.", "*The successful film ''It Happened Tomorrow'' was later adapted for radio.", "*The radio drama ''Fortress of Doom'' (2005) in the ''Radio Tales'' series is an adaptation of Dunsany's short story \"The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth\".===Television===*Dunsany appeared on early television several times, notably on ''The Brains Trust'' (reaching over a quarter of the UK population), but no recordings are known to exist.", "*A 1946 BBC production of ''A Night at an Inn'' starred Oliver Burt.", "*A half-hour dramatisation of ''A Night at an Inn'', starring Boris Karloff, adapted from Dunsany's play by Halsted Welles and directed by Robert Stevens, was produced for ''Suspense'' and aired in April 1949.", "*In 1952, ''Four Star Playhouse'' presented ''The Lost Silk Hat'', directed by Robert Florey and starring Ronald Colman, who also collaborated with Milton Merli on the script.", "*An adaptation of ''The Pirates of the Round Pond'' was aired as ''The Pirates of Central Park'' in 2001.", "*A dramatised reading of ''Charon'' appeared in the USA TV series ''Fantasmagori'', 2017.===Cinema===*The critically and commercially successful 1944 film ''It Happened Tomorrow'', nominated for two Oscars, credited \"The Jest of Hahalaba\" as one of its sources.", "*The short ''In the Twilight'', a 15-minute colour production from a short story of that name, directed by Digby Rumsey, was showcased in the mid-1970s at the London Film Festival.", "*The short ''Nature and Time'', a 1976 colour production from a short story of that name, directed by Digby Rumsey, starred Helen York and Paul Goodchild.", "*The 22-minute colour film ''The Pledge'', from the short story \"The Highwayman\", directed by Digby Rumsey, was released by Fantasy Films in 1981 and distributed by Twentieth Century Fox, with music by Michael Nyman.", "*The 2008 film ''Dean Spanley'', adapted by Alan Sharp from the novella ''My Talks With Dean Spanley'', directed by Toa Fraser and produced by Matthew Metcalfe and Alan Harris, starred Peter O'Toole, Sam Neill, Jeremy Northam and Bryan Brown.", "*George Pal optioned the science fiction novel ''The Last Revolution'' in the 1960s.", "The short story \"Charon\" and the novel ''The King of Elfland's Daughter'' were among others optioned at various times, but none are believed to have reached production.", "Granada TV also bought options or rights for certain stories.", "*It was said that the 1998 British-US romantic comedy drama film ''Sliding Doors'', with some similar plot points, directed by Peter Howitt, also had a Dunsanian link with that material and with ''If''.===Music===*Eduardo Bort was inspired by \"Idle Days on the Yann\" for his debut album ''Eduardo Bort'' (1975), especially for the lyrics of the tracks \"Yann\", \"En las riberas del Yann\" and the bonus track \"En las fuentes del Yann\".", "*In 1977, Peter Knight and Bob Johnson, two members of Steeleye Span, recorded a concept album based on Dunsany's ''The King of Elfland's Daughter'', released by Chrysalis Records on LP and later on CD.", "The album starred Christopher Lee.", "*An adaptation of \"The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth\" was made by Destiny's End in 1998.", "*An interpretation of ''The King of Elfland's Daughter'' was released by the metal band Falcon in 2008===Audiobooks===*An LP of Vincent Price reading a number of Dunsany short stories appeared in the 1980s.", "*Several Dunsany short stories have been published as audiobooks in Germany and played on the German national railway, Deutsche Bahn (DB).", "**''The Little Tales of Smethers and Other Stories'' were published in the UK and US in 2017.", "*A set of short stories set to music, ''The Vengeance of Thor'', was released by Pegana Press, Olympia, Washington, in 2017.===Video game===*Dunsany appears as a playable character in the 1999 PlayStation game ''Koudelka''." ], [ "Memberships, awards and honours", "Lord Dunsany was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature, a member and at one point President of the Authors' Society, and likewise President of the Shakespeare Reading Society from 1938 until his death in 1957, when he was succeeded by Sir John Gielgud.Dunsany was also a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and an honorary member of the Institut Historique et Heraldique de France.", "He was initially an Associate Member of the Irish Academy of Letters, founded by Yeats and others, and later a full member.", "At one of their meetings, after 1922, he asked Seán Ó Faoláin, who was presiding, \"Do we not toast the King?\"", "Ó Faoláin replied that there was only one toast: to the Nation; but after it was given and O'Faolain had called for coffee, he saw Dunsany, standing quietly among the bustle, raise his glass discreetly, and whisper \"God bless him\".", "''The Curse of the Wise Woman'' received the Harmsworth Literary Award in Ireland.Dunsany received an honorary doctorate, D.Litt., from Trinity College Dublin, in 1940.In 1950, he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature by Irish PEN, citing his fiction, poetry, and support for younger writers.", "However, after a negative appraisal by Per Hallström, the Nobel Committee did not consider him for the prize, which was won that year by Bertrand Russell." ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "Influences", "*Dunsany studied Greek and Latin, particularly Greek drama and Herodotus, the \"Father of History\".", "Dunsany wrote in a letter: \"When I learned Greek at Cheam and heard of other gods a great pity came on me for those beautiful marble people that had become forsaken and this mood has never quite left me.\"", "1*The King James Bible: In a letter to Frank Harris, Dunsany wrote: \"When I went to Cheam School I was given a lot of the Bible to read.", "This turned my thoughts eastward.", "For years no style seemed to me natural but that of the Bible and I feared that I never would become a writer when I saw that other people did not use it.", "\"*The Library of Dunsany Castle had a wide-ranging collection dating back centuries and comprising many classic works, from early encyclopaedias through parliamentary records, Greek and Latin works to Victorian illustrated books.", "*His father's tale about ancient Egypt also influenced him.", "*He was affected by the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm and Hans Christian Andersen, and by the work of Edgar Allan Poe.", "*Rudyard Kipling and his works set in India were also read by him.", "*Irish speech patterns were an influence.", "*''The Darling of the Gods'', a stage play written by David Belasco and John Luther Long, was first performed in 1902–1903.It presents a fantastical, imaginary version of Japan that powerfully affected Dunsany and may be a template for his own imaginary kingdoms.", "*Algernon Charles Swinburne, who wrote the line \"Time and the Gods are at strife\" in his 1866 poem \"Hymn to Proserpine\": Dunsany later realised this was his unconscious influence for the title ''Time and the Gods''.", "*The heroic romances of William Morris, set in imaginary lands of the author's creation affected him, such as ''The Well at the World's End''.", "*Dunsany's 1922 novel ''Don Rodriguez: Chronicles of Shadow Valley'' seems to draw openly on Cervantes' ''Don Quixote de la Mancha'' (1605 and 1615).", "*Dunsany named his play ''The Seventh Symphony'', collected in ''Plays for Earth and Air'' 1937, after Beethoven's 7th Symphony, which was one of Dunsany's favourite works of music.", "One of the last ''Jorkens'' stories returns to this theme, referring to Beethoven's ''Tenth Symphony''." ], [ "Writers associated with Dunsany", "*Francis Ledwidge wrote to Dunsany in 1912 asking for help in getting his poetry published.", "After a delay due to a hunting trip in Africa, Dunsany invited him to his home and they met and corresponded regularly thereafter.", "Dunsany was so impressed that he helped with publication and with introductions to literary society.", "Dunsany, trying to discourage Ledwidge from joining the army when the First World War broke out, offered him financial support.", "Ledwidge, however, joined up and found himself for a time in the same unit as Dunsany, who helped with the publication of his first collection, ''Songs of the Fields'' – a critical success on its release in 1915.Ledwidge kept in contact with Dunsany through the war, sending him poems.", "He was killed at the Battle of Passchendaele in 1917, even as his second collection of poetry, also selected by Dunsany, circulated.", "Dunsany later arranged for a third collection to appear, and later still a first ''Collected Edition''.", "Some unpublished Ledwidge poetry and drama, given or sent to Dunsany, are still held at the Castle.", "*Mary Lavin who received support and encouragement from Dunsany over many years.", "*William Butler Yeats, although he rarely acted as such, selected and edited a collection of Dunsany's work in 1912.", "*Lady Wentworth, a poet writing in a classical style, received support from Dunsany." ], [ "Writers influenced by Dunsany", "*H. P. Lovecraft was much impressed by Dunsany after seeing him on a speaking tour of the United States.", "His \"Dream Cycle\" stories, his dark pseudo-history of how the universe came to be, and his god Azathoth all clearly show Dunsany's influence.", "He once wrote: \"There are my 'Poe' pieces and my 'Dunsany' pieces – but alas – where are my Lovecraft pieces?", "\"*Robert E. Howard placed Dunsany in a list of his favourite poets in a 1932 letter to Lovecraft.", "*Clark Ashton Smith was a fan of Dunsany's work, which had some influence on his fantasy stories.*J.", "R. R. Tolkien, according to John D. Rateliff's report, presented Clyde S. Kilby with a copy of ''The Book of Wonder'' as a preparation for his auxiliary role in compiling and developing ''The Silmarillion'' in the 1960s.", "Tolkien's letters and divulged notes made allusions to two stories found in the volume, \"Chu-Bu and Sheemish\" and \"The Distressing Tale of Thangobrind the Jeweller.\"", "Dale J. Nelson has argued in ''Tolkien Studies 01'' that Tolkien may have been inspired by another of ''The Book of Wonder'' tales, \"The Hoard of the Gibbelins,\" while writing a poem, \"The Mewlips\", included in ''The Adventures of Tom Bombadil''.", "*Guillermo del Toro, Mexican film-maker, cited Dunsany as an influence; He dedicated his book ''The Hollow Ones'' to him among other \"old-school horror/fantasy writers\".", "*Neil Gaiman expressed admiration for Dunsany and wrote an introduction to a collection of his stories.", "Some commentators have seen links between ''The King of Elfland's Daughter'' and Gaiman's ''Stardust'' (book and film).", "This is seemingly supported by a comment of Gaiman's quoted in ''The Neil Gaiman Reader''.", "*Jorge Luis Borges included Dunsany's short story \"The Idle City\" in ''Antología de la Literatura Fantástica'' (1940, revised 1976).", "He also, in his essay \"Kafka and His Precursors,\" included Dunsany's story \"Carcassonne\" as one text that presaged or paralleled Franz Kafka's themes.", "*Donald Wandrei, in a 7 February 1927 letter to H. P. Lovecraft, listed Dunsany's ''The King of Elfland's Daughter'' among his collection of \"weird books\" that Wandrei had read.", "*Talbot Mundy much admired Dunsany's \"plays and fantasy\", according to his biographer, Brian Taves.", "*Cyril M. Kornbluth, an avid Dunsany reader as a young man, mentions him in a short fantasy story, \"Mr. Packer Goes to Hell\" (1941).", "*Arthur C. Clarke enjoyed Dunsany's work and corresponded with him between 1944 and 1956.The letters are collected in ''Arthur C. Clarke & Lord Dunsany: A Correspondence''.", "Clarke also edited and allowed the use of an early essay as an introduction to a volume of ''The Collected Jorkens''.", "The essay acknowledges the link between Jorkens and ''Tales from the White Hart''.", "*Manly Wade Wellman esteemed Dunsany's fiction.", "*Margaret St. Clair was an admirer of Dunsany's work.", "Her story \"The Man Who Sold Rope to the Gnoles\" (1951) is a sequel to Dunsany's \"How Nuth Would Have Practised His Art Upon the Gnoles\".", "*Evangeline Walton stated in an interview that Dunsany inspired her to write fantasy.", "*Jack Vance was a keen reader of Dunsany's work as a child.", "*Michael Moorcock was influenced by Dunsany.", "*Peter S. Beagle cites Dunsany as an influence and wrote an introduction to one of the recent reprint editions.", "*David Eddings once named Lord Dunsany as his personal favourite fantasy writer and recommended him to aspiring authors.", "*Gene Wolfe used a Dunsany poem to open his 2004 work ''The Knight''.", "*Fletcher Pratt's 1948 novel ''The Well of the Unicorn'' was written as a sequel to Dunsany's play ''King Argimenes and the Unknown Warrior''.", "*Ursula K. Le Guin, in an essay on style in fantasy, \"From Elfland to Poughkeepsie\", called Dunsany the \"First Terrible Fate that Awaiteth Unwary Beginners in Fantasy\", alluding to a common practice among young writers at the time to attempt to write in Lord Dunsany's style.*M.", "J. Engh has acknowledged Dunsany as an influence.", "*Welleran Poltarnees, author of numerous non-fantasy \"blessing books\" employing turn-of-the-century artwork, uses a pen name based on two of Lord Dunsany's famous stories.", "*Gary Myers's 1975 short story collection ''The House of the Worm'' is a double pastiche of Dunsany and Lovecraft.", "*Álvaro Cunqueiro acknowledged the influence of Lord Dunsany on his work and wrote him an epitaph included in \"Herba de aquí e de acolá\"." ], [ "Curator and studies", "In the late 1990s, a curator, J. W. (Joe) Doyle, was appointed by the estate to work at Dunsany Castle, in part to locate and organise the author's manuscripts, typescripts and other materials.", "Doyle found several works known to exist but thought to be \"lost\": the plays ''The Ginger Cat'' and \"The Murderers,\" some Jorkens stories, and the novel ''The Pleasures of a Futuroscope'' (later published by Hippocampus Press).", "He also found hitherto unknown works, including ''The Last Book of Jorkens'', to the first edition of which he wrote an introduction, and an unnamed 1956 short story collection, eventually published as part of ''The Ghost in the Corner and other stories'' in 2017.Doyle was still working as curator in 2020.Some uncollected works, previously published in magazines, and some unpublished works, have been selected in consultation with them, and published in chapbooks by a US small press.Fans and scholars S. T. Joshi and Darrell Schweitzer worked on the Dunsany œuvre for over twenty years, gathering stories, essays and reference material, for a joint initial bibliography and separate scholarly studies of Dunsany's work.", "An updated edition of their bibliography appeared in 2013.Joshi edited ''The Collected Jorkens'' and ''The Ginger Cat and other lost plays'' and co-edited ''The Ghost in the Corner and other stories'' using materials unearthed by the Dunsany curator.In the late 2000s a PhD researcher, Tania Scott from the University of Glasgow, worked on Dunsany for some time and spoke at literary and other conventions; her thesis was published in 2011, entitled ''Locating Ireland in the fantastic fiction of Lord Dunsany''.", "A Swedish fan, Martin Andersson, was also active in research and publication in the mid-2010s.===Documentary===An hour-long documentary, ''Shooting for the Butler'', was released by Auteur TV and Justified Films in 2014, directed by Digby Rumsey.", "With footage from Dunsany and Shoreham, it included interviews with the author's great-grandson, the estate's curator, author Liz Williams, scholar S. T. Joshi, a local who knew the writer personally, and the head of the Irish Chess Union, among others." ], [ "Legacy", "Dunsany Castle (1181–), County Meath, IrelandDunsany's literary rights passed to a will trust first managed by Beatrice, Lady Dunsany, and are currently handled by Curtis Brown of London and partner firms worldwide.", "(Some past US deals, for example, have been listed by Locus Magazine as by SCG.)", "A few Dunsany works are protected for longer than normal copyright periods in some territories, notably most of the contents of the ''Last Book of Jorkens'', and some short stories published on the Dunsany website or elsewhere by the family in the early 2000s.Dunsany's primary home, over 820 years old, can be visited at certain times.", "Tours usually include the Library, but not the tower room where he often liked to work.", "His other home, Dunstall Priory, was sold to an admirer, Grey Gowrie, later head of the Arts Council of the UK, and then passed to other owners.", "The family still owns a farm and downland in the area and a Tudor cottage in Shoreham village.", "The grave of Dunsany and his wife can be seen in the church graveyard there.", "(Most previous barons are buried in the grounds of Dunsany Castle.", ")Dunsany's manuscripts are collected in the family archive, including some specially bound volumes of some of his works.", "Scholarly access is possible through the curator.", "Seven boxes of Dunsany's papers are held at the Harry Ransom Center." ], [ "See also", "*List of fantasy authors*List of horror fiction authors" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===*******`**Joshi, S. T. \"Lord Dunsany: The Career of a Fantaisiste\" in Schweitzer, Darrell (ed.).", "''Discovering Classic Fantasy Fiction'', Gillette, NJ: Wildside Press, 1996, pp. 7–48.", "*Schweitzer, Darrell.", "\"Lord Dunsany: Visions of Wonder\".", "''Studies in Weird Fiction'' 5 (Spring 1989), pp.", "20–26**" ], [ "Further reading", "*Lin Carter.", "\"The World's Edge, and Beyond: The Fiction of Dunsany, Eddison and Cabell\" in ''Imaginary Worlds: The Art of Fantasy''.", "New York: Ballantine Books, 1973, 27–48." ], [ "External links", "****** Works by Lord Dunsany at Online Books* Lord Dunsany: the author's page in the official family site* Lord Dunsany Collection at the Harry Ransom Center* Dunsany Bibliography, including cover images and summaries* A Lord Dunsany Bibliography, extensively cross-referenced* Review of Lord Dunsany's short stories by Jo Walton*Edward Winter, Lord Dunsany and Chess (2006)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ludwig van Beethoven" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ludwig van Beethoven''' (baptised 17 December 177026 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist.", "He is one of the most revered figures in the history of Western music; his works rank among the most performed of the classical music repertoire and span the transition from the Classical period to the Romantic era in classical music.", "Beethoven's career has conventionally been divided into early, middle, and late periods.", "His early period, during which he forged his craft, is typically considered to have lasted until 1802.From 1802 to around 1812, his middle period showed an individual development from the styles of Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and is sometimes characterized as heroic.", "During this time, he began to grow increasingly deaf.", "In his late period, from 1812 to 1827, he extended his innovations in musical form and expression.Born in Bonn, Beethoven displayed his musical talent at a young age.", "He was initially taught intensively by his father, Johann van Beethoven, and later by Christian Gottlob Neefe.", "Under Neefe's tutelage in 1783, he published his first work, a set of keyboard variations.", "He found relief from a dysfunctional home life with the family of Helene von Breuning, whose children he loved, befriended, and taught piano.", "At age 21, he moved to Vienna, which subsequently became his base, and studied composition with Haydn.", "Beethoven then gained a reputation as a virtuoso pianist, and was soon patronised by Karl Alois, Prince Lichnowsky for compositions, which resulted in his three Opus 1 piano trios (the earliest works to which he accorded an opus number) in 1795.His first major orchestral work, the First Symphony, premiered in 1800, and his first set of string quartets was published in 1801.Despite his hearing deteriorating during this period, he continued to conduct, premiering his Third and Fifth Symphonies in 1804 and 1808, respectively.", "His Violin Concerto appeared in 1806.His last piano concerto (No.", "5, Op.", "73, known as the ''Emperor''), dedicated to his frequent patron Archduke Rudolf of Austria, premiered in 1811, without Beethoven as soloist.", "He was almost completely deaf by 1814, and he then gave up performing and appearing in public.", "He described his problems with health and his unfulfilled personal life in two letters, his Heiligenstadt Testament (1802) to his brothers and his unsent love letter to an unknown \"Immortal Beloved\" (1812).After 1810, increasingly less socially involved, Beethoven composed many of his most admired works, including later symphonies, mature chamber music and the late piano sonatas.", "His only opera, ''Fidelio'', first performed in 1805, was revised to its final version in 1814.He composed ''Missa solemnis'' between 1819 and 1823 and his final Symphony, No.", "9, one of the first examples of a choral symphony, between 1822 and 1824.Written in his last years, his late string quartets, including the ''Grosse Fuge'', of 1825–1826 are among his final achievements.", "After several months of illness, which left him bedridden, he died in 1827." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early life and education===Beethoven's birthplace at Bonngasse 20 in Bonn is now the Beethoven-Haus museum.Beethoven was the grandson of Ludwig van Beethoven, a musician from the town of Mechelen in the Austrian Duchy of Brabant in what is now the Flemish region of Belgium, who moved to Bonn at the age of 21.Ludwig was employed as a bass singer at the court of Clemens August, Archbishop-Elector of Cologne, eventually rising to become, in 1761, Kapellmeister (music director) and hence a preeminent musician in Bonn.", "The portrait he commissioned of himself toward the end of his life remained displayed in his grandson's rooms as a talisman of his musical heritage.", "Ludwig had two sons, the younger of whom, Johann, worked as a tenor in the same musical establishment and gave keyboard and violin lessons to supplement his income.Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767; she was the daughter of Heinrich Keverich (1701–1751), who was head chef at the court of Johann IX Philipp von Walderdorff, Archbishop of Trier.", "Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn, at what is now the Beethoven House Museum, Bonngasse 20.There is no authentic record of the date of his birth; but the registry of his baptism, in the Catholic Parish of St. Remigius on 17 December 1770, survives, and the custom in the region at the time was to carry out baptism within 24 hours of birth.", "There is a consensus (with which Beethoven himself agreed) that his birth date was 16 December, but no documentary proof of this.Of the seven children born to Johann van Beethoven, only Ludwig, the second-born, and two younger brothers survived infancy.", "Kaspar Anton Karl (generally known as Karl) was born on 8 April 1774, and Nikolaus Johann, who was generally known as Johann, the youngest, was born on 2 October 1776.Beethoven's first music teacher was his father.", "He later had other local teachers, including the court organist Gilles van den Eeden (d. 1782), Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer, a family friend, who provided keyboard tuition, Franz Rovantini, a relative who instructed him in playing the violin and viola, and court concertmaster Franz Anton Ries, who instructed Beethoven on the violin.", "His tuition began in his fifth year.", "The regime was harsh and intensive, often reducing him to tears.", "With the involvement of Pfeiffer, who was an insomniac, there were irregular late-night sessions with the young Beethoven dragged from his bed to the keyboard.", "Beethoven's musical talent became obvious at a young age.", "Aware of Leopold Mozart's successes in this area with his son Wolfgang and daughter Nannerl, Johann attempted to promote his son as a child prodigy, claiming that Beethoven was six (he was seven) on the posters for his first public performance in March 1778.=== 1780–1792: Bonn ===Christian Gottlob Neefe, one of Beethoven's first music teachers, depicted in a engravingCount Waldstein, depicted in a portrait by Antonín MachekIn 1780 or 1781, Beethoven began his studies with his most important teacher in Bonn, Christian Gottlob Neefe.", "Neefe taught him composition; in March 1783, Beethoven's first published work appeared, a set of keyboard variations (WoO 63).", "Beethoven soon began working with Neefe as assistant organist, at first unpaid (1782), and then as a paid employee (1784) of the court chapel.", "His first three piano sonatas, WoO 47, sometimes known as (Elector) for their dedication to Elector Maximilian Friedrich, were published in 1783.In the same year, the first printed reference to Beethoven appeared in the ''Magazin der Musik'' – \"Louis van Beethoven sic ... a boy of 11 years and most promising talent.", "He plays the piano very skilfully and with power, reads at sight very well ... the chief piece he plays is ''Das wohltemperierte Klavier'' of Sebastian Bach, which Herr Neefe puts into his hands\".", "Maximilian Friedrich's successor as Elector of Bonn was Maximilian Franz.", "He gave some support to Beethoven, appointing him Court Organist and assisting financially with Beethoven's move to Vienna in 1792.During this time, Beethoven met several people who became important in his life.", "He developed a close relationship with the upper class von Breuning family, and gave piano lessons to some of the children.", "The widowed Helene von Breuning became a \"second mother\" to Beethoven, taught him more refined manners and nurtured his passion for literature and poetry.", "The warmth and closeness of the von Breuning family offered the young Beethoven a retreat from his unhappy home life, dominated by his father's decline due to alcoholism.", "Beethoven also met Franz Wegeler, a young medical student, who became a lifelong friend and married one of the von Breuning daughters.", "Another frequenter of the von Breunings was Count Ferdinand von Waldstein, who became a friend and financial supporter to Beethoven during this period.", "In 1791, Waldstein commissioned Beethoven's first work for the stage, the ballet ''Musik zu einem Ritterballett'' (WoO 1).The period of 1785 to 1790 includes virtually no record of Beethoven's activity as a composer.", "This may be attributed to the varied response his initial publications attracted, and also to ongoing issues in his family.", "While passing through Augsburg, Beethoven visited with composer Anna von Schaden and her husband, who gave him money to return to Bonn to be with his ailing mother.", "Beethoven's mother died in July 1787, shortly after his return from Vienna, where he stayed for around two weeks and possibly met Mozart.", "In 1789, due to his chronic alcoholism, Beethoven's father was forced to retire from the service of the Court and it was ordered that half of his father's pension be paid directly to Ludwig for support of the family.", "Ludwig contributed further to the family's income by teaching (to which Wegeler said he had \"an extraordinary aversion\") and by playing viola in the court orchestra.", "This familiarised him with a variety of operas, including works by Mozart, Gluck and Paisiello.", "There he also befriended Anton Reicha, a composer, flutist, and violinist of about his own age who was a nephew of the court orchestra's conductor, Josef Reicha.From 1790 to 1792, Beethoven composed several works, none of which were published at the time; they showed a growing range and maturity.", "Musicologists have identified a theme similar to those of his Third Symphony in a set of variations written in 1791.It was perhaps on Neefe's recommendation that Beethoven received his first commissions; the Literary Society in Bonn commissioned a cantata to mark the recent death of Joseph II (WoO 87), and a further cantata, to celebrate the subsequent accession of Leopold II as Holy Roman Emperor (WoO 88), may have been commissioned by the Elector.", "These two ''Emperor Cantatas'' were not performed during Beethoven's lifetime and became lost until the 1880s, when Johannes Brahms called them \"Beethoven through and through\" and of the style that marked Beethoven's music distinct from the classical tradition.Beethoven probably was first introduced to Joseph Haydn in late 1790, when Haydn was travelling to London and made a brief stop in Bonn around Christmastime.", "In July 1792, they met again in Bonn on Haydn's return trip from London to Vienna, when Beethoven played in the orchestra at the Redoute in Godesberg.", "Arrangements were likely made at that time for Beethoven to study with Haydn.", "Waldstein wrote to Beethoven before his departure: \"You are going to Vienna in fulfilment of your long-frustrated wishes ... With the help of assiduous labour you shall receive Mozart's spirit from Haydn's hands.", "\"=== 1792–1802: Vienna – the early years ===Portrait of Beethoven as a young man, Prince Lobkowitz depicted in a portrait by August Friedrich OelenhainzA pre-1804 sketch of Josephine BrunsvikBeethoven left Bonn for Vienna in November 1792 amid rumours of war spilling out of France.", "Shortly after departing, Beethoven learned that his father had died.", "Over the next few years, he responded to the widespread feeling that he was a successor to the recently deceased Mozart by studying Mozart's work and writing works with a distinctly Mozartian flavour.Beethoven did not immediately set out to establish himself as a composer, but rather devoted himself to study and performance.", "Working under Haydn's direction, he sought to master counterpoint.", "He also studied violin under Ignaz Schuppanzigh.", "Early in this period, he also began receiving occasional instruction from Antonio Salieri, primarily in Italian vocal composition style; this relationship persisted until at least 1802, and possibly as late as 1809.With Haydn's departure for England in 1794, Beethoven was expected by the Elector to return home to Bonn.", "He chose instead to remain in Vienna, continuing his instruction in counterpoint with Johann Albrechtsberger and other teachers.", "In any case, by this time it must have seemed clear to his employer that Bonn would fall to the French, as it did in October 1794, effectively leaving Beethoven without a stipend or the necessity to return.", "But several Viennese noblemen had already recognised his ability and offered him financial support, among them Prince Joseph Franz Lobkowitz, Prince Karl Lichnowsky, and Baron Gottfried van Swieten.Assisted by his connections with Haydn and Waldstein, Beethoven began to develop a reputation as a performer and improviser in the salons of the Viennese nobility.", "His friend Nikolaus Simrock began publishing his compositions, starting with a set of keyboard variations on a theme of Dittersdorf (WoO 66).", "By 1793, he had established a reputation in Vienna as a piano virtuoso, but he apparently withheld works from publication so that their eventual appearance would have greater impact.In 1795, Beethoven made his public debut in Vienna over three days, beginning with a performance of one of his own piano concertos on 29 March at the Burgtheater and ending with a Mozart concerto on 31 March, probably the D minor concerto, for which he had written a cadenza soon after his arrival in Vienna.", "By this year he had two piano concertos available for performance, one in B-flat major he had begun composing before moving to Vienna and had worked on for over a decade, and one in C major composed for the most part during 1795.Viewing the latter as the more substantive work, he chose to designate it his first piano concerto, publishing it in March 1801 as Opus 15, before publishing the former as Opus 19 the following December.", "He wrote new cadenzas for both in 1809.Shortly after his public debut, Beethoven arranged for the publication of the first of his compositions to which he assigned an opus number, the three piano trios, Opus 1.These works were dedicated to his patron Prince Lichnowsky, and were a financial success; Beethoven's profits were nearly sufficient to cover his living expenses for a year.", "In 1799, Beethoven participated in (and won) a notorious piano 'duel' at the home of Baron Raimund Wetzlar (a former patron of Mozart) against the virtuoso Joseph Wölfl; and the next year he similarly triumphed against Daniel Steibelt at the salon of Count Moritz von Fries.", "Beethoven's eighth piano sonata, the Pathétique (Op.", "13, published in 1799), is described by the musicologist Barry Cooper as \"surpassing any of his previous compositions, in strength of character, depth of emotion, level of originality, and ingenuity of motivic and tonal manipulation\".Between 1798 and 1800, Beethoven composed his first six string quartets (Op.", "18) (commissioned by, and dedicated to, Prince Lobkowitz), published in 1801.He also completed his Septet (Op.", "20) in 1799, a work which was extremely popular during Beethoven's lifetime.", "With premieres of his First and Second Symphonies in 1800 and 1803, Beethoven became regarded as one of the most important of a generation of young composers following Haydn and Mozart.", "But his melodies, musical development, use of modulation and texture, and characterisation of emotion all set him apart from his influences, and heightened the impact some of his early works made when they were first published.", "For the premiere of his First Symphony, he hired the Burgtheater on 2 April 1800, and staged an extensive programme, including works by Haydn and Mozart, as well as his Septet, the Symphony, and one of his piano concertos (the latter three works all then unpublished).", "The concert, which the ''Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung'' called \"the most interesting concert in a long time\", was not without difficulties; among the criticisms was that \"the players did not bother to pay any attention to the soloist\".", "By the end of 1800, Beethoven and his music were already much in demand from patrons and publishers.In May 1799, Beethoven taught piano to the daughters of Hungarian Countess Anna Brunsvik.", "During this time, he fell in love with the younger daughter, Josephine.", "Among his other students, from 1801 to 1805, he tutored Ferdinand Ries, who went on to become a composer and later wrote about their encounters.", "The young Carl Czerny, who later became a renowned pianist and music teacher himself, studied with Beethoven from 1801 to 1803.In late 1801, Beethoven met a young countess, Julie Guicciardi, through the Brunsvik family; he mentions his love for Julie in a November 1801 letter to a friend, but class difference prevented any consideration of pursuing it.", "He dedicated his 1802 Sonata Op.", "27 No.", "2, now commonly known as the ''Moonlight Sonata'', to her.In the spring of 1801, Beethoven completed a ballet, ''The Creatures of Prometheus'' (op.", "43).", "The work received numerous performances in 1801 and 1802 and he rushed to publish a piano arrangement to capitalise on its early popularity.", "Beethoven completed his Second Symphony in 1802, intended for performance at a concert that was cancelled.", "The symphony received its premiere one year later, at a subscription concert in April, 1803 at the Theater an der Wien, where Beethoven had been appointed composer in residence.", "In addition to the Second Symphony, the concert also featured the First Symphony, the Third Piano Concerto, and the oratorio ''Christ on the Mount of Olives''.", "Reviews of the concert were mixed, but it was a financial success; Beethoven was able to charge three times the cost of a typical concert ticket.In 1802, Beethoven's brother Kaspar began to assist the composer in handling his affairs, particularly his business dealings with music publishers.", "In addition to successfully negotiating higher payments for Beethoven's latest works, Kaspar also began selling several of Beethoven's earlier unpublished compositions and encouraged his brother (against Beethoven's preference) to make arrangements and transcriptions of his more popular works for other instruments and combinations.", "Beethoven decided to accede to these requests, as he was powerless to prevent publishers from hiring others to do similar arrangements of his works.=== 1802–1812: The 'heroic' period =======Deafness====1803 portrait of Beethoven by Christian HornemanBeethoven told the English pianist Charles Neate (in 1815) that his hearing loss began in 1798, during a heated quarrel with a singer.", "During its gradual decline, his hearing was further impeded by a severe form of tinnitus.", "As early as 1801, he wrote to Wegeler and another friend, Karl Amenda, describing his symptoms and the difficulties they caused in both professional and social settings (although it is likely some of his close friends were already aware of the issues).", "The cause was probably otosclerosis, possibly accompanied by degeneration of the auditory nerve.On his doctor's advice, Beethoven moved to the small Austrian town of Heiligenstadt, just outside Vienna, from April to October 1802 in an attempt to come to terms with his condition.", "There he wrote the document now known as the Heiligenstadt Testament, a letter to his brothers that records his thoughts of suicide due to his growing deafness and his resolution to continue living for and through his art.", "The letter was never sent and was discovered in his papers after his death.", "The letters to Wegeler and Amenda were not so despairing; in them Beethoven commented also on his ongoing professional and financial success at this period, and his determination, as he expressed it to Wegeler, to \"seize Fate by the throat; it shall certainly not crush me completely\".", "In 1806, Beethoven noted on one of his musical sketches: \"Let your deafness no longer be a secret—even in art.", "\"Beethoven's hearing loss did not prevent him from composing music, but it made playing at concerts—an important source of income at this phase of his life—increasingly difficult.", "It also contributed substantially to his social withdrawal.", "Czerny remarked that Beethoven could still hear speech and music normally until 1812.Beethoven never became totally deaf; in his final years he was still able to distinguish low tones and sudden loud sounds.====Heroic style====The title page of ms. of the ''Eroica'' Symphony with Napoleon's name scored through by BeethovenA self-portrait of E. T. A. HoffmannArchduke Rudolf depicted in a portrait by Johann Baptist von LampiBeethoven's return to Vienna from Heiligenstadt was marked by a change in musical style, and is now often designated as the start of his middle or \"heroic\" period, characterised by many original works composed on a grand scale.", "According to Czerny, Beethoven said: \"I am not satisfied with the work I have done so far.", "From now on I intend to take a new way.\"", "An early major work employing this new style was the Third Symphony in E-flat, Op.", "55, known as the ''Eroica'', written in 1803–04.The idea of creating a symphony based on the career of Napoleon may have been suggested to Beethoven by General Bernadotte in 1798.Sympathetic to the ideal of the heroic revolutionary leader, Beethoven originally gave the symphony the title \"Bonaparte\", but disillusioned by Napoleon declaring himself Emperor in 1804, he scratched Napoleon's name from the manuscript's title page, and the symphony was published in 1806 with its present title and the subtitle \"to celebrate the memory of a great man\".", "The ''Eroica'' was longer and larger in scope than any previous symphony.", "When it premiered in early 1805 it received a mixed reception.", "Some listeners objected to its length or disliked its structure, while others viewed it as a masterpiece.Other middle-period works extend in the same dramatic manner the musical language Beethoven had inherited.", "The Rasumovsky string quartets and the ''Waldstein'' and ''Appassionata'' piano sonatas share the Third Symphony's heroic spirit.", "Other works of this period include the Fourth through Eighth Symphonies, the oratorio ''Christ on the Mount of Olives'', the opera ''Fidelio'', and the Violin Concerto.", "Beethoven was hailed in 1810 by the writer and composer E. T. A. Hoffmann, in an influential review in the ''Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung'', as the greatest of (what he considered) the three Romantic composers (that is, ahead of Haydn and Mozart); in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony his music, wrote Hoffmann, \"sets in motion terror, fear, horror, pain, and awakens the infinite yearning that is the essence of romanticism\".During this time, Beethoven's income came from publishing his works, from performances of them, and from his patrons, for whom he gave private performances and copies of works they commissioned for an exclusive period before their publication.", "Some of his early patrons, including Lobkowitz and Lichnowsky, gave him annual stipends in addition to commissioning works and purchasing published works.", "Perhaps his most important aristocratic patron was Archduke Rudolf of Austria, the youngest son of Emperor Leopold II, who in 1803 or 1804 began to study piano and composition with him.", "They became friends, and their meetings continued until 1824.Beethoven dedicated 14 compositions to Rudolf, including such major works as the ''Archduke'' Trio Op.", "97 (1811) and ''Missa solemnis'' Op.", "123 (1823).His position at the Theater an der Wien was terminated when the theatre changed management in early 1804, and he was forced to move temporarily to the suburbs of Vienna with his friend Stephan von Breuning.", "This slowed work on ''Leonore'' (his original title for his opera), his largest work to date, for a time.", "It was delayed again by the Austrian censor and finally premiered, under its present title of ''Fidelio'', in November 1805 to houses that were nearly empty because of the French occupation of the city.", "In addition to being a financial failure, this version of ''Fidelio'' was also a critical failure, and Beethoven began revising it.Despite this failure, Beethoven continued to attract recognition.", "In 1807 the musician and publisher Muzio Clementi secured the rights to publish his works in England, and Haydn's former patron Prince Esterházy commissioned the Mass in C, Op.", "86, for his wife's name-day.", "But he could not count on such recognition alone.", "A colossal benefit concert he organized in December 1808, widely advertised, included the premieres of the Fifth and Sixth (''Pastoral'') symphonies, the Fourth Piano Concerto, extracts from the Mass in C, the scena and aria ''Ah!", "perfido'' Op.", "65 and the Choral Fantasy op.", "80.There was a large audience (including Czerny and the young Ignaz Moscheles), but it was under-rehearsed, involved many stops and starts, and during the Fantasia Beethoven was noted shouting at the musicians \"badly played, wrong, again!\"", "The financial outcome is unknown.In the autumn of 1808, after having been rejected for a position at the Royal Theatre, Beethoven received an offer from Napoleon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte, then king of Westphalia, for a well-paid position as Kapellmeister at the court in Cassel.", "To persuade him to stay in Vienna, Archduke Rudolf, Prince Kinsky and Prince Lobkowitz, after receiving representations from Beethoven's friends, pledged to pay him a pension of 4000 florins a year.", "In the event, Rudolf paid his share of the pension on the agreed date.", "Kinsky, immediately called to military duty, did not contribute and died in November 1812 after falling from his horse.", "The Austrian currency destabilized and Lobkowitz went bankrupt in 1811 so that to benefit from the agreement Beethoven eventually had recourse to the law, which in 1815 brought him some recompense.The imminence of war reaching Vienna itself was felt in early 1809.In April, Beethoven completed writing his Piano Concerto No.", "5 in E-flat major, Op.", "73, which the musicologist Alfred Einstein has called \"the apotheosis of the military concept\" in Beethoven's music.", "Rudolf left the capital with the Imperial family in early May, prompting Beethoven's piano sonata ''Les Adieux'' (Sonata No.", "26, Op.", "81a), actually titled by Beethoven in German ''Das Lebewohl'' (The Farewell), of which the final movement, ''Das Wiedersehen'' (The Return), is dated in the manuscript with the date of Rudolf's homecoming of 30 January 1810.During the French bombardment of Vienna in May, Beethoven took refuge in the cellar of his brother Kaspar's house.", "The subsequent occupation of Vienna and disruptions to cultural life and to Beethoven's publishers, together with Beethoven's poor health at the end of 1809, explain his significantly reduced output during this period, although other notable works of the year include his String Quartet No.", "10 in E-flat major, Op.", "74 (''The Harp'') and the Piano Sonata No.", "24 in F-sharp major, Op.", "78, dedicated to Josephine's sister Therese Brunsvik.====Goethe====Goethe depicted in an 1808 portrait by Gerhard von Kügelgen At the end of 1809, Beethoven was commissioned to write incidental music for Goethe's play ''Egmont''.", "The result (an overture, and nine additional entractes and vocal pieces, Op.", "84), which appeared in 1810, fit well with Beethoven's heroic style and he became interested in Goethe, setting three of his poems as songs (Op.", "83) and learning about him from a mutual acquaintance, Bettina Brentano (who also wrote to Goethe at this time about Beethoven).", "Other works of this period in a similar vein were the F minor String Quartet Op.", "95, to which Beethoven gave the subtitle ''Quartetto serioso'', and the Op.", "97 Piano Trio in B-flat major known, from its dedication to his patron Rudolph, as the ''Archduke Trio''.In the spring of 1811, Beethoven became seriously ill, with headaches and high fever.", "His doctor Johann Malfatti recommended he take a cure at the spa of Teplitz (now Teplice in the Czech Republic), where he wrote two more overtures and sets of incidental music for dramas, this time by August von Kotzebue – ''King Stephen'' Op.", "117 and ''The Ruins of Athens'' Op.", "113.Advised again to visit Teplitz in 1812, he met there with Goethe, who wrote: \"His talent amazed me; unfortunately he is an utterly untamed personality, who is not altogether wrong in holding the world to be detestable, but surely does not make it any more enjoyable ... by his attitude.\"", "Beethoven wrote to his publishers Breitkopf and Härtel, \"Goethe delights far too much in the court atmosphere, far more than is becoming in a poet.\"", "But following their meeting he began a setting for choir and orchestra of Goethe's ''Meeresstille und glückliche Fahrt'' ''(Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage)'', Op.", "112, completed in 1815.After it was published in 1822 with a dedication to the poet, Beethoven wrote to him: \"The admiration, the love and esteem which already in my youth I cherished for the one and only immortal Goethe have persisted.", "\"====The Immortal Beloved====An 1808 portrait of Antonie Brentano by Joseph Karl StielerWhile Beethoven was at Teplitz in 1812, he wrote a ten-page love letter to his \"Immortal Beloved\", which he never sent to its addressee.", "The identity of the intended recipient was long a subject of debate, although the musicologist Maynard Solomon has convincingly demonstrated that the intended recipient must have been Antonie Brentano; other candidates included Julie Guicciardi, Therese Malfatti and Josephine Brunsvik.All of these had been regarded by Beethoven as possible soulmates during his first decade in Vienna.", "Guicciardi, although she flirted with Beethoven, never had any serious interest in him and married Wenzel Robert von Gallenberg in November 1803.", "(Beethoven insisted to his later secretary and biographer, Anton Schindler, that Guicciardi had \"sought me out, crying, but I scorned her\".)", "Josephine had, since Beethoven's initial infatuation with her, married the elderly Count Joseph Deym, who died in 1804.Beethoven began to visit her and commenced a passionate correspondence.", "Initially, he accepted that Josephine could not love him, but he continued to address himself to her even after she had moved to Budapest, finally demonstrating that he had got the message in his last letter to her of 1807: \"I thank you for wishing still to appear as if I were not altogether banished from your memory\".", "Malfatti was the niece of Beethoven's doctor, and he had proposed to her in 1810.He was 40, and she was 19.The proposal was rejected.", "She is now remembered as the recipient of the piano bagatelle ''Für Elise''.Antonie (Toni) Brentano (née von Birkenstock), ten years younger than Beethoven, was the wife of Franz Brentano, the half-brother of Bettina Brentano, who provided Beethoven's introduction to the family.", "It would seem that Antonie and Beethoven had an affair during 1811–1812.Antonie left Vienna with her husband in late 1812 and never met with (or apparently corresponded with) Beethoven again, although in her later years she wrote and spoke fondly of him.", "Some speculate that Beethoven was the father of Antonie's son Karl Josef, though the two never met.After 1812 there are no reports of any romantic liaisons of Beethoven’s; however, it is clear from his correspondence of the period and, later, from the conversation books, that he occasionally had sex with prostitutes.===1813–1822: Acclaim=======Family issues====Karl van Beethoven depicted in a miniature portraitIn early 1813, Beethoven apparently went through a difficult emotional period, and his compositional output dropped.", "His personal appearance degraded—it had generally been neat—as did his manners in public, notably when dining.Family issues may have played a part in this.", "Beethoven had visited his brother Johann at the end of October 1812.He wished to end Johann's cohabitation with Therese Obermayer, a woman who already had an illegitimate child.", "He was unable to convince Johann to end the relationship and appealed to the local civic and religious authorities, but Johann and Therese married on 8 November.The illness and eventual death of his brother Kaspar from tuberculosis became an increasing concern.", "Kaspar had been ill for some time; in 1813 Beethoven lent him 1500 florins, to procure the repayment of which he was ultimately led to complex legal measures.", "After Kaspar died on 15 November 1815, Beethoven immediately became embroiled in a protracted legal dispute with Kaspar's widow Johanna over custody of their son Karl, then nine years old.", "Beethoven had successfully applied to Kaspar to have himself named the sole guardian of the boy.", "A late codicil to Kaspar's will gave him and Johanna joint guardianship.", "While Beethoven was successful at having his nephew removed from her custody in January 1816, and had him removed to a private school, in 1818 he was again preoccupied with the legal processes around Karl.", "While giving evidence to the court for the nobility, the Landrechte, Beethoven was unable to prove that he was of noble birth and as a consequence, on 18 December 1818 the case was transferred to the civil magistrate of Vienna, where he lost sole guardianship.", "He regained custody after intensive legal struggles in 1820.During the years that followed, Beethoven frequently interfered in his nephew's life in what Karl perceived as an overbearing manner.====Post-war Vienna====Beethoven depicted in an 1815 portrait by Joseph Willibrord MählerBeethoven was finally motivated to begin significant composition again in June 1813 when news arrived of the French defeat at the Battle of Vitoria by a coalition led by the Duke of Wellington.", "The inventor Johann Nepomuk Maelzel persuaded him to write a work commemorating the event for his mechanical instrument the Panharmonicon.", "This Beethoven also transcribed for orchestra as ''Wellington's Victory'' (Op.", "91, also known as the ''Battle Symphony'').", "It was first performed on 8 December, along with his Seventh Symphony, Op.", "92, at a charity concert for victims of the war, a concert whose success led to its repeat on 12 December.", "The orchestra included several leading and rising musicians who happened to be in Vienna at the time, including Giacomo Meyerbeer and Domenico Dragonetti.", "The work received repeat performances at concerts staged by Beethoven in January and February 1814.These concerts brought Beethoven more profit than any others in his career, and enabled him to buy the bank shares that were the most valuable assets in his estate at his death.Beethoven's renewed popularity led to demands for a revival of ''Fidelio'', which, in its third revised version, was also well received at its July opening in Vienna, and was frequently staged there during the following years.", "Beethoven's publisher, Artaria, commissioned the 20-year old Moscheles to prepare a piano score of the opera, which he inscribed \"Finished, with God's help!", "\"—to which Beethoven added \"O Man, help thyself.\"", "That summer Beethoven composed a piano sonata for the first time in five years, his Sonata in E minor, Opus 90.He was also one of many composers who produced music in a patriotic vein to entertain the many heads of state and diplomats who came to the Congress of Vienna that began in November 1814, with the cantata ''Der glorreiche Augenblick (The Glorious Moment)'' (Op.", "136) and similar choral works which, in the words of Maynard Solomon, \"broadened Beethoven's popularity, but did little to enhance his reputation as a serious composer\".In April and May 1814, playing in his ''Archduke'' Trio, Beethoven made his last public appearances as a soloist.", "The composer Louis Spohr noted: \"the piano was badly out of tune, which Beethoven minded little, since he did not hear it ... there was scarcely anything left of the virtuosity of the artist ...", "I was deeply saddened.\"", "From 1814 onward Beethoven used for conversation ear-trumpets designed by Johann Nepomuk Maelzel (a number of these are on display at the Beethoven-Haus in Bonn).His 1815 compositions include an expressive second setting of the poem ''An die Hoffnung'' (Op.", "94) in 1815.Compared to its first setting in 1805 (a gift for Josephine Brunsvik), it was \"far more dramatic ...", "The entire spirit is that of an operatic scena.\"", "But his energy seemed to be dropping: apart from these works, he wrote the two cello sonatas Op.", "102 nos.", "1 and 2, and a few minor pieces, and began but abandoned a sixth piano concerto.====Pause====Beethoven in 1818 by Between 1815 and 1819, Beethoven's output dropped again to a level unique in his mature life.", "He attributed part of this to a lengthy illness that he called an inflammatory fever that he had for more than a year starting in October 1816.Solomon suggests it is also doubtless a consequence of the ongoing legal problems concerning his nephew Karl, and of Beethoven finding himself increasingly at odds with current musical trends.", "Unsympathetic to developments in German romanticism that featured the supernatural (as in operas by Spohr, Heinrich Marschner and Carl Maria von Weber), he also \"resisted the impending Romantic fragmentation of the ... cyclic forms of the Classical era into small forms and lyric mood pieces\" and turned towards study of Bach, Handel and Palestrina.", "An old connection was renewed in 1817 when Maelzel sought, and obtained, Beethoven's endorsement for his newly developed metronome.", "During these years the few major works he completed include the 1818 ''Hammerklavier'' Sonata (Sonata No.", "29 in B-flat major, Op.", "106) and his settings of poems by Alois Jeitteles, ''An die ferne Geliebte'' Op.", "98 (1816), which introduced the song cycle into classical repertoire.", "In 1818 he began musical sketches that eventually formed part of his Ninth Symphony.By early 1818 Beethoven's health had improved, and his nephew Karl, now aged 11, moved in with him in January (although within a year Karl's mother had won him back in the courts).", "By now Beethoven's hearing had again seriously deteriorated, necessitating that he and his interlocutors write in notebooks to carry out conversations.", "These 'conversation books' are a rich written resource for his life from this period onward.", "They contain discussions about music, business, and personal life; they are also a valuable source for his contacts and for investigations into how he intended his music should be performed, and of his opinions of the art of music.", "His household management had also improved somewhat with the help of Nannette Streicher.", "A proprietor of the Stein piano workshop and a personal friend, Streicher had assisted in Beethoven's care during his illness; she continued to provide some support, and in her he finally found a skilled cook.", "A testimonial to the esteem in which Beethoven was held in England was the presentation to him in this year by Thomas Broadwood, the proprietor of the company, of a Broadwood piano, for which Beethoven expressed thanks.", "He was not well enough, however, to carry out a visit to London that year which had been proposed by the Philharmonic Society.====Resurgence====Beethoven in 1819 depicted in a portrait by Despite the time occupied by his ongoing legal struggles over Karl, which involved continuing extensive correspondence and lobbying, two events sparked off Beethoven's major composition projects in 1819.The first was the announcement of Archduke Rudolf's promotion to Cardinal-Archbishop as Archbishop of Olomouc (now in the Czech Republic), which triggered the ''Missa solemnis'' Op.", "123, intended to be ready for his installation in Olomouc in March 1820.The other was the invitation by the publisher Antonio Diabelli to 50 Viennese composers, including Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Czerny and the 8-year old Franz Liszt, to compose a variation each on a theme which he provided.", "Beethoven was spurred to outdo the competition and by mid-1819 had already completed 20 variations of what were to become the 33 ''Diabelli Variations'' op.", "120.Neither of these works was completed for a few years.", "A significant tribute of 1819, however, was Archduke Rudolf's set of 40 piano variations on a theme written for him by Beethoven (WoO 200) and dedicated to the master.", "Beethoven's portrait by of this year, which was one of the most familiar images of him for the next century, was described by Schindler as, despite its artistic weaknesses, \"in the rendering of that particular look, the majestic forehead ... the firmly shut mouth and the chin shaped like a shell, ... truer to nature than any other picture\".", "Joseph Karl Stieler also created his own portrait of Beethoven.Beethoven's determination over the following years to write the ''Mass'' for Rudolf was not motivated by any devout Catholicism.", "Although he had been born a Catholic, the form of religion as practised at the court in Bonn where he grew up was, in the words of Solomon, \"a compromise ideology that permitted a relatively peaceful coexistence between the Church and rationalism\".", "Beethoven's ''Tagebuch'' (a diary he kept on an occasional basis between 1812 and 1818) shows his interest in a variety of religious philosophies, including those of India, Egypt and the Orient and the writings of the Rig-Veda.", "In a letter to Rudolf of July 1821, Beethoven shows his belief in a personal God: \"God ... sees into my innermost heart and knows that as a man I perform most conscientiously and on all occasions the duties which Humanity, God, and Nature enjoin upon me.\"", "On one of the sketches for the ''Missa solemnis'' he wrote \"Plea for inner and outer peace\".Beethoven's status was confirmed by the series of ''Concerts sprituels'' given in Vienna by the choirmaster Franz Xaver Gebauer in the 1819/1820 and 1820/1821 seasons, during which all eight of his symphonies to date, plus the oratorio ''Christus'' and the Mass in C, were performed.", "Beethoven was typically underwhelmed: when in an April 1820 conversation book a friend mentioned Gebauer, Beethoven wrote in reply \"Geh!", "Bauer\" (Begone, peasant!", ")In 1819, Beethoven was first approached by the publisher Moritz Schlesinger, who won the suspicious composer round, while visiting him at Mödling, by procuring for him a plate of roast veal.", "One consequence of this was that Schlesinger secured Beethoven's three last piano sonatas and his final quartets; part of the attraction to Beethoven was that Schlesinger had publishing facilities in Germany and France, and connections in England, which could overcome problems of copyright piracy.", "The first of the three sonatas, for which Beethoven contracted with Schlesinger in 1820 at 30 ducats per sonata (further delaying completion of the Mass), was sent to the publisher at the end of that year (the Sonata in E major, Op.", "109, dedicated to Maximiliane, Antonie Brentano's daughter).In early 1821, Beethoven was once again in poor health with rheumatism and jaundice.", "Despite this he continued work on the remaining piano sonatas he had promised to Schlesinger (the Sonata in A flat major Op.", "110 was published in December), and on the Mass.", "In early 1822 Beethoven sought a reconciliation with his brother Johann, whose marriage in 1812 had met with his disapproval, and Johann now became a regular visitor (as witnessed by the conversation books of the period) and began to assist him in his business affairs, including lending him money against ownership of some of his compositions.", "He also sought some reconciliation with the mother of his nephew, including supporting her income, although this did not meet with the approval of the contrary Karl.", "Two commissions at the end of 1822 improved Beethoven's financial prospects.", "In November the Philharmonic Society of London offered a commission for a symphony, which he accepted with delight, as an appropriate home for the Ninth Symphony on which he was working.", "Also in November Prince Nikolai Galitzin of Saint Petersburg offered to pay Beethoven's asking price for three string quartets.", "Beethoven set the price at the high level of 50 ducats per quartet in a letter dictated to his nephew Karl, who was then living with him.During 1822, Anton Schindler, who in 1840 became one of Beethoven's earliest and most influential (but not always reliable) biographers, began to work as the composer's unpaid secretary.", "He later claimed that he had been a member of Beethoven's circle since 1814, but there is no evidence for this.", "Cooper suggests that \"Beethoven greatly appreciated his assistance, but did not think much of him as a man\".===1823–1827: final years===Beethoven in 1823 by Ferdinand Georg WaldmüllerThe year 1823 saw the completion of three notable works, all of which had occupied Beethoven for some years: the ''Missa solemnis'', the Ninth Symphony and the ''Diabelli Variations''.Beethoven at last presented the manuscript of the completed ''Missa'' to Rudolph on 19 March (more than a year after the archduke's enthronement as archbishop).", "But he was in no hurry to get it published or performed as he had formed a notion that he could profitably sell manuscripts of the work to various courts in Germany and Europe at 50 ducats each.", "One of the few who took up this offer was Louis XVIII of France, who also sent Beethoven a heavy gold medallion.", "The Symphony and the variations took up most of the rest of Beethoven's working year.", "Diabelli hoped to publish both works, but the potential prize of the Mass excited many other publishers to lobby Beethoven for it, including Schlesinger and Carl Friedrich Peters.", "(In the end, it was obtained by Schotts).Beethoven had become critical of the Viennese reception of his works.", "He told the visiting Johann Friedrich Rochlitz in 1822:You will hear nothing of me here ... ''Fidelio''?", "They cannot give it, nor do they want to listen to it.", "The symphonies?", "They have no time for them.", "My concertos?", "Everyone grinds out only the stuff he himself has made.", "The solo pieces?", "They went out of fashion long ago, and here fashion is everything.", "At the most, Schuppanzigh occasionally digs up a quartet.", "He therefore enquired about premiering the ''Missa'' and the Ninth Symphony in Berlin.", "When his Viennese admirers learnt of this, they pleaded with him to arrange local performances.", "Beethoven was won over, and the symphony was first performed, along with sections of the ''Missa solemnis'', on 7 May 1824, to great acclaim at the Kärntnertortheater.", "Beethoven stood by the conductor Michael Umlauf during the concert beating time (although Umlauf had warned the singers and orchestra to ignore him), and because of his deafness was not even aware of the applause which followed until he was turned to witness it.", "The ''Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung'' gushed, \"inexhaustible genius had shown us a new world\", and Carl Czerny wrote that the Symphony \"breathes such a fresh, lively, indeed youthful spirit ... so much power, innovation, and beauty as ever came from the head of this original man, although he certainly sometimes led the old wigs to shake their heads\".", "The concert did not net Beethoven much money, as the expenses of mounting it were very high.", "A second concert on 24 May, in which the producer guaranteed him a minimum fee, was poorly attended; nephew Karl noted that \"many people had already gone into the country\".", "It was Beethoven's last public concert.", "Beethoven accused Schindler of either cheating him or mismanaging the ticket receipts; this led to the replacement of Schindler as Beethoven's secretary by Karl Holz, the second violinist in the Schuppanzigh Quartet, although by 1826 Beethoven and Schindler reconciled.Beethoven then turned to writing the string quartets for Galitzin, despite failing health.", "The first of these, the quartet in E♭ major, Op.", "127 was premiered by the Schuppanzigh Quartet in March 1825.While writing the next, the quartet in A minor, Op.", "132, in April 1825, he was struck by a sudden illness.", "Recuperating in Baden, he included in the quartet its slow movement to which he gave the title \"Holy song of thanks (Heiliger Dankgesang) to the Divinity, from a convalescent, in the Lydian mode\".", "The next quartet to be completed was the Thirteenth, op.", "130, in B♭ major.", "In six movements, the last, contrapuntal movement proved very difficult for both the performers and the audience at its premiere in March 1826 (again by the Schuppanzigh Quartet).", "Beethoven was persuaded by the publisher Artaria, for an additional fee, to write a new finale, and to issue the last movement as a separate work (the Grosse Fugue, Op.", "133).", "Beethoven's favourite was the last of this series, the quartet in C minor Op.", "131, which he rated as his most perfect single work.Beethoven's relations with his nephew Karl had continued to be stormy; Beethoven's letters to him were demanding and reproachful.", "In August, Karl, who had been seeing his mother again against Beethoven's wishes, attempted suicide by shooting himself in the head.", "He survived and after discharge from hospital went to recuperate in the village of Gneixendorf with Beethoven and his uncle Johann.", "In Gneixendorf, Beethoven completed a further quartet (Op.", "135 in F major), which he sent to Schlesinger.", "Under the introductory slow chords in the last movement, Beethoven wrote in the manuscript \"Muss es sein?\"", "(Must it be?", "); the response, over the faster main theme of the movement, is \"Es muss sein!\"", "(It must be!).", "The whole movement is headed ''Der schwer gefasste Entschluss'' (The difficult decision).", "Following this in November Beethoven completed his final composition, the replacement finale for the op.", "130 quartet.", "Beethoven at this time was already ill and depressed; he began to quarrel with Johann, insisting that Johann make Karl his heir, in preference to Johann's wife.=== Death ===Beethoven on his deathbed depicted in a Josef Danhauser sketchBeethoven's funeral procession in 1827On his return journey to Vienna from Gneixendorf in December 1826, illness struck Beethoven again.", "He was attended until his death by Dr. Andreas Wawruch, who throughout December noticed symptoms including fever, jaundice and dropsy, with swollen limbs, coughing and breathing difficulties.", "Several operations were carried out to tap off the excess fluid from Beethoven's abdomen.Karl stayed by Beethoven's bedside during December, but left after the beginning of January to join the army at Iglau and did not see his uncle again, although he wrote to him shortly afterwards: \"My dear father ...", "I am living in contentment and regret only that I am separated from you.\"", "Immediately following Karl's departure, Beethoven wrote a will making his nephew his sole heir.", "Later in January, Beethoven was attended by Dr. Malfatti, whose treatment (recognizing the seriousness of his patient's condition) was largely centred on alcohol.", "As the news spread of the severity of Beethoven's condition, many old friends came to visit, including Diabelli, Schuppanzigh, Lichnowsky, Schindler, the composer Johann Nepomuk Hummel and his pupil Ferdinand Hiller.", "Many tributes and gifts were also sent, including £100 from the Philharmonic Society in London and a case of expensive wine from Schotts.", "During this period, Beethoven was almost completely bedridden despite occasional efforts to rouse himself.", "On 24 March, he said to Schindler and the others present \"Plaudite, amici, comoedia finita est\" (\"Applaud, friends, the comedy is over\").", "Later that day, when the wine from Schotts arrived, he whispered, \"Pity – too late.", "\"Beethoven died on 26 March 1827 at the age of 56; only his friend Anselm Hüttenbrenner and a \"Frau van Beethoven\" (possibly his old enemy Johanna van Beethoven) were present.", "According to Hüttenbrenner, at about 5 pm there was a flash of lightning and a clap of thunder: \"Beethoven opened his eyes, lifted his right hand and looked up for several seconds with his fist clenched ... not another breath, not a heartbeat more.\"", "Many visitors came to the death-bed; some locks of the dead man's hair were retained by Hüttenbrenner and Hiller, amongst others.", "An autopsy revealed Beethoven had significant liver damage, which may have been due to his heavy alcohol consumption, and also considerable dilation of the auditory and other related nerves.Beethoven's funeral procession in Vienna on 29 March 1827 was attended by an estimated 10,000 people.", "Franz Schubert and the violinist Joseph Mayseder were among the torchbearers.", "A funeral oration by the poet Franz Grillparzer (who would also write Schubert's epitaph) was read by the actor Heinrich Anschütz.", "Beethoven was buried in the Währing cemetery, north-west of Vienna, after a requiem mass at the church of the Holy Trinity (Dreifaltigkeitskirche) in Alserstrasse.", "Beethoven's remains were exhumed for study in 1863, and moved in 1888 to Vienna's Zentralfriedhof where they were reinterred in a grave adjacent to that of Schubert." ], [ "Music", "=== The three periods ===The historian William Drabkin notes that as early as 1818 a writer had proposed a three-period division of Beethoven's works and that such a division (albeit often adopting different dates or works to denote changes in period) eventually became a convention adopted by all of Beethoven's biographers, starting with Schindler, F.-J.", "Fétis and Wilhelm von Lenz.", "Later writers sought to identify sub-periods within this generally accepted structure.", "Its drawbacks include that it generally omits a fourth period, that is, the early years in Bonn, whose works are less often considered; and that it ignores the differential development of Beethoven's composing styles over the years for different categories of work.", "The piano sonatas, for example, were written throughout Beethoven's life in a progression that can be interpreted as continuous development; the symphonies do not all demonstrate linear progress; of all of the types of composition, perhaps the quartets, which seem to group themselves in three periods (Op.", "18 in 1801–1802, Opp.", "59, 74 and 95 in 1806–1814, and the quartets, today known as 'late', from 1824 onwards) fit this categorization most neatly.", "Drabkin concludes that \"now that we have lived with them so long ... as long as there are programme notes, essays written to accompany recordings, and all-Beethoven recitals, it is hard to imagine us ever giving up the notion of discrete stylistic periods.", "\"===Bonn 1782–1792===Some forty compositions, including ten very early works written by Beethoven up to 1785, survive from the years that Beethoven lived in Bonn.", "It has been suggested that Beethoven largely abandoned composition between 1785 and 1790, possibly as a result of negative critical reaction to his first published works.", "A 1784 review in Johann Nikolaus Forkel's influential ''Musikalischer Almanack'' compared Beethoven's efforts to those of rank beginners.", "The three early piano quartets of 1785 (WoO 36), closely modelled on violin sonatas of Mozart, show his dependency on the music of the period.", "Beethoven himself was not to give any of the Bonn works an opus number, save for those which he reworked for use later in his career, for example, some of the songs in his Op.", "52 collection (1805) and the Wind Octet reworked in Vienna in 1793 to become his String Quintet, Op.", "4.Charles Rosen points out that Bonn was something of a backwater compared to Vienna; Beethoven was unlikely to be acquainted with the mature works of Haydn or Mozart, and Rosen opines that his early style was closer to that of Hummel or Muzio Clementi.", "Kernan suggests that at this stage Beethoven was not especially notable for his works in sonata style, but more for his vocal music; his move to Vienna in 1792 set him on the path to develop the music in the genres he became known for.===First period===The conventional first period begins after Beethoven's arrival in Vienna in 1792.In the first few years he seems to have composed less than he did at Bonn, and his Piano Trios, op.1 were not published until 1795.From this point onward, he had mastered the 'Viennese style' (best known today from Haydn and Mozart) and was making the style his own.", "His works from 1795 to 1800 are larger in scale than was the norm (writing sonatas in four movements, not three, for instance); typically he uses a scherzo rather than a minuet and trio; and his music often includes dramatic, even sometimes over-the-top, uses of extreme dynamics and tempi and chromatic harmony.", "It was this that led Haydn to believe the third trio of Op.1 was too difficult for an audience to appreciate.He also explored new directions and gradually expanded the scope and ambition of his work.", "Some important pieces from the early period are the first and second symphonies, the set of six string quartets Opus 18, the first two piano concertos, and the first dozen or so piano sonatas, including the famous ''Pathétique'' sonata, Op.", "13.===Middle period===His middle period began shortly after the personal crisis brought on by his recognition of encroaching deafness.", "It includes large-scale works that express heroism and struggle.", "Middle-period works include six symphonies (Nos.", "3–8), the last two piano concertos, the Triple Concerto and violin concerto, five string quartets (Nos.", "7–11), several piano sonatas (including the ''Waldstein'' and ''Appassionata'' sonatas), the ''Kreutzer'' violin sonata and his only opera, ''Fidelio''.This period is sometimes associated with a ''heroic'' manner of composing, but the use of the term \"heroic\" has become increasingly controversial in Beethoven scholarship.", "The term is more frequently used as an alternative name for the middle period.", "The appropriateness of the term heroic to describe the whole middle period has been questioned as well: while some works, like the Third and Fifth Symphonies, are easy to describe as heroic, many others, like his Symphony No.", "6, ''Pastoral'' or his Piano Sonata No.", "24, are not.===Late period===Beethoven's grave at Zentralfriedhof in ViennaBeethoven's late period began in the decade 1810-1819.He began a renewed study of older music, including works by Palestrina, Johann Sebastian Bach, and George Frideric Handel, whom Beethoven considered \"the greatest composer who ever lived\".", "Beethoven's late works incorporated polyphony and Baroque-era devices.", "For example, the overture ''The Consecration of the House'' (1822) included a fugue influenced by Handel's music.", "A new style emerged, as he returned to the keyboard to compose his first piano sonatas in almost a decade; the works of the late period include the last five piano sonatas and the ''Diabelli Variations'', the last two sonatas for cello and piano, the late string quartets (including the massive ''Große Fuge''), and two works for very large forces: the ''Missa solemnis'' and the Ninth Symphony.", "Works from this period are characterised by their intellectual depth, their formal innovations, and their intense, highly personal expression.", "The String Quartet, Op.", "131 has seven linked movements, and the Ninth Symphony adds choral forces to the orchestra in the last movement.===Beethoven's pianos===Beethoven's earlier preferred pianos included those of Johann Andreas Stein; he may have been given a Stein piano by Count Waldstein.", "From 1786 onwards there is evidence of Beethoven's cooperation with Johann Andreas Streicher, who had married Stein's daughter Nannette.", "Streicher left Stein's business to set up his own firm in 1803, and Beethoven continued to admire his products, writing to him in 1817 of his \"special preference\" for his pianos.", "Amongst the other pianos Beethoven possessed was an Érard piano given to him by the manufacturer in 1803.The Érard piano, with its exceptional resonance, may have influenced Beethoven's piano style – shortly after receiving it he began writing his Waldstein Sonata – but despite initial enthusiasm he seems to have abandoned it before 1810, when he wrote that it was \"simply not of any use any more\"; in 1824 he gave it to his brother Johann.", "In 1818 Beethoven received, also as a gift, a grand piano by John Broadwood & Sons.", "Although Beethoven was proud to receive it, he seems to have been dissatisfied by its tone (a dissatisfaction which was perhaps also a consequence of his increasing deafness), and sought to get it remodelled to make it louder.", "In 1825 Beethoven commissioned a piano from Conrad Graf, which was equipped with quadruple strings and a special resonator to make it audible to him, but which failed in this task." ], [ "Legacy", "A bust of Beethoven, developed by Hugo Hagen in 1892 and now housed at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.===Museums===There is a museum—the Beethoven House, in the place of his birth in Bonn.", "Bonn has also hosted a musical festival, the Beethovenfest, since 1845.The festival was initially irregular but since 2007 has been organised annually.The Ira F. Brilliant Center for Beethoven Studies, in the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library, in the campus of San Jose State University, California, serves as a museum, research centre, and host of lectures and performances devoted solely to Beethoven's life and works.===Sculptures===The Beethoven Monument in Bonn was unveiled in August 1845, in honour of the 75th anniversary of Beethoven's birth.", "It was the first statue of a composer created in Germany, and the music festival that accompanied the unveiling was the impetus for the swift construction of the original Beethovenhalle in Bonn (it was designed and built within less than a month, on the urging of Franz Liszt).", "Vienna honoured Beethoven with a statue in 1880.===Space===The third-largest crater on Mercury is named in his honour, as is the main-belt asteroid 1815 Beethoven.Beethoven's music features twice on the Voyager Golden Record, a phonograph record containing a broad sample of the images, common sounds, languages, and music of Earth, sent into outer space with the two Voyager probes.===Education===The Beethoven Conservatory in St. Louis, Missouri was named for the composer." ], [ "References", "===Notes====== Citations ====== Sources ===* * ** * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Beethoven-Haus Bonn* :'''Scores'''* * * :'''Books'''* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lleyton Hewitt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lleyton Glynn Hewitt''' (born 24 February 1981) is an Australian former world No.", "1 tennis player.", "He is the most recent Australian man to win a major singles title, with two at the 2001 US Open and 2002 Wimbledon Championships.", "In November 2001, Hewitt became, at the time, the youngest man to be singles world No.", "1 in the ATP rankings, at the age of .", "He won 30 singles titles and 3 doubles titles, with highlights being the 2001 US Open and 2002 Wimbledon singles titles, the 2000 US Open men's doubles title, back-to-back Tour Finals titles in 2001 and 2002, and the Davis Cup with Australia in 1999 and 2003.Between 1997 and 2016, Hewitt contested twenty consecutive Australian Open men's singles tournaments, his best result being runner-up in 2005.He was also the runner-up at the 2004 US Open." ], [ "Early life", "Hewitt was born in Adelaide, South Australia.", "His father, Glynn, is a former Australian rules football player, and his mother, Cherilyn, was a physical education teacher.", "His younger sister is Jaslyn Hewitt, a former tennis coach and bodybuilder, and his brother-in-law (Jaslyn's husband) is Rob Shehadie.", "Hewitt also played Australian Football until the age of 13, when he decided to pursue a tennis career.", "His junior tennis club was Seaside Tennis Club in Henley Beach.", "He was also coached by Peter Smith at Denman Tennis Club in Mitcham." ], [ "Tennis career", "Hewitt commenced his professional career in 1998.He became one of the youngest winners of an Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) tournament when he won the 1998 Next Generation Adelaide International, defeating Jason Stoltenberg in the final, having defeated Andre Agassi in the semi-finals.", "Both Aaron Krickstein winning Tel Aviv in 1983 and Michael Chang winning San Francisco in 1988 were younger than Hewitt when they claimed their first ATP title.", "Hewitt then left Immanuel College to concentrate on his tennis career.", "He was an Australian Institute of Sport scholarship holder.He finished his professional tennis career on 24 January 2016 after 20 straight Australian Open appearances.", "His last professional singles match was against David Ferrer in the second round of the 2016 Australian Open at the Rod Laver Arena on 21 January 2016.In 2022, Lleyton Hewitt was inducted into the ‘International Tennis Hall of Fame.’===Junior years and first Grand Slam appearance===As a junior Hewitt posted a 44–19 record in singles and reached as high as No.", "17 in the world in 1997 (and No.", "13 in doubles).====Junior singles titles====Legend (singles)Grand Slam (0)Grade A (0)Grade B (0)Grade 1–5 (1)No.DateTournamentSurfaceOpponentScore1.8 April 1997Manila, PhilippinesHard Wesley Whitehouse6–4, 6–3Hewitt and fellow Australian Mark Philippoussis confer during a doubles match at the 2005 Queen's Club Championships.=== 2000: US Open doubles title, Wimbledon mixed doubles and Davis Cup finals ===In 2000, Hewitt reached his first Grand Slam final at the Wimbledon mixed doubles partnering Belgian Kim Clijsters, his then girlfriend.", "They lost the match, to Americans Kimberly Po and Donald Johnson.", "Hewitt later won his first Grand Slam title at the US Open when he along with Max Mirnyi claimed the men's doubles championship, thus becoming the youngest male (at 19 years, 6 months) to win a Grand Slam doubles crown in the open era.", "At the end of the year, Hewitt became the first teenager in ATP history to qualify for the year-end Tennis Masters Cup (ATP World Tour Finals).===2001: US Open title, Masters Cup trophy, third Davis Cup final and world No.", "1===Hewitt started off the 2001 season well by winning the Medibank International in Sydney, and went on to win tournaments in London (Queen's Club) and 's-Hertogenbosch.", "He captured his first Grand Slam singles title at the US Open in 2001, when he beat former world No.", "1 Yevgeny Kafelnikov in the semi-finals and defeated then four-time champion Pete Sampras the next day in straight sets.", "This win made Hewitt the most recent male player to win a Grand Slam singles and doubles title during his career.", "The Australian went on to win the Tokyo Open and again qualify for the year-end Tennis Masters Cup held in Sydney.", "During the tournament, Hewitt won all matches in his group.", "He then went on to defeat Sébastien Grosjean in the final to take the title and gain the No.", "1 ranking.Hewitt won a total of six titles in 2001.Hewitt with Roddick===2002: Wimbledon victory and maintaining the No.", "1 spot===The year 2002 was once again a solid year for Hewitt, winning three titles in San Jose, Indian Wells and London (Queen's Club).", "He followed his 2001 US Open win by capturing the Wimbledon singles title.", "He defeated Jonas Björkman, Grégory Carraz, Julian Knowle, Mikhail Youzhny, Sjeng Schalken and home favourite Tim Henman before dominating first-time finalist David Nalbandian in straight sets; Hewitt lost only two sets (both to Schalken) throughout the championship.", "His victory reinforced the idea that, although the tournament had tended to be dominated by serve-and-volleyers, a baseliner could still triumph on grass (Hewitt was the first 'baseliner' to win the tournament since Agassi in 1992).", "Hewitt was the last man outside the so-called \"Big Four\" to win Wimbledon until Carlos Alcaraz in 2023.For his third straight year, he qualified for the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, held in Shanghai, and successfully defended his title by defeating Juan Carlos Ferrero in the final.", "Hewitt's win helped him finish the year ranked No.", "1 for a second straight year.===2003: Second Masters and Davis Cup titles, Hopman Cup final===In 2003, Hewitt defeated former No.", "1 Gustavo Kuerten for the championship at Indian Wells.", "But at Wimbledon, as the defending champion, Hewitt lost in the first round to qualifier Ivo Karlović.", "Hewitt became the first defending Wimbledon men's champion in the open era to lose in the first round.", "Only once before in the tournament's 126-year history had a defending men's champion lost in the opening round, in 1967, when Manuel Santana was beaten by Charlie Pasarell.", "Hewitt was only the third defending Grand Slam champion in the open era to lose in the first round, after Boris Becker at the 1997 Australian Open and Patrick Rafter at the 1999 US Open.", "After Wimbledon in 2003, Hewitt lost in the final of the tournament in Los Angeles, the second round of the ATP Masters Series tournament in Montreal, and the first round of the ATP Masters Series tournament in Cincinnati.", "At the US Open, Hewitt lost in the quarterfinals to Juan Carlos Ferrero.", "Hewitt played only Davis Cup matches for the remainder of the year, recording five-set wins over Roger Federer and Juan Carlos Ferrero in the semi-finals and final respectively, as Australia went on to win the Davis Cup.", "Hewitt used much of his spare time in late 2003 to bulk up, gaining 7 kg.===2004: US Open, Masters Cup and World Team Cup finals===In 2004, Hewitt became the first man in history to lose in each Grand Slam singles tournament to the eventual champion.", "At the Australian Open, he was defeated in the fourth round by Swiss Roger Federer.", "At the French Open, he was defeated in a quarterfinal by Argentine Gastón Gaudio.", "At Wimbledon, he was defeated in a quarterfinal by Federer, and at the US Open, he was defeated in the final by Federer, losing two out of the three sets at love.", "At the year ending 2004 Tennis Masters Cup, Hewitt defeated Andy Roddick to advance to the final, but was yet again defeated by defending champion Federer.===2005: Australian Open final===Lleyton Hewitt US Open 2005In 2005, Hewitt won his only title at the Sydney Medibank International defeating little-known Czech player Ivo Minář.", "Hewitt spent much time in the late stages of 2004 working with his former coach and good friend, Roger Rasheed, on bulking up his physique.", "His hard work paid off during the Australian summer, when he defeated an in-form No.", "2 Andy Roddick to reach his first Australian Open final in 2005.He was the first Australian player to reach the final since Pat Cash in 1988.In the final, he faced fourth seed, Marat Safin, who had defeated No.", "1 and defending champion Roger Federer in the semi-finals.", "After easily taking the first set, he was defeated by the Russian despite being up a break in the third set.At Wimbledon, Hewitt reached the semi-finals, but lost to eventual champion Federer.", "Two months later, Hewitt again lost to Federer in the US Open semi-final, although this time he was able to take one set from the Swiss.", "Hewitt had at this point lost to the eventual champion at seven consecutive Grand Slam tournaments he played, (he missed the 2005 French Open because of injury).", "Hewitt pulled out of the Tennis Masters Cup tournament in Shanghai in November 2005 so that he could be with his wife Bec, who was due to give birth.2006 US Open=== 2006: 25th career title ===Hewitt was defeated in the second round of the 2006 Australian Open by Juan Ignacio Chela of Argentina.", "He then reached the finals of the San Jose and Las Vegas tournaments, losing to British youngster Andy Murray and American James Blake, respectively.", "But he lost to Tim Henman in the second round of the Miami Masters, a player he had defeated eight times previously in as many matches.", "At the 2006 French Open, Hewitt reached the fourth round, where he lost to defending champion and eventual winner Rafael Nadal in four sets.Hewitt won his first tournament of 2006 (after a 17-month hiatus from winning a tournament), when he beat Blake in the final of the Queen's Club Championships.", "This was his fourth title there, equalling the records of John McEnroe and Boris Becker.", "During the 2006 Wimbledon Championships, Hewitt survived a five-set match against South Korea's Hyung-Taik Lee that was played over two days.", "He then defeated Olivier Rochus and David Ferrer, before losing to Marcos Baghdatis in the quarterfinals.", "At the 2006 Legg Mason Tennis Classic in Washington, D.C., Hewitt was defeated by Arnaud Clément in the quarterfinals, after defeating Vincent Spadea in the second round and Denis Gremelmayr in the third round.Hewitt participated at the 2006 US Open, despite having an injured knee.", "Hewitt won his first three matches in straight sets against, respectively, Albert Montañés, Jan Hernych, and Novak Djokovic.", "He defeated Richard Gasquet in five sets to advance to the quarterfinals for the seventh consecutive year.", "He then lost to Roddick.===2007: 26th career title===Lleyton Hewitt Cincinnati 2007At the 2007 Australian Open, Hewitt lost in the third round to tenth-seeded Chilean and eventual runner-up Fernando González.", "With his win in Las Vegas in March, Hewitt had won at least one ATP title annually for ten consecutive years.", "This was a record among active players at the time.", "Hewitt reached the 2007 Hamburg Masters semi-finals, where he pushed eventual finalist Rafael Nadal to three sets.", "At the 2007 French Open, Hewitt, for the second straight time lost in the fourth round to Nadal.", "At the 2007 Wimbledon Championships, Hewitt won his first three matches, including a four-set third round victory over Guillermo Cañas.", "He then faced fourth seed Novak Djokovic in the fourth round, which he lost.After Wimbledon, it was announced that he had hired former Australian tennis pro Tony Roche to coach him during Grand Slam and Masters tournaments in 2007 and 2008.At the Masters tournaments in Montréal and Cincinnati Hewitt reached the quarterfinals and semi-finals, respectively.", "In both cases, he lost to Roger Federer.He was seeded 16th at the 2007 US Open, but for the first time in eight consecutive appearances at Flushing Meadows, he did not reach the quarterfinals or further.", "He lost in the second round to Argentine Agustín Calleri.===2008: Injuries and year without titles===At the 2008 Australian Open, he advanced to the fourth round as the 19th seed, defeating 15th-seeded and 2006 Australian Open finalist Marcos Baghdatis in a thrilling third-round match.", "The 282-minute match started at 11:52 pm and ended at 4:34 am the following morning.", "It was a characteristically \"gutsy\" performance and cemented Hewitt's reputation as a tough competitor.", "Hewitt lost his fourth-round match in straight sets to third-seeded and eventual champion Novak Djokovic.A hip injury Hewitt acquired in March 2008 affected his preparation for the French Open and forced the loss of 300 rankings points as Hewitt was unable to defend his semi-final appearance at the Hamburg Masters, as well as compete in supplementary tournaments.", "However, Hewitt made the third round at Roland Garros, before losing a five-set thriller to fifth seed David Ferrer.Despite his ongoing hip problem, Hewitt was able to compete at the Queens Club Championship with moderate success, falling to second seed Novak Djokovic in the quarterfinals.", "His good form continued into Wimbledon, Hewitt making the fourth round for the second successive year, before losing to No.", "1 and top seed Roger Federer.After Wimbledon, Hewitt elected to miss the Montreal and Cincinnati Masters in an effort to give his hip sufficient rest to enable him to play at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, where he defeated Jonas Björkman in the first round before losing to second seed Rafael Nadal.", "However, the more notable incident in the Olympics occurred in Hewitt's opening-round doubles match with Chris Guccione against Argentines Juan Mónaco and Agustín Calleri.", "The match went to an advantage third set with Hewitt and Guccione prevailing 18–16.After the Olympics, due to the further damage Hewitt's hip sustained at the Olympics, he was left with no option but to pull out of the US Open and skip the rest of the season to have hip surgery.", "2008 was the first year since 1997 in which Hewitt did not win a title.", "===2009: 27th career title, 500 career match wins, Wimbledon quarterfinal and return to Top 20===After returning from hip surgery, Hewitt played his first match in 2009 at the Hopman Cup, where he defeated Nicolas Kiefer in three sets.", "Hewitt then participated in the Medibank International Sydney, winning his first two matches, but losing in the quarterfinals to David Nalbandian.", "Hewitt then went on to play in the 2009 Australian Open, where he was unseeded in a Grand Slam for the first time since 2000.He faced Fernando González in the first round and lost in five sets.At the tournament in Memphis, he caused an upset in the first round by defeating James Blake in three sets.", "He then defeated fellow Australian Chris Guccione in the second round and Christophe Rochus in the quarterfinals.", "He faced Andy Roddick in the semi-finals, but lost in a close match.", "Hewitt then lost in the first round of Delray Beach to Yen-Hsun Lu, the eighth seed.", "Hewitt also competed in the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, California, and reached the second round, being defeated by Fernando González.", "At the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami, Hewitt played Israeli Dudi Sela in the first round.", "Hewitt lost the first set, before recovering to win the match.", "Hewitt was then defeated by seventh seed Gilles Simon of France in straight sets.At the 2009 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, Hewitt defeated seventh seed Diego Junqueira.", "Hewitt advanced to the quarterfinals after defeating Sergio Roitman in just 57 minutes, and then Guillermo García López to advance to the semi-finals, where he defeated Evgeny Korolev.", "He defeated Wayne Odesnik in the final, for his first title since 2007 and his first clay-court title in a decade.", "Hewitt entered the Monte Carlo Masters as a wild card.", "He lost in the first round to Marat Safin.", "Hewitt admitted to running out of energy in the second set.", "At the 2009 BMW Open, Hewitt recorded his 500th career win after defeating Philipp Petzschner in the first round, becoming one of only four active players to achieve this milestone; the others being Roger Federer and Carlos Moyá.", "Andy Roddick would later achieve this feat at the 2009 Legg Mason Tennis Classic Tournament in Washington, D.C.", "In the 2009 French Open, he defeated 26th seed Ivo Karlović in five sets in the first round, and then defeated Andrey Golubev in the second.", "He lost to No.", "1 Rafael Nadal in the third round.", "His next tournament was the 2009 Aegon Championships in London.", "He was 15th seed and drew Eduardo Schwank in the first round, who he easily dispatched.", "In the second round, he went three sets against Portuguese Frederico Gil.", "Hewitt dropped the first set, but went on to win.", "Former rival Andy Roddick awaited Hewitt in the third round, and the match certainly did not disappoint.", "As they have many times in the past, the former No.", "1 players battled through a tough and intense match, which Roddick won.", "Lleyton Hewitt at the 2009 Wimbledon ChampionshipsHewitt at the 2009 US OpenIn the 2009 Wimbledon Championships, Hewitt faced the prospect of Rafael Nadal in the second round.", "However, Nadal withdrew due to injury, and his slot was replaced by No.", "5 Juan Martín del Potro.", "Hewitt defeated American Robby Ginepri in the first round.", "Hewitt used his strong service game to advantage, losing only one service game the entire match.", "He upended del Potro in straight sets.", "The third round also produced a straight-set victory for Hewitt, as he defeated Philipp Petzschner.", "He reversed a two-set deficit to defeat Radek Štěpánek in the fourth round.", "It was another classic Hewitt fightback to thrill the many Australians on hand to witness the match.", "His Cinderella run ended in the quarterfinals against sixth seed Andy Roddick.", "It was a five-set thriller which featured two tiebreaks.", "Hewitt lost a heartbreaking 3–6, 7–6 (10), 6–7 (1), 6–4, 4–6 match.", "It was the first time Hewitt had reached the quarterfinals of a Major since the 2006 U.S. Open.After an extended break, Hewitt began working his way into the U.S. Open series by playing in Washington at the Legg Mason Classic.", "There Hewitt made it into the third round, before losing in a three-set battle with Juan Martín del Potro.", "At the Montreal Masters, Hewitt lost in the first round to former No.", "1 Juan Carlos Ferrero.", "Cincinnati saw Hewitt reach the quarterfinals for the sixth time, where he lost to Roger Federer in straight sets.", "During the first round of the tournament, Hewitt showed his trademark fighting abilities by saving two match points to win against an in-form Robin Söderling.", "At the U.S. Open, Hewitt progressed into the third round, where he played Federer for the 23rd time of their decade-long rivalry.", "Hewitt managed to take the first set 6–4 from Federer, before the 15-time Grand Slam champion took control of the second.", "The third set was tight, and both players saved multiple break points.", "Federer eventually prevailed over the match in four sets.In late September, Hewitt travelled to Malaysia for his first time to take part in the inaugural Malaysian Open held in Kuala Lumpur.", "The new tournament was part of the ATP's new dedicated Asian swing.", "Hewitt lost in the first round to Swedish player Joachim Johansson.", "In Tokyo, Hewitt was drawn to once again meet del Potro in the quarterfinals, but was given a clear path when del Potro was knocked out by qualifier Édouard Roger-Vasselin in the first round.", "After defeating Fabrice Santoro in the second round, Hewitt downed Roger-Vasselin, to reach his first semi-finals since winning the US Men's Clay Court Championships in April, but lost to Mikhail Youzhny.", "He then competed in the 2009 Shanghai ATP Masters 1000, where he won in the first round, defeating John Isner, before losing to Gaël Monfils.===2010: 28th career title and victory over Federer===Lleyton Hewitt at the 2010 Australian OpenHewitt began his 2010 season partnering Samantha Stosur at the Hopman Cup.", "The Australians were the top seeds for the exhibition tournament.", "They, however, fared worse than expected, losing ties against Romania and Spain, and therefore failing to reach the final.He was seeded fourth in the Medibank International and, like the previous year, reached the quarterfinals, losing to eventual champion Marcos Baghdatis.", "At the 2010 Australian Open, he lost to Roger Federer in the fourth round.A week after his exit from the Australian Open, Hewitt announced at a press conference at Melbourne Park that he underwent another hip operation similar to his left hip operation this time on his right hip on 28 January 2010 in Hobart.Hewitt returned to the tour at the U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships as the singles defending champion.", "He won his first match since the Australian Open, partnering coach Nathan Healey in the doubles, defeating James Cerretani and Adil Shamasdin, but lost to top seeds the Bryan brothers in the semi-finals.", "Hewitt received a first-round bye, as he was seeded fourth in singles.", "In his first match, against lucky loser Somdev Devvarman, Hewitt dropped the first set, before battling to win in three sets.", "He then lost to Juan Ignacio Chela.", "Hewitt's next tournament was scheduled to be the Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters.", "However, he withdrew due to a recurring injury.Djokovic and Hewitt at Wimbledon 2010Hewitt then reached the second round in Barcelona, before losing to Eduardo Schwank, and lost in the second round of the Internazionali BNL d'Italia to Guillermo García López.", "Hewitt then travelled back to Australia to participate in a Davis Cup tie against Japan, winning his two singles matches.At the French Open, Hewitt reached the third round, before losing to Rafael Nadal, who went on to win the title without dropping a set and take the No.", "1 ranking.On 13 June, Hewitt defeated Roger Federer in the final of the Gerry Weber Open in Halle, Germany, a grass-court tuneup for Wimbledon Championships.", "The win was Hewitt's first over Federer since 2003, snapping a 15-match losing streak.At Wimbledon, Hewitt was seeded 15th and lost to third seed, Novak Djokovic in the fourth round.", "After dropping the first two sets, Hewitt took advantage of a stomach illness had by Djokovic to take the third set.", "However, Hewitt could not mount a comeback, and ended up losing in four sets.At the Atlanta Tennis Championship, Hewitt lost in the first round to Lukáš Lacko.", "After receiving a first-round bye at the Legg Mason Classic, Hewitt retired in the second round due to a leg injury.", "He pulled out of the Rogers Cup in Toronto to recover, and returned in Cincinnati.", "Hewitt defeated Yen-Hsun Lu in the opening round, before losing in three sets to fifth seed Robin Söderling.Hewitt was 32nd seed at the US Open and lost his first-round match to Paul-Henri Mathieu in five sets.", "It was his earliest exit at the US Open.", "He withdrew from the Asian hard-court swing due to a wrist injury suffered during the Australian Davis Cup playoff loss to Belgium.===2011: Surgery and out of Top 100===Hewitt began his 15th season on the ATP Tour at the Hopman Cup in Perth.", "He defeated his Belgian opponent Ruben Bemelmans and went on to win the tie for Australia with a three-set victory in the mixed doubles, partnering Alicia Molik.", "He next played No.", "3 Novak Djokovic, but lost in straight sets.", "For his final singles match of the tournament, he played Kazakhstani Andrey Golubev, defeating him in straight sets.After the Hopman Cup, Hewitt competed in the AAMI Kooyong Classic, an exhibitional tournament in the build-up to the Australian Open.", "He started the tournament solidly, taking out third seed Mikhail Youzhny.", "In the second round, he defeated Russian Nikolay Davydenko.", "In the final, he defeated Frenchman Gaël Monfils.", "It was the first time that Hewitt had played in the tournament.At the 2011 Australian Open, Hewitt was defeated in the first round in five sets by Argentina's David Nalbandian.", "Hewitt was up two sets to one and during the fourth set had the chance to finish off the match, when the scores were 3–1 and 0–40 in Hewitt's favour, but failed to capitalise on the situation.", "Furthermore, Hewitt had two match point opportunities in the final set to close out victory.", "However, one of these was met with an excellent drop shot from Nalbandian, and he went on to save the other, securing victory.After the Australian Open, Hewitt participated in the SAP Open, an ATP World Tour 250 event.", "He defeated his first-round opponent Björn Phau, and proceeded to the second round against Brian Dabul.", "Hewitt had some problems with Dabul, losing the first set, but managed to defeat him.", "In the quarterfinals, Hewitt played against former US Open champion Juan Martín del Potro, who was on a comeback from a wrist injury.", "In a weak performance, Hewitt lost.The next tournament that Hewitt took part in was the Regions Morgan Keegan Championships and the Cellular South Cup, an ATP World Tour 500 event in Memphis, Tennessee.", "Hewitt played Lu Yen-hsun in the opening round, which he won.", "He advanced to the second round against Adrian Mannarino.", "Despite losing the first set, Hewitt defeated Mannarino.", "In the quarterfinals, Hewitt played top seed Andy Roddick.", "Despite being a set up, Hewitt lost the match.Hewitt then played in the 2011 BNP Paribas Open, an ATP World Tour Masters 1000 event.", "His first-round opponent was Chinese Taipei's Lu Yen-hsun.", "This was the second time in a row the two had played each other in the first round, and he suffered a shock defeat.", "This was to be Hewitt's last event on the ATP Tour for over three months after he underwent surgery on his left foot.", "He made his comeback at the 2011 Gerry Weber Open in Halle, Germany, where he returned as defending champion.", "He was originally scheduled to face top seed Roger Federer in the opening round.", "However, the Swiss withdrew after reaching the final of the French Open.", "Hewitt therefore took on an alternate from Argentina, Leonardo Mayer and came through the match comfortably.", "In the second round, he played Andreas Seppi and defeated him.", "However, Hewitt's reign as champion of Halle came to an end at the hands of home favourite Philipp Kohlschreiber, when the Australian went down in straight sets.", "During this match, Hewitt turned his ankle when he came in to the net to try to reach a net cord ball.", "The following week, Hewitt had to retire during a first round match at the Aegon International against Olivier Rochus.", "This was a result of the niggling ankle injury he had picked up at Halle the week before.Hewitt came into Wimbledon with doubts over his fitness and condition and was unseeded in the 2011 Wimbledon Championships draw.", "Hewitt faced Kei Nishikori of Japan in the first round and won in four close sets.", "In the second round, Hewitt faced fifth seed Robin Söderling.", "Hewitt won the first set in a tiebreak and the second set.", "Söderling fought back to take the match in five sets.Hewitt's next tournament was the 2011 Atlanta Tennis Championships, an ATP World Tour 250 event and first event on the US hard-court swing.", "Hewitt won his first-round match against the American qualifier Phillip Simmonds in straight sets to advance to the second round.", "He went on to lose his second round encounter against the American qualifier Rajeev Ram.", "After this defeat, Hewitt who had been scheduled to play in Los Angeles the following week, opted not to take up the offer of a wildcard and withdrew from the event to recover from his foot injury.", "He then was offered a wild card to play at the 2011 US Open, but was unable to play due to foot injury which ended his season.===2012: First ATP final in two years===Hewitt began his 2012 season at the Hopman Cup.", "In the opening singles tie against Spain, Hewitt lost in singles to Fernando Verdasco.", "For the mixed doubles match, Hewitt partnered with Jarmila Gajdošová.", "They lost the match in three sets 6–3, 3–6, 9–11, despite being 5–1 up in the final set tie-breaker.", "In the second tie against France, Hewitt lost to Richard Gasquet in singles and in straight sets in mixed doubles.", "In the final tie against China, Hewitt defeated Wu Di in straight sets and won the mixed doubles match.", "His next tournament was the Apia International, where he lost in the first round against Serbian fifth seed Viktor Troicki.His next tournament was the 2012 Australian Open.", "In doubles, partnering countryman Peter Luczak, the Aussies went until the 2nd round where they lost in straight sets to the Bryan Twins.", "In singles, where he was awarded a wildcard, Hewitt won his first round match defeating unseeded Cedrik-Marcel Stebe in almost four hours.", "Long-time rival Andy Roddick, who was seeded 15th, awaited Hewitt in the second round.", "After dropping the first set, Hewitt won the next two.", "Roddick then retired due to a groin injury and Hewitt advanced.", "In the third round, he faced the 23rd seed Milos Raonic of Canada.", "Playing at night in front of a boisterous Aussie crowd, Hewitt dispatched Raonic in 3 hours 6 minutes.", "In the 4th round, Hewitt faced returning champ and No.", "1-ranked Novak Djokovic.", "Djokovic won the 1st two sets fairly easily, and was leading 3–0 in the 3rd set when Hewitt launched a spirited comeback, taking the set 6–4.Djokovic eventually prevailed however, winning the match in four sets, ending Hewitt's run.", "Hewitt's two next matches were in February at the Davis Cup, where he won one singles and one doubles match partnering Chris Guccione, what awarded Australia to go to the playoffs once more.", "After this Hewitt needed an operation to have a plate inserted in his toe.Lleyton Hewitt at the French Open in 2012Hewitt returned with a wildcard at the French Open where he lost in the first round to Blaž Kavčič.", "After this, Hewitt began his grass season at Queen's Club Championships.", "He lost in the 1st round to Croatian Ivo Karlović.", "Hewitt's next tournament was Wimbledon, where he was defeated in the first round by 5th seed Jo-Wilfried Tsonga.", "During this match, ITF released wild cards for the 2012 Olympics, and Hewitt's name was in the singles list, marking his third appearance at the Olympic Games (2000, 2008 and now).", "After his loss against Tsonga, Hewitt played doubles at Wimbledon partnering countryman Chris Guccione, where they made the 3rd round before losing in 4 sets.After Wimbledon, viewing to prepare for the Olympics, Hewitt was granted a wild card at Newport.", "In the opening round, he defeated Canadian Vasek Pospisil.", "In the 2nd round, he won in three sets, ousting American Tim Smyczek.", "In his next match, the Aussie won against Israeli Dudi Sela.", "With this win, Hewitt went on to the semi-final (his first since Halle 2010), where he was victorious over American Rajeev Ram.", "He lost to top seeded John Isner in the final.Lleyton Hewitt signing autographs after dismissing Vasek Pospisil 6–1 6–1 in the first round of the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships in Newport in 2012.Playing in the Olympics, Hewitt was drawn against Sergiy Stakhovsky and won.", "Marin Čilić, seeded 13th, awaited in the second round and Hewitt dispatched the Croat in two sets to advance to the third round.", "There, he met 2nd seed Novak Djokovic.", "After losing the first set, Djokovic overpowered Hewitt to take the final two sets and eliminate Hewitt from the tournament.", "In the mixed doubles, he and Sam Stosur reached the quarterfinals, where they lost two sets to one to Britain's Andy Murray and Laura Robson.Beginning the American hard court season, Hewitt received a WC to the Cincinnati Masters, where he won against Mikhail Youzhny in the 1st round before losing to Viktor Troicki in the 2nd round.", "The Aussie's next tournament was the US Open, where he received a WC, completing the \"Wild Card Slam\" (received wild cards in all of the four Grand Slams in 2012).", "In the 1st round, Hewitt met Tobias Kamke, winning his first match at Flushing Meadows since 2009.In the 2nd round, Hewitt won a marathon five sets match against Gilles Müller.", "In the 3rd round, Hewitt lost to 4th seed and No.", "5-ranked David Ferrer, despite having set points in the 1st set.===2013: Five top ten wins and hope for resurgence===Lleyton Hewitt at the 2013 Australian OpenHewitt started off 2013 in Brisbane, where he lost in second round against Denis Istomin in straight sets.", "Prior to the Australian Open, Hewitt took part in the exhibition tournament AAMI Kooyong Classic, in which he defeated Milos Raonic, Tomáš Berdych, and Juan Martín del Potro en route to claim his second title.", "Due to his excellent result in the preparation event before the 2013 Australian Open, people had high expectations of Hewitt.", "However, he suffered his sixth first-round exit in his home slam to No.", "9 Janko Tipsarević in straight sets.", "Hewitt then played in the Davis Cup against Taiwan and won in both singles and doubles.He played the SAP Open next in San Jose, losing his second-round match to third-seeded American Sam Querrey in a three-set thriller.", "He also claimed a wild card to play in doubles with fellow Aussie Marinko Matosevic, beating the No.", "1 American duo Mike Bryan and Bob Bryan in the quarterfinals, before losing to Xavier Malisse and Frank Moser in the final.", "With Hewitt's doubles run in the tournament, he surpassed the 100-wins mark in doubles.", "He next participated in the U.S. National Indoor Tennis Championships in Memphis.", "He faced Yen-Hsun Lu in the opening round, saving two match points to edge Lu in three sets.", "He lost to Denis Istomin, again in the second round.Lleyton Hewitt practicing at the Queen's Club in 2013 ahead of his first round match against Michael Russell.Hewitt moved on to play the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, ousting Lukáš Rosol and 15th seed John Isner, before losing to No.", "18 Stanislas Wawrinka.", "Hewitt lost to Gilles Simon in the opening round at Roland Garros.", "After winning the first two sets, he succumbed in five.", "In his first match at the Aegon Championships Queen's Club, he beat Mike Russell in three sets.", "He followed this with victory over Grigor Dimitrov in straight sets.", "He then defeated Sam Querrey to book a place in the quarterfinals.", "In the quarterfinals, he defeated No.", "8 Juan Martín del Potro in three sets, to progress to the semi-finals.", "Hewitt played Marin Čilić in the semi-finals, but was beaten in three sets.", "At Wimbledon, Hewitt beat top ten player Stanislas Wawrinka in the first round in straight sets.", "He was then defeated by German qualifier Dustin Brown in the second round in four sets.Hewitt serving at the 2013 US OpenIn July 2013, he made it to his first final of the year at the Hall-of-Fame Championships, defeating Matthew Ebden, Prakash Amritraj, Jan Hernych, and John Isner on the way.", "He was beaten by Nicolas Mahut having served for the championship at 5–4 in the second set.", "His form continued at the Atlanta Open, defeating Édouard Roger-Vasselin 6–4, 6–4, Rhyne Williams 7–6, 6–4 and Ivan Dodig 1–6, 6–3, 6–0 in the quarterfinals.", "Hewitt played John Isner in the semi-finals, but lost in three tough sets.", "His US Open run started well, beating Brian Baker in four sets and following up with a five-set epic upset against fellow former US Open champion Juan Martín del Potro, where Hewitt came back from two sets to one down against the No.", "6, winning a fourth set tiebreak and sealing the match 6–1 in the fifth.", "He beat Evgeny Donskoy in the third round to set up a fourth round match with Mikhail Youzhny.", "Hewitt then lost to Youzhny 3–6, 6–3, 7–6, 4–6, 7–5, despite leading 4–1 in the fourth set and serving for the match at 5–3 in the fifth set.", "A measure of the success of Hewitt's 2013 season is the fact that he won the Newcombe medal as the most outstanding Australian tennis player in 2013, a year in which he returned to the world's top 100.===2014: 30th career title, 600 wins and return to top 40===Hewitt kicked off the 2014 season as an unseeded entrant into the 2014 Brisbane International.", "He won his first round match against Thanasi Kokkinakis in straight sets.", "His second round match was against sixth seed Feliciano López, whom he defeated.", "His quarterfinal encounter against qualifier Marius Copil resulted in a straight-set victory.", "In the semi-finals Hewitt faced second seed Kei Nishikori.", "Hewitt prevailed, thus setting the final match against seventeen–time Grand Slam winner Roger Federer.", "Federer held an 18–8 record head–to–head against Hewitt.", "Hewitt managed to turn the tide on Federer, winning 6–1, 4–6, 6–3 and capturing the title, which was his 29th and first since 2010.As a result, his rank increased from 60th to 43rd, becoming Australian number one again.At AAMI Classic, he defeated Andy Murray in two tiebreaks.Lleyton Hewitt at the Queen's Club in 2014In the 2014 Australian Open, Hewitt played both singles and doubles as an unseeded player.", "In his first round singles match, he lost in five sets to No.", "24 seed Andreas Seppi.", "In doubles action, Hewitt partnered with retired and former Australian number one Patrick Rafter.", "However, the duo did not manage to win their first round match against Eric Butorac and Raven Klaasen, losing 4–6, 5–7.After the tournament, Hewitt's singles rank rose to No.", "38, his highest position since late 2010.Hewitt battled for his 600th ATP win, becoming only the third active player to reach that milestone by beating Robin Haase in the 1st round of the 2014 Sony Open Tennis.After the Australian Open, Hewitt played as part of the Australian representative team for the Davis Cup.", "He lost his match against Jo-Wilfried Tsonga 3–6, 2–6, 6–7 (2–7).", "He then competed in the 2014 U.S. National Indoor Tennis Championships in Memphis in the United States of America.", "With a bye in the Round of 32, he went on to defeat Marcos Baghdatis in three sets 1–6, 6–2, 6–0 before losing to Michael Russell 3–6, 6–7 (6–8).", "His next tournament was the Delray Beach Tournament where he beat Bradley Klahn in straight sets 6–3, 6–1.He then versed his compatriot Marinko Matosevic but was forced to retire after injuring his shoulder.", "The score was 6–7 (2–7).Hewitt played at the BNP Paribas Open where he defeated Matthew Ebden 7–6(7–2), 3–6, 6–3.He then lost to Kevin Anderson 6–7(5–7), 4–6.Hewitt then played at the Sony Open Tennis where he defeated Robin Haase in the Round of 128, 3–6, 6–3, 6–3.He then subsequently lost to No.", "1 Rafael Nadal.", "Hewitt then played at the U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships where he lost in Round of 16 to Sam Querrey.Hewitt in Madrid in 2014Hewitt suffered three consecutive first round losses at the BMW Open by FWU AG to Albert Ramos Viñolas 7–6(6), 1–6, 0–6, Mutua Madrid Open to Santiago Giraldo 5–7, 6–4, 2–6 and at the French Open Roland Garros to Carlos Berlocq 6–3, 2–6, 1–6, 4–6.This ended Hewitt's clay court season.At the Aegon Championships, Hewitt won in the first round against Daniel Gimeno Traver in straight sets before losing to Feliciano López in straight sets 3–6, 4–6.Following this tournament, Hewitt played at Wimbledon where he won in the first round against Michał Przysiężny, 6–2, 6–7 (14–16), 6–1, 6–4 before losing in the second round in five sets to Jerzy Janowicz, 5–7, 4–6, 7–6(7), 6–4, 3–6.He next competed at the Newport Hall of Fame Tennis Championships where he was seeded third.", "Hewitt advanced to the final for the third consecutive year where he would face Ivo Karlović.", "Hewitt slayed his Newport demons and defeated the big serving Croat in three sets: 6–3, 6–7(4), 7–6(3).", "It was his 30th career singles title.", "Hewitt went on to win the doubles title with countryman Chris Guccione later that same day.On 10 August 2014, Hewitt defeated Austria's Jürgen Melzer in three sets (3–6, 6–4, 6–4) at the Cincinnati Masters to reach 610 wins on the ATP Tour.", "That enabled him to rise to number 19 on the all-time wins list, topping Björn Borg and Yevgeny Kafelnikov in the process.===2015: Farewell year===Hewitt & Kokkinakis at Wimbledon 2015Hewitt began his 2015 season as the defending champion of the Brisbane International.", "In the first round he was defeated in straight sets (3–6, 2–6) by fellow Australian Sam Groth in 58 minutes.", "As a result, he dropped from rank No.", "50 to No.", "84 and lost his position of No.", "1 Australian which he had held for many consecutive months.", "Hewitt played the first Fast4 short-form tennis exhibition match against Roger Federer but lost in five sets.Lleyton Hewitt at Wimbledon 2015Hewitt then played his 19th consecutive Australian Open appearance which is the fourth longest streak at any Grand Slam.", "In the first round he beat wild card Zhang Ze in 4 sets.", "He then lost in five sets to his second round opponent Benjamin Becker despite winning the first two sets.At a media conference, Hewitt mentioned plans to retire after the 2016 Australian Open to become the captain of the Australian Davis Cup team after Pat Rafter moved on from the position, becoming the seventh man to captain the team.", "\"I had thought long and hard and I plan to play the Australian Open next year and then finish\", he said.", "\"At the moment, the Davis Cup is the main focus for us and then I will be looking towards the grass court season and finishing here in Melbourne, which would be special to play 20 Australian Opens\".", "It will be Australia's first time in the world group of the Davis Cup in six years.", "Rafter and John Newcombe are the only other two Australian men to have been ranked No.", "1 since ranks were established in 1973.Hewitt & Dellacqua at Wimbledon 2015Hewitt then played the Miami Open and lost in the first round to Thomaz Bellucci in three sets.", "He was then awarded a wildcard to the 2015 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships where he also lost in the first round to Go Soeda.Hewitt skipped the remainder of the clay court season including the 2015 French Open, instead opting to focus on the grass season and Wimbledon.", "He began his grass court season at the 2015 Topshelf Open where he lost to Nicolas Mahut in the first round.", "He also was awarded a wildcard into the men's doubles where he partnered compatriot Matt Reid.", "They upset the fourth seeds Draganja/Kontinen in the first round.At Wimbledon, Hewitt was awarded a wildcard and was defeated by Jarkko Nieminen 6–3, 3–6, 6–4, 0–6, 9–11 in the first round of his eighteenth and final appearance at the tournament.", "It became his 44th five-set match of his grand slam career.", "Despite three straight breaks in the fifth set, Hewitt on serve faced and saved three match points at 4–5, and held serve each time until the 20th game of the fifth set.", "Afterwards both the crowd and Nieminen himself gave Hewitt a standing ovation.", "Partnering compatriot Thanasi Kokkinakis, the wild card duo reached the third round of the Wimbledon men's doubles with two five-set matches, including defeating the 15th seed, but they lost to the 4th seed.", "Hewitt played in the mixed doubles with compatriot Casey Dellacqua on a wild card and lost in the second round, seemingly ending his Wimbledon career.Hewitt partnered Sam Groth to win Australia's Davis Cup quarterfinals doubles rubber against Kazakhstan in Darwin on 18 July.", "With their spectacular performance, Groth and Hewitt were selected to play the last two reverse-singles rubbers, replacing Kyrgios and Kokkinakis respectively.", "After Groth's win, Hewitt won the deciding fifth rubber against Nedovyesov to put Australia at 3–2 to reach the semi-finals.", "It was Australia's first win from 0–2 down since 1939.Hewitt, on a wild card, defeated compatriot John-Patrick Smith 6–3 6–4 at the Citi Open in Washington, D.C. in August.", "He lost in the second round of the US Open to Tomic in five sets despite having two match points.", "Hewitt partnered with Sam Groth lost a tough Davis Cup semi-finals doubles tie against the British Murray brothers in 5 sets.", "Todd Woodbridge hailed it as the \"Best doubles I've watched for years.", "\"===2016: Retirement===Having previously announced his intentions to retire after the 2016 Australian Open, Hewitt confirmed that his final season would consist of that, the Hopman Cup and the exhibition World Tennis Challenge.In his 20th appearance at the Australian Open, he won his first round match against fellow Australian James Duckworth in straight sets.", "He then lost in the second round in 3 straight competitive sets to 8th seed David Ferrer, 2–6, 4–6, 4–6.Post-match he was remembered by players including Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Andy Murray and Nick Kyrgios as a man who was at the top of the game for years, and continually displayed the fighting spirit that he became synonymous with.He was made a Member of the Order of Australia in the awards announced on Australia Day.In March Hewitt came out of retirement to replace the injured Nick Kyrgios in the first round Davis Cup against the US at the Kooyong Lawn Tennis Club.", "He played doubles with John Peers against the Bryan brothers.", "The Australian duo came back from two sets to love but lost the fifth set.Hewitt was the subject of a book titled \"Facing Hewitt\" which features fifty interviews with professional tennis players who competed against him.In June it was announced that Hewitt would be taking a wildcard into the Wimbledon doubles competition, playing alongside young compatriot Jordan Thompson.", "In the first round, the pair saved eight match points to defeat Nicolás Almagro and David Marrero 19–17 in the deciding set.", "However, they lost to the eighth seeds in the second round.=== 2018: Comeback in doubles ===In December 2017, it was announced that Hewitt would come out of retirement and accept a doubles wildcard with compatriot Sam Groth at the 2018 Australian Open.Hewitt and Jordan Thompson accepted a wildcard to play Doubles at the 2018 Brisbane International.", "They lost in the first round to Grigor Dimitrov and Ryan Harrison 3–6, 6–1, 5–10.Hewitt then played in the fast4 exhibition in Sydney where he lost to Grigor Dimitrov.", "Hewitt and Kyrgios then went on to win the doubles beating Alexander Zverev and Grigor Dimitrov.", "After that, he played the Tie Break Tens in Melbourne where he won his opening match against Novak Djokovic, before losing to world No.", "1 Rafael Nadal.In the Australian Open doubles, Hewitt and Groth made a run to the quarterfinals, including a win over third seeds Jean-Julien Rojer and Horia Tecău.", "This was his best doubles result at the Australian Open in his career.Hewitt's doubles comeback continued with Lleyton playing doubles at the 2018 Estoril Open with Alex de Minaur where they defeated second seeds Michael Venus and Raven Klaasen before losing in the quarterfinals.", "He then reached the semi-finals of the 2018 Fuzion 100 Surbiton Trophy – Men's doubles with Alex Bolt before Venus and Klaasen gained revenge on Hewitt (this time with Alex Bolt) at the 2018 Rosmalen Grass Court Championships – Men's doubles.Hewitt then teamed up with another Aussie, Nick Kyrgios at the 2018 Queen's Club Championships – Doubles tournament where they defeated number 3 seeds Nicolas Mahut and Pierre-Hugues Herbert before losing in the quarterfinals.", "At the 2018 Wimbledon Championships – Men's doubles, Hewitt was again wildcard with Alex Bolt however the pair again lost in the first round to Venus and Klaasen.", "After this loss, Hewitt teamed up with Jordan Thompson and lost in the first round of the 2018 Hall of Fame Tennis Championships in Newport.Hewitt's last professional match of 2018 was in the 2018 Davis Cup World Group play-offs against Austria where Hewitt paired up with experienced doubles specialist John Peers to defeat the Austrian team of doubles specialist Oliver Marach and experienced clay-courier Juergen Melzer.=== 2019: Continuing to play doubles ===In 2019, Hewitt played doubles at a number of tournaments.", "In a pairing with Jordan Thompson, they lost in the first round of the Sydney International.", "A week later he teamed up with John-Patrick Smith at the Australian Open, yet again losing in the first round.", "Hewitt and countryman Jordan Thompson received a wildcard to play at the Wimbledon Championships.", "They reached the second round before losing to R. Klaasen and M. Venus in straight sets.Also that year, he played doubles in New York, Houston, Surbiton, and 's-Hertogenbosch, playing with the likes of Alexei Popyrin and Thompson yet again.=== 2020: Back in hometown of Adelaide ===Hewitt once again featured in the Australian summer of tennis, this time choosing to participate in the new Adelaide International, the first time he had played tour-tennis in his home town for over a decade.", "He partnered Jordan Thompson but lost in the first round to Cristian Garín and Juan Ignacio Londero.", "The two chose to compete at the Australian Open a week later, but lost in the first round in straight sets, to Korean duo Min-Kyu Song and Nam Ji-sung.Hewitt continues to commentate matches at the Australian Open." ], [ "National representation", "===Davis Cup===Hewitt made his Davis Cup debut for Australia in the 1999 Davis Cup quarterfinals at age 18 against the United States in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts.", "In the first rubber of the tie Hewitt faced No.", "8 and Wimbledon quarter finalist Todd Martin.", "Hewitt caused a major upset over Martin and would go on to win his second singles rubber against Alex O'Brien as well.", "The great start to his Davis Cup career would continue in the 1999 semi-finals against Russia where he would record another two wins against Marat Safin and Yevgeny Kafelnikov.", "He would taste his first defeat in Davis Cup in the 1999 final against France but would become a Davis Cup champion anyway.", "In 2000 Hewitt and Australia would again make the Davis Cup final but fell to Spain in Barcelona.In 2001 Hewitt would again be a part of the Australian team that would make the Davis Cup final but the Australians would lose the fifth rubber and hand France a 3–2 win.", "Determined to make amends for his last few finals, Hewitt led the Australian team to the 2003 Davis Cup final against Spain where he defeated Juan Carlos Ferrero in five sets.", "The team came away victorious 3–1 overall and Hewitt claimed his second Davis Cup title.", "By the age of 22, he had recorded more wins in Davis Cup singles than any other Australian player.", "Following the retirement of Pat Rafter and the semi-retirement of Mark Philippoussis, Hewitt would be forced to lead the Australian Davis Cup team with little success from his peers.", "In the 2006 quarterfinals in Melbourne, Hewitt defeated Belarusian Vladimir Voltchkov in just 91 minutes.", "Voltchkov said before the match that \"Hewitt has no weapons to hurt me.\"", "Hewitt responded, \"Voltchkov doesn't have a ranking of 457 to hurt me.\"", "In the semi-finals in Buenos Aires on clay, Hewitt lost to Argentine José Acasuso in five sets.Despite a world group semi-final appearance in 2006, Hewitt and Australia would be relegated to the Asia/Oceania region in 2008.Hewitt continued showed his commitment to the team by competing in the regional ties but the team fell in the playoff stages every year between 2008 and 2011.In the 2011 playoffs, he played against Roger Federer and Stanislas Wawrinka on a grass court in Sydney, losing both matches.", "In doubles, together with Chris Guccione, he was able to defeat Federer and Wawrinka, but this was not enough to take Australia to the World Group.In 2012, Hewitt won his single and doubles match against China in February, which allowed Australia to return to the playoffs where they lost to Germany.", "After defeating Chinese Taipei and Uzbekistan, Australia earned the right to get to the playoffs again in 2013.They ended up routing Poland 4–1 on their soil including a convincing 6–1 6–3 6–2 win for Hewitt over recent Wimbledon quarterfinalist Łukasz Kubot.", "In 2014, Australia crashed out 5–0 in the World Group first round on the French clay of La Roche-sur-Yon.", "Jo-Wilfried Tsonga beat Hewitt both in singles and doubles.", "Perth's grass courts would then be hosting yet another playoff tie for Australia in September 2014.Hewitt won both his singles match (against Farrukh Dustov) and the subsequent doubles rubber (partnering Chris Guccione v. Dustov and Istomin) in straight sets while up and coming Nick Kyrgios won his encounter with Denis Istomin to give Australia an unassailable 3–0 lead over Uzbekistan, thus enabling their country to return to the World Group in 2015.Sam Groth and Nick Kyrgios wrapped up a 5–0 victory a day later.", "Australia will open their 2015 campaign in Czech Republic for a 6–8 March tie that is one of two worst-case scenarios for Australia.Hewitt played the Davis Cup match against Great Britain in the semi-finals of the 2015 Davis Cup.", "He played doubles with Sam Groth losing in five sets to brothers Andy and Jamie Murray.He came out of retirement to play the first round match against the United States at the 2016 Davis Cup as a player-captain, where he and partner John Peers lost to the Bryan brothers in a five-setter.He competed in the 2018 Davis Cup World Group play-offs, again as a player-captain in doubles with Peers.", "They won the rubber against the Austrian duo Oliver Marach and Jürgen Melzer in four sets.Hewitt is the sole holder of several Australian Davis Cup records, which include most wins, most singles wins, most ties played and most years played.", "His Davis Cup career has included wins over players who were top ten at the time, which include Todd Martin, Marat Safin, Yevgeny Kafelnikov, Roger Federer, Gustavo Kuerten, Sébastien Grosjean and Juan Carlos Ferrero.===World Team Cup===Hewitt made his World Team Cup debut for Australia in 2000 at the age of 19.He recorded two singles victories over Albert Costa and Marcelo Ríos but fell to Yevgeny Kafelnikov in his last group stage match.", "Hewitt returned to the World Team Cup in 2001 and led Australia to the title by recording singles wins over Àlex Corretja, Magnus Norman, Tommy Haas in the group stages.", "In the final Hewitt defeated No.", "2 Marat Safin.Hewitt made his third appearance at the tournament in 2003 where he entered as the No.", "1 singles player and went undefeated in his singles matches by recording wins over Jiří Novák, James Blake and Carlos Moyá but it was not enough to send Australia through to the final.Fresh from their 2003 Davis Cup victory, Hewitt and Mark Philippoussis entered the 2004 World Team Cup with high hopes.", "In the group stages Hewitt recorded victories over Robby Ginepri and Martin Verkerk but fell to Gastón Gaudio in his last group singles match.", "Despite the loss, Australia still advanced to the final where Hewitt would lose to Fernando González and Australia would lose the final 2–1.After a six-year hiatus Hewitt returned to compete in the 2010 World Team Cup and won his first match against John Isner but fell to Nicolás Almagro in his last match.===Olympics===A 19-year-old Hewitt entered his first Olympics in 2000 and was given the fourth seeding in the draw.", "Hewitt was considered a strong favourite for a medal given his victory at the Sydney International earlier in the year but despite competing in his home nation Hewitt went out in the first round to Max Mirnyi 6–3 6–3.Hewitt elected not to compete in the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, deciding instead to focus on the 2004 US Open which would result in a runner-up showing.", "He would return for his second Olympic Games in Beijing for both the singles and doubles competitions.", "A first round 7–5 7–6 victory over Jonas Björkman would set up a second round clash with the number 2 seed Rafael Nadal.", "Nadal eliminated Hewitt in the second round 6–1 6–2 and would go on to win the singles gold medal.", "Pairing up with Chris Guccione in the doubles, the team would record victories over Agustín Calleri/Juan Mónaco and Rafael Nadal/Tommy Robredo before falling to the Bryan brothers in the quarterfinals.Hewitt competed in his third Olympics in London 2012 where he entered the men's singles event and defeated Ukrainian Sergiy Stakhovsky in the first round.", "He was the only Australian in any tennis event to progress past the first round.", "In the second round Hewitt took out 13th seeded Croatian Marin Čilić.", "In the third round Hewitt stunned the tennis world when he won the first set against the number 2 ranked Novak Djokovic, he would end up falling in three sets.", "He also sent an application to the International Olympic Committee to enter the men's doubles competition with Chris Guccione but the application was rejected.", "Following his men's doubles rejection, Hewitt decided to apply for a spot in the mixed doubles competition with Sam Stosur.", "The pair were granted entry and defeated Polish pair Marcin Matkowski and Agnieszka Radwańska in the first round.", "In the quarterfinals, Hewitt/Stosur faced British pair Andy Murray and Laura Robson, they would lose the encounter." ], [ "Coaches", "Hewitt's coaches in his time on the ATP Tour:* Peter Smith (January 1997 – December 1998)* Darren Cahill (December 1998 – December 2001)* Jason Stoltenberg (December 2001 – June 2003)* Roger Rasheed (June 2003 – January 2007)* Scott Draper (January 2007)* Tony Roche (July 2007 – August 2009)* Nathan Healey (August 2009 – August 2010)* Brett Smith (August 2010 – November 2010)* Tony Roche (November 2010 – January 2016)* Peter Luczak (January 2013 – January 2016)" ], [ "Rivalries", "===Hewitt vs Federer===Hewitt and Roger Federer played each other on 27 occasions.", "Early in their careers, Hewitt dominated Federer, winning seven of their first nine meetings, including a victory from two sets down in the 2003 Davis Cup semi-final, which allowed Australia to defeat Switzerland.", "However, from 2004 onward, Federer dominated the rivalry, winning 16 of the last 18 meetings to finish with an 18–9 overall head-to-head record.", "This is Hewitt's longest rivalry as these two first played each other as juniors in 1996.They met in one Grand Slam final, the 2004 US Open final, where Federer won his first US Open title in a lopsided encounter in which Federer won the first and third sets 6–0 and the second set on a tiebreak.", "Federer met Hewitt at six of the Grand Slam tournaments in which he lifted the trophy, including all five of his triumphs between 2004 and 2005.Their last meeting was at the 2014 Brisbane International, where Hewitt triumphed over Federer in three sets, for his first title since 2010, when he also beat Federer to the Halle title.Hewitt and Federer teamed up in the men's doubles at Wimbledon in 1999.They got to the third round before losing to Jonas Björkman and Pat Rafter.===Hewitt vs Roddick===Hewitt's second longest rivalry was against American Andy Roddick, in which the two played on 14 occasions.", "Early on, Hewitt dominated the rivalry, with six wins from their first seven meetings.", "One of those wins included a five-set victory at the 2001 US Open, the tournament in which Hewitt captured his first Singles Grand Slam title.", "In later years, Roddick began to dominate Hewitt, with the rivalry finishing at 7 wins each.===Hewitt vs Argentinian players===A rivalry and feud between Hewitt and Argentinian tennis players began at the 2002 Wimbledon final where Hewitt defeated Argentina's David Nalbandian in straight sets.", "The rivalry would hit boiling point in 2005 over a series of matches spread between the 2005 Australian Open and the 2005 Davis Cup Quarterfinals between Australia and Argentina.", "In the third round of 2005 Australian Open Hewitt faced Argentinian Juan Ignacio Chela in which Hewitt fired up Chela with his over-zealous celebrations for Chela's unforced errors, causing the Argentinian to spit at Hewitt during a change of ends.", "Hewitt would then face David Nalbandian in the quarterfinals on Australia Day with Hewitt coming out victorious 10–8 in the fifth set.", "Later in 2005 Hewitt would face Guillermo Coria in the Davis Cup quarterfinals, where their rivalry would flare up.", "It did, however, die down the following year in the 2006 Davis Cup semi-finals, where Argentina came out victorious 5–0 over Hewitt and the Australians." ], [ "Playing style", "Lleyton Hewitt preparing to return a serviceHewitt is a defensive counterpuncher.", "He typically likes to stay back towards the baseline during a rally and will usually approach the net only to catch a short reply or drop shot from his opponent.", "Hewitt's lack of penetration in his groundstrokes, most notably in his forehand, a typically dominant shot for most male players, forces him to rely on placement rather than simply \"dominating\" the point.", "At the 2004 Cincinnati Masters Final, commentator MaliVai Washington said that Hewitt was even more difficult to \"ace\" than Agassi because he gets more returns in play.", "Hewitt's tactics typically involve putting difficult service returns in play, consistently chasing down attempted winning shots from his opponent, and keeping the ball deep until he feels he can hit a winner.Although he is known primarily as a baseliner, Hewitt is a skilled volleyer and is known for having one of the best overhead smashes in the game.", "His signature shot, however, is the offensive topspin lob, a shot that he executes efficiently off both wings when his opponent approaches the net.", "US Davis Cup captain Patrick McEnroe, Jim Courier and Tim Henman have all described Hewitt's lob as being the best in the world (although Henman has since declared Andy Murray to have succeeded him).", "In Andre Agassi's book \"Open\", Hewitt is described as one of the best shot selectors in the history of Men's Tennis." ], [ "Awards", "* 2001 – ATP Player of the Year* 2001 – Most Popular South Australian* 2002 – ATP Player of the Year* 2002 – Australia's Male Athlete* 2002 – ESPY Best Male Tennis Player* 2003 – Young Australian of the Year* 2003 – Vogue Australia Sportsman of the Year* 2003 – Most Popular South Australian* 2011 – Newcombe Medal.", "Spirit of Tennis Award* 2013 – Newcombe Medal.", "Most outstanding Australian player in 2013* Davis Cup Commitment Award* 2016 – Member of the Order of Australia for significant service to tennis as a player at the national and international level, and to the community." ], [ "Equipment", "In July 2000, Hewitt signed a multiyear endorsement deal with Nike.", "He is currently sponsored by American athletic apparel company Athletic DNA and the Japanese sports manufacturer Yonex, with whom he signed a \"Head to Toe\" deal in late 2005.Hewitt has used Yonex racquets as early as 2000, having used the Yonex Super RD Tour 95.Yonex provides Hewitt's racquets, shoes and accessories.", "Hewitt's Yonex shoes (SHT-306) are inscribed with his nickname \"Rusty\" along with an image of an Australian flag.", "As of 7 August 2007, his first appearance with a new racquet at the Montreal Masters, Hewitt used to use the Yonex RQiS 1 Tour.", "He used to use the Yonex RDS tour 90 Model, but switched to the Yonex RDiS 100 mid in 2009.In 2011, he switched to Yonex VCORE 95 D, using a grip size of 4 3/8 (L3).", "Since mid-2011, he began alternating between Yonex, Nike, Adidas, Asics and Fila shoes." ], [ "Personal life", "Hewitt is a keen supporter of Australian rules football, having played the game earlier in his career, and is currently the joint No.", "1 ticket holder for the Adelaide Crows, alongside MP Kate Ellis.", "He had once had a close friendship with Crows star Andrew McLeod, but this broke down amid much public controversy in 2005.Hewitt had produced a DVD titled ''Lleyton Hewitt: The Other Side'' which precipitated the falling out between him and McLeod over filming of certain Aboriginal sites.Hewitt and Belgian tennis player Kim Clijsters started a relationship in January 2000, during the Australian Open.", "The two announced their engagement just before Christmas 2003, but separated in October 2004, cancelling a planned February 2005 wedding.On 30 January 2005, shortly after losing the 2005 Australian Open final to Marat Safin, Hewitt proposed to Australian actress Bec Cartwright after they had been dating for six weeks.", "They married on 21 July 2005 at the Sydney Opera House and they have three children together.In late 2008, to extend his tennis career and reduce the amount of tax he would otherwise have had to pay, Hewitt relocated his family for the European and North American season to their home in the Old Fort Bay estate, in Nassau, Bahamas.Hewitt has a nickname, \"Rusty\", which was given to him by Darren Cahill who at the time thought Hewitt resembled the character Rusty, from the National Lampoon film series.", "Hewitt has also been given the nickname 'Rocky' by fans, which originated from his shouts of \"C'mon Balboa\", in reference to the character Rocky Balboa from the Sylvester Stallone film ''Rocky''.", "Hewitt has also been compared to the character.In April 2021, his twelve-year-old son, Cruz Hewitt, won the Australian junior tennis clay-court title in Canberra.", "In January 2024, Hewitt Jr. made his Major debut in the junior tournament of the 2024 Australian Open.In December 2021, Hewitt sold their family home in Toorak (Victoria), and purchased a new house in Burleigh Heads (Queensland) where he and his family now live." ], [ "Controversies", "Hewitt has been involved in several public controversies.", "He was involved in a racism dispute while playing James Blake at the 2001 US Open.", "After being foot-faulted twice by a black linesman on crucial points in the third set, Hewitt was accused of dragging race into the situation by suggesting the similarity in skin colour of Blake and the official was playing a part in the decision to penalise him.At the 2001 French Open Hewitt twice called the Chair Umpire and net judge \"spastics\" and was subsequently forced to apologise following a public backlash.Hewitt's constant \"c'mons\" when he won a point or his opponents made an error have been remarked upon as poor sportsmanship by opponents and media commentators.", "Notably this behaviour particularly riled his 2005 Australian Open second-round opponent James Blake." ], [ "Career statistics", "===Singles performance timeline===Tournament19971998199920002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016Win%'''Grand Slam tournaments'''Australian Open1R1R2R4R3R1R4R4RF2R3R4R1R4R1R4R1R1R2R2R0 / 2032–2062%French OpenAQ11R4RQF4R3RQFA4R4R3R3R3RA1R1R1RAA0 / 1428–1467%WimbledonAQ13R1R4R'''W'''1RQFSFQF4R4RQF4R2R1R2R2R1RA1 / 1741–1672%US OpenAQ23RSF'''W'''SFQFFSFQF2RA3R1RA3R4R1R2RA1 / 1547–1477%Win–loss0–10–15–411–416–315–39–417–416–312–49–48–38–48–41–25–44–41–42–31–12 / 66148–6470%'''Year-end championship'''ATP FinalsDid not qualifyRR'''W''''''W'''DNQFADid not qualify2 / 413–572%===Grand Slam finals=======Singles: 4 (2–2)====ResultYearChampionshipSurfaceOpponentScoreWin 2001US OpenHard Pete Sampras7–6(7–4), 6–1, 6–1Win 2002WimbledonGrass David Nalbandian6–1, 6–3, 6–2Loss 2004US OpenHard Roger Federer0–6, 6–7(3–7), 0–6Loss 2005Australian OpenHard Marat Safin6–1, 3–6, 4–6, 4–6====Doubles: 1 (1–0)====ResultYearChampionshipSurfacePartnerOpponentsScoreWin 2000US OpenHard Max Mirnyi Ellis Ferreira Rick Leach6–4, 5–7, 7–6(7–5)====Mixed doubles: 1 (0–1)====ResultYearChampionshipSurfacePartnerOpponentsScoreLoss 2000WimbledonGrass Kim Clijsters Kimberly Po Donald Johnson4–6, 6–7(3–7)===Year-end championships finals=======Singles: 3 (2–1)====ResultYearChampionshipSurfaceOpponentScoreWin 2001SydneyHard (i) Sébastien Grosjean6–3, 6–3, 6–4Win 2002ShanghaiHard (i) Juan Carlos Ferrero7–5, 7–5, 2–6, 2–6, 6–4Loss 2004HoustonHard Roger Federer3–6, 2–6===Masters Series finals=======Singles: 7 (2–5)====ResultYearTournamentSurfaceOpponentScoreLoss 2000Stuttgart, GermanyHard (i) Wayne Ferreira6–7(6–8), 6–3, 7–6(7–5), 6–7(2–7), 2–6Win 2002Indian Wells, USHard Tim Henman6–1, 6–2Loss 2002Cincinnati, USHard Carlos Moyá5–7, 6–7(5–7)Loss 2002Paris, FranceCarpet (i) Marat Safin6–7(4–7), 0–6, 4–6Win 2003Indian Wells, US (2)Hard Gustavo Kuerten6–1, 6–1Loss 2004Cincinnati, USHard Andre Agassi3–6, 6–3, 2–6Loss 2005Indian Wells, USHard Roger Federer2–6, 4–6, 4–6" ], [ "Records", "EventSinceRecord accomplishedPlayer matched'''Grand Slam'''1877Youngest qualifier at the Australian Open (15 years, 11 months old), in 1997.", "'''Stands alone'''1877Youngest male doubles champion (19 years, 6 months old), at the 2000 US Open.", "'''Stands alone''''''ATP Tour'''1970Lowest-ranked title winner (550), at the 1998 Adelaide International.", "'''Stands alone'''1970Best career match winning percentage in finals on grass (87.5%, 7–1).", "'''Stands alone'''" ], [ "See also", "* Lleyton Hewitt career statistics* Wimbledon gentleman's singles champions* US Open men's singles champions* List of Grand Slam men's singles champions" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * * Official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lars von Trier" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lars von Trier''' (né '''Trier'''; 30 April 1956) is a Danish film director and screenwriter.Beginning in the late-1960s as a child actor working on Danish television series ''Secret Summer'', Von Trier's career has spanned more than five decades.", "Considered a major figure of the European film industry, he and his works have been variously described as ambitious and provocative, as well as technically innovative.", "His films offer confrontational examinations of existential, social, psychosexual, and political issues, and deal in subjects including mercy, sacrifice, and mental health.", "He frequently collaborates with the actors Jens Albinus, Jean-Marc Barr, Udo Kier and Stellan Skarsgård.Von Trier co-created the avant-garde filmmaking movement Dogme 95 alongside fellow director Thomas Vinterberg and co-founded the Danish film production company Zentropa, the films from which have sold more than 350million tickets and garnered eight Academy Award nominations.Von Trier has been the subject of criticisms and controversies.", "Cannes Film Festival, in addition to awarding his films on numerous occasions, once listed him as for making a Nazism joke during an interview; animal harm on ''Manderlay''s set, and graphic violence and unsimulated sex in some of his films have drawn criticism; and he has been accused of mistreatment and negligence towards actresses during the filming process, including Björk and Nicole Kidman." ], [ "Early life and education", "Born Lars Trier in Kongens Lyngby, Denmark, north of Copenhagen, his parents are Inger Høst and Fritz Michael Hartmann (her former boss at Denmark's Ministry of Social Affairs and a World War II resistance fighter).", "He received his surname from Høst's husband, Ulf Trier, whom he believed to be his biological father until 1989.He studied film theory at the University of Copenhagen and film direction at the National Film School of Denmark.", "At 25, he won two Best School Film awards at the Munich International Festival of Film Schools for ''Nocturne'' and ''Last Detail''.", "The same year, he added the nobiliary particle \"von\" to his name, possibly as a satirical homage to the equally self-invented titles of directors Erich von Stroheim and Josef von Sternberg, and saw his graduation film ''Images of Liberation'' released as a theatrical feature." ], [ "Career", "=== 1984–1994: Career beginnings and the Europa trilogy ===In 1984, ''The Element of Crime'', von Trier's breakthrough film, received twelve awards at seven international festivals including the Technical Grand Prize at Cannes, and a nomination for the Palme d'Or.", "The film's slow, non-linear pace, innovative and multi-leveled plot design, and dark dreamlike visual effects combine to create an allegory for traumatic European historical events.Von Trier's next film, ''Epidemic'' (1987), was also shown at Cannes in the Un Certain Regard section, and featured two story lines that ultimately collide: the chronicle of two filmmakers (played by vonTrier and screenwriter Niels Vørse) in the midst of developing a new project, and a dark science fiction tale of a futuristic plaguethe very film von Trier and Vørsel are depicted making.", "He next directed ''Medea'' (1988) for television, based on a screenplay by Carl Th.", "Dreyer and starring Udo Kier, which won the Jean d'Arcy prize in France.Von Trier has referred to his films as falling into thematic and stylistic trilogies.", "This pattern began with ''The Element of Crime'' (1984), the first of the ''Europa'' trilogy, which illuminated traumatic periods in Europe both in the past and the future.", "It also includes ''Epidemic''.", "He completed the trilogy in 1991 with ''Europa'' (released as ''Zentropa'' in the US), which won the Prix duJury at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival, and picked up awards at other major festivals.", "In 1990 he also directed the music video for the song \"Bakerman\" by Laid Back.", "This video was re-used in 2006 by the English DJ and artist Shaun Baker in his remake of the song.Seeking financial independence and creative control over their projects, in 1992 vonTrier and producer Peter Aalbæk Jensen founded the film production company Zentropa Entertainment, which has sold more than 350 million tickets and was nominated for multiple Academy Awards as of 2016.Named after a fictional railway company in ''Europa'', their most recent film at the time, Zentropa has produced many movies other than Trier's own, as well as several television series.", "It has also produced hardcore sex films: ''Constance'' (1998), ''Pink Prison'' (1999), ''HotMen CoolBoyz'' (2000), and ''All About Anna'' (2005).", "To make money for his newly founded company, vonTrier made ''The Kingdom'' (Danish title ''Riget'', 1994) and ''The KingdomII'' (''RigetII'', 1997), a pair of miniseries recorded in the Danish national hospital, the name \"Riget\" being a colloquial name for the hospital known as Rigshospitalet (lit.", "The Kingdom's Hospital) in Danish.", "A projected third season of the series was derailed by the death in 1998 of Ernst-Hugo Järegård, who played Dr. Helmer, and that of Kirsten Rolffes, who played Mrs. Drusse, in 2000, two of the major characters, which led to the series' cancellation.=== 1995–2000: the Dogme 95 manifesto, and the ''Golden Heart'' trilogy ===Dogme 95 Certificate for Susanne Bier's film ''Open Hearts''In 1995, von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg presented their manifesto for a new cinematic movement, which they called Dogme 95.The Dogme95 concept, which led to international interest in Danish film, inspired filmmakers all over the world.", "It required filmmakers to shirk several common techniques in modern filmmaking, such as studio lighting, sets, costumes, and non-diegetic music.", "In 2008, together with their fellow Dogme directors Kristian Levring and Søren Kragh-Jacobsen, vonTrier and Thomas Vinterberg received the European film award for European Achievement in World Cinema.In 1996 von Trier conducted an unusual theatrical experiment in Copenhagen involving 53 actors, which he titled ''Psychomobile1: The World Clock''.", "A documentary chronicling the project was directed by Jesper Jargil, and was released in 2000 with the title ''De Udstillede'' (The Exhibited).Von Trier achieved international success with his ''Golden Heart'' trilogy.", "Each film in the trilogy is about naive heroines who maintain their \"golden hearts\" despite the tragedies they experience.", "This trilogy consists of ''Breaking the Waves'' (1996), ''The Idiots'' (1998), and ''Dancer in the Dark'' (2000).", "While all three films are sometimes associated with the Dogme 95 movement, ''The Idiots'' was the only one to meet all the necessary criteria to be \"certified\" as such.", "''Breaking the Waves'' won the Grand Prix at the Cannes Film Festival and featured Emily Watson, who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress.", "Its grainy images, and hand-held photography, pointed towards Dogme95 but violated several of the manifesto's rules.", "The second film in the trilogy, ''The Idiots'', was nominated for a Palme d'Or, with which he was presented in person at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival, despite his dislike of traveling.", "In 2000, von Trier premiered ''Dancer in the Dark'', a musical featuring Icelandic musician Björk, which won the Palme d'Or at Cannes.", "The song \"I've Seen It All\" (co-written by vonTrier) received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song.=== 2003–2008: ''The Land of Opportunities'' and other works ===''The Five Obstructions'' (2003), made by vonTrier and Jørgen Leth, is a documentary that incorporates lengthy sections of experimental films.", "The premise is that vonTrier challenges Leth, his friend and mentor, to remake his 1967 experimental short ''The Perfect Human'' five times, each time with a different obstacle.His next proposed trilogy, ''Land of Opportunities'', consists of ''Dogville'' (2003), ''Manderlay'' (2005), and the unmade ''''.", "The first two installments were shot with the same distinctive, extremely stylized approach, with the actors performing on a bare sound stage with no decoration, buildings' walls marked by chalk lines on the floor, a style inspired by 1970s televised theatre.", "''Dogville'' starred Nicole Kidman as Grace Margaret Mulligan, a role taken by Bryce Dallas Howard for ''Manderlay''.", "Both films feature an ensemble cast including Harriet Andersson, Lauren Bacall, James Caan, Danny Glover, and Willem Dafoe.", "The films question various issues relating to American society, such as intolerance and slavery.In 2006, von Trier released the Danish-language comedy film, ''The Boss of It All'', which was shot using an experimental process he named Automavision, involving the director choosing the best possible fixed camera position, then allowing a computer to randomly choose when to tilt, pan, or zoom.", "He followed this with an autobiographical film, ''The Early Years: Erik Nietzsche Part 1'' in 2007, which von Trier wrote and Jacob Thuesen directed, a film that tells the story of vonTrier's years as a student at the National Film School of Denmark.", "It stars Jonatan Spang as vonTrier's alter ego, called \"Erik Nietzsche\", and is narrated by vonTrier himself, with all main characters being based on real people from the Danish film industry.", "The thinly veiled portrayals include Jens Albinus as director Nils Malmros, Dejan Čukić as screenwriter Mogens Rukov, and Søren Pilmark.=== 2009–2014: The ''Depression'' trilogy ===The ''Depression'' trilogy consists of ''Antichrist'', ''Melancholia'', and ''Nymphomaniac''.", "The three films star Charlotte Gainsbourg, and deal with characters who suffer depression or grief in different ways.", "This trilogy is said to represent the depression that Trier himself experiences.", "''Antichrist'' follows \"a grieving couple who retreat to their cabin in the woods, hoping a return to Eden will repair their broken hearts and troubled marriage; but nature takes its course and things go from bad to worse\".", "The film stars Willem Dafoe and Gainsbourg.", "It premiered in competition at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival, where the festival's jury honoured the movie by giving the Best Actress award to Gainsbourg.", "''Melancholia'', released in 2011, is an apocalyptic drama about two depressive sisters played by Kirsten Dunst and Gainsbourg, the former of whom marries just before a rogue planet is about to collide with Earth.", "The film was in competition at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, where it won the Best Actress award for Dunst.Following ''Melancholia'', von Trier began the production of ''Nymphomaniac'', a film about the sexual awakening of a woman played by Gainsbourg.", "In early December 2013, a four-hour version was shown to the press in a private preview session.", "The cast also included Stellan Skarsgård (in his sixth film for von Trier), Shia LaBeouf, Willem Dafoe, Jamie Bell, Christian Slater, and Uma Thurman.", "In response to claims that he had merely created a \"porn film\", Skarsgård stated \"... if you look at this film, it's actually a really bad porn movie, even if you fast forward.", "And after a while you find you don't even react to the explicit scenes.", "They become as natural as seeing someone eating a bowl of cereal.\"", "For its public release in the United Kingdom, the film was divided into two volumes.", "The film premiered in the UK on 22February 2014.In interviews prior to the film's release, Gainsbourg and co-star Stacy Martin revealed that prosthetic vaginas, body doubles, and special effects were used for the production of the film.", "Martin also stated that the film's characters were a reflection of the director himself, and referred to the experience as an \"honour\" that she enjoyed.", "The film was also released in two \"volumes\" for the Australian release on 20 March 2014, with an interval separating the back-to-back sections.", "In February 2014, an uncensored version of ''Volume I'' was shown at the Berlin Film Festival, with no announcement of when or if the complete five-and-a-half-hour ''Nymphomaniac'' would be made available to the public.", "The complete version premiered at the 2014 Venice Film Festival and was shortly afterward released in a limited theatrical run worldwide that fall.=== 2015–2018: ''The House That Jack Built'' and the return to Cannes ===In 2015, von Trier began work on a new feature film, ''The House That Jack Built'', which was originally planned as an eight-part television series.", "The story is about a serial killer, seen from the murderer's point of view.", "It starred Matt Dillon in the title role, alongside Bruno Ganz, Riley Keough and Sofie Gråbøl.", "Shooting started in March 2017 in Sweden, before moving to Copenhagen in May.In February 2017, von Trier explained that the film \"celebrates the idea that life is evil and soulless, which is sadly proven by the recent rise of the ''Homo trumpus'' – the rat king\".", "The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival in May 2018.Despite more than a hundred walkouts by audience members, the film still received a 10-minute standing ovation.=== 2019–present: Revival to ''Riget'' and planned feature film, ''Études'' ===After the release of ''The House That Jack Built'', von Trier planned to produce ''Études'', an anthology film consisting of ten black and white segments, each ten minutes long, inspired by the musical form.", "In December 2020, it was announced he would produce a belated third and final season of ''The Kingdom'', titled ''The Kingdom Exodus''.", "It was also announced that Søren Pilmark would return as Jørgen 'Hook' Krogshøj, as would Ghita Nørby as Rigmor Mortensen, alongside a new cast including Mikael Persbrandt as Dr. Helmer, Jr.", "It was shot in 2021, consisting of five episodes to be released in November 2022.The miniseries premiered out of competition at the Venice Film Festival as a five-hour feature-length film.", "It received positive reviews from critics." ], [ "Aesthetics, themes, and style of working", "=== Themes ===Von Trier’s films deal with themes of religious imagery and his treatment of subjects such as mercy, sacrifice, and mental health, confrontational examination of existential, social, and political issues.", "Most of the films depicted in various forms of politics and religions, such as Nazism in ''Europa'', Christianity in ''Breaking the Waves'' and ''The House that Jack Built'', Atheism in ''Dogville'', and Anti-bourgeois in ''The Idiots''.=== Influences ===Von Trier is heavily influenced by the work of Carl Theodor Dreyer and the film ''The Night Porter''.", "He was so inspired by the short film ''The Perfect Human'', directed by Jørgen Leth, that he challenged Leth to redo the short five times in the feature film ''The Five Obstructions''.=== Writing ===Von Trier's writing style has been heavily influenced by his work with actors on set, as well as the Dogme 95 manifesto that he co-authored.", "In an interview with ''Creative Screenwriting'', he described his process as \"writing a sketch and keeping the story simple...then part of the script work is with the actors.\"", "He again cites Dreyer as an influence, pointing to his method of overwriting his scripts, then significantly cutting the length down.", "Reflecting on the storytelling across his body of work, von Trier said, \"all the stories are about a realist who comes into conflict with life.", "I'm not crazy about real life, and real life is not crazy about me.", "\"=== Filming techniques ===Von Trier has said that \"a film should be like a stone in your shoe\".", "To create original art he feels that filmmakers must distinguish themselves stylistically from other films, often by placing restrictions on the film making process.", "The most famous such restriction is the cinematic \"vow of chastity\" of the Dogme 95 movement.", "In ''Dancer in the Dark'', he used jump shots and dramatically different color palettes and camera techniques for the \"real world\" and musical portions of the film,.Von Trier often shoots digitally and operates the camera himself, preferring to continuously shoot the actors in-character without stopping between takes.", "In ''Dogville'', because there were no walls between the \"buildings\" on the set, actors needed to stay in character for hours, even when not part of the scene being filmed.", "These techniques often put great strain on the actors, most famously with Björk during the filming of ''Dancer in the Dark''.Von Trier would later return to explicit images in ''Antichrist'' (2009), exploring darker themes, but he ran into problems when he tried once more with ''Nymphomaniac'', which had 90 minutes cut out (reducing it from five-and-one-half to four hours) for its international release in 2013 in order to be commercially viable, taking nearly a year to be shown complete anywhere in an uncensored director's cut.While Lars von Trier commissioned new musical compositions for his early films, his more recent work has made use of existing music.", "With ''Nymphomaniac'', the principle of musical eclecticism is also applied within the film.", "He often heavily edits compositions to manipulate and provoke the audience.=== Approach to actors ===In an interview for IndieWire, von Trier compared his approach to actors with \"how a chef would work with a potato or a piece of meat\", clarifying that working with actors has differed on each film based on the production conditions.", "He has occasionally courted controversy by his treatment of his lead actresses.", "He and Björk famously fell out during the shooting of ''Dancer in the Dark'', to the point where she would abscond from filming for days at a time.", "She stated of von Trier, who shattered a monitor while it was next to her, that \"you can take quite sexist film directors like Woody Allen or Stanley Kubrick and still they are the one that provide the soul to their movies.", "In Lars von Trier's case it is not so and he knows it.", "He needs a female to provide his work soul.", "And he envies them and hates them for it.", "So he has to destroy them during the filming.", "And hide the evidence.", "\"Nicole Kidman, who starred in von Trier's ''Dogville'', said in an interview with ABC Radio National that she tried to quit the film several times in response to comments von Trier made on set, often while inebriated, \"but I say this laughing...I didn't do the sequel but I'm still very good friends with him, strangely enough, because I admire his honesty and I see him as an artist, and I say, my gosh, it's such a hard world now to have a unique voice, and he certainly has that.", "\"However, other actresses he has worked with, such as Kirsten Dunst and Charlotte Gainsbourg have spoken out in defence of his approach.", "''Nymphomaniac'' star Stacy Martin has stated that he never forced her to do anything that was outside her comfort zone.", "She said \"I don't think he's a misogynist.", "The fact that he sometimes depicts women as troubled or dangerous or dark or even evil; that doesn't automatically make him anti-feminist.", "It's a very dated argument.", "I think that Lars loves women.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "=== Family ===Fritz Michael Hartmann ()In 1989, von Trier's mother confessed to him on her deathbed that his biological father was not the man who raised him, but her former employer, Fritz Michael Hartmann (1909–2000), who was descended from a long line of Danish classical musicians.", "Hartmann's grandfather was Emil Hartmann, and his great-grandfather J. P. E. Hartmann.", "His uncles included Niels Gade and Johan Ernst Hartmann, and Niels Viggo Bentzon was his cousin.", "She stated that she did this to give her son \"artistic genes\".", "Von Trier has jokingly said, by reference to the distant German origin of the Hartmann family, that while he believed he had a Jewish background, he is \"really more of a Nazi.", "\"During the German occupation of Denmark, Hartmann in fact joined a resistance group, actively counteracting any pro-German and pro-Nazi colleagues in his civil service department.", "Another member of this resistance group was Hartmann's colleague Viggo Kampmann, who would later become prime minister of Denmark.", "After vonTrier had four awkward meetings with his biological father, Hartmann refused further contact.=== Family background and political and religious views ===Von Trier's mother considered herself a communist, while Ulf Trier was a social democrat.", "Both were committed nudists, and vonTrier went on several childhood holidays to nudist camps.", "They regarded the disciplining of children as reactionary.", "Von Trier has noted that he was brought up in an atheist family, and that although Ulf Trier was Jewish, he was not religious.", "His parents did not allow much room in their household for \"feelings, religion, or enjoyment\", and also refused to make any rules for their children, with complex effects upon vonTrier's personality and development.In a 2005 interview with ''Die Zeit'', vonTrier said, \"I don't know if I'm all that Catholic really.", "I'm probably not.", "Denmark is a very Protestant country.", "Perhaps I only turned Catholic to piss off a few of my countrymen.\"", "In 2009, he said, \"I'm a very bad Catholic.", "In fact I'm becoming more and more of an atheist.", "\"=== Health =======Mental health====Von Trier suffers from various fears and phobias, including an intense fear of flying.", "This fear frequently places severe constraints on him and his crew, necessitating that virtually all of his films be shot in either Denmark or Sweden.On numerous occasions, he has stated that he suffers from occasional depression which renders him incapable of doing his work and unable to fulfill social obligations.====Parkinson's disease====On 8 August 2022, it was announced that von Trier had been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease.", "According to ''Variety'', von Trier plans to take a break from filmmaking to adjust to his new life with the disease, saying: \"I will take a little break and find out what to do, but I certainly hope that my condition will be better.", "It's a disease you can't take away; you can work with the symptoms, though.\"" ], [ "Controversies", "=== Remarks during Cannes interview ===In May 2011, known to be provocative in interviews, vonTrier's remarks during the press conference before the premiere of ''Melancholia'' in Cannes caused significant controversy in the media, leading the festival to declare him ''persona non grata''.", "He was therefore banned from Cannes for one year, although ''Melancholia'' still competed in that year's competition.Minutes before the end of the press conference, von Trier was asked about his German roots and the Nazi aesthetic, in response to his description of the film's genre as \"German romance\".", "He joked that since he was \"no longer Jewish,\" having been told the truth about his biological father, he now \"understands\" and \"sympathizes\" with Hitler, that he is not against the Jews except for Israel which is \"a pain in the ass\" and that he is a Nazi.", "Von Trier was branded an antisemite for his remarks.", "He released a formal apology immediately after the press conference and kept apologizing for his joke during all of the interviews he gave in the weeks following the incident, admitting that he was not sober, and saying that he did not need to explain that he is not a Nazi.", "However, in 2019, von Trier stated that he made this remark at the \"only press conference I ever had when I was sober.", "\"The actors of ''Melancholia'' who were present during the incident – Dunst, Gainsbourg, Skarsgård – defended the director, pointing to his provocative sense of humor and his depression.", "He refused to attend a private press screening of his subsequent feature ''Nymphomaniac''.", "In the director's defense, Skarsgård stated at the screening, \"Everyone knows he's not a Nazi, and it was disgraceful the way the press had these headlines saying he was.\"", "The director of the Cannes festival later called the controversy \"unfair\" and as \"stupid\" as vonTrier's bad joke, concluding that his films are welcome at the festival and that vonTrier is considered a \"friend\".=== Sex and violence in films ===Several of his films – ''The Idiots'' (1998), ''Antichrist'' (2009), ''Nymphomaniac'' (2013) and ''The House That Jack Built'' (2018) – contain explicit content that has generated controversy; the former faced widespread backlash upon its release as one film critic walked out from its premiere screening at Cannes due to being pornographic and heckling behaviour in the film, and was heavily censored for subsequent releases.", "At the 2018 Cannes Film Festival, approximately 100 audience members walked out of the premiere of ''The House That Jack Built''.=== Sexual harassment allegations with Björk ===In October 2017, Björk posted on her Facebook page that she had been sexually harassed by a \"Danish film director she worked with\".", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' found evidence identifying von Trier as the director in question.", "Von Trier has apologized for psychologically abusing her but rejected Björk's allegation that he sexually harassed her during the making of the film ''Dancer in the Dark'', and said \"That was not the case.", "But that we were definitely not friends, that's a fact,\" to Danish daily ''Jyllands-Posten'' in its online edition.", "Peter Aalbaek Jensen, the producer of ''Dancer in the Dark'', told ''Jyllands-Posten'' that \"As far as I remember we were the victims.", "That woman was stronger than both Lars von Trier and me and our company put together.", "She dictated everything and was about to close a movie of 100M kroner $16M.", "\"Following von Trier's statement, Björk released a further statement offering more details about her experience, while her manager, Derek Birkett, also condemned von Trier's alleged past actions.", "''The Guardian'' later found that Zentropa, which Jensen runs and von Trier founded, had an endemic culture of sexual harassment.", "Jensen stepped down as CEO when further allegations of harassment came to light in 2017, although he is still active as an executive producer in recent works.=== Animal cruelty during filming ===A donkey was slaughtered for dramatic purposes during production of ''Manderlay'', an act that caused actors including John C. Reilly to quit the film in protest of its cruelty to animals.", "The scene was cut from the film before it was released.Although ''The House that Jack Built'' was praised by animal rights organization PETA for its use of realistic effects, a scene involving the main character mutilating a duckling was the subject of criticism from some audiences.=== Position on the Russian war against Ukraine ===In August 2023 Lars von Trier published on Instagram a critical entry against the delivery of F-16 fighters to Ukraine, ending his post by saying \"Russian lives matter also!\"", "The entry immediately became publicized in official Russian media and by the Russian propaganda officer Margarita Simonyan.", "Oleksiy Danilov, head of Ukraine's National Security and Defense Council, responded on Twitter, criticising von Trier's comments, saying, \"The choice between the executioner and the victim becomes a tragedy when the artist chooses the side of the executioner.\"", "Two days later, Von Trier then made another post on Instagram, saying, \"I support Ukraine with every beat of my heart!", "I was just stating the obvious: that all lives in this world matter!\"" ], [ "Filmography", "=== Films === YearTitleAlso known asTrilogiesRelease dateRTMC1984''The Element of Crime''(''Forbrydelsens element'')''Europa''May 1477% (13 reviews)66% (6 reviews)1987''Epidemic''September 1133% (6 reviews)66% (4 reviews)1991''Europa''(''Zentropa'')May 1280% (15 reviews)69% (15 reviews)1994''The Kingdom I''(''Riget'')''The Kingdom''November 24 - December 1584% (19 reviews)77% (9 reviews)1996''Breaking the Waves''''Golden Heart''May 1885% (59 reviews)76% (28 reviews)1997''The Kingdom II''(''Riget II'')''The Kingdom''October 10 - October 3184% (19 reviews)77% (9 reviews)1998''The Idiots''(''Idioterne'')''Golden Heart''May 2071% (31 reviews)47% (15 reviews)2000''Dancer in the Dark''May 1769% (121 reviews)61% (31 reviews)2003 ''Dogville''''USA - Land of Opportunities''May 1969% (167 reviews)60% (30 reviews)2003''The Five Obstructions''(''De fem benspænd'')September 1189% (62 reviews)79% (22 reviews)2005''Manderlay''''USA - Land of Opportunities''May 1650% (103 reviews)46% (29 reviews)2006''The Boss of It All''(''Direktøren for det hele'')September 2175% (67 reviews)71% (17 reviews)2009''Antichrist''''Depression''May 2054% (179 reviews)49% (34 reviews)2011''Melancholia''May 1879% (209 reviews)80% (40 reviews)2013''Nymphomaniac''December 2576% (I; 204 reviews) and 59% (II; 128 reviews)64% (I; 41 reviews) and 60% (II; 34 reviews)2018''The House That Jack Built''May 1460% (138 reviews)42% (29 reviews)2022''The Kingdom: Exodus''(''Riget'': Exodus)''The Kingdom''October 9 - October 3084% (19 reviews)77% (9 reviews)=== Frequent collaborators ===Von Trier often works more than once with actors and production members.", "Manon Rasmussen was the only crew member as a costume designer to collaborate with von Trier in all of his works (except ''Medea'' and ''The Idiots'') since ''The Element of Crime'' (1984).", "His first, but initial acting collaborator for ''The Element of Crime'' was Leif Magnusson, who appeared in his role as a hotel guest, yet continued to appear again in the last two films as different minor roles for his first trilogy until his acting retirement in the early 1990s.", "His main crew members and producer team has remained intact since ''Europa''.", "Many of his recurring actors have expressed their devotion to von Trier.", "European actors Jean-Marc Barr, Udo Kier, and Stellan Skarsgård have all appeared across several von Trier films.", "With the exception of ''Medea'', ''The Kingdom'', his incompleted \"USA Trilogy\", and ''The House that Jack Built''; British-French actress Charlotte Gainsbourg and Swedish actor Leif Magnusson are the only two acting collaborators (excluding himself) to have appeared in all installments of two of his trilogies, taking the lead roles in ''Depression'' for the former and minor roles in ''Europa'' for the latter.", "''Note: This list shows only the actors (in alphabetical order only) who have collaborated with von Trier in three or more productions''.", "Actor''The Element of Crime'' ''Epidemic'' ''Medea'' ''Europa'' ''The Kingdom'' ''Breaking the Waves'' ''The Idiots'' ''Dancer in the Dark'' ''Dogville'' ''Manderlay'' ''The Boss of It All'' ''Antichrist''''Dimension'' (unfinished)'''' ''Melancholia'' ''Nymphomaniac'' ''The House That Jack Built'' Jens Albinus Jean-Marc Barr Willem Dafoe Jeremy Davies Charlotte Gainsbourg Vera Gebuhr Siobhan Fallon Hogan Anders Hove John Hurt Željko Ivanek Ernst-Hugo Järegård Henning Jensen Udo Kier Leif Magnusson Baard Owe Stellan Skarsgård Lars von Trier (himself) === Awards and honors ===Among his more than 100 awards and 200 nominations at film festivals worldwide, von Trier has received: the Palme d'Or (for ''Dancer in the Dark''), the Grand Prix (for ''Breaking the Waves''), the Prix du Jury (for ''Europa''), and the Technical Grand Prize (for ''The Element of Crime'' and ''Europa'') at the Cannes Film Festival.", "Von Trier has also received both Golden Globe Award and Academy Award nomination for the former.YearFilmCannes Film FestivalBodil AwardsRobert AwardsEuropean Film AwardsWinsWinsWinsWins1984''The Element of Crime''2111771991''Europa''43117721994-2022''Riget''7711611996''Breaking the Waves''213399331998''The Idiots''1431112000''Dancer in the Dark''2221115442003''Dogville''13182412003''The Five Obstructions''12005''Manderlay''11932009''Antichrist''2155127312011''Melancholia''21721310832013''Nymphomaniac''6116842018''The House that Jack Built''21112Total1794226110643412* In von Trier's second trilogy, ''Golden Heart'', is the first franchise or trilogy to have won both Bodil and Robert for Best Actress in a Leading Role, respectively Emily Watson, Bodil Jorgensen, and Björk, while Watson and Björk also have won the European for Best Actress.", "** Also in ''Golden Heart'', three of them have nominated the Palme d'Or, with the latter won.", "* In von Trier's fourth trilogy, ''Depression'', is the first franchise or trilogy to have sweep the Robert for Best Danish Film, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Editing, Best Sound, and Best Visual Effects." ], [ "Notes", "* '''1''''''^''' Dimension was originally intended a feature-length gangster film with each 33 years of development as for 2024 per theatrical release, but he was lost interest in the project after the death of Cartlidge, Constantine, and Hugo Järegård, in which he completes one of the footages into a short film instead." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * Rudolph, Pascal (2020).", "\"Björk on the Gallows: Performance, Persona, and Authenticity in Lars von Trier’s ''Dancer in the Dark''\", in ''IASPM Journal 10/1'', 22–42.DOI: https://doi.org/10.5429/2079-3871(2020)v10i1.3en.", "* Rudolph, Pascal (2022).", "''Präexistente Musik im Film: Klangwelten im Kino des Lars von Trier'' (in German).", "edition text + kritik.", "DOI https://doi.org/10.5771/9783967077582.", "* Rudolph, Pascal (2023).", "\"The Musical Idea Work Group: Production and Reception of Pre-existing Music in Film\", in ''Twentieth-Century Music'' 20/2, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1478572222000214.", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Zentropa official website – von Trier's production company* * * Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database* The Burden From Donald Duck.", "An interview with Lars von Trier Video by Louisiana Channel" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monty Python's Life of Brian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Monty Python's Life of Brian''''' (also known as '''''Life of Brian''''') is a 1979 British comedy film starring and written by the comedy group Monty Python (Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle, Terry Jones and Michael Palin).", "It was directed by Jones.", "The film tells the story of Brian Cohen (played by Chapman), a young Jewish-Roman man who is born on the same day as—and next door to—Jesus, and is subsequently mistaken for the Messiah.Following the withdrawal of funding by EMI Films just days before production was scheduled to begin, George Harrison, the former member of the Beatles and a long-time Python fan, arranged financing for ''Life of Brian'' through the formation of his HandMade Films company.The film's themes of religious satire were controversial at the time of its release, drawing accusations of blasphemy and protests from some religious groups.", "Thirty-nine local authorities in the United Kingdom imposed either an outright ban or an X (18 years) certificate.", "Some countries, including Ireland and Norway, banned its showing, and in a few of these, such as Italy, bans lasted over a decade.", "The filmmakers used the notoriety to promote the film, with posters in Sweden reading, \"So funny, it was banned in Norway!", "\"The film was a box office success, the fourth-highest-grossing film in the United Kingdom in 1979, and highest grossing of any British film in the United States that year.", "It has remained popular and has been named as the greatest comedy film of all time by several magazines and television networks, and it later received a 96% rating on Rotten Tomatoes with the consensus reading, \"One of the more cutting-edge films of the 1970s, this religious farce from the classic comedy troupe is as poignant as it is funny and satirical.\"", "In a 2006 Channel 4 poll, ''Life of Brian'' was ranked first on their list of the 50 Greatest Comedy Films." ], [ "Plot", "Brian Cohen is born in a stable next door to the one in which Jesus is born, which initially confuses the three wise men who come to praise the future King of the Jews.", "Brian later grows up into an idealistic young man who resents the continuing Roman occupation of Judea.", "While listening to Jesus's Sermon on the Mount, Brian becomes infatuated with an attractive young rebel named Judith.", "His desire for her and hatred of the Romans, further exacerbated by his mother revealing that Brian himself is half-Roman, inspire him to join the \"People's Front of Judea\" (PFJ), one of many fractious and bickering independence movements that spend more time fighting each other than they do the Romans.The PFJ task Brian to paint slogans overnight on Roman governor Pilate's palace, but a Roman officer catches him in the act.", "The officer shows more concern with Brian's appalling Latin grammar and, after correcting the slogan to \"''Romani ite domum''\", orders him to write it one hundred times.", "Brian finishes after sunrise and is chased away by the day guards.", "He then participates in an abortive attempt by the PFJ to kidnap Pilate's wife, but is captured by the palace guards.The guards bring Brian before Pilate, but his questioning is cut short when the guards begin laughing at the names of Pilate's friend Biggus Dickus and his wife Incontinentia Buttocks.", "Escaping, Brian is swooped up by a passing extraterrestrial spaceship, which crashes back to earth after a brief adventure.", "Brian tries to blend in among prophets who are preaching in a busy plaza, repeating fragments of Jesus' sermons.", "He stops his sermon mid-sentence when some Roman soldiers depart, leaving his small but intrigued audience demanding to know more.", "Brian grows frantic when people start following him to the mountains, and there they declare him to be the Messiah.", "After spending the night in bed with Judith, Brian – still naked – discovers an enormous crowd assembled outside his mother's house.", "Her attempts at dispersing the crowd are rebuffed, so she consents to Brian addressing them.", "He urges them to think for themselves, but they parrot his words as doctrine.The PFJ seek to exploit Brian's celebrity status by having him minister to a thronging crowd of followers demanding miracle cures.", "Brian sneaks out the back, only to be captured by the Romans and sentenced to crucifixion.", "In celebration of Passover, a crowd has assembled outside the palace of Pilate, who offers to pardon a prisoner of their choice.", "The crowd shout out names containing the letter \"r\", mocking Pilate's speech impediment, and are further amused by his friend Biggus's lisp.", "Eventually, Judith appears in the crowd and calls for the release of Brian, which they echo, and Pilate agrees to \"welease Bwian\".The guards eventually catch up to Brian, but in a scene that parodies the climax of the film ''Spartacus'', various crucified people all claim to be Brian so they can be freed, and the wrong man is released.", "Brian is successively approached and then abandoned by the PFJ, a suicide squad of the \"Judean People's Front\", Judith, and his scolding mother.", "As he despairs, the convict next to him leads the rest in a cheerful song (\"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\")." ], [ "Cast", "* Graham Chapman as Brian Cohen (of Nazareth), Biggus Dickus, 2nd wise man* John Cleese as Reg, High priest, Centurion of the Yard, Deadly Dirk, Arthur, 1st wise man* Terry Gilliam as Another person further forward (at Mount – \"Do you hear that?", "'Blessed are the Greek'!", "\"), Revolutionary, Blood and Thunder prophet, Geoffrey, Gaoler, Audience Member, Frank, Crucifee* Eric Idle as Mr Cheeky, Stan/Loretta, Harry the Haggler, Culprit woman who casts first stone, Warris, Intensely dull youth, Otto, Gaoler's assistant, Mr Frisbee III* Terry Jones as Mandy Cohen (Brian's mother), Colin, Simon the Holy Man, Bob Hoskins, Saintly passer-by, Alarmed Crucifixion Assistant* Michael Palin as Mr Big-Nose, Francis, Mrs A, Culprit woman who casts second stone, Ex-leper, Announcer, Ben, Pontius Pilate, Boring Prophet, Eddie, Shoe Follower, Nisus Wettus, 3rd wise man* Terence Bayler as Mr Gregory, 2nd Centurion, Dennis* Carol Cleveland as Mrs Gregory, Woman #1, Elsie* Charles McKeown as False Prophet, Blind Man, Giggling Guard, Stig, Man #1* Kenneth Colley as Jesus* Neil Innes as A Weedy Samaritan* John Young as Matthias* Gwen Taylor as Mrs Big-Nose, Woman with ill donkey, Female heckler* Sue Jones-Davies as Judith Iscariot* Chris Langham as Alfonso, Giggling Guard* Andrew MacLachlan as Another Official Stoners Helper, Giggling Guard* Bernard McKenna as Parvus, Official Stoners Helper, Giggling Guard, Sergeant* George Harrison as Mr Papadopoulos* Charles Knode as Passer-by (uncredited)Several characters remained unnamed during the film but do have names that are used in the soundtrack album track listing and elsewhere.", "There is no mention in the film that Eric Idle's ever-cheerful joker is called \"Mr Cheeky\", or that the Roman guard played by Michael Palin is named \"Nisus Wettus\".Spike Milligan plays a prophet, ignored because his acolytes are chasing after Brian.", "By coincidence Milligan was visiting his old World War II battlefields in Tunisia where the film was being made.", "The Pythons were alerted to this and he was included in the scene being filmed that morning.", "He left in the afternoon before he could be included in any of the close-up or publicity shots for the film." ], [ "Production", "===Pre-production===There are various stories about the origins of ''Life of Brian''.", "Shortly after the release of ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (1975), Eric Idle flippantly suggested that the title of the Pythons' forthcoming feature would be ''Jesus Christ: Lust for Glory'' (a play on the UK title for the 1970 American film ''Patton, Patton: Ordeal and Triumph'').", "This was after he had become frustrated at repeatedly being asked what it would be called, despite the troupe not having given the matter of a third film any consideration.", "However, they shared a distrust of organised religion, and, after witnessing the critically acclaimed ''Holy Grail''s enormous financial turnover, confirming an appetite among the fans for more cinematic endeavours, they began to seriously consider a film lampooning the New Testament era in the same way that ''Holy Grail'' had lampooned Arthurian legend.", "All they needed was an idea for a plot.", "Eric Idle and Terry Gilliam, while promoting ''Holy Grail'' in Amsterdam, had come up with a sketch in which Jesus' cross is falling apart because of the idiotic carpenters who built it and he angrily tells them how to do it correctly.", "However, after an early brainstorming stage, and despite being non-believers, they agreed that Jesus was \"definitely a good guy\" and found nothing to mock in his actual teachings: \"He's not particularly funny, what he's saying isn't mockable, it's very decent stuff\", said Idle later.", "After settling on the name Brian for their new protagonist, one idea considered was that of \"the 13th disciple\".", "The focus eventually shifted to a separate individual born at a similar time and location who would be mistaken for the Messiah, but had no desire to be followed as such.The first draft of the screenplay, provisionally titled ''The Gospel According to St. Brian'', was ready by Christmas 1976.The final pre-production draft was ready in January 1978, following \"a concentrated two-week writing and water-skiing period in Barbados\".", "Python fan and former Beatle George Harrison set up HandMade Films to help fund the film at a cost of £3 million.", "Harrison put up the money for it as he \"wanted to see the movie\"—later described by Terry Jones as the \"world's most expensive cinema ticket\".", "The original backers—EMI Films and, particularly, Bernard Delfont—had been scared off at the last minute by the subject matter.", "The very last words in the film are: \"I said to him, 'Bernie, they'll never make their money back on this one'\", teasing Delfont for his lack of faith in the project.", "Terry Gilliam later said, \"They pulled out on the Thursday.", "The crew was supposed to be leaving on the Saturday.", "Disastrous.", "It was because they read the script ...", "finally.\"", "As a reward for his help, Harrison appears in a cameo appearance as Mr. Papadopoulos, \"owner of the Mount\", who briefly shakes hands with Brian in a crowd scene (at 1:08:50 in the film).", "His one word of dialogue (a cheery but out of place Scouse \"'ullo\") had to be dubbed in later by Michael Palin.===Filming===Ribat of Monastir, Tunisia.", "According to Michael Palin, the first scene filmed was the stoning scene along the outside wall.Terry Jones was solely responsible for directing, having amicably agreed with Gilliam (who co-directed ''Holy Grail'') to do so, with Gilliam concentrating on the look of the film.", "''Holy Grail''s production had often been stilted by their differences behind the camera.", "Gilliam again contributed two animated sequences (one being the opening credits) and took charge of set design.", "However, this did not put an absolute end to their feuding.", "On the DVD commentary, Gilliam expresses pride in one set in particular, the main hall of Pilate's fortress, which had been designed so that it looked like an ancient synagogue that the Romans had converted by dumping their structural artefacts (such as marble floors and columns) on top.", "He reveals his consternation at Jones for not paying enough attention to it in the cinematography.", "Gilliam also worked on the matte paintings, useful in particular for the very first shot of the three wise men against a star-scape and in giving the illusion of the whole of the outside of the fortress being covered in graffiti.", "Perhaps the most significant contribution from Gilliam was the scene in which Brian accidentally leaps off a high building and lands inside a starship about to engage in an interstellar war.", "This was done \"in camera\" using a hand-built model starship and miniature pyrotechnics.", "Gilliam recounted in an interview: \"Well, we didn't know what to do with Brian.", "He got himself to the top of the tower and we had to rescue him somehow, so I said, 'OK, spaceship for that.'", "That was purely it.", "\"The film was shot on location in Monastir, Tunisia, which allowed the production to reuse sets from Franco Zeffirelli's ''Jesus of Nazareth'' (1977).", "The Tunisian shoot was documented by Iain Johnstone for his BBC film ''The Pythons''.", "Many locals were employed as extras on ''Life of Brian''.", "Director Jones noted, \"They were all very knowing because they'd all worked for Franco Zeffirelli on ''Jesus of Nazareth'', so I had these elderly Tunisians telling me, 'Well, Mr Zeffirelli wouldn't have done it like that, you know.'\"", "Further location shooting also took place in Tunisia, at Sousse (Jerusalem outer walls and gateway), Carthage (Roman theatre) and Matmata (Sermon on the Mount and Crucifixion).Graham Chapman, suffering from alcoholism, was so determined to play the lead role—at one point coveted by Cleese—that he sobered up in time for filming, so much so that he also acted as the on-set doctor.===Rough cut and pre-screenings===Following shooting between 16 September and 12 November 1978, a two-hour rough cut of the film was put together for its first private showing in January 1979.Over the next few months ''Life of Brian'' was re-edited and re-screened a number of times for different preview audiences, losing a number of entire filmed sequences.===Editing===A number of scenes were cut during the editing process.", "Five deleted scenes, a total of 13 minutes, including the controversial \"Otto\", were first made available in 1997 on the Criterion Collection Laserdisc.", "An unknown amount of raw footage was destroyed in 1998 by the company that bought Handmade Films.", "However, a number of them (of varying quality) were shown the following year on the Paramount Comedy Channel in the UK.", "The scenes shown included three shepherds discussing sheep and completely missing the arrival of the angel heralding Jesus's birth, which would have been at the very start of the film; a segment showing the attempted kidnap of Pilate's wife (a large woman played by John Case) whose escape results in a fistfight; a scene introducing hardline Zionist Otto, leader of the Judean People's Front (played by Eric Idle) and his men who practise a suicide run in the courtyard; and a brief scene in which Judith releases some birds into the air in an attempt to summon help.", "The shepherds' scene has badly distorted sound, and the kidnap scene has poor colour quality.", "The same scenes that were on the Criterion laserdisc can now be found on the Criterion Collection DVD.The most controversial cuts were the scenes involving Otto, initially a recurring character, who had a thin Adolf Hitler moustache and spoke with a German accent, shouting accusations of \"racial impurity\" at Judeans who were conceived (as Brian was) when their mothers were raped by Roman centurions, as well as other Nazi phrases.", "The logo of the Judean People's Front, designed by Terry Gilliam, was a Star of David with a small line added to each point so it resembled a swastika, most familiar in the West as the symbol of the anti-Semitic Nazi movement.", "The rest of this faction also all had the same thin moustaches, and wore a spike on their helmets, similar to those on Imperial German helmets.", "The official reason for the cutting was that Otto's dialogue slowed down the narrative.", "However, Gilliam, writing in ''The Pythons Autobiography by The Pythons'', said he thought it should have stayed, saying \"Listen, we've alienated the Christians, let's get the Jews now.\"", "Idle himself was said to have been uncomfortable with the character; \"It's essentially a pretty savage attack on rabid Zionism, suggesting it's rather akin to Nazism, which is a bit strong to take, but certainly a point of view.\"", "Michael Palin's personal journal entries from the period when various edits of ''Brian'' were being test-screened consistently reference the Pythons' and filmmakers' concerns that the Otto scenes were slowing the story down and thus were top of the list to be chopped from the final cut of the film.", "However, Oxford Brookes University historian David Nash says the removal of the scene represented \"a form of self-censorship\" and the Otto sequence \"which involved a character representative of extreme forms of Zionism\" was cut \"in the interests of smoothing the way for the film's distribution in America.", "\"The only scene with Otto that remains in the film is during the crucifixion sequence.", "Otto arrives with his \"crack suicide squad\", sending the Roman soldiers fleeing in terror.", "Instead of doing anything useful, the squad stab themselves to death as Brian watches.", "Terry Jones once mentioned that the only reason this excerpt was not cut too was due to continuity reasons, as their dead bodies were very prominently placed throughout the rest of the scene.", "He acknowledged that some of the humour of this sole remaining contribution was lost through the earlier edits, but felt they were necessary to the overall pacing.Otto's scenes, and those with Pilate's wife, were cut from the film after the script had gone to the publishers, and so they can be found in the published version of the script.", "Also present is a scene where, after Brian has led the Fifth Legion to the headquarters of the People's Front of Judea, Reg (John Cleese) says \"You cunt You stupid, bird-brained, flat-headed...\" The profanity was overdubbed to \"you klutz\" before the film was released.", "Cleese approved of this editing as he felt the reaction to the profanity would \"get in the way of the comedy.", "\"An early listing of the sequence of sketches reprinted in ''Monty Python: The Case Against'' by Robert Hewison reveals that the film was to have begun with a set of sketches at an English public school.", "Much of this material was first printed in the ''Monty Python's The Life of Brian / Monty Python Scrapbook'' that accompanied the original script publication of ''The Life of Brian'' and then subsequently reused.", "The song \"All Things Dull and Ugly\" and the parody scripture reading \"Martyrdom of St. Victor\" were performed on ''Monty Python's Contractual Obligation Album'' (1980).", "The idea of a violent rugby match between school masters and small boys was filmed in ''Monty Python's The Meaning of Life'' (1983).", "A sketch about a boy who dies at school appeared on the unreleased ''The Hastily Cobbled Together for a Fast Buck Album'' (1981)." ], [ "Soundtrack", "An album was also released by Monty Python in 1979 in conjunction with the film.", "In addition to the \"Brian Song\" and \"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\", it contains scenes from the film with brief linking sections performed by Eric Idle and Graham Chapman.", "The album opens with a brief rendition of \"Hava Nagila\" on Scottish bagpipes.", "A CD version was released in 1997.An album of the songs sung in ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' was released on the Disky label.", "\"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\" was later re-released with great success, after being sung by British football fans.", "Its popularity became truly evident in 1982 during the Falklands War when sailors aboard the destroyer HMS ''Sheffield'', severely damaged in an Argentinean Exocet missile attack on 4 May, started singing it while awaiting rescue.", "Many people have come to see the song as a life-affirming ode to optimism.", "One of its more famous renditions was by the dignitaries of Manchester's bid to host the 2000 Olympic Games, just after they were awarded to Sydney.", "Idle later performed the song as part of the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony.", "\"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\" is also featured in Eric Idle's ''Spamalot'', a Broadway musical based upon ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'', and was sung by the rest of the Monty Python group at Graham Chapman's memorial service and at the ''Monty Python Live At Aspen'' special.", "The song is a staple at Iron Maiden concerts, where the recording is played after the final encore." ], [ "Release", "For the original British and Australian releases, a spoof travelogue narrated by John Cleese, ''Away From It All'', was shown before the film itself.", "It consisted mostly of stock travelogue footage and featured arch comments from Cleese.", "For instance, a shot of Bulgarian girls in ceremonial dresses was accompanied by the comment \"Hard to believe, isn't it, that these simple happy folk are dedicated to the destruction of Western Civilisation as we know it!", "\", Communist Bulgaria being a member of the Warsaw Pact at the time.", "Not only was this a spoof of travelogues ''per se'', it was a protest against the then common practice in Britain of showing cheaply made banal short features before a main feature.", "''Life of Brian'' opened on 17 August 1979 in five North American theatres and grossed US$140,034 ($28,007 per screen) in its opening weekend.", "Its total gross was $19,398,164.It was the highest grossing British film in North America that year.", "Released on 8 November 1979 in the UK, the film was the fourth highest-grossing film in Britain in 1979.In London, it opened at the Plaza cinema and grossed £40,470 in its opening week.On 30 April 2004, ''Life of Brian'' was re-released on five North American screens to \"cash in\" (as Terry Jones put it) on the box office success of Mel Gibson's ''The Passion of the Christ''.", "It grossed $26,376 ($5,275 per screen) in its opening weekend.", "It ran until October 2004, playing at 28 screens at its widest point, eventually grossing $646,124 during its re-release.", "By comparison, a re-release of ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' had earned $1.8 million three years earlier.", "A DVD of the film was also released that year." ], [ "Reception", "Reviews from critics were mostly positive on the film's release.", "Movie historian Leonard Maltin reported that \"This will probably offend every creed and denomination equally, but it shouldn't.", "The funniest and most sustained feature from Britain's bad boys.\"", "Vincent Canby of ''The New York Times'' called the film \"the foulest-spoken biblical epic ever made, as well as the best-humored—a nonstop orgy of assaults, not on anyone's virtue, but on the funny bone.", "It makes no difference that some of the routines fall flat because there are always others coming along immediately after that succeed.\"", "Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of four, writing, \"What's endearing about the Pythons is their good cheer, their irreverence, their willingness to allow comic situations to develop through a gradual accumulation of small insanities.\"", "Gene Siskel of the ''Chicago Tribune'' gave the film three and a half stars, calling it \"a gentle but very funny parody of the life of Jesus, as well as of biblical movies.\"", "Kevin Thomas of the ''Los Angeles Times'' declared, \"Even those of us who find Monty Python too hit-and-miss and gory must admit that its latest effort has numerous moments of hilarity.\"", "Clyde Jeavons of ''The Monthly Film Bulletin'' wrote that the script was \"occasionally over-raucous and crude\", but found the second half of the film \"cumulatively hilarious\", with \"a splendidly tasteless finale, which even Mel Brooks might envy.\"", "Richard Grenier, writing in the neoconservative magazine ''Commentary'', said \"''Life of Brian'' contains appreciably more mocking of faddish radicalism and Third World 'national-liberation movements' than it does of religion,\" citing numerous examples in the film of satire at the expense of \"left-wing ideas about imperialism, feminism, and terrorism,\" reflecting a satirical omnivorousness that Grenier associated with \"the tradition of what might be called 'Tory wit,' reaching back to Congreve and Swift and all the way forward to Evelyn Waugh and Kingsley Amis.\"", "Gary Arnold of ''The Washington Post'' had a negative opinion of the film, writing that it was \"a cruel fiction to foster the delusion that 'Brian' is bristling with blasphemous nifties and throbbing with impious wit.", "If only it were!", "One might find it easier to keep from nodding off.", "\"Over time, ''Life of Brian'' has regularly been cited as a significant contender for the title \"greatest comedy film of all time\", and has been named as such in polls conducted by ''Total Film'' magazine in 2000, the British TV network Channel 4 where it topped the poll in the 50 Greatest Comedy Films, and ''The Guardian'' in 2007.Rotten Tomatoes lists it as one of the best reviewed comedies, with a 96% approval rating from 67 published reviews, with an average rating of 8.3/10.Its critical consensus reads, \"One of the more cutting-edge films of the 1970s, this religious farce from the classic comedy troupe is as poignant as it is funny and satirical.", "\"In 1999 the BFI declared ''Life of Brian'' to be the 28th best British film of all time.", "It was the seventh highest ranking comedy on this list (four of the better placed efforts were classic Ealing Films).", "Another Channel 4 poll in 2001 named it the 23rd greatest film of all time (the only comedy that came higher was Billy Wilder's ''Some Like It Hot'', which was ranked 5th).", "A 2011 poll by ''Time Out'' magazine ranked it as the third greatest comedy film ever made, behind ''Airplane!''", "and ''This is Spinal Tap''.", "In 2016, ''Empire'' magazine ranked ''Life of Brian'' 2nd in their list of the 100 best British films, with only David Lean's ''Lawrence of Arabia'' ranking higher.Various polls have voted the line, \"He's not the Messiah, he's a very naughty boy!\"", "(spoken by Brian's mother Mandy to the crowd assembled outside her house), to be the funniest in film history.", "Other famous lines from the film have featured in polls, such as, \"What have the Romans ever done for us?\"", "and \"I'm Brian and so's my wife\"." ], [ "Controversies", "===Initial criticism and blasphemy accusations===Richard Webster comments in ''A Brief History of Blasphemy'' (1990) that \"internalised censorship played a significant role in the handling\" of ''Monty Python's Life of Brian''.", "In his view, \"As a satire on religion, this film might well be considered a rather slight production.", "As blasphemy it was, even in its original version, extremely mild.", "Yet the film was surrounded from its inception by intense anxiety, in some quarters of the Establishment, about the offence it might cause.", "As a result it gained a certificate for general release only after some cuts had been made.", "Perhaps more importantly still, the film was shunned by the BBC and ITV, who declined to show it for fear of offending Christians in the UK.", "Once again a blasphemy was restrained – or its circulation effectively curtailed – not by the force of law but by the internalisation of this law.\"", "On its initial release in the UK, the film was banned by several town councils – some of which had no cinemas within their boundaries, or had not even seen the film.", "A member of Harrogate council, one of those that banned the film, revealed during a television interview that the council had not seen the film, and had based their opinion on what they had been told by the Nationwide Festival of Light, a grouping with an evangelical Christian base, of which they knew nothing.In New York (the film's release in the US preceded British distribution), screenings were picketed by both rabbis and nuns (\"Nuns with banners!\"", "observed Michael Palin).", "It was also banned for eight years in Ireland and for a year in Norway (it was marketed in Sweden as \"The film so funny that it was banned in Norway\").", "During the film's theatrical run in Finland, a text explaining that the film was a parody of Hollywood historical epics was added to the opening credits.In the UK, Mary Whitehouse, and other traditionalist Christians, pamphleteered and picketed locations where the local cinema was screening the film, a campaign that was felt to have boosted publicity.", "Leaflets arguing against the film's representation of the New Testament (for example, suggesting that the Wise Men would not have approached the wrong stable as they do in the opening of the film) were documented in Robert Hewison's book ''Monty Python: The Case Against''.===Crucifixion issue===One of the most controversial scenes was the film's ending: Brian's crucifixion.", "Many Christian protesters said that it was mocking Jesus' suffering by turning it into a \"Jolly Boys Outing\" (such as when Mr Cheeky turns to Brian and says: \"See, not so bad once you're up!", "\"), capped by Brian's fellow sufferers suddenly bursting into song.", "This is reinforced by the fact that several characters throughout the film claim crucifixion is not as bad as it seems.", "For example, when Brian asks his cellmate in prison what will happen to him, he replies: \"Oh, you'll probably get away with crucifixion\".", "In another example, Matthias, an old man who works with the People's Front of Judea, dismisses crucifixion as \"a doddle\" and says being stabbed would be worse.The director, Terry Jones, issued the following response to this criticism: \"Any religion that makes a form of torture into an icon that they worship seems to me a pretty sick sort of religion quite honestly.\"", "The Pythons also pointed out that crucifixion was a standard form of execution in ancient times and not just one especially reserved for Jesus.===Responses from the cast===Shortly after the film was released, Cleese and Palin engaged in a debate on the BBC2 discussion programme ''Friday Night, Saturday Morning'' with Malcolm Muggeridge and Mervyn Stockwood, the Bishop of Southwark, who put forward arguments against the film.", "Muggeridge and Stockwood, it was later claimed, had arrived 15 minutes late to see a screening of the picture prior to the debate, missing the establishing scenes demonstrating that Brian and Jesus were two different characters, and hence contended that it was a send-up of Christ himself.", "Both Pythons later felt that there had been a strange role reversal in the manner of the debate, with two young upstart comedians attempting to make serious, well-researched points, while the Establishment figures engaged in cheap jibes and point scoring.", "They also expressed disappointment in Muggeridge, whom all in Python had previously respected as a satirist (he had recently converted to Christianity after meeting Mother Teresa and experiencing what he described as a miracle).", "Cleese stated that his reputation had \"plummeted\" in his eyes, while Palin commented, \"He was just being Muggeridge, preferring to have a very strong contrary opinion as opposed to none at all.\"", "Muggeridge's verdict on the film was that it was \"Such a tenth-rate film that it couldn't possibly destroy anyone's genuine faith.\"", "In a 2013 interview on BBC Radio 4, Cleese stated that having recently watched the discussion again he \"was astonished, first of all, at how stupid the two members of the Church were, and how boring the debate became\".", "He added: \"I think the sad thing was that there was absolutely no attempt at a proper discussion – no attempt to find any common ground.", "\"The Pythons unanimously deny that they were ever out to destroy people's faith.", "On the DVD audio commentary, they contend that the film is heretical because it lampoons the practices of modern organised religion, but that it does not blasphemously lampoon the God that Christians and Jews worship.", "When Jesus does appear in the film (on the Mount, speaking the Beatitudes), he is played straight (by actor Kenneth Colley) and portrayed with respect.", "The music and lighting make it clear that there is a genuine aura around him.", "The comedy begins when members of the crowd mishear his statements of peace, love and tolerance (\"I think he said, 'blessed are the cheese makers'\").", "Importantly, he is distinct from the character of Brian, which is also evident in the scene where an annoying and ungrateful ex-leper pesters Brian for money, while moaning that since Jesus cured him, he has lost his source of income in the begging trade (referring to Jesus as a \"bloody do-gooder\").James Crossley, however, has argued that the film makes the distinction between Jesus and the character of Brian to make a contrast between the traditional Christ of both faith and cinema and the historical figure of Jesus in critical scholarship and how critical scholars have argued that ideas later got attributed to Jesus by his followers.", "Crossley points out that the film uses the character of Brian to address a number of potentially controversial scholarly theories about Jesus, such as the Messianic Secret, the Jewishness of Jesus, Jesus the revolutionary, and having a single mother.In the DVD's audio commentary, Terry Gilliam says, \"We were pilloried by religious groups on all sides from Jews to Catholics to Protestants.", "To me, what's important is that we managed to offend a lot of people.", "But as you notice, we were very cautious about offending any Muslims.", "We would say ''nothing'' negative about a Muslim, 'cause we'd get a fatwa after us.", "But your Jews, your Christians, they're easy to push around.", "\"Not all the Pythons agree on the definition of the movie's tone.", "There was a brief exchange that occurred when the surviving members reunited in Aspen, Colorado, in 1998.In the section where ''Life of Brian'' is discussed, the following dialogue ensued:In a later interview, Jones said the film \"isn't blasphemous because it doesn't touch on belief at all.", "It is heretical, because it touches on dogma and the interpretation of belief, rather than belief itself.", "\"===21st century===The film continues to cause controversy; in February 2007, the Church of St Thomas the Martyr in Newcastle upon Tyne held a public screening in the church itself, with song-sheets, organ accompaniment, stewards in costume and false beards for female members of the audience (alluding to an early scene where a group of women disguise themselves as men so that they are able to take part in a stoning).", "Although the screening was a sell-out, some Christian groups, notably the conservative Christian Voice, were highly critical of the decision to allow the screening to go ahead.", "Stephen Green, the head of Christian Voice, insisted that \"You don't promote Christ to the community by taking the mick out of him.\"", "The Reverend Jonathan Adams, one of the church's clergy, defended his taste in comedy, saying that it did not mock Jesus, and that it raised important issues about the hypocrisy and stupidity that can affect religion.", "Again on the film's DVD commentary, Cleese also spoke up for religious people who have come forward and congratulated him and his colleagues on the film's highlighting of double standards among purported followers of their own faith.Some bans continued into the 21st century.", "In 2008, Torbay Council finally permitted the film to be shown after it won an online vote for the English Riviera International Comedy Film Festival.", "In 2009, it was announced that a thirty-year-old ban of the film in the Welsh town of Aberystwyth had finally been lifted, and the subsequent showing was attended by Terry Jones and Michael Palin alongside mayor Sue Jones-Davies (who portrayed Judith Iscariot in the film).", "However, before the showing, an Aberystwyth University student discovered that a ban had only been discussed by the council and in fact that it had been shown (or scheduled to be shown) at a cinema in the town in 1981.In 2013, a German official in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia considered the film to be possibly offensive to Christians and hence subject to a local regulation prohibiting its public screening on Good Friday, despite protests by local atheists." ], [ "Political satire", "The film pokes fun at revolutionary groups and 1970s British left-wing politics.", "According to Roger Wilmut, \"What the film does do is place modern stereotypes in a historical setting, which enables it to indulge in a number of sharp digs, particularly at trade unionists and guerilla organisations\".", "There are several groups in the film which oppose the Roman occupation of Judea, but fall into the familiar pattern of intense competition among factions that appears, to an outsider, to be over ideological distinctions so small as to be invisible, thus portraying the phenomenon of the narcissism of small differences.", "Such disunity indeed fatally beleaguered real-life Judean resistance against Roman rule.", "Michael Palin says that the various separatist movements were modelled on \"modern resistance groups, all with obscure acronyms which they can never remember and their conflicting agendas\".", "''Romani ite domum'' (\"Romans go home\"); recreation of the anti-Roman slogan (in the Hull and East Riding Museum) that Brian writes on the walls of the Jerusalem Palace to prove himself worthy to be a member of the People's Front of JudeaThe People's Front of Judea, composed of the Pythons' characters, harangue their \"rivals\" with cries of \"splitters\" and stand vehemently opposed to the Judean People's Front, the Judean People's Popular Front, the Campaign for a Free Galilee, and the Popular Front of Judea (the last composed of a single old man, mocking the size of real revolutionary Trotskyist factions).", "The infighting among revolutionary organisations is demonstrated most dramatically when the PFJ attempts to kidnap Pontius Pilate's wife, but encounters agents of the Campaign for a Free Galilee, and the two factions begin a violent brawl over which of them conceived of the plan first.", "When Brian exhorts them to cease their fighting to struggle \"against the common enemy\", the revolutionaries stop and cry in unison, \"the Judean People's Front!\"", "However, they soon resume their fighting and, with two Roman legionaries watching bemusedly, continue until Brian is left the only survivor, at which point he is captured.Other scenes have the freedom fighters wasting time in debate, with one of the debated items being that they should not waste their time debating so much.", "There is also a famous scene in which Reg gives a revolutionary speech asking, \"What have the Romans ever done for us?\"", "at which point the listeners outline all forms of positive aspects of the Roman occupation such as sanitation, medicine, education, wine, public order, irrigation, roads, a fresh water system, public health and peace, followed by \"what have the Romans ever done for us except sanitation, medicine, education...\".", "Python biographer George Perry notes, \"The People's Liberation Front of Judea conducts its meetings as though they have been convened by a group of shop stewards\".", "This joke is the reverse of a similar conversation recorded in the Babylonian Talmud; some authors have even suggested the joke is based on the Talmudic text." ], [ "Film analysis", "===Themes and motifs======= Bible ====The depictions of Jesus in two short scenes at the start of the film are strongly based on Christian iconography.", "The resistance fighters leave the Sermon on the Mount, which was a literal recital, angry because Jesus was too pacifistic for them.", "(\"Well, blessed is just about everyone with a vested interest in the status quo…\") In addition to the respectful depiction of Jesus, the film does not state that there is no God or that Jesus is not the son of God.", "The appearance of a leper, who says he was healed by Jesus, is in line with the Gospels and their reports about Jesus performing miracles.Any direct reference to Jesus disappears after the introductory scenes, yet his life story partially acts as a framework and subtext for the story of Brian.", "Brian being a bastard of a Roman centurion could refer to the polemic legend that Jesus was the son of the Roman soldier Panthera.", "Disguised as a prophet, Brian talks about \"the lilies on the field\" and states more clearly, \"Don't pass judgment on other people or else you might get judged yourself\": Brian incoherently repeats statements he heard from Jesus.Another significant figure in the film who is named in the Gospels is Pontius Pilate, the central antagonist.", "Although the humour largely involves Jews, there is no sinister Jew to compare with Judas or Caiaphas.", "An anti-Semitic interpretation of the story is therefore excluded, according to scholars.", "The crucifixion scene, a central part of Christian iconography, is viewed from a historical context within the narrative style of the film.", "It depicts historically accurate enactment of a routinely done mass crucifixion.==== Belief and dogmatism ====The intended subject of the satire was not Jesus and his teachings but religious dogmatism, according to film theorists and statements from Monty Python.", "This is made clear in the beginning of the film during the Sermon on the Mount.", "Not only do the poor acoustics make it more difficult to hear what Jesus says, but the audience fails to interpret what was said correctly and sensibly.", "When Jesus said, \"blessed are the peacemakers\", the audience understands the phonetically similar word \"Cheesemakers\" and in turn interpret it as a metaphor and beatification of those who produce dairy products.", "''Life of Brian'' satirises, in the words of David Hume, the \"strong propensity of mankind to believe in the extraordinary and the marvellous\".", "When Brian cuts his sermon short and turns away from the crowd, they mistake his behaviour as not wanting to share the secret to eternal life and follow him everywhere.", "In their need to submit to an authority, the crowd declares him first a prophet and eventually a messiah.", "Even when Brian explicitly denies he is the Messiah, they still follow him, rationalizing that only the true Messiah would have the humility to deny his own divine status.", "The faithful gather beneath Brian's window en masse to receive God's blessing.", "This is when Brian utters the main message of the film \"you don't need to follow anybody!", "You've got to think for yourselves!\"", "Monty Python saw this central message of the satire confirmed with the protests of practising Christians after the film was released.According to Terry Jones, ''Life of Brian'' \"is not blasphemy but heresy\", because Brian contested the authority of the Church whereas the belief in God remained untouched.", "He goes on to mention that \"Christ is saying all of these wonderful things about people living together in peace and love, and then for the next two thousand years people are putting each other to death in His name because they can't agree on how He said it, or in what order He said it.\"", "The dispute among the followers about the correct interpretation of a sandal, which Brian lost, is in the words of Terry Jones the \"history of the Church in three minutes\".", "Kevin Shilbrack shares the view that you can enjoy the movie and still be religious.For the most part, lost in the religious controversy was the film's mockery of factional dogmatism among left-wing parties.", "According to John Cleese, an almost unmanageable number of left-wing organisations and parties was formed back then in the United Kingdom.", "He said that it had been so important to each of them to have one pure doctrine that they would rather fight each other than their political opponent.", "In the film, rather than presenting a common front as their organisational names should imply, the leader of the People's Front of Judea makes it clear that their hate for the Judean Peoples's Front is greater than their hate for the Romans.", "They are so caught up in constant debates that the \"rather looney bunch of revolutionaries\" indirectly accept the occupying forces as well as their execution methods as a fate they all have to endure.", "So, in the end, even though they have ample opportunity to rescue Brian, they instead leave Brian on the cross, thanking him for his sacrifice.", "Hardly mentioned in the discussion was the sideswipe at the women's movement, which started to draw a lot of attention in the 1970s.", "In accordance with the language of political activists, resistance fighter Stan wants to exercise \"his right as a man\" to be a woman.", "The group accepts him from that moment on as Loretta, because the right to give birth was not theirs to take.", "Also as a result from that, the term sibling replaces the terms brother or sister.==== Individuality and meaninglessness ====One of the most commented-upon scenes in the film is when Brian tells his followers that they are all individuals and don't need to follow anybody.", "According to Edward Slowik, this is a rare moment in which Monty Python puts a philosophical concept into words so openly and directly.", "''Life of Brian'' accurately depicts the existentialist view that everybody needs to give meaning to their own life.Brian can thus be called an existentialist following the tradition of Friedrich Nietzsche and Jean-Paul Sartre.", "He is honest to himself and others and lives as authentic a life as he can.", "However, Brian is too naïve to be called a hero based on the ideas of Albert Camus.", "For Camus, the search for the meaning of one's own life takes place in a deeply meaningless and abstruse world.", "The \"absurd hero\" rebels against this meaninglessness and at the same time holds on to their goals, although they know their fight leaves no impact in the long run.", "Contrary to that, Brian isn't able to recognize the meaninglessness of his own situation and therefore can't triumph over it.In ''Monty Python and Philosophy'', Kevin Shilbrack states that the fundamental view of the film is that the world is absurd, and every life needs to be lived without a greater meaning.", "He points out that the second-last verse of the song the film finishes on, \"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\", expresses this message clearly:Shilbrack concludes that the finale shows that the executions had no purpose since the deaths were meaningless and no better world was waiting for them.", "On this note, some people would claim that the film presents a nihilistic world view which contradicts any basis of religion.", "However, ''Life of Brian'' offers humour to counterbalance the nihilism, Shilbrack states in his text.", "He comments that \"religion and humour are compatible with each other and you should laugh about the absurdity since you can't fight it.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "===Literature===Spin-offs include a script-book ''The Life of Brian of Nazareth'', which was printed back-to-back with ''MONTYPYTHONSCRAPBOOK'' as a single book.", "The printing of this book also caused problems, due to rarely used laws in the United Kingdom against blasphemy, dictating what can and cannot be written about religion.", "The publisher refused to print both halves of the book, and original prints were by two companies.Julian Doyle, the film's editor, wrote ''The Life of Brian/Jesus'', a book which not only describes the filmmaking and editing process but argues that it is the most accurate Biblical film ever made.", "In October 2008, a memoir by Kim \"Howard\" Johnson titled ''Monty Python's Tunisian Holiday: My Life with Brian'' was released.", "Johnson became friendly with the Pythons during the filming of ''Life of Brian'' and the book is based on his notes and memories of the behind-the-scenes filming and make-up.===Music===With the success of Eric Idle's musical retelling of ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'', called ''Spamalot'', Idle announced that he would be giving ''Life of Brian'' a similar treatment.", "The oratorio, called ''Not the Messiah (He's a Very Naughty Boy)'', was commissioned to be part of the festival called Luminato in Toronto in June 2007, and was written/scored by Idle and John Du Prez, who also worked with Idle on ''Spamalot''.", "''Not the Messiah'' is a spoof of Handel's ''Messiah''.", "It runs approximately 50 minutes, and was conducted at its world premiere by Toronto Symphony Orchestra music director Peter Oundjian, who is Idle's cousin.", "''Not the Messiah'' received its US premiere at the Caramoor International Music Festival in Katonah, New York.", "Oundjian and Idle joined forces once again for a double performance of the oratorio in July 2007.===Other media===In October 2011, BBC Four premiered the made-for-television comedy film ''Holy Flying Circus'', written by Tony Roche and directed by Owen Harris.", "The \"Pythonesque\" film explores the events surrounding the 1979 television debate on talk show ''Friday Night, Saturday Morning'' between John Cleese and Michael Palin and Malcolm Muggeridge and Mervyn Stockwood, then Bishop of Southwark.Rowan Atkinson lampooned the pompous behaviour from the bishop Mervyn Stockwood in the TV debate a week later in a sketch on ''Not the Nine O'Clock News''In a ''Not the Nine O'Clock News'' sketch, a bishop who has directed a scandalous film called ''The Life of Christ'' is hauled over the coals by a representative of the \"Church of Python\", claiming that the film is an attack on \"Our Lord, John Cleese\" and on the members of Python, who, in the sketch, are the objects of Britain's true religious faith.", "This was a parody of the infamous ''Friday Night, Saturday Morning'' programme, broadcast a week previously.", "The bishop (played by Rowan Atkinson) claims that the reaction to the film has surprised him, as he \"didn't expect the Spanish Inquisition.", "\"Radio host John Williams of Chicago's WGN 720 AM has used \"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\" in a segment of his Friday shows.", "The segment is used to highlight good events from the past week in listeners' lives and what has made them smile.", "In the 1997 film ''As Good as It Gets'', the misanthropic character played by Jack Nicholson sings \"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\" as evidence of the character's change in attitude.A BBC history series ''What the Romans Did for Us'', written and presented by Adam Hart-Davis and broadcast in 2000, takes its title from Cleese's rhetorical question \"What have the Romans ever done for us?\"", "in one of the film's scenes.", "(Cleese himself parodied this line in a 1986 BBC advert defending the Television Licence Fee: \"What has the BBC ever given us?", "\").Former British Prime Minister Tony Blair in his Prime Minister's Questions of 3 May 2006 made a shorthand reference to the types of political groups, \"Judean People's Front\" or \"People's Front of Judea\", lampooned in ''Life of Brian''.", "This was in response to a question from the Labour MP David Clelland, asking \"What has the Labour government ever done for us?\"", "– itself a parody of John Cleese's \"What have the Romans ever done for us?", "\"On New Year's Day 2007, and again on New Year's Eve, UK television station Channel 4 dedicated an entire evening to the Monty Python phenomenon, during which an hour-long documentary was broadcast called ''The Secret Life of Brian'' about the making of ''The Life of Brian'' and the controversy that was caused by its release.", "The Pythons featured in the documentary and reflected upon the events that surrounded the film.", "This was followed by a screening of the film itself.", "The documentary (in a slightly extended form) was one of the special features on the 2007 DVD re-release – the \"Immaculate Edition\", also the first Python release on Blu-ray.Most recently, in June 2014 King's College London hosted an academic conference on the film, in which internationally renowned Biblical scholars and historians discussed the film and its reception, looking both at how the Pythons had made use of scholarship and texts, and how the film can be used creatively within modern scholarship on the Historical Jesus.", "In a panel discussion, including Terry Jones and theologian Richard Burridge, John Cleese described the event as \"the most interesting thing to come out of Monty Python\".", "The papers from the conference have gone on to prompt the publication of a book, edited by Joan E. Taylor, the conference organiser, ''Jesus and Brian: Exploring the Historical Jesus and His Times via Monty Python's Life of Brian'', published by Bloomsbury in 2015." ], [ "See also", "* BFI Top 100 British films* List of films considered the best* ''Deux heures moins le quart avant Jésus-Christ''* ''The Book of Clarence''" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* This book chapter discusses the ancient sources which may have been used in the film and its critical take on theology.", "* Hewison, Robert.", "''Monty Python: The Case Against''.", "New York: Grove, 1981..", "This book discusses at length the censorship and controversy surrounding the film.", "* Vintaloro, Giordano.", "''\"Non sono il Messia, lo giuro su Dio!\"", "– Messianismo e modernità in ''Life of Brian'' dei Monty Python''.", "Trieste: Battello Stampatore, 2008.. Italian: ''\"I'm not the Messiah, honestly!\"", "– Messianism and modernity in Monty Python's \"Life of Brian\"''.", "This book analyses the film structure as an hypertext and Brian the Messiah as a modern leader figure.", "* Larsen, Darl.", "''A Book about the Film'' Monty Python's Life of Brian.", "Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2018..* Tatum, W. Barnes.", "''Jesus at the movies''.", "Polebridge Press, Santa Rosa 1997, revised and expanded 2004, S. 149–162, *Hardcastle, Gary L, and George A. Reisch.", "''Monty Python and Philosophy: Nudge Nudge, Think Think!''", "Chicago, Ill: Open Court, 2006.Print.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' film script* – A 2007 documentary about the controversy surrounding the film.", "* ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' an essay by George Perry at the Criterion Collection" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Loglan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Loglan''' is a logical constructed language originally designed for linguistic research, particularly for investigating the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis.", "The language was developed beginning in 1955 by Dr. James Cooke Brown with the goal of making a language so different from natural languages that people learning it would think in a different way if the hypothesis were true.", "In 1960, ''Scientific American'' published an article introducing the language.", "Loglan is the first among, and the main inspiration for, the languages known as logical languages, which also includes Lojban.Brown founded '''The Loglan Institute''' (TLI) to develop the language and other applications of it.", "He always considered the language an incomplete research project, and although he released many publications about its design, he continued to claim legal restrictions on its use.", "Because of this, a group of his followers later formed the Logical Language Group to create the language Lojban along the same principles, but with the intention to make it freely available and encourage its use as a real language.Supporters of Lojban use the term ''Loglan'' as a generic term to refer to both their own language and Brown's ''Loglan'', referred to as \"''TLI Loglan''\" when in need of disambiguation.", "Although the non-trademarkability of the term ''Loglan'' was eventually upheld by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, many supporters and members of The Loglan Institute find this usage offensive and reserve ''Loglan'' for the TLI version of the language." ], [ "Goals", "Loglan (an abbreviation for \"logical language\") was created to investigate whether people speaking a \"logical language\" would in some way think more logically, as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis might predict.", "The language's grammar is based on predicate logic.", "The grammar was intended to be small enough to be teachable and manageable, yet complex enough to allow people to think and converse in the language.Brown intended Loglan to be as culturally neutral as possible and metaphysically parsimonious, which means that obligatory categories are kept to a minimum.", "An example of an obligatory category in English is the time-tense of verbs, as it is impossible to express a finite verb without also expressing a tense.Brown also intended the language to be completely regular and unambiguous.", "Each sentence can be parsed in only one way.", "Furthermore, the syllabic structure of words was designed so that a sequence of syllables can be separated into words in only one way, even if the word separation is not clear from pauses in speech.", "It has a small number of phonemes, so that regional \"accents\" are less likely to produce unintelligible speech.", "To make the vocabulary easier to learn, words were constructed to have elements in common with related words in the world's eight most widely spoken languages." ], [ "Alphabet and pronunciation", "The alphabet of Loglan has two historical versions.", "In that of 1975 there were only 21 letters with their corresponding phonemes.", "In the final version of 1989 five more phonemes had been incorporated: letter H (/h/) was added to the alphabet in 1977 by popular demand; letter Y (/ə/) was added in 1982 to work as a kind of hyphen between the terms of a complex word; letters Q (/θ/), W (/y/) and X (/x/) were added in 1986 in order to allow the incorporation of the Linnaean vocabulary of biology, and they were useful to give more exact pronunciations to many borrowed names.+ Loglan alphabetCapital lettersABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZLower caseabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzIPA phonemesabʃdɛfghi / jʒklmnopθɹstu / wvyxəz+ Loglan consonant phonemes Labial Dental Alveolar Palato-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal M N Plosive voiceless P T K voiced B D G Fricative voiceless F Q S C X H voiced V Z J Approximant U L I Rhotic R + Loglan vowel phonemes Front Central Back Close unrounded I rounded W U Mid E Y O Open A *The letters I and U when placed before vowels represent the IPA sounds /j/ and /w/ respectively.", "For example: '''ie''' /je/ (''\"what?", "\"''), '''ue''' /we/ (''\"what!\"''", "as an expression of surprise or interest)." ], [ "Grammar", "Loglan has three types of words: ''predicates'' (also called ''content words''), ''structure words'' (also called ''little words''), and ''names''.", "The majority of words are predicates; these are words that carry meaning.", "Structure words are words that modify predicates or show how they are related to each other, like English conjunctions and prepositions.", "The class of a word can be determined from its form.", "A predicate has always two or more syllables, the last syllable being of the form CV, and the other syllables being of the form CVC or CCV.", "Thus, possible predicates are \"kanto\", \"stari\", \"simgroma\", \"nirpatretka\", and so on.", "A structure word has always one or more syllables, each syllable being one of the four forms V, VV, CV, or CVV.", "Thus possible structure words are \"e\", \"ai\", \"ga\", \"kia\", \"lemio\", \"inorau\" and so on.", "A name may have any form but always ends with a consonant, which distinguishes names from other words, since predicates and structure words always end in a vowel.", "Names in Loglan are spelled in accordance with Loglan phonetics, so if the name comes from another language, the Loglan spelling may differ from the spelling in that language.", "If a name in its native language ends in a vowel, it is conventional to add an \"s\" to form the Loglan name; for example, the English name \"Mary\" is rendered in Loglan as \"Meris\" (pronounced /ˈmɛriːs/).=== Predicates ===Loglan makes no distinction between nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.", "A predicate may act as any of these, depending on its position in a sentence.", "Each predicate has its own argument structure with fixed positions for arguments.", "For example: ''vedma'' is the word for \"sell\".", "It takes four arguments: the seller, the item sold, the buyer and the price, in that order.", "When a predicate is used as a verb, the first argument appears before the predicate, and any subsequent arguments appear after it.", "So \"S pa vedma T B P\" means \"S sold T to B for price P\".", "(The structure word \"pa\" is the past-tense marker, discussed in more detail below.)", "Not all arguments need to be present; for example, \"S pa vedma T B\" means \"S sold T to B\", \"S pa vedma T\" means \"S sold T\", and \"S pa vedma\" simply means \"S sold (something)\".Certain structure words can be used to reorder the arguments of a predicate, to emphasize one of the arguments by putting it first.", "For example, \"nu\" swaps the first and second arguments of any predicate.", "So \"T pa nu vedma S\" means the same thing as \"S pa vedma T\" and might be translated \"T was sold by S\".", "Similarly, \"fu\" swaps the first and third argument, and \"ju\" swaps the first and fourth argument.", "Thus \"B pa fu vedma T S\" = \"B bought T from S\", and \"P pa ju vedma T B\" = \"P was paid to buy T by B\".=== Arguments ===The structure word \"le\" makes a predicate behave as a noun, so that it can be used as an argument of another predicate.", "The three-place predicate \"matma\" means \"M is the mother of C by father F\", so \"le matma\" means \"the mother\".", "Thus \"Le matma pa vedma\" means \"the mother sold (something)\", while \"Le vedma pa matma\" means \"the seller was a mother (of someone)\".A name can be used as an argument by preceding it with the structure word \"la\".", "Thus \"La Adam vedma\" means \"Adam sells\".", "Unlike in English and many other languages, this structure word is required; an unadorned name cannot be used as an argument.", "(The sentence \"Adam vedma\" is an imperative meaning \"Adam, sell (something).\"", "In this case, the name is used as a vocative, not as an argument.)", "A name, or any other word or phrase, can be explicitly quoted with the structure words \"li\" and \"lu\" to use the word itself, rather than the thing that word refers to, as an argument.", "Thus \"Li Adam lu corta purda\" means \"''Adam'' is a short word.\"", "Without the li/lu quotes, the sentence \"La Adam corta purda\" (\"Adam is a short word\") would claim that Adam, the person himself, is a short word.=== Predicate modifiers ===Any predicate can be used as an adjective or adverb by placing the predicate before the expression that it modifies.", "The predicate \"sadji\" means \"X is wiser than Y about Z\".", "So \"Le sadji matma pa vedma\" means \"The wise mother sold\", and \"Le matma vedma pa sadji\" means \"The motherly seller was wise\".", "Predicates can be used adverbially to modify the main predicate in the sentence in the same way.", "So \"Le matma pa sadji vedma\" means \"The mother wisely sold\".", "The structure word \"go\" can be used to invert the normal word order, so that the modifier follows the expression being modified.", "Thus \"le matma go sadji\" (the mother who is wise) means the same as \"le sadji matma\" (the wise mother).A string of more than two predicates is left-associative.", "This grouping can be changed by using the structure word \"ge\", which groups what follows into a single unit.", "Thus Loglan can distinguish between the many possible meanings of the ambiguous English phrase \"the pretty little girls' school\", as in these examples:* \"le bilti cmalo nirli ckela\" = the ((pretty little) girls') schoolthe school for girls who are beautifully small;* \"le bilti cmalo ge nirli ckela\" = the (pretty little) (girls' school)the school that is beautifully small for a girls' school;* \"le bilti ge cmalo nirli ckela\" = the pretty ((little girls') school)the school that is beautiful for a small-girls' school;* \"le bilti ge cmalo ge nirli ckela\" = the pretty (little (girls' school))the school that is beautiful for a small type of girls'-school.Predicates can be modified to indicate the time at which something occurred (English tense) with the optional structure words \"na\" (present), \"pa\" (past) and \"fa\" (future).", "Thus \"Le matma na vedma\" means \"The mother is (now) selling\", while \"Le matma fa vedma\" means \"The mother will sell\".", "Marking the verb for tense is optional, so the word \"ga\" can be used when the time is not being specified.", "So \"Le matma ga vedma\" means \"The mother sells (at some unspecified time in the past, present or future)\".=== Free variables ===A set of structure words called ''free variables'' are used like English pronouns, but are designed to avoid the ambiguity of pronouns in such sentences as \"Adam told Greg that he needed to leave.\"", "The free variable \"da\" refers to the most recently mentioned noun, \"de\" refers to the one mentioned prior to that, \"di\" to the one prior to that, and so on.", "Compare the sentences* \"La Adam pa vedma le negda la Greg i '''da''' gacpi\" = Adam sold the egg to Greg; '''he''' (Greg) was happy.", "* \"La Adam pa vedma le negda la Greg i '''di''' gacpi\" = Adam sold the egg to Greg; '''he''' (Adam) was happy.Free variables apply equally to people of any gender and inanimate objects; there is no distinction similar to that between English \"he\", \"she\" and \"it\".", "This explains why \"di\" rather than \"de\" was used in the second example.", "\"La Adam pa vedma le negda la Greg i '''de''' gacpi\" would mean \"Adam sold the egg to Greg; '''it''' (the egg) was happy.", "\"=== Conjunctions ===Loglan has several sets of conjunctions to express the fourteen possible logical connectives.", "One set is used to combine predicate expressions (\"e\" = and, \"a\" = inclusive or, \"o\" = if and only if), and another set is used to combine predicates to make more complex predicates (\"ce\", \"ca\", \"co\").", "The sentence \"La Kim matma e sadji\" means \"Kim is a mother and is wise\", while \"La Kim matma ce sadji vedma\" means \"Kim is a motherly and wise seller\", or \"Kim sells in a motherly and wise manner\".", "In the latter sentence, \"ce\" is used to combine matma and sadji into one predicate which modifies vedma.", "The sentence \"La Kim matma e sadji vedma\", using \"e\" rather than \"ce\", would mean \"Kim is a mother and wisely sells.", "\"Other logical connectives are based on the elementary connectives \"e\", \"a\" and \"o\", along with the negation word \"no\".", "For example, logical implication is indicated by the word \"noa\".", "The word is chosen to make it easy for a Loglan speaker to see that \"A noa B\" is logically equivalent to \"no A a B\".", "Brown argues that it is thus easier in Loglan than in English to see that two sentences like these are different ways of saying the same thing:* \"La Kim ga sadji noa fa vedma da.\"", "= If Kim is wise, she will sell it.", "* \"La Kim ga no sadji a fa vedma da.\"", "= Kim is not wise, and/or she will sell it.The conjunction \"a\" expresses the inclusive-or relation; that is, one of the two alternatives is true, or possibly both.", "The exclusive-or relation, in which only one of the alternatives is true, but not both, is expressed by a different word, \"onoi\".", "Again, the word is chosen to make clear the logical equivalence of \"A o no B\" and \"A onoi B\":* \"Tu fa titci o no tu fa morce.\"", "= You will eat if and only if you do not die.", "* \"Tu fa titci onoi tu fa morce.\"", "= You will eat, or you will die.A special conjunction \"ze\" is used to create a \"mixed\" predicate which may be true even if it is not necessarily true for either of the component predicates.", "For example, \"Le negda ga nigro ze blabi\" means \"The egg is black-and-white\".", "This would be true if the egg were striped or speckled; in that case it would not be true that the egg is black nor that it is white.", "On the other hand, \"Le negda ga nigro e blabi\" would make the claim that \"The egg is black and (it is also) white\".=== Attitude indicators ===There is a set of words used for expressing attitudes about what one is saying, which convey conviction, intention, obligation and emotion.", "These words follow what they modify, but when used at the start of a sentence, they modify the entire sentence.", "For example:* \"Ae le matma pa sadji\" = Hopefully, the mother was wise.", "* \"Ui le matma pa sadji\" = Happily, the mother was wise.", "* \"Ou le matma pa sadji\" = It doesn't matter whether the mother was wise." ], [ "In popular culture", "Loglan was mentioned in a couple of science fiction works: Robert A. Heinlein's well-known books, including ''The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress'' and ''The Number of the Beast'', Robert Rimmer's utopian book ''Love Me Tomorrow'' (1978) and Stanisław Lem novel ''His Master's Voice''.Loglan's inventor, James Cooke Brown, also wrote a utopian science fiction novel called ''The Troika Incident'' (1970) that uses Loglan phrases but calls the language a different name, \"Panlan\".Loglan is used as the official interspecies language in the roleplaying game ''FTL:2448''." ], [ "Archival collection", "Archival material related to the creation and teaching of Loglan, including flashcards and grammar explanations, can be found in the Faith Rich Papers, located at Chicago Public Library Special Collections, Chicago, Illinois." ], [ "See also", "* Constructed language* Linguistics* Lojban* Comparison between Lojban and Loglan* Philosophy of language* Sapir–Whorf hypothesis* Faith Rich" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Loglan Institute homepage* Randall Holmes's Loglan page: this contains current resources and projects.", "* Loglandia.", "A Discord chat channel supporting the development of Loglan." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Leucippus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leucippus''' (; , ''Leúkippos''; ) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher.", "He is traditionally credited as the founder of atomism, which he developed with his student Democritus.", "Leucippus divided the world into two entities: atoms, indivisible particles that make up all things, and the void, the nothingness that exists between the atoms.", "He developed his philosophy as a response to the Eleatics, who believed that all things are one and the void does not exist.", "Leucippus's ideas were influential in ancient and Renaissance philosophy.", "His philosophy was a precursor to modern atomic theory, but the two only superficially resemble one another.Leucippus's atoms come in infinitely many forms and exist in constant motion.", "This creates a deterministic world in which everything is caused by the collisions of atoms.", "Leucippus described the beginning of the cosmos as a vortex of atoms that formed the Earth, the Sun, the stars, and other celestial bodies.", "As Leucippus considered atoms and the void to be infinite, he presumed that other worlds must exist as cosmoses are formed elsewhere.", "Leucippus and Democritus described the soul as an arrangement of spherical atoms, which are cycled through the body through respiration and create thought and sensory input.The only records of Leucippus come from Aristotle and Theophrastus, ancient philosophers who lived after Leucippus, and little is known of his life.", "Most scholars agree that Leucippus existed, but some have questioned his existence, instead attributing his ideas purely to Democritus.", "Contemporary philosophers rarely distinguish their respective ideas.", "Two works are attributed to Leucippus (''The Great World System'' and ''On Mind''), but all of his writing has been lost with the exception of one sentence." ], [ "Life", "Almost nothing is known about the life of Leucippus.", "He was born in the first half of the 5th century BCE, and he presumably developed the philosophy of atomism during the 430s BCE, but the exact dates are unknown.", "Though he was a contemporary of the philosopher Socrates, Leucippus is categorized as a pre-Socratic philosopher because he continued the pre-Socratic tradition of physical inquiry that began with the Milesian philosophers.", "Leucippus is traditionally understood to have been a student of Zeno of Elea, though various ancient records have suggested Melissus of Samos, Parmenides, and Pythagoras as possible instructors of Leucippus.", "No students of Leucippus have been confirmed other than Democritus.", "Epicurus has been described as a student of Leucippus, but Epicurus has also been recorded denying the existence of Leucippus.Miletus, Elea, and Abdera have all been suggested as places where Leucippus lived, but these are most likely described as his home city because of their associations with other philosophers: Miletus was associated with the Ionian School that influenced Leucippus, Elea was associated with the Eleatic philosophers whom Leucippus challenged, and Abdera was the home of his student Democritus.", "Some 20th century classicists such as Walther Kranz and John Burnet have suggested that he lived in all three cities—that he was born in Miletus before studying under Zeno in Elea and then settling in Abdera." ], [ "Philosophy", "=== Atoms ===Leucippus is credited with developing the philosophical school of atomism.", "He proposed that all things are made up of microscopic, indivisible particles that interact and combine to produce all the things of the world.", "The atoms postulated by Leucippus come in infinitely many shapes and sizes, although the size and shape of each atom is fixed and unchanging.", "They are in a state of constant motion and continuously change arrangements with one another.", "He reasoned that there must be infinite types of atoms because there is no reason why there should not be.According to the 4th century BCE philosopher Aristotle, Leucippus argued that logically there must be indivisible points in everything.", "His reasoning was that if an object was made entirely of divisible points, then it would not have any structure and it would be intangible.", "Leucippus developed atomism along with his student, Democritus; while Leucippus is credited with the philosophy's creation, Democritus is understood to have applied it to natural phenomena on a larger scale.Two works are attributed to Leucippus: ''The Great World System'' and ''On Mind''.", "The former may have originally been titled ''The World System'' and then later renamed to avoid confusion with Democritus's ''The Little World System''.", "Leucippus's ''The Great World System'' has sometimes been attributed to Democritus.", "Only one extant fragment is attributed to Leucippus, taken from ''On Mind'': \"Nothing happens at random, but everything for a reason and by necessity\".", "Leucippus believed that all things must happen deterministically, as the positions and motions of the atoms guarantee that they will collide in a certain way, invoking the principle of causality.", "This was reminiscent of the 6th century BCE philosopher Anaximander's argument that movement is created by differences, and it was later codified by the 17th century philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz with the principle of sufficient reason.", "Leucippus rejected the idea that there was an intelligent force governing the universe.=== Eleatics and the void ===Leucippus's atomism was a direct response to Eleatic philosophy.", "The Eleatics believed that nothingness, or the void, cannot exist in its own right.", "They concluded that if there is no void, then there is no motion and all things must be one.", "Leucippus agreed with their logic, but he said that the void did exist, and he was therefore able to accept the existence of motion and plurality.", "Like the Eleatics, Leucippus believed that everything exists in an eternal state and nothing can come into or out of existence, applying this to both atoms and the void.", "Aristotle described Leucippus as saying that atoms are not an addition to the void, but that atoms and the void are two opposites that exist beside one another.", "The 6th century CE philosopher Simplicius of Cilicia also wrote about this idea, but he attributed it to Democritus.", "According to the Roman philosopher Lactantius, Leucippus compared atoms to the particles of floating dust that are visible in sunlight.Leucippus's atomism kept the concepts of reality developed by the Eleatics, but it applied them to a physical explanation of the world.", "By moving away from the abstract points and units of geometry, he formed a possible solution to the paradoxes of motion created by Zeno of Elea, which held that indivisibility made motion impossible.", "Leucippus also contested the Eleatic argument against divisibility: that any divider between two objects can also be divided.", "He argued that the void is a divider that does not have being and therefore cannot be divided.", "Though Leucippus described atoms as being able to touch one another, Aristotle understood this to mean atoms being near one another, as Leucippus maintained that the void must exist between all atoms.=== Soul and perception ===Leucippus and Democritus proposed that heat, fire, and the soul are made of spherical atoms, as this shape would let them move past one another and cause the others to move more efficiently.", "They believed in a physical soul that drives motion in living things, and they described respiration as the process of expelling soul atoms and absorbing new ones.", "Death then coincides with the last breath, as soul atoms are no longer being replenished.", "Sleep is a similar state in which a reduced number of soul atoms are in the body.Leucippus was the first philosopher to describe a theory of thought and perception.", "He described sensory input as a transfer between atoms, created when external atoms come into contact with the atoms of the soul.", "Leucippus said that sight is caused by a film of atoms emitted from an object, maintaining the shapes of its atoms and creating a reflection of the object in the viewer's eye.", "His description of vision was inspired by Empedocles, who formed a similar concept of objects emitting films of themselves.", "Leucippus posited that concepts such as color and texture are created by different arrangements of atoms, and that abstract concepts such as justice and wisdom are produced through the arrangement of soul atoms.According to Epiphanius, Leucippus said that reasoned knowledge is impossible to obtain and only unreasoned belief exists.", "The 21st century biographer Constantine Vamvacas said that it was the Eleatic philosopher Parmenides who held this belief, and that Leucippus disagreed.", "He wrote that Leucippus and Democritus \"believe that sense experience, however limited, constitutes objective knowledge of the physical world\".", "The 21st century scholar C. C. W. Taylor said that \"we have no evidence to suggest that Leucippus was concerned with epistemological questions\".=== Cosmology ===Leucippus said that the void extends infinitely, expanding across the entire universe.", "He also said that there is an infinite number of atoms, spread across the void.", "The Earth and the cosmos—including the Sun, the Moon, the stars, and anything else visible in the night sky—exist together in the void.Leucippus said that the cosmos was created when a large group of atoms came together and swirled as a vortex.", "They shifted around each other until they were sorted \"like to like\".", "The larger atoms gathered in the center while the smaller ones were pushed to the edge.", "The smaller atoms became the celestial bodies of the cosmos.", "The larger atoms in the center came together as a membrane from which the Earth was formed.", "Ancient biographers disagreed about what Leucippus meant when he described the membrane: Aetius said that the smaller atoms were part of the membrane, encasing the larger atoms, but Diogenes Laertius said that the larger atoms formed a membrane themselves and the smaller ones were excluded.", "Leucippus also believed that there were distant cosmoses in other parts of the void; this makes him the first known philosopher to propose the existence of other worlds besides Earth, though some ancient doxographers have attributed these ideas to the earlier Ionian philosophers.Like other pre-Socratic philosophers, Leucippus believed that the Earth was in the center of the cosmos.", "He said that the other celestial bodies orbited around the Earth, with the Moon being the closest to the Earth and the Sun being the farthest.", "He described the stars as orbiting the fastest.", "While initially \"moist and muddy\", the stars dried and then ignited.Leucippus adopted the idea of the Ionian philosophers that the Earth is flat.", "According to Aetius, Leucippus thought of the Earth as \"drum-shaped\", with a flat surface and some degree of depth.", "He said that the flat Earth is tilted on its horizontal axis so that the south is lower than the north, explaining that the northern region is colder than the southern region, and the cold compacted air of the north can better support the Earth's weight than the warm rarefied air of the south.", "Aetius also tells of Leucippus's explanation for thunder: that it is caused by fire being compressed in clouds and then bursting out.Many early philosophers were confused by the fact that earthly objects fell downward while celestial objects moved in a curved trajectory.", "This prompted many of them to believe in a non-earthly substance that composes the celestial bodies.", "With his model of the cosmos, Leucippus was able to justify why these entities move differently even though they are made of the same substance.", "Leucippus gave no explanation for how motion began, for which he was criticized by Aristotle.", "It is unclear whether Leucippus considered vorticies to arise by chance or as a deterministic outcome." ], [ "Legacy", "A 1773 line engraving of Leucippus=== Ancient Greece ===Modern understanding of Leucippus's role in the development of atomism comes from the writings of the ancient Greek philosophers Aristotle and Theophrastus.", "Aristotle's 4th century BCE record of Leucippus and Democritus's philosophy is the oldest surviving source on the subject, thought he did not distinguish who developed which atomist ideas.", "Aetius also wrote a history of Leucippus, but it was well after Leucippus's own time and derivative of previous writings on the subject.", "Some later histories of philosophy omitted Leucippus entirely.", "Since ancient times, Leucippus has languished in obscurity compared to Democritus, and since the earliest records it has been common practice to consider the atomist ideas of Leucippus and Democritus collectively rather than attempting to distinguish them.The atomist philosophy of Leucippus and Democritus influenced Greek philosophy for centuries, particularly in the work of Aristotle and Epicurus.", "Aristotle was critical of atomism.", "He questioned why stone should fall but fire should rise if they are both made of the same material.", "According to Diogenes Laertius, Diogenes of Apollonia's interpretation of the void may have been inspired by Leucippus.", "Plato explored cosmological ideas similar to those of Leucippus in the dialogue ''Timaeus''.=== Modern era ===Ancient atomism was revived in the 16th and 17th centuries, when Pierre Gassendi was its most prominent advocate.", "It was influential in the development of early atomic theories in the 18th and 19th centuries, and Leucippus's theory of change regarding the movement of atoms was generally accepted in physics until the early 20th century.Two major systems have been created to distinguish Leucippus and Democritus.", "The 20th century philosopher developed a set of distinctions between Leucippus and Democritus: he proposed that Leucippus was responsible for the atomist response to the Eleatics while Democritus responded to the Sophists and that Leucippus was a cosmologist while Democritus was a polymath.", "The 20th century classicist Cyril Bailey proposed another system to differentiate the two philosophers, attributing atomism and belief in the void to Leucippus while attributing ''The Great Cosmology'' to Democritus as an application of Leucippus's philosophy.", "Unlike Democritus, Leucippus is only known to have studied cosmology and physics.Modern philosophy generally takes more interest in Leucippus's concept of atoms than his cosmology.", "The ideas originating from Leucippus are a precedent for modern atomic theory, although the two theories only resemble each other superficially.", "Leucippus's philosophy was conjecture based on ''a priori'' evidence, while modern atomic theory is supported by empirical evidence found through the scientific method.", "The main practical difference between Leucippus's atomism and modern atomic theory is introduction of non-tangible phenomena such as mass–energy equivalence and fundamental forces.", "Instead of the purely material atoms of Leucippus, modern atomic theory shows that fundamental forces combine subatomic particles into atoms and link atoms together into molecules.", "The 20th century physicist Werner Heisenberg argued that Plato's theory of forms was closer to the 20th century understanding of physics than Leucippus's conception of atoms, saying that modern atoms are more like the intangible Platonic forms than the discrete material units of Leucippus.=== Historicity ===According to Diogenes Laertius, Epicurus alleged that Leucippus never existed—an allegation that triggered extensive philosophical debate.", "Most modern philosophers agree that Leucippus existed, but there is disagreement on whether his work can be meaningfully distinguished from that of Democritus.", "In 2008, the philosopher Daniel Graham wrote that no significant work on the historicity of Leucippus has been produced since the early 20th century, arguing that \"recent scholarship tends to avoid the question as much as possible\".Scholars who maintain that Leucippus existed argue that he only taught orally or that any written works he produced were never meant for publication.", "The 20th century classicist John Burnet proposed an alternate reading of Epicurus's claims, according to which Epicurus may have been saying that Leucippus was not worth discussing as a philosopher, not that he literally did not exist.", "Supporting this argument is that Epicurus considered ethics to be foundational to philosophy, and Leucippus had no teachings on that subject.", "Among scholars who argue against Leucippus's existence, alternate ideas have been proposed: Leucippus may have been a pseudonym of Democritus, or he may have been a character in a dialogue.", "Modern scholars who have rejected the existence of Leucippus include Erwin Rohde, Paul Natorp, Paul Tannery, P. Bokownew, , , , and Wilhelm Nestle.The existence of Leucippus was an issue in 19th century German philosophy, where it spawned a debate between Rohde, Natorp, and Hermann Alexander Diels.", "Rhode believed that even in the time of Epicurus there was no evidence of Leucippus's existence, and there was therefore no purpose in attributing the atomism of Democritus to an unknown figure such as Leucippus, rejecting Theophrastus's account.", "Natorp likewise rejected that Diogenes of Apollonia was preceded by Leucippus.", "Diels affirmed the account of Theophrastus and produced writings criticizing Rhode and Natorp.", "Such was the problem's enormity that it was given its own name in German: ()." ], [ "Works", "Two works are attributed to Leucippus.", "* (; translated as ''The Great World System'', ''The Great Cosmology'', or ''The Great World Order'')* (; translated as ''On Mind'') – This work includes the only surviving fragment written by Leucippus: ()." ], [ "See also", "* Kanada – An ancient Indian philosopher who also developed an early atomist philosophy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "League of Nations" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''League of Nations''' ( ) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.", "It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War.", "The main organization ceased operations on 20 April 1946 when many of its components were relocated into the new United Nations.", "As the template for modern global governance, the League profoundly shaped the modern world.The League's primary goals were stated in its Covenant.", "They included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.", "Its other concerns included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.", "The Covenant of the League of Nations was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, and it became effective with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920.Australia was granted the right to participate as an autonomous member nation, marking the start of Australian independence on the global stage.", "The first meeting of the Council of the League took place on 16 January 1920, and the first meeting of the Assembly of the League took place on 15 November 1920.In 1919, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role as the leading architect of the League.The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years.", "The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious Allies of World War I (Britain, France, Italy and Japan were the initial permanent members of the Executive Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed.", "The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so.", "Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them.", "During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that \"the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out.", "\"At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members.", "After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s.", "The credibility of the organization was weakened by the fact that the United States never joined, and Japan and Germany quit in 1933–1934.Italy quit in 1937.The Soviet Union only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 after invading Finland.", "Furthermore, the League demonstrated an irresolute approach to sanction enforcement for fear it might only spark further conflict, further decreasing its credibility.", "One example of this hesitancy was the Abyssinia Crisis, in which Italy's sanctions were only limited from the outset (coal and oil were not restricted), and later altogether abandoned despite Italy being declared the aggressors in the conflict.", "The onset of the Second World War in 1939 showed that the League had failed its primary purpose; it was largely inactive until its abolition.", "The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it in 1946 and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League.Current scholarly consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its main goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security, giving a voice to smaller nations; fostered economic stabilization and financial stability, especially in Central Europe in the 1920s; helped to raise awareness of problems like epidemics, slavery, child labour, colonial tyranny, refugee crises and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation.", "Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were \"institutionalised\", as opposed to the pre-First World War methods of law and politics." ], [ "Origins", "===Background===1864 Geneva Convention, one of the earliest formulations of international lawThe concept of a peaceful community of nations had been proposed as early as 1795, when Immanuel Kant's ''Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch'' outlined the idea of a league of nations to control conflict and promote peace between states.", "Kant argued for the establishment of a peaceful world community, not in a sense of a global government, but in the hope that each state would declare itself a free state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings, thus promoting peaceful society worldwide.", "International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the Napoleonic Wars in the 19th century in an attempt to maintain the ''status quo'' between European states and so avoid war.By 1910, international law developed, with the first Geneva Conventions establishing laws dealing with humanitarian relief during wartime, and the international Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes.", "Theodore Roosevelt at the acceptance for his Nobel Prize in 1910, said: \"it would be a masterstroke if those great powers honestly bent on peace would form a League of Peace.", "\"One small forerunner of the League of Nations, the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), was formed by the peace activists William Randal Cremer and Frédéric Passy in 1889 (and is currently still in existence as an international body with a focus on the various elected legislative bodies of the world).", "The IPU was founded with an international scope, with a third of the members of parliaments (in the 24 countries that had parliaments) serving as members of the IPU by 1914.Its foundational aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means.", "Annual conferences were established to help governments refine the process of international arbitration.", "Its structure was designed as a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League.===Plans and proposals===At the start of the First World War, the first schemes for an international organisation to prevent future wars began to gain considerable public support, particularly in Great Britain and the United States.", "Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British political scientist, coined the term \"League of Nations\" in 1914 and drafted a scheme for its organisation.", "Together with Lord Bryce, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the Bryce Group, later the League of Nations Union.", "The group became steadily more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then-governing Liberal Party.", "In Dickinson's 1915 pamphlet ''After the War'' he wrote of his \"League of Peace\" as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation.", "He felt that the secret diplomacy of the early twentieth century had brought about war, and thus, could write that, \"the impossibility of war, I believe, would be increased in proportion as the issues of foreign policy should be known to and controlled by public opinion.\"", "The 'Proposals' of the Bryce Group were circulated widely, both in England and the US, where they had a profound influence on the nascent international movement.In January 1915, a peace conference directed by Jane Addams was held in the neutral United States.", "The delegates adopted a platform calling for creation of international bodies with administrative and legislative powers to develop a \"permanent league of neutral nations\" to work for peace and disarmament.", "Within months, a call was made for an international women's conference to be held in The Hague.", "Coordinated by Mia Boissevain, Aletta Jacobs and Rosa Manus, the congress, which opened on 28 April 1915 was attended by 1,136 participants from neutral nations, and resulted in the establishment of an organization which would become the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF).", "At the close of the conference, two delegations of women were dispatched to meet European heads of state over the next several months.", "They secured agreement from reluctant foreign ministers, who overall felt that such a body would be ineffective, but agreed to participate in or not impede creation of a neutral mediating body, if other nations agreed and if President Woodrow Wilson would initiate a body.", "In the midst of the War, Wilson refused.", "The League to Enforce Peace published this full-page promotion in ''The New York Times'' on Christmas Day 1918.It resolved that the League \"should ensure peace by eliminating causes of dissension, by deciding controversies by peaceable means, and by uniting the potential force of all the members as a standing menace against any nation that seeks to upset the peace of the world\".In 1915, a similar body to the Bryce Group was set up in the United States led by former president William Howard Taft.", "It was called the League to Enforce Peace.", "It advocated the use of arbitration in conflict resolution and the imposition of sanctions on aggressive countries.", "None of these early organisations envisioned a continuously functioning body; with the exception of the Fabian Society in England, they maintained a legalistic approach that would limit the international body to a court of justice.", "The Fabians were the first to argue for a \"council\" of states, necessarily the Great Powers, who would adjudicate world affairs, and for the creation of a permanent secretariat to enhance international co-operation across a range of activities.In the course of the diplomatic efforts surrounding World War I, both sides had to clarify their long-term war aims.", "By 1916 in Britain, fighting on the side of the Allies, and in the neutral United States, long-range thinkers had begun to design a unified international organisation to prevent future wars.", "Historian Peter Yearwood argues that when the new coalition government of David Lloyd George took power in December 1916, there was widespread discussion among intellectuals and diplomats of the desirability of establishing such an organisation.", "When Lloyd George was challenged by Wilson to state his position with an eye on the postwar situation, he endorsed such an organisation.", "Wilson himself included in his Fourteen Points in January 1918 a \"league of nations to ensure peace and justice.\"", "British foreign secretary, Arthur Balfour, argued that, as a condition of durable peace, \"behind international law, and behind all treaty arrangements for preventing or limiting hostilities, some form of international sanction should be devised which would give pause to the hardiest aggressor.", "\"The war had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage.", "Several empires collapsed: first the Russian Empire in February 1917, followed by the German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire and Ottoman Empire.", "Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as \"the war to end all wars\", and its possible causes were vigorously investigated.", "The causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit.", "One proposed remedy was the creation of an international organisation whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage war, and penalties that made war unattractive.In London Balfour commissioned the first official report into the matter in early 1918, under the initiative of Lord Robert Cecil.", "The British committee was finally appointed in February 1918.It was led by Walter Phillimore (and became known as the Phillimore Committee), but also included Eyre Crowe, William Tyrrell, and Cecil Hurst.", "The recommendations of the so-called Phillimore Commission included the establishment of a \"Conference of Allied States\" that would arbitrate disputes and impose sanctions on offending states.", "The proposals were approved by the British government, and much of the commission's results were later incorporated into the Covenant of the League of Nations.The French authorities also drafted a much more far-reaching proposal in June 1918; they advocated annual meetings of a council to settle all disputes, as well as an \"international army\" to enforce its decisions.", "On his December 1918 trip to Europe, Woodrow Wilson gave speeches that \"reaffirmed that the making of peace and the creation of a League of Nations must be accomplished as one single objective\".American President Woodrow Wilson instructed Edward M. House to draft a US plan which reflected Wilson's own idealistic views (first articulated in the Fourteen Points of January 1918), as well as the work of the Phillimore Commission.", "The outcome of House's work and Wilson's own first draft proposed the termination of \"unethical\" state behaviour, including forms of espionage and dishonesty.", "Methods of compulsion against recalcitrant states would include severe measures, such as \"blockading and closing the frontiers of that power to commerce or intercourse with any part of the world and to use any force that may be necessary...\"The two principal drafters and architects of the covenant of the League of Nations were the British politician Lord Robert Cecil and the South African statesman Jan Smuts.", "Smuts's proposals included the creation of a council of the great powers as permanent members and a non-permanent selection of the minor states.", "He also proposed the creation of a mandate system for captured colonies of the Central Powers during the war.", "Cecil focused on the administrative side and proposed annual council meetings and quadrennial meetings for the Assembly of all members.", "He also argued for a large and permanent secretariat to carry out the League's administrative duties.According to historian Patricia Clavin, Lord Cecil and the British continued their leadership of the development of a rules-based global order into the 1920s and 1930s, with a primary focus on the League of Nations.", "The British goal was to systematize and normalize the economic and social relations between states, markets, and civil society.", "They gave priority to business and banking issues, but also considered the needs of ordinary women, children and the family as well.", "They moved beyond high-level intellectual discussions, and set up local organizations to support the League.", "The British were particularly active in setting up junior branches for secondary students.The League of Nations was relatively more universal and inclusive in its membership and structure than previous international organisations, but the organisation enshrined racial hierarchy by curtailing the right to self-determination and prevented decolonization.===Establishment===Participants of the Inter-Allied Women's Conference, 1919, \"They got Equality for Women in the League of Nations\"In 1924, the headquarters of the League in Geneva (formerly ) was named \"Palais Wilson\" after Woodrow Wilson, credited as the \"Founder of the League of Nations\"At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Wilson, Cecil and Smuts all put forward their draft proposals.", "After lengthy negotiations between the delegates, the Hurst–Miller draft was finally produced as a basis for the Covenant.", "After more negotiation and compromise, the delegates finally approved of the proposal to create the League of Nations (, ) on 25 January 1919.The final Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, signed on 28 June 1919.French women's rights advocates invited international feminists to participate in a parallel conference to the Paris Conference in hopes that they could gain permission to participate in the official conference.", "The Inter-Allied Women's Conference asked to be allowed to submit suggestions to the peace negotiations and commissions and were granted the right to sit on commissions dealing specifically with women and children.", "Though they asked for enfranchisement and full legal protection under the law equal with men, those rights were ignored.", "Women won the right to serve in all capacities, including as staff or delegates in the League of Nations organization.", "They also won a declaration that member nations should prevent trafficking of women and children and should equally support humane conditions for children, women and men labourers.", "At the Zürich Peace Conference held between 17 and 19 May 1919, the women of the WILPF condemned the terms of the Treaty of Versailles for both its punitive measures, as well as its failure to provide for condemnation of violence and exclusion of women from civil and political participation.", "Upon reading the Rules of Procedure for the League of Nations, Catherine Marshall, a British suffragist, discovered that the guidelines were completely undemocratic and they were modified based on her suggestion.The League would be made up of a General Assembly (representing all member states), an Executive Council (with membership limited to major powers), and a permanent secretariat.", "Member states were expected to \"respect and preserve as against external aggression\" the territorial integrity of other members and to disarm \"to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety.\"", "All states were required to submit complaints for arbitration or judicial inquiry before going to war.", "The Executive Council would create a Permanent Court of International Justice to make judgements on the disputes.Despite Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1919, the United States never joined.", "Senate Republicans led by Henry Cabot Lodge wanted a League with the reservation that only Congress could take the U.S. into war.", "Lodge gained a majority of Senators and Wilson refused to allow a compromise.", "The Senate voted on the ratification on 19 March 1920, and the 49–35 vote fell short of the needed 2/3 majority.The League held its first council meeting in Paris on 16 January 1920, six days after the Versailles Treaty and the Covenant of the League of Nations came into force.", "On 1 November 1920, the headquarters of the League was moved from London to Geneva, where the first General Assembly was held on 15 November 1920.Geneva made sense as an ideal city for the League, since Switzerland had been a neutral country for centuries and was already the headquarters for the International Red Cross.", "Its strong democracy and location in central Europe made it a good choice for the nations of the world.", "Support for Geneva as the selection came from Swiss Federal Councillor Gustave Ador and economist William Rappard.", "The Palais Wilson on Geneva's western lakeshore, named after Woodrow Wilson, was the League's first permanent home.====Mission====The covenant had ambiguities, as Carole Fink points out.", "There was not a good fit between Wilson's \"revolutionary conception of the League as a solid replacement for a corrupt alliance system, a guardian of international order, and protector of small states,\" versus Lloyd George's desire for a \"cheap, self-enforcing, peace, such as had been maintained by the old and more fluid Concert of Europe.", "\"Furthermore, the League, according to Carole Fink, was, \"deliberately excluded from such great-power prerogatives as freedom of the seas and naval disarmament, the Monroe Doctrine and the internal affairs of the French and British empires, and inter-Allied debts and German reparations, not to mention the Allied intervention and the settlement of borders with Soviet Russia.", "\"Although the United States never joined, unofficial observers became more and more involved, especially in the 1930s.", "American philanthropies became heavily involved, especially the Rockefeller Foundation.", "It made major grants designed to build up the technical expertise of the League staff.", "Ludovic Tournès argues that by the 1930s the foundations had changed the League from a \"Parliament of Nations\" to a modern think tank that used specialized expertise to provide an in-depth impartial analysis of international issues." ], [ "Languages and symbols", "The official languages of the League of Nations were French and English.In 1939, a semi-official emblem for the League of Nations emerged: two five-pointed stars within a blue pentagon.", "They symbolised the Earth's five continents and \"five races\".", "A bow at the top displayed the English name (\"League of Nations\"), while another at the bottom showed the French (\"''Société des Nations''\").An example of a flag used by the League of Nations, as flown at the 1939 New York World's Fair" ], [ "Membership", "A map of the world in 1920–45, which shows the League of Nations members during its historyOf the League's 42 founding members, 23 (24 counting Free France) remained members until it was dissolved in 1946.In the founding year, six other states joined, only two of which remained members throughout the League's existence.", "Under the Weimar Republic, Germany was admitted to the League of Nations through a resolution passed on 8 September 1926.An additional 15 countries joined later.", "The largest number of member states was 58, between 28 September 1934 (when Ecuador joined) and 23 February 1935 (when Paraguay withdrew).On 26 May 1937, Egypt became the last state to join the League.", "The first member to withdraw permanently from the League was Costa Rica on 22 January 1925; having joined on 16 December 1920, this also makes it the member to have most quickly withdrawn.", "Brazil was the first founding member to withdraw (14 June 1926), and Haiti the last (April 1942).", "Iraq, which joined in 1932, was the first member that had previously been a League of Nations mandate.The Soviet Union became a member on 18 September 1934, and was expelled on 14 December 1939 for invading Finland." ], [ "Organization", "League of Nations Organisation chart The alt=A drive leads past a manicured lawn to large white rectangular building with columns on it facade.", "Two wings of the building are set back from the middle section.===Permanent organs===The main constitutional organs of the League were the Assembly, the council, and the Permanent Secretariat.", "It also had two essential wings: the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Labour Organization.", "In addition, there were several auxiliary agencies and bodies.", "Each organ's budget was allocated by the Assembly (the League was supported financially by its member states).The relations between the assembly and the council and the competencies of each were for the most part not explicitly defined.", "Each body could deal with any matter within the sphere of competence of the league or affecting peace in the world.", "Particular questions or tasks might be referred to either.Unanimity was required for the decisions of both the assembly and the council, except in matters of procedure and some other specific cases such as the admission of new members.", "This requirement was a reflection of the league's belief in the sovereignty of its component nations; the league sought a solution by consent, not by dictation.", "In case of a dispute, the consent of the parties to the dispute was not required for unanimity.The Permanent Secretariat, established at the seat of the League at Geneva, comprised a body of experts in various spheres under the direction of the general secretary.", "Its principal sections were Political, Financial and Economics, Transit, Minorities and Administration (administering the Saar and Danzig), Mandates, Disarmament, Health, Social (Opium and Traffic in Women and Children), Intellectual Cooperation and International Bureaux, Legal, and Information.", "The staff of the Secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and the Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the League's civil service.", "In 1931 the staff numbered 707.A session of the Assembly (1923), meeting in Geneva at the ''Salle de la Réformation'' (in a building at the corner of ''Boulevard Helvétique'' and ''Rue du Rhône'') from 1920 to 1929, and at the ''Bâtiment électoral'' or ''Palais Électoral'' (''Rue du Général- Dufour'' 24) from 1930 to 1936 as well as for special sessions at the ''Palais du désarmement'' adjacent to the Palais Wilson, before moving into the ''Assembly Hall'' of the Palace of Nations.The Assembly consisted of representatives of all members of the League, with each state allowed up to three representatives and one vote.", "It met in Geneva and, after its initial sessions in 1920, it convened once a year in September.", "The special functions of the Assembly included the admission of new members, the periodical election of non-permanent members to the council, the election with the Council of the judges of the Permanent Court, and control of the budget.", "In practice, the Assembly was the general directing force of League activities.The League Council acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly's business.", "It began with four permanent members – Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan – and four non-permanent members that were elected by the Assembly for a three-year term.", "The first non-permanent members were Belgium, Brazil, Greece, and Spain.The composition of the council was changed several times.", "The number of non-permanent members was first increased to six on 22 September 1922 and to nine on 8 September 1926.Werner Dankwort of Germany pushed for his country to join the League; joining in 1926, Germany became the fifth permanent member of the council.", "Later, after Germany and Japan both left the League, the number of non-permanent seats was increased from nine to eleven, and the Soviet Union was made a permanent member giving the council a total of fifteen members.", "The Council met, on average, five times a year and in extraordinary sessions when required.", "In total, 107 sessions were held between 1920 and 1939.===Other bodies===The League oversaw the Permanent Court of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international problems.", "These included the Disarmament Commission, the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Mandates Commission, the International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation (precursor to UNESCO), the Permanent Central Opium Board, the Commission for Refugees, the Slavery Commission, and the Economic and Financial Organization.", "Three of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the Second World War: the International Labour Organization, the Permanent Court of International Justice (as the International Court of Justice), and the Health Organisation (restructured as the World Health Organization).The Permanent Court of International Justice was provided for by the Covenant, but not established by it.", "The Council and the Assembly established its constitution.", "Its judges were elected by the Council and the Assembly, and its budget was provided by the latter.", "The Court was to hear and decide any international dispute which the parties concerned submitted to it.", "It might also give an advisory opinion on any dispute or question referred to it by the council or the Assembly.", "The Court was open to all the nations of the world under certain broad conditions.Child labour in a coal mine, United States, The International Labour Organization was created in 1919 on the basis of Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles.", "The ILO, although having the same members as the League and being subject to the budget control of the Assembly, was an autonomous organisation with its own Governing Body, its own General Conference and its own Secretariat.", "Its constitution differed from that of the League: representation had been accorded not only to governments but also to representatives of employers' and workers' organisations.", "Albert Thomas was its first director.Child labour in alt=A row of more than a dozen children holding wooden looms stretches into the distance.The ILO successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint, and convinced several countries to adopt an eight-hour work day and forty-eight-hour working week.", "It also campaigned to end child labour, increase the rights of women in the workplace, and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen.", "After the demise of the League, the ILO became an agency of the United Nations in 1946.The League's Health Organisation had three bodies: the Health Bureau, containing permanent officials of the League; the General Advisory Council or Conference, an executive section consisting of medical experts; and the Health Committee.", "In practice, the Paris-based Office international d'hygiène publique (OIHP) founded in 1907 after the International Sanitary Conferences, was discharging most of the practical health-related questions, and its relations with the League's Health Committee were often conflictual.", "The Health Committee's purpose was to conduct inquiries, oversee the operation of the League's health work, and prepare work to be presented to the council.", "This body focused on ending leprosy, malaria, and yellow fever, the latter two by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes.", "The Health Organisation also worked successfully with the government of the Soviet Union to prevent typhus epidemics, including organising a large education campaign.Linked with health, but also commercial concerns, was the topic of narcotics control.", "Introduced by the second International Opium Convention, the Permanent Central Opium Board had to supervise the statistical reports on trade in opium, morphine, cocaine and heroin.", "The board also established a system of import certificates and export authorisations for the legal international trade in narcotics.The League of Nations had devoted serious attention to the question of international intellectual cooperation since its creation.", "The First Assembly in December 1920 recommended that the Council take action aiming at the international organisation of intellectual work, which it did by adopting a report presented by the Fifth Committee of the Second Assembly and inviting a committee on intellectual co-operation to meet in Geneva in August 1922.The French philosopher Henri Bergson became the first chairman of the committee.", "The work of the committee included: an inquiry into the conditions of intellectual life, assistance to countries where intellectual life was endangered, creation of national committees for intellectual cooperation, cooperation with international intellectual organisations, protection of intellectual property, inter-university co-operation, co-ordination of bibliographical work and international interchange of publications, and international co-operation in archaeological research.The Slavery Commission sought to eradicate slavery and slave trading across the world, and fought forced prostitution.", "Its main success was through pressing the governments who administered mandated countries to end slavery in those countries.", "The League secured a commitment from Ethiopia to end slavery as a condition of membership in 1923, and worked with Liberia to abolish forced labour and intertribal slavery.", "The United Kingdom had not supported Ethiopian membership of the League on the grounds that \"Ethiopia had not reached a state of civilisation and internal security sufficient to warrant her admission.", "\"The League also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers constructing the Tanganyika railway from 55 to 4 per cent.", "Records were kept to control slavery, prostitution, and the trafficking of women and children.", "Partly as a result of pressure brought by the League of Nations, Afghanistan abolished slavery in 1923, Iraq in 1924, Nepal in 1926, Transjordan and Persia in 1929, Bahrain in 1937, and Ethiopia in 1942.A sample Nansen passportLed by Fridtjof Nansen, the Commission for Refugees was established on 27 June 1921 to look after the interests of refugees, including overseeing their repatriation and, when necessary, resettlement.", "At the end of the First World War, there were two to three million ex-prisoners of war from various nations dispersed throughout Russia; within two years of the commission's foundation, it had helped 425,000 of them return home.", "It established camps in Turkey in 1922 to aid the country with an ongoing refugee crisis, helping to prevent the spread of cholera, smallpox and dysentery as well as feeding the refugees in the camps.", "It also established the Nansen passport as a means of identification for stateless people.The Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women sought to inquire into the status of women all over the world.", "It was formed in 1937, and later became part of the United Nations as the Commission on the Status of Women.The Covenant of the League said little about economics.", "Nonetheless, in 1920 the Council of the League called for a financial conference.", "The First Assembly at Geneva provided for the appointment of an Economic and Financial Advisory Committee to provide information to the conference.", "In 1923, a permanent Economic and Financial Organisation came into being.", "The existing bilateral treaty regime was integrated into the League where the most-favoured-nation norm was codified and the League took on responsibilities related to international oversight and standardization." ], [ "Mandates", "At the end of the First World War, the Allied powers were confronted with the question of the disposal of the former German colonies in Africa and the Pacific, and the several Arabic-speaking provinces of the Ottoman Empire.", "Many British and French leaders wanted to annex the defeated Central Powers' colonies, but U.S. President Woodrow Wilson strongly insisted that instead of annexation, these territories should be assisted under League of Nations supervision in achieving self-governance and eventual independence depending on the inhabitants' choices.The Paris Peace Conference compromised with Wilson by adopting the principle that these territories should be administered by different governments on behalf of the League – a system of national responsibility subject to international supervision.", "This plan, defined as the mandate system, was adopted by the \"Council of Ten\" (the heads of government and foreign ministers of the main Allied powers: Britain, France, the United States, Italy, and Japan) on 30 January 1919 and transmitted to the League of Nations.League of Nations mandates were established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.", "The Permanent Mandates Commission supervised League of Nations mandates, and also organised plebiscites in disputed territories so that residents could decide which country they would join.", "There were three mandate classifications: A, B and C.The A mandates (applied to parts of the old Ottoman Empire) were \"certain communities\" that had The B mandates were applied to the former German colonies that the League took responsibility for after the First World War.", "These were described as \"peoples\" that the League said were South West Africa and certain South Pacific Islands were administered by League members under C mandates.", "These were classified as \"territories\" ===Mandatory powers===The territories were governed by mandatory powers, such as the United Kingdom in the case of the Mandate of Palestine, and the Union of South Africa in the case of South-West Africa, until the territories were deemed capable of self-government.", "Fourteen mandate territories were divided up among seven mandatory powers: the United Kingdom, the Union of South Africa, France, Belgium, New Zealand, Australia and Japan.", "With the exception of the Kingdom of Iraq, which joined the League on 3 October 1932, most of these territories did not begin to gain their independence until after the Second World War, in a process that did not end until 1990.Following the demise of the League, most of the remaining mandates became United Nations Trust Territories.In addition to the mandates, the League itself governed the Territory of the Saar Basin for 15 years, before it was returned to Germany following a plebiscite, and the Free City of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) from 15 November 1920 to 1 September 1939." ], [ "Resolving territorial disputes", "The aftermath of the First World War left many issues to be settled, including the exact position of national boundaries and which country particular regions would join.", "Most of these questions were handled by the victorious Allied powers in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council.", "The Allies tended to refer only particularly difficult matters to the League.", "This meant that, during the early interwar period, the League played little part in resolving the turmoil resulting from the war.", "The questions the League considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties.As the League developed, its role expanded, and by the middle of the 1920s it had become the centre of international activity.", "This change can be seen in the relationship between the League and non-members.", "The United States and the Soviet Union, for example, increasingly worked with the League.", "During the second half of the 1920s, France, Britain and Germany were all using the League of Nations as the focus of their diplomatic activity, and each of their foreign secretaries attended League meetings at Geneva during this period.", "They also used the League's machinery to try to improve relations and settle their differences.===Åland Islands===Åland is a collection of around 6,500 islands in the Baltic Sea, midway between Sweden and Finland.", "The islands are almost exclusively Swedish-speaking, but in 1809, the Åland Islands, along with Finland, were taken by Imperial Russia.", "In December 1917, during the turmoil of the Russian October Revolution, Finland declared its independence, but most of the Ålanders wished to rejoin Sweden.", "The Finnish government considered the islands to be a part of their new nation, as the Russians had included Åland in the Grand Duchy of Finland, formed in 1809.By 1920, the dispute had escalated to the point that there was danger of war.", "The British government referred the problem to the League's Council, but Finland would not let the League intervene, as they considered it an internal matter.", "The League created a small panel to decide if it should investigate the matter and, with an affirmative response, a neutral commission was created.", "In June 1921, the League announced its decision: the islands were to remain a part of Finland, but with guaranteed protection of the islanders, including demilitarisation.", "With Sweden's reluctant agreement, this became the first European international agreement concluded directly through the League.===Upper Silesia===The Allied powers referred the problem of Upper Silesia to the League after they had been unable to resolve the territorial dispute between Poland and Germany.", "In 1919 Poland voiced a claim to Upper Silesia, which had been part of Prussia.", "The Treaty of Versailles had recommended a plebiscite in Upper Silesia to determine whether the territory should become part of Germany or Poland.", "Complaints about the attitude of the German authorities led to rioting and eventually to the first two Silesian Uprisings (1919 and 1920).", "A plebiscite took place on 20 March 1921, with 59.6 per cent (around 500,000) of the votes cast in favour of joining Germany, but Poland claimed the conditions surrounding it had been unfair.", "This result led to the Third Silesian Uprising in 1921.On 12 August 1921, the League was asked to settle the matter; the Council created a commission with representatives from Belgium, Brazil, China and Spain to study the situation.", "The committee recommended that Upper Silesia be divided between Poland and Germany according to the preferences shown in the plebiscite and that the two sides should decide the details of the interaction between the two areas – for example, whether goods should pass freely over the border due to the economic and industrial interdependence of the two areas.", "In November 1921, a conference was held in Geneva to negotiate a convention between Germany and Poland.", "A final settlement was reached, after five meetings, in which most of the area was given to Germany, but with the Polish section containing the majority of the region's mineral resources and much of its industry.", "When this agreement became public in May 1922, bitter resentment was expressed in Germany, but the treaty was still ratified by both countries.", "The settlement produced peace in the area until the beginning of the Second World War.===Albania===The frontiers of the Principality of Albania had not been set during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, as they were left for the League to decide.", "They had not yet been determined by September 1921, creating an unstable situation.", "Greek troops conducted military operations in the south of Albania.", "Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslav) forces became engaged, after clashes with Albanian tribesmen, in the northern part of the country.", "The League sent a commission of representatives from various powers to the region.", "In November 1921, the League decided that the frontiers of Albania should be the same as they had been in 1913, with three minor changes that favoured Yugoslavia.", "Yugoslav forces withdrew a few weeks later, albeit under protest.The borders of Albania again became the cause of international conflict when Italian General Enrico Tellini and four of his assistants were ambushed and killed on 27 August 1923 while marking out the newly decided border between Greece and Albania.", "Italian leader Benito Mussolini was incensed and demanded that a commission investigate the incident within five days.", "Whatever the results of the investigation, Mussolini insisted that the Greek government pay Italy Lire 50 million in reparations.", "The Greeks said they would not pay unless it was proved that the crime was committed by Greeks.Mussolini sent a warship to shell the Greek island of Corfu, and Italian forces occupied the island on 31 August 1923.This contravened the League's covenant, so Greece appealed to the League to deal with the situation.", "The Allies agreed (at Mussolini's insistence) that the Conference of Ambassadors should be responsible for resolving the dispute because it was the conference that had appointed General Tellini.", "The League Council examined the dispute, but then passed on their findings to the Conference of Ambassadors to make the final decision.", "The conference accepted most of the League's recommendations, forcing Greece to pay fifty million lire to Italy, even though those who committed the crime were never discovered.", "Italian forces then withdrew from Corfu.===Memel===The port city of Memel (now Klaipėda) and the surrounding area, with a predominantly German population, was under provisional Entente control according to Article 99 of the Treaty of Versailles.", "The French and Polish governments favoured turning Memel into an international city, while Lithuania wanted to annex the area.", "By 1923, the fate of the area had still not been decided, prompting Lithuanian forces to invade in January 1923 and seize the port.", "After the Allies failed to reach an agreement with Lithuania, they referred the matter to the League of Nations.", "In December 1923, the League Council appointed a Commission of Inquiry.", "The commission chose to cede Memel to Lithuania and give the area autonomous rights.", "The Klaipėda Convention was approved by the League Council on 14 March 1924, and then by the Allied powers and Lithuania.", "In 1939 Germany retook the region following the rise of the Nazis and an ultimatum to Lithuania, demanding the return of the region under threat of war.", "The League of Nations failed to prevent the secession of the Memel region to Germany.===Hatay===With League oversight, the Sanjak of Alexandretta in the French Mandate of Syria was given autonomy in 1937.Renamed Hatay, its parliament declared independence as the Republic of Hatay in September 1938, after elections the previous month.", "It was annexed by Turkey with French consent in mid-1939.===Mosul===The League resolved a dispute between the Kingdom of Iraq and the Republic of Turkey over control of the former Ottoman province of Mosul in 1926.According to the British, who had been awarded a League of Nations mandate over Iraq in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other hand, the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland.", "A League of Nations Commission of Inquiry, with Belgian, Hungarian and Swedish members, was sent to the region in 1924; it found that the people of Mosul did not want to be part of either Turkey or Iraq, but if they had to choose, they would pick Iraq.", "In 1925, the commission recommended that the region stay part of Iraq, under the condition that the British hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to ensure the autonomous rights of the Kurdish population.", "The League Council adopted the recommendation and decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq.", "Although Turkey had accepted the League of Nations' arbitration in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), it rejected the decision, questioning the council's authority.", "The matter was referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice, which ruled that, when the council made a unanimous decision, it must be accepted.", "Nonetheless, Britain, Iraq and Turkey ratified a separate treaty on 5 June 1926 that mostly followed the decision of the League Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq.", "It was agreed that Iraq could still apply for League membership within 25 years and that the mandate would end upon its admission.===Vilnius===After the First World War, Poland and Lithuania both regained their independence but soon became immersed in territorial disputes.", "During the Polish–Soviet War, Lithuania signed the Moscow Peace Treaty with the Soviet Russia that laid out Lithuania's frontiers.", "This agreement gave Lithuanians control of the city of Vilnius (, ), the old Lithuanian capital, but a city with a majority Polish population.", "This heightened tension between Lithuania and Poland and led to fears that they would resume the Polish–Lithuanian War, and on 7 October 1920, the League negotiated the Suwałki Agreement establishing a cease-fire and a demarcation line between the two nations.", "On 9 October 1920, General Lucjan Żeligowski, commanding a Polish military force in contravention of the Suwałki Agreement, took the city and established the Republic of Central Lithuania.After a request for assistance from Lithuania, the League Council called for Poland's withdrawal from the area.", "The Polish government indicated they would comply, but instead reinforced the city with more Polish troops.", "This prompted the League to decide that the future of Vilnius should be determined by its residents in a plebiscite and that the Polish forces should withdraw and be replaced by an international force organised by the League.", "The plan was met with resistance in Poland, Lithuania, and the Soviet Russia, which opposed any international force in Lithuania.", "In March 1921, the League abandoned plans for the plebiscite.", "After unsuccessful proposals by Paul Hymans to create a federation between Poland and Lithuania, which was intended as a reincarnation of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth which the two nations had shared before losing their independence, Vilnius and the surrounding area was formally annexed by Poland in March 1922.After Lithuania took over the Klaipėda Region, the Allied Conference set the frontier between Lithuania and Poland, leaving Vilnius within Poland, on 14 March 1923.Lithuanian authorities refused to accept the decision, and officially remained in a state of war with Poland until 1927.It was not until the 1938 Polish ultimatum that Lithuania restored diplomatic relations with Poland and thus ''de facto'' accepted the borders.===Colombia and Peru===There were several border conflicts between Colombia and Peru in the early part of the 20th century, and in 1922, their governments signed the Salomón-Lozano Treaty in an attempt to resolve them.", "As part of this treaty, the border town of Leticia and its surrounding area was ceded from Peru to Colombia, giving Colombia access to the Amazon River.", "On 1 September 1932, business leaders from Peruvian rubber and sugar industries who had lost land, as a result, organised an armed takeover of Leticia.", "At first, the Peruvian government did not recognise the military takeover, but President of Peru Luis Sánchez Cerro decided to resist a Colombian re-occupation.", "The Peruvian Army occupied Leticia, leading to an armed conflict between the two nations.", "After months of diplomatic negotiations, the governments accepted mediation by the League of Nations, and their representatives presented their cases before the council.", "A provisional peace agreement, signed by both parties in May 1933, provided for the League to assume control of the disputed territory while bilateral negotiations proceeded.", "In May 1934, a final peace agreement was signed, resulting in the return of Leticia to Colombia, a formal apology from Peru for the 1932 invasion, demilitarisation of the area around Leticia, free navigation on the Amazon and Putumayo Rivers, and a pledge of non-aggression.===Saar===Saar was a province formed from parts of Prussia and the Rhenish Palatinate and placed under League control by the Treaty of Versailles.", "A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule to determine whether the province should belong to Germany or France.", "When the referendum was held in 1935, 90.3 per cent of voters supported becoming part of Germany, which was quickly approved by the League Council." ], [ "Other conflicts", "In addition to territorial disputes, the League also tried to intervene in other conflicts between and within nations.", "Among its successes were its fight against the international trade in opium and sexual slavery, and its work to alleviate the plight of refugees, particularly in Turkey in the period up to 1926.One of its innovations in this latter area was the 1922 introduction of the Nansen passport, which was the first internationally recognised identity card for stateless refugees.===Greece and Bulgaria===After an incident involving sentries on the Greek-Bulgarian border in October 1925, fighting began between the two countries.", "Three days after the initial incident, Greek troops invaded Bulgaria.", "The Bulgarian government ordered its troops to make only token resistance, and evacuated between ten thousand and fifteen thousand people from the border region, trusting the League to settle the dispute.", "The League condemned the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria.===Liberia===Following accusations of forced labour on the large American-owned Firestone rubber plantation and American accusations of slave trading, the Liberian government asked the League to launch an investigation.", "The resulting commission was jointly appointed by the League, the United States, and Liberia.", "In 1930, a League report confirmed the presence of slavery and forced labour.", "The report implicated many government officials in the selling of contract labour and recommended that they be replaced by Europeans or Americans, which generated anger within Liberia and led to the resignation of President Charles D. B.", "King and his vice-president.", "The Liberian government outlawed forced labour and slavery and asked for American help in social reforms.===Mukden Incident===Manchurian Crisis in 1932The Mukden Incident, also known as the \"Manchurian Incident\", was a decisive setback that weakened the League because its major members refused to tackle Japanese aggression.", "Japan itself withdrew.Under the agreed terms of the Twenty-One Demands with China, the Japanese government had the right to station its troops in the area around the South Manchurian Railway, a major trade route between the two countries, in the Chinese region of Manchuria.", "In September 1931, a section of the railway was lightly damaged by the Japanese Kwantung Army as a pretext for an invasion of Manchuria.", "The Japanese army claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway and in apparent retaliation (acting contrary to orders from Tokyo) occupied all of Manchuria.", "They renamed the area Manchukuo, and on 9 March 1932 set up a puppet government, with Puyi, the former emperor of China, as its executive head.The League of Nations sent observers.", "The Lytton Report appeared a year later (October 1932).", "It declared Japan to be the aggressor and demanded Manchuria be returned to China.", "The report passed 42–1 in the Assembly in 1933 (only Japan voting against), but instead of removing its troops from China, Japan withdrew from the League.", "In the end, as British historian Charles Mowat argued, collective security was dead::The League and the ideas of collective security and the rule of law were defeated; partly because of indifference and of sympathy with the aggressor, but partly because the League powers were unprepared, preoccupied with other matters, and too slow to perceive the scale of Japanese ambitions.===Chaco War===The League failed to prevent the 1932 war between Bolivia and Paraguay over the arid Gran Chaco region.", "Although the region was sparsely populated, it contained the Paraguay River, which would have given either landlocked country access to the Atlantic Ocean, and there was also speculation, later proved incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum.", "Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all-out war in 1932 when the Bolivian army attacked the Paraguayans at Fort Carlos Antonio López at Lake Pitiantuta.", "Paraguay appealed to the League of Nations, but the League did not take action when the Pan-American Conference offered to mediate instead.", "The war was a disaster for both sides, causing 57,000 casualties for Bolivia, whose population was around three million, and 36,000 dead for Paraguay, whose population was approximately one million.", "It also brought both countries to the brink of economic disaster.", "By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935, Paraguay had seized control of most of the region, as was later recognised by the 1938 truce.===Italian invasion of Abyssinia===Emperor Haile Selassie I going into exile in Bath, England via JerusalemIn October 1935, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini sent 400,000 troops to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia).", "Marshal Pietro Badoglio led the campaign from November 1935, ordering bombing, the use of chemical weapons such as mustard gas, and the poisoning of water supplies, against targets which included undefended villages and medical facilities.", "The modern Italian Army defeated the poorly armed Abyssinians and captured Addis Ababa in May 1936, forcing Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie to flee to exile in England.The League of Nations condemned Italy's aggression and imposed economic sanctions in November 1935, but the sanctions were largely ineffective since they did not ban the sale of oil or close the Suez Canal (controlled by Britain).", "As Stanley Baldwin, the British Prime Minister, later observed, this was ultimately because no one had the military forces on hand to withstand an Italian attack.", "In October 1935, the US president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, invoked the recently passed Neutrality Acts and placed an embargo on arms and munitions to both sides, but extended a further \"moral embargo\" to the belligerent Italians, including other trade items.", "On 5 October and later on 29 February 1936, the United States endeavoured, with limited success, to limit its exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels.", "The League sanctions were lifted on 4 July 1936, but by that point, Italy had already gained control of the urban areas of Abyssinia.The Hoare–Laval Pact of December 1935 was an attempt by the British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare and the French Prime Minister Pierre Laval to end the conflict in Abyssinia by proposing to partition the country into an Italian sector and an Abyssinian sector.", "Mussolini was prepared to agree to the pact, but news of the deal leaked out.", "Both the British and French public vehemently protested against it, describing it as a sell-out of Abyssinia.", "Hoare and Laval were forced to resign, and the British and French governments dissociated themselves from the two men.", "In June 1936, although there was no precedent for a head of state addressing the Assembly of the League of Nations in person, Haile Selassie spoke to the Assembly, appealing for its help in protecting his country.The Abyssinian crisis showed how the League could be influenced by the self-interest of its members; one of the reasons why the sanctions were not very harsh was that both Britain and France feared the prospect of driving Mussolini and Adolf Hitler into an alliance.===Spanish Civil War===On 17 July 1936, the Spanish Army launched a coup d'état, leading to a prolonged armed conflict between Spanish Republicans (the elected leftist national government) and the Nationalists (conservative, anti-communist rebels who included most officers of the Spanish Army).", "Julio Álvarez del Vayo, the Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, appealed to the League in September 1936 for arms to defend Spain's territorial integrity and political independence.", "The League members would not intervene in the Spanish Civil War nor prevent foreign intervention in the conflict.", "Adolf Hitler and Mussolini aided General Francisco Franco's Nationalists, while the Soviet Union helped the Spanish Republic.", "In February 1937, the League did ban foreign volunteers, but this was in practice a symbolic move.", "The result was a Nationalist victory in 1939 and confirmation to all observers that the League was ineffective in dealing with a major issue.===Second Sino-Japanese War===Following a long record of instigating localised conflicts throughout the 1930s, Japan began a full-scale invasion of China on 7 July 1937.On 12 September, the Chinese representative, Wellington Koo, appealed to the League for international intervention.", "Western countries were sympathetic to the Chinese in their struggle, particularly in their stubborn defence of Shanghai, a city with a substantial number of foreigners.", "The League was unable to provide any practical measures; on 4 October, it turned the case over to the Nine Power Treaty Conference.===Soviet invasion of Finland===The Nazi-Soviet Pact of 23 August 1939, contained secret protocols outlining spheres of interest.", "Finland and the Baltic states, as well as eastern Poland, fell into the Soviet sphere.", "After invading Poland on 17 September 1939, on 30 November the Soviets invaded Finland.", "Then \"the League of Nations for the first time expelled a member who had violated the Covenant.\"", "The League action of 14 December 1939, stung, because the Soviet Union became \"the only League member ever to suffer such an indignity\"." ], [ "Failure of disarmament", "Article 8 of the Covenant gave the League the task of reducing \"armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations\".", "Haakon Ikonomou argues that the Disarmament Section was a major failure.", "It was distrusted by the great powers, and given little autonomy by the Secretariat.", "Its mediocre staffers generated information that was unreliable and caused unrealistic expectations in the general public.===Successes===The League scored some successes, including the 1925 Conference for the Supervision of the International Trade in Arms and Ammunition and in Implements of War.", "It started to collect international arms data.", "Most important was the passage in 1925 of the Geneva protocol banning poison gas in war.", "It reflected strong worldwide public opinion, although the United States did not ratify it until 1975.===Failures===The League had numerous failures and shortfalls.", "In 1921 it set up the Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments to explore possibilities for disarmament.", "It was made up not of government representatives but of famous individuals.", "They rarely agreed.", "Proposals ranged from abolishing chemical warfare and strategic bombing to the limitation of more conventional weapons, such as tanks.", "====Geneva Protocol of 1924====A draft treaty was assembled in 1923 that made aggressive war illegal and bound the member states to defend victims of aggression by force.", "Since the onus of responsibility would, in practice, be on the great powers of the League, it was vetoed by Great Britain, who feared that this pledge would strain its own commitment to police its British Empire.The \"Geneva Protocol for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes\" was a proposal by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald and his French counterpart Édouard Herriot.", "It set up compulsory arbitration of disputes and created a method to determine the aggressor in international conflicts.", "All legal disputes between nations would be submitted to the World Court.", "It called for a disarmament conference in 1925.Any government that refused to comply in a dispute would be named an aggressor.", "Any victim of aggression was to receive immediate assistance from League members.", "British Conservatives condemned the proposal for fear that it would lead to conflict with the United States, which also opposed the proposal.", "The British Dominions strongly opposed it.", "The Conservatives came to power in Britain and in March 1925 the proposal was shelved and never reintroduced.====World Disarmament Conference====The Allied powers were also under obligation by the Treaty of Versailles to attempt to disarm, and the armament restrictions imposed on the defeated countries had been described as the first step toward worldwide disarmament.", "The League Covenant assigned the League the task of creating a disarmament plan for each state, but the Council devolved this responsibility to a special commission set up in 1926 to prepare for the 1932–1934 World Disarmament Conference.", "Members of the League held different views towards the issue.", "The French were reluctant to reduce their armaments without a guarantee of military help if they were attacked; Poland and Czechoslovakia felt vulnerable to attack from the west and wanted the League's response to aggression against its members to be strengthened before they disarmed.", "Without this guarantee, they would not reduce armaments because they felt the risk of attack from Germany was too great.", "Fear of attack increased as Germany regained its strength after the First World War, especially after Adolf Hitler gained power and became German Chancellor in 1933.In particular, Germany's attempts to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and the reconstruction of the German military made France increasingly unwilling to disarm.The World Disarmament Conference was convened by the League of Nations in Geneva in 1932, with representatives from 60 states.", "It was a failure.", "A one-year moratorium on the expansion of armaments, later extended by a few months, was proposed at the start of the conference.", "The Disarmament Commission obtained initial agreement from France, Italy, Spain, Japan, and Britain to limit the size of their navies but no final agreement was reached.", "Ultimately, the Commission failed to halt the military build-up by Germany, Italy, Spain and Japan during the 1930s.====Helpless during Coming of World War II====The League was mostly silent in the face of major events leading to the Second World War, such as Hitler's remilitarisation of the Rhineland, occupation of the Sudetenland and ''Anschluss'' of Austria, which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles.", "In fact, League members themselves re-armed.", "In 1933, Japan simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgement, as did Germany the same year (using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext), Italy and Spain in 1937.The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded Finland." ], [ "General weaknesses", "Punch'' magazine, 10 December 1920, satirising the gap left by the US not joining the LeagueThe onset of the Second World War demonstrated that the League had failed in its primary purpose, the prevention of another world war.", "There were a variety of reasons for this failure, many connected to general weaknesses within the organisation.", "Additionally, the power of the League was limited by the United States' refusal to join.===Origins and structure===The origins of the League as an organisation created by the Allied powers as part of the peace settlement to end the First World War led to it being viewed as a \"League of Victors\".", "The League's neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision.", "It required a unanimous vote of nine, later fifteen, Council members to enact a resolution; hence, conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible.", "It was also slow in coming to its decisions, as certain ones required the unanimous consent of the entire Assembly.", "This problem mainly stemmed from the fact that the primary members of the League of Nations were not willing to accept the possibility of their fate being decided by other countries and (by enforcing unanimous voting) had effectively given themselves veto power.===Global representation===Representation at the League was often a problem.", "Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their period of membership was short.", "The most conspicuous absentee was the United States.", "President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League's formation and strongly influenced the form it took, but the US Senate voted not to join on 19 November 1919.Ruth Henig has suggested that, had the United States become a member, it would have also provided support to France and Britain, possibly making France feel more secure, and so encouraging France and Britain to co-operate more fully regarding Germany, thus making the rise to power of the Nazi Party less likely.", "Conversely, Henig acknowledges that if the US had been a member, its reluctance to engage in war with European states or to enact economic sanctions might have hampered the ability of the League to deal with international incidents.", "The structure of the US federal government might also have made its membership problematic, as its representatives at the League would only be able to answer on behalf of the executive branch, certain League decisions such as to go to war, would always require prior approval of the legislative branch regardless of the outcome of any floor vote even.In January 1920, when the League was born, Germany was not permitted to join because it was seen as having been the aggressor in the First World War.", "Soviet Russia was also initially excluded because Communist regimes were not welcomed and membership would have been initially dubious due to the ongoing Russian Civil War in which both sides claimed to be the legitimate government of the country.", "The League was further weakened when major powers left in the 1930s.", "Japan began as a permanent member of the Council since the country was an Allied Power in the First World War but withdrew in 1933 after the League voiced opposition to its occupation of Manchuria.", "Italy also began as a permanent member of the council.", "However the League staunchly opposed Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1934.When the war ended in an Italian conquest, the League refused to recognize Italian sovereignty over Ethiopia, prompting the Italian-Fascist government to withdraw from the organization altogether in 1937.Though neutral during World War I, Spain (then still a kingdom) also began as a permanent member of the council, but withdrew in 1939 after the Spanish Civil War ended in a victory for the Nationalists.", "Though world opinion was much more divided over the Spanish Civil War than the conflicts involving Japan and Italy, the general perception leaned in favor of the Republican cause.", "The League had accepted Germany, also as a permanent member of the council, in 1926, deeming it to have become a \"peace-loving country\" under the Weimar Republic.", "After the Nazis came to power in 1933, Adolf Hitler withdrew Germany almost immediately.===Collective security===Another important weakness grew from the contradiction between the idea of collective security that formed the basis of the League and international relations between individual states.", "The League's collective security system required nations to act, if necessary, against states they considered friendly, and in a way that might endanger their national interests, to support states for which they had no normal affinity.", "This weakness was exposed during the Abyssinia Crisis, when Britain and France had to balance maintaining the security they had attempted to create for themselves in Europe \"to defend against the enemies of internal order\", in which Italy's support played a pivotal role, with their obligations to Abyssinia as a member of the League.On 23 June 1936, in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy's war against Abyssinia, the British Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, told the House of Commons that collective security had Ultimately, Britain and France both abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of appeasement in the face of growing German militarism under Hitler.In this context, the League of Nations was also the institution where the first international debate on terrorism took place following the 1934 assassination of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in Marseille, France.", "This debate established precedents regarding global surveillence (in the form of routine international sharing of surveillence data), the punishment of terrorists as an international (rather than national) matter, and the right of a nation to conduct military attacks within another nation as a response to international terrorism.", "Many of these concepts are detectable in the discourse of terrorism among states after 9/11.American diplomatic historian Samuel Flagg Bemis originally supported the League, but after two decades changed his mind:The League of Nations has been a disappointing failure....", "It has been a failure, not because the United States did not join it; but because the great powers have been unwilling to apply sanctions except where it suited their individual national interests to do so, and because Democracy, on which the original concepts of the League rested for support, has collapsed over half the world.===Pacifism, disarmament and radio===The League of Nations lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they were very unwilling to do.", "Its two most important members, Britain and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League.", "Immediately after the First World War, pacifism became a strong force among both the people and governments of the two countries.", "The British Conservatives were especially tepid to the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of that organisation.", "Moreover, the League's advocacy of disarmament for Britain, France, and its other members, while at the same time advocating collective security, meant that the League was depriving itself of the only forceful means by which it could uphold its authority.David Goodman argues that the 1936 League of Nations Convention on the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace tried to create the standards for a liberal international public sphere.", "The Convention encouraged friendly radio broadcasts to other nations.", "It called for League prohibitions on international broadcasts containing hostile speech and false claims.", "It tried to draw the line between liberal and illiberal policies in communications, and emphasized the dangers of nationalist chauvinism.", "With Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia active on the radio, its liberal goals were ignored, while liberals warned that the code represented restraints on free speech." ], [ "Demise and legacy", "World map showing member states of the League of Nations (in green and red) on 18 April 1946, when the League of Nations ceased to exist League of Nations archives, GenevaAs the situation in Europe escalated into war, the Assembly transferred enough power to the Secretary General on 30 September 1938 and 14 December 1939 to allow the League to continue to exist legally and carry on reduced operations.", "The headquarters of the League, the Palace of Nations, remained unoccupied for nearly six years until the Second World War ended.At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied powers agreed to create a new body to replace the League: the United Nations.", "Many League bodies, such as the International Labour Organization, continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the UN.", "The designers of the structures of the United Nations intended to make it more effective than the League.The final session of the League of Nations concluded on 18 April 1946 in Geneva.", "Delegates from 34 nations attended the assembly.", "This session concerned itself with liquidating the League: it transferred assets worth approximately $22,000,000 (U.S.) in 1946 (including the Palace of Nations and the League's archives) to the UN, returned reserve funds to the nations that had supplied them, and settled the debts of the League.", "Robert Cecil, addressing the final session, said:The Assembly passed a resolution that \"With effect from the day following the close of the present session of the Assembly i.e., April 19, the League of Nations shall cease to exist except for the sole purpose of the liquidation of its affairs as provided in the present resolution.\"", "A Board of Liquidation consisting of nine persons from different countries spent the next 15 months overseeing the transfer of the League's assets and functions to the United Nations or specialised bodies, finally dissolving itself on 31 July 1947.The archive of the League of Nations was transferred to the United Nations Office at Geneva and is now an entry in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register.In the past few decades, by research using the League Archives at Geneva, historians have reviewed the legacy of the League of Nations as the United Nations has faced similar troubles to those of the interwar period.", "Current consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its ultimate goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security, giving a voice to smaller nations; helped to raise awareness to problems like epidemics, slavery, child labour, colonial tyranny, refugee crises and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation.", "Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were \"institutionalised\", as opposed to the pre–First World War methods of law and politics.The principal Allies in the Second World War (the UK, the USSR, France, the U.S., and the Republic of China) became permanent members of the United Nations Security Council in 1946; in 1971, the People's Republic of China replaced the Republic of China (then only in control of Taiwan) as a permanent member of the UN Security Council, and in 1991 the Russian Federation assumed the seat of the dissolved USSR.", "Decisions of the Security Council are binding on all members of the UN, and unanimous decisions are not required, unlike in the League Council.", "Only the five permanent members of the Security Council can wield a veto to protect their vital interests." ], [ "League of Nations archives", "The League of Nations archives is a collection of the League's records and documents.", "It consists of approximately 15 million pages of content dating from the inception of the League of Nations in 1919 extending through its dissolution in 1946.It is located at the United Nations Office at Geneva.", "In 2017, the UN Library & Archives Geneva launched the Total Digital Access to the League of Nations Archives Project (LONTAD), with the intention of preserving, digitizing, and providing online access to the League of Nations archives.", "It was completed in 2022." ], [ "See also", "* International relations (1919–1939)* Latin America and the League of Nations* League against Imperialism* League of Small and Subject Nationalities* Minority rights" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "===Surveys===* Bendiner, Elmer.", "''A time for angels: the tragicomic history of the League of Nations'' (1975); well-written popular history.", "* Brierly, J. L. and P. A. Reynolds.", "\"The League of Nations\" ''The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol.", "XII, The Shifting Balance of World Forces'' (2nd ed.", "1968) Chapter IX, .", "* * Gill, George.", "''The League of Nations : from 1929 to 1946'' (1996) online* Ginneken, Anique H.M. van.", "''Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations'' (2006) excerpt and text search* * Henig, Ruth.", "''The Peace that Never was: A History of the League of Nations'' (Haus Publishing, 2019), a standard scholarly history.", "* Housden, Martyn.", "''The League of Nations and the organisation of peace'' (2012) online* Ikonomou, Haakon, Karen Gram-Skjoldager, eds.", "''The League of Nations: Perspectives from the Present'' (Aarhus University Press, 2019).", "online review* Joyce, James Avery.", "''Broken star : the story of the League of Nations (1919–1939)'' (1978) online* Myers, Denys P. ''Handbook of the League of Nations : a comprehensive account of its structure, operation and activities'' (1935) online.", "* * Ostrower, Gary B.", "''The League of Nations: From 1919 to 1929'' (1996) online, brief survey* Pedersen, Susan.", "''The Guardians : the League of Nations and the crisis of empire'' (2015) online; in-depth scholarly history of the mandate system.", "* * online* Steiner, Zara.", "''The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933'' (Oxford University Press, 2005).", "* Steiner, Zara.", "''The triumph of the dark: European international history 1933-1939'' (Oxford University Press, 2011).", "* Temperley, A.C. ''The Whispering Gallery Of Europe'' (1938), highly influential account of League esp disarmament conference of 1932–34.online* online free; the standard scholarly history=== League topics ===* * Azcarate, P. de.", "''League of Nations and National Minorities'' (1945) online* Barros, James.", "''Office Without Power: Secretary-General Sir Eric Drummond 1919–1933'' (Oxford 1979).", "* Barros, James.", "''The Corfu incident of 1923: Mussolini and the League of Nations'' (Princeton UP, 2015).", "* Borowy, Iris.", "''Coming to terms with world health: the League of Nations Health Organisation 1921–1946'' (Peter Lang, 2009).", "* Burkman, Thomas W. ''Japan and the League of Nations: Empire and world order, 1914–1938'' (U of Hawaii Press, 2008).", "* * Chaudron, Gerald.", "''New Zealand in the League of Nations: The Beginnings of an Independent Foreign Policy, 1919–1939'' (2014): * Clavin, Patricia.", "''Securing the world economy: the reinvention of the League of Nations, 1920–1946'' (Oxford UP, 2013).", "* Cooper, John Milton.", "''Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations'' (2001) 454pp excerpt and text search; a major scholarly study* * * * Ekbladh, David.", "''Plowshares into Swords: Weaponized Knowledge, Liberal Order, and the League of Nations'' (U of Chicago Press, 2022) online book review* * * * * * * Housden, Martyn.", "''The League of Nations and the Organization of Peace'' (Routledge, 2014).", "* Jenne, Erin K. ''Nested Security: Lessons in Conflict Management from the League of Nations and the European Union'' (Cornell UP, 2015).", "* * Kaiga, Sakiko.", "''Britain and the Intellectual Origins of the League of Nations, 1914–1919'' (Cambridge University Press, 2021).", "* * * * La Porte, Pablo.", "\"Dissenting Voices: The Secretariat of the League of Nations and the Drafting of Mandates, 1919–1923.\"", "''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 32.3 (2021): 440-463.", "* * Lloyd, Lorna.", "\"'On the side of justice and peace': Canada on the League of Nations Council 1927–1930.\"", "''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 24#2 (2013): 171–191.", "* Ludi, Regula.", "\"Setting New Standards: International Feminism and the League of Nations' Inquiry into the Status of Women.\"", "''Journal of Women's History'' 31.1 (2019): 12-36 online.", "* McCarthy, Helen.", "''The British People and the League of Nations: Democracy, citizenship and internationalism, c. 1918–45'' (Oxford UP, 2011).", "online review* Macfadyen, David, et al.", "eds.", "''Eric Drummond and his Legacies: The League of Nations and the Beginnings of Global Governance'' (2019) excerpt* McPherson, Alan, and Yannick Wehrli, eds.", "''Beyond geopolitics: New histories of Latin America at the League of Nations'' (UNM Press, 2015).", "* * Mulder, Nicholas.", "''The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War'' (2022) excerpt also see online review* * * * Swart, William J.", "\"The League of Nations and the Irish Question.\"", "''Sociological Quarterly'' 36.3 (1995): 465–481.", "* Thorne, Christopher G. ''The limits of foreign policy; the West, the League, and the Far Eastern crisis of 1931-1933'' (1972) online* Tollardo, Elisabetta.", "''Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922-1935'' (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016).", "* Tournès, Ludovic.", "\"American membership of the League of Nations: US philanthropy and the transformation of an intergovernmental organisation into a think tank.\"", "''International Politics'' 55.6 (2018): 852–869.", "* * Wemlinger, Cherri.", "\"Collective Security and the Italo‐Ethiopian Dispute Before the League of Nations.\"", "''Peace & Change'' 40.2 (2015): 139–166.", "* Wertheim, Stephen.", "\"The League of Nations: a retreat from international law?\"", "''Journal of Global History'' 7.2 (2012): 210-232.online * Wertheim, Stephen.", "\"The League That Wasn't: American Designs for a Legalist‐Sanctionist League of Nations and the Intellectual Origins of International Organization, 1914–1920.\"", "''Diplomatic History'' 35.5 (2011): 797-836.online * Winkler, Henry R. ''Paths Not Taken: British Labour & International Policy in the 1920s'' (1994) online* Yearwood, Peter J.", "''Guarantee of Peace: The League of Nations in British Policy 1914–1925'' (Oxford UP, 2009).", "** Yearwood, Peter.", "\"‘On the Safe and Right Lines’: The Lloyd George Government and the Origins of the League of Nations, 1916–1918.\"", "''Historical Journal'' 32.1 (1989): 131-155.", "** Yearwood, Peter J.", "\"'Consistently with Honour'; Great Britain, the League of Nations and the Corfu Crisis of 1923.\"", "''Journal of Contemporary History'' 21.4 (1986): 559-579.", "** Yearwood, Peter J.", "\"‘Real securities against new wars’: Official British thinking and the origins of the League of Nations, 1914–19.\"", "''Diplomacy and Statecraft'' 9.3 (1998): 83-109.", "* Yearwood, Peter.", "\"“A Genuine and Energetic League of Nations Policy”: Lord Curzon and the New Diplomacy, 1918–1925.\"", "''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 21.2 (2010): 159-174.", "* Zimmern, Alfred.", "''The League of Nations and the Rule of Law 1918-1935'' (1939) online=== Related topics ===* * * * * * * * * ** * * * Haigh, R. H. et al.", "''Soviet Foreign Policy, the League of Nations and Europe, 1917-1939'' (1986)* * * ** * * * * ** * * ** Mulder, Nicholas.", "''The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War'' (2022) excerpt* * * * * * * * * *===Historiography===* Aufricht, Hans \"Guide to League of Nations Publications\" (1951).", "* Gram-Skjoldager, Karen, and Haakon A. Ikonomou.", "\"Making Sense of the League of Nations Secretariat–Historiographical and Conceptual Reflections on Early International Public Administration.\"", "''European History Quarterly'' 49.3 (2019): 420–444.", "* Jackson, Simon.", "\"From Beirut to Berlin (via Geneva): The New International History, Middle East Studies and the League of Nations.\"", "''Contemporary European History'' 27.4 (2018): 708–726.online* Juntke, Fritz; Sveistrup, Hans: \"Das deutsche Schrifttum über den Völkerbund\" (1927).", "* Pedersen, Susan \"Back to the League of Nations.\"", "''American Historical Review'' 112.4 (2007): 1091–1117..*" ], [ "External links", "* \"The Covenant of the League of Nations\", Avalon Project.", "Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy* ''The Covenant of the League of Nations'' audio recording at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)* History of the League of Nations , University of Oxford-led project* League of Nations Photo archive * League of Nations chronology* League of Nations timeline, worldatwar.net* Wilson's Final Address in Support of the League of Nations Speech made 25 September 1919* History (1919–1946) from the United Nations Office at Geneva* League of Nations Archives from the United Nations Office at Geneva* Table of Assemblies Dates of each annual assembly, links to list of members of each country's delegation* Total Digital Access to the League of Nations Archives Project * LONSEA – League of Nations Search Engine, Cluster of Excellence \"Asia and Europe in a Global Context\", Universität Heidelberg * ''The League of Nations.", "'', Boston: Old Colony Trust Company, 1919.A collection of charters, speeches, etc.", "on the topic." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Logic programming" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Logic programming''' is a programming, database and knowledge representation paradigm based on formal logic.", "A logic program is a set of sentences in logical form, representing knowledge about some problem domain.", "Computation is performed by applying logical reasoning to that knowledge, to solve problems in the domain.", "Major logic programming language families include Prolog, Answer Set Programming (ASP) and Datalog.", "In all of these languages, rules are written in the form of ''clauses''::A :- B1, ..., Bn.and are read as declarative sentences in logical form::A if B1 and ... and Bn.A is called the ''head'' of the rule, B1, ..., Bn is called the ''body'', and the Bi are called '' literals'' or conditions.", "When n = 0, the rule is called a ''fact'' and is written in the simplified form::A.Queries (or goals) have the same syntax as the bodies of rules and are commonly written in the form::?- B1, ..., Bn.In the simplest case of Horn clauses (or \"definite\" clauses), all of the A, B1, ..., Bn are atomic formulae of the form p(t1 ,..., tm), where p is a predicate symbol naming a relation, like \"motherhood\", and the ti are terms naming objects (or individuals).", "Terms include both constant symbols, like \"charles\", and variables, such as X, which start with an upper case letter.Consider, for example, the following Horn clause program:mother_child(elizabeth, charles).father_child(charles, william).father_child(charles, harry).parent_child(X, Y) :- mother_child(X, Y).parent_child(X, Y) :- father_child(X, Y).grandparent_child(X, Y) :- parent_child(X, Z), parent_child(Z, Y).Given a query, the program produces answers.For instance for a query ?- parent_child(X, william), the single answer isX = charlesVarious queries can be asked.", "For instancethe program can be queried both to generate grandparents and to generate grandchildren.", "It can even be used to generate all pairs of grandchildren and grandparents, or simply to check if a given pair is such a pair:grandparent_child(X, william).X = elizabeth?- grandparent_child(elizabeth, Y).Y = william;Y = harry.", "?- grandparent_child(X, Y).X = elizabethY = william;X = elizabethY = harry.", "?- grandparent_child(william, harry).no?- grandparent_child(elizabeth, harry).yesAlthough Horn clause logic programs are Turing complete, for most practical applications, Horn clause programs need to be extended to \"normal\" logic programs with negative conditions.", "For example, the definition of sibling uses a negative condition, where the predicate = is defined by the clause X = X: sibling(X, Y) :- parent_child(Z, X), parent_child(Z, Y), not(X = Y).Logic programming languages that include negative conditions have the knowledge representation capabilities of a non-monotonic logic.In ASP and Datalog, logic programs have only a declarative reading, and their execution is performed by means of a proof procedure or model generator whose behaviour is not meant to be controlled by the programmer.", "However, in the Prolog family of languages, logic programs also have a procedural interpretation as goal-reduction procedures.", "From this point of view, clause A :- B1,...,Bn is understood as::to solve A, solve B1, and ... and solve Bn.Negative conditions in the bodies of clauses also have a procedural interpretation, known as ''negation as failure'': A negative literal not B is deemed to hold if and only if the positive literal B fails to hold.Much of the research in the field of logic programming has been concerned with trying to develop a logical semantics for negation as failure and with developing other semantics and other implementations for negation.", "These developments have been important, in turn, for supporting the development of formal methods for logic-based program verification and program transformation." ], [ "History", "The use of mathematical logic to represent and execute computer programs is also a feature of the lambda calculus, developed by Alonzo Church in the 1930s.", "However, the first proposal to use the clausal form of logic for representing computer programs was made by Cordell Green.", "This used an axiomatization of a subset of LISP, together with a representation of an input-output relation, to compute the relation by simulating the execution of the program in LISP.", "Foster and Elcock's Absys, on the other hand, employed a combination of equations and lambda calculus in an assertional programming language that places no constraints on the order in which operations are performed.Logic programming, with its current syntax of facts and rules, can be traced back to debates in the late 1960s and early 1970s about declarative versus procedural representations of knowledge in artificial intelligence.", "Advocates of declarative representations were notably working at Stanford, associated with John McCarthy, Bertram Raphael and Cordell Green, and in Edinburgh, with John Alan Robinson (an academic visitor from Syracuse University), Pat Hayes, and Robert Kowalski.", "Advocates of procedural representations were mainly centered at MIT, under the leadership of Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert.Although it was based on the proof methods of logic, Planner, developed by Carl Hewitt at MIT, was the first language to emerge within this proceduralist paradigm.", "Planner featured pattern-directed invocation of procedural plans from goals (i.e.", "goal-reduction or backward chaining) and from assertions (i.e.", "forward chaining).", "The most influential implementation of Planner was the subset of Planner, called Micro-Planner, implemented by Gerry Sussman, Eugene Charniak and Terry Winograd.", "Winograd used Micro-Planner to implement the landmark, natural-language understanding program SHRDLU.", "For the sake of efficiency, Planner used a backtracking control structure so that only one possible computation path had to be stored at a time.", "Planner gave rise to the programming languages QA4, Popler, Conniver, QLISP, and the concurrent language Ether.Hayes and Kowalski in Edinburgh tried to reconcile the logic-based declarative approach to knowledge representation with Planner's procedural approach.", "Hayes (1973) developed an equational language, Golux, in which different procedures could be obtained by altering the behavior of the theorem prover.", "In the meanwhile, Alain Colmerauer in Marseille was working on natural-language understanding, using logic to represent semantics and using resolution for question-answering.", "During the summer of 1971, Colmerauer invited Kowalski to Marseille, and together they discovered that the clausal form of logic could be used to represent formal grammars and that resolution theorem provers could be used for parsing.", "They observed that some theorem provers, like hyper-resolution, behave as bottom-up parsers and others, like SL resolution (1971) behave as top-down parsers.It was in the following summer of 1972, that Kowalski, again working with Colmerauer, developed the procedural interpretation of implications in clausal form, It also became clear that such clauses could be restricted to definite clauses or Horn clauses, and that SL-resolution could be restricted (and generalised) to SLD resolution.", "Kowalski's procedural interpretation and SLD were described in a 1973 memo, published in 1974.Colmerauer, with Philippe Roussel, used the procedural interpretation as the basis of Prolog, which was implemented in the summer and autumn of 1972.The first Prolog program, also written in 1972 and implemented in Marseille, was a French question-answering system.", "The use of Prolog as a practical programming language was given great momentum by the development of a compiler by David H. D. Warren in Edinburgh in 1977.Experiments demonstrated that Edinburgh Prolog could compete with the processing speed of other symbolic programming languages such as Lisp.", "Edinburgh Prolog became the ''de facto'' standard and strongly influenced the definition of ISO standard Prolog.Logic programming gained international attention during the 1980s, when it was chosen by the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry to develop the software for the Fifth Generation Computer Systems (FGCS) project.", "The FGCS project aimed to use logic programming to develop advanced Artificial Intelligence applications on massively parallel computers.", "Although the project initially explored the use of Prolog, it later adopted the use of concurrent logic programming, because it was closer to the FGCS computer architecture.", "However, the committed choice feature of concurrent logic programming interfered with the language's logical semantics and with its suitability for knowledge representation and problem solving applications.", "Moreover, the parallel computer systems developed in the project failed to compete with advances taking place in the development of more conventional, general-purpose computers.", "Together these two issues resulted in the FGCS project failing to meet its objectives.", "Interest in both logic programming and AI fell into world-wide decline.", "In the meanwhile, more declarative logic programming approaches, including those based on the use of Prolog, continued to make progress independently of the FGCS project.", "In particular, although Prolog was developed to combine declarative and procedural representations of knowledge, the purely declarative interpretation of logic programs became the focus for applications in the field of deductive databases.", "Work in this field became prominent around 1977, when Hervé Gallaire and Jack Minker organized a workshop on logic and databases in Toulouse.", "The field was eventually renamed as ''Datalog''.This focus on the logical, declarative reading of logic programs was given further impetus by the development of constraint logic programming in the 1980s and Answer Set Programming in the 1990s.", "It is also receiving renewed emphasis in recent applications of Prolog The Association for Logic Programming (ALP) was founded in 1986 to promote Logic Programming.", "Its official journal until 2000, was ''The Journal of Logic Programming''.", "Its founding editor-in-chief was J. Alan Robinson.", "In 2001, the journal was renamed ''The Journal of Logic and Algebraic Programming'', and the official journal of ALP became ''Theory and Practice of Logic Programming'', published by Cambridge University Press." ], [ "Concepts", "Logic programs enjoy a rich variety of semantics and problem solving methods, as well as a wide range of applications in programming, databases, knowledge representation and problem solving.", "===Algorithm = Logic + Control===The procedural interpretation of logic programs, which uses backward reasoning to reduce goals to subgoals, is a special case of the use of a problem-solving strategy to '''control''' the use of a declarative, '''logical''' representation of knowledge to obtain the behaviour of an '''algorithm'''.", "More generally, different problem-solving strategies can be applied to the same logical representation to obtain different algorithms.", "Alternatively, different algorithms can be obtained with a given problem-solving strategy by using different logical representations.The two main problem-solving strategies are backward reasoning (goal reduction) and forward reasoning, also known as top-down and bottom-up reasoning, respectively.In the simple case of a propositional Horn clause program and a top-level atomic goal, backward reasoning determines an and-or tree, which constitutes the search space for solving the goal.", "The top-level goal is the root of the tree.", "Given any node in the tree and any clause whose head matches the node, there exists a set of child nodes corresponding to the sub-goals in the body of the clause.", "These child nodes are grouped together by an \"and\".", "The alternative sets of children corresponding to alternative ways of solving the node are grouped together by an \"or\".Any search strategy can be used to search this space.", "Prolog uses a sequential, last-in-first-out, backtracking strategy, in which only one alternative and one sub-goal are considered at a time.", "For example, subgoals can be solved in parallel, and clauses can also be tried in parallel.", "The first strategy is called '''''' and the second strategy is called ''''''.", "Other search strategies, such as intelligent backtracking, or best-first search to find an optimal solution, are also possible.In the more general, non-propositional case, where sub-goals can share variables, other strategies can be used, such as choosing the subgoal that is most highly instantiated or that is sufficiently instantiated so that only one procedure applies.", "Such strategies are used, for example, in concurrent logic programming.In most cases, backward reasoning from a query or goal is more efficient than forward reasoning.", "But sometimes with Datalog and Answer Set Programming, there may be no query that is separate from the set of clauses as a whole, and then generating all the facts that can be derived from the clauses is a sensible problem-solving strategy.", "Here is another example, where forward reasoning beats backward reasoning in a more conventional computation task, where the goal ?- fibonacci(n, Result) is to find the nth fibonacci number:fibonacci(0, 0).fibonacci(1, 1).fibonacci(N, Result) :- N > 1, N1 is N - 1, N2 is N - 2, fibonacci(N1, F1), fibonacci(N2, F2), Result is F1 + F2.Here the relation fibonacci(N, M) stands for the function fibonacci(N) = M, and the predicate N is Expression is Prolog notation for the predicate that instantiates the variable N to the value of Expression.", "Given the goal of computing the fibonacci number of n, backward reasoning reduces the goal to the two subgoals of computing the fibonacci numbers of n-1 and n-2.It reduces the subgoal of computing the fibonacci number of n-1 to the two subgoals of computing the fibonacci numbers of n-2 and n-3, redundantly computing the fibonacci number of n-2.This process of reducing one fibonacci subgoal to two fibonacci subgoals continues until it reaches the numbers 0 and 1.Its complexity is of the order 2n.", "In contrast, forward reasoning generates the sequence of fibonacci numbers, starting from 0 and 1 without any recomputation, and its complexity is linear with respect to n.Prolog cannot perform forward reasoning directly.", "But it can achieve the effect of forward reasoning within the context of backward reasoning by means of tabling: Subgoals are maintained in a table, along with their solutions.", "If a subgoal is re-encountered, it is solved directly by using the solutions already in the table, instead of re-solving the subgoals redundantly.=== Relationship with functional programming ===Logic programming can be viewed as a generalisation of functional programming, in which functions are a special case of relations.For example, the function, mother(X) = Y, (every X has only one mother Y) can be represented by the relation mother(X, Y).", "In this respect, logic programs are similar to relational databases, which also represent functions as relations.Compared with relational syntax, functional syntax is more compact for nested functions.", "For example, in functional syntax the definition of maternal grandmother can be written in the nested form:maternal_grandmother(X) = mother(mother(X)).The same definition in relational notation needs to be written in the unnested, flattened form:maternal_grandmother(X, Y) :- mother(X, Z), mother(Z, Y).However, nested syntax can be regarded as syntactic sugar for unnested syntax.", "Ciao Prolog, for example, transforms functional syntax into relational form and executes the resulting logic program using the standard Prolog execution strategy.", "Moreover, the same transformation can be used to execute nested relations that are not functional.", "For example: grandparent(X) := parent(parent(X)).parent(X) := mother(X).parent(X) := father(X).mother(charles) := elizabeth.father(charles) := phillip.mother(harry) := diana.father(harry) := charles.", "?- grandparent(X,Y).X = harry,Y = elizabeth.X = harry,Y = phillip.=== Relationship with relational programming ===The term ''relational programming'' has been used to cover a variety of programming languages that treat functions as a special case of relations.", "Some of these languages, such as miniKanren and relational linear programmingare logic programming languages in the sense of this article.", "However, the relational language RML is an imperative programming language whose core construct is arelational expression, which is similar to an expression in first-order predicate logic.", "Other relational programming languages are based on the relational calculus or relational algebra.=== Semantics of Horn clause programs ===Viewed in purely logical terms, there are two approaches to the declarative semantics of Horn clause logic programs: One approach is the original ''logical consequence semantics'', which understands solving a goal as showing that the goal is a theorem that is true in all models of the program.", "In this approach, computation is theorem-proving in first-order logic; and both backward reasoning, as in SLD resolution, and forward reasoning, as in hyper-resolution, are correct and complete theorem-proving methods.", "Sometimes such theorem-proving methods are also regarded as providing a separate proof-theoretic (or operational) semantics for logic programs.", "But from a logical point of view, they are proof methods, rather than semantics.The other approach to the declarative semantics of Horn clause programs is the ''satisfiability semantics'', which understands solving a goal as showing that the goal is true (or satisfied) in some intended (or standard) model of the program.", "For Horn clause programs, there always exists such a standard model: It is the unique ''minimal model'' of the program.", "Informally speaking, a minimal model is a model that, when it is viewed as the set of all (variable-free) facts that are true in the model, contains no smaller set of facts that is also a model of the program.", "For example, the following facts represent the minimal model of the family relationships example in the introduction of this article.", "All other variable-free facts are false in the model:mother_child(elizabeth, charles).father_child(charles, william).father_child(charles, harry).parent_child(elizabeth, charles).parent_child(charles, william).parent_child(charles, harry).grandparent_child(elizabeth, william).grandparent_child(elizabeth, harry).The satisfiability semantics also has an alternative, more mathematical characterisation as the least fixed point of the function that uses the rules in the program to derive new facts from existing facts in one step of inference.Remarkably, the same problem-solving methods of forward and backward reasoning, which were originally developed for the logical consequence semantics, are equally applicable to the satisfiability semantics: Forward reasoning generates the minimal model of a Horn clause program, by deriving new facts from existing facts, until no new additional facts can be generated.", "Backward reasoning, which succeeds by reducing a goal to subgoals, until all subgoals are solved by facts, ensures that the goal is true in the minimal model, without generating the model explicitly.The difference between the two declarative semantics can be seen with the definitions of addition and multiplication in successor arithmetic, which represents the natural numbers 0, 1, 2, ... as a sequence of terms of the form 0, s(0), s(s(0)), ....", "In general, the term s(X) represents the successor of X, namely X + 1.Here are the standard definitions of addition and multiplication in functional notation: X + 0 = X. X + s(Y) = s(X + Y).", "i.e.", "X + (Y + 1) = (X + Y) + 1 X × 0 = 0.X × s(Y) = X + (X × Y).", "i.e.", "X × (Y + 1) = X + (X × Y).Here are the same definitions as a logic program, using add(X, Y, Z) to represent X + Y = Z, and multiply(X, Y, Z) to represent X × Y = Z:add(X, 0, X).add(X, s(Y), s(Z)) :- add(X, Y, Z).multiply(X, 0, 0).multiply(X, s(Y), W) :- multiply(X, Y, Z), add(X, Z, W).The two declarative semantics both give the same answers for the same existentially quantified conjunctions of addition and multiplication goals.", "For example 2 × 2 = X has the solution X = 4; and X × X = X + X has two solutions X = 0 and X = 2:?- multiply(s(s(0)), s(s(0)), X).X = s(s(s(s(0)))).", "?- multiply(X, X, Y), add(X, X, Y).X = 0, Y = 0.X = s(s(0)), Y = s(s(s(s(0)))).However, with the logical-consequence semantics, there are non-standard models of the program, in which, for example, add(s(s(0)), s(s(0)), s(s(s(s(s(0)))))), i.e.", "2 + 2 = 5 is true.", "But with the satisfiability semantics, there is only one model, namely the standard model of arithmetic, in which 2 + 2 = 5 is false.In both semantics, the goal ?- add(s(s(0)), s(s(0)), s(s(s(s(s(0)))))) fails.", "In the satisfiability semantics, the failure of the goal means that the truth value of the goal is false.", "But in the logical consequence semantics, the failure means that the truth value of the goal is unknown.===Negation as failure===Negation as failure (NAF), as a way of concluding that a negative condition not p holds by showing that the positive condition p fails to hold, was already a feature of early Prolog systems.", "The resulting extension of SLD resolution is called SLDNF.", "A similar construct, called \"thnot\", also existed in Micro-Planner.", "The logical semantics of NAF was unresolved until Keith Clark showed that, under certain natural conditions, NAF is an efficient, correct (and sometimes complete) way of reasoning with the logical consequence semantics using the ''completion'' of a logic program in first-order logic.Completion amounts roughly to regarding the set of all the program clauses with the same predicate in the head, say::A :- Body1.", ": ...:A :- Bodyk.as a definition of the predicate::A iff (Body1 or ... or Bodyk)where iff means \"if and only if\".", "The completion also includes axioms of equality, which correspond to unification.", "Clark showed that proofs generated by SLDNF are structurally similar to proofs generated by a natural deduction style of reasoning with the completion of the program.Consider, for example, the following program:should_receive_sanction(X, punishment) :- is_a_thief(X), not should_receive_sanction(X, rehabilitation).", "should_receive_sanction(X, rehabilitation) :- is_a_thief(X), is_a_minor(X), not is_violent(X).", "is_a_thief(tom).", "Given the goal of determining whether tom should receive a sanction, the first rule succeeds in showing that tom should be punished:?- should_receive_sanction(tom, Sanction).Sanction = punishment.This is because tom is a thief, and it cannot be shown that tom should be rehabilitated.", "It cannot be shown that tom should be rehabilitated, because it cannot be shown that tom is a minor.", "If, however, we receive new information that tom is indeed a minor, the previous conclusion that tom should be punished is replaced by the new conclusion that tom should be rehabilitated:minor(tom).", "?- should_receive_sanction(tom, Sanction).Sanction = rehabilitation.This property of withdrawing a conclusion when new information is added, is called non-monotonicity, and it makes logic programming a non-monotonic logic.But, if we are now told that tom is violent, the conclusion that tom should be punished will be reinstated:violent(tom).", "?- should_receive_sanction(tom, Sanction).Sanction = punishment.The completion of this program is:should_receive_sanction(X, Sanction) iff Sanction = punishment, is_a_thief(X), not should_receive_sanction(X, rehabilitation) or Sanction = rehabilitation, is_a_thief(X), is_a_minor(X), not is_violent(X).", "is_a_thief(X) iff X = tom.is_a_minor(X) iff X = tom.is_violent(X) iff X = tom.The notion of completion is closely related to John McCarthy's circumscription semantics for default reasoning, and to Ray Reiter's closed world assumption.The completion semantics for negation is a logical consequence semantics, for which SLDNF provides a proof-theoretic implementation.", "However, in the 1980s, the satisfiability semantics became more popular for logic programs with negation.", "In the satisfiability semantics, negation is interpreted according to the classical definition of truth in an intended or standard model of the logic program.", "In the case of logic programs with negative conditions, there are two main variants of the satisfiability semantics: In the well-founded semantics, the intended model of a logic program is a unique, three-valued, minimal model, which always exists.", "The well-founded semantics generalises the notion of inductive definition in mathematical logic.", "XSB Prolog implements the well-founded semantics using SLG resolution.In the alternative stable model semantics, there may be no intended models or several intended models, all of which are minimal and two-valued.", "The stable model semantics underpins answer set programming (ASP).", "Both the well-founded and stable model semantics apply to arbitrary logic programs with negation.", "However, both semantics coincide for stratified logic programs.", "For example, the program for sanctioning thieves is (locally) stratified, and all three semantics for the program determine the same intended model:should_receive_sanction(tom, punishment).is_a_thief(tom).is_a_minor(tom).is_violent(tom).Attempts to understand negation in logic programming have also contributed to the development of abstract argumentation frameworks.", "In an argumentation interpretation of negation, the initial argument that tom should be punished because he is a thief, is attacked by the argument that he should be rehabilitated because he is a minor.", "But the fact that tom is violent undermines the argument that tom should be rehabilitated and reinstates the argument that tom should be punished.===Metalogic programming===Metaprogramming, in which programs are treated as data, was already a feature of early Prolog implementations.", "For example, the Edinburgh DEC10 implementation of Prolog included \"an interpreter and a compiler, both written in Prolog itself\".", "The simplest metaprogram is the so-called \"vanilla\" meta-interpreter: solve(true).", "solve((B,C)):- solve(B),solve(C).", "solve(A):- clause(A,B),solve(B).", "where true represents an empty conjunction, and (B,C) is a composite term representing the conjunction of B and C. The predicate clause(A,B) means that there is a clause of the form\tA :- B.Metaprogramming is an application of the more general use of a ''metalogic'' or ''metalanguage'' to describe and reason about another language, called the ''object language''.Metalogic programming allows object-level and metalevel representations to be combined, as in natural language.", "For example, in the following program, the atomic formula attends(Person, Meeting) occurs both as an object-level formula, and as an argument of the metapredicates prohibited and approved.prohibited(attends(Person, Meeting)) :- not(approved(attends(Person, Meeting))).should_receive_sanction(Person, scolding) :- attends(Person, Meeting), lofty(Person), prohibited(attends(Person, Meeting)).should_receive_sanction(Person, banishment) :- attends(Person, Meeting), lowly(Person), prohibited(attends(Person, Meeting)).approved(attends(alice, tea_party)).attends(mad_hatter, tea_party).attends(dormouse, tea_party).lofty(mad_hatter).lowly(dormouse).", "?- should_receive_sanction(X,Y).Person = mad_hatter,Sanction = scolding.Person = dormouse,Sanction = banishment.===Relationship with the Computational-representational understanding of mind===In his popular Introduction to Cognitive Science, Paul Thagard includes logic and rules as alternative approaches to modelling human thinking.", "He argues that rules, which have the form ''IF condition THEN action'', are \"very similar\" to logical conditionals, but they are simpler and have greater psychological plausability (page 51).", "Among other differences between logic and rules, he argues that logic uses deduction, but rules use search (page 45) and can be used to reason either forward or backward (page 47).", "Sentences in logic \"have to be interpreted as ''universally true''\", but rules can be ''defaults'', which admit exceptions (page 44).He states that \"unlike logic, rule-based systems can also easily represent strategic informationabout what to do\" (page 45).", "For example, \"IF you want to go home for the weekend, and you have bus fare, THENyou can catch a bus\".", "He does not observe that the same strategy of reducing a goal to subgoals can be interpreted, in the manner of logic programming, as applying backward reasoning to a logical conditional:can_go(you, home) :- have(you, bus_fare), catch(you, bus).All of these characteristics of rule-based systems - search, forward and backward reasoning, default reasoning, and goal-reduction - are also defining characteristics of logic programming.", "This suggests that Thagard's conclusion (page 56) that:Much of human knowledge is naturally described in terms of rules, and many kinds of thinking such as planning can be modeled by rule-based systems.also applies to logic programming.Other arguments showing how logic programming can be used to model aspects of human thinking are presented by Keith Stenning and Michiel van Lambalgen in their book,Human Reasoning and Cognitive Science.", "They show how the non-monotonic character of logic programs can be used to explain human performance on a variety of psychological tasks.", "They also show (page 237) that \"closed–world reasoning in its guise as logic programming has an appealing neural implementation, unlike classical logic.\"", "In The Proper Treatment of Events,Michiel van Lambalgen and Fritz Hamm investigate the use of constraint logic programming to code \"temporal notions in natural language by looking at the way human beings construct time\".===Knowledge representation===The use of logic to represent procedural knowledge and strategic information was one of the main goals contributing to the early development of logic programming.", "Moreover, it continues to be an important feature of the Prolog family of logic programming languages today.", "However, many applications of logic programming, including Prolog applications, increasingly focus on the use of logic to represent purely declarative knowledge.", "These applications include both the representation of general commonsense knowledge and the representation of domain specific expertise.Commonsense includes knowledge about cause and effect, as formalised, for example, in the situation calculus, event calculus and action languages.", "Here is a simplified example, which illustrates the main features of such formalisms.", "The first clause states that a fact holds immediately after an event initiates (or causes) the fact.", "The second clause is a '' frame axiom'', which states that a fact that holds at a time continues to hold at the next time unless it is terminated by an event that happens at the time.", "This formulation allows more than one event to occur at the same time:holds(Fact, Time2) :- happens(Event, Time1), Time2 is Time1 + 1, initiates(Event, Fact).", "holds(Fact, Time2) :- \thappens(Event, Time1), Time2 is Time1 + 1, holds(Fact, Time1), not(terminated(Fact, Time1)).terminated(Fact, Time) :- happens(Event, Time), terminates(Event, Fact).Here holds is a meta-predicate, similar to solve above.", "However, whereas solve has only one argument, which applies to general clauses, the first argument of holds is a fact and the second argument is a time (or state).", "The atomic formula holds(Fact, Time) expresses that the Fact holds at the Time.", "Such time-varying facts are also called fluents.", "The atomic formula happens(Event, Time) expresses that the Event happens at the Time.", "The following example illustrates how these clauses can be used to reason about causality in a toy blocks world.", "Here, in the initial state at time 0, a green block is on a table and a red block is stacked on the green block (like a traffic light).", "At time 0, the red block is moved to the table.", "At time 1, the green block is moved onto the red block.", "Moving an object onto a place terminates the fact that the object is on any place, and initiates the fact that the object is on the place to which it is moved:holds(on(green_block, table), 0).holds(on(red_block, green_block), 0).happens(move(red_block, table), 0).happens(move(green_block, red_block), 1).initiates(move(Object, Place), on(Object, Place)).terminates(move(Object, Place2), on(Object, Place1)).", "?- holds(Fact, Time).Fact = on(green_block,table),Time = 0.Fact = on(red_block,green_block),Time = 0.Fact = on(green_block,table),Time = 1.Fact = on(red_block,table),Time = 1.Fact = on(green_block,red_block),Time = 2.Fact = on(red_block,table),Time = 2.Forward reasoning and backward reasoning generate the same answers to the goal holds(Fact, Time).", "But forward reasoning generates fluents ''progressively'' in temporal order, and backward reasoning generates fluents ''regressively'', as in the domain-specific use of regression in the situation calculus.Logic programming has also proved to be useful for representing domain-specific expertise in expert systems.", "But human expertise, like general-purpose commonsense, is mostly implicit and tacit, and it is often difficult to represent such implicit knowledge in explicit rules.", "This difficulty does not arise, however, when logic programs are used to represent the existing, explicit rules of a business organisation or legal authority.", "For example, here is a representation of a simplified version of the first sentence of the British Nationality Act, which states that a person who is born in the UK becomes a British citizen at the time of birth if a parent of the person is a British citizen at the time of birth:initiates(birth(Person), citizen(Person, uk)):- time_of(birth(Person), Time), place_of(birth(Person), uk), parent_child(Another_Person, Person), holds(citizen(Another_Person, uk), Time).Historically, the representation of a large portion of the British Nationality Act as a logic program in the 1980s was \"hugely influential for the development of computational representations of legislation, showing how logic programming enables intuitively appealing representations that can be directly deployed to generate automatic inferences\".", "More recently, the PROLEG system, initiated in 2009 and consisting of approximately 2500 rules and exceptions of civil code and supreme court case rules in Japan, has become possibly the largest legal rule base in the world." ], [ "Variants and extensions", "===Prolog===The SLD resolution rule of inference is neutral about the order in which subgoals in the bodies of clauses can be ''selected'' for solution.", "For the sake of efficiency, Prolog restricts this order to the order in which the subgoals are written.", "SLD is also neutral about the strategy for searching the space of SLD proofs.Prolog searches this space, top-down, depth-first, trying different clauses for solving the same (sub)goal in the order in which the clauses are written.This search strategy has the advantage that the current branch of the tree can be represented efficiently by a stack.", "When a goal clause at the top of the stack is reduced to a new goal clause, the new goal clause is pushed onto the top of the stack.", "When the selected subgoal in the goal clause at the top of the stack cannot be solved, the search strategy ''backtracks'', removing the goal clause from the top of the stack, and retrying the attempted solution of the selected subgoal in the previous goal clause using the next clause that matches the selected subgoal.Backtracking can be restricted by using a subgoal, called '' cut'', written as !, which always succeeds but cannot be backtracked.", "Cut can be used to improve efficiency, but can also interfere with the logical meaning of clauses.", "In many cases, the use of cut can be replaced by negation as failure.", "In fact, negation as failure can be defined in Prolog, by using cut, together with any literal, say ''fail'', that unifies with the head of no clause:not(P) :- P, !, fail.not(P).Prolog provides other features, in addition to cut, that do not have a logical interpretation.", "These include the built-in predicates ''assert'' and ''retract'' for destructively updating the state of the program during program execution.For example, the toy blocks world example above can be implemented without frame axioms using destructive change of state:on(green_block, table).on(red_block, green_block).move(Object, Place2) :- \tretract(on(Object, Place1)), \tassert(on(Object, Place2).The sequence of move events and the resulting locations of the blocks can be computed by executing the query:?- move(red_block, table), move(green_block, red_block), on(Object, Place).Object = red_block,Place = table.Object = green_block,Place = red_block.Various extensions of logic programming have been developed to provide a logical framework for such destructive change of state.The broad range of Prolog applications, both in isolation and in combination with other languages is highlighted in the Year of Prolog Book, celebrating the 50 year anniversary of Prolog in 2022.Prolog has also contributed to the development of other programming languages, including ALF, Fril, Gödel, Mercury, Oz, Ciao, Visual Prolog, XSB, and λProlog.===Constraint logic programming===Constraint logic programming (CLP) combines Horn clause logic programming with constraint solving.", "It extends Horn clauses by allowing some predicates, declared as constraint predicates, to occur as literals in the body of a clause.", "Constraint predicates are not defined by the facts and rules in the program, but are predefined by some domain-specific model-theoretic structure or theory.Procedurally, subgoals whose predicates are defined by the program are solved by goal-reduction, as in ordinary logic programming, but constraints are simplified and checked for satisfiability by a domain-specific constraint-solver, which implements the semantics of the constraint predicates.", "An initial problem is solved by reducing it to a satisfiable conjunction of constraints.", "Interestingly, the first version of Prolog already included a constraint predicate dif(term1, term2), from Philippe Roussel's 1972 PhD thesis, which succeeds if both of its arguments are different terms, but which is delayed if either of the terms contains a variable.The following constraint logic program represents a toy temporal database of john's history as a teacher:teaches(john, hardware, T) :- 1990 ≤ T, T Here ≤ and are constraint predicates, with their usual intended semantics.", "The following goal clause queries the database to find out when john both taught logic and was a professor:?- teaches(john, logic, T), rank(john, professor, T).The solution 2010 ≤ T, T ≤ 2012results from simplifying the constraints2005 ≤ T, T ≤ 2012, 2010 ≤ T, T Constraint logic programming has been used to solve problems in such fields as civil engineering, mechanical engineering, digital circuit verification, automated timetabling, air traffic control, and finance.", "It is closely related to abductive logic programming.=== Datalog ===Datalog is a database definition language, which combines a relational view of data, as in relational databases, with a logical view, as in logic programming.", "Relational databases use a relational calculus or relational algebra, with relational operations, such as ''union'', ''intersection'', ''set difference'' and ''cartesian product'' to specify queries, which access a database.", "Datalog uses logical connectives, such as ''or'', ''and'' and ''not'' in the bodies of rules to define relations as part of the database itself.", "It was recognized early in the development of relational databases that recursive queries cannot be expressed in either relational algebra or relational calculus, and that this defficiency can be remedied by introducing a least-fixed-point operator.", "In contrast, recursive relations can be defined naturally by rules in logic programs, without the need for any new logical connectives or operators.Datalog differs from more general logic programming by having only constants and variables as terms.", "Moreover, all facts are variable-free, and rules are restricted, so that if they are executed bottom-up, then the derived facts are also variable-free.", "For example, consider the family database:mother_child(elizabeth, charles).father_child(charles, william).father_child(charles, harry).parent_child(X, Y) :- mother_child(X, Y).parent_child(X, Y) :- father_child(X, Y).ancestor_descendant(X, Y) :- parent_child(X, X).ancestor_descendant(X, Y) :- ancestor_descendant(X, Z), ancestor_descendant(Z, Y).Bottom-up execution derives the following set of additional facts and terminates:parent_child(elizabeth, charles).parent_child(charles, william).parent_child(charles, harry).ancestor_descendant(elizabeth, charles).ancestor_descendant(charles, william).ancestor_descendant(charles, harry).ancestor_descendant(elizabeth, william).ancestor_descendant(elizabeth, harry).Top-down execution derives the same answers to the query:?- ancestor_descendant(X, Y).But then it goes into an infinite loop.", "However, top-down execution with tabling gives the same answers and terminates without looping.=== Answer set programming ===Like Datalog, Answer Set programming (ASP) is not Turing-complete.", "Moreover, instead of separating goals (or queries) from the program to be used in solving the goals, ASP treats the whole program as a goal, and solves the goal by generating a stable model that makes the goal true.", "For this purpose, it uses the stable model semantics, according to which a logic program can have zero, one or more intended models.", "For example, the following program represents a degenerate variant of the map colouring problem of colouring two countries red or green:country(oz).country(iz).adjacent(oz, iz).colour(C, red) :- country(C), not(colour(C, green)).colour(C, green) :- country(C), not(colour(C, red)).The problem has four solutions represented by four stable models:country(oz).", "country(iz).", "adjacent(oz, iz).", "colour(oz, red).", "colour(iz, red).country(oz).", "country(iz).", "adjacent(oz, iz).", "colour(oz, green).", "colour(iz, green).country(oz).", "country(iz).", "adjacent(oz, iz).", "colour(oz, red).", "colour(iz, green).country(oz).", "country(iz).", "adjacent(oz, iz).", "colour(oz, green).", "colour(iz, red).To represent the standard version of the map colouring problem, we need to add a constraint that two adjacent countries cannot be coloured the same colour.", "In ASP, this constraint can be written as a clause of the form::- country(C1), country(C2), adjacent(C1, C2), colour(C1, X), colour(C2, X).With the addition of this constraint, the problem now has only two solutions:country(oz).", "country(iz).", "adjacent(oz, iz).", "colour(oz, red).", "colour(iz, green).country(oz).", "country(iz).", "adjacent(oz, iz).", "colour(oz, green).", "colour(iz, red).The addition of constraints of the form :- Body.", "eliminates models in which Body is true.Confusingly, ''constraints in ASP'' are different from ''constraints in CLP''.", "Constraints in CLP are predicates that qualify answers to queries (and solutions of goals).", "Constraints in ASP are clauses that eliminate models that would otherwise satisfy goals.", "Constraints in ASP are like integrity constraints in databases.This combination of ordinary logic programming clauses and constraint clauses illustrates the generate-and-test methodology of problem solving in ASP: The ordinary clauses define a search space of possible solutions, and the constraints filter out unwanted solutions.Most implementations of ASP proceed in two steps: First they instantiate the program in all possible ways, reducing it to a propositional logic program (known as ''grounding'').", "Then they apply a propositional logic problem solver, such as the DPLL algorithm or a Boolean SAT solver.", "However, some implementations, such as s(CASP) use a goal-directed, top-down, SLD resolution-like procedure withoutgrounding.===Abductive logic programming===Abductive logic programming (ALP), like CLP, extends normal logic programming by allowing the bodies of clauses to contain literals whose predicates are not defined by clauses.", "In ALP, these predicates are declared as ''abducible'' (or ''assumable''), and are used as in abductive reasoning to explain observations, or more generally to add new facts to the program (as assumptions) to solve goals.For example, suppose we are given an initial state in which a red block is on a green block on a table at time 0:holds(on(green_block, table), 0).holds(on(red_block, green_block), 0).Suppose we are also given the goal:?- holds(on(green_block,red_block), 3), holds(on(red_block,table), 3).The goal can represent an observation, in which case a solution is an explanation of the observation.", "Or the goal can represent a desired future state of affairs, in which case a solution is a plan for achieving the goal.We can use the rules for cause and effect presented earlier to solve the goal, by treating the happens predicate as abducible:holds(Fact, Time2) :- happens(Event, Time1), Time2 is Time1 + 1, initiates(Event, Fact).", "holds(Fact, Time2) :- \thappens(Event, Time1), Time2 is Time1 + 1, holds(Fact, Time1), not(terminated(Fact, Time1)).", "terminated(Fact, Time) :- happens(Event, Time), terminates(Event, Fact).initiates(move(Object, Place), on(Object, Place)).terminates(move(Object, Place2), on(Object, Place1)).ALP solves the goal by reasoning backwards and adding assumptions to the program, to solve abducible subgoals.", "In this case there are many alternative solutions, including:happens(move(red_block, table), 0).happens(tick, 1).happens(move(green_block, red_block), 2).happens(tick,0).happens(move(red_block, table), 1).happens(move(green_block, red_block), 2).happens(move(red_block, table), 0).happens(move(green_block, red_block), 1).happens(tick, 2).Here tick is an event that marks the passage of time without initiating or terminating any fluents.There are also solutions in which the two move events happen at the same time.", "For example:happens(move(red_block, table), 0).happens(move(green_block, red_block), 0).happens(tick, 1).happens(tick, 2).Such solutions, if not desired, can be removed by adding an integrity constraint, which is like a constraint clause in ASP: :- happens(move(Block1, Place), Time), happens(move(Block2, Block1), Time).Abductive logic programming has been used for fault diagnosis, planning, natural language processing and machine learning.", "It has also been used to interpret negation as failure as a form of abductive reasoning.===Inductive logic programming===Inductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to machine learning that induces logic programs as hypothetical generalisations of positive and negative examples.", "Given a logic program representing background knowledge and positive examples together with constraints representing negative examples, an ILP system induces a logic program that generalises the positive examples while excluding the negative examples.", "ILP is similar to ALP, in that both can be viewed as generating hypotheses to explain observations, and as employing constraints to exclude undesirable hypotheses.", "But in ALP the hypotheses are variable-free facts, and in ILP the hypotheses are general rules.For example, given only background knowledge of the mother_child and father_child relations, and suitable examples of the grandparent_child relation, current ILP systems can generate the definition of grandparent_child, inventing an auxiliary predicate, which can be interpreted as the parent_child relation:grandparent_child(X, Y):- auxiliary(X, Z), auxiliary(Z, Y).auxiliary(X, Y):- mother_child(X, Y).auxiliary(X, Y):- father_child(X, Y).Stuart Russell has referred to such invention of new concepts as the most important step needed for reaching human-level AI.Recent work in ILP, combining logic programming, learning and probability, has given rise to the fields of statistical relational learning and probabilistic inductive logic programming.===Concurrent logic programming===Concurrent logic programming integrates concepts of logic programming with concurrent programming.", "Its development was given a big impetus in the 1980s by its choice for the systems programming language of the Japanese Fifth Generation Project (FGCS).A concurrent logic program is a set of guarded Horn clauses of the form:::H :- G1, ..., Gn | B1, ..., Bn.The conjunction G1, ... , Gn is called the guard of the clause, and is the commitment operator.", "Declaratively, guarded Horn clauses are read as ordinary logical implications:::H if G1 and ... and Gn and B1 and ... and Bn.However, procedurally, when there are several clauses whose heads H match a given goal, then all of the clauses are executed in parallel, checking whether their guards G1, ... , Gn hold.", "If the guards of more than one clause hold, then a committed choice is made to one of the clauses, and execution proceeds with the subgoals B1, ..., Bn of the chosen clause.", "These subgoals can also be executed in parallel.", "Thus concurrent logic programming implements a form of \"don't care nondeterminism\", rather than \"don't know nondeterminism\".For example, the following concurrent logic program defines a predicate shuffle(Left, Right, Merge), which can be used to shuffle two lists Left and Right, combining them into a single list Merge that preserves the ordering of the two lists Left and Right:shuffle(, , ).shuffle(Left, Right, Merge) :- Left = Rest | Merge = ShortMerge, shuffle(Rest, Right, ShortMerge).shuffle(Left, Right, Merge) :- Right = Rest | Merge = ShortMerge, shuffle(Left, Rest, ShortMerge).Here, represents the empty list, and Tail represents a list with first element Head followed by list Tail, as in Prolog.", "(Notice that the first occurrence of in the second and third clauses is the list constructor, whereas the second occurrence of is the commitment operator.)", "The program can be used, for example, to shuffle the lists ace, queen, king and 1, 4, 2 by invoking the goal clause:shuffle(ace, queen, king, 1, 4, 2, Merge).The program will non-deterministically generate a single solution, for example Merge = ace, queen, 1, king, 4, 2.Carl Hewitt has argued that, because of the indeterminacy of concurrent computation, concurrent logic programming cannot implement general concurrency.", "However, according to the logical semantics, any result of a computation of a concurrent logic program is a logical consequence of the program, even though not all logical consequences can be derived.===Concurrent constraint logic programming===Concurrent constraint logic programming combines concurrent logic programming and constraint logic programming, using constraints to control concurrency.", "A clause can contain a guard, which is a set of constraints that may block the applicability of the clause.", "When the guards of several clauses are satisfied, concurrent constraint logic programming makes a committed choice to use only one.===Higher-order logic programming===Several researchers have extended logic programming with higher-order programming features derived from higher-order logic, such as predicate variables.", "Such languages include the Prolog extensions HiLog and λProlog.===Linear logic programming===Basing logic programming within linear logic has resulted in the design of logic programming languages that are considerably more expressive than those based on classical logic.", "Horn clause programs can only represent state change by the change in arguments to predicates.", "In linear logic programming, one can use the ambient linear logic to support state change.", "Some early designs of logic programming languages based on linear logic include LO, Lolli, ACL, and Forum.", "Forum provides a goal-directed interpretation of all linear logic.===Object-oriented logic programming===F-logic extends logic programming with objects and the frame syntax.Logtalk extends the Prolog programming language with support for objects, protocols, and other OOP concepts.", "It supports most standard-compliant Prolog systems as backend compilers.===Transaction logic programming===Transaction logic is an extension of logic programming with a logical theory of state-modifying updates.", "It has both a model-theoretic semantics and a procedural one.", "An implementation of a subset of Transaction logic is available in the Flora-2 system.", "Other prototypes are also available." ], [ "See also", "* Automated theorem proving* Boolean satisfiability problem* Constraint logic programming* Control theory* Datalog* Fril* Functional programming* Fuzzy logic* Inductive logic programming* Linear logic* Logic in computer science (includes Formal methods)* Logic programming languages* Programmable logic controller* R++* Reasoning system* Rule-based machine learning* Satisfiability* Syntax and semantics of logic programming" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "===General introductions===* * * ===Other sources===* John McCarthy.", "\"Programs with common sense\".", "''Symposium on Mechanization of Thought Processes''.", "National Physical Laboratory.", "Teddington, England.", "1958.", "* * Ehud Shapiro (Editor).", "''Concurrent Prolog''.", "MIT Press.", "1987.", "* James Slagle.", "\"Experiments with a Deductive Question-Answering Program\".", "CACM.", "December 1965.", "* Gabbay, Dov M.; Hogger, Christopher John; Robinson, J.A., eds.", "(1993-1998).", "Handbook of Logic in Artificial Intelligence and Logic Programming.Vols.", "1–5, Oxford University Press." ], [ "Further reading", "* Carl Hewitt. \"", "Procedural Embedding of Knowledge in Planner\".", "IJCAI 1971.", "* Carl Hewitt. \"", "The Repeated Demise of Logic Programming and Why It Will Be Reincarnated\".", "''AAAI Spring Symposium: What Went Wrong and Why: Lessons from AI Research and Applications'' 2006: 2–9.", "* Evgeny Dantsin, Thomas , Georg Gottlob, Andrei Voronkov: Complexity and expressive power of logic programming.", "ACM Comput.", "Surv.", "33(3): 374–425 (2001)* Ulf Nilsson and Jan Maluszynski, Logic, Programming and Prolog" ], [ "External links", "* ''Logic Programming'' Virtual Library entry* Bibliographies on Logic Programming * Association for Logic Programming (ALP)*'' Theory and Practice of Logic Programming'' (journal)* Logic programming in C++ with Castor* Logic programming in Oz* Prolog Development Center * Racklog: Logic Programming in Racket" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lake Tana" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lake Tana''' (; previously '''Tsana''') is the largest lake in Ethiopia and a source of the Blue Nile.", "Located in Amhara Region in the north-western Ethiopian Highlands, the lake is approximately long and wide, with a maximum depth of , and an elevation of .", "Lake Tana is fed by the Gilgel Abay, Reb and Gumara rivers.", "Its surface area ranges from , depending on season and rainfall.", "The lake level has been regulated since the construction of the control weir where the lake discharges into the Blue Nile.", "This controls the flow to the Blue Nile Falls (Tis Abbai) and hydro-power station.In 2015, the Lake Tana region was nominated as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve recognizing its national and international natural and cultural importance." ], [ "Overview", "Views over Lake TanaThe Island Church on Lake TanaA local tour guide demonstrates how a stone is struck to signal meal times at a monastery on Zege PeninsulaBeginning of the Blue Nile river by its outlet from Lake TanaA resort hotel on Lake Tana in Bahir DarLake Tana was formed by volcanic activity, blocking the course of inflowing rivers in the early Pleistocene epoch, about 5 million years ago.The lake was originally much larger than it is today.", "Seven large permanent rivers feed the lake as well as 40 small seasonal rivers.", "The main tributaries to the lake are Gilgel Abbay (Little Nile River), and the Megech, Gumara, and Rib rivers.Lake Tana has a number of islands, whose number varies depending on the level of the lake.", "It has fallen about in the last 400 years.", "According to Manoel de Almeida (a Portuguese missionary in the early 17th century), there were 21 islands, seven to eight of which had monasteries on them \"formerly large, but now much diminished.\"", "When James Bruce visited the area in 1771, he noted that the locals counted 45 inhabited islands, but stated he believed that \"the number may be about eleven.\"", "Anton Stecker, in 1881, made a detailed examination of the lake, enabling substantially accurate maps, and counted 44 islands.", "A 20th-century geographer named 37 islands, of which he believed 19 have or had monasteries or churches on them.Remains of ancient Ethiopian emperors and treasures of the Ethiopian Church are kept in the isolated island monasteries (including Kebran Gabriel, Ura Kidane Mehret, Narga Selassie, Daga Estifanos, Medhane Alem of Rema, Kota Maryam, and Mertola Maryam).", "On the island of Tana Qirqos is a rock shown to Paul B. Henze, on which he was told the Virgin Mary had rested on her journey back from Egypt; he was also told that Frumentius, who introduced Christianity to Ethiopia, is \"allegedly buried on Tana Cherqos.\"", "The body of Yekuno Amlak is interred in the monastery of St. Stephen on Daga Island.", "Emperors whose tombs are also on Daga include Dawit I, Zara Yaqob, Za Dengel, and Fasilides.", "Other important islands in Lake Tana include Dek, Mitraha, Gelila Zakarias, Halimun and Briguida.The monasteries are believed to have been built during the Middle Ages over earlier religious sites.", "They include the fourteenth-century Debre Maryam, and the eighteenth-century Narga Selassie, Tana Qirqos (said to have housed the Ark of the Covenant before it was moved to Axum), and Ura Kidane Mehret, known for its regalia.", "A ferry service links Bahir Dar with Gorgora via Dek Island and various lakeshore villages.There is also Zege Peninsula on the southwest portion of the lake.", "Zege is the site of the Azwa Maryam monastery." ], [ "Water characteristics and floods", "Compared to other tropical lakes, the waters in Lake Tana are relatively cold, typically ranging from about .", "The water has a pH that is neutral to somewhat alkaline and its transparency is quite low.Because of the large seasonal variations in the inflow of its tributaries, rain and evaporation, the water levels of Lake Tana typically vary by in a year, peaking in September–October just after the main wet season.", "When the water levels are high, the plains around the lake often are flooded and other permanent swamps in the region become connected to the lake." ], [ "Fauna", "Lily pads floating near the shore on Lake TanaSince there are no inflows that link the lake to other large waterways and the main outflow, the Blue Nile, is obstructed by the Blue Nile Falls, the lake supports a highly distinctive aquatic fauna, which generally is related to species from the Nile Basin.", "The lake's nutrient levels are low.===Fish===There are 27 fish species in Lake Tana and 20 of these are endemic.", "This includes one of only two known cyprinid species flocks (the other, from Lake Lanao in the Philippines, has been decimated by introduced species).", "It consists of 15 relatively large, up to long, ''Labeobarbus'' barbs that formerly were included in ''Barbus'' instead.", "Among these, ''L.", "acutirostris'', ''L.", "longissimus'', ''L.", "megastoma'' and ''L.", "truttiformis'' are strictly piscivorous, and ''L.", "dainellii'', ''L.", "gorguari'', ''L.", "macrophtalmus'' and ''L.", "platydorsus'' are mostly piscivorous.", "Their most important prey are the small ''Enteromius'' and ''Garra'' species.", "The remaining ''Labeobarbus'' in Lake Tana have other specialized feeding habits: ''L.", "beso'' (non-endemic and not closely related to the others) feeds on algae, ''L.", "surkis'' mostly on macrophytes, ''L.", "gorgorensis'' on macrophytes and molluscs, ''L.", "brevicephalus'' on zooplankton (however, juveniles of all members of the species flock feed on zooplankton), ''L.", "osseensis'' on macrophytes and adults insects, and ''L.", "crassibarbis'', ''L.", "intermedius'' (non-endemic but closely related to the others), ''L.", "nedgia'' and ''L.", "tsanensis'' on benthic invertebrates like chironomid larvae.", "Among the endemic ''Labeobarbus'', eight species spawn in the lake's wetlands and the remaining move seasonally into its tributaries where they spawn.In addition to the ''Labeobarbus'' species flock, the endemic species are ''Enteromius pleurogramma'', ''E.", "tanapelagius'', ''Garra regressus'' and ''Afronemacheilus abyssinicus'' (one of only two African stone loaches).", "The remaining non-endemic species are Nile tilapia (widespread in Africa, but with the endemic subspecies ''tana'' in the lake), ''E.", "humilis'', ''G.", "dembecha'', ''G.", "dembeensis'' and the large African sharptooth catfish.===Fishing and threats===Various ''Labeobarbus'' barbs and African sharptooth catfish caught in the lakeLake Tana supports a large fishing industry, mainly based on the ''Labeobarbus'' barbs, Nile tilapia and sharptooth catfish.", "According to the Ethiopian Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 1,454 tons of fish were landed in 2011 at Bahir Dar, which the department estimated was 15% of its sustainable amount.", "Nevertheless, in a review that compared catches in 2001 to those ten years earlier, it was found that typical sizes of both the tilapia and the catfish had significantly decreased, and populations of the ''Labeobarbus'' barbs that breed in the tributaries had significantly declined.", "Among the endemic fish, most are considered threatened (endangered or vulnerable) or data deficient (available data insufficient for evaluating a status) by the IUCN.", "In the early 2000s, the local government for the first time introduced a fisheries legislation and it is hoped this will have a positive effect on the fish populations.Other serious threats are habitat destruction and pollution.", "Bahir Dar has become a large city and it is rapidly growing; its wastewater is generally released directly into the lake.", "The vegetation in the lake's wetlands, which are an important nursery for the ''Labeobarbus'' and other fish, are being cleared at a fast pace.", "A potentially serious threat to the unique ecosystem would be an introduction of a large and efficient predatory species like the Nile perch, which has been implicated in numerous extinctions in Lake Victoria.", "The piscivorous ''Labeobarbus'' of Lake Tana are relatively inefficient predators that only can take fish up to about 15% of the length of the predator itself.===Other fauna===Great white pelicans on Lake TanaAmong other fauna, the lake supports relatively few invertebrates: There are fifteen species of mollusks, including one endemic, and also an endemic freshwater sponge.About 230 species of birds, including more than 80 wetland birds such as the great white pelican, African darter, hamerkop, storks, African spoonbill, ibis, ducks, kingfishers and African fish eagle, are known from Lake Tana.", "It is an important resting and feeding ground for many Palearctic migrant waterbirds.There are no crocodiles, but the African softshell turtle and Nile monitor have been recorded near the Blue Nile outflow from the lake.", "Hippos are present, mostly near the Blue Nile outflow." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Homepage of Lake Tana Biosphere Reserve* Lake Tana project webpage of The Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU e.V.", ")* Lake Tana project at Aberystwyth University* Photographs of the lake* Unesco plan for Lake T'ana* LakeNet Profile* Pictures from Lake Tana and the Monasteries*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lola Graham" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lola Glenn Graham''' (23 September 19182 January 1992).", "She first came to public attention after winning a musical competition at age six by playing the piano.", "She attended Shelford Church of England Girls' Grammar School and passed her music examinations in December 1933.In October 1936 her piano teacher, Sheila MacFie, organised a recital for Graham and fellow student, Eda Ashton, at the British Music Society's rooms, Melbourne.", "In April 1942 Graham and Ashton were pianists for a radio broadcast on 3LO on the Australian Broadcasting Commission's network.", "In May of the following year her chamber music piano work was described by ''The Argus'' reporter, \"Graham showed virtuosity in her playing of Albanesi's Sonata in C Major.", "\"She worked in radio for most of her career.", "In October 1946 she performed a duo piano recital with Mamie Reid on national radio.", "She worked in live musical theatre both as a band member and accompanist.", "Graham married Fred Menhennitt on 23 February 1957 and the couple had two sons.", "She was a backing musician for Barry Humphries, and in 1962, she provided piano on his album, ''A Nice Night's Entertainment''.", "She died, aged 73, after being diagnosed with cancer." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Liquid-crystal display" ], [ "Introduction", "The layers of a reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display:A '''liquid-crystal display''' ('''LCD''') is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers.", "Liquid crystals do not emit light directly but instead use a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.", "LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display) or fixed images with low information content, which can be displayed or hidden: preset words, digits, and seven-segment displays (as in a digital clock) are all examples of devices with these displays.", "They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a matrix of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements.", "LCDs can either be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer arrangement.", "For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have black lettering on a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character negative LCD will have a black background with the letters being of the same color as the backlight.", "LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage.", "Small LCD screens are common in LCD projectors and portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones.", "LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky and less energy-efficient cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications.", "The phosphors used in CRTs make them vulnerable to image burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time, e.g., the table frame for an airline flight schedule on an indoor sign.", "LCDs do not have this weakness, but are still susceptible to image persistence." ], [ "General characteristics", "An LCD screen used as a notification panel for travellersEach pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, often made of indium tin oxide (ITO) and two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular polarizers), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other.", "Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer.", "Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes.", "In a twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist.", "This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray.", "If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer.", "This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black.", "By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.The chemical formula of the liquid crystals used in LCDs may vary.", "Formulas may be patented.", "An example is a mixture of 2-(4-alkoxyphenyl)-5-alkylpyrimidine with cyanobiphenyl, patented by Merck and Sharp Corporation.", "The patent that covered that specific mixture expired.Most color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue subpixels.", "The LCD color filters are made with a photolithography process on large glass sheets that are later glued with other glass sheets containing a thin-film transistor (TFT) array, spacers and liquid crystal, creating several color LCDs that are then cut from one another and laminated with polarizer sheets.", "Red, green, blue and black photoresists (resists) are used.", "All resists contain a finely ground powdered pigment, with particles being just 40 nanometers across.", "The black resist is the first to be applied; this will create a black grid (known in the industry as a black matrix) that will separate red, green and blue subpixels from one another, increasing contrast ratios and preventing light from leaking from one subpixel onto other surrounding subpixels.", "After the black resist has been dried in an oven and exposed to UV light through a photomask, the unexposed areas are washed away, creating a black grid.", "Then the same process is repeated with the remaining resists.", "This fills the holes in the black grid with their corresponding colored resists.", "Another color-generation method used in early color PDAs and some calculators was done by varying the voltage in a Super-twisted nematic LCD, where the variable twist between tighter-spaced plates causes a varying double refraction birefringence, thus changing the hue.", "They were typically restricted to 3 colors per pixel: orange, green, and blue.LCD in a Texas Instruments calculator with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are perpendicular.", "As a result, the colors are inverted.The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state.", "Because of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state).", "As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background.", "When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used.", "For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers.", "In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, particularly in smartphones.", "Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds.", "If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance.", "This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).A Casio Alarm Chrono digital watch with LCDDisplays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with independent electrodes for each segment.", "In contrast, full alphanumeric or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections.", "The general method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix, for example by selecting the rows one-by-one and applying the picture information on the other side at the columns row-by-row.", "''For details on the various matrix addressing schemes see'' passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs.LCD-Glass-sizes-generationLCDs are manufactured in cleanrooms borrowing techniques from semiconductor manufacturing and using large sheets of glass whose size has increased over time.", "Several displays are manufactured at the same time, and then cut from the sheet of glass, also known as the mother glass or LCD glass substrate.", "The increase in size allows more displays or larger displays to be made, just like with increasing wafer sizes in semiconductor manufacturing.", "The glass sizes are as follows: Generation Length(mm) Height(mm) Year ofintroduction References GEN 1200–300200–4001990 GEN 2370 GEN 35506501996–1998 GEN 3.56007201996 GEN 46808802000–2002 GEN 4.57309202000–2004 GEN 511001250–13002002–2004 GEN 5.5 1300 1500 GEN 615001800–18502002–2004 GEN 7 1870 2200 2003 GEN 7.5 1950 2250 GEN 8 2160 2460 GEN 8.5 2200 2500 2007–2016 GEN 8.6 2250 2600 2016 GEN 10 2880 3130 2009 GEN 10.5(also known as GEN 11) 2940 3370 2018Until Gen 8, manufacturers would not agree on a single mother glass size and as a result, different manufacturers would use slightly different glass sizes for the same generation.", "Some manufacturers have adopted Gen 8.6 mother glass sheets which are only slightly larger than Gen 8.5, allowing for more 50- and 58-inch LCDs to be made per mother glass, specially 58-inch LCDs, in which case 6 can be produced on a Gen 8.6 mother glass vs only 3 on a Gen 8.5 mother glass, significantly reducing waste.", "The thickness of the mother glass also increases with each generation, so larger mother glass sizes are better suited for larger displays.", "An LCD module (LCM) is a ready-to-use LCD with a backlight.", "Thus, a factory that makes LCD modules does not necessarily make LCDs, it may only assemble them into the modules.", "LCD glass substrates are made by companies such as AGC Inc., Corning Inc., and Nippon Electric Glass." ], [ "History", "The origins and the complex history of liquid-crystal displays from the perspective of an insider during the early days were described by Joseph A. Castellano in ''Liquid Gold: The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an Industry''.Another report on the origins and history of LCD from a different perspective until 1991 has been published by Hiroshi Kawamoto, available at the IEEE History Center.A description of Swiss contributions to LCD developments, written by Peter J.", "Wild, can be found at the ''Engineering and Technology History Wiki''.===Background===In 1888, Friedrich Reinitzer (1858–1927) discovered the liquid crystalline nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two melting points and generation of colors) and published his findings.", "In 1904, Otto Lehmann published his work ''\"Flüssige Kristalle\"'' (Liquid Crystals).", "In 1911, Charles Mauguin first experimented with liquid crystals confined between plates in thin layers.In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of liquid crystals and classified them in three types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics).", "In 1927, Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically switched light valve, called the Fréedericksz transition, the essential effect of all LCD technology.", "In 1936, the Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patented the first practical application of the technology, ''\"The Liquid Crystal Light Valve\"''.", "In 1962, the first major English language publication ''Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals'' was published by Dr. George W. Gray.", "In 1962, Richard Williams of RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting electro-optic characteristics and he realized an electro-optical effect by generating stripe patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal material by the application of a voltage.", "This effect is based on an electro-hydrodynamic instability forming what are now called \"Williams domains\" inside the liquid crystal.Building on early MOSFETs, Paul K. Weimer at RCA developed the thin-film transistor (TFT) in 1962.It was a type of MOSFET distinct from the standard bulk MOSFET.===1960s===In 1964, George H. Heilmeier, who was working at the RCA laboratories on the effect discovered by Richard Williams, achieved the switching of colors by field-induced realignment of dichroic dyes in a homeotropically oriented liquid crystal.", "Practical problems with this new electro-optical effect made Heilmeier continue to work on scattering effects in liquid crystals and finally the achievement of the first operational liquid-crystal display based on what he called the ''dynamic scattering mode'' (DSM).", "Application of a voltage to a DSM display switches the initially clear transparent liquid crystal layer into a milky turbid state.", "DSM displays could be operated in transmissive and in reflective mode but they required a considerable current to flow for their operation.", "George H. Heilmeier was inducted in the National Inventors Hall of Fame and credited with the invention of LCDs.", "Heilmeier's work is an IEEE Milestone.In the late 1960s, pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken by the UK's Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England.", "The team at RRE supported ongoing work by George William Gray and his team at the University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals, which had correct stability and temperature properties for application in LCDs.The idea of a TFT-based liquid-crystal display (LCD) was conceived by Bernard Lechner of RCA Laboratories in 1968.Lechner, F.J. Marlowe, E.O.", "Nester and J. Tults demonstrated the concept in 1968 with an 18x2 matrix dynamic scattering mode (DSM) LCD that used standard discrete MOSFETs.=== 1970s ===On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect (TN) in liquid crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland, ( Swiss patent No.", "532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as inventors.", "Hoffmann-La Roche licensed the invention to Swiss manufacturer Brown, Boveri & Cie, its joint venture partner at that time, which produced TN displays for wristwatches and other applications during the 1970s for the international markets including the Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first digital quartz wristwatches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products.", "James Fergason, while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical patent in the United States on April 22, 1971.In 1971, the company of Fergason, ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated), produced LCDs based on the TN-effect, which soon superseded the poor-quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power consumption.", "Tetsuro Hama and Izuhiko Nishimura of Seiko received a US patent dated February 1971, for an electronic wristwatch incorporating a TN-LCD.", "In 1972, the first wristwatch with TN-LCD was launched on the market: The Gruen Teletime which was a four digit display watch.In 1972, the concept of the active-matrix thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid-crystal display panel was prototyped in the United States by T. Peter Brody's team at Westinghouse, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "In 1973, Brody, J.", "A. Asars and G. D. Dixon at Westinghouse Research Laboratories demonstrated the first thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD).", ", all modern high-resolution and high-quality electronic visual display devices use TFT-based active matrix displays.", "Brody and Fang-Chen Luo demonstrated the first flat active-matrix liquid-crystal display (AM LCD) in 1974, and then Brody coined the term \"active matrix\" in 1975.In 1972 North American Rockwell Microelectronics Corp introduced the use of DSM LCDs for calculators for marketing by Lloyds Electronics Inc, though these required an internal light source for illumination.", "Sharp Corporation followed with DSM LCDs for pocket-sized calculators in 1973 and then mass-produced TN LCDs for watches in 1975.Other Japanese companies soon took a leading position in the wristwatch market, like Seiko and its first 6-digit TN-LCD quartz wristwatch, and Casio's 'Casiotron'.", "Color LCDs based on ''Guest-Host'' interaction were invented by a team at RCA in 1968.A particular type of such a color LCD was developed by Japan's Sharp Corporation in the 1970s, receiving patents for their inventions, such as a patent by Shinji Kato and Takaaki Miyazaki in May 1975, and then improved by Fumiaki Funada and Masataka Matsuura in December 1975.TFT LCDs similar to the prototypes developed by a Westinghouse team in 1972 were patented in 1976 by a team at Sharp consisting of Fumiaki Funada, Masataka Matsuura, and Tomio Wada, then improved in 1977 by a Sharp team consisting of Kohei Kishi, Hirosaku Nonomura, Keiichiro Shimizu, and Tomio Wada.", "However, these TFT-LCDs were not yet ready for use in products, as problems with the materials for the TFTs were not yet solved.===1980s===In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) Research Center, Switzerland, invented the ''super-twisted nematic (STN) structure'' for passive matrix-addressed LCDs.", "H. Amstutz et al.", "were listed as inventors in the corresponding patent applications filed in Switzerland on July 7, 1983, and October 28, 1983.Patents were granted in Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP 0131216, and many more countries.", "In 1980, Brown Boveri started a 50/50 joint venture with the Dutch Philips company, called Videlec.", "Philips had the required know-how to design and build integrated circuits for the control of large LCD panels.", "In addition, Philips had better access to markets for electronic components and intended to use LCDs in new product generations of hi-fi, video equipment and telephones.", "In 1984, Philips researchers Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan invented a video speed-drive scheme that solved the slow response time of STN-LCDs, enabling high-resolution, high-quality, and smooth-moving video images on STN-LCDs.", "In 1985, Philips inventors Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan solved the problem of driving high-resolution STN-LCDs using low-voltage (CMOS-based) drive electronics, allowing the application of high-quality (high resolution and video speed) LCD panels in battery-operated portable products like notebook computers and mobile phones.", "In 1985, Philips acquired 100% of the Videlec AG company based in Switzerland.", "Afterwards, Philips moved the Videlec production lines to the Netherlands.", "Years later, Philips successfully produced and marketed complete modules (consisting of the LCD screen, microphone, speakers etc.)", "in high-volume production for the booming mobile phone industry.The first color LCD televisions were developed as handheld televisions in Japan.", "In 1980, Hattori Seiko's R&D group began development on color LCD pocket televisions.", "In 1982, Seiko Epson released the first LCD television, the Epson TV Watch, a wristwatch equipped with a small active-matrix LCD television.", "Sharp Corporation introduced dot matrix TN-LCD in 1983.In 1984, Epson released the ET-10, the first full-color, pocket LCD television.", "The same year, Citizen Watch, introduced the Citizen Pocket TV, a 2.7-inch color LCD TV, with the first commercial TFT LCD.", "In 1988, Sharp demonstrated a 14-inch, active-matrix, full-color, full-motion TFT-LCD.", "This led to Japan launching an LCD industry, which developed large-size LCDs, including TFT computer monitors and LCD televisions.", "Epson developed the 3LCD projection technology in the 1980s, and licensed it for use in projectors in 1988.Epson's VPJ-700, released in January 1989, was the world's first compact, full-color LCD projector.===1990s===In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical effects as alternatives to ''twisted nematic field effect LCDs'' (TN- and STN- LCDs).", "One approach was to use interdigital electrodes on one glass substrate only to produce an electric field essentially parallel to the glass substrates.", "To take full advantage of the properties of this ''In Plane Switching (IPS) technology'' further work was needed.", "After thorough analysis, details of advantageous embodiments are filed in Germany by Guenter Baur ''et al.''", "and patented in various countries.", "The Fraunhofer Institute ISE in Freiburg, where the inventors worked, assigns these patents to Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, a supplier of LC substances.", "In 1992, shortly thereafter, engineers at Hitachi work out various practical details of the IPS technology to interconnect the thin-film transistor array as a matrix and to avoid undesirable stray fields in between pixels.", "The first wall-mountable LCD TV was introduced by Sharp Corporation in 1992.Hitachi also improved the viewing angle dependence further by optimizing the shape of the electrodes (''Super IPS'').", "NEC and Hitachi become early manufacturers of active-matrix addressed LCDs based on the IPS technology.", "This is a milestone for implementing large-screen LCDs having acceptable visual performance for flat-panel computer monitors and television screens.", "In 1996, Samsung developed the optical patterning technique that enables multi-domain LCD.", "Multi-domain and In Plane Switching subsequently remain the dominant LCD designs through 2006.In the late 1990s, the LCD industry began shifting away from Japan, towards South Korea and Taiwan, and later on towards China.=== 2000s ===In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image quality of cathode-ray-tube-based (CRT) TVs.", "In the fourth quarter of 2007, LCD televisions surpassed CRT TVs in worldwide sales for the first time.", "LCD TVs were projected to account 50% of the 200 million TVs to be shipped globally in 2006, according to Displaybank.=== 2010s ===In October 2011, Toshiba announced 2560 × 1600 pixels on a 6.1-inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for use in a tablet computer, especially for Chinese character display.", "The 2010s also saw the wide adoption of TGP (Tracking Gate-line in Pixel), which moves the driving circuitry from the borders of the display to in between the pixels, allowing for narrow bezels.In 2016, Panasonic developed IPS LCDs with a contrast ratio of 1,000,000:1, rivaling OLEDs.", "This technology was later put into mass production as dual layer, dual panel or LMCL (Light Modulating Cell Layer) LCDs.", "The technology uses 2 liquid crystal layers instead of one, and may be used along with a mini-LED backlight and quantum dot sheets." ], [ "Illumination", "Since LCDs produce no light of their own, they require external light to produce a visible image.", "In a transmissive type of LCD, the light source is provided at the back of the glass stack and is called a backlight.", "Active-matrix LCDs are almost always backlit.", "Passive LCDs may be backlit but many are reflective as they use a use a reflective surface or film at the back of the glass stack to utilize ambient light.", "Transflective LCDs combine the features of a backlit transmissive display and a reflective display.The common implementations of LCD backlight technology are:18 parallel CCFLs as backlight for a 42-inch (106 cm) LCD TV* CCFL: The LCD panel is lit either by two cold cathode fluorescent lamps placed at opposite edges of the display or an array of parallel CCFLs behind larger displays.", "A diffuser (made of PMMA acrylic plastic, also known as a wave or light guide/guiding plate) then spreads the light out evenly across the whole display.", "For many years, this technology had been used almost exclusively.", "Unlike white LEDs, most CCFLs have an even-white spectral output resulting in better color gamut for the display.", "However, CCFLs are less energy efficient than LEDs and require a somewhat costly inverter to convert whatever DC voltage the device uses (usually 5 or 12 V) to ≈1000 V needed to light a CCFL.", "The thickness of the inverter transformers also limits how thin the display can be made.", "* EL-WLED: The LCD panel is lit by a row of white LEDs placed at one or more edges of the screen.", "A light diffuser (light guide plate, LGP) is then used to spread the light evenly across the whole display, similarly to edge-lit CCFL LCD backlights.", "The diffuser is made out of either PMMA plastic or special glass, PMMA is used in most cases because it is rugged, while special glass is used when the thickness of the LCD is of primary concern, because it doesn't expand as much when heated or exposed to moisture, which allows LCDs to be just 5mm thick.", "Quantum dots may be placed on top of the diffuser as a quantum dot enhancement film (QDEF, in which case they need a layer to be protected from heat and humidity) or on the color filter of the LCD, replacing the resists that are normally used.", "this design is the most popular one in desktop computer monitors.", "It allows for the thinnest displays.", "Some LCD monitors using this technology have a feature called dynamic contrast, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan Using PWM (pulse-width modulation, a technology where the intensity of the LEDs are kept constant, but the brightness adjustment is achieved by varying a time interval of flashing these constant light intensity light sources), the backlight is dimmed to the brightest color that appears on the screen while simultaneously boosting the LCD contrast to the maximum achievable levels, allowing the 1000:1 contrast ratio of the LCD panel to be scaled to different light intensities, resulting in the \"30000:1\" contrast ratios seen in the advertising on some of these monitors.", "Since computer screen images usually have full white somewhere in the image, the backlight will usually be at full intensity, making this \"feature\" mostly a marketing gimmick for computer monitors, however for TV screens it drastically increases the perceived contrast ratio and dynamic range, improves the viewing angle dependency and drastically reducing the power consumption of conventional LCD televisions.", "* WLED array: The LCD panel is lit by a full array of white LEDs placed behind a diffuser behind the panel.", "LCDs that use this implementation will usually have the ability to dim or completely turn off the LEDs in the dark areas of the image being displayed, effectively increasing the contrast ratio of the display.", "The precision with which this can be done will depend on the number of dimming zones of the display.", "The more dimming zones, the more precise the dimming, with less obvious blooming artifacts which are visible as dark grey patches surrounded by the unlit areas of the LCD.", "As of 2012, this design gets most of its use from upscale, larger-screen LCD televisions.", "* RGB-LED array: Similar to the WLED array, except the panel is lit by a full array of RGB LEDs.", "While displays lit with white LEDs usually have a poorer color gamut than CCFL lit displays, panels lit with RGB LEDs have very wide color gamuts.", "This implementation is most popular on professional graphics editing LCDs.", "As of 2012, LCDs in this category usually cost more than $1000.As of 2016 the cost of this category has drastically reduced and such LCD televisions obtained same price levels as the former 28\" (71 cm) CRT based categories.", "* Monochrome LEDs: such as red, green, yellow or blue LEDs are used in the small passive monochrome LCDs typically used in clocks, watches and small appliances.", "* Mini-LED: Backlighting with Mini-LEDs can support over a thousand of Full-area Local Area Dimming (FLAD) zones.", "This allows deeper blacks and higher contrast ratio.Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight instead of the traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is dynamically controlled with the video information (dynamic backlight control).", "The combination with the dynamic backlight control, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan, simultaneously increases the dynamic range of the display system (also marketed as ''HDR'', ''high dynamic range television'' or ''FLAD'', ''full-area local area dimming'').The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical films such as prismatic structure (prism sheet) to gain the light into the desired viewer directions and reflective polarizing films that recycle the polarized light that was formerly absorbed by the first polarizer of the LCD (invented by Philips researchers Adrianus de Vaan and Paulus Schaareman), generally achieved using so called DBEF films manufactured and supplied by 3M.", "Improved versions of the prism sheet have a wavy rather than a prismatic structure, and introduce waves laterally into the structure of the sheet while also varying the height of the waves, directing even more light towards the screen and reducing aliasing or moiré between the structure of the prism sheet and the subpixels of the LCD.", "A wavy structure is easier to mass-produce than a prismatic one using conventional diamond machine tools, which are used to make the rollers used to imprint the wavy structure into plastic sheets, thus producing prism sheets.", "A diffuser sheet is placed on both sides of the prism sheet to distribute the light of the backlight uniformly, while a mirror is placed behind the light guide plate to direct all light forwards.", "The prism sheet with its diffuser sheets are placed on top of the light guide plate.", "The DBEF polarizers consist of a large stack of uniaxial oriented birefringent films that reflect the former absorbed polarization mode of the light.", "Such reflective polarizers using uniaxial oriented polymerized liquid crystals (birefringent polymers or birefringent glue) are invented in 1989 by Philips researchers Dirk Broer, Adrianus de Vaan and Joerg Brambring.", "The combination of such reflective polarizers, and LED dynamic backlight control make today's LCD televisions far more efficient than the CRT-based sets, leading to a worldwide energy saving of 600 TWh (2017), equal to 10% of the electricity consumption of all households worldwide or equal to 2 times the energy production of all solar cells in the world." ], [ "Connection to other circuits", "A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown next to a centimeter-scale ruler.", "The conductive and insulating layers in the black stripe are very small.A standard television receiver screen, a modern LCD panel, has over six million pixels, and they are all individually powered by a wire network embedded in the screen.", "The fine wires, or pathways, form a grid with vertical wires across the whole screen on one side of the screen and horizontal wires across the whole screen on the other side of the screen.", "To this grid each pixel has a positive connection on one side and a negative connection on the other side.", "So the total amount of wires needed for a 1080p display is 3 x 1920 going vertically and 1080 going horizontally for a total of 6840 wires horizontally and vertically.", "That's three for red, green and blue and 1920 columns of pixels for each color for a total of 5760 wires going vertically and 1080 rows of wires going horizontally.", "For a panel that is 28.8 inches (73 centimeters) wide, that means a wire density of 200 wires per inch along the horizontal edge.The LCD panel is powered by LCD drivers that are carefully matched up with the edge of the LCD panel at the factory level.", "The drivers may be installed using several methods, the most common of which are COG (Chip-On-Glass) and TAB (Tape-automated bonding) These same principles apply also for smartphone screens that are much smaller than TV screens.", "LCD panels typically use thinly-coated metallic conductive pathways on a glass substrate to form the cell circuitry to operate the panel.", "It is usually not possible to use soldering techniques to directly connect the panel to a separate copper-etched circuit board.", "Instead, interfacing is accomplished using anisotropic conductive film or, for lower densities, elastomeric connectors." ], [ "Passive-matrix", "Prototype of a passive-matrix STN-LCD with 540×270 pixels, Brown Boveri Research, Switzerland, 1984Monochrome and later color passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops (although a few used plasma displays) and the original Nintendo Game Boy until the mid-1990s, when color active-matrix became standard on all laptops.", "The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active-matrix display (though still monochrome).", "Passive-matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less demanding than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive calculators.", "In particular, these are used on portable devices where less information content needs to be displayed, lowest power consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired or readability in direct sunlight is needed.A comparison between a blank passive-matrix display (top) and a blank active-matrix display (bottom).", "A passive-matrix display can be identified when the blank background is more grey in appearance than the crisper active-matrix display, fog appears on all edges of the screen, and while pictures appear to be fading on the screen.Displays having a passive-matrix structure are employing ''super-twisted nematic'' STN (invented by Brown Boveri Research Center, Baden, Switzerland, in 1983; scientific details were published) or double-layer STN (DSTN) technology (the latter of which addresses a color-shifting problem with the former), and color-STN (CSTN) in which color is added by using an internal color filter.", "STN LCDs have been optimized for passive-matrix addressing.", "They exhibit a sharper threshold of the contrast-vs-voltage characteristic than the original TN LCDs.", "This is important, because pixels are subjected to partial voltages even while not selected.", "Crosstalk between activated and non-activated pixels has to be handled properly by keeping the RMS voltage of non-activated pixels below the threshold voltage as discovered by Peter J.", "Wild in 1972, while activated pixels are subjected to voltages above threshold (the voltages according to the \"Alt & Pleshko\" drive scheme).", "Driving such STN displays according to the Alt & Pleshko drive scheme require very high line addressing voltages.", "Welzen and de Vaan invented an alternative drive scheme (a non \"Alt & Pleshko\" drive scheme) requiring much lower voltages, such that the STN display could be driven using low voltage CMOS technologies.", "White-on-blue LCDs are STN and can use a blue polarizer, or birefringence which gives them their distinctive appearance.STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed voltages of one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity during the next frame.", "Individual pixels are addressed by the corresponding row and column circuits.", "This type of display is called ''passive-matrix addressed'', because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady electrical charge.", "As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this type of display becomes less feasible.", "Slow response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs with too many pixels and driven according to the \"Alt & Pleshko\" drive scheme.", "Welzen and de Vaan also invented a non RMS drive scheme enabling to drive STN displays with video rates and enabling to show smooth moving video images on an STN display.", "Citizen, among others, licensed these patents and successfully introduced several STN based LCD pocket televisions on the market.How an LCD works using an active-matrix structureBistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing.", "Rewriting is only required for picture information changes.", "In 1984 HA van Sprang and AJSM de Vaan invented an STN type display that could be operated in a bistable mode, enabling extremely high resolution images up to 4000 lines or more using only low voltages.", "Since a pixel may be either in an on-state or in an off state at the moment new information needs to be written to that particular pixel, the addressing method of these bistable displays is rather complex, a reason why these displays did not made it to the market.", "That changed when in the 2010 \"zero-power\" (bistable) LCDs became available.", "Potentially, passive-matrix addressing can be used with devices if their write/erase characteristics are suitable, which was the case for ebooks which need to show still pictures only.", "After a page is written to the display, the display may be cut from the power while retaining readable images.", "This has the advantage that such ebooks may be operated for long periods of time powered by only a small battery.High-resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, use an active-matrix structure.", "A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the electrodes in contact with the LC layer.", "Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel.", "When a row line is selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and voltages corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the column lines.", "The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is selected.", "All of the row lines are selected in sequence during a refresh operation.", "Active-matrix addressed displays look brighter and sharper than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images.", "Sharp produces bistable reflective LCDs with a 1-bit SRAM cell per pixel that only requires small amounts of power to maintain an image.Segment LCDs can also have color by using Field Sequential Color (FSC LCD).", "This kind of displays have a high speed passive segment LCD panel with an RGB backlight.", "The backlight quickly changes color, making it appear white to the naked eye.", "The LCD panel is synchronized with the backlight.", "For example, to make a segment appear red, the segment is only turned ON when the backlight is red, and to make a segment appear magenta, the segment is turned ON when the backlight is blue, and it continues to be ON while the backlight becomes red, and it turns OFF when the backlight becomes green.", "To make a segment appear black, the segment is always turned ON.", "An FSC LCD divides a color image into 3 images (one Red, one Green and one Blue) and it displays them in order.", "Due to persistence of vision, the 3 monochromatic images appear as one color image.", "An FSC LCD needs an LCD panel with a refresh rate of 180 Hz, and the response time is reduced to just 5 milliseconds when compared with normal STN LCD panels which have a response time of 16 milliseconds.", "FSC LCDs contain a Chip-On-Glass driver IC can also be used with a capacitive touchscreen.Samsung introduced UFB (Ultra Fine & Bright) displays back in 2002, utilized the super-birefringent effect.", "It has the luminance, color gamut, and most of the contrast of a TFT-LCD, but only consumes as much power as an STN display, according to Samsung.", "It was being used in a variety of Samsung cellular-telephone models produced until late 2006, when Samsung stopped producing UFB displays.", "UFB displays were also used in certain models of LG mobile phones." ], [ "Active-matrix technologies", "A Casio 1.8 in color TFT LCD, used in the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-P93A digital compact camerasStructure of a color LCD with an edge-lit CCFL backlight===Twisted nematic (TN)===Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystals that twist and untwist at varying degrees to allow light to pass through.", "When no voltage is applied to a TN liquid crystal cell, polarized light passes through the 90-degrees twisted LC layer.", "In proportion to the voltage applied, the liquid crystals untwist changing the polarization and blocking the light's path.", "By properly adjusting the level of the voltage almost any gray level or transmission can be achieved.===In-plane switching (IPS)===In-plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals in a plane parallel to the glass substrates.", "In this method, the electrical field is applied through opposite electrodes on the same glass substrate, so that the liquid crystals can be reoriented (switched) essentially in the same plane, although fringe fields inhibit a homogeneous reorientation.", "This requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film transistor (TFT) display.", "The IPS technology is used in everything from televisions, computer monitors, and even wearable devices, especially almost all LCD smartphone panels are IPS/FFS mode.", "IPS displays belong to the LCD panel family screen types.", "The other two types are VA and TN.", "Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2001 by Hitachi as 17\" monitor in Market, the additional transistors resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight and consuming more power, making this type of display less desirable for notebook computers.", "Panasonic Himeji G8.5 was using an enhanced version of IPS, also LGD in Korea, then currently the world biggest LCD panel manufacture BOE in China is also IPS/FFS mode TV panel.A close-up of a corner of an IPS LCD panel====Super In-plane switching (S-IPS)===='''Super-IPS''' was later introduced after in-plane switching with even better response times and color reproduction.=== M+ or RGBW controversy ===In 2015 LG Display announced the implementation of a new technology called M+ which is the addition of white subpixel along with the regular RGB dots in their IPS panel technology.Most of the new M+ technology was employed on 4K TV sets which led to a controversy after tests showed that the addition of a white sub pixel replacing the traditional RGB structure would reduce the resolution by around 25%.", "This means that a 4K TV cannot display the full UHD TV standard.", "The media and internet users later called this \"RGBW\" TVs because of the white sub pixel.", "Although LG Display has developed this technology for use in notebook display, outdoor and smartphones, it became more popular in the TV market because the announced 4K UHD resolution but still being incapable of achieving true UHD resolution defined by the CTA as 3840x2160 active pixels with 8-bit color.", "This negatively impacts the rendering of text, making it a bit fuzzier, which is especially noticeable when a TV is used as a PC monitor.===IPS in comparison to AMOLED===In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD NOVA)) has the brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only IPS LCD with 518 nits and double an active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) display with 305 nits.", "LG also claimed the NOVA display to be 50 percent more efficient than regular LCDs and to consume only 50 percent of the power of AMOLED displays when producing white on screen.", "When it comes to contrast ratio, AMOLED display still performs best due to its underlying technology, where the black levels are displayed as pitch black and not as dark gray.", "On August 24, 2011, Nokia announced the Nokia 701 and also made the claim of the world's brightest display at 1000 nits.", "The screen also had Nokia's Clearblack layer, improving the contrast ratio and bringing it closer to that of the AMOLED screens.chevron shape is used to widen the viewing cone (range of viewing directions with good contrast and low color shift).===Advanced fringe field switching (AFFS)===Known as fringe field switching (FFS) until 2003, advanced fringe field switching is similar to IPS or S-IPS offering superior performance and color gamut with high luminosity.", "AFFS was developed by Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd, Korea (formally Hyundai Electronics, LCD Task Force).", "AFFS-applied notebook applications minimize color distortion while maintaining a wider viewing angle for a professional display.", "Color shift and deviation caused by light leakage is corrected by optimizing the white gamut which also enhances white/gray reproduction.", "In 2004, Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd licensed AFFS to Japan's Hitachi Displays.", "Hitachi is using AFFS to manufacture high-end panels.", "In 2006, HYDIS licensed AFFS to Sanyo Epson Imaging Devices Corporation.", "Shortly thereafter, Hydis introduced a high-transmittance evolution of the AFFS display, called HFFS (FFS+).", "Hydis introduced AFFS+ with improved outdoor readability in 2007.AFFS panels are mostly utilized in the cockpits of latest commercial aircraft displays.", "However, it is no longer produced as of February 2015.===Vertical alignment (VA)===Vertical-alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals naturally align vertically to the glass substrates.", "When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black display between crossed polarizers.", "When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a tilted position, allowing light to pass through and create a gray-scale display depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field.", "It has a deeper-black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing angle, and better image quality at extreme temperatures than traditional twisted-nematic displays.", "Compared to IPS, the black levels are still deeper, allowing for a higher contrast ratio, but the viewing angle is narrower, with color and especially contrast shift being more apparent.===Blue phase mode===Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in 2008, but they are not in mass-production.", "The physics of blue phase mode LCDs suggest that very short switching times (≈1 ms) can be achieved, so time sequential color control can possibly be realized and expensive color filters would be obsolete." ], [ "Quality control", "Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively.", "Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective transistors are usually still usable.", "Manufacturers' policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly.", "At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea.", "Samsung adheres to the less restrictive ISO 13406-2 standard.", "Other companies have been known to tolerate as many as 11 dead pixels in their policies.Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers.", "To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard, which was made obsolete in 2008 with the release of ISO 9241, specifically ISO-9241-302, 303, 305, 307:2008 pixel defects.", "However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways.", "LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size.Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have a zero-defective-pixel guarantee, which is an extra screening process which can then determine \"A\"- and \"B\"-grade panels.", "Many manufacturers would replace a product even with one defective pixel.", "Even where such guarantees do not exist, the location of defective pixels is important.", "A display with only a few defective pixels may be unacceptable if the defective pixels are near each other.", "LCD panels also commonly have a defect known as ''clouding'', ''dirty screen effect'', or, less commonly, ''mura'', which involves uneven patches of luminance on the panel.", "It is most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes.", "most premium branded computer LCD panel manufacturers specify their products as having zero defects." ], [ "\"Zero-power\" (bistable) displays", "The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by Qinetiq (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power.", "The crystals may exist in one of two stable orientations (\"black\" and \"white\") and power is only required to change the image.", "ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and color ZBD devices.", "Kent Displays has also developed a \"no-power\" display that uses polymer stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD).", "In 2009 Kent demonstrated the use of a ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to change colors, and keep that color even when power is removed.In 2004, researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero-power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques.", "Several bistable technologies, like the 360° BTN and the bistable cholesteric, depend mainly on the bulk properties of the liquid crystal (LC) and use standard strong anchoring, with alignment films and LC mixtures similar to the traditional monostable materials.", "Other bistable technologies, ''e.g.", "'', BiNem technology, are based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials." ], [ "Specifications", "* '''Resolution''' The resolution of an LCD is expressed by the number of columns and rows of pixels (e.g., 1024×768).", "Each pixel is usually composed 3 sub-pixels, a red, a green, and a blue one.", "This had been one of the few features of LCD performance that remained uniform among different designs.", "However, there are newer designs that share sub-pixels among pixels and add Quattron which attempt to efficiently increase the perceived resolution of a display without increasing the actual resolution, to mixed results.", "* '''Spatial performance:''' For a computer monitor or some other display that is being viewed from a very close distance, resolution is often expressed in terms of dot pitch or pixels per inch, which is consistent with the printing industry.", "Display density varies per application, with televisions generally having a low density for long-distance viewing and portable devices having a high density for close-range detail.", "The Viewing Angle of an LCD may be important depending on the display and its usage, the limitations of certain display technologies mean the display only displays accurately at certain angles.", "* '''Temporal performance:''' the temporal resolution of an LCD is how well it can display changing images, or the accuracy and the number of times per second the display draws the data it is being given.", "LCD pixels do not flash on/off between frames, so LCD monitors exhibit no refresh-induced flicker no matter how low the refresh rate.", "But a lower refresh rate can mean visual artefacts like ghosting or smearing, especially with fast moving images.", "Individual pixel response time is also important, as all displays have some inherent latency in displaying an image which can be large enough to create visual artifacts if the displayed image changes rapidly.", "* '''Color performance''': There are multiple terms to describe different aspects of color performance of a display.", "Color gamut is the range of colors that can be displayed, and color depth, which is the fineness with which the color range is divided.", "Color gamut is a relatively straight forward feature, but it is rarely discussed in marketing materials except at the professional level.", "Having a color range that exceeds the content being shown on the screen has no benefits, so displays are only made to perform within or below the range of a certain specification.", "There are additional aspects to LCD color and color management, such as white point and gamma correction, which describe what color white is and how the other colors are displayed relative to white.", "* '''Brightness and contrast ratio:''' Contrast ratio is the ratio of the brightness of a full-on pixel to a full-off pixel.", "The LCD itself is only a light valve and does not generate light; the light comes from a backlight that is either fluorescent or a set of LEDs.", "Brightness is usually stated as the maximum light output of the LCD, which can vary greatly based on the transparency of the LCD and the brightness of the backlight.", "Brighter backlight allows stronger contrast and higher dynamic range (HDR displays are graded in peak luminance), but there is always a trade-off between brightness and power consumption." ], [ "Advantages and disadvantages", "Some of these issues relate to full-screen displays, others to small displays as on watches, etc.", "Many of the comparisons are with CRT displays.===Advantages===* Very compact, thin and light, especially in comparison with bulky, heavy CRT displays.", "* Low power consumption.", "Depending on the set display brightness and content being displayed, the older CCFT backlit models typically use less than half of the power a CRT monitor of the same size viewing area would use, and the modern LED backlit models typically use 10–25% of the power a CRT monitor would use.", "* Little heat emitted during operation, due to low power consumption.", "* No geometric distortion.", "* The possible ability to have little or no flicker depending on backlight technology.", "* Usually no refresh-rate flicker, because the LCD pixels hold their state between refreshes (which are usually done at 200 Hz or faster, regardless of the input refresh rate).", "* Sharp image with no bleeding or smearing when operated at native resolution.", "* Emits almost no undesirable electromagnetic radiation (in the extremely low frequency range), unlike a CRT monitor.", "* Can be made in almost any size or shape.", "* No theoretical resolution limit.", "When multiple LCD panels are used together to create a single canvas, each additional panel increases the total resolution of the display, which is commonly called stacked resolution.", "* Can be made in large sizes of over 80-inch (2 m) diagonal.", "* LCDs can be made transparent and flexible, but they cannot emit light without a backlight like OLED and microLED, which are other technologies that can also be made flexible and transparent.", "* Masking effect: the LCD grid can mask the effects of spatial and grayscale quantization, creating the illusion of higher image quality.", "* Unaffected by magnetic fields, including the Earth's, unlike most color CRTs.", "* As an inherently digital device, the LCD can natively display digital data from a DVI or HDMI connection without requiring conversion to analog.", "Some LCD panels have native fiber-optic inputs in addition to DVI and HDMI.", "* Many LCD monitors are powered by a 12 V power supply, and if built into a computer can be powered by its 12 V power supply.", "* Can be made with very narrow frame borders, allowing multiple LCD screens to be arrayed side by side to make up what looks like one big screen.===Disadvantages===* Limited viewing angle in some older or cheaper monitors, causing color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary with user position, even within the intended viewing angle.", "Special films can be used to increase the viewing angles of LCDs.", "* Uneven backlighting in some monitors (more common in IPS-types and older TNs), causing brightness distortion, especially toward the edges (\"backlight bleed\").", "* Black levels may not be as dark as required because individual liquid crystals cannot completely block all of the backlight from passing through.", "* Display motion blur on moving objects caused by slow response times (>8 ms) and eye-tracking on a sample-and-hold display, unless a strobing backlight is used.", "However, this strobing can cause eye strain, as is noted next:* most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width modulation (PWM) to dim the display, which makes the screen flicker more acutely (this does not mean visibly) than a CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh rate would (this is because the entire screen is strobing on and off rather than a CRT's phosphor sustained dot which continually scans across the display, leaving some part of the display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for some people.", "Unfortunately, many of these people don't know that their eye-strain is being caused by the invisible strobe effect of PWM.", "This problem is worse on many LED-backlit monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL lamp.", "* Only one native resolution.", "Displaying any other resolution either requires a video scaler, causing blurriness and jagged edges, or running the display at native resolution using 1:1 pixel mapping, causing the image either not to fill the screen (letterboxed display), or to run off the lower or right edges of the screen.", "* Fixed bit depth (also called color depth).", "Many cheaper LCDs are only able to display 262144 (218) colors.", "8-bit S-IPS panels can display 16 million (224) colors and have significantly better black level, but are expensive and have slower response time.", "* Input lag, because the LCD's A/D converter waits for each frame to be completely been output before drawing it to the LCD panel.", "Many LCD monitors do post-processing before displaying the image in an attempt to compensate for poor color fidelity, which adds an additional lag.", "Further, a video scaler must be used when displaying non-native resolutions, which adds yet more time lag.", "Scaling and post processing are usually done in a single chip on modern monitors, but each function that chip performs adds some delay.", "Some displays have a video gaming mode which disables all or most processing to reduce perceivable input lag.", "* Dead or stuck pixels may occur during manufacturing or after a period of use.", "A stuck pixel will glow with color even on an all-black screen, while a dead one will always remain black.", "* Subject to burn-in effect, although the cause differs from CRT and the effect may not be permanent, a static image can cause burn-in in a matter of hours in badly designed displays.", "* In a constant-on situation, thermalization may occur in case of bad thermal management, in which part of the screen has overheated and looks discolored compared to the rest of the screen.", "* Loss of brightness and much slower response times in low temperature environments.", "In sub-zero environments, LCD screens may cease to function without the use of supplemental heating.", "* Loss of contrast in high temperature environments." ], [ "Chemicals used", "Several different families of liquid crystals are used in liquid crystal displays.", "The molecules used have to be anisotropic, and to exhibit mutual attraction.", "Polarizable rod-shaped molecules (biphenyls, terphenyls, etc.)", "are common.", "A common form is a pair of aromatic benzene rings, with a nonpolar moiety (pentyl, heptyl, octyl, or alkyl oxy group) on one end and polar (nitrile, halogen) on the other.", "Sometimes the benzene rings are separated with an acetylene group, ethylene, CH=N, CH=NO, N=N, N=NO, or ester group.", "In practice, eutectic mixtures of several chemicals are used, to achieve wider temperature operating range (−10..+60 °C for low-end and −20..+100 °C for high-performance displays).", "For example, the E7 mixture is composed of three biphenyls and one terphenyl: 39 wt.% of 4'-pentyl1,1'-biphenyl-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 24..35 °C), 36 wt.% of 4'-heptyl1,1'-biphenyl-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 30..43 °C), 16 wt.% of 4'-octoxy1,1'-biphenyl-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 54..80 °C), and 9 wt.% of 4''-pentyl1,1':4',1''-terphenyl-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 131..240 °C).===Environmental impact===The production of LCD screens uses nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) as an etching fluid during the production of the thin-film components.", "NF3 is a potent greenhouse gas, and its relatively long half-life may make it a potentially harmful contributor to global warming.", "A report in ''Geophysical Research Letters'' suggested that its effects were theoretically much greater than better-known sources of greenhouse gasses like carbon dioxide.", "As NF3 was not in widespread use at the time, it was not made part of the Kyoto Protocols and has been deemed \"the missing greenhouse gas\".Critics of the report point out that it assumes that all of the NF3 produced would be released to the atmosphere.", "In reality, the vast majority of NF3 is broken down during the cleaning processes; two earlier studies found that only 2 to 3% of the gas escapes destruction after its use.", "Furthermore, the report failed to compare NF3's effects with what it replaced, perfluorocarbon, another powerful greenhouse gas, of which anywhere from 30 to 70% escapes to the atmosphere in typical use." ], [ "See also", "* Flat-panel display* FPD-Link* LCD classification* LCD projector* LCD television* List of liquid-crystal-display manufacturers* Boogie board (product) / Remarkable (tablet)* Raw monitor* Smartglasses" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Development of Liquid Crystal Displays: Interview with George Gray, Hull University, 2004 – Video by the Vega Science Trust.", "* Timothy J. Sluckin History of Liquid Crystals, a presentation and extracts from the book ''Crystals that Flow: Classic papers from the history of liquid crystals''.", "* David Dunmur & Tim Sluckin (2011) ''Soap, Science, and Flat-screen TVs: a history of liquid crystals'', Oxford University Press .", "* * Overview of 3LCD technology, Presentation Technology* Animations explaining operation of LCD panels" ], [ "External links", "* * History and Physical Properties of Liquid Crystals by Nobelprize.org* What's an IPS Display from Newhaven Display* How TFT-LCDs are made, by AUO * How LTPS (Low Temperature Poly Silicon) LCDs are made, by AUO" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Latency (engineering)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Latency''', from a general point of view, is a time delay between the cause and the effect of some physical change in the system being observed.", "Lag, as it is known in gaming circles, refers to the latency between the input to a simulation and the visual or auditory response, often occurring because of network delay in online games.Latency is physically a consequence of the limited velocity at which any physical interaction can propagate.", "The magnitude of this velocity is always less than or equal to the speed of light.", "Therefore, every physical system with any physical separation (distance) between cause and effect will experience some sort of latency, regardless of the nature of the stimulation to which it has been exposed.The precise definition of latency depends on the system being observed or the nature of the simulation.", "In communications, the lower limit of latency is determined by the medium being used to transfer information.", "In reliable two-way communication systems, latency limits the maximum rate at which information can be transmitted, as there is often a limit on the amount of information that is in-flight at any given moment.", "Perceptible latency has a strong effect on user satisfaction and usability in the field of human–machine interaction." ], [ "Communications", "Online games are sensitive to latency (lag), since fast response times to new events occurring during a game session are rewarded while slow response times may carry penalties.", "Due to a delay in transmission of game events, a player with a high latency internet connection may show slow responses in spite of appropriate reaction time.", "This gives players with low-latency connections a technical advantage.=== Capital markets ===Joel Hasbrouck and Gideon Saar (2011) measure latency to execute financial transactions based on three components: the time it takes for information to reach the trader, execution of the trader's algorithms to analyze the information and decide a course of action, and the generated action to reach the exchange and get implemented.", "Hasbrouck and Saar contrast this with the way in which latencies are measured by many trading venues that use much more narrow definitions, such as the processing delay measured from the entry of the order (at the vendor's computer) to the transmission of an acknowledgment (from the vendor's computer).", "Trading using computers has developed to the point where millisecond improvements in network speeds offer a competitive advantage for financial institutions.===Packet-switched networks==='''Network latency''' in a packet-switched network is measured as either one-way (the time from the source sending a packet to the destination receiving it), or round-trip delay time (the one-way latency from source to destination plus the one-way latency from the destination back to the source).", "Round-trip latency is more often quoted, because it can be measured from a single point.", "Note that round-trip latency excludes the amount of time that a destination system spends processing the packet.", "Many software platforms provide a service called ping that can be used to measure round-trip latency.", "Ping uses the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) ''echo request'' which causes the recipient to send the received packet as an immediate response, thus it provides a rough way of measuring round-trip delay time.", "Ping cannot perform accurate measurements, principally because ICMP is intended only for diagnostic or control purposes, and differs from real communication protocols such as TCP.", "Furthermore, routers and internet service providers might apply different traffic shaping policies to different protocols.", "For more accurate measurements it is better to use specific software, for example: hping, Netperf or Iperf.However, in a non-trivial network, a typical packet will be forwarded over multiple links and gateways, each of which will not begin to forward the packet until it has been completely received.", "In such a network, the minimal latency is the sum of the transmission delay of each link, plus the forwarding latency of each gateway.", "In practice, minimal latency also includes queuing and processing delays.", "Queuing delay occurs when a gateway receives multiple packets from different sources heading toward the same destination.", "Since typically only one packet can be transmitted at a time, some of the packets must queue for transmission, incurring additional delay.", "Processing delays are incurred while a gateway determines what to do with a newly received packet.", "Bufferbloat can also cause increased latency that is an order of magnitude or more.", "The combination of propagation, serialization, queuing, and processing delays often produces a complex and variable network latency profile.Latency limits total throughput in reliable two-way communication systems as described by the bandwidth-delay product.===Fiber optics===Latency in optical fiber is largely a function of the speed of light.", "This would equate to a latency of 3.33 µs for every kilometer of path length.", "The index of refraction of most fiber optic cables is about 1.5, meaning that light travels about 1.5 times as fast in a vacuum as it does in the cable.", "This works out to about 5.0 µs of latency for every kilometer.", "In shorter metro networks, higher latency can be experienced due to extra distance in building risers and cross-connects.", "To calculate the latency of a connection, one has to know the distance traveled by the fiber, which is rarely a straight line, since it has to traverse geographic contours and obstacles, such as roads and railway tracks, as well as other rights-of-way.Due to imperfections in the fiber, light degrades as it is transmitted through it.", "For distances of greater than 100 kilometers, amplifiers or regenerators are deployed.", "Latency introduced by these components needs to be taken into account.===Satellite transmission===Satellites in geostationary orbits are far enough away from Earth that communication latency becomes significant – about a quarter of a second for a trip from one ground-based transmitter to the satellite and back to another ground-based transmitter; close to half a second for two-way communication from one Earth station to another and then back to the first.", "Low Earth orbit is sometimes used to cut this delay, at the expense of more complicated satellite tracking on the ground and requiring more satellites in the satellite constellation to ensure continuous coverage." ], [ "Audio", "Audio latency is the delay between when an audio signal enters and when it emerges from a system.", "Potential contributors to latency in an audio system include analog-to-digital conversion, buffering, digital signal processing, transmission time, digital-to-analog conversion and the speed of sound in air." ], [ "Video", "Video latency refers to the degree of delay between the time a transfer of a video stream is requested and the actual time that transfer begins.", "Networks that exhibit relatively small delays are known as low-latency networks, while their counterparts are known as high-latency networks." ], [ "Workflow", "Any individual workflow within a system of workflows can be subject to some type of operational latency.", "It may even be the case that an individual system may have more than one type of latency, depending on the type of participant or goal-seeking behavior.", "This is best illustrated by the following two examples involving air travel.From the point of view of a passenger, latency can be described as follows.", "Suppose John Doe flies from London to New York.", "The latency of his trip is the time it takes him to go from his house in England to the hotel he is staying at in New York.", "This is independent of the throughput of the London-New York air link – whether there were 100 passengers a day making the trip or 10000, the latency of the trip would remain the same.From the point of view of flight operations personnel, latency can be entirely different.", "Consider the staff at the London and New York airports.", "Only a limited number of planes are able to make the transatlantic journey, so when one lands they must prepare it for the return trip as quickly as possible.", "It might take, for example:*35 minutes to clean a plane*15 minutes to refuel a plane*10 minutes to load the passengers*30 minutes to load the cargoAssuming the above are done consecutively, minimum plane turnaround time is::35 + 15 + 10 + 30 = '''90'''However, cleaning, refueling and loading the cargo can be done at the same time.", "Passengers can only be loaded after cleaning is complete.", "The reduced latency, then, is::35 + 10 = 45:15:30:Minimum latency = '''45'''The people involved in the turnaround are interested only in the time it takes for their individual tasks.", "When all of the tasks are done at the same time, however, it is possible to reduce the latency to the length of the longest task.", "If some steps have prerequisites, it becomes more difficult to perform all steps in parallel.", "In the example above, the requirement to clean the plane before loading passengers results in a minimum latency longer than any single task." ], [ "Mechanics{{anchor|Mechanical}}", "Any mechanical process encounters limitations modeled by Newtonian physics.", "The behavior of disk drives provides an example of mechanical latency.", "Here, it is the time seek time for the actuator arm to be positioned above the appropriate track and then rotational latency for the data encoded on a platter to rotate from its current position to a position under the disk read-and-write head." ], [ "Computer hardware and operating systems", "Computers run instructions in the context of a process.", "In the context of computer multitasking, the execution of the process can be postponed if other processes are also executing.", "In addition, the operating system can schedule when to perform the action that the process is commanding.", "For example, suppose a process commands that a computer card's voltage output be set high-low-high-low and so on at a rate of 1000 Hz.", "The operating system schedules the process for each transition (high-low or low-high) based on a hardware clock such as the High Precision Event Timer.", "The latency is the delay between the events generated by the hardware clock and the actual transitions of voltage from high to low or low to high.Many desktop operating systems have performance limitations that create additional latency.", "The problem may be mitigated with real-time extensions and patches such as PREEMPT_RT.On embedded systems, the real-time execution of instructions is often supported by a real-time operating system." ], [ "Simulations", "In simulation applications, latency refers to the time delay, often measured in milliseconds, between initial input and output clearly discernible to the simulator trainee or simulator subject.", "Latency is sometimes also called ''transport delay''.", "Some authorities distinguish between latency and transport delay by using the term ''latency'' in the sense of the extra time delay of a system over and above the reaction time of the vehicle being simulated, but this requires detailed knowledge of the vehicle dynamics and can be controversial.In simulators with both visual and motion systems, it is particularly important that the latency of the motion system not be greater than of the visual system, or symptoms of simulator sickness may result.", "This is because, in the real world, motion cues are those of acceleration and are quickly transmitted to the brain, typically in less than 50 milliseconds; this is followed some milliseconds later by a perception of change in the visual scene.", "The visual scene change is essentially one of change of perspective or displacement of objects such as the horizon, which takes some time to build up to discernible amounts after the initial acceleration which caused the displacement.", "A simulator should, therefore, reflect the real-world situation by ensuring that the motion latency is equal to or less than that of the visual system and not the other way round." ], [ "See also", "* Age of Information* Feedback* Interrupt latency* Jitter* Lead time* Memory latency* Performance engineering* Response time (technology)* Responsiveness" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Simulating network link latency under Linux" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of public transport authorities in London" ], [ "Introduction", "London Transport badge on a 1950s \"RT\"-type busDouble decker buses and black cabs on Oxford Street, 1987The '''history of public transport authorities in London''' details the various organisations that have been responsible for the public transport network in and around London, England - including buses, coaches, trams, trolleybuses, Docklands Light Railway, and the London Underground.From 1933 until 2000, these bodies used the London Transport brand.", "The period began with the creation of the London Passenger Transport Board, which covered the County of London and adjacent counties within a 30-mile (48-km) radius.", "This area later came under the control of the London Transport Executive and then the London Transport Board.", "The area of responsibility was reduced to that of the Greater London administrative area in 1970 when the Greater London Council, and then London Regional Transport took over responsibility.Since 2000, the Greater London Authority has been the transport authority and the executive agency has been called Transport for London; ending the 67-year use of the ''London Transport'' name." ], [ "Background", "Prior to 1933, the ownership and management of the transport system in London was distributed among a large number of independent and separate organisations.", "The Underground railway system had been developed and was owned by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) and the Metropolitan Railway.", "Tram and Trolleybus networks were owned by various local authorities and public companies and buses were owned by numerous companies.", "Many of these services were in competition with one another leading to wasteful duplication.", "The London County Council managed tram operations within the County of London, but its responsibility did not extend to the bus or tram routes that ran outside its area; or to the railways, which also extended into neighbouring counties.", "A Royal Commission on London Government in the 1920s did not permit the London County Council to extend its area of responsibility and an ad hoc London Traffic Area was created to regulate motor traffic in the wider London region.", "In the 1930s another ad hoc solution was sought to improve the control and coordination of public transport." ], [ "London's transport authorities", "===1933-1948: London Passenger Transport Board===London Passenger Transport Area (County of London in grey)The London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) was the transport authority from 1 July 1933 to 31 December 1947.It unified services in the London area for the first time.", "The London Passenger Transport Act 1933 removed responsibility for of tram route from the London County Council, three county boroughs and a number of other local authorities in the Greater London area.", "It brought the UERL lines under the same control, and took over supervision of buses from the Metropolitan Police.", "The area of responsibility of the LPTB was far greater than the current Greater London boundaries and was known as the London Passenger Transport Area.", "The period saw massive expansion of the tube network and was directly responsible for the expansion of the suburbs.", "The extensive New Works Programme was halted by World War II, with some projects abandoned and others completed after the end of hostilities.", "The 'roundel symbol' designed in 1918 was adopted by London Passenger Transport Board and the London Transport brand and architectural style was perfected during this period.", "The iconic tube map designed in 1931, was published in 1933.===1948-1963: London Transport Executive===The London Transport Executive (LTE) was the transport authority from 1 January 1948 to 31 December 1962.London Transport was taken into public ownership and became part of the British Transport Commission, which brought London Transport and British Railways under the same control for the first and last time.", "The period saw the start of direct recruitment from the Caribbean and the repair and replacement of stock and stations damaged during the war as well as completion of delayed projects such as the Central line eastern extension.", "The AEC Routemaster bus was introduced in 1956.Trams were withdrawn in 1952 and trolleybuses in 1962.===1963-1970: London Transport Board===The London Transport Board was the transport authority from 1 January 1963 to 31 December 1969 It reported directly to the Minister of Transport, ending its direct association with the management of British Railways.", "During this period many of Britain's unprofitable railways were closed down, as most routes in the capital were widely used the Beeching Axe had little effect.", "However, during this period there was little investment in public transport and the motor car increased in popularity.", "During this period, the Victoria line was opened - although work had started in the early 1960s - and the AEC Merlin single-deck bus was introduced.===1970-1984: London Transport Executive===London Transport sign at Becontree HeathThe Greater London Council was the transport authority from 1 January 1970 to 28 June 1984 and the executive agency was called the London Transport Executive.", "The legislation creating the Greater London Council (GLC) was already passed in 1963 when the London Transport Board was created.", "However, control did not pass to the new authority until 1 January 1970.The GLC broadly controlled only those services within the boundaries of Greater London.", "The (green painted) country buses and Green Line Coaches had been passed in 1969 to a new company, London Country Bus Services, which in 1970 became part of the National Bus Company.", "The period is perhaps the most controversial in London's transport history and there was a severe lack of funding from central government and staff shortages.The inter-modal zonal ticketing system currently used by Transport for London originated in this period.", "Following the Greater London Council election in 1981, the incoming Labour administration simplified fares in Greater London by introducing four new bus fare zones and two central London Underground zones, named ''City'' and ''West End'', where flat fares applied for the first time.", "This was accompanied by a cut in prices of about a third and was marketed as the ''Fares Fair'' campaign.", "Following successful legal action against it, on 21 March 1982 London Buses fares were subsequently doubled and London Underground fares increased by 91%.", "The two central area zones were retained and the fares to all other stations were restructured to be graduated at three-mile intervals.", "In 1983, a third revision of fares was undertaken, and a new inter-modal Travelcard season ticket was launched covering five new numbered zones; representing an overall cut in prices of around 25%.", "The ''One Day Travelcard'' was launched in 1984 and on weekdays was only sold for travel after 09.30.===1984-2000: London Regional Transport===London Regional Transport was the transport authority from 29 June 1984 to 2 July 2000.The GLC was abolished in 1986 with responsibility for public transport removed two years earlier in 1984.The new authority, London Regional Transport (LRT), again came under direct state control, reporting to the Secretary of State for Transport.", "The London Regional Transport Act contained provision for setting up subsidiary companies to run the Underground and bus services and in 1985 London Underground Limited (LUL), a wholly owned subsidiary of London Regional Transport, was set up to manage the tube network.", "In 1988 ten individual line business units were created to manage the network.", "London Buses Limited was constituted to progress the privatisation of London bus services.", "London Transport was converted to a route operating contract tendering authority, and the former bus operating interests and assets of London Transport were split into 12 business units under the banner ''London Buses''.", "The 12 units competed for contracts with private operators from 1984, and were all sold off by 1994/5 becoming private operators themselves.Further amendments to the fare system were made during this period, including inclusion of the separately managed British Rail services.", "In January 1985 the ''Capitalcard'' season ticket was launched, offering validity on British Rail as well as London Underground and London Buses.", "It was priced around 10-15% higher than the Travelcard.", "In June 1986 the ''One Day Capitalcard'' was launched.", "The Capitalcard brand ended in January 1989 when the Travelcard gained validity on British Rail.", "In January 1991 Zone 5 was split to create a new Zone 6.The Docklands Light Railway was opened on 31 August 1987 and was included in the zonal Travelcard ticketing scheme.===2000 onwards: Transport for London===Transport for London branding uses the 'roundel' as a continuation of the London Transport brand styleThe Greater London Authority, a replacement authority for the GLC, was set up in 2000 with a transport executive called Transport for London (TfL) that took control from 3 July 2000.It is the first London transport authority since 1933 not to be commonly called ''London Transport''.", "Unlike previous transport bodies, TfL gained responsibility for a wide variety of other transportation functions - including management of major roads in London, walking & cycling as well as taxi and private hire licensing.", "The London Underground did not pass to TfL until after a Private Finance Initiative (PFI) agreement for maintenance was completed in 2003.In 2017, TfL became the longest running transportation body in London - following London Regional Transport." ], [ "See also", "*List of heads of public transport authorities in London*Transport in London" ], [ "References", ";Notes;Bibliography*" ], [ "External links", "* Transport for London* TfL Group Archives and Records Management* London Transport Museum* London Transport Museum Photographic Collection" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Light" ], [ "Introduction", "prism dispersing a beam of white light.", "The longer wavelengths (red) and the shorter wavelengths (green-blue) are separated.", "'''Light''' or '''visible light''' is electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the human eye.By the ''International Lighting Vocabulary'', the definition of ''light'' is: \"Any radiation capable of causing a visual sensation directly.\"", "Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), corresponding to frequencies of 750–420 terahertz, between the infrared (with longer wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter wavelengths).In physics, the term \"light\" may refer more broadly to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not.", "In this sense, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves and radio waves are also light.", "The primary properties of light are intensity, propagation direction, frequency or wavelength spectrum, and polarization.", "Its speed in vacuum, , is one of the fundamental constants of nature.", "Like all types of electromagnetic radiation, visible light propagates by massless elementary particles called photons that represents the quanta of electromagnetic field, and can be analyzed as both waves and particles.", "The study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics.The main source of natural light on Earth is the Sun.", "Historically, another important source of light for humans has been fire, from ancient campfires to modern kerosene lamps.", "With the development of electric lights and power systems, electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight." ], [ "Electromagnetic spectrum and visible light", "The electromagnetic spectrum, with the visible portion highlighted.", "The bottom graph (Visible spectrum) is wavelength in units of nanometres (nm).Generally, electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is classified by wavelength into radio waves, microwaves, infrared, the visible spectrum that we perceive as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.", "The designation \"radiation\" excludes static electric, magnetic and near fields.The behavior of EMR depends on its wavelength.", "Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths.", "When EMR interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries.EMR in the visible light region consists of quanta (called photons) that are at the lower end of the energies that are capable of causing electronic excitation within molecules, which leads to changes in the bonding or chemistry of the molecule.", "At the lower end of the visible light spectrum, EMR becomes invisible to humans (infrared) because its photons no longer have enough individual energy to cause a lasting molecular change (a change in conformation) in the visual molecule retinal in the human retina, which change triggers the sensation of vision.There exist animals that are sensitive to various types of infrared, but not by means of quantum-absorption.", "Infrared sensing in snakes depends on a kind of natural thermal imaging, in which tiny packets of cellular water are raised in temperature by the infrared radiation.", "EMR in this range causes molecular vibration and heating effects, which is how these animals detect it.Above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360 nm and the internal lens below 400 nm.", "Furthermore, the rods and cones located in the retina of the human eye cannot detect the very short (below 360 nm) ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet.", "Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses (such as insects and shrimp) are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, in much the same chemical way that humans detect visible light.Various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420–680 nm to as broadly as 380–800 nm.", "Under ideal laboratory conditions, people can see infrared up to at least 1,050 nm; children and young adults may perceive ultraviolet wavelengths down to about 310–313 nm.Plant growth is also affected by the colour spectrum of light, a process known as photomorphogenesis." ], [ "Speed of light", "Beam of sun light inside the cavity of Rocca ill'Abissu at Fondachelli-Fantina, SicilyThe speed of light in vacuum is defined to be exactly 299 792 458 m/s (approx.", "186,282 miles per second).", "The fixed value of the speed of light in SI units results from the fact that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light.", "All forms of electromagnetic radiation move at exactly this same speed in vacuum.Different physicists have attempted to measure the speed of light throughout history.", "Galileo attempted to measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century.", "An early experiment to measure the speed of light was conducted by Ole Rømer, a Danish physicist, in 1676.Using a telescope, Rømer observed the motions of Jupiter and one of its moons, Io.", "Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, he calculated that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse the diameter of Earth's orbit.", "However, its size was not known at that time.", "If Rømer had known the diameter of the Earth's orbit, he would have calculated a speed of .Another more accurate measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849.Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away.", "A rotating cog wheel was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin.", "Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back.", "Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as .Léon Foucault carried out an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain a value of 298 000 000 m/s in 1862.Albert A. Michelson conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931.He refined Foucault's methods in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip from Mount Wilson to Mount San Antonio in California.", "The precise measurements yielded a speed of 299 796 000 m/s.The effective velocity of light in various transparent substances containing ordinary matter, is less than in vacuum.", "For example, the speed of light in water is about 3/4 of that in vacuum.Two independent teams of physicists were said to bring light to a \"complete standstill\" by passing it through a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element rubidium, one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the other at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, also in Cambridge.", "However, the popular description of light being \"stopped\" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrary later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse.", "During the time it had \"stopped\", it had ceased to be light." ], [ "Optics", "800pxThe study of light and the interaction of light and matter is termed optics.", "The observation and study of optical phenomena such as rainbows and the aurora borealis offer many clues as to the nature of light.A transparent object allows light to transmit or pass through.", "Conversely, an opaque object does not allow light to transmit through and instead reflecting or absorbing the light it receives.", "Most objects do not reflect or transmit light specularly and to some degree scatters the incoming light, which is called glossiness.", "Surface scatterance is caused by the surface roughness of the reflecting surfaces, and internal scatterance is caused by the difference of refractive index between the particles and medium inside the object.", "Like transparent objects, translucent objects allow light to transmit through, but translucent objects also scatter certain wavelength of light via internal scatterance.===Refraction===Due to refraction, the straw dipped in water appears bent and the ruler scale compressed when viewed from a shallow angle.Refraction is the bending of light rays when passing through a surface between one transparent material and another.", "It is described by Snell's Law::where θ1 is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the first medium, θ2 is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the second medium and n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction, ''n'' = 1 in a vacuum and ''n'' > 1 in a transparent substance.When a beam of light crosses the boundary between a vacuum and another medium, or between two different media, the wavelength of the light changes, but the frequency remains constant.", "If the beam of light is not orthogonal (or rather normal) to the boundary, the change in wavelength results in a change in the direction of the beam.", "This change of direction is known as refraction.The refractive quality of lenses is frequently used to manipulate light in order to change the apparent size of images.", "Magnifying glasses, spectacles, contact lenses, microscopes and refracting telescopes are all examples of this manipulation.==Light sources== There are many sources of light.", "A body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation.", "A simple thermal source is sunlight, the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around .", "Solar radiation peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units, and roughly 44% of the radiation that reaches the ground is visible.", "Another example is incandescent light bulbs, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared.", "A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in flames, but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared and only a fraction in the visible spectrum.The peak of the black-body spectrum is in the deep infrared, at about 10 micrometre wavelength, for relatively cool objects like human beings.", "As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one and finally a blue-white colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet.", "These colours can be seen when metal is heated to \"red hot\" or \"white hot\".", "Blue-white thermal emission is not often seen, except in stars (the commonly seen pure-blue colour in a gas flame or a welder's torch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals emitting a wavelength band around 425 nm and is not seen in stars or pure thermal radiation).Atoms emit and absorb light at characteristic energies.", "This produces \"emission lines\" in the spectrum of each atom.", "Emission can be spontaneous, as in light-emitting diodes, gas discharge lamps (such as neon lamps and neon signs, mercury-vapor lamps, etc.)", "and flames (light from the hot gas itself—so, for example, sodium in a gas flame emits characteristic yellow light).", "Emission can also be stimulated, as in a laser or a microwave maser.Deceleration of a free charged particle, such as an electron, can produce visible radiation: cyclotron radiation, synchrotron radiation and bremsstrahlung radiation are all examples of this.", "Particles moving through a medium faster than the speed of light in that medium can produce visible Cherenkov radiation.", "Certain chemicals produce visible radiation by chemoluminescence.", "In living things, this process is called bioluminescence.", "For example, fireflies produce light by this means and boats moving through water can disturb plankton which produce a glowing wake.Certain substances produce light when they are illuminated by more energetic radiation, a process known as fluorescence.", "Some substances emit light slowly after excitation by more energetic radiation.", "This is known as phosphorescence.", "Phosphorescent materials can also be excited by bombarding them with subatomic particles.", "Cathodoluminescence is one example.", "This mechanism is used in cathode-ray tube television sets and computer monitors.Hong Kong illuminated by colourful artificial lightingCertain other mechanisms can produce light:* Bioluminescence* Cherenkov radiation* Electroluminescence* Scintillation* Sonoluminescence* TriboluminescenceWhen the concept of light is intended to include very-high-energy photons (gamma rays), additional generation mechanisms include:* Particle–antiparticle annihilation* Radioactive decay" ], [ "Measurement", "Light is measured with two main alternative sets of units: radiometry consists of measurements of light power at all wavelengths, while photometry measures light with wavelength weighted with respect to a standardized model of human brightness perception.", "Photometry is useful, for example, to quantify Illumination (lighting) intended for human use.The photometry units are different from most systems of physical units in that they take into account how the human eye responds to light.", "The cone cells in the human eye are of three types which respond differently across the visible spectrum and the cumulative response peaks at a wavelength of around 555 nm.", "Therefore, two sources of light which produce the same intensity (W/m2) of visible light do not necessarily appear equally bright.", "The photometry units are designed to take this into account and therefore are a better representation of how \"bright\" a light appears to be than raw intensity.", "They relate to raw power by a quantity called luminous efficacy and are used for purposes like determining how to best achieve sufficient illumination for various tasks in indoor and outdoor settings.", "The illumination measured by a photocell sensor does not necessarily correspond to what is perceived by the human eye and without filters which may be costly, photocells and charge-coupled devices (CCD) tend to respond to some infrared, ultraviolet or both." ], [ "Light pressure", "Light exerts physical pressure on objects in its path, a phenomenon which can be deduced by Maxwell's equations, but can be more easily explained by the particle nature of light: photons strike and transfer their momentum.", "Light pressure is equal to the power of the light beam divided by ''c'', the speed of light.", "Due to the magnitude of ''c'', the effect of light pressure is negligible for everyday objects.", "For example, a one-milliwatt laser pointer exerts a force of about 3.3 piconewtons on the object being illuminated; thus, one could lift a U.S. penny with laser pointers, but doing so would require about 30 billion 1-mW laser pointers.", "However, in nanometre-scale applications such as nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), the effect of light pressure is more significant and exploiting light pressure to drive NEMS mechanisms and to flip nanometre-scale physical switches in integrated circuits is an active area of research.", "At larger scales, light pressure can cause asteroids to spin faster, acting on their irregular shapes as on the vanes of a windmill.", "The possibility of making solar sails that would accelerate spaceships in space is also under investigation.Although the motion of the Crookes radiometer was originally attributed to light pressure, this interpretation is incorrect; the characteristic Crookes rotation is the result of a partial vacuum.", "This should not be confused with the Nichols radiometer, in which the (slight) motion caused by torque (though not enough for full rotation against friction) ''is'' directly caused by light pressure.As a consequence of light pressure, Einstein in 1909 predicted the existence of \"radiation friction\" which would oppose the movement of matter.", "He wrote, \"radiation will exert pressure on both sides of the plate.", "The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at rest.", "However, if it is in motion, more radiation will be reflected on the surface that is ahead during the motion (front surface) than on the back surface.", "The backwardacting force of pressure exerted on the front surface is thus larger than the force of pressure acting on the back.", "Hence, as the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that counteracts the motion of the plate and that increases with the velocity of the plate.", "We will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in brief.", "\"Usually light momentum is aligned with its direction of motion.", "However, for example in evanescent waves momentum is transverse to direction of propagation." ], [ "Historical theories about light, in chronological order", "===Classical Greece and Hellenism===In the fifth century BC, Empedocles postulated that everything was composed of four elements; fire, air, earth and water.", "He believed that Aphrodite made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible.", "If this were true, then one could see during the night just as well as during the day, so Empedocles postulated an interaction between rays from the eyes and rays from a source such as the sun.In about 300 BC, Euclid wrote ''Optica'', in which he studied the properties of light.", "Euclid postulated that light travelled in straight lines and he described the laws of reflection and studied them mathematically.", "He questioned that sight is the result of a beam from the eye, for he asks how one sees the stars immediately, if one closes one's eyes, then opens them at night.", "If the beam from the eye travels infinitely fast this is not a problem.In 55 BC, Lucretius, a Roman who carried on the ideas of earlier Greek atomists, wrote that \"The light & heat of the sun; these are composed of minute atoms which, when they are shoved off, lose no time in shooting right across the interspace of air in the direction imparted by the shove.\"", "(from ''On the nature of the Universe'').", "Despite being similar to later particle theories, Lucretius's views were not generally accepted.", "Ptolemy (c. second century) wrote about the refraction of light in his book ''Optics''.===Classical India===In ancient India, the Hindu schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the early centuries AD developed theories on light.", "According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental \"subtle\" elements (''tanmatra'') out of which emerge the gross elements.", "The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous.The ''Vishnu Purana'' refers to sunlight as \"the seven rays of the sun\".The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignāga in the fifth century and Dharmakirti in the seventh century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy.", "They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy.===Descartes===René Descartes (1596–1650) held that light was a mechanical property of the luminous body, rejecting the \"forms\" of Ibn al-Haytham and Witelo as well as the \"species\" of Bacon, Grosseteste and Kepler.", "In 1637 he published a theory of the refraction of light that assumed, incorrectly, that light travelled faster in a denser medium than in a less dense medium.", "Descartes arrived at this conclusion by analogy with the behaviour of sound waves.", "Although Descartes was incorrect about the relative speeds, he was correct in assuming that light behaved like a wave and in concluding that refraction could be explained by the speed of light in different media.Descartes is not the first to use the mechanical analogies but because he clearly asserts that light is only a mechanical property of the luminous body and the transmitting medium, Descartes's theory of light is regarded as the start of modern physical optics.===Particle theory===Pierre GassendiPierre Gassendi (1592–1655), an atomist, proposed a particle theory of light which was published posthumously in the 1660s.", "Isaac Newton studied Gassendi's work at an early age and preferred his view to Descartes's theory of the ''plenum''.", "He stated in his ''Hypothesis of Light'' of 1675 that light was composed of corpuscles (particles of matter) which were emitted in all directions from a source.", "One of Newton's arguments against the wave nature of light was that waves were known to bend around obstacles, while light travelled only in straight lines.", "He did, however, explain the phenomenon of the diffraction of light (which had been observed by Francesco Grimaldi) by allowing that a light particle could create a localised wave in the aether.Newton's theory could be used to predict the reflection of light, but could only explain refraction by incorrectly assuming that light accelerated upon entering a denser medium because the gravitational pull was greater.", "Newton published the final version of his theory in his ''Opticks'' of 1704.His reputation helped the particle theory of light to hold sway during the eighteenth century.", "The particle theory of light led Laplace to argue that a body could be so massive that light could not escape from it.", "In other words, it would become what is now called a black hole.", "Laplace withdrew his suggestion later, after a wave theory of light became firmly established as the model for light (as has been explained, neither a particle or wave theory is fully correct).", "A translation of Newton's essay on light appears in ''The large scale structure of space-time'', by Stephen Hawking and George F. R. Ellis.The fact that light could be polarized was for the first time qualitatively explained by Newton using the particle theory.", "Étienne-Louis Malus in 1810 created a mathematical particle theory of polarization.", "Jean-Baptiste Biot in 1812 showed that this theory explained all known phenomena of light polarization.", "At that time the polarization was considered as the proof of the particle theory.=== Wave theory ===To explain the origin of colours, Robert Hooke (1635–1703) developed a \"pulse theory\" and compared the spreading of light to that of waves in water in his 1665 work ''Micrographia'' (\"Observation IX\").", "In 1672 Hooke suggested that light's vibrations could be perpendicular to the direction of propagation.", "Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) worked out a mathematical wave theory of light in 1678 and published it in his ''Treatise on Light'' in 1690.He proposed that light was emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the luminiferous aether.", "As waves are not affected by gravity, it was assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium.Christiaan HuygensThomas Young's sketch of a double-slit experiment showing diffraction.", "Young's experiments supported the theory that light consists of waves.The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other like sound waves (as noted around 1800 by Thomas Young).", "Young showed by means of a diffraction experiment that light behaved as waves.", "He also proposed that different colours were caused by different wavelengths of light and explained colour vision in terms of three-coloured receptors in the eye.", "Another supporter of the wave theory was Leonhard Euler.", "He argued in ''Nova theoria lucis et colorum'' (1746) that diffraction could more easily be explained by a wave theory.", "In 1816 André-Marie Ampère gave Augustin-Jean Fresnel an idea that the polarization of light can be explained by the wave theory if light were a transverse wave.Later, Fresnel independently worked out his own wave theory of light and presented it to the Académie des Sciences in 1817.Siméon Denis Poisson added to Fresnel's mathematical work to produce a convincing argument in favor of the wave theory, helping to overturn Newton's corpuscular theory.", "By the year 1821, Fresnel was able to show via mathematical methods that polarization could be explained by the wave theory of light if and only if light was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever.The weakness of the wave theory was that light waves, like sound waves, would need a medium for transmission.", "The existence of the hypothetical substance luminiferous aether proposed by Huygens in 1678 was cast into strong doubt in the late nineteenth century by the Michelson–Morley experiment.Newton's corpuscular theory implied that light would travel faster in a denser medium, while the wave theory of Huygens and others implied the opposite.", "At that time, the speed of light could not be measured accurately enough to decide which theory was correct.", "The first to make a sufficiently accurate measurement was Léon Foucault, in 1850.His result supported the wave theory and the classical particle theory was finally abandoned, only to partly re-emerge in the twentieth century.===Electromagnetic theory===linearly polarized electromagnetic wave traveling along the z-axis, with E denoting the electric field and perpendicular B denoting magnetic field|400x400pxIn 1845, Michael Faraday discovered that the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light is rotated when the light rays travel along the magnetic field direction in the presence of a transparent dielectric, an effect now known as Faraday rotation.", "This was the first evidence that light was related to electromagnetism.", "In 1846 he speculated that light might be some form of disturbance propagating along magnetic field lines.", "Faraday proposed in 1847 that light was a high-frequency electromagnetic vibration, which could propagate even in the absence of a medium such as the ether.Faraday's work inspired James Clerk Maxwell to study electromagnetic radiation and light.", "Maxwell discovered that self-propagating electromagnetic waves would travel through space at a constant speed, which happened to be equal to the previously measured speed of light.", "From this, Maxwell concluded that light was a form of electromagnetic radiation: he first stated this result in 1862 in ''On Physical Lines of Force''.", "In 1873, he published ''A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism'', which contained a full mathematical description of the behavior of electric and magnetic fields, still known as Maxwell's equations.", "Soon after, Heinrich Hertz confirmed Maxwell's theory experimentally by generating and detecting radio waves in the laboratory and demonstrating that these waves behaved exactly like visible light, exhibiting properties such as reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.", "Maxwell's theory and Hertz's experiments led directly to the development of modern radio, radar, television, electromagnetic imaging and wireless communications.In the quantum theory, photons are seen as wave packets of the waves described in the classical theory of Maxwell.", "The quantum theory was needed to explain effects even with visual light that Maxwell's classical theory could not (such as spectral lines).===Quantum theory===In 1900 Max Planck, attempting to explain black-body radiation, suggested that although light was a wave, these waves could gain or lose energy only in finite amounts related to their frequency.", "Planck called these \"lumps\" of light energy \"quanta\" (from a Latin word for \"how much\").", "In 1905, Albert Einstein used the idea of light quanta to explain the photoelectric effect and suggested that these light quanta had a \"real\" existence.", "In 1923 Arthur Holly Compton showed that the wavelength shift seen when low intensity X-rays scattered from electrons (so called Compton scattering) could be explained by a particle-theory of X-rays, but not a wave theory.", "In 1926 Gilbert N. Lewis named these light quanta particles photons.Eventually the modern theory of quantum mechanics came to picture light as (in some sense) ''both'' a particle and a wave and (in another sense), as a phenomenon which is ''neither'' a particle nor a wave (which actually are macroscopic phenomena, such as baseballs or ocean waves).", "Instead, modern physics sees light as something that can be described sometimes with mathematics appropriate to one type of macroscopic metaphor (particles) and sometimes another macroscopic metaphor (water waves), but is actually something that cannot be fully imagined.", "As in the case for radio waves and the X-rays involved in Compton scattering, physicists have noted that electromagnetic radiation tends to behave more like a classical wave at lower frequencies, but more like a classical particle at higher frequencies, but never completely loses all qualities of one or the other.", "Visible light, which occupies a middle ground in frequency, can easily be shown in experiments to be describable using either a wave or particle model, or sometimes both.In February 2018, scientists reported, for the first time, the discovery of a new form of light, which may involve polaritons, that could be useful in the development of quantum computers." ], [ "Use for light on Earth", "Sunlight provides the energy that green plants use to create sugars mostly in the form of starches, which release energy into the living things that digest them.", "This process of photosynthesis provides virtually all the energy used by living things.", "Some species of animals generate their own light, a process called bioluminescence.", "For example, fireflies use light to locate mates and vampire squid use it to hide themselves from prey." ], [ "See also", "* Automotive lighting* Ballistic photon* Colour temperature* Fermat's principle* Huygens' principle* ''Journal of Luminescence''* Light art* Light beam – in particular about light beams visible from the side* ''Light Fantastic'' (TV series)* Light mill* Light painting* Light pollution* Light therapy* Lighting* List of light sources* ''Luminescence: The Journal of Biological and Chemical Luminescence''* Photic sneeze reflex* Right to light* Risks and benefits of sun exposure* Spectroscopy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lipid" ], [ "Introduction", "Structures of some common lipids.", "At the top are cholesterol and oleic acid.", "The middle structure is a triglyceride composed of oleoyl, stearoyl, and palmitoyl chains attached to a glycerol backbone.", "At the bottom is the common phospholipid phosphatidylcholine.", "'''Lipids''' are a broad group of organic compounds which include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others.", "The functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes.", "Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries, and in nanotechnology.Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles, multilamellar/unilamellar liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment.", "Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or \"building-blocks\": ketoacyl and isoprene groups.", "Using this approach, lipids may be divided into eight categories: fatty acyls, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids, and polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids and prenol lipids (derived from condensation of isoprene subunits).Although the term \"lipid\" is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides.", "Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, monoglycerides, and phospholipids), as well as other sterol-containing metabolites such as cholesterol.", "Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet." ], [ "History", "In 1815, Henri Braconnot classified lipids (''graisses'') in two categories, ''suifs'' (solid greases or tallow) and ''huiles'' (fluid oils).", "In 1823, Michel Eugène Chevreul developed a more detailed classification, including oils, greases, tallow, waxes, resins, balsams and volatile oils (or essential oils).The first synthetic triglyceride was reported by Théophile-Jules Pelouze in 1844, when he produced tributyrin by treating butyric acid with glycerin in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid.", "Several years later, Marcellin Berthelot, one of Pelouze's students, synthesized tristearin and tripalmitin by reaction of the analogous fatty acids with glycerin in the presence of gaseous hydrogen chloride at high temperature.In 1827, William Prout recognized fat (\"oily\" alimentary matters), along with protein (\"albuminous\") and carbohydrate (\"saccharine\"), as an important nutrient for humans and animals.For a century, chemists regarded \"fats\" as only simple lipids made of fatty acids and glycerol (glycerides), but new forms were described later.", "Theodore Gobley (1847) discovered phospholipids in mammalian brain and hen egg, called by him as \"lecithins\".", "Thudichum discovered in human brain some phospholipids (cephalin), glycolipids (cerebroside) and sphingolipids (sphingomyelin).The terms lipoid, lipin, lipide and lipid have been used with varied meanings from author to author.", "In 1912, Rosenbloom and Gies proposed the substitution of \"lipoid\" by \"lipin\".", "In 1920, Bloor introduced a new classification for \"lipoids\": simple lipoids (greases and waxes), compound lipoids (phospholipoids and glycolipoids), and the derived lipoids (fatty acids, alcohols, sterols).The word ''lipide'', which stems etymologically from Greek λίπος, ''lipos'' 'fat', was introduced in 1923 by the French pharmacologist Gabriel Bertrand.", "Bertrand included in the concept not only the traditional fats (glycerides), but also the \"lipoids\", with a complex constitution.", "The word ''lipide'' was unanimously approved by the international commission of the ''Société de Chimie Biologique'' during the plenary session on July 3, 1923.The word ''lipide'' was later anglicized as ''lipid'' because of its pronunciation ('lɪpɪd).", "In French, the suffix ''-ide'', from Ancient Greek -ίδης (meaning 'son of' or 'descendant of'), is always pronounced (ɪd).In 1947, T. P. Hilditch defined \"simple lipids\" as greases and waxes (true waxes, sterols, alcohols)." ], [ "Categories", "Lipids have been classified into eight categories by the Lipid MAPS consortium as follows:===Fatty acyls===I2 – Prostacyclin (an example of a prostaglandin, an eicosanoid fatty acid)LTB4 (an example of a leukotriene, an eicosanoid fatty acid)Fatty acyls, a generic term for describing fatty acids, their conjugates and derivatives, are a diverse group of molecules synthesized by chain-elongation of an acetyl-CoA primer with malonyl-CoA or methylmalonyl-CoA groups in a process called fatty acid synthesis.", "They are made of a hydrocarbon chain that terminates with a carboxylic acid group; this arrangement confers the molecule with a polar, hydrophilic end, and a nonpolar, hydrophobic end that is insoluble in water.", "The fatty acid structure is one of the most fundamental categories of biological lipids and is commonly used as a building-block of more structurally complex lipids.", "The carbon chain, typically between four and 24 carbons long, may be saturated or unsaturated, and may be attached to functional groups containing oxygen, halogens, nitrogen, and sulfur.", "If a fatty acid contains a double bond, there is the possibility of either a ''cis'' or ''trans'' geometric isomerism, which significantly affects the molecule's configuration.", "''Cis''-double bonds cause the fatty acid chain to bend, an effect that is compounded with more double bonds in the chain.", "Three double bonds in 18-carbon ''linolenic acid'', the most abundant fatty-acyl chains of plant ''thylakoid membranes'', render these membranes highly ''fluid'' despite environmental low-temperatures, and also makes linolenic acid give dominating sharp peaks in high resolution 13-C NMR spectra of chloroplasts.", "This in turn plays an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes.", "Most naturally occurring fatty acids are of the ''cis'' configuration, although the ''trans'' form does exist in some natural and partially hydrogenated fats and oils.Examples of biologically important fatty acids include the eicosanoids, derived primarily from arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid, that include prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes.", "Docosahexaenoic acid is also important in biological systems, particularly with respect to sight.", "Other major lipid classes in the fatty acid category are the fatty esters and fatty amides.", "Fatty esters include important biochemical intermediates such as wax esters, fatty acid thioester coenzyme A derivatives, fatty acid thioester ACP derivatives and fatty acid carnitines.", "The fatty amides include N-acyl ethanolamines, such as the cannabinoid neurotransmitter anandamide.===Glycerolipids===Example of an unsaturated fat triglyceride (C55H98O6).", "Left part: glycerol; right part, from top to bottom: palmitic acid, oleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid.Glycerolipids are composed of mono-, di-, and tri-substituted glycerols, the best-known being the fatty acid triesters of glycerol, called triglycerides.", "The word \"triacylglycerol\" is sometimes used synonymously with \"triglyceride\".", "In these compounds, the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are each esterified, typically by different fatty acids.", "Because they function as an energy store, these lipids comprise the bulk of storage fat in animal tissues.", "The hydrolysis of the ester bonds of triglycerides and the release of glycerol and fatty acids from adipose tissue are the initial steps in metabolizing fat.Additional subclasses of glycerolipids are represented by glycosylglycerols, which are characterized by the presence of one or more sugar residues attached to glycerol via a glycosidic linkage.", "Examples of structures in this category are the digalactosyldiacylglycerols found in plant membranes and seminolipid from mammalian sperm cells.===Glycerophospholipids===PhosphatidylethanolamineGlycerophospholipids, usually referred to as phospholipids (though sphingomyelins are also classified as phospholipids), are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the lipid bilayer of cells, as well as being involved in metabolism and cell signaling.", "Neural tissue (including the brain) contains relatively high amounts of glycerophospholipids, and alterations in their composition has been implicated in various neurological disorders.", "Glycerophospholipids may be subdivided into distinct classes, based on the nature of the polar headgroup at the ''sn''-3 position of the glycerol backbone in eukaryotes and eubacteria, or the ''sn''-1 position in the case of archaebacteria.Examples of glycerophospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine (also known as PC, GPCho or lecithin), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE or GPEtn) and phosphatidylserine (PS or GPSer).", "In addition to serving as a primary component of cellular membranes and binding sites for intra- and intercellular proteins, some glycerophospholipids in eukaryotic cells, such as phosphatidylinositols and phosphatidic acids are either precursors of or, themselves, membrane-derived second messengers.", "Typically, one or both of these hydroxyl groups are acylated with long-chain fatty acids, but there are also alkyl-linked and 1Z-alkenyl-linked (plasmalogen) glycerophospholipids, as well as dialkylether variants in archaebacteria.===Sphingolipids===SphingomyelinSphingolipids are a complicated family of compounds that share a common structural feature, a sphingoid base backbone that is synthesized ''de novo'' from the amino acid serine and a long-chain fatty acyl CoA, then converted into ceramides, phosphosphingolipids, glycosphingolipids and other compounds.", "The major sphingoid base of mammals is commonly referred to as sphingosine.", "Ceramides (N-acyl-sphingoid bases) are a major subclass of sphingoid base derivatives with an amide-linked fatty acid.", "The fatty acids are typically saturated or mono-unsaturated with chain lengths from 16 to 26 carbon atoms.The major phosphosphingolipids of mammals are sphingomyelins (ceramide phosphocholines), whereas insects contain mainly ceramide phosphoethanolamines and fungi have phytoceramide phosphoinositols and mannose-containing headgroups.", "The glycosphingolipids are a diverse family of molecules composed of one or more sugar residues linked via a glycosidic bond to the sphingoid base.", "Examples of these are the simple and complex glycosphingolipids such as cerebrosides and gangliosides.===Sterols===Chemical structure of cholesterolSterols, such as cholesterol and its derivatives, are an important component of membrane lipids, along with the glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelins.", "Other examples of sterols are the bile acids and their conjugates, which in mammals are oxidized derivatives of cholesterol and are synthesized in the liver.", "The plant equivalents are the phytosterols, such as β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and brassicasterol; the latter compound is also used as a biomarker for algal growth.", "The predominant sterol in fungal cell membranes is ergosterol.Sterols are steroids in which one of the hydrogen atoms is substituted with a hydroxyl group, at position 3 in the carbon chain.", "They have in common with steroids the same fused four-ring core structure.", "Steroids have different biological roles as hormones and signaling molecules.", "The eighteen-carbon (C18) steroids include the estrogen family whereas the C19 steroids comprise the androgens such as testosterone and androsterone.", "The C21 subclass includes the progestogens as well as the glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.", "The secosteroids, comprising various forms of vitamin D, are characterized by cleavage of the B ring of the core structure.===Prenols===Prenol lipid (2''E''-geraniol)Prenol lipids are synthesized from the five-carbon-unit precursors isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate, which are produced mainly via the mevalonic acid (MVA) pathway.", "The simple isoprenoids (linear alcohols, diphosphates, etc.)", "are formed by the successive addition of C5 units, and are classified according to number of these terpene units.", "Structures containing greater than 40 carbons are known as polyterpenes.", "Carotenoids are important simple isoprenoids that function as antioxidants and as precursors of vitamin A.", "Another biologically important class of molecules is exemplified by the quinones and hydroquinones, which contain an isoprenoid tail attached to a quinonoid core of non-isoprenoid origin.", "Vitamin E and vitamin K, as well as the ubiquinones, are examples of this class.", "Prokaryotes synthesize polyprenols (called bactoprenols) in which the terminal isoprenoid unit attached to oxygen remains unsaturated, whereas in animal polyprenols (dolichols) the terminal isoprenoid is reduced.===Saccharolipids===Structure of the saccharolipid Kdo2-lipid A. Glucosamine residues in blue, Kdo residues in red, acyl chains in black and phosphate groups in green.Saccharolipids describe compounds in which fatty acids are linked to a sugar backbone, forming structures that are compatible with membrane bilayers.", "In the saccharolipids, a monosaccharide substitutes for the glycerol backbone present in glycerolipids and glycerophospholipids.", "The most familiar saccharolipids are the acylated glucosamine precursors of the Lipid A component of the lipopolysaccharides in Gram-negative bacteria.", "Typical lipid A molecules are disaccharides of glucosamine, which are derivatized with as many as seven fatty-acyl chains.", "The minimal lipopolysaccharide required for growth in ''E.", "coli'' is Kdo2-Lipid A, a hexa-acylated disaccharide of glucosamine that is glycosylated with two 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid (Kdo) residues.===Polyketides===Polyketides are synthesized by polymerization of acetyl and propionyl subunits by classic enzymes as well as iterative and multimodular enzymes that share mechanistic features with the fatty acid synthases.", "They comprise many secondary metabolites and natural products from animal, plant, bacterial, fungal and marine sources, and have great structural diversity.", "Many polyketides are cyclic molecules whose backbones are often further modified by glycosylation, methylation, hydroxylation, oxidation, or other processes.", "Many commonly used antimicrobial, antiparasitic, and anticancer agents are polyketides or polyketide derivatives, such as erythromycins, tetracyclines, avermectins, and antitumor epothilones." ], [ "Biological functions", "===Component of biological membranes===Eukaryotic cells feature the compartmentalized membrane-bound organelles that carry out different biological functions.", "The glycerophospholipids are the main structural component of biological membranes, as the cellular plasma membrane and the intracellular membranes of organelles; in animal cells, the plasma membrane physically separates the intracellular components from the extracellular environment.", "The glycerophospholipids are amphipathic molecules (containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions) that contain a glycerol core linked to two fatty acid-derived \"tails\" by ester linkages and to one \"head\" group by a phosphate ester linkage.", "While glycerophospholipids are the major component of biological membranes, other non-glyceride lipid components such as sphingomyelin and sterols (mainly cholesterol in animal cell membranes) are also found in biological membranes.", "In plants and algae, the galactosyldiacylglycerols, and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol, which lack a phosphate group, are important components of membranes of chloroplasts and related organelles and are among the most abundant lipids in photosynthetic tissues, including those of higher plants, algae and certain bacteria.Plant thylakoid membranes have the largest lipid component of a non-bilayer forming monogalactosyl diglyceride (MGDG), and little phospholipids; despite this unique lipid composition, chloroplast thylakoid membranes have been shown to contain a dynamic lipid-bilayer matrix as revealed by magnetic resonance and electron microscope studies.Self-organization of phospholipids: a spherical liposome, a micelle, and a lipid bilayer.A biological membrane is a form of lamellar phase lipid bilayer.", "The formation of lipid bilayers is an energetically preferred process when the glycerophospholipids described above are in an aqueous environment.", "This is known as the hydrophobic effect.", "In an aqueous system, the polar heads of lipids align towards the polar, aqueous environment, while the hydrophobic tails minimize their contact with water and tend to cluster together, forming a vesicle; depending on the concentration of the lipid, this biophysical interaction may result in the formation of micelles, liposomes, or lipid bilayers.", "Other aggregations are also observed and form part of the polymorphism of amphiphile (lipid) behavior.", "Phase behavior is an area of study within biophysics.", "Micelles and bilayers form in the polar medium by a process known as the hydrophobic effect.", "When dissolving a lipophilic or amphiphilic substance in a polar environment, the polar molecules (i.e., water in an aqueous solution) become more ordered around the dissolved lipophilic substance, since the polar molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds to the lipophilic areas of the amphiphile.", "So in an aqueous environment, the water molecules form an ordered \"clathrate\" cage around the dissolved lipophilic molecule.The formation of lipids into protocell membranes represents a key step in models of abiogenesis, the origin of life.===Energy storage===Triglycerides, stored in adipose tissue, are a major form of energy storage both in animals and plants.", "They are a major source of energy in aerobic respiration.", "The complete oxidation of fatty acids releases about 38 kJ/g (9 kcal/g), compared with only 17 kJ/g (4 kcal/g) for the oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates and proteins.", "The adipocyte, or fat cell, is designed for continuous synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides in animals, with breakdown controlled mainly by the activation of hormone-sensitive enzyme lipase.", "Migratory birds that must fly long distances without eating use triglycerides to fuel their flights.===Signaling===Evidence has emerged showing that lipid signaling is a vital part of the cell signaling.", "Lipid signaling may occur via activation of G protein-coupled or nuclear receptors, and members of several different lipid categories have been identified as signaling molecules and cellular messengers.", "These include sphingosine-1-phosphate, a sphingolipid derived from ceramide that is a potent messenger molecule involved in regulating calcium mobilization, cell growth, and apoptosis; diacylglycerol and the phosphatidylinositol phosphates (PIPs), involved in calcium-mediated activation of protein kinase C; the prostaglandins, which are one type of fatty-acid derived eicosanoid involved in inflammation and immunity; the steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone and cortisol, which modulate a host of functions such as reproduction, metabolism and blood pressure; and the oxysterols such as 25-hydroxy-cholesterol that are liver X receptor agonists.", "Phosphatidylserine lipids are known to be involved in signaling for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells or pieces of cells.", "They accomplish this by being exposed to the extracellular face of the cell membrane after the inactivation of flippases which place them exclusively on the cytosolic side and the activation of scramblases, which scramble the orientation of the phospholipids.", "After this occurs, other cells recognize the phosphatidylserines and phagocytosize the cells or cell fragments exposing them.===Other functions===The \"fat-soluble\" vitamins (A, D, E and K) – which are isoprene-based lipids – are essential nutrients stored in the liver and fatty tissues, with a diverse range of functions.", "Acyl-carnitines are involved in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids in and out of mitochondria, where they undergo beta oxidation.", "Polyprenols and their phosphorylated derivatives also play important transport roles, in this case the transport of oligosaccharides across membranes.", "Polyprenol phosphate sugars and polyprenol diphosphate sugars function in extra-cytoplasmic glycosylation reactions, in extracellular polysaccharide biosynthesis (for instance, peptidoglycan polymerization in bacteria), and in eukaryotic protein N-glycosylation.", "Cardiolipins are a subclass of glycerophospholipids containing four acyl chains and three glycerol groups that are particularly abundant in the inner mitochondrial membrane.", "They are believed to activate enzymes involved with oxidative phosphorylation.", "Lipids also form the basis of steroid hormones." ], [ "Metabolism", "The major dietary lipids for humans and other animals are animal and plant triglycerides, sterols, and membrane phospholipids.", "The process of lipid metabolism synthesizes and degrades the lipid stores and produces the structural and functional lipids characteristic of individual tissues.===Biosynthesis===In animals, when there is an oversupply of dietary carbohydrate, the excess carbohydrate is converted to triglycerides.", "This involves the synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and the esterification of fatty acids in the production of triglycerides, a process called lipogenesis.", "Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units.", "The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acetyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group.", "The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups, in animals and fungi all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional protein, while in plant plastids and bacteria separate enzymes perform each step in the pathway.", "The fatty acids may be subsequently converted to triglycerides that are packaged in lipoproteins and secreted from the liver.The synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids involves a desaturation reaction, whereby a double bond is introduced into the fatty acyl chain.", "For example, in humans, the desaturation of stearic acid by stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 produces oleic acid.", "The doubly unsaturated fatty acid linoleic acid as well as the triply unsaturated α-linolenic acid cannot be synthesized in mammalian tissues, and are therefore essential fatty acids and must be obtained from the diet.Triglyceride synthesis takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum by metabolic pathways in which acyl groups in fatty acyl-CoAs are transferred to the hydroxyl groups of glycerol-3-phosphate and diacylglycerol.Terpenes and isoprenoids, including the carotenoids, are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate.", "These precursors can be made in different ways.", "In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl-CoA, while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates.", "One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis.", "Here, the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol.", "Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol.===Degradation===Beta oxidation is the metabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria or in peroxisomes to generate acetyl-CoA.", "For the most part, fatty acids are oxidized by a mechanism that is similar to, but not identical with, a reversal of the process of fatty acid synthesis.", "That is, two-carbon fragments are removed sequentially from the carboxyl end of the acid after steps of dehydrogenation, hydration, and oxidation to form a beta-keto acid, which is split by thiolysis.", "The acetyl-CoA is then ultimately converted into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), CO2, and H2O using the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain.", "Hence the citric acid cycle can start at acetyl-CoA when fat is being broken down for energy if there is little or no glucose available.", "The energy yield of the complete oxidation of the fatty acid palmitate is 106 ATP.", "Unsaturated and odd-chain fatty acids require additional enzymatic steps for degradation." ], [ "Nutrition and health", "Most of the fat found in food is in the form of triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids.", "Some dietary fat is necessary to facilitate absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and carotenoids.", "Humans and other mammals have a dietary requirement for certain essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) because they cannot be synthesized from simple precursors in the diet.", "Both of these fatty acids are 18-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids differing in the number and position of the double bonds.", "Most vegetable oils are rich in linoleic acid (safflower, sunflower, and corn oils).", "Alpha-linolenic acid is found in the green leaves of plants and in some seeds, nuts, and legumes (in particular flax, rapeseed, walnut, and soy).", "Fish oils are particularly rich in the longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid.", "Many studies have shown positive health benefits associated with consumption of omega-3 fatty acids on infant development, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and various mental illnesses (such as depression, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and dementia).In contrast, it is now well-established that consumption of trans fats, such as those present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.", "Fats that are good for one may be turned into trans fats by improper cooking methods that result in overcooking the lipids.A few studies have suggested that total dietary fat intake is linked to an increased risk of obesity.", "and diabetes; Others, including the Women's Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial, an eight-year study of 49,000 women, the Nurses' Health Study, and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, revealed no such links.", "None of these studies suggested any connection between percentage of calories from fat and risk of cancer, heart disease, or weight gain.", "The Nutrition Source, a website maintained by the department of nutrition at the T. H. Chan School of Public Health at Harvard University, summarizes the current evidence on the effect of dietary fat: \"Detailed research—much of it done at Harvard—shows that the total amount of fat in the diet isn't really linked with weight or disease.\"" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * ** * * , a class of natural products composed of long aliphatic chains and phenolic rings that occur in plants, fungi and bacteria" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * *" ], [ "External links", "'''Introductory'''* List of lipid-related web sites* Nature Lipidomics Gateway – Round-up and summaries of recent lipid research* Lipid Library – General reference on lipid chemistry and biochemistry* Cyberlipid.org – Resources and history for lipids.", "* Molecular Computer Simulations – Modeling of Lipid Membranes* Lipids, Membranes and Vesicle Trafficking – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology'''Nomenclature'''* IUPAC nomenclature of lipids* IUPAC glossary entry for the lipid class of molecules'''Databases'''* LIPID MAPS – Comprehensive lipid and lipid-associated gene/protein databases.", "* LipidBank – Japanese database of lipids and related properties, spectral data and references.", "'''General'''* ApolloLipids – Provides dyslipidemia and cardiovascular disease prevention and treatment information as well as continuing medical education programs* National Lipid Association – Professional medical education organization for health care professionals who seek to prevent morbidity and mortality stemming from dyslipidemias and other cholesterol-related disorders." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lie algebra" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, a '''Lie algebra''' (pronounced ) is a vector space together with an operation called the '''Lie bracket''', an alternating bilinear map , that satisfies the Jacobi identity.", "In other words, a Lie algebra is an algebra over a field for which the multiplication operation (called the Lie bracket) is alternating and satisfies the Jacobi identity.", "The Lie bracket of two vectors and is denoted .", "A Lie algebra is typically a non-associative algebra.", "However, every associative algebra gives rise to a Lie algebra, consisting of the same vector space with the commutator Lie bracket, .Lie algebras are closely related to Lie groups, which are groups that are also smooth manifolds: every Lie group gives rise to a Lie algebra, which is the tangent space at the identity.", "(In this case, the Lie bracket measures the failure of commutativity for the Lie group.)", "Conversely, to any finite-dimensional Lie algebra over the real or complex numbers, there is a corresponding connected Lie group, unique up to covering spaces (Lie's third theorem).", "This correspondence allows one to study the structure and classification of Lie groups in terms of Lie algebras, which are simpler objects of linear algebra.In more detail: for any Lie group, the multiplication operation near the identity element 1 is commutative to first order.", "In other words, every Lie group ''G'' is (to first order) approximately a real vector space, namely the tangent space to ''G'' at the identity.", "To second order, the group operation may be non-commutative, and the second-order terms describing the non-commutativity of ''G'' near the identity give the structure of a Lie algebra.", "It is a remarkable fact that these second-order terms (the Lie algebra) completely determine the group structure of ''G'' near the identity.", "They even determine ''G'' globally, up to covering spaces.In physics, Lie groups appear as symmetry groups of physical systems, and their Lie algebras (tangent vectors near the identity) may be thought of as infinitesimal symmetry motions.", "Thus Lie algebras and their representations are used extensively in physics, notably in quantum mechanics and particle physics.An elementary example (not directly coming from an associative algebra) is the 3-dimensional space with Lie bracket defined by the cross product This is skew-symmetric since , and instead of associativity it satisfies the Jacobi identity::This is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of rotations of space, and each vector may be pictured as an infinitesimal rotation around the axis , with angular speed equal to the magnitudeof .", "The Lie bracket is a measure of the non-commutativity between two rotations.", "Since a rotation commutes with itself, one has the alternating property ." ], [ "History", "Lie algebras were introduced to study the concept of infinitesimal transformations by Sophus Lie in the 1870s, and independently discovered by Wilhelm Killing in the 1880s.", "The name ''Lie algebra'' was given by Hermann Weyl in the 1930s; in older texts, the term ''infinitesimal group'' was used." ], [ "Definition of a Lie algebra", "A Lie algebra is a vector space over a field together with a binary operation called the Lie bracket, satisfying the following axioms:* ''Bilinearity'',:::::for all scalars in and all elements in .", "* The ''Alternating'' property,:::for all in .", "* The ''Jacobi identity'',:: :for all in .Given a Lie group, the Jacobi identity for its Lie algebra follows from the associativity of the group operation.Using bilinearity to expand the Lie bracket and using the alternating property shows that for all in .", "Thus bilinearity and the alternating property together imply* Anticommutativity,:: :for all in .", "If the field does not have characteristic 2, then anticommutativity implies the alternating property, since it implies It is customary to denote a Lie algebra by a lower-case fraktur letter such as .", "If a Lie algebra is associated with a Lie group, then the algebra is denoted by the fraktur version of the group's name: for example, the Lie algebra of SU(''n'') is .===Generators and dimension===The ''dimension'' of a Lie algebra over a field means its dimension as a vector space.", "In physics, a vector space basis of the Lie algebra of a Lie group ''G'' may be called a set of ''generators'' for ''G''.", "(They are \"infinitesimal generators\" for ''G'', so to speak.)", "In mathematics, a set ''S'' of ''generators'' for a Lie algebra means a subset of such that any Lie subalgebra (as defined below) that contains ''S'' must be all of .", "Equivalently, is spanned (as a vector space) by all iterated brackets of elements of ''S''." ], [ "Basic examples", "===Abelian Lie algebras===Any vector space endowed with the identically zero Lie bracket becomes a Lie algebra.", "Such a Lie algebra is called '''abelian'''.", "Every one-dimensional Lie algebra is abelian, by the alternating property of the Lie bracket.=== The Lie algebra of matrices ===* On an associative algebra over a field with multiplication written as , a Lie bracket may be defined by the commutator .", "With this bracket, is a Lie algebra.", "(The Jacobi identity follows from the associativity of the multiplication on .)", "* The endomorphism ring of an -vector space with the above Lie bracket is denoted .", "*For a field ''F'' and a positive integer ''n'', the space of ''n'' × ''n'' matrices over ''F'', denoted or , is a Lie algebra with bracket given by the commutator of matrices: .", "This is a special case of the previous example; it is probably the most important example of a Lie algebra.", "It is called the '''general linear''' Lie algebra.", ":When ''F'' is the real numbers, is the Lie algebra of the general linear group , the group of invertible ''n'' x ''n'' real matrices (or equivalently, matrices with nonzero determinant), where the group operation is matrix multiplication.", "Likewise, is the Lie algebra of the complex Lie group .", "The Lie bracket on describes the failure of commutativity for matrix multiplication, or equivalently for the composition of linear maps.", "For any field ''F'', can be viewed as the Lie algebra of the algebraic group ." ], [ "Definitions", "=== Subalgebras, ideals and homomorphisms ===The Lie bracket is not required to be associative, meaning that need not be equal to .", "Nonetheless, much of the terminology for associative rings and algebras (and also for groups) has analogs for Lie algebras.", "A '''Lie subalgebra''' is a linear subspace which is closed under the Lie bracket.", "An '''ideal''' is a linear subspace that satisfies the stronger condition::In the correspondence between Lie groups and Lie algebras, subgroups correspond to Lie subalgebras, and normal subgroups correspond to ideals.A Lie algebra '''homomorphism''' is a linear map compatible with the respective Lie brackets::An '''isomorphism''' of Lie algebras is a bijective homomorphism.As with normal subgroups in groups, ideals in Lie algebras are precisely the kernels of homomorphisms.", "Given a Lie algebra and an ideal in it, the ''quotient Lie algebra'' is defined, with a surjective homomorphism of Lie algebras.", "The first isomorphism theorem holds for Lie algebras.For the Lie algebra of a Lie group, the Lie bracket is a kind of infinitesimal commutator.", "As a result, for any Lie algebra, two elements are said to ''commute'' if their bracket vanishes: .The centralizer subalgebra of a subset is the set of elements commuting with '''': that is, .", "The centralizer of itself is the ''center'' .", "Similarly, for a subspace ''S'', the normalizer subalgebra of '''' is .", "If is a Lie subalgebra, is the largest subalgebra such that is an ideal of .==== Example ====The subspace of diagonal matrices in is an abelian Lie subalgebra.", "(It is a Cartan subalgebra of , analogous to a maximal torus in the theory of compact Lie groups.)", "Here is not an ideal in for .", "For example, when , this follows from the calculation:(which is not always in ).Every one-dimensional linear subspace of a Lie algebra is an abelian Lie subalgebra, but it need not be an ideal.=== Product and semidirect product ===For two Lie algebras and , the ''product'' Lie algebra is the vector space consisting of all ordered pairs , with Lie bracket:This is the product in the category of Lie algebras.", "Note that the copies of and in commute with each other: Let be a Lie algebra and an ideal of .", "If the canonical map splits (i.e., admits a section , as a homomorphism of Lie algebras), then is said to be a semidirect product of and , .", "See also semidirect sum of Lie algebras.=== Derivations ===For an algebra ''A'' over a field ''F'', a ''derivation'' of ''A'' over ''F'' is a linear map that satisfies the Leibniz rule:for all .", "(The definition makes sense for a possibly non-associative algebra.)", "Given two derivations and , their commutator is again a derivation.", "This operation makes the space of all derivations of ''A'' over ''F'' into a Lie algebra.Informally speaking, the space of derivations of ''A'' is the Lie algebra of the automorphism group of ''A''.", "(This is literally true when the automorphism group is a Lie group, for example when ''F'' is the real numbers and ''A'' has finite dimension as a vector space.)", "For this reason, spaces of derivations are a natural way to construct Lie algebras: they are the \"infinitesimal automorphisms\" of ''A''.", "Indeed, writing out the condition that:(where 1 denotes the identity map on ''A'') gives exactly the definition of ''D'' being a derivation.", "'''Example: the Lie algebra of vector fields.'''", "Let ''A'' be the ring of smooth functions on a smooth manifold ''X''.", "Then a derivation of ''A'' over is equivalent to a vector field on ''X''.", "(A vector field ''v'' gives a derivation of the space of smooth functions by differentiating functions in the direction of ''v''.)", "This makes the space of vector fields into a Lie algebra (see Lie bracket of vector fields).", "Informally speaking, is the Lie algebra of the diffeomorphism group of ''X''.", "So the Lie bracket of vector fields describes the non-commutativity of the diffeomorphism group.", "An action of a Lie group ''G'' on a manifold ''X'' determines a homomorphism of Lie algebras .A Lie algebra can be viewed as a non-associative algebra, and so each Lie algebra over a field ''F'' determines its Lie algebra of derivations, .", "That is, a derivation of is a linear map such that:.The ''inner derivation'' associated to any is the adjoint mapping defined by .", "(This is a derivation as a consequence of the Jacobi identity.)", "That gives a homomorphism of Lie algebras, .", "The image is an ideal in , and the Lie algebra of ''outer derivations'' is defined as the quotient Lie algebra, .", "(This is exactly analogous to the outer automorphism group of a group.)", "For a semisimple Lie algebra (defined below) over a field of characteristic zero, every derivation is inner.", "This is related to the theorem that the outer automorphism group of a semisimple Lie group is finite.In contrast, an abelian Lie algebra has many outer derivations.", "Namely, for a vector space with Lie bracket zero, the Lie algebra can be identified with ." ], [ "Examples", "=== Matrix Lie algebras ===A matrix group is a Lie group consisting of invertible matrices, , where the group operation of ''G'' is matrix multiplication.", "The corresponding Lie algebra is the space of matrices which are tangent vectors to ''G'' inside the linear space : this consists of derivatives of smooth curves in ''G'' at the identity matrix ::The Lie bracket of is given by the commutator of matrices, .", "Given a Lie algebra , one can recover the Lie group as the subgroup generated by the matrix exponential of elements of .", "(To be precise, this gives the identity component of ''G'', if ''G'' is not connected.)", "Here the exponential mapping is defined by , which converges for every matrix .The same comments apply to complex Lie subgroups of and the complex matrix exponential, (defined by the same formula).Here are some matrix Lie groups and their Lie algebras.", "* For a positive integer ''n'', the special linear group consists of all real matrices with determinant 1.This is the group of linear maps from to itself that preserve volume and orientation.", "More abstractly, is the commutator subgroup of the general linear group .", "Its Lie algebra consists of all real matrices with trace 0.Similarly, one can define the analogous complex Lie group and its Lie algebra .", "* The orthogonal group plays a basic role in geometry: it is the group of linear maps from to itself that preserve the length of vectors.", "For example, rotations and reflections belong to .", "Equivalently, this is the group of ''n'' x ''n'' orthogonal matrices, meaning that .", "The orthogonal group has two connected components; the identity component is called the ''special orthogonal group'' , consisting of the orthogonal matrices with determinant 1.Both groups have the same Lie algebra , the subspace of skew-symmetric matrices in ().", "See also infinitesimal rotations with skew-symmetric matrices.", ":The complex orthogonal group , its identity component , and the Lie algebra are given by the same formulas applied to ''n'' x ''n'' complex matrices.", "Equivalently, is the subgroup of that preserves the standard symmetric bilinear form on .", "* The unitary group is the subgroup of that preserves the length of vectors in (with respect to the standard Hermitian inner product).", "Equivalently, this is the group of ''n'' × ''n'' unitary matrices (satisfying , where denotes the conjugate transpose of a matrix).", "Its Lie algebra consists of the skew-hermitian matrices in ().", "This is a Lie algebra over , not over .", "(Indeed, ''i'' times a skew-hermitian matrix is hermitian, rather than skew-hermitian.)", "Likewise, the unitary group is a real Lie subgroup of the complex Lie group .", "For example, is the circle group, and its Lie algebra (from this point of view) is .", "* The special unitary group is the subgroup of matrices with determinant 1 in .", "Its Lie algebra consists of the skew-hermitian matrices with trace zero.", "*The symplectic group is the subgroup of that preserves the standard alternating bilinear form on .", "Its Lie algebra is the symplectic Lie algebra .", "*The classical Lie algebras are those listed above, along with variants over any field.=== Two dimensions ===Some Lie algebras of low dimension are described here.", "See the classification of low-dimensional real Lie algebras for further examples.", "* There is a unique nonabelian Lie algebra of dimension 2 over any field ''F'', up to isomorphism.", "Here has a basis for which the bracket is given by .", "(This determines the Lie bracket completely, because the axioms imply that and .)", "Over the real numbers, can be viewed as the Lie algebra of the Lie group of affine transformations of the real line, .", ":The affine group ''G'' can be identified with the group of matrices:::under matrix multiplication, with , .", "Its Lie algebra is the Lie subalgebra of consisting of all matrices:::In these terms, the basis above for is given by the matrices:::For any field , the 1-dimensional subspace is an ideal in the 2-dimensional Lie algebra , by the formula .", "Both of the Lie algebras and are abelian (because 1-dimensional).", "In this sense, can be broken into abelian \"pieces\", meaning that it is solvable (though not nilpotent), in the terminology below.=== Three dimensions ===* The Heisenberg algebra over a field ''F'' is the three-dimensional Lie algebra with a basis such that::.", ":It can be viewed as the Lie algebra of 3×3 strictly upper-triangular matrices, with the commutator Lie bracket and the basis:::Over the real numbers, is the Lie algebra of the Heisenberg group , that is, the group of matrices:::under matrix multiplication.", ":For any field ''F'', the center of is the 1-dimensional ideal , and the quotient is abelian, isomorphic to .", "In the terminology below, it follows that is nilpotent (though not abelian).", "* The Lie algebra of the rotation group is the space of skew-symmetric 3 x 3 matrices over .", "A basis is given by the three matrices:::The commutation relations among these generators are:::::::The cross product of vectors in is given by the same formula in terms of the standard basis; so that Lie algebra is isomorphic to .", "Also, is equivalent to the Spin (physics) angular-momentum component operators for spin-1 particles in quantum mechanics.", ":The Lie algebra cannot be broken into pieces in the way that the previous examples can: it is ''simple'', meaning that it is not abelian and its only ideals are 0 and all of .", "* Another simple Lie algebra of dimension 3, in this case over , is the space of 2 x 2 matrices of trace zero.", "A basis is given by the three matrices::The Lie bracket is given by::::::::Using these formulas, one can show that the Lie algebra is simple, and classify its finite-dimensional representations (defined below).", "In the terminology of quantum mechanics, one can think of ''E'' and ''F'' as raising and lowering operators.", "Indeed, for any representation of , the relations above imply that ''E'' maps the ''c''-eigenspace of ''H'' (for a complex number ''c'') into the -eigenspace, while ''F'' maps the ''c''-eigenspace into the -eigenspace.", ":The Lie algebra is isomorphic to the complexification of , meaning the tensor product .", "The formulas for the Lie bracket are easier to analyze in the case of .", "As a result, it is common to analyze complex representations of the group by relating them to representations of the Lie algebra .=== Infinite dimensions ===* The Lie algebra of vector fields on a smooth manifold of positive dimension is an infinite-dimensional Lie algebra over .", "* The Kac–Moody algebras are a large class of infinite-dimensional Lie algebras, say over , with structure much like that of the finite-dimensional simple Lie algebras (such as ).", "* The Moyal algebra is an infinite-dimensional Lie algebra that contains all the classical Lie algebras as subalgebras.", "* The Virasoro algebra is important in string theory.", "* The functor that takes a Lie algebra over a field ''F'' to the underlying vector space has a left adjoint , called the ''free Lie algebra'' on a vector space ''V''.", "It is spanned by all iterated Lie brackets of elements of ''V'', modulo only the relations coming from the definition of a Lie algebra.", "The free Lie algebra is infinite-dimensional for ''V'' of dimension at least 2." ], [ "Representations", "===Definitions===Given a vector space ''V'', let denote the Lie algebra consisting of all linear maps from ''V'' to itself, with bracket given by .", "A ''representation'' of a Lie algebra on ''V'' is a Lie algebra homomorphism:That is, sends each element of to a linear map from ''V'' to itself, in such a way that the Lie bracket on corresponds to the commutator of linear maps.A representation is said to be ''faithful'' if its kernel is zero.", "Ado's theorem states that every finite-dimensional Lie algebra over a field of characteristic zero has a faithful representation on a finite-dimensional vector space.", "Kenkichi Iwasawa extended this result to finite-dimensional Lie algebras over a field of any characteristic.", "Equivalently, every finite-dimensional Lie algebra over a field ''F'' is isomorphic to a Lie subalgebra of for some positive integer ''n''.===Adjoint representation===For any Lie algebra , the adjoint representation is the representation:given by .===Goals of representation theory===One important aspect of the study of Lie algebras (especially semisimple Lie algebras, as defined below) is the study of their representations.", "Although Ado's theorem is an important result, the primary goal of representation theory is not to find a faithful representation of a given Lie algebra .", "Indeed, in the semisimple case, the adjoint representation is already faithful.", "Rather, the goal is to understand all possible representations of .", "For a semisimple Lie algebra over a field of characteristic zero, Weyl's theorem says that every finite-dimensional representation is a direct sum of irreducible representations (those with no nontrivial invariant subspaces).", "The finite-dimensional irreducible representations are well understood from several points of view; see the representation theory of semisimple Lie algebras and the Weyl character formula.===Universal enveloping algebra===The functor that takes an associative algebra ''A'' over a field ''F'' to ''A'' as a Lie algebra (by ) has a left adjoint , called the '''universal enveloping algebra'''.", "To construct this: given a Lie algebra , let:be the tensor algebra on , also called the free associative algebra on the vector space .", "Here denotes the tensor product of ''F''-vector spaces.", "Let ''I'' be the two-sided ideal in generated by the elements for ; then the universal enveloping algebra is the quotient ring .", "It satisfies the Poincaré–Birkhoff–Witt theorem: if is a basis for as a ''k''-vector space, then a basis for is given by all ordered products with natural numbers.", "In particular, the map is injective.Representations of are equivalent to modules over the universal enveloping algebra.", "The fact that is injective implies that every Lie algebra (possibly of infinite dimension) has a faithful representation (of infinite dimension), namely its representation on .", "This also shows that every Lie algebra is contained in the Lie algebra associated to some associative algebra.===Representation theory in physics===The representation theory of Lie algebras plays an important role in various parts of theoretical physics.", "There, one considers operators on the space of states that satisfy certain natural commutation relations.", "These commutation relations typically come from a symmetry of the problem—specifically, they are the relations of the Lie algebra of the relevant symmetry group.", "An example is the angular momentum operators, whose commutation relations are those of the Lie algebra of the rotation group SO(3).", "Typically, the space of states is far from being irreducible under the pertinent operators, butone can attempt to decompose it into irreducible pieces.", "In doing so, one needs to know the irreducible representations of the given Lie algebra.", "In the study of the quantum hydrogen atom, for example, quantum mechanics textbooks classify (more or less explicitly) the finite-dimensional irreducible representations of the Lie algebra ." ], [ "Structure theory and classification", "Lie algebras can be classified to some extent.", "This is a powerful approach to the classification of Lie groups.=== Abelian, nilpotent, and solvable ===Analogously to abelian, nilpotent, and solvable groups, one can define abelian, nilpotent, and solvable Lie algebras.A Lie algebra is ''abelian'' if the Lie bracket vanishes; that is, ''x'',''y'' = 0 for all ''x'' and ''y'' in .", "In particular, the Lie algebra of an abelian Lie group (such as the group under addition or the torus group ) is abelian.", "Every finite-dimensional abelian Lie algebra over a field is isomorphic to for some , meaning an ''n''-dimensional vector space with Lie bracket zero.A more general class of Lie algebras is defined by the vanishing of all commutators of given length.", "First, the ''commutator subalgebra'' (or ''derived subalgebra'') of a Lie algebra is , meaning the linear subspace spanned by all brackets with .", "The commutator subalgebra is an ideal in , in fact the smallest ideal such that the quotient Lie algebra is abelian.", "It is analogous to the commutator subgroup of a group.A Lie algebra is ''nilpotent'' if the lower central series:becomes zero after finitely many steps.", "Equivalently, is nilpotent if there is a finite sequence of ideals in ,:such that is central in for each ''j''.", "By Engel's theorem, a Lie algebra over any field is nilpotent if and only if for every ''u'' in the adjoint endomorphism:is nilpotent.More generally, a Lie algebra is said to be ''solvable'' if the derived series::becomes zero after finitely many steps.", "Equivalently, is solvable if there is a finite sequence of Lie subalgebras,:such that is an ideal in with abelian for each ''j''.Every finite-dimensional Lie algebra over a field has a unique maximal solvable ideal, called its radical.", "Under the Lie correspondence, nilpotent (respectively, solvable) Lie groups correspond to nilpotent (respectively, solvable) Lie algebras over .For example, for a positive integer ''n'', the radical of is its center, the 1-dimensional subspace spanned by the identity matrix.", "An example of a solvable Lie algebra is the space of upper-triangular matrices in ; this is not nilpotent when .", "An example of a nilpotent Lie algebra is the space of strictly upper-triangular matrices in ; this is not abelian when .=== Simple and semisimple ===A Lie algebra is called ''simple'' if it is not abelian and the only ideals in are 0 and .", "(In particular, a one-dimensional—necessarily abelian—Lie algebra is by definition not simple, even though its only ideals are 0 and .)", "A finite-dimensional Lie algebra is called ''semisimple'' if the only solvable ideal in is 0.In characteristic zero, a Lie algebra is semisimple if and only if it is isomorphic to a product of simple Lie algebras, .For example, the Lie algebra is simple for every and every field ''F'' of characteristic zero (or just of characteristic not dividing ''n'').", "The Lie algebra over is simple for every .", "The Lie algebra over is simple if or .", "(There are \"exceptional isomorphisms\" and .", ")The concept of semisimplicity for Lie algebras is closely related with the complete reducibility (semisimplicity) of their representations.", "When the ground field ''F'' has characteristic zero, every finite-dimensional representation of a semisimple Lie algebra is semisimple (that is, a direct sum of irreducible representations).A finite-dimensional Lie algebra over a field of characteristic zero is called reductive if its adjoint representation is semisimple.", "Every reductive Lie algebra is isomorphic to the product of an abelian Lie algebra and a semisimple Lie algebra.For example, is reductive for ''F'' of characteristic zero: for , it is isomorphic to the product:where ''F'' denotes the center of , the 1-dimensional subspace spanned by the identity matrix.", "Since the special linear Lie algebra is simple, contains few ideals: only 0, the center ''F'', , and all of .=== Cartan's criterion ===Cartan's criterion (by Élie Cartan) gives conditions for a finite-dimensional Lie algebra of characteristic zero to be solvable or semisimple.", "It is expressed in terms of the Killing form, the symmetric bilinear form on defined by:where tr denotes the trace of a linear operator.", "Namely: a Lie algebra is semisimple if and only if the Killing form is nondegenerate.", "A Lie algebra is solvable if and only if === Classification ===The Levi decomposition asserts that every finite-dimensional Lie algebra over a field of characteristic zero is a semidirect product of its solvable radical and a semisimple Lie algebra.", "Moreover, a semisimple Lie algebra in characteristic zero is a product of simple Lie algebras, as mentioned above.", "This focuses attention on the problem of classifying the simple Lie algebras.The simple Lie algebras of finite dimension over an algebraically closed field ''F'' of characteristic zero were classified by Killing and Cartan in the 1880s and 1890s, using root systems.", "Namely, every simple Lie algebra is of type A''n'', B''n'', C''n'', D''n'', E6, E7, E8, F4, or G2.Here the simple Lie algebra of type A''n'' is , B''n'' is , C''n'' is , and D''n'' is .", "The other five are known as the exceptional Lie algebras.The classification of finite-dimensional simple Lie algebras over is more complicated, but it was also solved by Cartan (see simple Lie group for an equivalent classification).", "One can analyze a Lie algebra over by considering its complexification .In the years leading up to 2004, the finite-dimensional simple Lie algebras over an algebraically closed field of characteristic were classified by Richard Earl Block, Robert Lee Wilson, Alexander Premet, and Helmut Strade.", "(See restricted Lie algebra#Classification of simple Lie algebras.)", "It turns out that there are many more simple Lie algebras in positive characteristic than in characteristic zero." ], [ "Relation to Lie groups", " The tangent space of a sphere at a point .", "If were the identity element of a Lie group, the tangent space would be a Lie algebra.Although Lie algebras can be studied in their own right, historically they arose as a means to study Lie groups.The relationship between Lie groups and Lie algebras can be summarized as follows.", "Each Lie group determines a Lie algebra over (concretely, the tangent space at the identity).", "Conversely, for every finite-dimensional Lie algebra , there is a connected Lie group with Lie algebra .", "This is Lie's third theorem; see the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formula.", "This Lie group is not determined uniquely; however, any two Lie groups with the same Lie algebra are ''locally isomorphic'', and more strongly, they have the same universal cover.", "For instance, the special orthogonal group SO(3) and the special unitary group SU(2) give rise to the same Lie algebra, which is isomorphic to with the cross product, but SU(2) is a simply connected double cover of SO(3).For ''simply connected'' Lie groups, there is a complete correspondence: taking the Lie algebra gives an equivalence of categories from simply connected Lie groups to Lie algebras of finite dimension over .The correspondence between Lie algebras and Lie groups is used in several ways, including in the classification of Lie groups and the representation theory of Lie groups.", "For finite-dimensional representations, there is an equivalence of categories between representations of a real Lie algebra and representations of the corresponding simply connected Lie group.", "This simplifies the representation theory of Lie groups: it is often easier to classify the representations of a Lie algebra, using linear algebra.Every connected Lie group is isomorphic to its universal cover modulo a discrete central subgroup.", "So classifying Lie groups becomes simply a matter of counting the discrete subgroups of the center, once the Lie algebra is known.", "For example, the real semisimple Lie algebras were classified by Cartan, and so the classification of semisimple Lie groups is well understood.For infinite-dimensional Lie algebras, Lie theory works less well.", "The exponential map need not be a local homeomorphism (for example, in the diffeomorphism group of the circle, there are diffeomorphisms arbitrarily close to the identity that are not in the image of the exponential map).", "Moreover, in terms of the existing notions of infinite-dimensional Lie groups, some infinite-dimensional Lie algebras do not come from any group.Lie theory also does not work so neatly for infinite-dimensional representations of a finite-dimensional group.", "Even for the additive group , an infinite-dimensional representation of can usually not be differentiated to produce a representation of its Lie algebra on the same space, or vice versa.", "The theory of Harish-Chandra modules is a more subtle relation between infinite-dimensional representations for groups and Lie algebras." ], [ "Real form and complexification", "Given a complex Lie algebra , a real Lie algebra is said to be a ''real form'' of if the complexification is isomorphic to .", "A real form need not be unique; for example, has two real forms up to isomorphism, and .Given a semisimple complex Lie algebra , a ''split form'' of it is a real form that splits; i.e., it has a Cartan subalgebra which acts via an adjoint representation with real eigenvalues.", "A split form exists and is unique (up to isomorphism).", "A ''compact form'' is a real form that is the Lie algebra of a compact Lie group.", "A compact form exists and is also unique up to isomorphism." ], [ "Lie algebra with additional structures", "A Lie algebra may be equipped with additional structures that are compatible with the Lie bracket.", "For example, a graded Lie algebra is a Lie algebra (or more generally a Lie superalgebra) with a compatible grading.", "A differential graded Lie algebra also comes with a differential, making the underlying vector space a chain complex.For example, the homotopy groups of a simply connected topological space form a graded Lie algebra, using the Whitehead product.", "In a related construction, Daniel Quillen used differential graded Lie algebras over the rational numbers to describe rational homotopy theory in algebraic terms." ], [ "Lie ring", "The definition of a Lie algebra over a field extends to define a Lie algebra over any commutative ring ''R''.", "Namely, a Lie algebra over ''R'' is an ''R''-module with an alternating ''R''-bilinear map that satisfies the Jacobi identity.", "A Lie algebra over the ring of integers is sometimes called a '''Lie ring'''.", "(This is not directly related to the notion of a Lie group.", ")Lie rings are used in the study of finite p-groups (for a prime number ''p'') through the ''Lazard correspondence''.", "The lower central factors of a finite ''p''-group are finite abelian ''p''-groups.", "The direct sum of the lower central factors is given the structure of a Lie ring by defining the bracket to be the commutator of two coset representatives; see the example below.p-adic Lie groups are related to Lie algebras over the field of p-adic numbers as well as over the ring of p-adic integers.", "Part of Claude Chevalley's construction of the finite groups of Lie type involves showing that a simple Lie algebra over the complex numbers comes from a Lie algebra over the integers, and then (with more care) a group scheme over the integers.=== Examples ===* Here is a construction of Lie rings arising from the study of abstract groups.", "For elements of a group, define the commutator .", "Let be a ''filtration'' of a group , that is, a chain of subgroups such that is contained in for all .", "(For the Lazard correspondence, one takes the filtration to be the lower central series of ''G''.)", "Then:: :is a Lie ring, with addition given by the group multiplication (which is abelian on each quotient group ), and with Lie bracket given by commutators in the group::: :For example, the Lie ring associated to the lower central series on the dihedral group of order 8 is the Heisenberg Lie algebra of dimension 3 over the field ." ], [ "Definition using category-theoretic notation", "The definition of a Lie algebra can be reformulated more abstractly in the language of category theory.", "Namely, one can define a Lie algebra in terms of linear maps—that is, morphisms in the category of vector spaces—without considering individual elements.", "(In this section, the field over which the algebra is defined is assumed to be of characteristic different from 2.", ")For the category-theoretic definition of Lie algebras, two braiding isomorphisms are needed.", "If is a vector space, the ''interchange isomorphism'' is defined by:The ''cyclic-permutation braiding'' is defined as:where is the identity morphism.", "Equivalently, is defined by:With this notation, a Lie algebra can be defined as an object in the category of vector spaces together with a morphism:that satisfies the two morphism equalities:and:" ], [ "See also", "* Affine Lie algebra* Automorphism of a Lie algebra* Gelfand–Fuks cohomology* Index of a Lie algebra* Lie algebra cohomology* Lie algebra extension* Lie algebra representation* Lie bialgebra* Lie coalgebra* Lie operad* Particle physics and representation theory* Lie superalgebra* Orthogonal symmetric Lie algebra* Poisson algebra* Pre-Lie algebra* Quantum groups* Moyal algebra* Quasi-Frobenius Lie algebra* Quasi-Lie algebra* Restricted Lie algebra* Serre relations" ], [ "Remarks" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Lie group" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, a '''Lie group''' (pronounced ) is a group that is also a differentiable manifold.", "A manifold is a space that locally resembles Euclidean space, whereas groups define the abstract concept of a binary operation along with the additional properties it must have to be thought of as a \"transformation\" in the abstract sense, for instance multiplication and the taking of inverses (division), or equivalently, the concept of addition and the taking of inverses (subtraction).", "Combining these two ideas, one obtains a continuous group where multiplying points and their inverses are continuous.", "If the multiplication and taking of inverses are smooth (differentiable) as well, one obtains a Lie group.Lie groups provide a natural model for the concept of continuous symmetry, a celebrated example of which is the rotational symmetry in three dimensions (given by the special orthogonal group ).", "Lie groups are widely used in many parts of modern mathematics and physics.Lie groups were first found by studying matrix subgroups contained in or , the groups of invertible matrices over or .", "These are now called the classical groups, as the concept has been extended far beyond these origins.", "Lie groups are named after Norwegian mathematician Sophus Lie (1842–1899), who laid the foundations of the theory of continuous transformation groups.", "Lie's original motivation for introducing Lie groups was to model the continuous symmetries of differential equations, in much the same way that finite groups are used in Galois theory to model the discrete symmetries of algebraic equations." ], [ "History", "According to the most authoritative source on the early history of Lie groups, Sophus Lie himself considered the winter of 1873–1874 as the birth date of his theory of continuous groups.", "Hawkins, however, suggests that it was \"Lie's prodigious research activity during the four-year period from the fall of 1869 to the fall of 1873\" that led to the theory's creation.", "Some of Lie's early ideas were developed in close collaboration with Felix Klein.", "Lie met with Klein every day from October 1869 through 1872: in Berlin from the end of October 1869 to the end of February 1870, and in Paris, Göttingen and Erlangen in the subsequent two years.", "Lie stated that all of the principal results were obtained by 1884.But during the 1870s all his papers (except the very first note) were published in Norwegian journals, which impeded recognition of the work throughout the rest of Europe.", "In 1884 a young German mathematician, Friedrich Engel, came to work with Lie on a systematic treatise to expose his theory of continuous groups.", "From this effort resulted the three-volume ''Theorie der Transformationsgruppen'', published in 1888, 1890, and 1893.The term ''groupes de Lie'' first appeared in French in 1893 in the thesis of Lie's student Arthur Tresse.Lie's ideas did not stand in isolation from the rest of mathematics.", "In fact, his interest in the geometry of differential equations was first motivated by the work of Carl Gustav Jacobi, on the theory of partial differential equations of first order and on the equations of classical mechanics.", "Much of Jacobi's work was published posthumously in the 1860s, generating enormous interest in France and Germany.", "Lie's ''idée fixe'' was to develop a theory of symmetries of differential equations that would accomplish for them what Évariste Galois had done for algebraic equations: namely, to classify them in terms of group theory.", "Lie and other mathematicians showed that the most important equations for special functions and orthogonal polynomials tend to arise from group theoretical symmetries.", "In Lie's early work, the idea was to construct a theory of ''continuous groups'', to complement the theory of discrete groups that had developed in the theory of modular forms, in the hands of Felix Klein and Henri Poincaré.", "The initial application that Lie had in mind was to the theory of differential equations.", "On the model of Galois theory and polynomial equations, the driving conception was of a theory capable of unifying, by the study of symmetry, the whole area of ordinary differential equations.", "However, the hope that Lie theory would unify the entire field of ordinary differential equations was not fulfilled.", "Symmetry methods for ODEs continue to be studied, but do not dominate the subject.", "There is a differential Galois theory, but it was developed by others, such as Picard and Vessiot, and it provides a theory of quadratures, the indefinite integrals required to express solutions.Additional impetus to consider continuous groups came from ideas of Bernhard Riemann, on the foundations of geometry, and their further development in the hands of Klein.", "Thus three major themes in 19th century mathematics were combined by Lie in creating his new theory: the idea of symmetry, as exemplified by Galois through the algebraic notion of a group; geometric theory and the explicit solutions of differential equations of mechanics, worked out by Poisson and Jacobi; and the new understanding of geometry that emerged in the works of Plücker, Möbius, Grassmann and others, and culminated in Riemann's revolutionary vision of the subject.Although today Sophus Lie is rightfully recognized as the creator of the theory of continuous groups, a major stride in the development of their structure theory, which was to have a profound influence on subsequent development of mathematics, was made by Wilhelm Killing, who in 1888 published the first paper in a series entitled ''Die Zusammensetzung der stetigen endlichen Transformationsgruppen'' (''The composition of continuous finite transformation groups'').", "The work of Killing, later refined and generalized by Élie Cartan, led to classification of semisimple Lie algebras, Cartan's theory of symmetric spaces, and Hermann Weyl's description of representations of compact and semisimple Lie groups using highest weights.In 1900 David Hilbert challenged Lie theorists with his Fifth Problem presented at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris.Weyl brought the early period of the development of the theory of Lie groups to fruition, for not only did he classify irreducible representations of semisimple Lie groups and connect the theory of groups with quantum mechanics, but he also put Lie's theory itself on firmer footing by clearly enunciating the distinction between Lie's ''infinitesimal groups'' (i.e., Lie algebras) and the Lie groups proper, and began investigations of topology of Lie groups.", "The theory of Lie groups was systematically reworked in modern mathematical language in a monograph by Claude Chevalley." ], [ "Overview", "The set of all complex numbers with absolute value 1 (corresponding to points on the circle of center 0 and radius 1 in the complex plane) is a Lie group under complex multiplication: the circle group.Lie groups are smooth differentiable manifolds and as such can be studied using differential calculus, in contrast with the case of more general topological groups.", "One of the key ideas in the theory of Lie groups is to replace the ''global'' object, the group, with its ''local'' or linearized version, which Lie himself called its \"infinitesimal group\" and which has since become known as its Lie algebra.Lie groups play an enormous role in modern geometry, on several different levels.", "Felix Klein argued in his Erlangen program that one can consider various \"geometries\" by specifying an appropriate transformation group that leaves certain geometric properties invariant.", "Thus Euclidean geometry corresponds to the choice of the group E(3) of distance-preserving transformations of the Euclidean space , conformal geometry corresponds to enlarging the group to the conformal group, whereas in projective geometry one is interested in the properties invariant under the projective group.", "This idea later led to the notion of a G-structure, where ''G'' is a Lie group of \"local\" symmetries of a manifold.Lie groups (and their associated Lie algebras) play a major role in modern physics, with the Lie group typically playing the role of a symmetry of a physical system.", "Here, the representations of the Lie group (or of its Lie algebra) are especially important.", "Representation theory is used extensively in particle physics.", "Groups whose representations are of particular importance include the rotation group SO(3) (or its double cover SU(2)), the special unitary group SU(3) and the Poincaré group.On a \"global\" level, whenever a Lie group acts on a geometric object, such as a Riemannian or a symplectic manifold, this action provides a measure of rigidity and yields a rich algebraic structure.", "The presence of continuous symmetries expressed via a Lie group action on a manifold places strong constraints on its geometry and facilitates analysis on the manifold.", "Linear actions of Lie groups are especially important, and are studied in representation theory.In the 1940s–1950s, Ellis Kolchin, Armand Borel, and Claude Chevalley realised that many foundational results concerning Lie groups can be developed completely algebraically, giving rise to the theory of algebraic groups defined over an arbitrary field.", "This insight opened new possibilities in pure algebra, by providing a uniform construction for most finite simple groups, as well as in algebraic geometry.", "The theory of automorphic forms, an important branch of modern number theory, deals extensively with analogues of Lie groups over adele rings; ''p''-adic Lie groups play an important role, via their connections with Galois representations in number theory." ], [ "Definitions and examples", "A '''real Lie group''' is a group that is also a finite-dimensional real smooth manifold, in which the group operations of multiplication and inversion are smooth maps.", "Smoothness of the group multiplication:means that ''μ'' is a smooth mapping of the product manifold into ''G''.", "The two requirements can be combined to the single requirement that the mapping:be a smooth mapping of the product manifold into ''G''.=== First examples ===* The 2×2 real invertible matrices form a group under multiplication, denoted by or by GL2('''R''')::: : This is a four-dimensional noncompact real Lie group; it is an open subset of .", "This group is disconnected; it has two connected components corresponding to the positive and negative values of the determinant.", "* The rotation matrices form a subgroup of , denoted by .", "It is a Lie group in its own right: specifically, a one-dimensional compact connected Lie group which is diffeomorphic to the circle.", "Using the rotation angle as a parameter, this group can be parametrized as follows::: :Addition of the angles corresponds to multiplication of the elements of , and taking the opposite angle corresponds to inversion.", "Thus both multiplication and inversion are differentiable maps.", "* The affine group of one dimension is a two-dimensional matrix Lie group, consisting of real, upper-triangular matrices, with the first diagonal entry being positive and the second diagonal entry being 1.Thus, the group consists of matrices of the form::=== Non-example ===We now present an example of a group with an uncountable number of elements that is not a Lie group under a certain topology.", "The group given by :with a ''fixed'' irrational number, is a subgroup of the torus that is not a Lie group when given the subspace topology.", "If we take any small neighborhood of a point in , for example, the portion of in is disconnected.", "The group winds repeatedly around the torus without ever reaching a previous point of the spiral and thus forms a dense subgroup of .A portion of the group inside .", "Small neighborhoods of the element are disconnected in the subset topology on The group can, however, be given a different topology, in which the distance between two points is defined as the length of the shortest path ''in the group '' joining to .", "In this topology, is identified homeomorphically with the real line by identifying each element with the number in the definition of .", "With this topology, is just the group of real numbers under addition and is therefore a Lie group.The group is an example of a \"Lie subgroup\" of a Lie group that is not closed.", "See the discussion below of Lie subgroups in the section on basic concepts.===Matrix Lie groups===Let denote the group of invertible matrices with entries in .", "Any closed subgroup of is a Lie group; Lie groups of this sort are called '''matrix Lie groups.'''", "Since most of the interesting examples of Lie groups can be realized as matrix Lie groups, some textbooks restrict attention to this class, including those of Hall, Rossmann, and Stillwell.", "Restricting attention to matrix Lie groups simplifies the definition of the Lie algebra and the exponential map.", "The following are standard examples of matrix Lie groups.", "*The special linear groups over and , and , consisting of matrices with determinant one and entries in or *The unitary groups and special unitary groups, and , consisting of complex matrices satisfying (and also in the case of )*The orthogonal groups and special orthogonal groups, and , consisting of real matrices satisfying (and also in the case of )All of the preceding examples fall under the heading of the classical groups.=== Related concepts ===A '''complex Lie group''' is defined in the same way using complex manifolds rather than real ones (example: ), and holomorphic maps.", "Similarly, using an alternate metric completion of , one can define a '''''p''-adic Lie group''' over the ''p''-adic numbers, a topological group which is also an analytic ''p''-adic manifold, such that the group operations are analytic.", "In particular, each point has a ''p''-adic neighborhood.Hilbert's fifth problem asked whether replacing differentiable manifolds with topological or analytic ones can yield new examples.", "The answer to this question turned out to be negative: in 1952, Gleason, Montgomery and Zippin showed that if ''G'' is a topological manifold with continuous group operations, then there exists exactly one analytic structure on ''G'' which turns it into a Lie group (see also Hilbert–Smith conjecture).", "If the underlying manifold is allowed to be infinite-dimensional (for example, a Hilbert manifold), then one arrives at the notion of an infinite-dimensional Lie group.", "It is possible to define analogues of many Lie groups over finite fields, and these give most of the examples of finite simple groups.The language of category theory provides a concise definition for Lie groups: a Lie group is a group object in the category of smooth manifolds.", "This is important, because it allows generalization of the notion of a Lie group to Lie supergroups.", "This categorical point of view leads also to a different generalization of Lie groups, namely Lie groupoids, which are groupoid objects in the category of smooth manifolds with a further requirement.=== Topological definition ===A Lie group can be defined as a (Hausdorff) topological group that, near the identity element, looks like a transformation group, with no reference to differentiable manifolds.", "First, we define an '''immersely linear Lie group''' to be a subgroup ''G'' of the general linear group such that# for some neighborhood ''V'' of the identity element ''e'' in ''G'', the topology on ''V'' is the subspace topology of and ''V'' is closed in .# ''G'' has at most countably many connected components.", "(For example, a closed subgroup of ; that is, a matrix Lie group satisfies the above conditions.", ")Then a ''Lie group'' is defined as a topological group that (1) is locally isomorphic near the identities to an immersely linear Lie group and (2) has at most countably many connected components.", "Showing the topological definition is equivalent to the usual one is technical (and the beginning readers should skip the following) but is done roughly as follows:# Given a Lie group ''G'' in the usual manifold sense, the Lie group–Lie algebra correspondence (or a version of Lie's third theorem) constructs an immersed Lie subgroup such that share the same Lie algebra; thus, they are locally isomorphic.", "Hence, ''G'' satisfies the above topological definition.# Conversely, let ''G'' be a topological group that is a Lie group in the above topological sense and choose an immersely linear Lie group that is locally isomorphic to ''G''.", "Then, by a version of the closed subgroup theorem, is a real-analytic manifold and then, through the local isomorphism, ''G'' acquires a structure of a manifold near the identity element.", "One then shows that the group law on ''G'' can be given by formal power series; so the group operations are real-analytic and ''G'' itself is a real-analytic manifold.The topological definition implies the statement that if two Lie groups are isomorphic as topological groups, then they are isomorphic as Lie groups.", "In fact, it states the general principle that, to a large extent, ''the topology of a Lie group'' together with the group law determines the geometry of the group." ], [ "More examples of Lie groups", "Lie groups occur in abundance throughout mathematics and physics.", "Matrix groups or algebraic groups are (roughly) groups of matrices (for example, orthogonal and symplectic groups), and these give most of the more common examples of Lie groups.===Dimensions one and two===The only connected Lie groups with dimension one are the real line (with the group operation being addition) and the circle group of complex numbers with absolute value one (with the group operation being multiplication).", "The group is often denoted as , the group of unitary matrices.In two dimensions, if we restrict attention to simply connected groups, then they are classified by their Lie algebras.", "There are (up to isomorphism) only two Lie algebras of dimension two.", "The associated simply connected Lie groups are (with the group operation being vector addition) and the affine group in dimension one, described in the previous subsection under \"first examples\".=== Additional examples ===*The group SU(2) is the group of unitary matrices with determinant .", "Topologically, is the -sphere ; as a group, it may be identified with the group of unit quaternions.", "*The Heisenberg group is a connected nilpotent Lie group of dimension , playing a key role in quantum mechanics.", "*The Lorentz group is a 6-dimensional Lie group of linear isometries of the Minkowski space.", "*The Poincaré group is a 10-dimensional Lie group of affine isometries of the Minkowski space.", "*The exceptional Lie groups of types ''G''2, ''F''4, ''E''6, ''E''7, ''E''8 have dimensions 14, 52, 78, 133, and 248.Along with the A-B-C-D series of simple Lie groups, the exceptional groups complete the list of simple Lie groups.", "*The symplectic group consists of all matrices preserving a ''symplectic form'' on .", "It is a connected Lie group of dimension .=== Constructions ===There are several standard ways to form new Lie groups from old ones:*The product of two Lie groups is a Lie group.", "*Any topologically closed subgroup of a Lie group is a Lie group.", "This is known as the Closed subgroup theorem or '''Cartan's theorem'''.", "*The quotient of a Lie group by a closed normal subgroup is a Lie group.", "*The universal cover of a connected Lie group is a Lie group.", "For example, the group is the universal cover of the circle group .", "In fact any covering of a differentiable manifold is also a differentiable manifold, but by specifying ''universal'' cover, one guarantees a group structure (compatible with its other structures).=== Related notions ===Some examples of groups that are ''not'' Lie groups (except in the trivial sense that any group having at most countably many elements can be viewed as a 0-dimensional Lie group, with the discrete topology), are:*Infinite-dimensional groups, such as the additive group of an infinite-dimensional real vector space, or the space of smooth functions from a manifold to a Lie group , .", "These are not Lie groups as they are not ''finite-dimensional'' manifolds.", "*Some totally disconnected groups, such as the Galois group of an infinite extension of fields, or the additive group of the ''p''-adic numbers.", "These are not Lie groups because their underlying spaces are not real manifolds.", "(Some of these groups are \"''p''-adic Lie groups\".)", "In general, only topological groups having similar local properties to '''R'''''n'' for some positive integer ''n'' can be Lie groups (of course they must also have a differentiable structure)." ], [ "Basic concepts", "=== The Lie algebra associated with a Lie group ===To every Lie group we can associate a Lie algebra whose underlying vector space is the tangent space of the Lie group at the identity element and which completely captures the local structure of the group.", "Informally we can think of elements of the Lie algebra as elements of the group that are \"infinitesimally close\" to the identity, and the Lie bracket of the Lie algebra is related to the commutator of two such infinitesimal elements.", "Before giving the abstract definition we give a few examples:* The Lie algebra of the vector space '''R'''''n'' is just '''R'''''n'' with the Lie bracket given by     ''A'', ''B'' = 0.", "(In general the Lie bracket of a connected Lie group is always 0 if and only if the Lie group is abelian.", ")* The Lie algebra of the general linear group GL(''n'', '''C''') of invertible matrices is the vector space M(''n'', '''C''') of square matrices with the Lie bracket given by     ''A'', ''B'' = ''AB'' − ''BA''.", "*If ''G'' is a closed subgroup of GL(''n'', '''C''') then the Lie algebra of ''G'' can be thought of informally as the matrices ''m'' of M(''n'', '''C''') such that 1 + ε''m'' is in ''G'', where ε is an infinitesimal positive number with ε2 = 0 (of course, no such real number ε exists).", "For example, the orthogonal group O(''n'', '''R''') consists of matrices ''A'' with ''AA''T = 1, so the Lie algebra consists of the matrices ''m'' with (1 + ε''m'')(1 + ε''m'')T = 1, which is equivalent to ''m'' + ''m''T = 0 because ε2 = 0.", "*The preceding description can be made more rigorous as follows.", "The Lie algebra of a closed subgroup ''G'' of GL(''n'', '''C'''), may be computed as: where exp(''tX'') is defined using the matrix exponential.", "It can then be shown that the Lie algebra of ''G'' is a real vector space that is closed under the bracket operation, .The concrete definition given above for matrix groups is easy to work with, but has some minor problems: to use it we first need to represent a Lie group as a group of matrices, but not all Lie groups can be represented in this way, and it is not even obvious that the Lie algebra is independent of the representation we use.", "To get around these problems we give the general definition of the Lie algebra of a Lie group (in 4 steps):#Vector fields on any smooth manifold ''M'' can be thought of as derivations ''X'' of the ring of smooth functions on the manifold, and therefore form a Lie algebra under the Lie bracket ''X'', ''Y'' = ''XY'' − ''YX'', because the Lie bracket of any two derivations is a derivation.#If ''G'' is any group acting smoothly on the manifold ''M'', then it acts on the vector fields, and the vector space of vector fields fixed by the group is closed under the Lie bracket and therefore also forms a Lie algebra.#We apply this construction to the case when the manifold ''M'' is the underlying space of a Lie group ''G'', with ''G'' acting on ''G'' = ''M'' by left translations ''Lg''(''h'') = ''gh''.", "This shows that the space of left invariant vector fields (vector fields satisfying ''Lg''*''Xh'' = ''Xgh'' for every ''h'' in ''G'', where ''Lg''* denotes the differential of ''Lg'') on a Lie group is a Lie algebra under the Lie bracket of vector fields.#Any tangent vector at the identity of a Lie group can be extended to a left invariant vector field by left translating the tangent vector to other points of the manifold.", "Specifically, the left invariant extension of an element ''v'' of the tangent space at the identity is the vector field defined by ''v''^''g'' = ''Lg''*''v''.", "This identifies the tangent space ''TeG'' at the identity with the space of left invariant vector fields, and therefore makes the tangent space at the identity into a Lie algebra, called the Lie algebra of ''G'', usually denoted by a Fraktur Thus the Lie bracket on is given explicitly by ''v'', ''w'' = ''v''^, ''w''^''e''.This Lie algebra is finite-dimensional and it has the same dimension as the manifold ''G''.", "The Lie algebra of ''G'' determines ''G'' up to \"local isomorphism\", where two Lie groups are called '''locally isomorphic''' if they look the same near the identity element.Problems about Lie groups are often solved by first solving the corresponding problem for the Lie algebras, and the result for groups then usually follows easily.", "For example, simple Lie groups are usually classified by first classifying the corresponding Lie algebras.We could also define a Lie algebra structure on ''Te'' using right invariant vector fields instead of left invariant vector fields.", "This leads to the same Lie algebra, because the inverse map on ''G'' can be used to identify left invariant vector fields with right invariant vector fields, and acts as −1 on the tangent space ''Te''.The Lie algebra structure on ''Te'' can also be described as follows:the commutator operation: (''x'', ''y'') → ''xyx''−1''y''−1on ''G'' × ''G'' sends (''e'', ''e'') to ''e'', so its derivative yields a bilinear operation on ''TeG''.", "This bilinear operation is actually the zero map, but the second derivative, under the proper identification of tangent spaces, yields an operation that satisfies the axioms of a Lie bracket, and it is equal to twice the one defined through left-invariant vector fields.=== Homomorphisms and isomorphisms ===If ''G'' and ''H'' are Lie groups, then a Lie group homomorphism ''f'' : ''G'' → ''H'' is a smooth group homomorphism.", "In the case of complex Lie groups, such a homomorphism is required to be a holomorphic map.", "However, these requirements are a bit stringent; every continuous homomorphism between real Lie groups turns out to be (real) analytic.The composition of two Lie homomorphisms is again a homomorphism, and the class of all Lie groups, together with these morphisms, forms a category.", "Moreover, every Lie group homomorphism induces a homomorphism between the corresponding Lie algebras.", "Let be a Lie group homomorphism and let be its derivative at the identity.", "If we identify the Lie algebras of ''G'' and ''H'' with their tangent spaces at the identity elements, then is a map between the corresponding Lie algebras::which turns out to be a Lie algebra homomorphism (meaning that it is a linear map which preserves the Lie bracket).", "In the language of category theory, we then have a covariant functor from the category of Lie groups to the category of Lie algebras which sends a Lie group to its Lie algebra and a Lie group homomorphism to its derivative at the identity.Two Lie groups are called ''isomorphic'' if there exists a bijective homomorphism between them whose inverse is also a Lie group homomorphism.", "Equivalently, it is a diffeomorphism which is also a group homomorphism.", "Observe that, by the above, a continuous homomorphism from a Lie group to a Lie group is an isomorphism of Lie groups if and only if it is bijective.===Lie group versus Lie algebra isomorphisms===Isomorphic Lie groups necessarily have isomorphic Lie algebras; it is then reasonable to ask how isomorphism classes of Lie groups relate to isomorphism classes of Lie algebras.The first result in this direction is Lie's third theorem, which states that every finite-dimensional, real Lie algebra is the Lie algebra of some (linear) Lie group.", "One way to prove Lie's third theorem is to use Ado's theorem, which says every finite-dimensional real Lie algebra is isomorphic to a matrix Lie algebra.", "Meanwhile, for every finite-dimensional matrix Lie algebra, there is a linear group (matrix Lie group) with this algebra as its Lie algebra.On the other hand, Lie groups with isomorphic Lie algebras need not be isomorphic.", "Furthermore, this result remains true even if we assume the groups are connected.", "To put it differently, the ''global'' structure of a Lie group is not determined by its Lie algebra; for example, if ''Z'' is any discrete subgroup of the center of ''G'' then ''G'' and ''G''/''Z'' have the same Lie algebra (see the table of Lie groups for examples).", "An example of importance in physics are the groups SU(2) and SO(3).", "These two groups have isomorphic Lie algebras, but the groups themselves are not isomorphic, because SU(2) is simply connected but SO(3) is not.On the other hand, if we require that the Lie group be simply connected, then the global structure is determined by its Lie algebra: two simply connected Lie groups with isomorphic Lie algebras are isomorphic.", "(See the next subsection for more information about simply connected Lie groups.)", "In light of Lie's third theorem, we may therefore say that there is a one-to-one correspondence between isomorphism classes of finite-dimensional real Lie algebras and isomorphism classes of simply connected Lie groups.===Simply connected Lie groups===A Lie group is said to be '''simply connected''' if every loop in can be shrunk continuously to a point in .", "This notion is important because of the following result that has simple connectedness as a hypothesis::'''Theorem''': Suppose and are Lie groups with Lie algebras and and that is a Lie algebra homomorphism.", "If is simply connected, then there is a unique Lie group homomorphism such that , where is the differential of at the identity.Lie's third theorem says that every finite-dimensional real Lie algebra is the Lie algebra of a Lie group.", "It follows from Lie's third theorem and the preceding result that every finite-dimensional real Lie algebra is the Lie algebra of a ''unique'' simply connected Lie group.An example of a simply connected group is the special unitary group SU(2), which as a manifold is the 3-sphere.", "The rotation group SO(3), on the other hand, is not simply connected.", "(See Topology of SO(3).)", "The failure of SO(3) to be simply connected is intimately connected to the distinction between integer spin and half-integer spin in quantum mechanics.", "Other examples of simply connected Lie groups include the special unitary group SU(n), the spin group (double cover of rotation group) Spin(n) for , and the compact symplectic group Sp(n).Methods for determining whether a Lie group is simply connected or not are discussed in the article on fundamental groups of Lie groups.===The exponential map===The exponential map from the Lie algebra of the general linear group to is defined by the matrix exponential, given by the usual power series::for matrices .", "If is a closed subgroup of , then the exponential map takes the Lie algebra of into ; thus, we have an exponential map for all matrix groups.", "Every element of that is sufficiently close to the identity is the exponential of a matrix in the Lie algebra.The definition above is easy to use, but it is not defined for Lie groups that are not matrix groups, and it is not clear that the exponential map of a Lie group does not depend on its representation as a matrix group.", "We can solve both problems using a more abstract definition of the exponential map that works for all Lie groups, as follows.For each vector in the Lie algebra of (i.e., the tangent space to at the identity), one proves that there is a unique one-parameter subgroup such that .", "Saying that is a one-parameter subgroup means simply that is a smooth map into and that :for all and .", "The operation on the right hand side is the group multiplication in .", "The formal similarity of this formula with the one valid for the exponential function justifies the definition:This is called the '''exponential map''', and it maps the Lie algebra into the Lie group .", "It provides a diffeomorphism between a neighborhood of 0 in and a neighborhood of in .", "This exponential map is a generalization of the exponential function for real numbers (because is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of positive real numbers with multiplication), for complex numbers (because is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of non-zero complex numbers with multiplication) and for matrices (because with the regular commutator is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of all invertible matrices).Because the exponential map is surjective on some neighbourhood of , it is common to call elements of the Lie algebra '''infinitesimal generators''' of the group .", "The subgroup of generated by is the identity component of .The exponential map and the Lie algebra determine the ''local group structure'' of every connected Lie group, because of the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formula: there exists a neighborhood of the zero element of , such that for we have:where the omitted terms are known and involve Lie brackets of four or more elements.", "In case and commute, this formula reduces to the familiar exponential law The exponential map relates Lie group homomorphisms.", "That is, if is a Lie group homomorphism and the induced map on the corresponding Lie algebras, then for all we have:In other words, the following diagram commutes,center(In short, exp is a natural transformation from the functor Lie to the identity functor on the category of Lie groups.", ")The exponential map from the Lie algebra to the Lie group is not always onto, even if the group is connected (though it does map onto the Lie group for connected groups that are either compact or nilpotent).", "For example, the exponential map of is not surjective.", "Also, the exponential map is neither surjective nor injective for infinite-dimensional (see below) Lie groups modelled on ''C''∞ Fréchet space, even from arbitrary small neighborhood of 0 to corresponding neighborhood of 1.=== Lie subgroup ===A '''Lie subgroup''' of a Lie group is a Lie group that is a subset of and such that the inclusion map from to is an injective immersion and group homomorphism.", "According to Cartan's theorem, a closed subgroup of admits a unique smooth structure which makes it an embedded Lie subgroup of —i.e.", "a Lie subgroup such that the inclusion map is a smooth embedding.Examples of non-closed subgroups are plentiful; for example take to be a torus of dimension 2 or greater, and let be a one-parameter subgroup of ''irrational slope'', i.e.", "one that winds around in ''G''.", "Then there is a Lie group homomorphism with .", "The closure of will be a sub-torus in .The exponential map gives a one-to-one correspondence between the connected Lie subgroups of a connected Lie group and the subalgebras of the Lie algebra of .", "Typically, the subgroup corresponding to a subalgebra is not a closed subgroup.", "There is no criterion solely based on the structure of which determines which subalgebras correspond to closed subgroups." ], [ "Representations", "One important aspect of the study of Lie groups is their representations, that is, the way they can act (linearly) on vector spaces.", "In physics, Lie groups often encode the symmetries of a physical system.", "The way one makes use of this symmetry to help analyze the system is often through representation theory.", "Consider, for example, the time-independent Schrödinger equation in quantum mechanics, .", "Assume the system in question has the rotation group SO(3) as a symmetry, meaning that the Hamiltonian operator commutes with the action of SO(3) on the wave function .", "(One important example of such a system is the Hydrogen atom, which has a single spherical orbital.)", "This assumption does not necessarily mean that the solutions are rotationally invariant functions.", "Rather, it means that the ''space'' of solutions to is invariant under rotations (for each fixed value of ).", "This space, therefore, constitutes a representation of SO(3).", "These representations have been classified and the classification leads to a substantial simplification of the problem, essentially converting a three-dimensional partial differential equation to a one-dimensional ordinary differential equation.The case of a connected compact Lie group ''K'' (including the just-mentioned case of SO(3)) is particularly tractable.", "In that case, every finite-dimensional representation of ''K'' decomposes as a direct sum of irreducible representations.", "The irreducible representations, in turn, were classified by Hermann Weyl.", "The classification is in terms of the \"highest weight\" of the representation.", "The classification is closely related to the classification of representations of a semisimple Lie algebra.One can also study (in general infinite-dimensional) unitary representations of an arbitrary Lie group (not necessarily compact).", "For example, it is possible to give a relatively simple explicit description of the representations of the group SL(2,R) and the representations of the Poincaré group." ], [ "Classification", "Lie groups may be thought of as smoothly varying families of symmetries.", "Examples of symmetries include rotation about an axis.", "What must be understood is the nature of 'small' transformations, for example, rotations through tiny angles, that link nearby transformations.", "The mathematical object capturing this structure is called a Lie algebra (Lie himself called them \"infinitesimal groups\").", "It can be defined because Lie groups are smooth manifolds, so have tangent spaces at each point.The Lie algebra of any compact Lie group (very roughly: one for which the symmetries form a bounded set) can be decomposed as a direct sum of an abelian Lie algebra and some number of simple ones.", "The structure of an abelian Lie algebra is mathematically uninteresting (since the Lie bracket is identically zero); the interest is in the simple summands.", "Hence the question arises: what are the simple Lie algebras of compact groups?", "It turns out that they mostly fall into four infinite families, the \"classical Lie algebras\" A''n'', B''n'', C''n'' and D''n'', which have simple descriptions in terms of symmetries of Euclidean space.", "But there are also just five \"exceptional Lie algebras\" that do not fall into any of these families.", "E8 is the largest of these.Lie groups are classified according to their algebraic properties (simple, semisimple, solvable, nilpotent, abelian), their connectedness (connected or simply connected) and their compactness.A first key result is the Levi decomposition, which says that every simply connected Lie group is the semidirect product of a solvable normal subgroup and a semisimple subgroup.", "*Connected compact Lie groups are all known: they are finite central quotients of a product of copies of the circle group '''S'''1 and simple compact Lie groups (which correspond to connected Dynkin diagrams).", "*Any simply connected solvable Lie group is isomorphic to a closed subgroup of the group of invertible upper triangular matrices of some rank, and any finite-dimensional irreducible representation of such a group is 1-dimensional.", "Solvable groups are too messy to classify except in a few small dimensions.", "*Any simply connected nilpotent Lie group is isomorphic to a closed subgroup of the group of invertible upper triangular matrices with 1's on the diagonal of some rank, and any finite-dimensional irreducible representation of such a group is 1-dimensional.", "Like solvable groups, nilpotent groups are too messy to classify except in a few small dimensions.", "*Simple Lie groups are sometimes defined to be those that are simple as abstract groups, and sometimes defined to be connected Lie groups with a simple Lie algebra.", "For example, SL(2, '''R''') is simple according to the second definition but not according to the first.", "They have all been classified (for either definition).", "*Semisimple Lie groups are Lie groups whose Lie algebra is a product of simple Lie algebras.", "They are central extensions of products of simple Lie groups.The identity component of any Lie group is an open normal subgroup, and the quotient group is a discrete group.", "The universal cover of any connected Lie group is a simply connected Lie group, and conversely any connected Lie group is a quotient of a simply connected Lie group by a discrete normal subgroup of the center.", "Any Lie group ''G'' can be decomposed into discrete, simple, and abelian groups in a canonical way as follows.", "Write :''G''con for the connected component of the identity:''G''sol for the largest connected normal solvable subgroup:''G''nil for the largest connected normal nilpotent subgroupso that we have a sequence of normal subgroups:.Then:''G''/''G''con is discrete:''G''con/''G''sol is a central extension of a product of simple connected Lie groups.", ":''G''sol/''G''nil is abelian.", "A connected abelian Lie group is isomorphic to a product of copies of '''R''' and the circle group ''S''1.", ":''G''nil/1 is nilpotent, and therefore its ascending central series has all quotients abelian.This can be used to reduce some problems about Lie groups (such as finding their unitary representations) to the same problems for connected simple groups and nilpotent and solvable subgroups of smaller dimension.", "* The diffeomorphism group of a Lie group acts transitively on the Lie group* Every Lie group is parallelizable, and hence an orientable manifold (there is a bundle isomorphism between its tangent bundle and the product of itself with the tangent space at the identity)" ], [ "Infinite-dimensional Lie groups", "Lie groups are often defined to be finite-dimensional, but there are many groups that resemble Lie groups, except for being infinite-dimensional.", "The simplest way to define infinite-dimensional Lie groups is to model them locally on Banach spaces (as opposed to Euclidean space in the finite-dimensional case), and in this case much of the basic theory is similar to that of finite-dimensional Lie groups.", "However this is inadequate for many applications, because many natural examples of infinite-dimensional Lie groups are not Banach manifolds.", "Instead one needs to define Lie groups modeled on more general locally convex topological vector spaces.", "In this case the relation between the Lie algebra and the Lie group becomes rather subtle, and several results about finite-dimensional Lie groups no longer hold.The literature is not entirely uniform in its terminology as to exactly which properties of infinite-dimensional groups qualify the group for the prefix ''Lie'' in ''Lie group''.", "On the Lie algebra side of affairs, things are simpler since the qualifying criteria for the prefix ''Lie'' in ''Lie algebra'' are purely algebraic.", "For example, an infinite-dimensional Lie algebra may or may not have a corresponding Lie group.", "That is, there may be a group corresponding to the Lie algebra, but it might not be nice enough to be called a Lie group, or the connection between the group and the Lie algebra might not be nice enough (for example, failure of the exponential map to be onto a neighborhood of the identity).", "It is the \"nice enough\" that is not universally defined.Some of the examples that have been studied include:*The group of diffeomorphisms of a manifold.", "Quite a lot is known about the group of diffeomorphisms of the circle.", "Its Lie algebra is (more or less) the Witt algebra, whose central extension the Virasoro algebra (see Virasoro algebra from Witt algebra for a derivation of this fact) is the symmetry algebra of two-dimensional conformal field theory.", "Diffeomorphism groups of compact manifolds of larger dimension are regular Fréchet Lie groups; very little about their structure is known.", "*The diffeomorphism group of spacetime sometimes appears in attempts to quantize gravity.", "*The group of smooth maps from a manifold to a finite-dimensional Lie group is an example of a gauge group (with operation of pointwise multiplication), and is used in quantum field theory and Donaldson theory.", "If the manifold is a circle these are called loop groups, and have central extensions whose Lie algebras are (more or less) Kac–Moody algebras.", "*There are infinite-dimensional analogues of general linear groups, orthogonal groups, and so on.", "One important aspect is that these may have ''simpler'' topological properties: see for example Kuiper's theorem.", "In M-theory, for example, a 10-dimensional SU(''N'') gauge theory becomes an 11-dimensional theory when ''N'' becomes infinite." ], [ "See also", "*Adjoint representation of a Lie group*Haar measure*Homogeneous space*List of Lie group topics*Representations of Lie groups*Symmetry in quantum mechanics*Lie point symmetry, about the application of Lie groups to the study of differential equations." ], [ "Notes", "===Explanatory notes======Citations===" ], [ "References", "* .", "* * * .", "Chapters 1–3 , Chapters 4–6 , Chapters 7–9 * .", "* * * * * .", "* * Borel's review* * .", "* .", "* * * .", "The 2003 reprint corrects several typographical mistakes.", "* * .", "* .", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "** Journal of Lie Theory" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lake Erie" ], [ "Introduction", " The Great Lakes, with Lake Erie highlighted in darker blue '''Lake Erie''' ( ) is the fourth-largest lake by surface area of the five Great Lakes in North America and the eleventh-largest globally.", "It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and also has the shortest average water residence time.", "At its deepest point Lake Erie is deep, making it the only Great Lake whose deepest point is above sea level.Situated on the International Boundary between Canada and the United States, Lake Erie's northern shore is the Canadian province of Ontario, specifically the Ontario Peninsula, with the U.S. states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York on its western, southern, and eastern shores.", "These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake with water boundaries.", "The largest city on the lake is Cleveland, anchoring the third largest U.S. metro area in the Great Lakes region, after Greater Chicago and Metro Detroit.", "Other major cities along the lake shore include Buffalo, New York; Erie, Pennsylvania; and Toledo, Ohio.Situated below Lake Huron, Erie's primary inlet is the Detroit River.", "The main natural outflow from the lake is via the Niagara River, which provides hydroelectric power to Canada and the U.S. as it spins huge turbines near Niagara Falls at Lewiston, New York, and Queenston, Ontario.", "Some outflow occurs via the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway, which diverts water for ship passages from Port Colborne, Ontario, on Lake Erie, to St. Catharines on Lake Ontario, an elevation difference of .", "Lake Erie's environmental health has been an ongoing concern for decades, with issues such as overfishing, pollution, algae blooms, and eutrophication generating headlines." ], [ "Geography", "Lake Erie on May 28, 2022, taken from the International Space StationNorth shore in mid-December 2014===Geographic features===Lake Erie (42.2° N, 81.2W) has a mean elevation of above sea level.", "It has a surface area of with a length of and breadth of at its widest points.", "It is the shallowest of the Great Lakes with an average depth of 10 fathoms 3 feet or and a maximum depth of Because Erie is the shallowest, it is also the warmest of the Great Lakes, and in 1999 this almost became a problem for two nuclear power plants which require cool lake water to keep their reactors cool.", "The warm summer of 1999 caused lake temperatures to come close to the limit necessary to keep the plants cool.", "Also because of its shallowness, it is the first to freeze in the winter.", "The shallowest section of Lake Erie is the western basin where depths average only ; as a result, \"the slightest breeze can kick up lively waves\", also known as seiches.", "The \"waves build very quickly\", according to other accounts.", "The region around the lake is known as the \"thunderstorm capital of Canada\" with \"breathtaking\" lightning displays.", "Sometimes fierce waves springing up unexpectedly have led to dramatic rescues; in one instance, a Cleveland resident trying to measure the dock near his house became trapped but was rescued by a fire department diver from Avon Lake, Ohio:Lake Erie is primarily fed by the Detroit River (from Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair) and drains via the Niagara River and Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario.", "Navigation downstream is provided by the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway.", "Other major contributors to Lake Erie include Grand River, Huron River, Maumee River, Sandusky River, Cuyahoga River, and Buffalo River.", "The drainage basin covers .Point Pelee National Park, the southernmost point of the Canadian mainland, is located on a peninsula extending into the lake.", "Lake Erie has 31 islands (13 in Canada, 18 in the U.S.), located generally in the western side of the lake.", "The largest of these is Pelee Island.Partial map of the Lake Erie Islands ===Water levels===Lake Erie has a lake retention time of 2.6 years, the shortest of all the Great Lakes.", "The lake's surface area is .", "Lake Erie's water level fluctuates with the seasons as in the other Great Lakes.", "Generally, the lowest levels are in January and February and the highest in June or July, although there have been exceptions.", "The average yearly level varies depending on long-term precipitation.", "Short-term level changes are often caused by seiches that are particularly high when southwesterly winds blow across the length of the lake during storms.", "These cause water to pile up at the eastern end of the lake.", "Storm-driven seiches can cause damage onshore.", "During one storm in November 2003, the water level at Buffalo rose by with waves of for a rise of .", "Meanwhile, at the western end of the lake, Toledo experienced a similar drop in water level.", "* '''Historic High Water'''.", "In the summer of 1986, Lake Erie reached its highest level at above the datum.", "The high water records were set from April 1986 through January 1987.Levels ranged from above the datum.", "* '''Historic Low Water'''.", "In the winter of 1934, Lake Erie reached its lowest level at below the datum.", "Monthly low water records were set from July 1934 through June 1935.During this twelve-month period water levels ranged from below the datum to even with the datum." ], [ "Geology", "Lake Erie was carved out by glacier ice and in its current form is less than 4,000 years old, which is a short span in geological terms.", "Before this, the land on which the lake now sits went through several complex stages.", "A large lowland basin formed over two million years ago as a result of an eastern flowing river that existed well before the Pleistocene ice ages.", "This ancient drainage system was destroyed by the first major glacier in the area, while it deepened and enlarged the lowland areas, allowing water to settle and form a lake.", "The glaciers were able to carve away more land on the eastern side of the lowland because the bedrock is made of shale which is softer than the carbonate rocks of dolomite and limestone on the western side.", "Thus, the eastern and central basins of the modern lake are much deeper than the western basin, which averages only deep and is rich in nutrients and fish.", "Lake Erie is the shallowest of the Great Lakes because the ice was relatively thin and lacked erosion power when it reached that far south, according to one view.As many as three glaciers advanced and retreated over the land, causing temporary lakes to form in the time periods in between each of them.", "Because each lake had a different volume of water, their shorelines rested at differing elevations.", "The last of these lakes to form, Lake Warren, existed between about 13,000 and 12,000 years ago.", "It was deeper than the current Lake Erie, and its shoreline existed about inland from the modern one.", "The shorelines of these lakes left behind high ground sand ridges that cut through swamps and were used as trails for Native peoples and later, pioneers.", "These trails became primitive roads which were eventually paved.", "U.S. Route 30 west of Delphos, Ohio, and U.S. Route 20 west of Norwalk and east of Cleveland were formed in this manner.", "The ancient sand dunes are visible in the Oak Openings Region in Northwest Ohio.", "There, the sandy dry lake bed soil was not sufficient to support large trees with the exception of a few species of oaks, forming a rare oak savanna." ], [ "History", "===Indigenous peoples===At the time of European contact, there were several Indigenous peoples living around the shores of the eastern end of the lake.", "The Erie tribe (from whom the lake takes its name) lived along the southern edge, while the Neutrals (also known as Attawandaron) lived along the northern shore.", "The tribal name \"erie\" is a shortened form of the Iroquoian word , meaning \"long tail\".", "The name may also come from the word ''eri'', meaning \"cherry tree\".", "Near Port Stanley, there is an Indigenous village dating from the 16th century known as the ''Southwold Earthworks'' where as many as 800 Neutral Indigenous peoples once lived; the archaeological remains include double earth walls winding around the grass-covered perimeter.", "Europeans named the tribe the ''Neutral Indians'' since these people refused to fight with other tribes.Both the Erie and Neutrals were colonized and assimilated by their hostile eastern neighbors, the Iroquois Confederacy, between 1651 and 1657 during the Beaver Wars.", "For decades after those wars, the land around eastern Lake Erie was claimed and utilized by the Iroquois as a hunting ground.", "As the power of the Iroquois waned during the last quarter of the 17th century, several other, mainly Anishinaabe, displaced them from the territories they claimed on the north shore of the lake.", "There was a legend of an Indigenous woman named Huldah, who, despairing over her lost British lover, hurled herself from a high rock from Pelee Island.===European exploration and settlement===Map showing Lake Erie, 1754''Walk in Water'', built in Buffalo, was the first steamship on Lake Erie.", "Picture .In 1669, Frenchman Louis Jolliet was the first documented European to sight Lake Erie, although there is speculation that Étienne Brûlé may have come across it in 1615.Lake Erie was the last of the Great Lakes to be explored by Europeans, since the Iroquois who occupied the Niagara River area were in conflict with the French, and they did not allow explorers or traders to pass through; explorers followed rivers out of Lake Ontario and portaged to Lake Huron.", "British authorities in Canada were nervous about possible expansion by American settlers across Lake Erie, so Colonel Thomas Talbot developed the Talbot Trail in 1809 as a way to stimulate settlement to the area; Talbot recruited settlers from Ireland and Scotland, and there are numerous places named after him in southern Ontario, such as Port Talbot, the Talbot River, and Talbotville.", "''Battle of Lake Erie'' (1865) by William H. Powell depicts US Navy commander Oliver Hazard PerryDuring the War of 1812, Oliver Hazard Perry captured an entire British fleet in 1813 near Put-in-Bay, Ohio, despite having inferior numbers.", "American soldiers swept through the Ontario area around Port Rowan burning towns and villages.", "Generally, however, with the exceptions of the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812—which involved conflicts between the U.S. and the United Kingdom—relations between the U.S. and Canada have been remarkably friendly with an \"unfortified boundary\" and an agreement \"that has kept all fleets of war off the Great Lakes.", "\"In 1837, rebellions broke about between Canadian settlers and the British Colonial government.", "These primarily concerned political reforms and land allocation issues.", "Some of the rebels stationed themselves in the U.S. and crossed the ice from Sandusky Bay to Pelee Island wearing \"tattered overcoats and worn-out boots\", and carrying muskets, pitchforks, and swords, but the islanders had already fled.", "Later, there was a battle on the ice with the Royal 32nd Regiment, with the rebels being driven to retreat.Lorain lighthouse.Settlers established commercial fisheries on the north coast of the lake around the 1850s.", "An important business was fishing.", "In the pre-Civil War years, railways sprouted everywhere, and around 1852 there were railways circling the lake.", "Maritime traffic picked up, although the lake was usually closed because of ice from December to early April, and ships had to wait for the ice to clear before proceeding.", "Since slavery had been abolished in Canada in 1833 but was still legal in southern U.S., a Lake Erie crossing was sometimes required for fugitive slaves seeking freedom:Prior to modern radar and weather forecasting, merchant ships were often caught up in intense gales:There were reports of disasters usually from sea captains passing information to reporters; in 1868, the captain of the ''Grace Whitney'' saw a sunken vessel with \"three men clinging to the masthead,\" but he could not help because of the gale and high seas.A balloonist named John Steiner of Philadelphia made an ambitious trip across the lake in 1857.His voyage was described in ''The New York Times'':In 1885, lake winds were so strong that water levels dropped substantially, sometimes by as much as two feet, so that at ports such as Toledo, watercraft could not load coal or depart the port.", "During the history of the lake as a fishery, there has been marked battling by opposing interest groups:View from Perry's Victory and International Peace Memorial at Put-in-Bay, OhioLake Erie historical map, 1901Predictions of the lake being over-fished in 1895 were premature, since the fishery has survived commercial and sport fishing, pollution in the middle of the 20th century, invasive species and other ailments, but state and provincial governments, as well as national governments, have played a greater role as time went by.", "Business boomed; in 1901, the Carnegie Company proposed building a new harbor near Erie, Pennsylvania, in Elk Creek to accommodate shipments from its tube-plant site nearby.", "In 1913, a memorial to Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry was built on Put-in-Bay island featuring a Doric column.Steamships have operated on Lake Erie since the early 1800s.", "Large, opulent cruise liners carried passengers between Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo and other cities on the lake until the rise of the automobile in the 1950s drastically cut demand for their services.", "The Detroit and Cleveland Navigation company was one of the largest and most renowned of these companies.During the Prohibition years from 1919 to 1933, a \"great deal of alcohol crossed Erie\" along with \"mobster corpses\" dumped into the Detroit River which sometimes washed up on the beaches of Pelee Island.", "Notable rum runners included Thomas Joseph McGinty and the Purple Gang.", "The Coast Guard attempted to interdict the Canadian liquor with its Rum Patrol, and a casino operated on Middle Island.During the 20th century, commercial fishing was prevalent but so was the boom in manufacturing industry around the lake, and often rivers and streams were used as sewers to flush untreated sewage which ended up in the lake.", "Sometimes poorly constructed sanitary systems meant that when old pipes broke, raw sewage would spill directly into the Cuyahoga River and into the lake.", "A report in ''Time'' magazine in 1969 described the lake as a \"gigantic cesspool\" since only three of 62 beaches were rated \"completely safe for swimming\".By 1975 the popular commercial fish blue pike had been declared extinct, although the declaration may have been premature.", "By the 1980s, there were about 130 fishing vessels with about 3,000 workers, but commercial fishing was declining rapidly, particularly from the American side.===Great Lakes Compact===In 2005, the Great Lakes states of Ohio, Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Minnesota and the Canadian Provinces of Ontario and Quebec endorsed the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Compact.", "It was signed into law by President George W. Bush in September 2008.An international water-rights policy overseen by the Great Lakes Commission, the compact aims to prevent diversion of water from Great Lakes to distant states, as well as to set standards for use and conservation.", "It had support from both political parties, including United States Senator George Voinovich of Ohio and Governor Jennifer Granholm of Michigan, but is not popular in the southwestern states because of frequent drought conditions and water scarcity." ], [ "Lake environment", "===Climate=======Lake Erie in winter====Cold air travels over warm lake water.", "The air becomes warmer, moister, less dense, so that it rises; when it passes over land, the reduced airspace causes the air to \"pile up\" resulting in \"frictional convergence.\"", "This lifts the air even further to where it cools, turning into droplets or snowflakes.", "The result is enhanced snowfall.Lake Erie in winterLike the other Great Lakes, Erie produces lake-effect snow when the first cold winds of winter pass over the warm waters.", "When the temperatures of the relatively warm surface water and the colder air separate to at least to apart, then \"lake-effect snow becomes possible:\"Heavy lake-effect snowfalls can occur when cold air travels or longer over a large unfrozen lake.", "Lake-effect snow makes Buffalo and Erie the eleventh and thirteenth snowiest cities in the entire United States respectively, according to data collected from the National Climatic Data Center.", "Since winds blow primarily west to east along the main axis of the lake, lake-effect snowstorms are more pronounced on the eastern parts of the lake.", "Buffalo typically gets of snow each winter and sometimes of snow; the snowiest city is Syracuse, New York, which can receive heavy snowfall from both the lake effect process and large coastal cyclones.", "A storm around Christmas in 2001 pounded Buffalo with of snow.Lake Erie in winterThe effects of the warmer lake water is reduced when the lake freezes over.", "In January 2011, for example, residents of Cleveland were glad when Lake Erie was \"90 percent frozen\" since it meant that the area had \"made it over the hump\" in terms of enduring repeated snowfalls which required much shoveling.", "Being the shallowest of the Great Lakes, it is the most likely to freeze and frequently does.", "In contrast, Lake Michigan has never completely frozen over since the warmer and deeper portion is in the south, although it came close to being totally frozen during three harsh winters over the past century.", "In past years, lake ice was so thick that it was possible to drive over it or go sailing on iceboats.", "Many lake residents take advantage of the ice and travel; some drive to Canada and back:====Windy conditions====Strong winds have caused lake currents to shift sediment on the bottom, leading to shifting sandbars that have been the cause of shipwrecks.", "But winds can have a peaceful purpose as well; there have been proposals to place electricity–producing wind turbines in windy and shallow points in the lake and along the coast.", "Steel Winds, a former steel mill site in Buffalo, has been developed as an urban wind farm housing 14 turbines capable of generating up to 35 megawatts of electricity.", "A plan by Samsung to build an offshore wind farm on the north shore of the lake, from Port Maitland to Nanticoke for a distance of , has been met with opposition from residents.", "Canadians near Leamington and Kingsville have organized protest groups to thwart attempts to bring wind turbines to the lake; reasons against the turbines include spoiling lake views.", "Plans to install turbines in Pigeon Bay, south of Leamington were met with opposition as well.", "The notion that bird and bat migration may be hurt by the wind turbines has been used to argue against the wind turbines as well.====Microclimates====The lake is responsible for microclimates that are important to agriculture.", "Along its north shore is one of the richest areas of Canada's fruit and vegetable production; this southernmost tip, particularly in the area around Leamington, is known as Canada's \"tomato capital\".", "The area around Port Rowan has special trees that grow because of the \"tempering effect of the lake\", and species include tulip trees, dogwood, sassafras, and sour gum.", "This area's many greenhouses produce a \"variety of tropical plants rarely cultivated so far north\", including some species of cacti, because of the lake's tempering effect.", "Along the southeastern shore of Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York is an important grape-growing region, as are the islands in the lake.", "Apple orchards are abundant in northeast Ohio to western New York.====Long-term weather patterns====According to one estimate, of water evaporate each year from the surface of the lake, which allows for rainfall and other precipitation in surrounding areas.", "Reports are conflicting about the overall effect of global warming on the Great Lakes region, including Lake Erie.", "One account suggests that climate change is causing greater evaporation of lake water, leading to warmer temperatures, as well as thinner or nonexistent ice in winter, which is fueling concerns that \"Erie appears to be shrinking\" and is the most likely candidate among the five Great Lakes to \"turn into a festering mud puddle.\"", "In 2010, the ''Windsor Star'' reported that the lake experienced record-breaking water temperatures, reaching in mid-August and compared the lake to a \"bath tub\".===Ecosystems===coal-fired power plant in Avon Lake, Ohio, located on Lake ErieLake Erie has a complex ecosystem with many species in interaction.", "Human activity, such as pollution and maritime ship traffic, can affect this environment in numerous ways.", "The interactions between new species can sometimes have beneficial effects, as well as harmful effects.", "Some introductions have been seen as beneficial such as the introduction of Pacific salmon.", "Occasionally there have been mass die-offs of certain species of fish, sometimes for reasons unknown, such as many numbers of rainbow smelt in May 2010.====Invasive species====The lake has been plagued with a number of invasive species, including zebra and quagga mussels, the goby, and the grass carp.", "One estimate was that 180 invasive species are in the Great Lakes, some having traveled in ballast water in international ships.", "Zebra mussels and gobies have been credited with the increased population and size of smallmouth bass in Lake Erie.", "In 2008, concerns arose that the \"newest invader swarming in the Great Lakes\", the bloody-red shrimp, might harm fish populations and promote algal blooms.Environmentalists and biologists study lake conditions via installations such as the Franz Theodore Stone Laboratory on Gibraltar Island.", "The lab, which was established in 1895, is the oldest biological field station in the United States.", "Stone Laboratory was donated to the Ohio State University by Julius Stone in 1925 as part of the university's Ohio Sea Grant College program.", "The Great Lakes Institute of the University of Windsor has experts who study issues such as lake sediment pollution and the flow of contaminants such as phosphorus.Other invasive species in Lake Erie include spiny water fleas, fishhook water fleas, sea lamprey, and white perch.", "The invasive plant species in Lake Erie consist mainly of Eurasian milfoil, ''Trapa natans'' and purple loosestrife.", "The shore of the lake is also host to invasive species of the ''Phragmites'' reed genus.====Eutrophication and cyanobacterial blooms====Environmental Protection Agency showing beach erosion, algae, and uprooted trees as a result of environmental issuesThe green scum shown in this image taken in October 2011 is the worst algal bloom Lake Erie has experienced in decades.An ongoing concern is that nutrient overloading from fertilizers and human and animal waste, known as eutrophication, in which additional nitrogen and phosphorus enter the lake, will cause plant life to \"run wild and multiply like crazy\".", "Since fewer wetlands remain to filter nutrients, and greater channelization of waterways, nutrients in water can cause algal blooms to sprout, with \"low-oxygen dead zones\" in a complex interaction of natural forces.", "As of the 2010s, much of the phosphorus in the lake comes from fertilizer applied to no-till soybean and corn fields, but washed into streams by heavy rains.", "The algal blooms result from growth of ''Microcystis'', a toxic blue-green alga that the zebra mussels, which infest the lake, do not eat.Periodically, a ''dead zone'', or region of low oxygen, occurs in the lake, the location of which varies.", "Scientists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have been studying the lake's blue-green algal blooms and trying to find ways to predict when they are spreading or where they might make landfall; typically, the blooms arrive late each summer.", "This problem was extreme in the mid- and late 1960s, and the Lake Erie Wastewater Management Study conducted by the Buffalo District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers determined that the eutrophication was caused by point sources such as industrial outfalls and municipal sanitary and storm sewer outfalls, as well as diffuse sources, such as overland runoff from farm and forest land.", "All of these sources contribute nutrients, primarily phosphorus, to the lake.", "Growth of organisms in the lake is then spiked to the point that oxygen levels are depleted.", "Recommendations were made for reducing point-source outflows, and reducing farm contributions of phosphorus by changing fertilizer usage, employing no-till farming, and other conservative practices.", "Many industrial and municipal sources have since been greatly reduced.", "The improved farming practices, which were voluntary, were followed for a while, resulting in remarkable recovery of the lake in the 1970s.The conservation practices are not monitored and have not been kept up.", "One recent account suggests that the seasonal algal blooms in Lake Erie were possibly caused by runoff from cities, fertilizers, zebra mussels, and livestock near water.", "A second report focuses on the zebra mussels as being the cause of dead zones, since they filter so much sediment that this produces an overgrowth of algae.", "One report suggests the oxygen-poor zone began about 1993 in the lake's central basin and becomes more pronounced during summer, but is somewhat of a mystery why this happens.", "Some scientists speculate that the dead zone is a naturally occurring phenomenon.", "Another report cites Ohio's Maumee River as the main source of polluted runoff of phosphorus from industries, municipalities, tributaries and agriculture, and in 2008, satellite images showed the algal bloom heading toward Pelee Island.", "Two two-year, $2 million studies are trying to understand the \"growing zone\", which was described as a 10-foot-thick layer of cold water at the bottom, in one area, which stretches across the lake's center.", "It kills fish and microscopic creatures of the lake's food chain and fouls the water, and may cause further problems in later years for sport and commercial fishing.Algal blooms continued in early 2013, but new farming techniques, climate change, and even a change in Lake Erie's ecosystem make phosphorus pollution more intractable.", "Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) bloom, were problematic in August 2019.According to a news report in August, \"scientists fully expect it to overwhelm much of western Lake Erie again this summer\".", "By August 12, 2019, the bloom extended for roughly .", "A large bloom does not necessarily mean the cyanobacteria ... will produce toxins\", said Michael McKay, executive director of the Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research at the University of Windsor.", "\"Not enough is being done to stop fertilizer and phosphorus from getting into the lake and causing blooms,\" he added.", "Water testing was being conducted in August.", "The largest Lake Erie blooms to date occurred in 2015, exceeding the severity index at 10.5 and in 2011 at a 10, according to the NOAA.", "In early August, the 2019 bloom was expected to measure 7.5 on the severity index, but could range between 6 and 9.At that time, satellite images depicted a bloom stretching up to on Lake Erie, with the epicenter near Toledo, Ohio.====Snakes====The Lake Erie water snake, a subspecies of the northern water snake (''Nerodia sipedon''), lives in the vicinity of Ohio's Put-in-Bay Harbor and had been placed on the threatened species list.", "By 2010, the water snake population was over 12,000 snakes.", "While they have a nonvenomous bite, they are a key predator in the lake's aquatic ecosystem since they feed on mudpuppies, walleye, and smallmouth bass.", "The snake is helpful in keeping the population of goby fish in check.", "They mate from late May through early June and can be found in large mating balls with one female bunched within several males.====Insects and birds====In 1999, a local TV station's Doppler weather radar detected millions of mayflies heading for Presque Isle in blue and green splotches on the radar in clouds measuring long.", "These insects were a sign of Lake Erie's move back to health, since the mayflies require clean water to thrive.", "Biologist Masteller of Pennsylvania State University declared the insects to be a \"nice nuisance\" since they signified the lake's return to health after 40 years of absence.", "Each is long; the three main species of mayflies are ''Ephemera simulans'', ''Hexagenia rigida'', and ''H.", "limbata''.", "The insects mate over a 72-hour period from June through September; they fly in masses up to the shore, mate in the air, then females lay up to 8,000 eggs each over the water; the eggs sink back down and the cycle repeats.", "Sometimes, the clouds of mayflies have caused power outages and roads to become slippery with squashed insects.", "Zebra mussels filtering extra nutrients from the lake allows the mayfly larvae to thrive.Trumpeter swans (''Cygnus buccinator'') on Lake ErieIncidents of birds dying from botulism have occurred, in 2000 and in 2002.Birds affected included grebes, common and red-breasted mergansers, loons, diving ducks, ring-billed gulls, and herring gulls.", "One account suggests that bird populations are in trouble, notably the wood warbler, which had population declines around 60% in 2008.Possible causes for declines in bird populations are farming practices, loss of habitats, soil depletion and erosion, and toxic chemicals.", "In 2006, concerns arose of possible avian influenza (bird flu) after two wild swans on the lake were found diseased, but they did not contain the H5N1 virus.", "Sightings of a magnificent frigatebird, a tropical bird with a 2 m wingspan, happened over the lake in 2008.====Water quality issues and restoration====Lake Erie infamously became very polluted in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of the quantity of heavy industry situated in cities on its shores, with reports of bacteria-laden beaches and fish contaminated by industrial waste.", "In the 1970s, patches of the lake were declared dead because of industrial waste and sewage from runoffs; as ''The New York Times'' reporter Denny Lee wrote in 2004, \"The lake, after all, is where the Rust Belt meets the water.", "\"Incidents occurred of the oily surfaces of tributary rivers emptying into Lake Erie catching fire: in 1969, Cleveland's Cuyahoga River erupted in flames, chronicled in a ''Time'' magazine article which lamented a tendency to use rivers flowing through major cities as \"convenient, free sewers\"; the Detroit River caught fire on another occasion.", "The outlook was gloomy:In December 1970, a federal grand jury investigation led by U.S. Attorney Robert Jones began, of water pollution allegedly being caused by about 12 companies in northeastern Ohio.", "It was the first grand jury investigation of water pollution in the area.", "The grand jury indicted four corporations for polluting Lake Erie and waterways in northeast Ohio.", "Facing fines were Cleveland Electric Illuminating Co., Shell Oil Co., Uniroyal Chemical Division of Uniroyal Inc. and Olin Corp. United States Attorney General John N. Mitchell gave a press conference December 18, 1970, referencing new pollution control litigation, with particular reference to work with the Environmental Protection Agency, and announcing the filing of a lawsuit that morning against the Jones and Laughlin Steel Corporation for discharging substantial quantities of cyanide into the Cuyahoga River near Cleveland.", "Jones filed the misdemeanor charges in district court, alleging violations of the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act.Cleveland's director of public utilities Ben Stefanski pursued a massive effort to \"scrub the Cuyahoga\"; the effort cost $100 million in bonds, according to one estimate.", "New sewer lines were built.", "Clevelanders approved a bond issue by 2 to 1 to upgrade Cleveland's sewage system.", "Federal officials acted as well: the United States Congress passed the Clean Water Act of 1972, and the United States and Canada established water pollution limits in an international water quality agreement.", "The Corps' LEWMS was also instituted at that time.The clearing of the water column is partly the result of the introduction and rapid spread of zebra mussels from Europe, which had the effect of covering the lake bottom, with each creature filtering a liter of fresh water each day, helping to restore the lake to a cleaner state.", "The 1972 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement significantly reduced the dumping and runoff of phosphorus into the lake.", "The lake has since become clean enough to allow sunlight to infiltrate its water and produce algae and sea weed, but a dead zone persists.", "There have been instances of beach closings at Presque Isle because of unexplained E. Coli contaminations, possibly caused by sewer water overflows after heavy downpours.Since the 1970s environmental regulation has led to a great increase in water quality and the return of economically important fish species such as walleye and other biological life.", "There was substantial evidence that the new controls had substantially reduced levels of DDT in the water by 1979.Cleanup efforts were described in 1979 as a notable environmental success story, suggesting that the cumulative effect of legislation, studies, and bans had reversed the effects of pollution:Joint U.S.–Canadian agreements pushed 600 of 864 major industrial dischargers to meet requirements for keeping the water clean.", "One estimate was that $5 billion was spent to upgrade plants to treat sewage.", "The change toward cleaner water has been in a positive direction since the 1970s.There was a tentative exploratory plan to capture CO2, compress it to a liquid form, and pump it a half-mile (800 m) beneath Lake Erie's surface underneath the porous rock structure.", "According to chemical engineer Peter Douglas, there is sufficient storage space beneath Lake Erie to hold between 15 and 50 years of liquid emissions from the 4,000 megawatt Nanticoke coal plant.", "But there has been no substantial progress on this issue since 2007." ], [ "Economy", "===Fishing=======Species of fish====Summer morning west of ClevelandLake Erie is home to one of the world's largest freshwater commercial fisheries.", "Lake Erie's fish populations are the most abundant of the Great Lakes, partially because of the lake's relatively mild temperatures and plentiful supply of plankton, which is the basic building block of the food chain.", "The lake's fish population accounts for an estimated 50% of all fish inhabiting the Great Lakes.", "The lake contains steelhead, walleye (known in Canada as pickerel), largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, perch, lake trout, king salmon, whitefish, smelt, and many others.", "The lake consists of a long list of well established introduced species.", "Common non-indigenous fish species include the rainbow smelt, alewife, white perch and common carp.", "Non-native sport fish such as rainbow trout and brown trout are stocked specifically for anglers to catch.", "Attempts failed to stock coho salmon, and its numbers are dwindling.", "Commercial landings are dominated by yellow perch and walleye, with substantial quantities of rainbow smelt and white bass also taken.", "Anglers target walleye and yellow perch, with some effort directed at rainbow trout.Up until the end of the 1950s, the most commonly caught commercial fish (more than 50% of the commercial catch) was a subspecies of the walleye known as the blue walleye (''Sander vitreus glaucus'') sometimes erroneously called \"blue pike\".", "In the 1970s and 1980s, as pollution in the lake declined, counts of walleyes which were caught grew from 112,000 in 1975 to 4.1 million in 1985, with estimates of the numbers of walleyes in the lake at around 33 million in the basin, with many of or more.", "Not all walleyes thrived.", "The combination of overfishing and the eutrophication of the lake by pollution caused the population to collapse, and in the mid-1980s, the blue walleye was declared extinct.", "But the Lake Erie walleye was reportedly having record numbers, even in 1989, according to one report.There have been concerns about rising levels of mercury in walleye fish; a study by the Canadian Ministry of the Environment noted an \"increasing concentration trend\" but that concentrations were within acceptable limits established by authorities in Pennsylvania.", "Because of the threat of PCBs, It was recommended, that persons eat no more than one walleye meal per month.", "Because of these and other concerns, in 1990, the National Wildlife Federation was on the verge of having a \"negative fish consumption ''advisory''\" for walleye and smallmouth bass, which had been the main catch of an $800 million commercial fishing industry.The longest fish in Lake Erie is reportedly the sturgeon which can grow to long and weight , but it is an endangered species and mostly lives on the bottom of the lake.", "In 2009, there was a confirmed instance of a sturgeon being caught, which was returned to the lake alive, and there are hopes that the population of sturgeons is resurging.====Commercial fishing====Sunset on Lake Erie seen through a fishing netEstimates vary about the fishing market for the Great Lakes region.", "In 2007, one estimate of the total market for fishing in the Great Lakes, including commercial and recreational fishing, was $4 billion annually.", "Another estimate was more than $7 billion.", "But since high levels of pollution were discovered in the 1960s and 1970s, there has been continued debate over the desired intensity of commercial fishing.", "Commercial fishing in Lake Erie has been hurt by pollution as well as government regulations which limit the size of their catch; one report suggested that the numbers of fishing boats and employees had declined by two-thirds in recent decades.", "Another concern had been that pollution in the lake, as well as toxins found inside fish, were working against commercial fishing interests.U.S.", "fishermen based along Lake Erie lost their livelihood over the past few decades and no longer catch fish such as whitefish for markets in New York.", "Pennsylvania had a special $3 stamp on fishing licenses to help \"compensate commercial fishermen for their losses\", but this program ended after five years.", "One blamed the commercial fishing ban on a \"test of wills\" between commercial and recreational fishermen: \"One side needed large hauls.", "The other feared the lake was being emptied.", "\"Canadian commercial fishing boat coming into the harbor at Port Burwell on Lake ErieCommercial fishing is now predominantly based in Canadian communities, with a much smaller fishery—largely restricted to yellow perch—in Ohio.", "The Ontario fishery is one of the most intensively managed in the world.", "However, there are reports that some Canadian commercial fishermen are dissatisfied with fishing quotas and have sued the government about this matter, and there have been complaints that the legislative body writing the quotas is dominated by the U.S. and that sport fishing interests are favored at the expense of commercial fishing interests.", "Cuts of 30 to 45 percent for certain fish were made in 2007.The Lake Erie fishery was one of the first fisheries in the world managed on individual transferable quotas and features mandatory daily catch reporting and intensive auditing of the catch reporting system.", "Still, the commercial fishery is the target of critics who would like to see the lake managed for the exclusive benefit of sport fishing and the various industries serving the sport fishery.", "According to one report, the Canadian town of Port Dover is the home of the lake's largest fishing fleet.====Government regulations====The lake can be thought of as a common asset with multiple purposes including being a fishery.", "There was direct competition between commercial fishermen and sport fishermen (including charter boats and sales of fishing licenses) throughout the lake's history, with both sides seeking government assistance from either Washington or Ottawa, and trying to make their case to the public through newspaper reporting.", "But other groups have entered the political process as well, including environmentalists, lakefront property owners, industry owners and workers seeking cost-effective solutions for sewage, ferry boat operators, even corporations making electric-generating wind turbines.Management of the fishery is by consensus of all management agencies with an interest in the resource and work under the mandate of the Great Lakes Fishery Commission.", "The commission makes assessments using sophisticated mathematical modeling systems.", "The commission has been the focus of considerable recrimination, primarily from angler and charter fishing groups in the U.S. which have had a historical antipathy to commercial fishing interests.", "This conflict is complex, dating from the 1960s and earlier, with the result in the United States that, in 2011, commercial fishing was mostly eliminated from Great Lakes states.", "One report suggests that battling between diverse fishing interests began around Lake Michigan and evolved to cover the entire Great Lakes region.", "The analysis suggests that in the Lake Erie context, the competition between sport and commercial fishing involves universals and that these conflicts are cultural, not scientific, and therefore not resolvable by reference to ecological data.====Sport fishing====The lake supports a strong sport fishery.", "While commercial fishing declined, sport fishing has remained.", "The deep cool waters that spawn the best fishing is in the Canadian side of the lake.", "As a result, a fishing boat that crosses the international border triggers the security concerns of border crossings, and fishermen are advised to carry their passport.", "If their boat crosses the invisible border line in the lake, upon returning to the American shore, passengers need to report to a local border protection office.In 2008, the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission tried stocking the lake with brown trout in an effort to build what's called a ''put-grow-and-take'' fishery.", "There was a report that charter boat fishing increased substantially on the American side, from 46 to 638 charter boats in operation in Ohio alone, during a period from 1975 to 1985 as pollution levels declined and after populations of walleye increased substantially in the lake.", "In 1984, Ohio sold 27,000 nonresident fishing permits, and sport fishing was described as big business.", "In 1992, there were accounts of fishermen regularly catching walleye weighing up to .", "It is possible to fish off piers in winter for burbot; the burbot make a midwinter spawning run and is reportedly one of Erie's glacial relics.====Ice fishing====In winter when the lake freezes, many fishermen go out on the ice, cut holes, and fish.", "It is even possible to build bonfires on the ice.", "But venturing on Lake Erie ice can be dangerous.", "In a 2009 incident, warming temperatures, winds of and currents pushing eastward dislodged a miles-wide ice floe which broke away from the shore, trapping more than 130 fishermen offshore; one man died while the rest were rescued by helicopters or boats.===Agriculture===Winery on Middle Bass IslandThe lake's formerly more extensive lakebed creates a favorable environment for agriculture in the bordering areas of Ontario, Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and New York.", "The Lake Erie sections of western New York have a suitable climate for growing grapes, and there are many vineyards and wineries in Chautauqua County and Erie County.", "The Canadian region of Lake Erie's north shore is becoming a more prominent wine region as well; it has been dubbed the Lake Erie North Shore, or LENS region, and includes Pelee Island, and since it is farther north than comparable wine-growing areas in the world, the length of the days in the summer are longer.", "A longer growing season because of the lake-moderated temperatures make the risk of early frosts less likely.The drainage basin has led to well fertilized soil.", "The north coast of Ohio is widely referred to as its nursery capital.===Tourism=======Diving for shipwrecks====Lake Erie is a favorite for divers since there are many shipwrecks, perhaps 1,400 to 8,000 according to one estimate, of which about 270 are confirmed shipwreck locations.", "Research into shipwrecks has been organized by the Peachman Lake Erie Shipwreck Research Center, located on the grounds of the Great Lakes Historical Society.", "Most wrecks are undiscovered but believed to be well preserved and at most below the water surface.", "One report suggests there are more wrecks per square mile than any other freshwater location, including wrecks from Indigenous watercraft.", "There are efforts to identify shipwreck sites and survey the lake floor to map the location of underwater sites, possibly for further study or exploration.", "While the lake is relatively warmer than the other Great Lakes, there is a thermocline, meaning that as a diver descends, the water temperature drops about , requiring a wetsuit.", "One estimate is that Lake Erie has a quarter of all 8,000 estimated shipwrecks in the Great Lakes.", "They are preserved because the water is cold and salt-free.", "Divers have a policy of not removing or touching anything at the wreck.", "The cold conditions make diving difficult, requiring divers with skill and experience.", "One charter firm from western New York State takes about 1,500 divers to Lake Erie shipwrecks in a typical season from April through October.The paddle steamer ''Anthony Wayne'' sank in 1850 and was located in 2006 about north of Vermilion, Ohio.In 1991, the 19th-century paddle steamer ''Atlantic'' was discovered.", "It had sunk in 1852 after a collision with the steamship ''Ogdensburg'', west of Long Point, Ontario, and survivors from ''Atlantic'' were saved by the crew of ''Ogdensburg''.", "One account suggests 130 people drowned while another suggests about 20 drowned.", "There was speculation that the sunken vessel had been a gambling ship, and therefore there might have been money aboard, but most historians were skeptical.In 1998, the wreckage of ''Adventure'' became the first shipwreck registered as an \"underwater archaeological site\"; when it was discovered that ''Adventure''s propeller had been removed and given to a junkyard.", "The propeller was reclaimed days before being converted to scrap metal and brought back to the dive site.", "In 2003, divers discovered the steamer ''Canobie'' near Presque Isle, which had sunk in 1921.Other wrecks include the fish tub ''Neal H. Dow'' (1910), the \"steamer-cum-barge\" ''Elderado'' (1880), ''W.", "R. Hanna'', ''Dundee'' which sank north of Cleveland in 1900, ''F.", "H. Prince'', and ''The Craftsman''.", "In 2007, the wreck of the steamship named after \"Mad\" Anthony Wayne was found near Vermilion, Ohio, in of water; the vessel sank in 1850 after its boilers exploded, and 38 people died.", "The wreck belongs to the state of Ohio, and salvaging it is illegal, but divers can visit.", "In addition, there are wrecks of smaller vessels, with occasional drownings of fishermen.====Public parks====Presque Isle State Park in Pennsylvania is a peninsula in Lake ErieThere are numerous public parks around the lake.", "In western Pennsylvania, a wildlife reserve was established in 1991 in Springfield Township for hiking, fishing, cross-country skiing and walking along the beach.", "In Ontario, Long Point is a peninsula on the northwest shore near Port Rowan that extends into Lake Erie which is a stopover for birds migrating as well as turtles; Long Point Provincial Park is located there and has been designated as a UNESCO Biosphere reserve.", "In Ontario's Sand Hill Park, east of Port Burwell, there is a high dune which people climb for picturesque views of the lake.", "In southern Michigan, Sterling State Park has campgrounds, for hiking, biking, fishing, boating, with a sand beach for sunbathing, swimming, and picnicking.====Biking====In 1997, ''The New York Times'' reporter Donna Marchetti took a bike tour around the Lake Erie perimeter, traveling per day and staying at bed and breakfasts.", "She biked through the cities of Cleveland, Erie, Windsor, Detroit and Toledo as well as resort towns, vineyards, and cornfields.", "The trip highlights were the \"small port towns and rural farmlands of southern Ontario\".", "There are few bike repair shops in Ontario on the route.====Islands====Alvar habitat on Kelleys Island.", "South Bass Island visible in distance.Lake Erie islands tend to be in the westernmost part of the lake and have different characters.", "Some of them include:*Kelleys Island has activities such as beach lounging, hiking, biking, and viewing the deep glacial grooves in the bedrock limestone.", "*Pelee Island is reached by ferry from Leamington, Ontario, or by plane or ferry in Sandusky, Ohio, and is the largest of the Lake Erie islands.", "The island has a unique ecosystem with plants rarely found in Canada such as wild hyacinth, yellow horse gentian, and prickly pear cactus.", "There are two endangered snakes including the blue racer and the Lake Erie water snake.", "Songbirds migrate there in spring, and monarch butterflies stop over during the fall.", "*South Bass Island has the island-village of Put-in-Bay, Ohio.", "It has been described as a party island with scenic rocky cliffs with a year-round population in the hundreds that grows during summer.====Water sports====Kayaking has become more popular along the lake, particularly in places such as Put-in-Bay, Ohio.", "There are extensive views with steep cliffs with exotic wildlife and extensive shoreline.", "Long-distance swimmers have swum across the lake to set records; for example, a 15-year-old amputee swam the stretch across the lake in 2001.In 2008, 14-year-old Jade Scognamillo swam from New York's Sturgeon Point to Ontario's Crystal Beach and completed the 11.9-mile (19.2-km) swim in five hours, 40 minutes and 35 seconds, and became the youngest swimmer to make the crossing.", "It is illegal for swimmers younger than 14 to attempt such a crossing.", "In Port Dover, Ontario, swimmers do high-dives at the annual \"Polar Bear Swim\" on the beach.", "Currents can pose a problem, and there have been occasional incidents of drownings.====Lighthouses====Lighthouse on Mohawk Island, OntarioThe West Pierhead Lighthouse in Cleveland, OhioThe lake is dotted by distinct lighthouses.", "A lighthouse off the coast of Cleveland, beset with cold lake winter spray, has an unusual artistic icy shape, although sometimes ice prevents the light from being seen by maritime vessels.====Folklore====There have been unconfirmed reports of persons spotting a creature akin to the Loch Ness Monster, beginning in the 19th century and sometimes called \"Bessie\" or \"South Bay Bessie\".", "There were reports in 1990 of people seeing a \"large creature moving in the water about from their boat\" described as black in color, about long, with a snakelike head, and moving as fast as a boat.", "Five other people reported seeing something similar on three separate occasions, but there is no scientific evidence of such a creature.", "There is a ''Lake Erie Monster'' beer and a Cleveland Monsters hockey team.There have been sporadic reports of people in Cleveland being able to see the Canadian shoreline as if it were immediately offshore, even though Canada is from Cleveland.", "It has been speculated that this is a weather-related phenomenon, working on similar principles as a mirage.===Shipping traffic===The lake has been a shipping lane for maritime vessels for centuries.", "Ships headed eastward can take the Welland Canal and a series of eight locks descending to Lake Ontario which takes about 12 hours.", "Thousands of ships make this journey each year.", "During the 19th century, ships could enter the Buffalo River and travel the Erie Canal eastward to Albany then south to New York City along the Hudson River.", "Generally there is heavy traffic on the lake except during the winter months from January through March when ice prevents vessels from traveling safely.In 2007, there was a protest against Ontario's energy policy which allows the shipping of coal in the lake; Greenpeace activists climbed a ladder on a freighter and \"locked themselves to the conveyor belt device that helps to unload the ship's cargo\"; three activists were arrested and the ship was delayed for more than four hours, and anti-coal messages were painted on the ship.===Ferryboats===Ferryboats operate in numerous places: such as the passenger-only Jet Express Ferry from Sandusky and Port Clinton to Put-in-Bay and Kelly's Island.", "The Miller Ferry from Catawba Island to Put-In-Bay and Middle Bass Island, the Kellys Island ferry from Marblehead to Kellys Island, and the Owen Sound Transportation Company from Leamington or Kingsville to Pelee Island and Sandusky.However, plans to operate a ferryboat between the U.S. port of Erie and the Ontario port of Port Dover ran into a slew of political problems, including security restrictions on both sides as well as additional fees required to hire border inspectors.", "The project was abandoned.The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.", "Drivers can cross from the United States to the Canadian town of Fort Erie by going over the Peace Bridge.===Border crossings===Since the border between the two nations is largely unpatrolled, it is possible for people to cross undetected from one country to the other, in either direction, by boat.", "In 2010, Canadian police arrested persons crossing the border illegally from the United States to Canada, near the Ontario town of Amherstburg." ], [ "See also", "* Bass Islands* Cedar Point* Lake Erie AVA* List of lakes in Ohio* Maumee Bay* 1967 Lake Erie skydiving disaster" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Assel, R.A. (1983).", "''Lake Erie regional ice cover analysis: preliminary results '' NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL GLERL 48.Ann Arbor, MI: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Research Laboratories, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory.", "* Saylor, J.H.", "and G.S.", "Miller.", "(1983).", "''Investigation of the currents and density structure of Lake Erie'' NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL GLERL 49.Ann Arbor, MI: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Research Laboratories, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory." ], [ "External links", "* * How many Islands are there in Lake Erie?", "* EPA's Great Lakes Atlas* Great Lakes Coast Watch* Lake Erie Bathymetry – National Geophysical Data Center* Frozen lighthouse video via ''Slate Magazine''* Explore the Lake Erie Islands* Lake Erie Nautical Chart" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lake Ontario" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lake Ontario''' is one of the five Great Lakes of North America.", "It is bounded on the north, west, and southwest by the Canadian province of Ontario, and on the south and east by the U.S. state of New York.", "The Canada–United States border spans the centre of the lake.The Canadian cities of Hamilton, Kingston, Mississauga, and Toronto are located on the lake's northern shorelines, while the American city of Rochester is located on the south shore.", "In the Huron language, the name means \"great lake\".", "Its primary inlet is the Niagara River from Lake Erie.", "The last in the Great Lakes chain, Lake Ontario serves as the outlet to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence River, comprising the western end of the Saint Lawrence Seaway.", "The Long Sault control dam, primarily along with the Moses-Saunders Power Dam regulates the water level of the lake." ], [ "Geography", "Lake Ontario's drainage basinLake Ontario is the easternmost of the Great Lakes and the smallest in surface area (), although it exceeds Lake Erie in volume ().", "It is the 13th largest lake in the world.", "When its islands are included, the lake's shoreline is long.", "As the last lake in the Great Lakes' hydrologic chain, Lake Ontario has the lowest mean surface elevation of the lakes at above sea level; lower than its neighbor upstream.", "Its maximum length is , and its maximum width is .", "The lake's average depth is 47 fathoms 1 foot (283 ft; 86 m), with a maximum depth of 133 fathoms 4 feet (802 ft; 244 m).", "The lake's primary source is the Niagara River, draining Lake Erie, with the Saint Lawrence River serving as the outlet.", "The drainage basin covers 24,720 square miles (64,030 km2).", "As with all the Great Lakes, water levels change both within the year (owing to seasonal changes in water input) and among years (owing to longer-term trends in precipitation).", "These water level fluctuations are an integral part of lake ecology and produce and maintain extensive wetlands.", "The lake also has an important freshwater fishery, although it has been negatively affected by factors including overfishing, water pollution and invasive species.Baymouth bars built by prevailing winds and currents have created a significant number of lagoons and sheltered harbors, mostly near (but not limited to) Prince Edward County, Ontario, and the easternmost shores.", "Perhaps the best-known example is Toronto Bay, chosen as the site of the Upper Canada capital for its strategic harbor.", "Other prominent examples include Hamilton Harbour, Irondequoit Bay, Presqu'ile Bay, and Sodus Bay.", "The bars themselves are the sites of long beaches, such as Sandbanks Provincial Park and Sandy Island Beach State Park.", "These sand bars are often associated with large wetlands, which support large numbers of plant and animal species, as well as providing important rest areas for migratory birds.", "Presqu'ile, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, is particularly significant in this regard.", "One unique feature of the lake is the Z-shaped Bay of Quinte which separates Prince Edward County from the Ontario mainland, save for a isthmus near Trenton; this feature also supports many wetlands and aquatic plants, as well as associated fisheries.Major rivers draining into Lake Ontario include the Niagara River, Don River, Humber River, Rouge River, Trent River, Cataraqui River, Genesee River, Oswego River, Black River, Little Salmon River, and the Salmon River." ], [ "Geology", "The lake basin was carved out of soft, weak Silurian-age rocks by the Wisconsin ice sheet during the last ice age.", "The action of the ice occurred along the pre-glacial Ontarian River valley which had approximately the same orientation as today's basin.", "Material that was pushed southward by the ice sheet left landforms such as drumlins, kames, and moraines, both on the modern land surface and the lake bottom, reorganizing the region's entire drainage system.", "As the ice sheet retreated toward the north, it still dammed the St. Lawrence Valley outlet, so the lake surface was at a higher level.", "This stage is known as Lake Iroquois.", "During that time the lake drained through present-day Syracuse, New York, into the Mohawk River, thence to the Hudson River and the Atlantic.", "The shoreline created during this stage can be easily recognized by the (now dry) beaches and wave-cut hills from the present shoreline.When the ice finally receded from the St. Lawrence valley, the outlet was below sea level, and for a short time, the lake became a bay of the Atlantic Ocean, in association with the Champlain Sea.", "Gradually the land rebounded from the release of the weight of about of ice that had been stacked on it.", "It is still rebounding about per century in the St. Lawrence area.", "Since the ice receded from the area last, the most rapid rebound still occurs there.", "This means the lake bed is gradually tilting southward, inundating the south shore and turning river valleys into bays.", "Both north and south shores experience shoreline erosion, but the tilting amplifies this effect on the south shore, causing loss to property owners." ], [ "Climate", "Hamilton Harbour frozen over.", "Ice sheets can form along the shoreline of Lake Ontario during the winter.The lake has a natural seiche rhythm of eleven minutes.", "The seiche effect normally is only about but can be greatly amplified by earth movement, winds, and atmospheric pressure changes.", "Because of its great depth, the lake as a whole does not completely freeze in winter, but an ice sheet covering between 10% and 90% of the lake area typically develops, depending on the severity of the winter.", "Ice sheets typically form along the shoreline and in slack water bays, where the lake is not as deep.", "During the winters of 1877 and 1878, the ice sheet coverage was up to 95–100% of the lake.", "During the War of 1812, the ice cover was stable enough the American naval commander stationed at Sackets Harbor feared a British attack from Kingston, over the ice.", "The lake has completely frozen over on five recorded occasions: in 1830, 1874, 1893, 1912, and 1934.When the cold winds of winter pass over the warmer water of the lake, they pick up moisture and drop it as lake-effect snow.", "Since the prevailing winter winds are from the northwest, the southern and southeastern shoreline of the lake is referred to as the snowbelt.", "In some winters, the area between Oswego and Pulaski may receive twenty or more feet (600 cm) of snowfall.", "Also impacted by lake-effect snow is the Tug Hill Plateau, an area of elevated land about east of Lake Ontario.", "The \"Hill\", as it is often referred to, typically receives more snow than any other region in the eastern United States.", "As a result, Tug Hill is a popular location for winter enthusiasts, such as snow-mobilers and cross-country skiers.", "Lake-effect snow often extends inland as far as Syracuse, with that city often recording the most winter snowfall accumulation of any large city in the United States.", "Other cities in the world receive more snow annually, such as Quebec City, which averages , and Sapporo, Japan, which receives each year and is often regarded as the snowiest city in the world.Foggy conditions (particularly in fall) can be created by thermal contrasts and can be an impediment for recreational boaters.", "Lake breezes in spring tend to retard fruit bloom until the frost danger is past, and in the autumn delay the onset of fall frost, particularly on the south shore.", "Cool onshore winds also retard the early bloom of plants and flowers until later in the spring season, protecting them from possible frost damage.", "Such microclimatic effects have enabled tender fruit production in a continental climate, with the southwest shore supporting a major fruit-growing area.", "Apples, cherries, pears, plums, and peaches are grown in many commercial orchards around Rochester.", "Between Stoney Creek and Niagara-on-the-Lake on the Niagara Peninsula is a major fruit-growing and wine-making area.", "The wine-growing region extends over the international border into Niagara and Orleans counties in New York.", "Apple varieties that tolerate a more extreme climate are grown on the lake's north shore, around Cobourg." ], [ "Ecology", "Profile of coastal wetlands for Lake OntarioThe Great Lakes watershed is a region of high biodiversity, and Lake Ontario is important for its diversity of birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians, and plants.", "Many of these special species are associated with shorelines, particularly sand dunes, lagoons, and wetlands.", "The importance of wetlands to the lake has been appreciated, and many of the larger wetlands have protected status.", "These wetlands are changing, partly because the natural water level fluctuations have been reduced.", "Many wetland plants are dependent upon low water levels to reproduce.", "When water levels are stabilized, the area and diversity of the marsh is reduced.", "This is particularly true of meadow marsh (also known as wet meadow wetlands); for example, in Eel Bay near Alexandria Bay, regulation of lake levels has resulted in large losses of wet meadow.", "Often this is accompanied by the invasion of cattails, which displace many of the native plant species and reduce plant diversity.", "Eutrophication may accelerate this process by providing nitrogen and phosphorus for the more rapid growth of competitively dominant plants.", "Similar effects are occurring on the north shore, in wetlands such as Presqu'ile, which have interdunal wetlands called pannes, with high plant diversity and many unusual plant species.Lake Ontario's food webMost of the forests around the lake are deciduous forests dominated by trees including maple, oak, beech, ash and basswood.", "These are classified as part of the Mixedwood Plains Ecozone by Environment Canada, or as the Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, or as the Great Lakes Ecoregion by The Nature Conservancy.", "Deforestation in the vicinity of the lake has had many negative impacts, including loss of forest birds, extinction of native salmon, and increased amounts of sediment flowing into the lake.", "In some areas, more than 90 percent of the forest cover has been removed and replaced by agriculture.", "Certain tree species, such as hemlock, have also been particularly depleted by past logging activity.", "Guidelines for restoration stress the importance of maintaining and restoring forest cover, particularly along streams and wetlands.By the 1960s and 1970s, the increased pollution caused frequent algal blooms to occur in the summer.", "These blooms killed large numbers of fish, and left decomposing piles of filamentous algae and dead fish along the shores.=== Water pollution ===Lake Ontario is the most downstream lake of the Great Lakes, so the pollution from all the other lakes flows into it.", "Lake Ontario was ranked as the most environmentally stressed amongst the five Great Lakes in a 2015 ecological study.", "Some of the stresses on the lake include excess application of fertilizers in agriculture running into the lake, spillover from obsolete municipal sewage systems, toxic chemicals from industries along the rivers that drain into the lake, and metropolitan drainage from big cities like Toronto, Rochester, and Hamilton.Randle Reef, the westernmost part of Lake Ontario, has been identified as one of the most contaminated areas on Lake Ontario alongside other areas of concern on Great Lakes.", "However, a $150-million cleanup project had begun in 2016 and is expected to be completed by 2025." ], [ "Human history", "The name Ontario is derived from the Huron word ''Ontarí'io'', which means \"great lake\".", "In Colonial times, the lake was also called ''Cataraqui'', a French spelling of the Mohawk ''Katarokwi''.", "The lake was a border between the Huron people and the Iroquois Confederacy in the pre-Columbian era.", "In the 17th century, the Iroquois drove out the Huron from southern Ontario and settled the northern shores of Lake Ontario.", "When the Iroquois withdrew and the Anishnabeg / Ojibwa / Mississaugas moved in from the north to southern Ontario, they retained the Iroquois name.", "Artifacts believed to be of Norse origin have been found in the area of Sodus Bay, indicating the possibility of trading by the indigenous peoples with Norse explorers on the east coast of North America.A map depicting the Iroquois settlement of the north shore of Lake Ontario during the late-17th century.It is believed the first European to reach the lake was Étienne Brûlé in 1615.As was their practice, the French explorers introduced other names for the lake.", "In 1632 and 1656, the lake was referred to as Lac de St. Louis or Lake St. Louis by Samuel de Champlain and cartographer Nicolas Sanson respectively (likely for Louis XIV of France) In 1660, Jesuit historian Francis Creuxius coined the name ''Lacus Ontarius''.", "In a map drawn in the ''Relation des Jésuites'' (1662–1663), the lake bears the legend \"Lac Ontario ou des Iroquois\" with the name \"Ondiara\" in smaller type.", "A French map produced in 1712 (currently in the Canadian Museum of History), created by military engineer Jean-Baptiste de Couagne, identified Lake Ontario as \"Lac Frontenac\" named after Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac et de Palluau.", "He was a French soldier, courtier, and Governor General of New France from 1672 to 1682 and from 1689 to his death in 1698.In the 17th century, reports of an alleged creature named Gaasyendietha, similar to the so-called Loch Ness Monster, being sighted in the lake.", "The creature is described as large with a long neck, green in colour, and generally causes a break in the surface waves.A series of trading posts were established by both the British and French, such as Fort Frontenac in 1673, Fort Oswego in 1722, and Fort Rouillé in 1750.As the easternmost and nearest lake to the Atlantic seaboard of Canada and the United States, population centres here are among the oldest in the Great Lakes basin, with Kingston, Ontario, formerly the capital of Canada, dating to the establishment of Fort Frontenac in 1673.engagements that took place on Lake Ontario during the War of 1812.After the French and Indian War, all forts around the lake were under British control.", "The United States took possession of the forts along the American side of the lake at the signing of the Jay Treaty in 1794.Permanent, non-military European settlement began during the American Revolution with the influx of Loyalist settlers.", "During the War of 1812, the Royal Navy and US Navy had fought in several engagements for control of Lake Ontario.", "The Great Lakes, including Lake Ontario, were largely demilitarized after the Rush–Bagot Treaty was ratified in 1818.The lake became a hub of commercial activity following the War of 1812 with canal building on both sides of the border and heavy travel by lake steamers.", "Steamer activity peaked in the mid-19th century before competition from railway lines.In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a type of scow known as a ''stone hooker'' was in operation on the northwest shore, particularly around Port Credit and Bronte.", "Stonehooking was the practice of raking flat fragments of Dundas shale from the shallow lake floor of the area for use in construction, particularly in the growing city of Toronto.===Swims across the lake===A plaque for Marilyn Bell, the first person to swim across the lake., nearly 50 people have successfully swum across the lake.", "The first person who accomplished the feat was a Canadian long distance swimmer Marilyn Bell, who did it in 1954 at age 16.Toronto's Marilyn Bell Park is named in her honour.", "The park opened in 1984 and is east of the spot where Bell completed her swim.", "In 1974, Diana Nyad became the first person who swam across the lake against the current (from north to south).", "On August 28, 2007, 14-year-old Natalie Lambert from Kingston, Ontario, made the swim, leaving Sackets Harbor, New York, and reaching Kingston's Confederation basin less than 24 hours after she entered the lake.", "On August 19, 2012, 14-year-old Annaleise Carr became the youngest person to swim across the lake.", "She completed the 32-mile (52-km) crossing from Niagara-on-the-Lake to Marilyn Bell Park in just under 27 hours." ], [ "Settlements", "A large conurbation called the Golden Horseshoe occupies the lake's westernmost shores, anchored by the cities of Toronto and Hamilton.", "Ports on the Canadian side include St. Catharines, Oshawa, Cobourg and Kingston, near the St. Lawrence River outlet.", "Close to 9 million people, or over a quarter of Canada's population, live within the watershed of Lake Ontario.", "The American shore is largely rural, with the exception of Rochester and the much smaller ports at Oswego and Sackets Harbor.", "The city of Syracuse is inland, connected to the lake by the New York State Canal System.", "Over 2 million people live in Lake Ontario's American watershed.View of Toronto and a frozen Lake Ontario from the Toronto Islands.", "Toronto is the largest settlement located along the lake's shoreline.", "; Ontario, Canada* Toronto* Mississauga* Hamilton* Burlington* Oshawa* Kingston* Whitby* Stoney Creek* Grimsby* Oakville* St. Catharines* Port Hope* Cobourg* Brighton* Pickering* Ajax* Bowmanville* Belleville* Trenton* Niagara-on-the-Lake; New York, United StatesLake Ontario's beachfront in Rochester, New York.", "The city is the largest settlement in New York that is located along the lake's shoreline.", "* Rochester* Greece* Irondequoit* Webster* Oswego* Fair Haven* Sackets Harbor* Cape Vincent* Three Mile Bay* Wilson* Chaumont* Olcott* Sodus Point===Islands===View of Stella Village on Amherst Island, one of several islands located in the lake.Several islands exist in the lake, the largest of which being Wolfe Island.", "Nearly all of Lake Ontario's islands are on the eastern and northeastern shores, between the Prince Edward County headland and the lake's outlet at Kingston, underlain by the basement rock found throughout the region.", "However, there exist several islands in the northwestern portion of the lake.", "Notable islands include:* Amherst Island* Association Island* Big Island* Galloo Island* Garden Island* Grenadier Island* Little Galloo Island* Nicholson Island* Simcoe Island* Toronto Islands (an island chain of 15 smaller islands)* Waupoos Island* Wolfe Island===Navigation===The Great Lakes Waterway connects the lake sidestream to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence Seaway and upstream to the other rivers in the chain via the Welland Canal and to Lake Erie.", "The Trent-Severn Waterway for pleasure boats connects Lake Ontario at the Bay of Quinte to Georgian Bay (Lake Huron) via Lake Simcoe.", "The Oswego Canal connects the lake at Oswego to the New York State Canal System, with outlets to the Hudson River, Lake Erie, and Lake Champlain.", "The Rideau Canal, also for pleasure boats, connects Lake Ontario at Kingston to the Ottawa River in downtown Ottawa, Ontario.Canal Lock 1 at the Welland Canal in Lake Ontario.", "The canal forms a part of the Great Lakes Waterway, which connects Lake Ontario with the St. Lawrence River and other Great Lakes.Several lighthouses exists throughout the lake to help with navigation.", "Notable historic examples include:* Braddock Point Light* Charlotte-Genesee Lighthouse* Gibraltar Point Lighthouse* Oswego Harbor West Pierhead Light* Presqu'ile Lighthouse* Selkirk Lighthouse* Sodus Point Light* Stony Point Light* Thirty Mile Point LightA land-based trail that roughly follows the lake's shoreline also exists, the Great Lakes Circle Tour and Seaway Trail.", "The designated scenic road systems connects all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.", "As the Seaway Trail is posted on the U.S. side only, Lake Ontario is the only of the five Great Lakes to have no posted bi-national circle tour." ], [ "Economic impacts", "Cargo ships in Oshawa Harbour.Lake Ontario is the site of several major commercial ports including the Port of Toronto and the Port of Hamilton.", "Hamilton Harbour is the location of major steel production facilities.The government of Ontario, which holds the lakebed rights of the Canadian portion of the lake under the Beds of Navigable Waters Act, does not permit wind power to be generated offshore.", "In ''Trillium Power Wind Corporation v. Ontario (Natural Resources)'', the Superior Court of Justice held Trillium Power—since 2004 an \"Applicant of Record\" who had invested $35,000 in fees and, when in 2011 the Crown made a policy decision against offshore windfarms, claimed an injury of $2.25 billion—disclosed no reasonable cause of action.The Great Lakes once supported an industrial-scale fishery, with record hauls in 1899; overfishing later blighted the industry.", "However, only recreational fishing activities exist in the 21st century." ], [ "See also", "*Charity Shoal Crater*Glacial Lake Admiralty*Lake Ontario Waterkeeper*List of lakes of Ontario" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * *" ], [ "External links", "** Lake Ontario NOAA nautical chart #14820 online* EPA's Great Lakes Atlas* Great Lakes Coast Watch* Lake Ontario Bathymetry" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lake Michigan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lake Michigan''' ( ) is one of the five Great Lakes of North America.", "It is the second-largest of the Great Lakes by volume () and the third-largest by surface area (), after Lake Superior and Lake Huron.", "To the east, its basin is conjoined with that of Lake Huron through the wide, deep Straits of Mackinac, giving it the same surface elevation as its easterly counterpart; the two are geologically a single lake.Lake Michigan is the only one of the five Great Lakes located fully in the United States; the other four are shared between the United States and Canada.", "Lake Michigan is the world's largest lake by area located fully in one country.", "It is shared, from west to east, by the U.S. states of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan.", "Ports along its shores include Chicago in Illinois, Gary in Indiana, Milwaukee and Green Bay in Wisconsin, and Muskegon in Michigan.", "In the north the lake is flanked by long bays, including Green Bay in the northwest, and Grand Traverse and Little Traverse bays in the northeast.", "The word \"Michigan\" is believed to come from the Ojibwe word (''michi-gami'' or ''mishigami'') meaning \"great water\"." ], [ "History", "Some of the most studied early human inhabitants of the Lake Michigan region were the Hopewell Native Americans.", "Their culture declined after 800 AD and for the next few hundred years, the region was the home of peoples known as the Late Woodland Native Americans.", "In the early 17th century, when western European explorers made their first forays into the region, they encountered descendants of the Late Woodland Native Americans: the historic Chippewa; Menominee; Sauk; Fox; Winnebago; Miami; Ottawa; and Potawatomi peoples.", "The French explorer Jean Nicolet is believed to have been the first European to reach Lake Michigan, possibly in 1634 or 1638.In the earliest European maps of the region, the name of '''Lake Illinois''' has been found in addition to that of \"Michigan\", named for the Illinois Confederation of tribes.", "During the 1640s and 1650s, the Beaver Wars over the fur trade with the European colonies, initiated by the Iroquois, forced a massive demographic shift as their western neighbors fled the violence.", "They sought refuge west and north of Lake Michigan.The Straits of Mackinac were an important Native American and fur trade route.", "Located on the southern side of the straits is the town of Mackinaw City, Michigan, the site of Fort Michilimackinac, a reconstructed French fort founded in 1715, and on the northern side is St. Ignace, Michigan, site of a French Catholic mission to the Indians, founded in 1671.In 1673, Jacques Marquette, Louis Jolliet and their crew of five Métis voyageurs followed Lake Michigan to Green Bay and up the Fox River, nearly to its headwaters, in their search for the Mississippi River.", "By the late 18th century, the eastern end of the straits was controlled by Fort Mackinac on Mackinac Island, a British colonial and early American military base and fur trade center, founded in 1781.With the advent of European exploration into the area in the late 17th century, Lake Michigan became used as part of a line of waterways leading from the Saint Lawrence River to the Mississippi River and thence to the Gulf of Mexico.", "French coureurs des bois and voyageurs established small ports and trading communities, such as Green Bay, on the lake during the late 17th and early 18th centuries.", "In the 19th century, Lake Michigan was integral to the development of Chicago and the Midwestern United States west of the lake.", "For example, 90% of the grain shipped from Chicago traveled by ships east over Lake Michigan during the antebellum years.", "The volume rarely fell below 50% after the Civil War even with the major expansion of railroad shipping.The first person to reach the deep bottom of Lake Michigan was J. Val Klump, a scientist at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee in 1985.Klump reached the bottom via submersible as part of a research expedition.", "In 2007, a row of stones paralleling an ancient shoreline was discovered by Mark Holley, professor of underwater archeology at Northwestern Michigan College.", "This formation lies below the surface of the lake.", "One of the stones is said to have a carving resembling a mastodon.", "The formation needed more study before it could be authenticated.", "The warming of Lake Michigan was the subject of a 2018 report by Purdue University.", "In each decade since 1980, steady increases in obscure surface temperature have occurred.", "This is likely to lead to decreasing native habitat and to adversely affect native species survival, including game fish." ], [ "Hydrology", "The Milwaukee Reef, running under Lake Michigan from a point between Milwaukee and Racine to a point between Grand Haven and Muskegon, divides the lake into northern and southern basins.", "Each basin has a clockwise flow of water, deriving from rivers, winds, and the Coriolis effect.", "Prevailing westerly winds tend to move the surface water toward the east, producing a moderating effect on the climate of western Michigan.", "There is a mean difference in summer water temperatures of 5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit (2 to 5 degrees Celsius) between the Wisconsin and Michigan shores.Hydrologically Michigan and Huron are the same body of water (sometimes called Lake Michigan-Huron) but are normally considered distinct.", "Counted together, it is the largest body of fresh water in the world by surface area.", "The Mackinac Bridge is generally considered the dividing line between them.", "The main inflow to Lake Michigan from Lake Superior, through Lake Huron, is controlled by the locks operated by the bi-national Lake Superior Board of Control.===Statistics=== Map of Great Lakes (Lake Michigan in darker blue)Lake Michigan is the only Great Lake that is wholly within the borders of the United States; the others are shared with Canada.", "Lake Michigan has a surface area of ; ( lying in Michigan, in Wisconsin, in Indiana, & in Illinois) making it the largest lake entirely within one country by surface area (Lake Baikal in Russia is larger by water volume) and the fifth-largest lake in the world.It is the larger half of Lake Michigan–Huron, which is the largest body of fresh water in the world by surface area.", "It is long by wide with a shoreline long.", "The lake's average depth is 46 fathoms 3 feet (279 ft; 85 m), while its greatest depth is 153 fathoms 5 feet (923 ft; 281 m).", "It contains a volume of 1,183 cubic miles (4,932 km³) of water.", "Green Bay in the northwest is its largest bay.", "Grand Traverse Bay in its northeast is another large bay.", "Lake Michigan's deepest region, which lies in its northern half, is called Chippewa Basin (named after prehistoric Lake Chippewa) and is separated from South Chippewa Basin by a relatively shallower area called the Mid Lake Plateau.=== Islands ===Most islands in Lake Michigan are in the northern part of the lake.", "Photo taken from the International Space Station on April 10, 2022.", "* At , Beaver Island is the largest island in Lake Michigan; it is the namesake of an archipelago in Charlevoix County, Michigan, which includes Garden Island, Grape Island, Gull Island, Hat Island, High Island, Hog Island, Horseshoe Island, Little Island, Pismire Island, Shoe Island, Ojibwa Island, Trout Island, and Whiskey Island.", "Fisherman's Island is also found in Charlevoix County.", "* The Fox Islands in Leelanau County, Michigan, consist of North Fox Island and South Fox Island.", "* The Manitou Islands in Leelanau County, Michigan, consist of North Manitou Island and South Manitou Island.", "* Islands within Grand Traverse Bay include Bassett Island, Bellow Island, and Power Island.", "* Islands south of the Garden Peninsula in Delta County, Michigan include Gravelly Island, Gull Island, Little Gull Island, Little Summer Island, Poverty Island, Rocky Island, St. Martin Island, and Summer Island.", "* Islands in Big Bay de Noc in Delta County, Michigan include Round Island, St. Vital Island, and Snake Island.", "* Islands in Little Bay de Noc in Delta County, Michigan include Butlers Island and Sand Island.", "* Wilderness State Park in Emmet County, Michigan contains Temperance Island and Waugoshance Island.", "Ile Aux Galets is also found in Emmet County.", "* Epoufette Island, Gravel Island, Little Hog Island, and Naubinway Island are located in Mackinac County, Michigan, in the area of Epoufette, Michigan and Naubinway, Michigan.", "* Green Island and St. Helena Island are in the vicinity of the Mackinac Bridge, in Mackinac County, Michigan.", "* Islands surrounding the Door Peninsula in Wisconsin include Chambers Island, Fish Island, Gravel Island, Spider Island, Horseshoe Island, the Sister Islands, Detroit Island, Green Island, Hog Island, Pilot Island, Plum Island, Rock Island, the Strawberry Islands and Washington Island.", "The northern half of the peninsula is technically an island itself, due to the Sturgeon Bay Ship Canal.", "* Northerly Island is a human-made peninsula in Chicago.", "It is the home of the Adler Planetarium, the former site of Meigs Field, and the current site of the temporary concert venue Huntington Bank Pavilion each summer.=== Connection to other water bodies ===In the mid 20th century, construction of the Saint Lawrence Seaway and Great Lakes Waterway opened the Great Lakes to ocean-going vessels.", "But the wider ocean-going container ships that were developed later do not fit through the locks on these routes, which limits shipping on the lakes.", "Lake freighters are used on the lakes that are too large to pass the locks and enter the ocean.", "Despite their vast size, large sections of the Great Lakes freeze in winter, interrupting most shipping.", "Some icebreakers ply the lakes.Lake Michigan is connected by the Illinois Waterway to the Gulf of Mexico via the Illinois River and the Mississippi River.", "Commercial tug-and-barge traffic on these waterways is heavy.", "Pleasure boats can enter or exit the Great Lakes by way of the Erie Canal and Hudson River in New York.", "The Erie Canal connects to the Great Lakes at the east end of Lake Erie (at Buffalo, New York) and at the south side of Lake Ontario (at Oswego, New York).=== Water level ===The lake fluctuates from month to month with the highest lake levels typically occurring in summer.", "The normal high-water mark is above datum ('''').", "In October 1986, Lakes Michigan and Huron reached their highest level at above datum.", "The monthly average high-water records were broken for several months in a row in 2020.Lake levels tend to be the lowest in winter.", "The normal low-water mark is below datum (''577.5 ft or 176.0 m'').", "In the winter of 1964, Lakes Michigan and Huron reached their lowest level at below datum.", "As with the high-water records, monthly low-water records were set each month from February 1964 through January 1965.During this twelve-month period, water levels ranged from below Chart Datum.", "The all-time low-water mark was eclipsed in January 2013.In January 2013, Lake Michigan's monthly mean water levels dipped to an all-time low of , reaching their lowest ebb since record keeping began in 1918.The lakes were below their long-term average and had declined 17 inches since January 2012.Keith Kompoltowicz, chief of watershed hydrology for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' district office in Detroit, explained that biggest factors leading to the lower water levels in 2013 were a combination of the \"lack of a large snowpack\" in the winter of 2011/2012 coupled with very hot and dry conditions in the summer of 2012.Since then water levels rebounded, rising more than to historical record high levels.===Drinking water===Grand Traverse Bay, a large bay of Lake Michigan in Michigan's Lower Peninsula, from the community of Elk RapidsLake Michigan, like the other Great Lakes, supplies drinking water to millions of people in bordering areas.The Great Lakes are collectively administered by the Conference of Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Governors and Premiers, intergovernmental organization led by the governing chief executives of the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Québec, and by the governors of the U.S. states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin.", "The Conference came into force, in December 2008, with the enactment of laws in all of the states and the two provinces, and the enactment of a United States federal law.Environmental problems can still plague the lake.", "Steel mills and refineries operate near the Indiana shoreline.", "The ''Chicago Tribune'' reported that BP is a major polluter, dumping thousands of pounds of raw sludge into the lake every day from its Whiting, Indiana, oil refinery.", "In March 2014 BP's Whiting refinery was responsible for spilling more than of oil into the lake." ], [ "Shoreline", "=== Beaches ===View of Lake Michigan from Indiana Dunes National ParkLake Michigan has many beaches.", "The region is often referred to as the \"Third Coast\" of the United States, after those of the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.", "The sand is often soft and off-white, known as \"singing sands\" because of the squeaking noise (caused by high quartz content) it emits when walked upon.", "Some beaches have sand dunes covered in green beach grass and sand cherries, and the water is usually clear and cool, between , even in the late summer months.", "However, because prevailing westerly winds tend to move the surface water toward the east, there is a flow of warmer water to the Michigan shore in the summer.The sand dunes located on the east shore of Lake Michigan are the largest freshwater dune system in the world.", "In multiple locations along the shoreline, the dunes rise several hundred feet above the lake surface.", "Large dune formations can be seen in many state parks, national forests and national parks along the Indiana and Michigan shoreline.", "Some of the most expansive and unique dune formations can be found at Indiana Dunes National Park, Saugatuck Dunes State Park, Warren Dunes State Park, Hoffmaster State Park, Silver Lake State Park, Ludington State Park, and Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore.", "Small dune formations can be found on the western shore of Lake Michigan at Illinois Beach State Park, and moderate-sized dune formations can be found in Kohler-Andrae State Park and Point Beach State Forest in Wisconsin.", "A large dune formation can be found in Whitefish Dunes State Park in Wisconsin in the Door Peninsula.", "Lake Michigan beaches in Northern Michigan are the only place in the world, aside from a few inland lakes in that region, where Petoskey stones, the Michigan state stone, can be found.The beaches of the western coast and the northernmost part of the east coast are often rocky, with some sandy beaches.", "The southern and eastern beaches are typically sandy and dune-covered.", "This is partly because of the prevailing winds from the west (which also cause thick layers of ice to build on the eastern shore in winter).", "The Chicago city waterfront has been developed for parks, beaches, harbors and marinas, and residential developments connected by the Chicago Lakefront Trail.", "Where there are no beaches or marinas, stone or concrete revetments protect the shoreline from erosion.", "The Chicago lakefront is accessible for about between the city's southern and northern limits along the lake.=== Cities ===Lake Michigan basinTwelve million people live along Lake Michigan's shores, mainly in the Chicago and Milwaukee metropolitan areas.", "The economy of many communities in northern Michigan and Door County, Wisconsin, is supported by tourism, with large seasonal populations attracted by Lake Michigan.", "Many seasonal residents have summer homes along the waterfront and return to other homes for the winter.", "The southern tip of the lake near Gary, Indiana, is heavily industrialized.Cities on the shores of Lake Michigan include:'''Illinois'''* Chicago* Evanston* Wilmette* Winnetka* Kenilworth* Glencoe* Highland Park* Lake Forest* Lake Bluff* Naval Station Great Lakes* North Chicago* Waukegan* Beach Park* Zion* Winthrop Harbor'''Indiana'''* East Chicago* Gary* Hammond* Michigan City* Portage* Porter* Whiting'''Michigan'''* Benton Harbor* Bridgman* Charlevoix* Douglas* Elberta* Escanaba* Ferrysburg* Frankfort* Gladstone* Glenn* Grand Beach* Grand Haven* Harbor Springs* Ludington* Manistee* Manistique* Menominee* Michiana* Muskegon* New Buffalo* Norton Shores* Pentwater* Petoskey* Saugatuck* St. Joseph* Shoreham* South Haven* Traverse City'''Wisconsin'''* Algoma* Bay View* Cudahy* Fox Point* Green Bay* Kenosha* Kewaunee* Manitowoc*Marinette* Milwaukee* Mequon* Oconto* Port Washington* Racine* Saint Francis* Sheboygan* Shorewood* South Milwaukee* Sturgeon Bay* Two Rivers* Whitefish Bay* Waterford=== Parks ===The National Park Service maintains the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore and Indiana Dunes National Park.", "Parts of the shoreline are within the Hiawatha National Forest and the Manistee National Forest.", "The Manistee National Forest section of the shoreline includes the Nordhouse Dunes Wilderness.", "The Lake Michigan division of the Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge is also within the lake, as are the Green Bay National Wildlife Refuge and the Wisconsin Shipwreck Coast National Marine Sanctuary.There are numerous state and local parks located on the shores of the lake or on islands within the lake:* Chicago Park District Beaches* Duck Lake State Park* Fayette Historic State Park* Fisherman's Island State Park* Grand Haven State Park* Grand Mere State Park* Harrington Beach State Park* Holland State Park* Hoffmaster State Park* Illinois Beach State Park* Indian Lake State Park* Indiana Dunes State Park* Kohler-Andrae State Park* Lake Park, Milwaukee* Ludington State Park* Leelanau State Park* Mears State Park* Muskegon State Park* Newport State Park* Orchard Beach State Park* Peninsula State Park* Pere Marquette Beach* Potawatomi State Park* Racine Zoo* Rock Island State Park* Saugatuck Dunes State Park* Shingleton Management Unit within the Lake Superior State Forest* Silver Lake State Park* Traverse City State Park* Terry Andrae State Park* Van Buren State Park* Warren Dunes State Park* Wells State Park* Whitefish Dunes State Park* Wilderness State Park" ], [ "Human activities", "=== Fishing ===Lake fisheries postcard produced for the Milwaukee Public Museum, the backside identifies the fishermen as using a pound net.Lake Michigan is home to a small variety of fish species and other organisms.", "It was originally home to lake whitefish, lake trout, yellow perch, panfish, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass and bowfin, as well as some species of catfish.", "As a result of improvements to the Welland Canal in 1918, an invasion of sea lampreys and overharvesting, there has been a decline in native lake trout populations, ultimately causing an increase in the population of another invasive species, the alewife.", "As a result, salmonids, including various strains of brown trout, steelhead (rainbow trout), coho and chinook salmon, were introduced as predators in order to decrease the wildlife population.", "This program was so successful that the introduced population of trout and salmon exploded, resulting in the creation of a large sport fishery for these introduced species.", "Lake Michigan is now stocked annually with steelhead, brown trout, and coho and chinook salmon, which have also begun natural reproduction in some Lake Michigan tributaries.", "However, several introduced invasive species, such as lampreys, round goby, zebra mussels and quagga mussels, continue to cause major changes in water clarity and fertility, resulting in knock-on changes to Lake Michigan's ecosystem, threatening the vitality of native fish populations.Fisheries in inland waters of the United States are small compared to marine fisheries.", "The largest fisheries are the landings from the Great Lakes, worth about $14 million in 2001.Michigan's commercial fishery today consists mainly of 150 tribe-licensed commercial fishing operations through the Chippewa-Ottawa Resource Authority and tribes belonging to the Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission, which harvest 50 percent of the Great Lakes commercial catch in Michigan waters, and 45 state-licensed commercial fishing enterprises.", "The prime commercial species is the lake whitefish.", "The annual harvest declined from an average of from 1981 through to 1999 to more recent annual harvests of .", "The price for lake whitefish dropped from $1.04/lb.", "to as low as $0.40/lb during periods of high production.Sports fishing includes salmon, whitefish, smelt, lake trout and walleye as major catches.", "In the late 1960s, successful stocking programs for Pacific salmon led to the development of Lake Michigan's charter fishing industry.=== Shipping ===Like all of the Great Lakes, Lake Michigan is today used as a major mode of transport for bulk goods.", "In 2002, 162 million net tons of dry bulk cargo were moved via the Lakes.", "This was, in order of volume: iron ore, grain and potash.", "The iron ore and much of the stone and coal are used in the steel industry.", "There is also some shipping of liquid and containerized cargo, but most container vessels cannot pass the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway because the ships are too wide.", "The total amount of shipping on the lakes has been on a downward trend for several years.", "The Port of Chicago, operated by the Illinois International Port District, has grain (14 million bushels) and bulk liquid (800,000 barrels) storage facilities along Lake Calumet.", "The central element of the Port District, Calumet Harbor, is maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.=== Ferries ===SS ''Badger'' operates ferry services between Manitowoc and LudingtonTwo passenger and vehicle ferries operate ferry services across Lake Michigan, both connecting Wisconsin on the western shore with Michigan on the east.", "From May to October, the historic steamship, , operates daily between Manitowoc, Wisconsin, and Ludington, Michigan, connecting U.S. Highway 10 between the two cities.", "The ''Lake Express'', established in 2004, carries passengers and vehicles across the lake between Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Muskegon, Michigan.=== Tourism and recreation ===Tourism and recreation are major industries on all of the Great Lakes.", "A few small cruise ships operate on Lake Michigan, including a couple of sailing ships.", "Many other water sports are practiced on the lakes, such as yachting, sea kayaking, diving, kitesurfing and lake surfing.", "Great Lakes passenger steamers have been operating since the mid-19th century.", "Several ferries currently operate on the Great Lakes to carry passengers to various islands, including Beaver Island and Bois Blanc Island (Michigan).", "Currently, two car ferry services traverse Lake Michigan from around April to November: the SS Badger, a steamer from Ludington, Michigan, to Manitowoc, Wisconsin, and the Lake Express, a high speed catamaran from Milwaukee to Muskegon, Michigan.The Great Lakes Circle Tour, a designated scenic road system, connects all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.", "The lake is a great place to view ice volcanoes, which typically occur at the start of the winter season." ], [ "See also", "* Jardine Water Purification Plant* Lake Michigan Shore AVA* List of lighthouses in the United States* Leelanau Peninsula* Little Traverse Bay* Port of Milwaukee" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * EPA's Great Lakes Atlas* Great Lakes Coast Watch* Michigan DNR map of Lake Michigan* Official Michigan DNR Freshwater Fishing Regulations * Bathymetry of Lake Michigan* * * ===Lighthouses===* Bibliography on Michigan lighthouses* Interactive map of lighthouses in area (northern Lake Michigan)* Interactive map of lighthouses in area (southern Lake Michigan)* Terry Pepper on lighthouses of the western Great Lakes* Wagner, John L., Beacons Shining in the Night , Michigan lighthouse bibliography, chronology, history, and photographs, Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Fibonacci" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fibonacci''' (; also , ; – ), also known as '''Leonardo Bonacci''', '''Leonardo of Pisa''', or '''Leonardo Bigollo Pisano''' ('Leonardo the Traveller from Pisa'), was an Italian mathematician from the Republic of Pisa, considered to be \"the most talented Western mathematician of the Middle Ages\".The name he is commonly called, ''Fibonacci'', was made up in 1838 by the Franco-Italian historian Guillaume Libri and is short for ('son of Bonacci').", "However, even earlier, in 1506, a notary of the Holy Roman Empire, Perizolo mentions Leonardo as \"Lionardo Fibonacci\".", "Fibonacci popularized the Indo–Arabic numeral system in the Western world primarily through his composition in 1202 of (''Book of Calculation'') and also introduced Europe to the sequence of Fibonacci numbers, which he used as an example in ." ], [ "Biography", "Fibonacci was born around 1170 to Guglielmo, an Italian merchant and customs official.", "Guglielmo directed a trading post in Bugia (Béjaïa), in modern-day Algeria.", "Fibonacci travelled with him as a young boy, and it was in Bugia (Algeria) where he was educated that he learned about the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.Fibonacci travelled around the Mediterranean coast, meeting with many merchants and learning about their systems of doing arithmetic.", "He soon realised the many advantages of the Hindu-Arabic system, which, unlike the Roman numerals used at the time, allowed easy calculation using a place-value system.", "In 1202, he completed the (''Book of Abacus'' or ''The Book of Calculation''), which popularized Hindu–Arabic numerals in Europe.Fibonacci was a guest of Emperor Frederick II, who enjoyed mathematics and science.", "A member of Frederick II's court, John of Palermo, posed several questions based on Arab mathematical works for Fibonacci to solve.", "In 1240, the Republic of Pisa honored Fibonacci (referred to as Leonardo Bigollo)The basic meanings of \"bigollo\" appear to be \"bilingual\" or \"traveller\".", "A. F. Horadam contends a connotation of \"bigollo\" is \"absent-minded\" (see first footnote of \"Eight hundred years young\" ), which is also one of the connotations of the English word \"wandering\".", "The translation \"the wanderer\" in the quote above tries to combine the various connotations of the word \"bigollo\" in a single English word.", "by granting him a salary in a decree that recognized him for the services that he had given to the city as an advisor on matters of accounting and instruction to citizens.Fibonacci is thought to have died between 1240 and 1250, in Pisa." ], [ "''Liber Abaci''", "Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze showing (in box on right) the Fibonacci sequence with the position in the sequence labeled with Latin numbers and Roman numerals and the value in Hindu-Arabic numerals.In the (1202), Fibonacci introduced the so-called ''modus Indorum'' (method of the Indians), today known as the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, with ten digits including a zero and positional notation.", "The book showed the practical use and value of this by applying the numerals to commercial bookkeeping, converting weights and measures, calculation of interest, money-changing, and other applications.", "The book was well-received throughout educated Europe and had a profound impact on European thought.", "Replacing Roman numerals, its ancient Egyptian multiplication method, and using an abacus for calculations, was an advance in making business calculations easier and faster, which assisted the growth of banking and accounting in Europe.The original 1202 manuscript is not known to exist.", "In a 1228 copy of the manuscript, the first section introduces the numeral system and compares it with others, such as Roman numerals, and methods to convert numbers to it.", "The second section explains uses in business, for example converting different currencies, and calculating profit and interest, which were important to the growing banking industry.", "The book also discusses irrational numbers and prime numbers." ], [ "Fibonacci sequence", " posed and solved a problem involving the growth of a population of rabbits based on idealized assumptions.", "The solution, generation by generation, was a sequence of numbers later known as Fibonacci numbers.", "Although Fibonacci's contains the earliest known description of the sequence outside of India, the sequence had been described by Indian mathematicians as early as the sixth century.In the Fibonacci sequence, each number is the sum of the previous two numbers.", "Fibonacci omitted the \"0\" and first \"1\" included today and began the sequence with 1, 2, 3, ... .", "He carried the calculation up to the thirteenth place, the value 233, though another manuscript carries it to the next place, the value 377.Fibonacci did not speak about the golden ratio as the limit of the ratio of consecutive numbers in this sequence." ], [ "Legacy", "In the 19th century, a statue of Fibonacci was set in Pisa.", "Today it is located in the western gallery of the Camposanto, historical cemetery on the Piazza dei Miracoli.There are many mathematical concepts named after Fibonacci because of a connection to the Fibonacci numbers.", "Examples include the Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity, the Fibonacci search technique, and the Pisano period.", "Beyond mathematics, namesakes of Fibonacci include the asteroid 6765 Fibonacci and the art rock band The Fibonaccis." ], [ "Works", "* (1202), a book on calculations (English translation by Laurence Sigler, 2002)* ''Practica Geometriae'' (1220), a compendium of techniques in surveying, the measurement and partition of areas and volumes, and other topics in practical geometry (English translation by Barnabas Hughes, Springer, 2008).", "* ''Flos'' (1225), solutions to problems posed by Johannes of Palermo* ''Liber quadratorum'' (\"The Book of Squares\") on Diophantine equations, dedicated to Emperor Frederick II.", "See in particular congruum and the Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity.", "* ''Di minor guisa'' (on commercial arithmetic; lost)* ''Commentary on Book X of Euclid's Elements'' (lost)" ], [ "See also", "* Fibonacci numbers in popular culture* Republic of Pisa* Adelard of Bath" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "** Goetzmann, William N. and Rouwenhorst, K.Geert (2005).", "''The Origins of Value: The Financial Innovations That Created Modern Capital Markets''.", "Oxford University Press Inc., US, .", "* Goetzmann, William N., '' Fibonacci and the Financial Revolution'' (October 23, 2003), Yale School of Management International Center for Finance Working Paper No.", "03–28* Grimm, R. E., \" The Autobiography of Leonardo Pisano\", Fibonacci Quarterly, Vol.", "11, No.", "1, February 1973, pp. 99–104.", "* Horadam, A. F. \"Eight hundred years young,\" ''The Australian Mathematics Teacher'' 31 (1975) 123–134.", "* Gavin, J., Schärlig, A., extracts of online and analyzed on ''BibNum'' click 'à télécharger' for English analysis" ], [ "External links", "* \"Fibonacci, Leonardo, or Leonardo of Pisa.\"", "Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography.", "2008.Encyclopedia.com.", "(April 20, 2015).", "* Fibonacci at Convergence** Fibonacci (2 vol., 1857 & 1862) ''Il liber abaci'' and ''Practica Geometriae'' – digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library* Fibonacci, Liber abbaci Bibliotheca Augustana" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lake Superior" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lake Superior''' is the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area and the third-largest by volume, holding 10% of the world's surface fresh water.", "Located in central North America, it is the northernmost and westernmost of the Great Lakes of North America, straddling the Canada–United States border with the Canadian province of Ontario to the north and east and the U.S. states of Minnesota to the west and Michigan and Wisconsin to the south.", "It drains into Lake Huron via St. Marys River, then through the lower Great Lakes to the St. Lawrence River and ultimately the Atlantic Ocean." ], [ "Name", "False color view of Lake Superior as seen by the AVHRR instrument onboard MetOp-B.", "Made in a 221 composition, so colors are approximate.", "Received by an amateur station via the HRPT downlink with a 1m parabolic antenna.Map of Great Lakes (Lake Superior in darker blue)The Ojibwe name for the lake is ''gichi-gami'' (in syllabics: , pronounced ''gitchi-gami'' or ''kitchi-gami'' in different dialects), meaning \"great sea\".", "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote this name as \"Gitche Gumee\" in the poem ''The Song of Hiawatha'', as did Gordon Lightfoot in his song \"The Wreck of the ''Edmund Fitzgerald''\".According to other sources, the full Ojibwe name is ''Ojibwe Gichigami'' (\"Ojibwe's Great Sea\") or ''Anishinaabe Gichigami'' (\"Anishinaabe's Great Sea\").", "The 1878 dictionary by Father Frederic Baraga, the first one written for the Ojibway language, gives the Ojibwe name as ''Otchipwe-kitchi-gami'' (a transliteration of ''Ojibwe Gichigami'').In the 17th century, the first French explorers approached the great inland sea by way of the Ottawa River and Lake Huron; they referred to their discovery as ''le lac supérieur'' (the upper lake, i.e., above Lake Huron).", "Some 17th-century Jesuit missionaries referred to it as ''Lac Tracy'' (for Alexandre de Prouville de Tracy).", "After taking control of the region from the French in the 1760s following their defeat in the French and Indian War, the British anglicized the lake's name to ''Superior'', \"on account of its being superior in magnitude to any of the lakes on that vast continent\"." ], [ "Hydrography", "Lake Superior empties into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River and the Soo Locks (Sault Ste.", "Marie locks).", "Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world by area and the third largest in volume, behind Lake Baikal in Siberia and Lake Tanganyika in East Africa.", "The Caspian Sea, while larger than Lake Superior in both surface area and volume, is brackish.Lake Superior deepest point on the bathymetric map.Lake Superior has a surface area of , which is approximately the size of South Carolina or Austria.", "It has a maximum length of and maximum breadth of .", "Its average depth is with a maximum depth of .", "Lake Superior contains 2,900 cubic miles (12,100 km³) of water.", "There is enough water in Lake Superior to cover the entire land mass of North and South America to a depth of .", "The shoreline of the lake stretches (including islands).", "The lake boasts a very small ratio (1.55) of catchment area to surface area, which indicates minimal terrestrial influence.", "American limnologist J. Val Klump was the first person to reach the lowest depth of Lake Superior on July 30, 1985, as part of a scientific expedition, which at 122 fathoms 1 foot () below sea level is the second-lowest spot in the continental interior of the United States and the third-lowest spot in the interior of the North American continent after Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories of Canada ( below sea level) and Iliamna Lake in Alaska .", "(Though Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States and deeper than Lake Superior, Crater Lake's elevation is higher and consequently its deepest point is ''above'' sea level.", ")While the temperature of the surface of Lake Superior varies seasonally, the temperature below is an almost constant 39 °F (4 °C).", "This variation in temperature makes the lake seasonally stratified.", "Twice per year, however, the water column reaches a uniform temperature of 39 °F (4 °C) from top to bottom, and the lake waters thoroughly mix.", "This feature makes the lake dimictic.", "Because of its volume, Lake Superior has a retention time of 191 years.Annual storms on Lake Superior regularly feature wave heights of over .", "Waves well over have been recorded.===Tributaries===Lake Superior basinLake Superior is fed by more than 200 rivers, including the Nipigon River, the St. Louis River, the Pigeon River, the Pic River, the White River, the Michipicoten River, the Bois Brule River and the Kaministiquia River.", "The lake's outlet at St. Marys River has a relatively steep gradient with rapids.", "The Soo Locks enable ships to bypass the rapids and to overcome the height difference between Lakes Superior and Huron.===Water levels===A frozen Duluth Harbor EntranceThe lake's average surface elevation is above sea level.", "Until approximately 1887, the natural hydraulic conveyance through the St. Marys River rapids determined the outflow from Lake Superior.", "By 1921, development in support of transportation and hydroelectric power resulted in gates, locks, power canals and other control structures completely spanning St. Marys rapids.", "The regulating structure is known as the Compensating Works and is operated according to a regulation plan known as Plan 1977-A.", "Water levels, including diversions of water from the Hudson Bay watershed, are regulated by the International Lake Superior Board of Control, which was established in 1914 by the International Joint Commission.Lake Superior's water level was at a new record low in September 2007, slightly less than the previous record low in 1926.Water levels recovered within a few days.", "'''Historic high water'''The lake's water level fluctuates from month to month, with the highest lake levels in October and November.", "The normal high-water mark is above the datum (601.1 ft or 183.2 m).", "In the summer of 1985, Lake Superior reached its highest recorded level at above the datum.", "2019 and 2020 set new high-water records in nearly every month.", "'''Historic low water'''The lake's lowest levels occur in March and April.", "The normal low-water mark is below the datum.", "In the winter of 1926 Lake Superior reached its lowest recorded level at below the datum.", "Additionally, the entire first half of the year (January to June) included record low months.", "The low water was a continuation of the dropping lake levels from the previous year, 1925, which set low-water records for October through December.", "During the nine-month period of October 1925 to June 1926, water levels ranged from to below Chart Datum.", "In the summer of 2007 monthly historic lows were set; August at , and September at .===Climate change===According to a study by professors at the University of Minnesota Duluth, Lake Superior may have warmed faster than its surrounding area.", "Summer surface temperatures in the lake appeared to have increased by about between 1979 and 2007, compared with an approximately increase in the surrounding average air temperature.", "The increase in the lake's surface temperature may be related to the decreasing ice cover.", "Less winter ice cover allows more solar radiation to penetrate and warm the water.", "If trends continue, Lake Superior, which freezes over completely once every 20 years, could routinely be ice-free by 2040 although more current data through 2021 does not support this trend.", "Warmer temperatures could lead to more snow in the lake effect snow belts along the shores of the lake, especially in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.", "Two recent consecutive winters (2013–2014 and 2014–2015) brought high ice coverage to the Great Lakes, and on March 6, 2014, overall ice coverage peaked at 92.5%, the second-highest in recorded history.", "Lake Superior's ice coverage further beat 2014's record in 2019, reaching 95% coverage." ], [ "Geography", "''Lake Superior'', by Walter ShirlawThe largest island in Lake Superior is Isle Royale in Michigan.", "Isle Royale contains several lakes, some of which also contain islands.", "Other well-known islands include Madeline Island in Wisconsin, Michipicoten Island in Ontario, and Grand Island (the location of the Grand Island National Recreation Area) in Michigan.The larger cities on Lake Superior include the twin ports of Duluth, Minnesota, and Superior, Wisconsin; Thunder Bay, Ontario; Marquette, Michigan; and the twin cities of Sault Ste.", "Marie, Michigan, and Sault Ste.", "Marie, Ontario.", "Duluth-Superior, at the western end of Lake Superior, is the most inland point on the Saint Lawrence Seaway and the most inland port in the world.Among the scenic places on the lake are Apostle Islands National Lakeshore, Brockway Mountain Drive on the Keweenaw Peninsula, Isle Royale National Park, Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park, Pukaskwa National Park, Lake Superior Provincial Park, Grand Island National Recreation Area, Sleeping Giant (Ontario) and Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore.", "The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River." ], [ "Climate", "Lake Superior's size reduces the severity of the seasons of its humid continental climate (more typically seen in locations like Nova Scotia).", "The water surface's slow reaction to temperature changes, seasonally ranging between 32 and 55 °F (0–13 °C) around 1970, helps to moderate surrounding air temperatures in the summer (cooler with frequent sea breeze formations) and winter, and creates lake-effect snow in colder months.", "The hills and mountains that border the lake hold moisture and fog, particularly in the fall." ], [ "Geology", "Midcontinent Rift.The rocks of Lake Superior's northern shore date back to the early history of the earth.", "During the Precambrian (between 4.5 billion and 540 million years ago) magma forcing its way to the surface created the intrusive granites of the Canadian Shield.", "These ancient granites can be seen on the North Shore today.", "It was during the Penokean orogeny, part of the process that created the Great Lakes tectonic zone, that many valuable metals were deposited.", "The region surrounding the lake has proved to be rich in minerals, with copper, iron, silver, gold and nickel the most frequently mined.", "Notable production includes gold from the Hemlo mine near Marathon, copper from the Keweenaw Peninsula and the Mamainse Point Formation, iron from the Gogebic Range, silver at Silver Islet, and uranium at Theano Point.The mountains steadily eroded, depositing layers of sediments that compacted and became limestone, dolomite, taconite and the shale at Kakabeka Falls.", "The continental crust was later riven, creating one of the deepest rifts in the world.", "The lake lies in this long-extinct Mesoproterozoic rift valley, the Midcontinent Rift.", "Magma was injected between layers of sedimentary rock, forming diabase sills.", "This hard diabase protects the layers of sedimentary rock below, forming the flat-topped mesas in the Thunder Bay area.", "Amethyst formed in some of the cavities created by the Midcontinent Rift, and there are several amethyst mines in the Thunder Bay area.Basaltic columns along Lake SuperiorLava erupted from the rift and formed the black basalt rock of Michipicoten Island, Black Bay Peninsula, and St. Ignace Island.In the most recent geological history, during the Wisconsin glaciation 10,000 years ago, ice covered the region at a thickness of .", "The land contours familiar today were carved by the advance and retreat of the ice sheet.", "The retreat left gravel, sand, clay and boulder deposits.", "Glacial meltwaters gathered in the Superior basin creating Lake Minong, a precursor to Lake Superior.", "Without the immense weight of the ice, the land rebounded, and a drainage outlet formed at Sault Ste.", "Marie, becoming today's St. Mary's River." ], [ "History", "Historical map of Lake Superior and Northern Michigan, published 1879 by Rand McNallyThe first people came to the Lake Superior region 10,000 years ago after the retreat of the glaciers in the Last Glacial Period.", "They are known as the Plano, and they used stone-tipped spears to hunt caribou on the northwestern side of Lake Minong.", "The Shield Archaic peoples arrived around 5000 BC; evidence of this culture can be found at the eastern and western ends of the Canadian shore.", "They used bows and arrows, paddled dugout canoes, fished, hunted, mined copper for tools and weapons, and established trading networks.", "They are believed to be the direct ancestors of the Ojibwe and Cree.", "The people of the Laurel complex (c. 500 BC to AD 500) developed seine net fishing, evidence being found at rivers around Superior such as the Pic and Michipicoten.", "The people of the Terminal Woodland period were evident in the area from AD 900 to 1650.They were Algonquian peoples who hunted, fished and gathered berries.", "They used snowshoes, birch bark canoes and conical or domed lodges.", "At the mouth of the Michipicoten River, nine layers of encampments have been discovered.", "Most of the Pukaskwa Pits were likely made during this time.Pictographs at Lake Superior Provincial Park, OntarioThe Anishinaabe people (an ethnic grouping including the Ojibwe/Chippewa) have inhabited the Lake Superior region for over five hundred years and were preceded by the Dakota, Meskwaki (Fox), Menominee, Nipigon, Noquet and Gros Ventres.", "After the arrival of Europeans, the Anishinaabe made themselves middle-men between the French fur traders and other Native peoples.", "They soon became the dominant Native American nation in the region: they forced out the Sioux and Fox and won a victory against the Iroquois west of Sault Ste.", "Marie in 1662.By the mid-18th century, the Ojibwe occupied all of Lake Superior's shores.Reconstructed Great Hall, Grand Portage National Monument, MinnesotaIn the 18th century, as the booming fur trade supplied Europe with beaver hats, the Hudson's Bay Company had a virtual monopoly in the region until 1783, when the rival North West Company was formed.", "The North West Company built forts on Lake Superior at Grand Portage, Fort William, Nipigon, the Pic River, the Michipicoten River, and Sault Ste.", "Marie.", "But by 1821, with competition harming the profits of both, the companies merged under the Hudson's Bay Company name.", "Many towns around the lake are current or former mining areas, or engaged in processing or shipping.", "Today, tourism is another significant industry: the sparsely populated Lake Superior country, with its rugged shorelines and wilderness, attracts vacationers and adventurers.===Shipping===\"Ice blockade in Marquette Harbor, June 1873\", stereoscopic photoLake Superior has been an important link in the Great Lakes Waterway, providing a route for the transportation of iron ore as well as grain and other mined and manufactured materials.", "Large cargo vessels called lake freighters, as well as smaller ocean-going freighters, transport these commodities across Lake Superior.", "Shipping was slow to arrive at Lake Superior in the 19th century.", "The first steamboat to run on the lake was the ''Independence'' in 1847, whereas the first steamers on the other Great Lakes began sailing in 1816.Ice closes the lake shipping from mid-January to late March.", "Exact dates for the shipping season vary each year, depending on weather conditions that form and break the ice.===Shipwrecks===The southern shore of Lake Superior between Grand Marais, Michigan, and Whitefish Point is known as the \"Graveyard of the Great Lakes\"; more ships have been lost around the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior.", "These shipwrecks are now protected by the Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve.", "Storms that claimed multiple ships include the Mataafa Storm in November 1905 and the Great Lakes Storm of 1913.Wreckage of —a ore carrier that sank on October 11, 1907, during a Lake Superior storm in 77 fathoms () of water—was located in August 2007.Built in Lorain, Ohio, ''Cyprus'' was launched August 17, 1907, and was lost on her second voyage hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York, with the sole survivor among her 23 crew being Charles G. Pitz.", "In 1918 the last warships to sink in the Great Lakes, French minesweepers ''Inkerman'' and ''Cerisoles'', vanished in a Lake Superior storm, perhaps upon striking the uncharted danger of the Superior Shoal in an otherwise deep part of the lake.", "With 78 crewmembers dead, their sinking marked the largest loss of life on Lake Superior to date.", "was the latest ship to sink in Lake Superior, from Whitefish Point in a storm on November 10, 1975.The wreck was immortalized by Gordon Lightfoot in his ballad \"The Wreck of the ''Edmund Fitzgerald''\".", "All 29 crew members died, and no bodies were recovered.", "''Edmund Fitzgerald'' was battered so intensely by Lake Superior that the ship split in half; her two pieces lie approximately apart at a depth of 88 fathoms ().Lightfoot sings that \"Superior, they said, never gives up her dead\".", "This is because of the unusually cold water, under on average around 1970.Normally, bacteria decaying a sunken body will bloat it with gas, causing it to float to the surface after a few days.", "But Lake Superior's water is cold enough year-round to inhibit bacterial growth, and bodies tend to sink and never resurface.", "Joe MacInnis reported that in July 1994, explorer Frederick Shannon's Expedition 94 to the wreck of ''Edmund Fitzgerald'' discovered a man's body near the port side of her pilothouse, not far from the open door, \"fully clothed, wearing an orange life jacket, and lying face down in the sediment\".In February 2024 it was announced that wreckage from the ''Arlington'' was discovered from a sinking in 1940." ], [ "Ecology", "Bedrock shoreline, Neys Provincial Park, OntarioPictured Rocks National Lakeshore, MichiganMore than 80 species of fish have been found in Lake Superior.", "Species native to the lake include banded killifish, bloater, brook trout, burbot, cisco, lake sturgeon, lake trout, lake whitefish, longnose sucker, muskellunge, northern pike, pumpkinseed, rock bass, round whitefish, smallmouth bass, walleye, white sucker and yellow perch.", "In addition, many fish species have been either intentionally or accidentally introduced to Lake Superior: Atlantic salmon, brown trout, carp, chinook salmon, coho salmon, freshwater drum, pink salmon, rainbow smelt, rainbow trout, round goby, ruffe, sea lamprey and white perch.Lake Superior has fewer dissolved nutrients relative to its water volume than the other Great Lakes and so is less productive in terms of fish populations and is an oligotrophic lake.", "This is a result of the underdeveloped soils found in its relatively small watershed.", "It is also a reflection of relatively small human population and small amount of agriculture in its watershed.", "However, nitrate concentrations in the lake have been continuously rising for more than a century.", "They are still much lower than levels considered dangerous to human health; but this steady, long-term rise is an unusual record of environmental nitrogen buildup.", "It may relate to anthropogenic alternations to the regional nitrogen cycle, but researchers are still unsure of the causes of this change to the lake's ecology.As for other Great Lakes fish, populations have also been affected by the accidental or intentional introduction of foreign species such as the sea lamprey and Eurasian ruffe.", "Accidental introductions have occurred in part by the removal of natural barriers to navigation between the Great Lakes.", "Overfishing has also been a factor in the decline of fish populations." ], [ "See also", "* List of lakes in Ontario" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Lake Superior NOAA nautical chart #14961 online* International Lake Superior Board of Control* EPA's Great Lakes Atlas* EPA's Great Lakes Atlas Factsheet #1* Great Lakes Coast Watch* Parks Canada - Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area* Minnesota Sea Grant Lake Superior Page * Lake Superior Bathymetry * Lake Superior Trials" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Leipzig" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leipzig''' ( , ; Upper Saxon: ), with a population of 628,718 inhabitants as of 2023, is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony, the second-most populous city in the area of the former East Germany after (East) Berlin, and Germany's eighth-most populous.", "Leipzig/Halle Airport is situated in Schkeuditz, between Leipzig and Halle (Saale).", "The name of the city and those of many of its districts are of Slavic origin.Leipzig is located about southwest of Berlin, in the southernmost part of the North German Plain (the Leipzig Bay), at the confluence of the White Elster and its tributaries Pleiße and Parthe, that form an extensive inland delta in the city known as \"''''\"), along which Leipzig Riverside Forest, Europe's largest intra-city riparian forest has developed.", "Leipzig is at the centre of Neuseenland (''new lake district''), consisting of several artificial lakes created from former lignite open-pit mines.", "Leipzig has been a trade city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire.", "The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and the Via Imperii, two important medieval trade routes.", "Leipzig's trade fair dates back to 1190.Between 1764 and 1945, the city was a centre of publishing.", "After the Second World War and during the period of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) Leipzig remained a major urban centre in East Germany, but its cultural and economic importance declined.Events in Leipzig in 1989 played a significant role in precipitating the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe, mainly through demonstrations starting from St. Nicholas Church.", "The immediate effects of the reunification of Germany included the collapse of the local economy (which had come to depend on highly polluting heavy industry), severe unemployment, and urban blight.", "By the early 2000s the trend had reversed, and since then Leipzig has undergone some significant changes, including urban and economic rejuvenation, and modernisation of the transport infrastructure.Leipzig is home to one of the oldest universities in Europe (Leipzig University).", "It is the main seat of the German National Library (the second is Frankfurt), the seat of the German Music Archive, as well as of the German Federal Administrative Court.", "Leipzig Zoo is one of the most modern zoos in Europe and as of 2018 ranks first in Germany and second in Europe.", "The city's central railway terminus Leipzig Hauptbahnhof is, at 83,460 square metres (898,400 sq ft), Europe's largest railway station measured by floor area.", "Since Leipzig City Tunnel came into operation in 2013, it has formed the centrepiece of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland (''S-Bahn Central Germany'') public transit system, Germany's largest S-Bahn network, with a system length of 802 km (498 mi).Leipzig has long been a major centre for music, including classical and modern dark wave.", "The Thomanerchor (English: St. Thomas Choir of Leipzig), a boys' choir, was founded in 1212.The Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra, established in 1743, is one of the oldest symphony orchestras in the world.", "Several well-known composers lived and worked in Leipzig, including Johann Sebastian Bach (1723 to 1750) and Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1835 to 1847).", "The University of Music and Theatre \"Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy\" was founded in 1843.The Oper Leipzig, one of the most prominent opera houses in Germany, was founded in 1868.During a stay in Gohlis, which is now part of the city, Friedrich Schiller wrote his poem \"Ode to Joy\"." ], [ "Etymology", "===Name===An older spelling of Leipzig in English is ''''''.", "The Latin name '''''' was also used.The name ''Leipzig'' is ultimately derived from the Slavic designation for basswood (AE) or lime trees (BE) ().", "In the Slavic languages, linden trees are referred to as ''lipa'' (Upper and Lower Sorbian, Polish, Slovak, Serbian, Slovene and Croatian: , ).", "From this root stems the place name , which means \"settlement where the linden trees stand\".", "The city's name is in Upper Sorbian (an official language in eastern Saxony), Lower Sorbian and Polish, and in Czech and Slovak.", "In 1937 the Nazi government officially renamed the city '''' (Reich Trade Fair City Leipzig).In 1989 Leipzig was dubbed a Hero City, alluding to the honorary title awarded in the former Soviet Union to certain cities that played a key role in the victory of the Allies during the Second World War, in recognition of the role that the Monday demonstrations there played in the fall of the East German regime.More recently, the city has sometimes been nicknamed the \"Boomtown of eastern Germany\", \"Hypezig\" or \"The better Berlin\" and is celebrated by the media as a hip urban centre for its vibrant lifestyle and creative scene with many startups." ], [ "Geography", "The skyline of Leipzig seen from Cospudener See in the NeuseenlandThe White Elster in the Plagwitz district of LeipzigLeipzig Riparian Forest (''Leipziger Auenwald'')===Location===Leipzig is located in the Leipzig Bay, the southernmost part of the North German Plain, which is the part of the North European Plain in Germany.", "The city sits on the White Elster, a river that rises in the Czech Republic and flows into the Saale south of Halle.", "The Pleiße and the Parthe join the White Elster in Leipzig, and the large inland delta-like landscape the three rivers form is called ''Leipziger Gewässerknoten''.", "The site is characterized by swampy areas such as the Leipzig Riparian Forest (''Leipziger Auenwald''), though there are also some limestone areas to the north of the city.", "The landscape is mostly flat, though there is also some evidence of moraine and drumlins.Although there are some forest parks within the city limits, the area surrounding Leipzig is relatively unforested.", "During the 20th century, there were several open-pit mines in the region, many of which have been converted to lakes.", "Also see: NeuseenlandLeipzig is also situated at the intersection of the ancient roads known as the Via Regia (King's highway), which traversed Germany in an east–west direction, and the Via Imperii (Imperial highway), a north–south road.Leipzig was a walled city in the Middle Ages and the current \"ring\" road around the historic centre of the city follows the line of the old city walls.===Subdivision===Since 1992 Leipzig has been divided administratively into ten ''Stadtbezirke'' (boroughs), which in turn contain a total of 63 ''Ortsteile'' (localities).", "Some of these correspond to outlying villages which have been annexed by Leipzig.+ ''Stadtbezirke'' of Leipzig Stadtbezirk Pop.", "(2020) Area km2Pop.per km2 OrtsteileMitte65,91213.96 Zentrum, Zentrum-Ost, Zentrum-Südost, Zentrum-Süd, Zentrum-West, Zentrum-Nordwest, Zentrum-NordNordost48,22726.31 Schönefeld-Abtnaundorf, Schönefeld-Ost, Mockau-Süd, Mockau-Nord, Thekla, Plaußig-PortitzOst85,51940.73 Neustadt-Neuschönefeld, Volkmarsdorf, Anger-Crottendorf, Sellerhausen-Stünz, Paunsdorf, Heiterblick, Engelsdorf/Sommerfeld, Althen, Baalsdorf, Kleinpösna/Hirschfeld, MölkauSüdost62,50634.72 Reudnitz-Thonberg, Stötteritz, Probstheida, Meusdorf, Holzhausen, LiebertwolkwitzSüd67,07916.95 Südvorstadt, Connewitz, Marienbrunn, Lößnig, Dölitz-DösenSüdwest55,74246.56 Schleußig, Plagwitz, Kleinzschocher, Großzschocher, Knautkleeberg-Knauthain, Hartmannsdorf-KnautnaundorfWest54,19014.69 Schönau, Grünau-Ost, Grünau-Mitte, Grünau-Siedlung, Lausen-Grünau, Grünau-Nord, MiltitzAlt-West59,64326.21 Lindenau, Altlindenau, Neulindenau, Leutzsch, Böhlitz-Ehrenberg, Burghausen, RückmarsdorfNordwest34,71039.07 Möckern, Wahren, Lindenthal, Breitenfeld, Lützschena, StahmelnNord71,87838.61 Gohlis-Süd, Gohlis-Mitte, Gohlis-Nord, Eutritzsch, Seehausen, Göbschelwitz, Hohenheida, Gottscheina, Wiederitzsch===Neighbouring communities===DelitzschJesewitzSchkeuditzRackwitzTaucha100pxBorsdorfBrandisMarkranstädtMarkkleebergNaunhofKitzenZwenkauGrosspoesna===Climate===Like many cities in Eastern Germany, Leipzig has an oceanic climate (Köppen: ''Cfb'' close to a ''Dfb'' 0 °C US isotherm), with significant continental influences due to its inland location.", "Winters are cold, with an average temperature of around .", "Summers are generally warm, averaging at with daytime temperatures of .", "Precipitation in winter is about half that of the summer.", "The amount of sunshine differs significantly between winter and summer, with an average of around 51 hours of sunshine in December (1.7 hours per day) compared with 229 hours of sunshine in July (7.4 hours per day)." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Leipzig in the 17th centuryLeipzig was first documented in 1015 in the chronicles of Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg as '''' (, VII, 25) and endowed with city and market privileges in 1165 by Otto the Rich.", "Leipzig Trade Fair, started in the Middle Ages, has become an event of international importance and is the oldest surviving trade fair in the world.There are records of commercial fishing operations on the river Pleiße that, most likely, refer to Leipzig dating back to 1305, when the Margrave Dietrich the Younger granted the fishing rights to the church and convent of St Thomas.There were a number of monasteries in and around the city, including a Franciscan monastery after which the (Barefoot Alley) is named and a monastery of Irish monks (, destroyed in 1544) near the present day (the old '''').The University of Leipzig was founded in 1409 and Leipzig developed into an important centre of German law and of the publishing industry in Germany, resulting, in the 19th and 20th centuries, with the Reichsgericht (Imperial Court of Justice) and the German National Library being located here.During the Thirty Years' War, two battles took place in , about outside Leipzig city walls.", "The first Battle of Breitenfeld took place in 1631 and the second in 1642.Both battles resulted in victories for the Swedish-led side.On 24 December 1701, when Franz Conrad Romanus was mayor, an oil-fueled street lighting system was introduced.", "The city employed light guards who had to follow a specific schedule to ensure the punctual lighting of the 700 lanterns.===19th century===Battle of Leipzig, 1813The Leipzig region was the arena of the 1813 Battle of Leipzig between Napoleonic France and an allied coalition of Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden.", "It was the largest battle in Europe before the First World War and the coalition victory ended Napoleon's presence in Germany and would ultimately lead to his first exile on Elba.", "The Monument to the Battle of the Nations celebrating the centenary of this event was completed in 1913.In addition to stimulating German nationalism, the war had a major impact in mobilizing a civic spirit in numerous volunteer activities.", "Many volunteer militias and civic associations were formed, and collaborated with churches and the press to support local and state militias, patriotic wartime mobilization, humanitarian relief and postwar commemorative practices and rituals.When it was made a terminus of the first German long-distance railway to Dresden (the capital of Saxony) in 1839, Leipzig became a hub of Central European railway traffic, with Leipzig Hauptbahnhof the largest terminal station by area in Europe.", "The railway station has two grand entrance halls, the eastern one for the Royal Saxon State Railways and the western one for the Prussian state railways.In the 19th century, Leipzig was a centre of the German and Saxon liberal movements.", "The first German labor party, the General German Workers' Association (''Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein'', ADAV) was founded in Leipzig on 23 May 1863 by Ferdinand Lassalle; about 600 workers from across Germany travelled to the foundation on the new railway.", "Leipzig expanded rapidly to more than 700,000 inhabitants.", "Huge areas were built, which mostly survived both war and post-war demolition.Augustusplatz with Leipzig Opera House, ===20th century===New Town Hall of Leipzig, built in 1905With the opening of a fifth production hall in 1907, the Leipziger Baumwollspinnerei became the largest cotton mill company on the continent, housing over 240,000 spindles.", "Yearly production surpassed 5 million kilograms of yarn.During World War I, in 1917, the American Consulate was closed, and its building became a temporary place of stay for Americans and Allied refugees from Serbia, Romania and Japan.During the 1930s and 1940s, music was prominent throughout Leipzig.", "Many students attended Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy College of Music and Theatre (then named Landeskonservatorium.)", "However, in 1944, it was closed due to World War II.", "It re-opened soon after the war ended in 1945.On 22 May 1930, Carl Friedrich Goerdeler was elected mayor of Leipzig.", "He later became an opponent of the Nazi regime.", "He resigned in 1937 when, in his absence, his Nazi deputy ordered the destruction of the city's statue of Felix Mendelssohn.", "On Kristallnacht in 1938, the 1855 Moorish Revival Leipzig synagogue, one of the city's most architecturally significant buildings, was deliberately destroyed.", "Goerdeler was later executed by the Nazis on 2 February 1945.Several thousand forced labourers were stationed in Leipzig during the Second World War.Beginning in 1933, many Jewish citizens of Leipzig were members of the Gemeinde, a large Jewish religious community spread throughout Germany, Austria and Switzerland.", "In October 1935, the Gemeinde helped found the Lehrhaus (English: a house of study) in Leipzig to provide different forms of studies to Jewish students who were prohibited from attending any institutions in Germany.", "Jewish studies were emphasized and much of the Jewish community of Leipzig became involved.Like all other cities claimed by the Nazis, Leipzig was subject to aryanisation.", "Beginning in 1933 and increasing in 1939, Jewish business owners were forced to give up their possessions and stores.", "This eventually intensified to the point where Nazi officials were strong enough to evict the Jews from their own homes.", "They also had the power to force many of the Jews living in the city to sell their houses.", "Many people who sold their homes emigrated elsewhere, outside of Leipzig.", "Others moved to Judenhäuser, which were smaller houses that acted as ghettos, housing large groups of people.The Jews of Leipzig were greatly affected by the Nuremberg Laws.", "However, due to the Leipzig Trade Fair and the international attention it garnered, Leipzig was especially cautious about its public image.", "Despite this, the Leipzig authorities were not afraid to strictly apply and enforce anti-semitic measures.On 20 December 1937, after the Nazis took control of the city, they renamed it Reichsmessestadt Leipzig, meaning the \"Imperial Trade Fair City Leipzig\".", "In early 1938, Leipzig saw an increase in Zionism through Jewish citizens.", "Many of these Zionists attempted to flee before deportations began.", "On 28 October 1938, Heinrich Himmler ordered the deportation of Polish Jews from Leipzig to Poland.", "The Polish Consulate sheltered 1,300 Polish Jews, preventing their deportation.On 9 November 1938, as part of Kristallnacht, in Gottschedstrasse, synagogues and businesses were set on fire.", "Only a couple of days later, on 11 November 1938, many Jews in the Leipzig area were deported to the Buchenwald Concentration Camp.", "As World War II came to an end, much of Leipzig was destroyed.", "Following the war, the Communist Party of Germany provided aid for the reconstruction of the city.In 1933, a census recorded that over 11,000 Jews were living in Leipzig.", "In the 1939 census, the number had fallen to roughly 4,500, and by January 1942 only 2,000 remained.", "In that month, these 2,000 Jews began to be deported.", "On 13 July 1942, 170 Jews were deported from Leipzig to Auschwitz concentration camp.", "On 19 September 1942, 440 Jews were deported from Leipzig to Theresienstadt concentration camp.", "On 18 June 1943, the remaining 18 Jews still in Leipzig were deported from Leipzig to Auschwitz.", "According to records of the two waves of deportations to Auschwitz there were no survivors.", "According to records of the Theresienstadt deportation, only 53 Jews survived.Memorial at the site of the Abtnaundorf massacreDuring the German invasion of Poland at the start of World War II, in September 1939, the Gestapo carried out arrests of prominent local Poles, and seized the Polish Consulate and its library.", "In 1941, the American Consulate was also closed by order of the German authorities.", "During the war, Leipzig was the location of five subcamps of the Buchenwald concentration camp, in which over 8,000 men, women and children were imprisoned, mostly Polish, Jewish, Soviet and French, but also Italian, Czech and Belgian.", "In April 1945, most surviving prisoners were sent on death marches to various destinations in Saxony and German-occupied Czechoslovakia, whereas prisoners of the Leipzig-Thekla subcamp who were unable to march were either burned alive, shot or beaten to death by the Gestapo, SS, ''Volkssturm'' and German civilians in the Abtnaundorf massacre.", "Some were rescued by Polish forced laborers of another camp; at least 67 people survived.", "84 victims were buried on 27 April 1945, however, the total number of victims remains unknown.Leipzig after bombing in the Second World WarDuring World War II, Leipzig was repeatedly struck by Allied bombing raids, beginning in 1943 and lasting until 1945.The first raid occurred on the morning of 4 December 1943, when 442 bombers of the Royal Air Force (RAF) dropped a total amount of almost 1,400 tons of explosives and incendiaries on the city, destroying large parts of the city centre.", "This bombing was the largest up to that time.", "Due to the close proximity of many of the buildings hit, a firestorm occurred.", "This prompted firefighters to rush to the city; however, they were unable to control the fires.", "Unlike the firebombing of the neighbouring city of Dresden, this was a largely conventional bombing with high explosives rather than incendiaries.", "The resultant pattern of loss was a patchwork, rather than wholesale loss of its centre, but was nevertheless extensive.The Allied ground advance into Germany reached Leipzig in late April 1945.The U.S. 2nd Infantry Division and U.S. 69th Infantry Division fought their way into the city on 18 April and completed its capture after fierce urban action, in which fighting was often house-to-house and block-to-block, on 19 April 1945.In April 1945, the Mayor of Leipzig, SS-''Gruppenführer'' Alfred Freyberg, his wife and daughter, together with Deputy Mayor and City Treasurer Ernest Kurt Lisso, his wife, daughter and ''Volkssturm'' Major and former Mayor Walter Dönicke, all committed suicide in Leipzig City Hall.The United States turned the city over to the Red Army as it pulled back from the line of contact with Soviet forces in July 1945 to the designated occupation zone boundaries.", "Leipzig became one of the major cities of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).Following the end of World War II in 1945, Leipzig saw a slow return of Jews to the city.", "They were joined by large numbers of German refugees who had been expelled from Central and Eastern Europe in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement.Monument to the Battle of the NationsIn the mid-20th century, the city's trade fair assumed renewed importance as a point of contact with the Comecon Eastern Europe economic bloc, of which East Germany was a member.", "At this time, trade fairs were held at a site in the south of the city, near the Monument to the Battle of the Nations.The planned economy of the German Democratic Republic, however, was not kind to Leipzig.", "Before the Second World War, Leipzig had developed a mixture of industry, creative business (notably publishing), and services (including legal services).", "During the period of the German Democratic Republic, services became the concern of the state, concentrated in East Berlin; creative business moved to West Germany; and Leipzig was left only with heavy industry.", "To make matters worse, this industry was extremely polluting, making Leipzig an even less attractive city to live in.", "Between 1950 and the end of the German Democratic Republic, the population of Leipzig fell from 600,000 to 500,000.In October 1989, after prayers for peace at St. Nicholas Church, established in 1983 as part of the peace movement, the Monday demonstrations started as the most prominent mass protest against the East German government.", "The reunification of Germany, however, was at first not good for Leipzig.", "The centrally planned heavy industry that had become the city's specialty was, in terms of the advanced economy of reunited Germany, almost completely unviable, and closed.", "Within only six years, 90% of jobs in industry had vanished.", "As unemployment rocketed, the population fell dramatically; some 100,000 people left Leipzig in the ten years after reunification, and vacant and derelict housing became an urgent problem.Starting in 2000, an ambitious (and subsequently much-praised ) urban-renewal plan first stopped Leipzig's decline and then reversed it.", "The plan focused on saving and improving as much as possible of the city's urban structure, especially its attractive historic downtown area and various architectural gems, and attracting new industries, partly through infrastructure improvement.===21st century===Leipzig is an important economic centre in Germany.", "Since the 2010s, the city has been celebrated by the media as a hip urban centre with a very high quality of living.", "It is often called \"The new Berlin\".", "Leipzig is also Germany's fastest growing city.", "Leipzig was the German candidate for the 2012 Summer Olympics, but was unsuccessful.", "After ten years of construction, the Leipzig City Tunnel opened on 14 December 2013.Leipzig forms the centrepiece of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland public transit system, which operates in the four German states of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia and Brandenburg." ], [ "Politics", "===Mayor===Results of the second round of the 2020 mayoral electionThe first freely elected mayor after German reunification was Hinrich Lehmann-Grube of the Social Democratic Party (SDP), who served from 1990 to 1998.The mayor was originally chosen by the city council, but since 1994 has been directly elected.", "Wolfgang Tiefensee, also of the SDP, served from 1998 until his resignation in 2005 to become federal Minister of Transport.", "He was succeeded by fellow SPD politician Burkhard Jung, who was elected in January 2006 and re-elected in 2013 and 2020.The most recent mayoral election was held on 2 February 2020, with a runoff held on 1 March, and the results were as follows: Candidate Party First round Second round Votes % Votes % Sebastian Gemkow Christian Democratic Union '''72,427''' '''31.6''' 107,611 47.6 Burkhard Jung Social Democratic Party 68,286 29.8 '''110,965''' '''49.1''' Franziska Riekewald The Left 31,036 13.5 Katharina Krefft Alliance 90/The Greens 27,481 12.0 Christoph Neumann Alternative for Germany 19,854 8.7 Katharina Subat Die PARTEI 5,467 2.4 Marcus Viefeld Free Democratic Party 2,739 1.2 Ute Elisabeth Gabelmann Pirate Party Germany 2,089 0.9 7,542 3.3 Valid votes 229,379 99.6 226,118 99.5 Invalid votes 822 0.4 1,235 0.5 Total 230,201 100.0 227,353 100.0 Electorate/voter turnout 469,225 49.1 469,269 48.4 Source: Wahlen in Sachsen===City council===Results of the 2019 city council electionWinning party by locality in the 2019 city council electionThe most recent city council election was held on 26 May 2019, and the results were as follows: Party Votes % +/- Seats +/- The Left (Die Linke) 171,423 21.4 2.8 15 3 Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) 165,683 20.7 5.7 15 4 Christian Democratic Union (CDU) 140,585 17.5 7.5 13 6 Alternative for Germany (AfD) 119,616 14.9 8.5 11 7 Social Democratic Party (SPD) 99,022 12.4 5.9 9 4 Free Democratic Party (FDP) 38,481 4.8 1.9 3 1 Die PARTEI (PARTEI) 30,764 3.8 2.7 2 2 Voters Association Leipzig (WVL) 20,369 2.5 0.7 1 ±0 Pirate Party Germany (Piraten) 11,512 1.4 0.5 1 ±0 Leipzigers for Basic Income 4,297 0.5 New 0 New Valid votes 274,916 98.7 Invalid votes 3,751 1.3 Total 278,667 100.0 70 ±0 Electorate/voter turnout 466,442 59.7 17.9 Source: Wahlen in Sachsen=== Bundestag ===Leipzig is represented in the Bundestag by three constituencies; Leipzig I, Leipzig II, and Leipzig-Land." ], [ "Demographics", "Population development since 1200Gondwanaland of Leipzig Zoo; St. Thomas Church; headquarters of Sparkasse Leipzig Bank; the Westin Hotel; and Museum of Fine Arts to the right.Leipzig has a population of about 620,000.In 1930, the population reached its historical peak of over 700,000.It decreased steadily from 1950 to about 530,000 in 1989.In the 1990s, the population decreased rather rapidly to 437,000 in 1998.This reduction was mostly due to outward migration and suburbanisation.", "After almost doubling the city area by incorporation of surrounding towns in 1999, the number stabilised and started to rise again, with an increase of 1,000 in 2000., Leipzig is the fastest-growing city in Germany with over 500,000 inhabitants.The growth of the past 10–15 years has mostly been due to inward migration.", "In recent years, inward migration accelerated, reaching an increase of 12,917 in 2014.In the years following German reunification, many people of working age took the opportunity to move to the states of the former West Germany to seek employment opportunities.", "This was a contributory factor to falling birth rates.", "Births dropped from 7,000 in 1988 to less than 3,000 in 1994.However, the number of children born in Leipzig has risen since the late 1990s.", "In 2011, it reached 5,490 births resulting in a RNI of −17.7 (−393.7 in 1995).The unemployment rate decreased from 18.2% in 2003 to 9.8% in 2014 and 7.6% in June 2017.The percentage of the population from an immigrant background is low compared with other German cities.", ", only 5.6% of the population were foreigners, compared to the German national average of 7.7%.The number of people with an immigrant background (immigrants and their children) grew from 49,323 in 2012 to 77,559 in 2016, making them 13.3% of the city's population (Leipzig's population 579,530 in 2016).The largest minorities (first and second generation) in Leipzig by country of origin as of 31 December 2021 are:RankAncestryTotalForeignersGermans11,76810,0221,7469,0598,5235368,7733,2145,5595,0193,0062,0134,1613,6754863,9302,4031,5272,8201,8001,0202,8162,1047122,2442461,9982,1711,9162551,9831,5644191,8141,3494651,6151,2383771,5941,0665281,5371,309232" ], [ "Culture, sights and cityscape", "In the 2010s, Leipzig was often referred to as ''Hypezig'', as overblown comparisons were made to 1990s and early 2000s Berlin.", "The affordability, diversity and openness of the city have attracted many young people from across Europe, leading to a trendsetting alternative atmosphere, resulting in an innovative music, dance and art scene.===Architecture===The historic central area of Leipzig features a Renaissance-style ensemble of buildings from the sixteenth century, including the old city hall in the marketplace.", "There are also several baroque period trading houses and former residences of rich merchants.", "As Leipzig grew considerably during the economic boom of the late-nineteenth century, the town has many buildings in the historicist style representative of the era.", "Approximately 35% of Leipzig's flats are in buildings of this type.", "The new city hall, completed in 1905, is built in the same style.Some 90,000 apartments in Leipzig were built in buildings during Communist rule in East Germany.", "and although some of these have been demolished and the numbers living in this type of accommodation have declined in recent years, a significant minority of people are still living in Plattenbau accommodation; Grünau, for example, had about 43,600 people living in this sort of accommodation in 2016.The St. Paul's Church was destroyed by the Communist government in 1968 to make room for a new main building for the university.", "After some debate, the city decided to establish a new, mainly secular building at the same location, called Paulinum, which was completed in 2012.Its architecture alludes to the look of the former church and it includes space for religious use by the faculty of theology, including the original altar from the old church and two newly built organs.Many commercial buildings were built in the 1990s as a result of tax breaks after German reunification.===Tallest buildings and structures===The tallest structure in Leipzig is the chimney of the Stahl- und Hartgusswerk Bösdorf GmbH with a height of .", "With .", "The tallest building in Leipzig is the City-Hochhaus Leipzig.", "From 1972 to 1973 it was Germany's tallest building.", "Buildings and structuresImage Height in metres YearNotesChimney of Stahl- und Hartgusswerk Bösdorf GmbH80px2051984Funkturm Leipzig80px1912015DVB-T-Sendeturm80px1901986Demolished in 2023 after loss of function.4 x Wind turbine Nordex N100 80px 1902013City-Hochhaus Leipzig80px1421972Total height 153 m, headquarters of European Energy Exchange.Fernmeldeturm Leipzig80px1321995Tower of New Town Hall80px1151905Tallest town hall in GermanyWintergartenhochhaus80px106.81972Used as residential towerThe Westin Leipzig80px951972Hotel with skybar and restaurantMonument to the Battle of the Nations80px911913Tallest monument in Europe.St.", "Peters'80px88.51885Leipzig's tallest church.MDR-Hochhaus80px652000MDR is one of Germany's public broadcasters.Hochhaus Löhr's Carree80px651997Headquarters of Sachsen Bank and Sparkasse Leipzig.Center Torgauer Platz80px631995Europahaus80px561929Headquarters of Stadtwerke Leipzig===Museums and the arts===One of the highlights of the city's contemporary arts was the Neo Rauch retrospective opening in April 2010 at the Leipzig Museum of Fine Arts.", "This is a show devoted to the father of the New Leipzig School of artists.", "According to ''The New York Times'', this scene \"has been the toast of the contemporary art world\" for the past decade.", "In addition, there are eleven galleries in the so-called Spinnerei.The Grassi Museum complex contains three more of Leipzig's major collections: the Ethnography Museum, Applied Arts Museum and Musical Instrument Museum (the last of which is run by the University of Leipzig).", "The university also runs the Museum of Antiquities.Founded in March 2015, the G2 Kunsthalle houses the Hildebrand Collection.", "This private collection focuses on the so-called New Leipzig School.", "Leipzig's first private museum dedicated to contemporary art in Leipzig after the turn of the millennium is located in the city centre close to the famous St. Thomas Church on the third floor of the former GDR processing centre.Other museums in Leipzig include the following:*The German Museum of Books and Writing is the world's oldest museum of its kind, founded in 1884.", "*The Egyptian Museum of the University of Leipzig comprises a collection of about 7,000 artefacts from several millennia.", "*The Schillerhaus is the house where Schiller lived in summer 1785.", "*The Zeitgeschichtliches Forum Leipzig (Forum of Contemporary History) shows the history of the German division and the everyday life in the socialist German Democratic Republic.", "*Naturkundemuseum Leipzig is the city's natural history museum.", "*The Leipzig Panometer is a visual panorama displayed inside a former gasometer, accompanied by a thematic exhibition.", "*The \"Museum in der Runden Ecke\" is the best known museum in the city.", "It deals with the operation of the Stasi State Security of former East Germany.", "*Johann Sebastian Bach lived from 1723 until his death in Leipzig.", "The Bach Archive is an institution for the documentation and research of his life and work.", "*Mendelssohn House, home of Felix Mendelssohn from 1845 until his death in 1847.", "*Schumann House, home of Robert and Clara Schumann from 1840 to 1844.", "* The Saxon Psychiatric Museum is a small museum dealing with the history of lunatic asylums and psychiatry.File:DNB2012.JPG|German Museum of Books and WritingFile:Ägyptisches Museum Leipzig 099.jpg|Exhibits of the Egyptian MuseumFile:Leipzig-Grassi-Museen.jpg|Grassi MuseumFile:LE-Connewitz Gasometer I Arena-02.jpg|Inside Gasometer, next to the PanometerFile:Runde Ecke Leipzig.jpg|Museum in der Runden EckeFile:Museum der bildenden Künste.JPG|Museum of Fine ArtsFile:Baumwollspinnerei.jpg|Baumwollspinnerei===Main sights===*Leipzig Zoological Garden is one of the most modern zoos in Europe, with approximately 850 different animal species.", "It houses the world's largest zoological facilities for primates (Pongoland).", "Gondwanaland is the world's largest indoor rainforest hall.", "*Monument to the Battle of the Nations (''Völkerschlachtdenkmal'') (Battle of the Nations Monument): one of the largest monuments in Europe, built to commemorate the victorious battle against Napoleonic troops.", "*Bundesverwaltungsgericht: Germany's federal administrative court was the site of the Reichsgericht, the highest state court between 1888 and 1945.", "*New Town Hall: the city's administrative building was built upon the remains of the ''Pleissenburg'', a castle that was the site of the 1519 debate between Johann Eck and Martin Luther.", "It is also Germany's tallest town hall.", "* Old Town Hall on the Market square: the old city hall was built in 1556 and houses a museum of the city's history.", "*City-Hochhaus Leipzig: built in 1972, the city's tallest habitable building is one of the top 25 tallest buildings in Germany.", "*The Augusteum and Paulinum at Augustusplatz form the new main campus of the University of Leipzig.", "*Leipzig Trade Fair centre in the north of the city is home to the world's largest levitated glass hall.", "*Leipzig Hauptbahnhof is the world's largest railway station by floor area and a shopping destination.", "*Auerbach's Cellar: a young Goethe imbibed in this basement-level restaurant while studying in Leipzig; it features as the location of a scene from his play ''Faust''.", "*The Old Leipzig bourse at Naschmarkt with a monument of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.", "*South Cemetery (Südfriedhof) is, with an area of 82 hectares, the largest cemetery in Leipzig.", "*The German National Library has two locations, one of them in Leipzig.", "*Leipzig Bayerischer Bahnhof is Germany's oldest preserved railway station.", "*Gohlis Manor House (Gohliser Schlösschen)*Leipzig Synagogue was destroyed by the Nazis in 1938.Now a memorial of 140 bronze chairs stands where the pews once were.File:Panoràmma de Leipzig.jpg|AugustusplatzFile:Leipzig - Zoo - Gondwanaland in 14 ies.jpg|Inside Gondwanaland at Leipzig Zoological GardenFile:VölkerschlachtdenkmalLeipzig1.jpg|Monument to the Battle of the NationsFile:Leipzig (Rathausturm, Neues Rathaus) 18 ies.jpg|Federal Administrative Court of GermanyFile:Neues Rathaus Leipzig jpg8.jpg|New city hallFile:Old city hall of Leipzig (5).jpg|Old city hall at market squareFile:Rainbowflash 2013 Leipzig (4).jpg|City-HochhausFile:Uni Leipzig Paulinum Universitätskirche St. Pauli 216-cvh.jpg|New Augusteum of the University of LeipzigFile:Messe Pano DRI.jpg|Leipzig Trade FairFile:Bahnhof Leipzig von Panorama Tower 2013.jpg|Leipzig main stationFile:Schilder an Auerbachs Keller 2013.jpg|''Auerbachs Keller'' in the MädlerpassageFile:Ehemaliges Messehaus.jpg|Riquethaus (former Tradehouse)File:Goethe Statue Naschmarkt Leipzig.jpg|Old Leipzig bourseFile:Suedfriedhof Leipzig.jpg|SüdfriedhofFile:BibLeipzigaussen.JPG|German National LibraryFile:City-Tunnel Leipzig - Station Bayerischer Bahnhof 01 (Zugang 1).JPG|Leipzig Bayerischer BahnhofFile:Leipzig Gohliser Schloesschen.jpg|Gohliser SchlösschenFile:Synagogue Memorial (Leipzig) (3).jpg|Leipzig Synagogue MemorialFile:Yadegar Asisi Panorama EVEREST.jpg|'Everest' at Leipzig Panometer===Churches===*St. Thomas's Church (Thomaskirche): most famous as the place where Johann Sebastian Bach worked as a cantor and home to the renowned boys choir ''Thomanerchor''.", "A monument to Felix Mendelssohn stands in front of this church.", "Destroyed by the Nazis in 1936, the statue was re-erected on 18 October 2008.*St.", "Nicholas's Church (Nikolaikirche), for which Bach was also responsible.", "The weekly ''Montagsgebet'' (Monday prayer) held here became the starting point of peaceful Monday demonstrations against the DDR regime in the 1980s.*St.", "Peter's has the highest tower of any church in Leipzig, at .", "*The new Propsteikirche, opened in 2015.", "*The Continental Reformed Church of Leipzig (''Evangelisch-reformierte Kirche'') is one of the most prominent buildings on the Leipzig Innercity ring.", "*The Russian Church of Leipzig.*St.", "Michael's Church is one of the landmarks of Gohlis district.File:Nicolaikirche Leipzig.jpg|St.", "Nicholas ChurchFile:Saint Thomas church in Leipzig (18).jpg|St.", "Thomas ChurchFile:Peterskirche Leipzig easyHDR.jpg|St.", "Peter's ChurchFile:Neue Propsteikirche St. Trinitatis Leipzig.jpg|Propsteikirche in May 2015; New Town Hall in the backgroundFile:Evangel.-Reform.", "Kirche (3668182160).jpg|Continental Reformed church of LeipzigFile:Leipzig Russische Gedaechtniskirche.jpg|Russian Church of LeipzigFile:Michaelis-SWL.jpg|St.", "Michael's Church with the headquarters of ''Stadtwerke Leipzig'' to the right===Parks and lakes===Leipzig is well known for its large parks.", "The ''Leipziger Auwald'' (riparian forest) lies mostly within the city limits.", "Neuseenland is an area south of Leipzig where old open-cast mines are being converted into a huge lake district.", "It is planned to be finished in 2060.", "*Leipzig Botanical Garden is the oldest of its kind in Germany.", "It contains a total of some 7,000 plant species, of which nearly 3,000 species comprise ten special collections.", "* Johannapark and Clara-Zetkin-Park are the most prominent parks in the Leipzig city centre (Leipzig-Mitte).", "*''Leipziger Auwald'' covers a total area of approx.", "2,500 hectares.", "The Rosental is a park in the north of the forest and borders Leipzig Zoo.", "*Wildpark in Connewitz, showing 25 species.File:SDC11449 - Epipedobates anthonyi.JPG|Inside Leipzig Botanical GardenFile:Johannapark Leipzig.JPG|JohannaparkFile:Leipziger Auenwald April 2014 005.JPG|''Leipziger Auwald''File:Sonnenaufgang Rosental Leipzig.jpg|Rosental in the morningFile:Leipzig Friedenspark.jpg|FriedensparkFile:Markkleeberger See Strand.jpg|Markkleeberger SeeFile:Cospudener See (1) 2005-09-09.JPG|Cospudener See===Music=======Baroque to Modern====Johann Sebastian Bach spent the longest phase of his career in Leipzig, from 1723 until his death in 1750, conducting the Thomanerchor (St. Thomas Church Choir), at the St. Thomas Church, the St. Nicholas Church and the Paulinerkirche, the university church of Leipzig (destroyed in 1968).", "The composer Richard Wagner was born in Leipzig in 1813, in the Brühl.", "Robert Schumann was also active in Leipzig music, having been invited by Felix Mendelssohn when the latter established Germany's first musical conservatoire in the city in 1843.Gustav Mahler was second conductor (working under Artur Nikisch) at the Leipzig Opera from June 1886 until May 1888, and achieved his first significant recognition while there by completing and publishing Carl Maria von Weber's opera Die Drei Pintos.", "Mahler also completed his own 1st Symphony while living in Leipzig.Today the conservatory is the University of Music and Theatre Leipzig.", "A broad range of subjects are taught, including artistic and teacher training in all orchestral instruments, voice, interpretation, coaching, piano chamber music, orchestral conducting, choir conducting and musical composition in various musical styles.", "The drama departments teach acting and scriptwriting.The Bach-Archiv Leipzig, an institution for the documentation and research of the life and work of Bach (and also of the Bach family), was founded in Leipzig in 1950 by Werner Neumann.", "The Bach-Archiv organizes the prestigious International Johann Sebastian Bach Competition, initiated in 1950 as part of a music festival marking the bicentennial of Bach's death.", "The competition is now held every two years in three changing categories.", "The Bach-Archiv also organizes performances, especially the international festival Bachfest Leipzig and runs the Bach-Museum.The city's musical tradition is also reflected in the worldwide fame of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra, under its chief conductor Andris Nelsons, and the Thomanerchor.The MDR Leipzig Radio Symphony Orchestra is Leipzig's second largest symphony orchestra.", "Its current chief conductor is Kristjan Järvi.", "Both the Gewandhausorchester and the MDR Leipzig Radio Symphony Orchestra make use of in the Gewandhaus concert hall.For over sixty years Leipzig has been offering a \"school concert\" programme for children in Germany, with over 140 concerts every year in venues such as the Gewandhaus and over 40,000 children attending.====Contemporary====Leipzig is known for its independent music scene and subcultural events.", "Leipzig has for thirty years been home to the (WGT), which is currently the world's largest Gothic festival, where thousands of fans of goth music gather in the early summer.", "The first Wave Gotik Treffen was held at the Eiskeller club, today known as Conne Island, in the Connewitz district.", "Mayhem's notorious album Live in Leipzig was also recorded at the Eiskeller club.", "Leipzig Pop Up was an annual music trade fair for the independent music scene as well as a music festival taking place on Pentecost weekend.", "Its most famous indie-labels are Moon Harbour Recordings (House) and Kann Records (House/Techno/Psychedelic).", "Several venues offer live music frequently, including the Moritzbastei, Tonelli's, and Noch Besser Leben.", "''Die Prinzen'' (\"The Princes\") is a German band founded in Leipzig.", "With almost six million records sold, they are one of the most successful German bands.", "The cover photo for the Beirut band's 2005 album Gulag Orkestar, according to the sleeve notes, was stolen from a Leipzig library by Zach Condon.The city of Leipzig is also the birthplace of Till Lindemann, best known as the lead vocalist of Rammstein, a band formed in 1994.File:Opernhaus Leipzig Abend Nacht.jpg|Leipzig OperaFile:AUGUSTUSPLATZ-014.jpg|View over Augustusplatz with the GewandhausFile:Leipzig - Universitätsstraße - Moritzbastei 05 ies.jpg|Moritzbastei is the largest student club in Germany and is famous for its atmosphere and large number of cultural and music events.File:Johann Sebastian Bach Denkmal Leipzig.jpg|Monument of Johann Sebastian BachFile:Wahren3.jpg|Haus Auensee, a concert hall===Annual events===*Auto Mobil International (AMI) motor show*AMITEC, trade fair for vehicle maintenance, care, servicing and repairs in Germany and Central Europe*''A cappella'': vocal music festival, organized by the ensemble amarcord*''Bachfest'': Johann Sebastian Bach festival* Leipzig Christmas Market (since 1458)*''Dok Leipzig'': international festival for documentary and animated film*Jazztage, contemporary jazz festival*Ladyfest Leipzig (August) Emancipatoric, feminist punk and electro festival*Leipzig Book Fair: the second largest German book fair after Frankfurt*, festival celebrating the demonstrations leading up to the collapse of the East German regime*OPER unplugged with Music Dance Theatre by Heike Hennig & Co*''Stadtfest'': city festival* at Pentecost: world's largest goth or \"dark culture\" festival*Leipzig Pop Up*Chaos Communication CongressFile:Leipzig Messe Kongresszentrum Glashalle.jpg|Leipzig Trade FairFile:Leipziger Buchmesse 2015.jpg|Leipzig Book Fair 2015File:2016 WGT 002 Belantis.jpg|Wave-Gotik-Treffen 2016; Belantis park in the backgroundFile:Leipziger Weihnachtsmarkt Eingang.jpg|Leipzig Christmas market entranceFile:Dokwoche.jpg|DOK Leipzig===Food and drink===*An all-season local dish is Leipziger Allerlei, a stew consisting of seasonal vegetables and crayfish.", "*Leipziger Lerche is a shortcrust pastry dish filled with crushed almonds, nuts and strawberry jam; the name (\"Leipzig lark\") comes from a lark pâté which was a Leipzig speciality until the banning of songbird hunting in Saxony in 1876.", "*Gose is a locally brewed top-fermenting sour beer that originated in the Goslar region and became popular in 18th-century Leipzig.File:Leipziger Lerchen.jpg|Leipziger LerchenFile:Goseflasche Pressglas.jpg|Historical Gose bottle ()" ], [ "Sports", "There are more than 300 sport clubs in the city, representing 78 different disciplines.", "Over 400 athletic facilities are available to citizens and club members.===Football===Red Bull Arena from above.", "Home of RB Leipzig.Bruno-Plache-Stadion is the home stadion of 1.FC Lokomotive Leipzig.The German Football Association (DFB) was founded in Leipzig in 1900.The city was the venue for the 2006 FIFA World Cup draw, and hosted four first-round matches and one match in the round of 16 in the central stadium.VfB Leipzig won the first national Association football championship in 1903.The club was dissolved in 1946 and the remains reformed as SG Probstheida.", "The club was eventually reorganized as football club 1.FC Lokomotive Leipzig in 1966.1.FC Lokomotive Leipzig has had a glorious past in international competition as well, having been champions of the 1965–66 Intertoto Cup, semi-finalists in the 1973–74 UEFA Cup, and runners-up in the 1986–87 European Cup Winners' Cup.Red Bull took over a local 5th division football club SSV Markranstädt in May 2009, having previously been denied the right to buy into FC Sachsen Leipzig in 2006.The club was renamed RB Leipzig and came up through the ranks of German football, winning promotion to the Bundesliga, the highest division of German football in 2016.The club finished runners-up in its first-ever Bundesliga season and made its debut in the UEFA Champions League in 2017 and the Semi-Final in 2020.RB Leipzig won the DFB-Pokal football cup twice, in 2022 and 2023.List of Leipzig men and women's football clubs playing at state level and above:Club FoundedLeague LevelHome ground CapacityRB Leipzig2009Bundesliga1Red Bull Arena47,069RB Leipzig (women)201612.Frauen-Bundesliga2Sportanlage Gontardweg1,3001.FC Lokomotive Leipzig2003Regionalliga Nordost4Bruno-Plache-Stadion7,000BSG Chemie Leipzig19972Regionalliga Nordost4Alfred-Kunze-Sportpark4,999FC International Leipzig2013NOFV-Oberliga Süd5Sportpark Tresenwald1,500Roter Stern Leipzig1999Landesklasse Sachsen Nord7Sportpark Dölitz1,200Note 1: The RB Leipzig women's football team was formed in 2016 and began play in the 2016–17 season.Note 2: The club began play in the 2008–09 season.===Ice hockey===Since the beginning of the 20th century, ice hockey has gained popularity, and several local clubs established departments dedicated to that sport.===Handball===SC DHfK Leipzig is the men's handball club in Leipzig and were six times (1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1965 and 1966) the champion of East Germany handball league and was winner of EHF Champions League in 1966.They finally promoted to Handball-Bundesliga as champions of 2.Bundesliga in 2014–15 season.", "They play in the Arena Leipzig which has a capacity of 6,327 spectators in HBL games but can take up to 7,532 spectators for handball in maximum capacity.Handball-Club Leipzig is one of the most successful women's handball clubs in Germany, winning 21 domestic championships since 1953 and 2 Champions League titles.", "The team was however relegated to the third tier league in 2017 due to failing to achieve the economic standard demanded by the league licence.===American football===Leipzig Kings is an American football team playing in the European League of Football (ELF), which is a planned professional league, that is set to become the first fully professional league in Europe since the demise of NFL Europe.", "The Kings will start playing games against teams from Germany, Spain and Poland in June 2021.They play their home games at Alfred-Kunze-Sportpark.=== Speedway ===The Motodrom am Cottaweg is a motorcycle speedway stadium on the west side of the Neue Luppe, located on the Cottaweg road.", "The venue is used by the speedway club called Motorsport Club Post Leipzig e.V.", "and held the East German Speedway Championship in 1978 and a qualifying round of the Speedway World Team Cup in 1991.===Other sports===The artificial whitewater course Kanupark Markkleeberg at Markkleeberger SeeFrom 1950 to 1990 Leipzig was host of the Deutsche Hochschule für Körperkultur (DHfK, German College of Physical Culture), the national sports college of the GDR.Leipzig also hosted the Fencing World Cup in 2005 and hosts a number of international competitions in a variety of sports each year.Leipzig made a bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics.", "The bid did not make the shortlist after the International Olympic Committee pared the bids down to 5.Markkleeberger See is a new lake next to Markkleeberg, a suburb on the south side of Leipzig.", "A former open-pit coal mine, it was flooded in 1999 with groundwater and developed in 2006 as a tourist area.", "On its southeastern shore is Germany's only pump-powered artificial whitewater slalom course, Markkleeberg Canoe Park (Kanupark Markkleeberg), a venue which rivals the Eiskanal in Augsburg for training and international canoe/kayak competition.Leipzig Rugby Club competes in the German Rugby Bundesliga but finished at the bottom of their group in 2013.Leipzig hosted the Indoor Hockey World Cup in 2015.All matches were played in Leipzig Arena, with the Netherlands coming out victorious in both the men's and women's tournaments." ], [ "Education", "Campus of Leipzig UniversityAtrium of the Hochschule für Grafik und Buchkunst Leipzig===University===Leipzig University, founded 1409, is one of Europe's oldest universities.", "Karl Bücher, a German economist, founded the ''Institut für Zeitungswissenschaften'' (Institute for Newspaper Science) at the University of Leipzig in 1916.It was the first institute of its kind to be established in Europe, and it marks the commencement of academic study of media communication in Germany.", "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a philosopher and mathematician, was born in Leipzig in 1646, and attended the university from 1661 to 1666.Nobel Prize laureate Werner Heisenberg worked at the university as a physics professor (from 1927 to 1942), as did Nobel Prize laureates Gustav Ludwig Hertz (physics), Wilhelm Ostwald (chemistry) and Theodor Mommsen (Nobel Prize in literature).", "The 2022 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine went to Svante Pääbo, an honorary professor at the university.", "Other former university staff include mineralogist Georg Agricola, writer Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, philosopher Ernst Bloch, founder of psychophysics Gustav Theodor Fechner, and founder of modern psychology, Wilhelm Wundt.", "The university's notable former students include writers Johann Wolfgang Goethe and Erich Kästner, philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, political activist Karl Liebknecht, and composer Richard Wagner.", "Angela Merkel, former German chancellor, studied physics at Leipzig University.", "The university has about 30,000 students.A part of Leipzig University is the German Institute for Literature which was founded in 1955 under the name \"Johannes R. Becher-Institut\".", "Many noted writers have graduated from this school, including Heinz Czechowski, Kurt Drawert, Adolf Endler, Ralph Giordano, Kerstin Hensel, Sarah and Rainer Kirsch, Angela Krauß, Erich Loest, and Fred Wander.", "After its closure in 1990 the institute was refounded in 1995 with new teachers.===Visual arts and theatre===The Academy of Visual Arts (''Hochschule für Grafik und Buchkunst'') was established in 1764.Its 600 students () are enrolled in courses in painting and graphics, book design/graphic design, photography and media art.", "The school also houses an Institute for Theory.The University of Music and Theatre offers a broad range of subjects ranging from training in orchestral instruments, voice, interpretation, coaching, piano chamber music, orchestral conducting, choir conducting and musical composition to acting and scriptwriting.===University of Applied Science===The Leipzig University of Applied Sciences (HTWK) has approximately 6,200 students () and is () the second biggest institution of higher education in Leipzig.", "It was founded in 1992, merging several older schools.", "As a university of applied sciences (German: ) its status is slightly below that of a university, with more emphasis on the practical parts of education.", "The HTWK offers many engineering courses, as well as courses in computer science, mathematics, business administration, librarianship, museum studies, and social work.", "It is mainly located in the south of the city.===Leipzig Graduate School===The private Leipzig Graduate School of Management, (in German ''Handelshochschule Leipzig (HHL)''), is the oldest business school in Germany.", "According to The Economist, HHL is one of the best schools in the world, ranked at number six overall.=== Lancaster University Leipzig ===Branch campus of Lancaster University, it is the first public UK university with a campus in Germany.", "Lancaster University Leipzig was founded in 2020 and currently has a diverse international student body with more than 45 nationalities.===Research institutes===The Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in the SciencesLeipzig is currently the home of twelve research institutes and the Saxon Academy of Sciences and Humanities.", "*Max Planck Society: Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in the Sciences, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, and Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.", "*Fraunhofer Society institutes: Fraunhofer IZI and Fraunhofer IMW.", "*Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres: Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research**Leibniz Association: , , Leibniz Institute for the History and Culture of Eastern Europe, , .===Others===Leipzig is home to one of the world's oldest schools, ''Thomasschule zu Leipzig'' (St. Thomas' School, Leipzig), which gained fame for its long association with the Bach family of musicians and composers.The Lutheran Theological Seminary is a seminary of the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church in Leipzig.", "The seminary trains students to become pastors for the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church or for member church bodies of the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference." ], [ "Economy", "The city is a location for automobile manufacturing by BMW and Porsche in large plants north of the city.", "In 2011 and 2012 DHL transferred the bulk of its European air operations from Brussels Airport to Leipzig/Halle Airport.", "Kirow Ardelt AG, the world market leader in breakdown cranes, is based in Leipzig.", "The city also houses the European Energy Exchange, the leading energy exchange in Central Europe.", "VNG – Verbundnetz Gas AG, one of Germany's large natural gas suppliers, is headquartered at Leipzig.", "In addition, inside its larger metropolitan area, Leipzig has developed an important petrochemical centre.Some of the largest employers in the area (outside of manufacturing) include software companies such as Spreadshirt and the various schools and universities in and around the Leipzig/Halle region.", "The University of Leipzig attracts millions of euros of investment yearly and celebrated its 600th birthday in 2009.Leipzig also benefits from world-leading medical research (Leipzig Heart Centre) and a growing biotechnology industry.Many bars, restaurants and stores in the downtown area are patronized by German and foreign tourists.", "Leipzig Main Train Station is the location of a shopping mall.", "Leipzig is one of Germany's most visited cities with over 3 million overnight stays in 2017.In 2010, Leipzig was included in the top 10 cities to visit by ''The New York Times'', and ranked 39th globally out of 289 cities for innovation in the 4th Innovation Cities Index published by Australian agency 2thinknow.", "In 2015, Leipzig have among the 30 largest German cities the third best prospects for the future.", "In recent years Leipzig has often been nicknamed the \"Boomtown of eastern Germany\" or \"Hypezig\".", "it had the highest rate of population growth of any German city.Companies with operations in or around Leipzig include:*Amazon*Blüthner: piano-manufacturing*BMW*DHL*Porsche*Siemens*Future ElectronicsFile:Porsche Diamond.jpg|Porsche Diamond, the customer centre building of Porsche LeipzigFile:BMW Leipzig MEDIA Download Luftaufnahme 3 max.jpg|BMW production facility in LeipzigFile:Amazon.de Versandhaus Leipzig.jpg|Amazon in LeipzigFile:EAT LEJ Hangar.jpg|Leipzig is the hub of DHL.File:Lzg.", "Löhrs Carré 1.jpg|Headquarters of the Sparkasse Leipzig bankFile:Sächsische Aufbaubank Leipzig April 2022.jpg|Leipzig is the seat of the Development Bank of Saxony.File:Markkleeberger See Bootsanlegestelle.jpg|Markkleeberger SeeFile:Höfe am Brühl 20120928-3.jpg|Höfe am Brühl shopping mall, situated on the former route of Via Regia, an ancient trade road" ], [ "Socio-ecological infrastructure", "Leipzig has a dense network of socio-ecological infrastructures.", "Worth mentioning in the food sector are the ''Fairteiler'' of foodsharing and the numerous Community-supported agricultures, in the textile sector the ''Umsonstladen'' in Plagwitz, in the bicycle self-help workshops the ''Radsfatz'', in the computer sector the Hackerspace ''Die Dezentrale'', and in the repair sector the ''Café kaputt''." ], [ "Media", "MDR, one of Germany's public broadcasters*MDR, one of Germany's public broadcasters, has its headquarters and main television studios in the city.", "It provides programmes to various TV and radio networks and has its own symphony orchestra, choir and a ballet.", "*''Leipziger Volkszeitung'' (''LVZ'') is the city's only daily newspaper.", "Founded in 1894, it has published under several different forms of government.", "The monthly magazine ''Kreuzer'' specializes in culture, festivities and the arts in Leipzig.", "Leipzig was also home to the world's first daily newspaper in modern times.", "The ''Einkommende Zeitungen'' were first published in 1650.", "*Leipzig has one daily or semi-daily English-language publication, ''The Leipzig Glocal''.", "It is an online-based magazine and blog that caters to an international as well as local audience.", "Besides publishing pages on jobs, doctors and movies available in English and other languages, the site's team of authors writes articles about lifestyle, arts & culture, politics, entertainment, Leipzig events, etc.", "*Once known for its large number of publishing houses, Leipzig had been called ''Buch-Stadt'' (book city), the most notable of them being branches of Brockhaus and Insel Verlag.", "Few are left after the years of economic decline during the German Democratic Republic, during which time Frankfurt developed as a much more important publishing centre.", "Reclam, founded in 1828, was one of the large publishing houses to move away.", "Leipzig still has a book fair, but Frankfurt's is far bigger.", "*The German Library (Deutsche Bücherei) in Leipzig is part of Germany's National Library.", "Its task is to collect a copy of every book published in German." ], [ "Quality of life", "Leipzig has the most attractive inner city of all large German cities.In December 2013, according to a study by GfK, Leipzig was ranked as the most livable city in Germany.In 2015/2016, Leipzig was named by the consumer portal verbraucherzentrale.de as the second-best city for students in Germany (after Munich).In a 2017 study from the Institut für Handelsforschung Köln, the Leipzig inner city ranked first among all large cities in Germany due to its urban aesthetics, gastronomy, and shopping opportunities.According to HWWI/Berenberg-Städteranking, since 2018 it also has the second-best future prospects of all cities in Germany, second to Munich in 2018 and Berlin in 2019.According to a 2017 Global Least & Most Stressful Cities Ranking by Zipjet, a London-based online laundry service, Leipzig was one of the least stressful cities in the World.", "It was ranked 25th out of 150 cities worldwide and above Dortmund, Cologne, Frankfurt, and Berlin.Leipzig was named European City of the Year at the 2019 Urbanism Awards.According to the 2019 study by Forschungsinstitut Prognos, Leipzig is the most dynamic region in Germany.", "Within 15 years, the city climbed 230 places and occupied in 2019 rank 104 of all 401 German regions.Leipzig was listed as one of 52 places to go in 2020 by ''The New York Times'' and the highest-ranking German destination.Leipzig Hauptbahnhof has been ranked the best railway station in Germany and the third-best in Europe in a consumer organisation poll, surpassed only by St Pancras railway station and Zürich Hauptbahnhof." ], [ "Transport", "Founded at the crossing of Via Regia and Via Imperii, Leipzig has been a major interchange of inter-European traffic and commerce since medieval times.", "After the Reunification of Germany, immense efforts to restore and expand the traffic network have been undertaken and left the city area with an excellent infrastructure.===Railways===Leipzig Hauptbahnhof is the main hub of the tram and railway network and the world's largest railway station by floor area.Inside Leipzig HauptbahnhofOpened in 1915, Leipzig Hauptbahnhof (lit.", "''main station'') is the largest overhead railway station in Europe in terms of its built-up area.", "At the same time, it is an important supra-regional junction in the Intercity-Express (ICE) and Intercity network of the as well as a connection point for S-Bahn and regional traffic in the Halle/Leipzig area.In Leipzig, the Intercity Express routes (Hamburg-)Berlin-Leipzig-Nuremberg-Munich and Dresden-Leipzig-Erfurt-Frankfurt am Main-(Wiesbaden/Saarbrücken) intersect.", "Leipzig is also the starting point for the intercity lines Leipzig-Halle (Saale)-Magdeburg-Braunschweig-Hannover-Dortmund-Köln and -Bremen-Oldenburg(-Norddeich Mole).", "Both lines complement each other at hourly intervals and also stop at Leipzig/Halle Airport.", "The only international connection is the daily EuroCity Leipzig-Prague.Most major and medium-sized towns in Saxony and southern Saxony-Anhalt can be reached without changing trains.", "There are also direct connections via regional express lines to Falkenberg/Elster-Cottbus, Hoyerswerda and Dessau-Magdeburg as well as Chemnitz.", "Neighbouring Halle (Saale) can be reached via three S-Bahn lines, two of which run via Leipzig/Halle Airport.", "The surrounding area of Leipzig is served by numerous regional and S-Bahn lines.The city's railway connections are currently being greatly improved by major construction projects, particularly within the framework of the German Unity transport projects.", "The line to Berlin has been extended and has been passable at since 2006.On 13 December 2015, the high-speed line from Leipzig to Erfurt, designed for , was put into operation.", "Its continuation to Nuremberg followed in December 2017.This integration into the high-speed network considerably reduced the journey times of the ICE from Leipzig to Nuremberg, Munich and Frankfurt am Main.", "The Leipzig-Dresden railway line, which was the first German long-distance railway to go into operation in 1839, is also undergoing expansion for 200 km/h.", "The most important construction project in regional transport was the four-kilometer-long City Tunnel, which went into operation in December 2013 as the main line of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland.There are freight stations in the districts of Wahren and Engelsdorf.", "In addition, a freight traffic centre has been set up near the Schkeuditzer Kreuz junction for goods handling between road and rail, as well as a freight station on the site of the DHL hub at Leipzig/Halle Airport.===Suburban trains===A new train of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland at Leipzig Wilhelm-Leuschner-Platz station, August 2016Leipzig is the core of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland line network.", "Together with the tram, six of the ten lines form the backbone of local public transport and an important link to the region and the neighbouring Halle.", "The main line of the S-Bahn consists of the underground S-Bahn stations Hauptbahnhof, Markt, Wilhelm-Leuschner-Platz and Bayerischer Bahnhof leading through the City Tunnel as well as the above-ground station Leipzig MDR.", "There are a total of 30 S-Bahn stations in the Leipzig city area.", "Endpoints of the S-Bahn lines include Wurzen, Zwickau, Dessau, and Lutherstadt Wittenberg.", "Two lines run to Halle, one of them via Leipzig/Halle Airport.With the timetable change in December 2004, the networks of Leipzig and Halle were combined to form the Leipzig-Halle S-Bahn.", "However, this network only served as a transitional solution and was replaced by the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland on 15 December 2013.At the same time, the main line tunnel, marketed as the Leipzig City Tunnel, went into operation.", "The tunnel, which is almost four kilometres long, crosses the entire city centre from the main railway station to the Bavarian railway station.", "The S-Bahn stations are up to 22 metres underground.", "This construction was the first to create a continuous north–south axis, which had not existed until now due to the north-facing terminus station.", "The connection to the south of the city and the federal state will thus be greatly improved.===Tramway and buses===Tram at Friedrich-List-PlatzThe Leipziger Verkehrsbetriebe, existing since 1 January 1917, operate a total of 15 tram lines and 47 bus lines in the city.The total length of the tram network is , making it the largest in Saxony ahead of Dresden () and the second largest in Germany after Berlin ().The longest line in the Leipzig network is line 11, which connects Schkeuditz with Markkleeberg over 22 kilometres and is the only tram line in Leipzig to run in three tariff zones of the Central German Transport Association.Night bus lines N1 to N9 and the night tram N17 operate in the night traffic.", "On Saturdays, Sundays and holidays the tram line N10 and the bus line N60 also operate.", "The central transfer point between the bus and tram lines as well as to the S-Bahn is Leipzig Central Station.===Bicycle===Like most German cities, Leipzig has a traffic layout designed to be bicycle-friendly.", "There is an extensive cycle network.", "In most of the one-way central streets, cyclists are explicitly allowed to cycle both ways.", "A few cycle paths have been built or declared since 1990.According to the data from the 2021/22 traffic count, the Saxons' Bridge has the highest traffic occupancy with over 15,000 cyclists per day in cycling in Leipzig.Since 2004 there is a bicycle-sharing system.", "Bikes can be borrowed and returned via smartphone app or by telephone.", "Since 2018, the system has enabled flexible borrowing and returning of bicycles in the inner city; in this zone, bicycles can be handed in and borrowed from almost any street corner.", "Outside these zones, there are stations where the bikes are waiting.", "The current locations of the bikes can be seen via the app.", "There are cooperation offers with the Leipzig public transport companies and car sharing in order to offer as complete a mobility chain as possible.===Road===Leipzig's road networkSeveral federal motorways pass by Leipzig: the A 14 in the north, the A 9 in the west, and the A 38 in the south.", "The three motorways form a triangular partial ring of the double ring Mitteldeutsche Schleife around Halle and Leipzig.", "To the south towards Chemnitz, the A 72 is also partly under construction.The federal roads B 2, B 6, B 87, B 181, and B 184 lead through the city area.The ring road (Innenstadtring), which corresponds to the course of the old city fortification, surrounds the city centre of Leipzig, which today is largely traffic-calmed.Leipzig has a dense network of carsharing stations.", "Additionally, since 2018 there is also a stationless car sharing system in Leipzig.", "Here the cars can be parked and booked anywhere in the inner city without having to define a specific car or period in advance.", "Finding and booking is done via a smartphone app.Leipzig is one of the few cities in Germany with vehicle for hire services that can be booked via a mobile app.", "In contrast to taxicab services, the start and destination must be defined beforehand and other passengers can be taken along at the same time if they share a route.===Long-distance buses===Since March 2018 there has been a central bus station directly east of Leipzig Central Station.In addition to a large number of national lines, several international lines also serve Leipzig.", "The cities of Bregenz, Budapest, Milan, Prague, Sofia and Zurich, among others, can be reached without having to change trains.", "Around 30,000 journeys and 1.5 million passengers a year are expected at the new bus station.Some lines also use Leipzig/Halle Airport, located at the A 9/A 14 motorway junction, and Leipziger Messe for a stop.", "Passengers can take the S-Bahn from there to the city centre.===Air===Leipzig/Halle Airport, hub of DHLLeipzig/Halle Airport is the international commercial airport of the region.", "It is located at the Schkeuditzer Kreuz junction northwest of Leipzig, halfway between the two major cities.", "The easternmost section of the new Erfurt-Leipzig/Halle line under construction gave the airport a long-distance railway station, which was also integrated into the ICE network when the railway line was completed in 2015.Passenger flights are operated to and from the major German hub airports, European metropolises and holiday destinations, especially to the Mediterranean region and North Africa.", "The airport is of international importance in the cargo sector.", "In Germany, it ranks second behind Frankfurt am Main, fifth in Europe and 26th worldwide (as of 2011).", "DHL uses the airport as its central European hub.", "It is also the home base of the freight airlines Aerologic and European Air Transport Leipzig.The former military airport near Altenburg, Thuringia, called Leipzig-Altenburg Airport, about a half-hour drive from Leipzig, was served by Ryanair until 2010.===Water===ElsterflutbettIn the first half of the 20th century, the construction of the Elster-Saale canal, White Elster, and Saale was started in Leipzig in order to connect to the network of waterways.", "The outbreak of the Second World War stopped most of the work, though some may have continued through the use of forced labor.", "The Lindenauer port was almost completed but not yet connected to the Elster-Saale and Karl Heine Canal respectively.", "The Leipzig rivers (White Elster, New Luppe, Pleiße, and Parthe) in the city have largely artificial river beds and are supplemented by some channels.", "These waterways are suitable only for small leisure boat traffic.Through the renovation and reconstruction of existing mill races and watercourses in the south of the city and flooded disused open cast mines, the city's navigable water network is being expanded.", "A link between Karl Heine Canal and the disused Lindenauer port was opened in 2015.Still more work was scheduled to complete the Elster-Saale canal.", "Such a move would allow small boats to reach the Elbe from Leipzig.", "The intended completion date has been postponed because of an unacceptable cost-benefit ratio.File:Leipzig NGT12-LEI Waldplatz defekt.jpg|Tram of Leipziger VerkehrsbetriebeFile:Leipzig Georg-Schumann-Strasse.jpg|Tramsystem at the Georg-Schumann-StraßeFile:S-Bahnhof Leipzig Markt.jpg|Leipzig City Tunnel, part of Leipzig's new S-Bahn networkFile:S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland.", "Talent 2,027, Innenansicht Sitze.jpg|Inside the S-Bahn train" ], [ "Quotations", "''Mein Leipzig lob' ich mir!", "Es ist ein klein Paris und bildet seine Leute.''", "(\"I praise my Leipzig!", "It is a small Paris and educates its people.\")", "– Frosch, a university student in Goethe's ''Faust, Part One''''Ich komme nach Leipzig, an den Ort, wo man die ganze Welt im Kleinen sehen kann.''", "(\"I'm coming to Leipzig, to the place where one can see the whole world in miniature.\")", "– Gotthold Ephraim Lessing''Extra Lipsiam vivere est miserrime vivere.''", "(\"To live outside Leipzig is to live miserably.\")", "– Benedikt Carpzov the Younger''Das angenehme Pleis-Athen, Behält den Ruhm vor allen, Auch allen zu gefallen, Denn es ist wunderschön.''", "(\"The pleasurable Pleiss-Athens, earns its fame above all, appealing to every one, too, for it is mightily beauteous.\")", "– Johann Sigismund Scholze" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Plaque on Leipzig Street in Kyiv, one of Leipzig's twin townsLeipzig is twinned with:* Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (2004)* Birmingham, United Kingdom (1992)* Bologna, Italy (1962, renewed in 1997)* Brno, Czech Republic (1973, renewed in 1999)* Frankfurt, Germany (1990)* Hanover, Germany (1987)* Herzliya, Israel (2010)* Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (2021)* Houston, United States (1993)* Kraków, Poland (1973, renewed in 1995)* Kyiv, Ukraine (1961, renewed in 1992)* Lyon, France (1981)* Nanjing, China (1988)* Thessaloniki, Greece (1984)* Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2003)" ], [ "Notable people", "Nikolaus KrellGottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, 1695Karl Liebknecht, 1911=== Politicians ===*Nikolaus Krell (1551–1601), chancellor of the elector of Saxony*Friedrich Karl Biedermann (1812–1901), professor, politician and publisher*Louise Otto-Peters (1819–1895), suffragette, founded the German Women's Association*August Bebel (1840–1913), socialist politician, co-founder of Germany's SPD*Karl Liebknecht (1871–1919), socialist, co-founded the Communist Party of Germany*Carl Friedrich Goerdeler (1884–1945), mayor, a lead conservative resistance against Hitler*Paul Frölich (1884–1953), politician, KPD co-founder, biographer of Rosa Luxemburg*Walter Ulbricht (1893–1973), Communist politician, GDR Chairman of the Council of State, 1960–1973*Ruth Fischer (1895–1961), Communist politician and journalist, co-founder of the CPA*Annemarie Renger (1919–2008), politician, President of the Bundestag, 1972 to 1976===Philosophers and theologians===*Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), philosopher, scientist, mathematician and diplomat*Johann Friedrich Mayer (1650–1712), Lutheran theologian*Christian Thomasius (1655–1728), jurist and philosopher*Wilhelm Abraham Teller (1734–1804), Protestant theologian with a rational approach*Franz Delitzsch (1813–1890), Lutheran theologian and Hebraist*Christian Daniel Beck (1757–1832), philologist, historian, theologian and antiquarian*Georg Benedikt Winer (1789–1858), Protestant theologian, known for linguistic studies of the New Testament*Christian Hermann Weisse (1801–1866), Protestant theologian and philosopher=== Writing and arts ===Johann Sebastian BachClara Schumann, 1838Riccardo Chailly, 1986*Johann Albert Fabricius (1668–1736), classical scholar and bibliographer*Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), composer*Johann Gottfried Donati (1706–1782), composer*Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714–1788), Classical period musician and composer*Johann Christian Bach (1735–1782), composer, youngest son of Johann Sebastian Bach *Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus (1772–1823), publisher.", "He originated the Brockhaus encyclopedia.", "*Johann Gottfried Jakob Hermann (1772–1848), classical scholar and philologist *Karl Wilhelm Dindorf (1802–1883), classical scholar*Felix Mendelssohn (1809–1847), composer, pianist, organist and conductor*Robert Schumann (1810–1856), composer and music critic*Roderich Benedix (1811–1873), dramatist and librettist *Theodor Bergk (1812–1881), philologist, an authority on classical Greek poetry*Richard Wagner (1813–1883), composer, theatre director and conductor*Clara Schumann (1819–1896), pianist and composer*Carl Johann Lasch (1822–1888), painter*Carl Reinecke (1824–1910), composer, conductor and pianist*Arthur Prüfer (1860–1944), musicologist*Max Beckmann (1884–1950), expressionist painter, professor at art academies and schools*Wilhelm Backhaus (1884–1969), pianist*Karl Alfred Pabst (1884–1971), painter, graphic artist and lithographer*Hanns Eisler (1898–1962), composer of the national anthem of the GDR*Bruno Apitz (1900–1979), writer*Wolfgang Weber (1902–1985), photojournalist*Hans Mayer (1907–2001), literary scholar*Kurt Masur (1927–2015), conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra*Herbert Blomstedt (born 1927), conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra*Werner Tübke (1929–2004), painter*Hans-Joachim Schulze (born 1934), Bach scholar*Riccardo Chailly (born 1953), conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra*Neo Rauch (born 1960), painter*Till Lindemann (born 1963), vocalist, lead singer of Rammstein*Simone Thomalla (born 1965), actress*Matthias Weischer (born 1973), painter*Oskar Lenz (1848–1925), explorer and travel writer*Hans Meyer (1858–1929), geographer, Africanist and mountaineer*Martin Broszat (1926–1989), historian, head of Institut für Zeitgeschichte in Munich*Ruth Pfau (1929–2017), nun, physician and writer*Christian Gottfried Körner (1756–1831), jurist and writer*Sebastian Krumbiegel (1966–), singer and musician*Tobias Künzel (1964–), singer and musician=== Science and business ===Carl Gustav Carus, 1800*Michael Ettmüller (1644–1683), physician*Augustus Quirinus Rivinus (1652–1723), physician and botanist*Friedrich Boerner (1723–1761), physician*Carl Gustav Carus (1789–1869), doctor, painter and natural philosopher*Wilhelm Hofmeister (1824–1877), biologist and botanist *Paul Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1841–1880), chemist*Karl Wittgenstein (1847–1913), entrepreneur*Kurt Herrmann (1888–1959), architect, publisher and entrepreneur*Sibylle Kemmler-Sack (1934–1999), chemist=== War figures ===*Elfriede Rinkel (1922–2018), warden of a concentration camp during the Nazi dictatorship*Karl Eberhard Schöngarth (1903–1946), SS officer and war criminal, executed in Hamelin*Wilhelm Souchon (1864–1946), admiral in World War I=== Sport ===*Karl Rudolf Heydel (1911–1936), racing driver*Marvin Kirchhöfer (born 1994), racing driver*René Müller (born 1959), footballer*Kristin Otto (born 1966), swimmer, six-time Olympic gold medalist, and sports journalist*Tony Schmidt (born 1980), racing driver*Rita Wilden (born 1947), sprinter" ], [ "See also", "*Battle of Breitenfeld (1642)*Hugo Schneider AG*Leipzig Human Rights Award*Leipzig Jewish community*Leipzig University Library*List of mayors of Leipzig*Ubiquity Theatre Company – English speaking theatre projects in Leipzig" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Leipzig: One Thousand Years of German History.", "Bach, Luther, Faust: The City of Books and Music'' .", "By Sebastian Ringel.", "Berlinica, 2015" ], [ "External links", "* The city's official website** Leipzig as virtual city 408 Points of Interest – English * The Leipzig Glocal, English language webzine and blog publishing regularly* Ubiquity Theatre Company – English language theatre projects in Leipzig*'' Leipzig Zeitgeist'', an English magazine about Leipzig* This is Leipzig, an English web site for Leipzig* LostInLeipzig, Get lost in Germany's best city* Events in Leipzig—Music festivals in Leipzig**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "LimeWire" ], [ "Introduction", "'''LimeWire''' was a free peer-to-peer file sharing client for Windows, macOS, Linux and Solaris.", "Created by Mark Gorton in 2000, it was most prominently a tool used for the download and distribution of pirated materials, particularly pirated music.", "In 2007, LimeWire was estimated to be installed on over one-third of all computers globally.Both a zero-cost version and a purchasable \"enhanced\" version called LimeWire Pro were available; however, LimeWire Pro could be acquired for free through the standard LimeWire software, where users distributed it without authorization.", "LimeWire uses the gnutella network as well as the BitTorrent protocol.On October 26, 2010, U.S. federal court judge Kimba Wood issued an injunction ordering Lime Wire LLC to prevent \"the searching, downloading, uploading, file trading and/or file distribution functionality, and/or all functionality\" of its software in ''Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC''.", "A trial investigating the damages necessary to compensate the affected record labels was scheduled to begin in January 2011.As a result of the injunction, the RIAA initially suggested that LimeWire was responsible for $72 trillion in damages, before eventually settling for $105 million.", "Thereafter, the company stopped distributing the LimeWire software, and versions 5.5.11 and newer have been disabled using a backdoor installed by the company.", "However, version 5.5.10 and all prior versions of LimeWire remain fully functional and cannot be disabled unless a user upgrades to one of the newer versions." ], [ "Features", "Written in the Java programming language, LimeWire can run on any computer with a Java Virtual Machine installed.", "Installers were provided for Apple's Mac OS X, Microsoft's Windows, and Linux.", "Support for Mac OS 9 and other previous versions was dropped with the release of LimeWire 4.0.10.From version 4.8 onwards, LimeWire works as a UPnP Internet Gateway Device controller in that it can automatically set up packet-forwarding rules with UPnP-capable routers.LimeWire offers sharing of its library through the Digital Audio Access Protocol (DAAP).", "As such, when LimeWire is running and configured to allow it, any files shared are detectable and downloaded on the local network by DAAP-enabled devices (e.g., Zune, iTunes).", "Beginning with LimeWire 4.13.9, connections can be encrypted with Transport Layer Security (TLS).", "Following LimeWire 4.13.11, TLS became the default connection option." ], [ "Version history", "Until October 2010, Lime Wire LLC, the New York City based developer of LimeWire, distributed two versions of the program: a basic gratis version, and an enhanced version, LimeWire PRO, which sold for a fee of $21.95 with 6 months of updates, or around $35.00 with 1 year of updates.", "The company claimed the paid version provides faster downloads and 66% better search results.", "This is accomplished by facilitating direct connection with up to 10 hosts of an identical searched file at any one time, whereas the gratis version is limited to a maximum of 8 hosts.LimeWire 2Being free software, LimeWire has spawned forks, including LionShare, an experimental software development project at Penn State University, and Acquisition, a Mac OS X-based gnutella client with a proprietary interface.", "Researchers at Cornell University developed a reputation management add-in called Credence that allows users to distinguish between \"genuine\" and \"suspect\" files before downloading them.", "An October 12, 2005, report states that some of LimeWire's contributors have forked the project and called it FrostWire.LimeWire was the second file sharing program after FrostWire to support firewall-to-firewall file transfers, a feature introduced in version 4.2, which was released in November 2004.LimeWire also now includes BitTorrent support, but is limited to three torrent uploads and three torrent downloads, which coexist with ordinary downloads.", "LimeWire 5.0 added an instant messenger that uses the XMPP Protocol, a free software communication protocol.", "Users can chat and share files with individuals or a group of friends in their buddy list.A screenshot of Limewire 5 0 11 betaFrom version 5.5.1, LimeWire has added a key activation, which requires the user to enter the unique key before activating the \"Pro\" version of the software.", "This has stopped people from using downloaded \"Pro\" versions without authorization.", "However, there are still ways to bypass this security feature, which was done when creating the \"Pirate Edition\".", "For example, cracked versions of LimeWire were available on the Internet (including on LimeWire itself), and people could continue using the LimeWire Pro 5.5.1 Beta, which also includes AVG for LimeWire and is the first version to include AVG.", "The most recent stable version of LimeWire is 5.5.16.Versions of LimeWire prior to 5.5.10 can still connect to the Gnutella network and users of these versions are still able to download files, even though a message is displayed concerning the injunction during the startup process of the software.", "LimeWire versions 5.5.11 and newer feature an auto-update feature that allowed Lime Wire LLC to disable newer versions of the LimeWire software.", "Older versions of LimeWire prior to version 5.5.11, however, do not include the auto-update feature and are still fully functional.", "As a result, neither the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) nor Lime Wire LLC have the ability to disable older versions of LimeWire, unless the user chooses to upgrade to a newer version of LimeWire.On November 10, 2010, a secret group of developers called the \"Secret Dev Team\" sought to keep the application working by releasing the \"LimeWire Pirate Edition\".", "The software is based on LimeWire 5.6 Beta, and is aimed to allow Windows versions to still work and remove the threat of spyware or adware.", "The exclusive features in LimeWire PRO were also unlocked, and all security features installed by Lime Wire LLC were removed." ], [ "Forks and alternatives", "A number of forks of LimeWire have been released, many with the goal of giving users more freedom, or in objection to design decisions made by the original developers.=== FrostWire ===FrostWire was started in September 2004 by members of the LimeWire community, after LimeWire's distributor considered adding \"blocking\" code, in response to RIAA pressure and the threat of legal action, in light of the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in ''MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.''.", "When eventually activated, the code could block its users from sharing licensed files.", "This code was changed when lawsuits had been filed against LimeWire for P2P downloading.", "It had blocked all their users and redirected them to FrostWire.", "FrostWire has since completely moved to the BitTorrent protocol from Gnutella (LimeWire's file sharing network).=== LimeWire Pirate Edition/WireShare ===In November 2010, as a response to the legal challenges regarding LimeWire, an anonymous individual by the handle of Meta Pirate released a modified version of LimeWire Pro, which was entitled LimeWire Pirate Edition.", "It came without the Ask.com toolbar, advertising, spyware, and backdoors, as well as all dependencies on Lime Wire LLC servers.In response to allegations that a current or former member of Lime Wire LLC staff wrote and released the software, the company has stated they were \"not behind these efforts.", "LimeWire does not authorize them.", "LimeWire is complying with the Court's October 26, 2010 injunction.", "\"The LimeWire team, after being accused by the RIAA of being complicit in the development of LimeWire Pirate Edition, swiftly acted to shut down the LimeWire Pirate Edition website.", "A court order was issued to close down the website, and, to remain anonymous, Meta Pirate, the developer of LimeWire PE, did not contest the order.Following the shutdown, the original LimeWire Pirate Edition project was reforked into WireShare, with the intent to keep the Gnutella network alive and to maintain a good faith continuation of the original project (without adware or spyware); development of the software continues to this day.=== MuWire ===MuWire was released in August 2020 as a free software program resembling LimeWire.", "Developed by a former LimeWire developer, it uses I2P to anonymize connections and transfers.", "MuWire's developer had purchased the limewire.com domain after it had been allowed to expire, and redirected traffic to MuWire's website for approximately two years, until finally selling it to an unaffiliated party." ], [ "Criticism", "Prior to April 2004, the free version of LimeWire was distributed with a bundled program called '''LimeShop''' (a variant of TopMoxie), which was spyware.", "Among other things, LimeShop monitored online purchases in order to redirect sales commissions to Lime Wire LLC.", "Uninstallation of LimeWire would not remove LimeShop.", "These objections were addressed in 2004 with the removal of all bundled software in LimeWire 3.9.4.In LimeWire versions before 5.0, users could accidentally configure the software to allow access to any file on their computer, including documents with personal information.", "Later versions of LimeWire disabled unintentional sharing of documents or applications.", "In 2005, the US Federal Trade Commission issued a warning regarding the dangers of peer-to-peer file sharing network usage, due to the risk of identity theft and lawsuits.", "For example, a 2007 identity theft scheme involving LimeWire was discovered in what the U.S. Justice Department described as its first case against someone accused of using file sharing computer programs to commit identity theft.", "The perpetrator had used LimeWire to search other people's computers for inadvertently shared financial information, which he used it to obtain credit cards for an online shopping spree.One investigation showed that of 123 randomly selected downloaded files, 37 contained malware – about 30%.", "In mid-2008, a Macintosh trojan exploiting a vulnerability involving Apple Remote Desktop was distributed via LimeWire affecting users of Mac OS X Tiger and Leopard.", "The ability to distribute such malware and viruses was reduced in versions of LimeWire 5.0 and greater, whose default search settings excluded executable files.After several years of opposing software bundling, LimeWire released an Ask.com-powered browser toolbar in 2010, which was automatically installed unless a user opted out.", "LimeWire automatically received a cryptographically signed file, called simpp.xml, containing an IP block list.", "It was the key technology behind the now defunct cyber security firm Tiversa which is alleged to have used information from the network to pressure prospective clients into engaging the company's services." ], [ "Demise", "According to a June 2005 report in ''The New York Times'', Lime Wire LLC was considering ceasing its distribution of LimeWire because the outcome of ''MGM v. Grokster'' \"handed a tool to judges that they can declare inducement whenever they want to\".", "Nevertheless, the company continued operating and was sued by Arista Records, which obtained a favorable decision in 2010.Judge Kimba Wood of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York ruled in ''Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC'' that LimeWire and Gorton had committed copyright infringement, engaged in unfair competition, and induced others to commit copyright infringement.", "Later in the year, after losing another court battle, with the RIAA, LimeWire was ordered to disable many of its software's capabilities due to the possibility of copyright infringement.", "The RIAA also announced its intention to seek damages for the program's effects on various record labels.", "In response to the ruling, a company spokesperson said that the company planned to continue operating and would cease distributing and supporting P2P software.", "RIAA announced a further lawsuit in early 2011, claiming statutory damages of $72 trillion, more than triple the world's annual GDP.", "The figure relied on an estimate of thousands of downloads for each of the platform's 11,000 songs In May 2011, Gorton agreed to a settlement whereby the company would pay thirteen record labels approximately $105 million.", "Mitch Bainwol, chairman of the RIAA, referred to the \"resolution of the case as another milestone in the continuing evolution of online music to a legitimate marketplace that appropriately rewards creators.", "\"=== Reuse of name ===LimeWire's name was revived in 2022 for an unrelated music-based NFT platform, an action with which Gorton expressed displeasure.", "The NFT marketplace was launched in July 2022, with the first NFT collection from American record producer and rapper 7 Aurelius.", "In September 2023, LimeWire bought BlueWillow, a generative artificial intelligence tool, and became a place to share images and videos created with it." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of file sharing applications* Open Music Model=== Similar court rulings ===* AllOfMP3* Grooveshark* Kazaa* Mininova* Megaupload* Napster" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* 10 Alternatives to LimeWire (2012), Zeropaid.com* LimeWire Resurrected By Secret Dev Team (2010), TorrentFreak" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Latveria" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Latveria''' is a fictional country appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.", "It is depicted within the storylines of Marvel's comic titles as a small, isolated European country ruled by the fictional Supreme Lord Doctor Doom, supposedly located in the Banat region.", "It is surrounded by the Carpathian Mountains, and also borders fictional Symkaria (home of Silver Sable) to the south.", "Its capital is '''Doomstadt'''." ], [ "Publication history", "Latveria first appeared in ''Fantastic Four Annual'' #2, published in 1964.Victor von Doom is the ruler of Latveria.", "Though he has been dethroned a number of times, Victor has invariably managed to return to the throne of his country within a matter of months.Victor also has a council who obey him entirely.", "In ''Fantastic Four'' #536 in 2006, he killed his own Prime Minister for claiming control of Latveria in his absence and threatened to kill two other ministers if they failed to find the landing spot of Thor's hammer.Doctor Doom's style of rule can best be described as an absolute monarchy, as it was revealed that there is no legislature, and one minister boasted \"''Doctor Doom decides everything.", "His slightest whim is Latverian law!''\"", "It is shown Doom has devices throughout the Kingdom to watch his people and even has hidden weapons to prevent them leaving without his consent.", "In one story he is able to activate a force field around Latveria which prevents anybody leaving, though apparently it can be a defense against nuclear attack." ], [ "History", "Located in southeast Europe, Latveria was formed out of land annexed from southern Hungary centuries before, and possibly land from Serbia as well as Romania.At some point, Doctor Doom had his army of Servo Guards invade Rotruvia where he was successful in its annexation.===Latveria under the Fantastic Four===Due to Doom's undertakings that drive him away from Latveria, the monarch is often absent.", "After Doom's descent into Hell, the nation became a target for conquest by the neighbouring countries.", "This forces Reed Richards to seize control of the country, attempting to pry the populace out from under the thumb of Doom, while at the same time disarming all of Doom's weaponry and technology, so if he ever returned, he would come back to absolutely nothing.", "In the process, Richards relocated Doom from Hell into a pocket dimension of his own design, and although Doom used his consciousness-switching abilities to escape, the death of his host body seemingly caused him to die as well, and the Fantastic Four pulled out of the country.Doom survives this and rules Latveria for a time with a 'puppet' Prime Minister and robotic enforcers.===Series of takeovers===After the Fantastic Four left, the United States attempted to fill the void left by Doom by establishing a democracy for the nation.", "The Countess Lucia von Bardas was elected as Prime Minister.", "However, when it was revealed that von Bardas was employing the Tinkerer to use Doom's technology to arm various tech-based villains in the United States, S.H.I.E.L.D.", "Commander Nick Fury took action.During ''Secret War'', Fury and a number of superheroes invaded Latveria without permission of the US Government and attempted to assassinate von Bardas.", "While von Bardas survived, she was horribly disfigured and sought to destroy Fury and the heroes responsible.", "She was killed by S.H.I.E.L.D.", "Agent Daisy Johnson while trying to blow up New York with the armor of the various villains she employed.===Country-wide disasters===Much of Latveria was destroyed and the population severely reduced by an attack executed by the Marquis of Death (a.k.a.", "\"Dooms Master\").S.H.I.E.L.D., under the leadership of Iron Man and his team of U.S. sanctioned Avengers invaded Latveria after discovering Doom's (unintentional) involvement in the release of a symbiote virus on New York.", "The country was yet again devastated and Doom was taken into custody for crimes against humanity.Doom is released from prison due to the influence of H.A.M.M.E.R.", "director Norman Osborn.", "He restores his nation with the use of his time travel technology.===Avengers Vs. X-Men===During the ''Avengers vs. X-Men'' storyline, Spider-Man fights against a Juggernaut-empowered Colossus here." ], [ "Statistics", "The common geographic description of Latveria places it as a small nation, around the area where Hungary, Romania and Serbia (Vojvodina) meet in real life.", "To its south in the Marvel universe is the nation of Symkaria, which is depicted as a benevolent constitutional monarchy in contrast to the dictatorship to its north.", "The capital city of Latveria is Doomstadt, formerly Hassenstadt, renamed when Doom seized power, located just north of the Kline River.", "The administrative center is Castle Doom.", "* Population: 500,000 (This is an approximation since the government of Latveria has been fiercely secretive of its census activity)* Type of Government: Dictatorship (Victor Von Doom prefers to call this an \"enforced monarchy\")* Languages: German, Hungarian, English, Latverian (local dialect, derivative of Hungarian), Romanian.", "* Ethnic Groups: Mixed European stock, Slavs, Roma, Greek, possibly Bulgarians who migrated in Banat during the Ottoman rule in Bulgaria* Major Business Centers: None* Currency: Latverian Franc* Public Holidays: Doom's Day, Christmas, New Year (Note: Doom's Day is an eclectic holiday, celebrated whenever Doom declares it.", "It is different from Doomsday and independent of Doomsday)* Airports: The only airport for the country, Doomsport, lies on the southern outskirts of Doomstadt.", "It maintains two runways and a modern terminal, but flights into and out of Doomsport are quite limited.", "There have been no scheduled flights from Latveria to western European nations or the United States, due to a combination of Latveria's poor economy, international embargoes, and that no major airline has seen profit in establishing a route to Latveria.===Cities and towns===* '''Doomsburg''' -* '''Doomsdale''' -* '''Doomstadt''' - The capital of Latveria, replacing on the map the real-life Romanian city of Timișoara.", "The \"City of Doom\" (The suffix \"-stadt\" is German for \"city\")* '''Doomsvale''' -* '''Doomton''' -* '''Doomwood''' -* '''Doomcity''' -====Points of interest====* '''Boar's Vale''' -* '''Castle Doom''' - An ancient castle with modern-day technology, home to Victor Von Doom.", "* '''Citadel of Doom''' -* '''Cynthia Von Doom Memorial Park''' -* '''Doom Falls''' -* '''Doom Island''' - While not part of Latveria, Doom Island is a private island, located somewhere near the coast of Japan and cloaked from the world by an invisible shield.", "This island is where Doom keeps hidden the mutant citizens of Latveria and a legion of Doombot/Sentinel hybrids.", "* '''Doomsport Airport''' - The only airport in Latveria which is located south of Doomstadt.", "* '''Doomstadt Rail Station''' -* '''Doomstadt Rathauz''' -* '''Doomwood Forest''' -* '''Folding City''' -* '''Lanzarini Temple''' -* '''Heroic Andrew Boulevard''' -* '''Kron Victory Swad''' -* '''Latverian Academy of the Science''' -* '''Latverian Southern Border''' -* '''Monument Park''' -* '''Mount Sorcista''' - A demon sorceress named Pandemonia lives here.", "* '''Mount Victorum''' -* '''Old Town of Doomstadt''' - It is located in Doomstadt and overlooked by Castle Doom.", "* '''St.", "Blaise Church''' -* '''St.", "Peter Church''' -* '''Werner Academy''' -===Demographics===The population consists of mixed European stock and Romani people, in whose welfare Von Doom takes a particular interest.", "Victor Von Doom, being Roma, has declared the Romani a protected class and attempts to shower them with benefits, however due to Latveria's poor economy and oppressive rule their lifestyles hardly outshine other ethnicities, and the Romani by and large live in the same fear of their own government as do fellow Latverians.===Law enforcement===Because it lacks a native superhero populace, Latveria relies largely on Dooms' robot sentinels called Doombots to keep law and order.", "One of the few known Latverian superhumans is Dreadknight, whom Doom himself created by punishing Dreadknight's alter ego for hoarding ideas from him.", "Dreadknight has since tried to get revenge on Doctor Doom, only to be thwarted by various superheroes.", "Aside from superhuman activity, the Latverian military appears to function in multiple capacity; in addition to being responsible for defense of Latveria (or more accurately, keeping Victor Von Doom on the throne), they have been commissioned to make arrests and function as Latveria's secret police.===Economy===Much of Latveria's economy depends on Doctor Doom's high-tech inventions.", "The country's official currency is the \"Latverian Franc\" - because Doctor Doom refuses to join the European Union or adopt the Euro.", "The Latverian Franc is still considered to be reasonably strong against the United States Dollar.===State===Latveria is generally depicted as a rural nation with a primitive economy and a population living an almost medieval lifestyle, likely enforced by Doom.", "Nonetheless, the state itself is consistently depicted as a global superpower on-par with or even surpassing any nation on Earth, including the United States, and rivalled only by the likes of Wakanda.", "This is largely due to Doom himself being a scientific genius of the highest order, not only possessing but actually inventing numerous technological wonders, including time and interdimensional travel, personally creating a highly sophisticated robot army of myriad designs and capabilities, and frequently coming into possession of—or outright creating—various devices that could be classified as Weapons of Mass Destruction.", "Thus, despite the country being both extremely small and economically backward, it is a powerhouse in military and technological terms and therefore has a vastly disproportionate influence on global affairs relative to its size and GDP.", "Doom also proudly claims that the country is free of poverty, disease, famine and crime and while citizens of the nation are commonly shown to be oppressed and to live in fear of their monarch, they are also shown to be relatively well cared for, so long as they do not cross Doom.", "Other occasions suggest that Doom is at the centre of a self-propagated personality cult and is admired and worshipped by other segments of the populace in spite of his mistreatments and he is often demonstrated to be at least a more stable and less corrupt ruler than any other Latverian leader who has replaced him." ], [ "Known inhabitants", "* '''Doctor Doom''' - The current ruler of Latveria.", "* '''Alexander Flynn''' - The alleged mutant son of Doctor Doom and an unidentified Romani woman.", "* '''Arturo Frazen''' - He was installed as Latveria's ambassador during the temporary reign of Prince Zorba Fortunov.", "* '''Baron Karl Hassen''' - He was the ruler of Latveria during the 14th Century.", "* '''Baron Karl Hassen III''' - He was part of Latveria's royalty sometime before Doctor Doom became Latveria's ruler.", "* '''Boris''' - Doctor Doom's Zefiro guardian since childhood and closest confidant.", "* '''Count Sabbat''' - He was part of Latveria's royalty during the 15th Century.", "* '''Cristos Malachi''' - A one-time member of Doctor Doom's Zefiro Gypsy Clan.", "He served as the Zefiro Gypsy Clan's fortune-teller.", "* '''Cynthia Von Doom''' - The mother of Doctor Doom.", "* '''Daniel Kurtz''' - A one-time classmate of Doctor Doom.", "He lost an eye during Victor's experiment which involved contacting his mother.", "* '''Djordji Zindelo Hungaro''' - The Zefiro mystic who trained Cynthia Von Doom in the mystic arts.", "* '''Dreadknight''' - A Latverian scientist who had a skull-shaped cybernetic helmet bio-fused to his head by Doctor Doom and developed a vendetta against him.", "* '''Editor''' - He was tasked with rewriting Latverian history to conform with Doctor Doom's world view.", "* '''Fydor Gittrlsohn''' - One of Doctor Doom's chief scientists.", "* '''Gert Hauptmann''' - One of Doctor Doom's chief scientists and the brother of Gustav Hauptmann.", "His attempt at betrayal led to his death at the hands of Doctor Doom.", "* '''Gustav Hauptmann''' - One of Doctor Doom's chief scientists.", "He was a former Nazi that worked for Adolf Hitler and Red Skull.", "When the flamethrower that Gustav was using to attack Mister Fantastic with endangered his art collection, Doctor Doom reversed the sonic weapon he planned to use on the Fantastic Four and killed Gustav Hauptmann instead.", "* '''Gustav von Kampen''' - A one-time member of Doctor Doom's Zefiro Gypsy Clan.", "* '''Gustav van Erven''' - A Latverian refugee living on Brazil on Doctor Doom 2099 timeline.", "* '''Hans Stutgart''' - A Latverian agent who is living in the United States.", "* '''Jakob Gorzenk''' - He serves as the chief ambassador to the United States.", "* '''King Rudolfo I''' - He ruled Latveria sometime before Doctor Doom became Latveria's ruler.", "* '''King Stefan''' - He ruled Latveria sometime before Doctor Doom became Latveria's ruler.", "* '''King Vladimir Vassily Gonereo Tristian Mangegi Fortunov''' - The tyrannical ruler of Latveria who was extremely harsh to the gypsies that lived on the borders.", "He was killed by Doctor Doom.", "* '''Kristoff Vernard''' - The adopted son of Doctor Doom.", "His mother was killed by a robot that was used by Prince Zorba Fortunov.", "* '''Kroft Family''' - A family of vampire hunters that existed from the 16th Century to the 19th Century.", "** '''Kurt Kroft''' - ** '''Leo Kroft''' -** '''Oscar Kroft''' -** '''Pietro Kroft''' -** '''Stefan Kroft''' -** '''Wilhelm Kroft''' -* '''Larin''' - A Tibetan Monk who helped to construct Doctor Doom's first armor.", "* '''Lucia von Bardas''' - The Prime Minister of Latveria.", "* '''Mengo Brothers''' - A pair of international mercenaries.", "** '''Grigori Mengochuzcraus''' -** '''Stanislaus Mengochuzcraus''' -* '''Otto Kronsteig''' - One of Doctor Doom's chief scientists.", "* '''Prince Rudolfo Fortunov''' - The former crown prince of Latveria before his family was ousted by Doctor Doom.", "* '''Prince Zorba Fortunov''' - The former prince of Latveria and brother of Rudolfo.", "He once reclaimed the throne to Latveria when the Fantastic Four had defeated Doctor Doom.", "With the help of the Fantastic Four, Doctor Doom was able to reclaim his throne.", "* '''Robert Doom''' - The distant cousin of Doctor Doom.", "* '''Seven Daggers of Doom''' - A group of Latverian mutants that are loyal to Doctor Doom.", "** '''Dreamer''' - A Latverian mutant.", "** '''Ironcloak''' - A Latverian mutant and the sister of Dreamer.", "** '''Nerium''' - A four-armed Latverian mutant with botanopathy.", "** '''Slag''' - A Latverian mutant with geo-thermokinesis.", "** '''Volta''' - A Latverian mutant with electrokinesis who also wields a Vibranium spear.", "* '''Torvalt''' - A one-time member of Doctor Doom's Zefiro Gypsy Clan.", "* '''Tristian de Sabbat''' - A member of Doctor Doom's inner circle responsible for holy propaganda.", "* '''Valeria''' - The teenage love of Doctor Doom's life who is the granddaughter of Boris.", "Her life was sacrificed to the Haazareth Three (a group of demons) by Doctor Doom.", "* '''Vlad Draasen''' - He was a member of Latveria's royalty during the 15th Century.", "* '''Werner Von Doom''' - A talented doctor of the Zefiro Gypsy Tribe and father of Doctor Doom." ], [ "Other versions", "===King Loki===In the future depicted in ''Loki: Agent of Asgard'', Doctor Doom discovers Latveria completely destroyed after King Loki destroyed the Earth.", "Doom attempts to prevent this future by imprisoning the Loki of the present.===''Marvel 1602''===In the ''Marvel 1602'' storyline, Latveria is ruled by Count Otto von Doom, also known as ''Otto the Handsome''.", "It is inhabited by mythical beings, and Latveria experiments on intricate clockwork devices, one of which was used to kill Queen Elizabeth I of England.", "The native language appears to bear a close resemblance to modern German.===Marvel 2099===In the alternate future called \"Marvel 2099\", various power struggles over the fate of Latveria end with most of the country's population destroyed by chemical weapons known as \"necrotoxins\".===Marvel Zombies===In the ''Marvel Zombies'' storyline, Latveria is one of the last few outposts of humanity, as Doctor Doom gathers up the fittest and most fertile of the Latverian survivors in order to send them off to other dimensions.", "An army of super-zombies lay siege to Doom's castle and eventually break inside.", "Despite this and Doom himself being bitten, all the Latverian citizens successfully escape.===Ultimate Marvel===In ''Ultimate Marvel'', Latveria was introduced as a bankrupt peasant nation, but thanks to Doctor Doom it was made the ninth richest country on Earth.", "The townsfolk wear Doom's dragon tattoos, which incorporate microfibers that interfaced with the brain, acting as mind control devices.", "Where this Latveria lies is unclear but there are Belgian Flags on display in the background in the one picture displayed of Latveria.In ''Ultimate Marvel Team-Up'', Latveria was presented as an impoverished dictatorial theocracy, under \"his holiness\" President Victor Von Doom (wearing his traditional Marvel armor and cloak).", "They attempted, in collusion with the United States via Nick Fury, to steal the Iron Man technology from Tony Stark; this fails, partly due to the intervention of Spider-Man.", "At some point, however, Doom declared a holy war on the United States, creating tensions between two countries.", "Like most in this comic, this would be ignored and retconned away in later Ultimate Marvel titles." ], [ "In other media", "===Television===* Latveria appears in the 1994 ''Fantastic Four'' TV series.", "* Latveria appears in ''The Super Hero Squad Show'' episode \"Pedicure of Doom.\"", "Doctor Doom, MODOK, and Abomination fall back to Castle Doom only to find that Doctor Doom's mother Cynthia \"Coco\" Von Doom had converted it into a spa with Chthon's help.", "* Latveria is mentioned in the ''Iron Man: Armored Adventures'' episode \"The Might of Doom.", "\"* Latveria appears in ''The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes'' episode \"The Private War of Doctor Doom.", "\"* Latveria appears in the ''Ultimate Spider-Man'' episode \"Doomed.\"", "Spider-Man, Power Man, Iron Fist, Nova, and White Tiger head to Latveria in order to capture Doctor Doom as part of their plan to impress Nick Fury.", "The Latverian Embassy appears in the episode \"Not a Toy\" when Captain America's shield ends up in the Latverian Embassy and that Spider-Man must work with Captain America to get it back before Doctor Doom can experiment with it.", "* Latveria appears in ''Avengers Assemble'' episode \"The Doomstroyer\".", "The Avengers head there where Doctor Doom has taken the Asgardian armor, Destroyer.", "* Latveria appears in the ''Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.''", "episode \"Red Rover.\"", "Red Hulk unknowingly drops off Devil Dinosaur in Latveria when he mistook it for Transia.", "In the \"Days of Future Smash\" episodes, the Latverian embassy is featured where Leader breaks in to steal one of the time belts to go back in time.===Film===* In the ''Fantastic Four'' film, Latveria is mentioned initially in reference to Victor Von Doom's past and is described as \"the old country\", possibly indicating his birth there.", "After \"The End\" has appeared, Von Doom's incarcerated body is shown on board a ship bound for Latveria.", "Also during the scene where he first dons his trademark metal mask, a plaque can be seen declaring it as a gift to Doom from the people of Latveria.", "* In the sequel ''Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer'', Doom is reawakened in his castle by the Silver Surfer's passage through Latveria.", "The capital's name has been changed from \"Doomstadt\" to \"'''Hassenstadt'''\", likely because Doom is merely a native of the country in this continuity, rather than its leader, as the previous movie established him as merely a wealthy businessman.", "* In the trailer for the 2015 reboot of ''Fantastic Four'', about 45 seconds into the trailer an IP address was shown on the bottom left hand corner of the screen.", "That IP address leads to this article.", "In the movie itself, Latveria is shown to be Doom's home country on a government report on him.", "* Marvel Cinematic Universe writer Eric Pearson stated in an interview with IGN that he included an ultimately deleted reference to Latveria in ''Black Widow'', admitting that he always tries to include references to Latveria in the MCU when possible.===Video games===* In the 1980s computer game ''Accolade's Comics'' the protagonist Steve Keene is offered tickets to the Latverian Ballet.", "* In ''Spider-Man: The Game'', a billboard can be seen in the first level advertising tourism in Latvania, a misspelling of Latveria.", "* Latveria is referred to in the ''Spider-Man 2'' video game when J. Jonah Jameson says that a Latverian diplomat is landing at the United Nations building by helicopter, although circumstances force the player to miss sighting any such diplomat.", "* In the ''Ultimate Spider-Man'' video game, the Beetle was reported to have ducked into the Latverian Embassy after evading Spider-Man.", "In the special edition of the game, the player can look at concept art that shows what happens to Beetle after his confrontation with Spider-Man.", "He flies into the embassy and walks up to a throne, kneels down, and presents the Sandman vial to Doctor Doom in some plot to develop super-soldiers for Latveria.", "Later on in the game, the Green Goblin is seen escaping from the Latverian Embassy.", "* In ''Marvel: Ultimate Alliance'', Castle Doom in Latveria is a level.", "If the player asks about Latveria to Vision, he mentions that there is barely any crime there since Doctor Doom's robots are always patrolling the country.", "* The Latverian Embassy is featured in ''The Incredible Hulk'' video game.", "* Latveria is featured in ''Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2''.", "The first part of the game is based on the ''Secret War'' storyline.", "Nick Fury leads the heroes to Latveria to deal with Lucia von Bardas after the President does not want to take action against her illegal activities.", "* The Latverian Embassy is featured in ''Marvel: Avengers Alliance''.", "* Latveria appears in ''Lego Marvel Super Heroes''.", "The level \"Doctor in the House\" takes place in Castle Doom.", "* In ''Marvel Heroes'', the player explores the city of Doomstadt and also manages to explore Castle Doom leading up to a final confrontation with Doctor Doom in Doom's throne room.===Newspapers===* In a 1992, month-long edition of the Spider-Man serial strip by Stan Lee, Latveria and Dr. Doom are featured prominently.", "The story begins with J.J Jameson's assistant Robbie suggesting that Latveria is up to something, marked by Latveria's prolonged absence from United Nations meetings.", "The strip is then interspersed with Doctor Doom's iron rule over Latverians and Peter and Mary Jane Parker posing as tourists entering Latveria (to provide cover for Peter Parker's attempt to find out what Dr. Doom is plotting).", "Doom's withdrawal is soon revealed a launching a satellite that will fire lasers on oil wells anywhere on Earth, effectively holding the world responsive to Doom's demands.", "Doom opens fire on one small oil field as an example of his power projection.", "The satellite also creates a force field that protects it and Latveria from the forthcoming missile counterattacks.", "President Bush, as well as other First World leaders, ignore all of Doom's demands, causing an enraged Doom to order the satellite to open fire on \"a dozen oil fields, at once!", "\", which ultimately proves his undoing as that requires a time window to charge such a large amount.", "Spider-Man takes advantage of this to overload the satellite, thus nullifying Doom's threats.", "In a subplot, Dr. Doom's autocratic manner is also shown when he sees a captured Peter and Mary Jane.", "The despot announces his plans to become a prominent world leader, but should not do it as a single man, saying that in his capacity as a leader he has the power to annul Peter Parker's marriage and make Mary Jane his queen consort, a different take from the Fantastic Four storylines which usually show Doom trying to force Susan Richards to be on his arm." ], [ "Reception", "''Bustle'' published a humorous article about how to convince people that Latveria is a real place, saying \"Latveria doesn't ''sound'' made up ... in this case, Latveria is very much fake — which doesn't mean you can't still have fun convincing people it's real, though.", "\"''Screen Rant'' writes that ever since 1962's ''The Fantastic Four'' #5, \"the tiny country of Latveria has long been a thorn in the side of Marvel's heroes\", noting that it was long established as a Southeastern European country, and as of 2020 firmly located in the Banat region, so that \"This fixed location for Latveria grounds the nation more fully in readers' understanding of the real world, suggesting realistic political tensions and even geographical factors which can play into future stories.", "\"Mark Hibbett of Central Saint Martins notes that Latveria in 1964 was described as a small East European country \"nestling in the heart of the Bavarian alps\", and he explains that \"Right from the start Latveria is presented as a very strange place, like a fairy tale village transplanted into the real world, with Jack Kirby's illustrations showing an almost medieval world of peasant cottages and gypsy caravans.\"" ], [ "Further reading", "* '' War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film'' by Marc DiPaolo, McFarland (2014)* '' Caped Crusaders 101: Composition Through Comic Books'' by Jeffrey Kahan and Stanley Stewart, McFarland (2006)* \" Latveria's Place in Marvel Geopolitics\" by Josh Weiss, Marvel.com (April 1, 2019)* '' The Hidden Europe: What Eastern Europeans Can Teach Us'' by Francis Tapon (2012)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Latveria at Marvel Wiki* Article on History of Latveria" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Least common multiple" ], [ "Introduction", "A Venn diagram showing the least common multiples of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 (and of their combinations, like 6 and 8).For example, a card game which requires its cards to be divided equally among up to 5 players requires at least 60 cards, the number at the intersection of the 2, 3, 4, and 5 sets, but not the 7 set.In arithmetic and number theory, the '''least common multiple''', '''lowest common multiple''', or '''smallest common multiple''' of two integers ''a'' and ''b'', usually denoted by , is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both ''a'' and ''b''.", "Since division of integers by zero is undefined, this definition has meaning only if ''a'' and ''b'' are both different from zero.", "However, some authors define lcm(''a'', 0) as 0 for all ''a'', since 0 is the only common multiple of ''a'' and 0.The least common multiple of the denominators of two fractions is the \"lowest common denominator\" (lcd), and can be used for adding, subtracting or comparing the fractions.The least common multiple of more than two integers ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', .", ".", ".", ", usually denoted by , is defined as the smallest positive integer that is divisible by each of ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', .", ".", "." ], [ "Overview", "A multiple of a number is the product of that number and an integer.", "For example, 10 is a multiple of 5 because 5 × 2 = 10, so 10 is divisible by 5 and 2.Because 10 is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both 5 and 2, it is the least common multiple of 5 and 2.By the same principle, 10 is the least common multiple of −5 and −2 as well.=== Notation ===The least common multiple of two integers ''a'' and ''b'' is denoted as lcm(''a'', ''b'').", "Some older textbooks use ''a'', ''b''.=== Example ===:Multiples of 4 are::Multiples of 6 are::''Common multiples'' of 4 and 6 are the numbers that are in both lists::In this list, the smallest number is 12.Hence, the ''least common multiple'' is 12." ], [ "Applications", "When adding, subtracting, or comparing simple fractions, the least common multiple of the denominators (often called the lowest common denominator) is used, because each of the fractions can be expressed as a fraction with this denominator.", "For example,:where the denominator 42 was used, because it is the least common multiple of 21 and 6.=== Gears problem ===Suppose there are two meshing gears in a machine, having ''m'' and ''n'' teeth, respectively, and the gears are marked by a line segment drawn from the center of the first gear to the center of the second gear.", "When the gears begin rotating, the number of rotations the first gear must complete to realign the line segment can be calculated by using .", "The first gear must complete rotations for the realignment.", "By that time, the second gear will have made rotations.=== Planetary alignment ===Suppose there are three planets revolving around a star which take ''l'', ''m'' and ''n'' units of time, respectively, to complete their orbits.", "Assume that ''l'', ''m'' and ''n'' are integers.", "Assuming the planets started moving around the star after an initial linear alignment, all the planets attain a linear alignment again after units of time.", "At this time, the first, second and third planet will have completed , and orbits, respectively, around the star." ], [ "Calculation", "There are several ways to compute least common multiples.=== Using the greatest common divisor ===The least common multiple can be computed from the greatest common divisor (gcd) with the formula:To avoid introducing integers that are larger than the result, it is convenient to use the equivalent formulas:where the result of the division is always an integer.These formulas are also valid when exactly one of and is , since .", "However, if both and are , these formulas would cause division by zero; so, must be considered as a special case.To return to the example above,:There are fast algorithms, such as the Euclidean algorithm for computing the gcd that do not require the numbers to be factored.", "For very large integers, there are even faster algorithms for the three involved operations (multiplication, gcd, and division); see Fast multiplication.", "As these algorithms are more efficient with factors of similar size, it is more efficient to divide the largest argument of the lcm by the gcd of the arguments, as in the example above.=== Using prime factorization ===The unique factorization theorem indicates that every positive integer greater than 1 can be written in only one way as a product of prime numbers.", "The prime numbers can be considered as the atomic elements which, when combined, make up a composite number.For example::Here, the composite number 90 is made up of one atom of the prime number 2, two atoms of the prime number 3, and one atom of the prime number 5.This fact can be used to find the lcm of a set of numbers.Example: lcm(8,9,21)Factor each number and express it as a product of prime number powers.", ": The lcm will be the product of multiplying the highest power of each prime number together.", "The highest power of the three prime numbers 2, 3, and 7 is 23, 32, and 71, respectively.", "Thus,:This method is not as efficient as reducing to the greatest common divisor, since there is no known general efficient algorithm for integer factorization.The same method can also be illustrated with a Venn diagram as follows, with the prime factorization of each of the two numbers demonstrated in each circle and ''all'' factors they share in common in the intersection.", "The lcm then can be found by multiplying all of the prime numbers in the diagram.Here is an example:: 48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3,: 180 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5,sharing two \"2\"s and a \"3\" in common::400px: Least common multiple = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 = 720: Greatest common divisor = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12: Product = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 = 8640This also works for the greatest common divisor (gcd), except that instead of multiplying all of the numbers in the Venn diagram, one multiplies only the prime factors that are in the intersection.", "Thus the gcd of 48 and 180 is 2 × 2 × 3 = 12.=== Using a simple algorithm ===This method works easily for finding the lcm of several integers.Let there be a finite sequence of positive integers ''X'' = (''x''1, ''x''2, ..., ''x''''n''), ''n'' > 1.The algorithm proceeds in steps as follows: on each step ''m'' it examines and updates the sequence ''X''(''m'') = (''x''1(''m''), ''x''2(''m''), ..., ''x''''n''(''m'')), ''X''(1) = ''X'', where ''X''(''m'') is the ''m''th iteration of ''X'', that is, ''X'' at step ''m'' of the algorithm, etc.", "The purpose of the examination is to pick the least (perhaps, one of many) element of the sequence ''X''(''m'').", "Assuming ''x''''k''0(''m'') is the selected element, the sequence ''X''(''m''+1) is defined as: ''x''''k''(''m''+1) = ''x''''k''(''m''), ''k'' ≠ ''k''0: ''x''''k''0(''m''+1) = ''x''''k''0(''m'') + ''x''''k''0(1).In other words, the least element is increased by the corresponding ''x'' whereas the rest of the elements pass from ''X''(''m'') to ''X''(''m''+1) unchanged.The algorithm stops when all elements in sequence ''X''(''m'') are equal.", "Their common value ''L'' is exactly lcm(''X'').For example, if ''X'' = ''X''(1) = (3, 4, 6), the steps in the algorithm produce::''X''(2) = (6, 4, 6):''X''(3) = (6, 8, 6):''X''(4) = (6, 8, 12) - by choosing the second 6:''X''(5) = (9, 8, 12):''X''(6) = (9, 12, 12):''X''(7) = (12, 12, 12) so lcm = 12.=== Using the table-method ===This method works for any number of numbers.", "One begins by listing all of the numbers vertically in a table (in this example 4, 7, 12, 21, and 42):: 4: 7: 12: 21: 42The process begins by dividing all of the numbers by 2.If 2 divides any of them evenly, write 2 in a new column at the top of the table, and the result of division by 2 of each number in the space to the right in this new column.", "If a number is not evenly divisible, just rewrite the number again.", "If 2 does not divide evenly into any of the numbers, repeat this procedure with the next smallest prime number, 3 (see below).", "× 2 4 '''2''' 7 7 12 '''6''' 21 21 42 '''21'''Now, assuming that 2 did divide at least one number (as in this example), check if 2 divides again: × 2 2 4 '''2''' '''1''' 7 7 7 12 '''6''' '''3''' 21 21 21 42 '''21''' 21Once 2 no longer divides any number in the current column, repeat the procedure by dividing by the next larger prime, 3.Once 3 no longer divides, try the next larger primes, 5 then 7, etc.", "The process ends when all of the numbers have been reduced to 1 (the column under the last prime divisor consists only of 1's).", "× 2 2 3 7 4 '''2''' '''1''' 1 1 7 7 7 7 '''1''' 12 '''6''' '''3''' '''1''' 1 21 21 21 '''7''' '''1''' 42 '''21''' 21 '''7''' '''1'''Now, multiply the numbers in the top row to obtain the lcm.", "In this case, it is .As a general computational algorithm, the above is quite inefficient.", "One would never want to implement it in software: it takes too many steps and requires too much storage space.", "A far more efficient numerical algorithm can be obtained by using Euclid's algorithm to compute the gcd first, and then obtaining the lcm by division." ], [ "Formulas", "=== Fundamental theorem of arithmetic ===According to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, every integer greater than 1 can be represented uniquely as a product of prime numbers, up to the order of the factors::where the exponents ''n''2, ''n''3, ... are non-negative integers; for example, 84 = 22 31 50 71 110 130 ...Given two positive integers and , their least common multiple and greatest common divisor are given by the formulas:and:Since:this gives:In fact, every rational number can be written uniquely as the product of primes, if negative exponents are allowed.", "When this is done, the above formulas remain valid.", "For example::=== Lattice-theoretic ===The positive integers may be partially ordered by divisibility: if ''a'' divides ''b'' (that is, if ''b'' is an integer multiple of ''a'') write ''a'' ≤ ''b'' (or equivalently, ''b'' ≥ ''a'').", "(Note that the usual magnitude-based definition of ≤ is not used here.", ")Under this ordering, the positive integers become a lattice, with meet given by the gcd and join given by the lcm.", "The proof is straightforward, if a bit tedious; it amounts to checking that lcm and gcd satisfy the axioms for meet and join.", "Putting the lcm and gcd into this more general context establishes a duality between them::''If a formula involving integer variables, gcd, lcm, ≤ and ≥ is true, then the formula obtained by switching gcd with lcm and switching ≥ with ≤ is also true.''", "(Remember ≤ is defined as divides).The following pairs of dual formulas are special cases of general lattice-theoretic identities.", ";Commutative laws::     ;Associative laws::     ;Absorption laws:::;Idempotent laws::     ;Define divides in terms of lcm and gcd::It can also be shown that this lattice is distributive; that is, lcm distributes over gcd and gcd distributes over lcm:::This identity is self-dual::=== Other ===* Let ''D'' be the product of ''ω''(''D'') distinct prime numbers (that is, ''D'' is squarefree).Then:where the absolute bars denote the cardinality of a set.", "* If none of is zero, then:" ], [ "In commutative rings", "The least common multiple can be defined generally over commutative rings as follows:Let and be elements of a commutative ring .", "A ''common multiple'' of and is an element of such that both and divide (that is, there exist elements and of such that and ).", "A ''least common multiple'' of and is a common multiple that is minimal, in the sense that for any other common multiple of and , divides .In general, two elements in a commutative ring can have no least common multiple or more than one.", "However, any two least common multiples of the same pair of elements are associates.", "In a unique factorization domain, any two elements have a least common multiple.", "In a principal ideal domain, the least common multiple of and can be characterised as a generator of the intersection of the ideals generated by and (the intersection of a collection of ideals is always an ideal)." ], [ "See also", "*Anomalous cancellation*Coprime integers*Chebyshev function" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "****** *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Louis St. Laurent" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Louis Stephen St. Laurent''' (''Saint-Laurent'' or ''St-Laurent'' in French, baptized '''Louis-Étienne St-Laurent'''; February 1, 1882 – July 25, 1973) was a Canadian lawyer and politician who served as the 12th prime minister of Canada from 1948 to 1957.Born and raised in southeastern Quebec, St. Laurent was a leading lawyer and a supporter of the Liberal Party of Canada.", "In December 1941, he entered politics as minister of justice under Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King.", "In February 1942, he won a by-election in the riding of Quebec East.", "In September 1946, St. Laurent became secretary of state for external affairs and served in that post until two years later, when he became leader of the Liberal Party and prime minister, succeeding King who retired.", "St. Laurent carried the party to back-to-back landslide majority governments in the federal elections of 1949 and 1953.The second French Canadian to hold the office, St. Laurent strongly advocated against communism and was an enthusiastic proponent of Canada joining NATO in 1949 to fight the spread of the ideology.", "His government also contributed troops to the Korean War.", "At home, St. Laurent's government introduced the registered retirement savings plan (RRSP) and oversaw the construction of the Trans-Canada Highway, St. Lawrence Seaway, and Trans-Canada Pipeline.", "St. Laurent earned the nickname \"Uncle Louis\" as he was popular among the general public throughout his tenure, and the popularity of his government led many to predict that he would easily win the 1957 federal election.", "However, his decision to rush the 1956 debate on the Trans-Canada Pipeline by invoking closure led some to believe that the Liberals had become arrogant from their two decades in power, and in a major upset, the party was narrowly defeated by John Diefenbaker's Progressive Conservatives, ending nearly 22 years of Liberal rule.", "Shortly after his defeat, St. Laurent retired from politics and returned to his law practice.", "He is ranked highly among analysts, not least because of his progressive programs and fiscally responsible policies that helped shape post-war Canada.", "According to historian Donald Creighton, he was an \"eminently moderate, cautious...man...and a strong Canadian nationalist.\"" ], [ "Early life, family, and education (1882–1905)", "Louis and Jeanne on their wedding day, May 19, 1908Louis St. Laurent () was born on February 1, 1882, in Compton, Quebec, a village in the Eastern Townships, to Jean-Baptiste-Moïse Saint-Laurent, a French Canadian, and Mary Anne Broderick, an Irish Canadian.", "Louis was the oldest of seven children.", "At the time of his birth, Compton was mainly English-speaking, though it would slowly become majority French between 1901 and 1911.St.", "Laurent grew up fluently bilingual, as his father spoke French while his mother only spoke English.", "His English had a noticeable Irish brogue, while his gestures (such as a hunch of the shoulders) were French.", "St. Laurent was also interested in English literature as a child.", "The St. Laurent home would serve as a social centre for the village.St.", "Laurent's father, Jean-Baptiste, was a Compton shopkeeper and a staunch supporter of the Liberal Party of Canada and Sir Wilfrid Laurier.", "Jean-Baptiste would unsuccessfully run in a provincial by-election in 1894.When Laurier led the Liberals to victory in the 1896 election, 14-year-old Louis relayed the election returns from the telephone in his father's store.St.", "Laurent received degrees from Séminaire Saint-Charles-Borromée (B.A.", "1902) and (LL.L.", "1905).", "He was offered, but declined, a Rhodes Scholarship upon this graduation from Laval in 1905.In 1908, he married Jeanne Renault (1886–1966), with whom he had two sons and three daughters, including Jean-Paul St. Laurent." ], [ "Legal career (1905–1942)", "St. Laurent as a lawyerSt.", "Laurent worked as a lawyer from 1905 to 1942.He also became a professor of law at Université Laval in 1914.St.", "Laurent practised corporate, commercial and constitutional law in Quebec and became one of the country's most respected counsel.", "St. Laurent served as president of the Canadian Bar Association from 1930 to 1932.In 1907, St. Laurent gained some attention in Quebec after he made a move that was viewed unusual at the time: he put a priest and nuns on the witness stand and cross-examined them.", "This occurred during his engagement in a case contesting the will of a woman who had left everything she owned to her parish priest.", "In 1912, St. Laurent won a case against Canadian Pacific.", "In 1913, he was one of the defending counsel for Harry Kendall Thaw, who was seeking to avoid extradition from Quebec.In 1923, St. Laurent opened his own law office.", "In 1926, in a test case before the Supreme Court, St. Laurent argued for religious minority (non-Christian) rights.", "He was in favour of Jewish demand for representation on Montreal’s Protestant Board of School Commissioners and he also supported a separate Jewish system of schools.", "Though St. Laurent's bid to have Jewish representation in the school board was unsuccessful, the province of Quebec recognized the right to establish separate schools for non-Christians.Though an ardent Liberal, Louis remained aloof from active politics for much of his life, focusing instead on his legal career and family.", "He became one of Quebec's leading lawyers and was so highly regarded that he was twice offered a seat as a justice on the Supreme Court of Canada, offers he declined." ], [ "Cabinet minister (1942–1948)", "=== Minister of Justice ===It was not until he was nearly 60 that St. Laurent finally agreed to enter politics when Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King appealed to his sense of duty in late 1941.King's Quebec lieutenant, Ernest Lapointe, had died in November 1941.King believed that his Quebec lieutenant had to be strong enough and respected enough to help deal with the volatile conscription issue.", "King had been a junior politician when he witnessed the Conscription Crisis of 1917 during World War I and wanted to prevent the same divisions from threatening his government.", "Many recommended St. Laurent for the post.", "On these recommendations, King recruited St. Laurent to cabinet as Minister of Justice, Lapointe's former post, on 9 December.", "St. Laurent agreed to go to Ottawa out of a sense of duty, but only on the understanding that his foray into politics was temporary and that he would return to Quebec at the conclusion of the war.", "In February 1942, he won a by-election for Quebec East, Lapointe's former riding, which had been previously held by Laurier.", "St. Laurent supported King's decision to introduce conscription in 1944 (see Conscription Crisis of 1944).", "His support prevented more than a handful of Quebec Liberal Members of Parliament (MPs) from leaving the party and was therefore crucial to keeping the government and the party united.", "St. Laurent was King's right-hand man.St.", "Laurent (left) and Prime Minister King (right) at the San Francisco Conference, May 1945St.", "Laurent represented Canada at the 1945 San Francisco Conference that helped lead to the founding of the United Nations (UN).In 1944, St. Laurent oversaw the creation of family allowances.", "In 1945, St. Laurent supported a program of economic reconstruction and more social welfare, which consisted of federal-provincial cost-sharing schemes for old-age pensions and hospital and medical insurance.", "Some officials were worried that these sweeping changes would cause disputes between the federal and provincial governments, but St. Laurent believed that Canadians identified with and supported these programs, stating that \"they were constantly made aware of the services which provincial governments render while they tended to think of the central government as one imposing burdens such as taxation and conscription.", "\"In September 1945, Soviet cipher clerk Igor Gouzenko unexpectedly arrived at St. Laurent's office with evidence of a Soviet spy ring operating in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom.", "Known as the Gouzenko Affair, the revelations and subsequent investigations over the following few years showed major Soviet espionage in North America.=== Minister of external affairs ===King came to regard St. Laurent as his most trusted minister and natural successor.", "He persuaded St. Laurent that it was his duty to remain in government following the war in order to help with the construction of a post-war international order and promoted him to the position of secretary of state for external affairs (foreign minister) in 1946, a portfolio King had always kept for himself.In January 1947, St. Laurent delivered a speech at the University of Toronto, highlighting the need for an independent Canadian foreign policy that would not always rely on the United Kingdom.", "St. Laurent's speech implied that Canadian foreign policy was only an extension of British foreign policy.", "He also said that Canada should have the “willingness to accept international responsibilities.”==== United Nations ====St.", "Laurent (bottom, centre-right) and King (bottom, centre) and other delegates negotiating the entry of Newfoundland and Labrador into Confederation, 1947St.", "Laurent, compelled by his belief that the UN would be ineffective in times of war and armed conflict without some military means to impose its will, advocated the adoption of a UN military force.", "This force he proposed would be used in situations that called for both tact and might to preserve peace or prevent combat.", "In 1956, this idea was actualized by St. Laurent and his secretary of state for external affairs, Lester B. Pearson, in the development of UN peacekeepers that helped to put an end to the Suez Crisis.St.", "Laurent also believed that the UN was failing to provide international security from communism from the Soviet Union.", "He therefore proposed an Atlantic security organization that would supplement the UN.", "That would become reality in 1949, when the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was founded.", "St. Laurent is seen as one of the first people in power to propose such an institution.==== Annexation of Newfoundland ====St.", "Laurent was a strong supporter of the Dominion of Newfoundland joining Canada.", "He ignored objections from the government of Quebec, which had land claims against Newfoundland and demanded a right of veto over the admission of any new province or territory.", "St. Laurent led two negotiations with Newfoundland and Joey Smallwood in the summer of 1947 and the fall of 1948.These negotiations were successful, and on March 31, 1949, Canada annexed Newfoundland and Labrador, with St. Laurent presiding over the ceremonies in Ottawa as prime minister.=== 1948 Liberal Party leadership convention ===Louis St. Laurent, August 7, 1948In 1948, MacKenzie King retired after over 21 years in power, and quietly persuaded his senior ministers to support St. Laurent's selection as the new Liberal leader at the Liberal leadership convention that took place on August 7, 1948, exactly 29 years after King became leader.", "St. Laurent easily won, defeating two other opponents." ], [ "Prime Minister (1948–1957)", "St. Laurent was sworn in as prime minister of Canada on 15 November 1948, making him Canada's second French Canadian prime minister, after Wilfrid Laurier.St.", "Laurent was the first prime minister to live in the official residence of the Prime Minister of Canada, 24 Sussex Drive (then known as 24 Sussex Street), from 1951 to 1957.=== Federal election victories======= 1949 federal election ====St.", "Laurent shaking hands with supporters during the 1949 election campaignSt.", "Laurent's first mission was to give the Liberals a new mandate.", "In the 1949 federal election that followed his ascension to the Liberal leadership, many wondered, including Liberal Party insiders, if St. Laurent would appeal to the post-war populace of Canada.", "On the campaign trail, St. Laurent's image was developed into somewhat of a 'character' and what is considered to be the first 'media image' to be used in Canadian politics.", "St. Laurent chatted with children, gave speeches in his shirt sleeves, and had a 'common touch' that turned out to be appealing to voters.", "At one event during the 1949 election campaign, he disembarked his train and instead of approaching the assembled crowd of adults and reporters, gravitated to, and began chatting with, a group of children on the platform.", "A reporter submitted an article entitled \"Uncle Louis can't lose!\"", "which earned him the nickname \"Uncle Louis\" in the media (\"Papa Louis\" in Quebec).", "With this common touch and broad appeal, he led the party to victory in the election against the Progressive Conservative Party (PC Party) led by George Drew.", "The Liberals won 191 seats – the most in Canadian history at the time, and still a record for the party.", "This is also the Liberals' second-most successful result in their history in terms of proportion of seats, behind the 1940 federal election.==== 1953 federal election ====St.", "Laurent led the Liberals to another powerful majority in the 1953 federal election, once again defeating PC leader Drew.", "Though they lost 22 seats, they still had three dozen seats more than the number needed for a majority, enabling them to dominate the House of Commons.=== Foreign policy ===Canadian Prime MinisterSt.", "Laurent (far left), British prime minister Winston Churchill (left), British foreign minister Anthony Eden (right), and Canadian foreign minister Lester Pearson (far right) in Ottawa in 1954St.", "Laurent and his cabinet oversaw Canada's expanding international role in the postwar world.", "His stated desire was for Canada to occupy a social, military, and economic middle power role in the post-World War II world.", "In 1947, he identified the five basic principles of Canadian foreign policy and five practical applications regarding Canada's international relations.", "Always highly sensitive to cleavages of language, religion, and region, he stressed national unity, insisting, \"that our external policies shall not destroy our unity ... for a disunited Canada will be a powerless one.\"", "He also stressed political liberty and rule of law in the sense of opposition to totalitarianism.Militarily, St. Laurent was a leading proponent of the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, serving as an architect and signatory of the treaty document.", "Involvement in such an organization marked a departure from King who had been reticent about joining a military alliance.", "Under his leadership, Canada supported the United Nations (UN) in the Korean War and committed the third largest overall contribution of troops, ships and aircraft to the U.N. forces to the conflict.", "Troops to Korea were selected on a voluntary basis.", "St. Laurent sent over 26,000 troops to fight in the war.", "In 1956, under his direction, St. Laurent's secretary of state for external affairs, Lester B. Pearson, helped solve the Suez Crisis between Great Britain, France, Israel and Egypt, bringing forward St. Laurent's 1946 views on a U.N. military force in the form of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) or peacekeeping.", "These actions were recognized when Pearson won the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.In early 1954, St. Laurent took a 42-day long tour around the world, citing his desire to get a better picture of what he said, \"the problems which all of us have to face together.\"", "He visited 12 countries in total, including France, Germany, Japan, India, and Pakistan.", "When he returned back to Canada, St. Laurent's personality and character appeared to slightly change; cabinet ministers noticed he showed signs of fatigue and indifference.", "Some even claimed he started to feel depressed.", "Author Dale C. Thomson wrote, \"the tour was his greatest hour but it marked as well the beginning of his decline; as such, it was a turning point both for him and for Canadian politics.", "\"=== Economic policy ===St.", "Laurent, 1950It took taxation surpluses no longer needed by the wartime military and paying back in full Canada's debts accrued during the World Wars and the Great Depression.", "With remaining revenues, St. Laurent oversaw the expansion of Canada's social programs, including the gradual expansion of social welfare programs such as family allowances, old age pensions, government funding of university and post-secondary education and an early form of Medicare termed ''Hospital Insurance'' at the time.", "This scheme laid the groundwork for Tommy Douglas' healthcare system in Saskatchewan, and Pearson's nationwide universal healthcare in the late 1960s.", "Under this legislation, the federal government paid around 50% of the cost of provincial health plans to cover \"a basic range of inpatient services in acute, convalescent, and chronic hospital care.\"", "The condition for the cost-sharing agreements was that all citizens were to be entitled to these benefits, and by March 1963, 98.8% of Canadians were covered by ''Hospital Insurance''.", "According to historian Katherine Boothe, however, St. Laurent did not regard government health insurance to be a \"good policy idea\", instead favouring the expansion of voluntary insurance through existing plans.", "In 1951, for instance, St. Laurent spoke in support of the medical profession assuming \"the administration and responsibility for, a scheme that would provide prepaid medical attendance to any Canadian who needed it\".In addition, St. Laurent modernized and established new social and industrial policies for the country during his time in the prime minister's office.", "Amongst these measures included the universalization of old-age pensions for all Canadians aged seventy and above (1951), the introduction of old age assistance for needy Canadians aged sixty-five and above (1951), the introduction of allowances for the blind (1951) and the disabled (1954), amendments to the National Housing Act (1954) which provided federal government financing to non-profit organisations as well as the provinces for the renovation or construction of hostels or housing for students, the disabled, the elderly, and families on low incomes, and unemployment assistance (1956) for unemployed employables on welfare who had exhausted (or did not qualify for) unemployment insurance benefits.", "During his last term as prime minister, St. Laurent's government used $100 million in death taxes to establish the Canada Council to support research in the arts, humanities, and social sciences.", "In 1956, using the taxation authority of the federal level of government, St. Laurent's government introduced the policy of \"equalization payments\" which redistributes taxation revenues between provinces to assist the poorer provinces in delivering government programs and services, a move that has been considered a strong one in solidifying the Canadian federation, particularly with his home province of Québec.In 1957, St. Laurent's government introduced the registered retirement savings plan (RRSP), a type of financial account used to hold savings and investment assets.", "The plan had many tax advantages and was designed to promote savings for retirement by employees and self-employed people.=== Immigration ===In 1948, St. Laurent's government dramatically increased immigration in order to expand Canada's labour base.", "St. Laurent believed that immigration was key to post-war economic growth.", "He also believed that immigration would create a sufficient tax base that would pay for social welfare measures that were established at the end of World War II.", "Over 125,000 immigrants arrived in Canada in 1948 alone, and that number would more than double to 282,000 in 1957.Large numbers of immigrants were from Southern Europe, including Italians, Greeks, and Portuguese immigrants.", "Their arrival shifted the balance of ethnic origins amongst Canadians, increasing the population who were of neither French nor British descent.In 1956 and 1957, Canada received over 37,500 refugees from Hungary, in the wake of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution.=== Infrastructure ===The construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1959St.", "Laurent's government engaged in massive public works and infrastructure projects such as building the Trans-Canada Highway (1949), the St. Lawrence Seaway (1954) and the Trans-Canada Pipeline.", "It was this last project that was to sow the seeds that led to the downfall of the St. Laurent government.St.", "Laurent had to go through a series of negotiations with the United States in order to start the construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway.", "In order to negotiate with the U.S., St. Laurent met with president Harry S. Truman twice, in 1949 and 1951, but was unsuccessful both times.", "St. Laurent then threatened that Canada would build the seaway alone.", "Finally, in 1953 and 1954, Truman's successor, president Dwight Eisenhower, secured a deal with St. Laurent.", "The deal costed $470 million Canadian dollars, with Canada paying nearly three-fourths of that total and the U.S. paying about one-fourth.", "The seaway was completed in 1959 and expanded Canada's economic trade routes with the United States.=== Other domestic affairs ===In 1949, the former lawyer of many Supreme Court cases, St. Laurent ended the practice of appealing Canadian legal cases to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council of Great Britain, making the Supreme Court of Canada the highest avenue of legal appeal available to Canadians.", "In that same year, St. Laurent negotiated the British North America (No.", "2) Act, 1949 with Britain which 'partially patriated' the Canadian Constitution, most significantly giving the Canadian Parliament the authority to amend portions of the constitution.In 1949, following two referendums within the province, St. Laurent and Premier Joey Smallwood negotiated the entry of Newfoundland and Labrador into Confederation.When asked in 1949 whether he would outlaw the Communist Party in Canada, St. Laurent responded that the party posed little threat and that such measures would be drastic.In 1952, St. Laurent advised Queen Elizabeth II to appoint Vincent Massey as the first Canadian-born Governor-General.", "Each of the aforementioned actions were and are seen as significant in furthering the cause of Canadian autonomy from Britain and developing a national identity on the international stage.In 1953, St. Laurent undertook the High Arctic relocation, where 92 Inuit were moved from Inukjuak, Quebec to two communities in the Northwest Territories (now Nunavut).", "The relocation was a forced migration instigated by the federal government to assert its sovereignty in the Far North by the use of \"human flagpoles\", in light of both the Cold War and the disputed territorial claims to the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.", "The relocated Inuit were not given sufficient support to prevent extreme privation during their first years after the move.", "The story was the subject of a book called ''The Long Exile'', published by Melanie McGrath in 2006.=== Defeat in the 1957 federal election ======= Pipeline Debate ====The 1956 Pipeline Debate led to the widespread impression that the Liberals had grown arrogant in power.", "On numerous occasions, the government invoked closure in order to curtail debate and ensure that its Pipeline Bill passed by a specific deadline.", "St. Laurent was criticized for a lack of restraint exercised on his minister, C. D. Howe (who was also known as the \"Minister of Everything\").", "Howe was widely perceived as extremely arrogant.", "Western Canadians felt particularly alienated by the government, believing that the Liberals were kowtowing to interests in Ontario and Quebec and the United States.", "The opposition accused the government of accepting overly costly contracts that could never be completed on schedule.", "In the end, the pipeline was completed early and under budget.", "The pipeline conflict turned out to be meaningless, insofar as the construction work was concerned, since pipe could not be obtained in 1956 from a striking American factory, and no work could have been done that year.", "The uproar in Parliament regarding the pipeline had a lasting impression on the electorate, and was a decisive factor in the Liberal government's 1957 defeat at the hands of the Progressive Conservative (PC) Party, led by John Diefenbaker, in the 1957 election.==== Results ====federal election in which Diefenbaker defeated St. Laurent in a stunning upsetBy 1957 St. Laurent was 75 years old and tired.", "His party had been in power for 22 years, and by this time had accumulated too many factions and alienated too many groups.", "He was ready to retire, but was persuaded to fight one last campaign.", "In the 1957 election, the Liberals won 200,000 more votes nationwide than the Progressive Conservatives (40.75% Liberals to 38.81% PC).", "However, a large portion of that overall Liberal popular vote came from huge majorities in Quebec ridings, and did not translate into seats in other parts of the country.", "Largely due to dominating the rest of the country, the Progressive Conservatives took the greatest number of seats with 112 seats (42% of the House) to the Liberals' 105 (39.2%).", "The result of the election came as a shock to many, and is considered to be one of the greatest upsets in Canadian federal political history.Some ministers wanted St. Laurent to stay on and offer to form a minority government, arguing that the popular vote had supported them and the party's long years of experience would make them a more effective minority.", "Another option circulated within the party saw the balance of power to be held by either the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) and their 25 seats or Social Credit Party of Canada with their 15 seats.", "St. Laurent was encouraged by others to reach out to the CCF and at least four of six independent/small party MPs to form a coalition majority government, which would have held 134 of the 265 seats in Parliament—50.6% of the total.", "St. Laurent, however, had no desire to stay in office; he believed that the nation had passed a verdict against his government and his party.", "In any case, the CCF and Socreds had pledged to cooperate with a Tory government.", "It was very likely that St. Laurent would have been defeated on the floor of the House had he tried to stay in power with a minority government, and would not have stayed in office for long even if he survived that confidence vote.", "With this in mind, St. Laurent resigned on 21 June 1957—ending the longest uninterrupted run in government for a party at the federal level in Canadian history." ], [ "Supreme Court appointments", "Statue on grounds of the Supreme Court of CanadaSt.", "Laurent chose the following jurists to be appointed as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada by the Governor General:* John Robert Cartwright (22 December 1949 – 23 March 1970)* Joseph Honoré Gérald Fauteux (22 December 1949 – 23 December 1973)* Douglas Charles Abbott (1 July 1954 – 23 December 1973)* Patrick Kerwin (as Chief Justice, 1 July 1954 – 2 February 1963; appointed a Puisne Justice under Prime Minister Richard Bennett, 20 July 1935)* Henry Grattan Nolan (1 March 1956 – 8 July 1957)" ], [ "Retirement and death (1957–1973)", "201 Grande-Allée, residence of St. Laurent in Quebec City for sixty yearsAfter a short period as leader of the Opposition and now more than 75 years old, St. Laurent's motivation to be involved in politics was gone.", "He announced his intention to retire from politics.", "He was succeeded as Liberal Party leader by his former secretary of state for external affairs and representative at the United Nations, Lester B. Pearson, at the party's leadership convention in January 1958.St.", "Laurent preferred law over politics.", "In a 1961 interview with the CBC, he stated, \"One can be more outspoken, frank and sincere before the courts than he could be before the public audience in a political campaign.\"", "In that same interview, St. Laurent acknowledged that the Pipeline Debate played a major role in his 1957 loss, stating, \"Perhaps I didn't say as much as I should have; people do make mistakes you know.", "I did my best and, as a matter of fact, we had become accustomed to carry on as a board of directors and that displeased a part of the Canadian public.\"", "St. Laurent admitted that it took a while to resume his good mood after a sudden electoral loss.After his political retirement, he returned to practising law and living quietly and privately with his family.", "During his retirement, he was called into the public spotlight one final time in 1967 to be made a Companion of the Order of Canada, a newly created award.St.", "Laurent was appointed a Companion of the Order of Canada on July 6, 1967.His citation reads:Former Prime Minister of Canada.", "For his service to his country.alt=Large rectangular grey granite stone inscribed with names, birth years, and death years, of St. Laurent and his wifeLouis Stephen St. Laurent died from heart failure on July 25, 1973, in Quebec City, Quebec, aged 91 and was buried at Saint Thomas d'Aquin Cemetery in his hometown of Compton, Quebec." ], [ "Legacy and memorials", "St. Laurent presided over the beginning of a new period in Canadian history, post-WW2 Canada.", "Many have referred to this period as \"Canada's Golden Age\".", "St. Laurent's government was modestly progressive, fiscally responsible, and run with business-like efficiency.", "St. Laurent's former senior servant, Robert Gordon Robertson, wrote, \"St Laurent's administrations from 1949 to 1956 probably gave Canada the most consistently good, financially responsible, trouble-free government the country has had in its entire history.\"", "One of St. Laurent's cabinet ministers, Jack Pickersgill, noted of him, \"St. Laurent had made governing Canada look so easy that the people thought anyone could do it—and thus they elected John Diefenbaker.", "\"Canadian author and professor, Robert Bothwell, wrote, \"St. Laurent had many of the best characteristics of a prime minister but few of the best attributes of a politician.", "In his most productive years in the job, 1948 to 1954, he presided over a cabinet of strong ministers, many of them first-class politicians.", "His views and theirs generally coincided, though when they did not, it was the prime minister who prevailed.", "His fundamental commitment was to national unity, which he interpreted broadly in terms of an expansive federal power.", "At home and abroad he was an activist, which an abundant economy allowed him to be.", "\"CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent, heavy icebreakerSt.", "Laurent was ranked #4 on a survey of the first 20 prime ministers (through Jean Chrétien) of Canada done by Canadian historians, and used by J. L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer in their book ''Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders''.The house and grounds in Compton where St. Laurent was born were designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1973.St.", "Laurent's residence at 201 Grande-Allée Est in Quebec City is protected as a Recognized Federal Heritage Building.CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent, a Canadian Coast Guard Heavy Arctic Icebreaker, is named after him.Louis St. Laurent School in Edmonton, Alberta.", "is named in his honour, as well as the Louis St-Laurent high school in East Angus, Quebec.The riding, Louis-Saint-Laurent, is named in his honour.", "Created in 2003, it partially consists of St. Laurent's old riding of Quebec East." ], [ "Electoral record" ], [ "See also", "* List of prime ministers of Canada" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * ; online" ], [ "External links", "* * * * CBC Digital Archives – Uncle Louis and Canada's Golden Age* Louis St. Laurent's Grave* Louis St. Laurent fonds at Library and Archives Canada*" ] ]
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[ [ "List of literary cycles" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''literary cycle''' is a group of stories focused on common figures, often (though not necessarily) based on mythical figures or loosely on historical ones.", "Cycles which deal with an entire country are sometimes referred to as '''matters'''.", "A fictional cycle is often referred to as a mythos." ], [ "Examples from folk and classical literature", "* The Anansi tales, which center on the Ashanti of Ghana trickster spider-spirit Anansi, and its variations in the Americas as Ti Malice and Bouki in Haiti, Br'er Rabbit or John and Old Master in the Southern United States.", "* The tales of the One Thousand and One Nights, brought together by the frame story of the tale of Scheherazade and Shahryār.", "* The Mahabharata, the world's longest epic poem, many of whose stories deal with the lives of Indian mythological characters, most notably Krishna* Nasreddin (1208-1285) is a character in the folklore of the Muslim world from the Balkans to China, and a hero of humorous short stories and satirical anecdotes.", "* The four troubadours Bernart d'Auriac, Pere Salvatge, Roger Bernard III of Foix, and Peter III of Aragon composed a cycle of four ''sirventes'' in the summer of 1285 concerning the Aragonese Crusade.", "* The Matter of Britain (or the \"Arthurian cycle\"), which centers on King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table** The Vulgate cycle (also known as the Lancelot-Grail)** The Post-Vulgate cycle* The Matter of France (or the \"Carolingian cycle\"), which centers on Charlemagne and the Twelve Peers** Chanson de Geste*** La Geste de Garin de Monglane*** Doon de Mayence*** Garin le Loherain*** Crusade cycle**** Knight of the Swan* The Henriad, the four plays of Shakespeare centered on Henry V.* Two examples of Japanese cycles are: the Matter of Japan (''Kojiki'', ''Nihon Shoki'', etc.)", "and the Genji-Heike Cycle (''The Tale of the Heike'', ''Gikeiki'' about Minamoto no Yoshitsune, etc.).", "Also popular are the Soga Brothers and Forty-Seven Ronin cycles.", "* The Matter of Rome (or the \"cycle of Rome\"), which centers on Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great* The Shahnameh (or “The Book of Kings” ) and the legend of Arash the Archer as well as Avesta that make up most of the Persian Mythology, namely, tales of heroes like Rostam and Esfandyar* The Mythological Cycle, which centers on the Celtic pantheon* The Fenian Cycle, which centers on Fionn mac Cumhaill and the Fianna* The Cycle of the Kings, which centers on the monarchy of Ireland* The Reynard cycle, which centers on the fabular fox Reynard* Der Ring des Nibelungen (or the \"Ring cycle\"), which centers on the Ring and the Norse pantheon* The voyages of Sinbad the sailor, the hero of a cycle of tales of monsters, magical places, and supernatural phenomena met on his successive voyages.", "* The Epic Cycle centering on the Trojan War* The Ulster Cycle, which centers on Cú Chulainn and the Kingdom of Ulster* The Cycle of the Gods, centering on the god-like Tuatha Dé Danann* The Baal Cycle, which centers on the battle of Ba'al Hadad against Yam and Mawat* The Epic of Gilgamesh, centering upon the demigod king Gilgamesh and Enkidu* Seven Wise Masters" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Louis Leakey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey''' (7 August 1903 – 1 October 1972) was a Kenyan-British palaeoanthropologist and archaeologist whose work was important in demonstrating that humans evolved in Africa, particularly through discoveries made at Olduvai Gorge with his wife, fellow palaeoanthropologist Mary Leakey.", "Having established a programme of palaeoanthropological inquiry in eastern Africa, he also motivated many future generations to continue this scholarly work.", "Several members of the Leakey family became prominent scholars themselves.Another of Leakey's legacies stems from his role in fostering field research of primates in their natural habitats, which he saw as key to understanding human evolution.", "He personally focused on three female researchers, Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, and Birutė Galdikas, calling them \"The Trimates.\"", "Each went on to become an important scholar in the field of primatology.", "Leakey also encouraged and supported many other PhD candidates, most notably from the University of Cambridge.", "As well, Leakey played a role in creating organizations for future research in Africa and for protecting wildlife there." ], [ "Background", "Louis's parents, Harry (1868–1940) and Mary (May) Bazett Leakey (died 1948), were Church of England missionaries in British East Africa (now Kenya).", "Harry was the son of James Shirley Leakey (1824–1871), one of the eleven children of the portrait painter James Leakey.", "Harry Leakey was assigned to an established post of the Church Mission Society among the Kikuyu at Kabete, in the highlands north of Nairobi.", "The station was at that time a hut and two tents.", "Louis's earliest home had an earthen floor, a leaky thatched roof, rodents and insects, and no heating system except for charcoal braziers.", "The facilities slowly improved over time.", "The mission, a center of activity, set up a clinic in one of the tents, and later a girls' school.", "Harry was working on a translation of the Bible into the Gikuyu language.", "He had a distinguished career in the CMS, becoming canon of the station.Louis had a younger brother, Douglas, and two older sisters, Gladys and Julia.", "Both sisters married missionaries: Gladys married Leonard Beecher, Anglican Bishop of Mombasa and then Archbishop of East Africa from 1960 to 1970; Julia married Lawrence Barham, the second Bishop of Rwanda and Burundi from 1964 to 1966; their son Ken Barham was later the Bishop of Cyangugu in Rwanda.The Leakey household came to contain Miss Oakes (a governess), Miss Higgenbotham (another missionary), and Mariamu (a Kikuyu nurse).", "Louis grew up, played, and learned to hunt with the native Kikuyus.", "He also learned to walk with the distinctive gait of the Kikuyu and speak their language fluently, as did his siblings.", "He was initiated into the Kikuyu ethnic group, an event of which he never spoke, as he was sworn to secrecy.Louis requested and was given permission to build and move into a hut, Kikuyu style, at the end of the garden.", "It was home to his personal collection of natural objects, such as birds' eggs and skulls.", "All the children developed a keen interest in and appreciation of the pristine natural surroundings in which they found themselves.", "They raised baby animals, later turning them over to zoos.", "Louis read a gift book, ''Days Before History'', by H. R. Hall (1907), a juvenile fictional work illustrating the prehistory of Britain.", "He began to collect tools and was further encouraged in this activity by a role model, Arthur Loveridge, the first curator (1914) of the Natural History Museum in Nairobi, the predecessor of the Coryndon Museum.", "This interest may have predisposed him toward a career in archaeology.", "His father was also a role model: Canon Leakey co-founded East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society.Neither Harry nor May were of strong constitution.", "From 1904 to 1906 the entire family lived at May's mother's house in Reading, Berkshire, in England, while Harry recovered from neurasthenia, and again in 1911–1913, while May recovered from general frailty and exhaustion.", "During the latter stay, Harry bought a house in Boscombe, Hampshire." ], [ "Formative years", "=== Attendance at Cambridge ===In Britain, the Leakey children attended primary school; in Africa, they had a tutor.", "The family spent World War I in Africa.", "When the sea lanes opened again in 1919, they returned to Boscombe, and Louis was sent to Weymouth College, a private boys' school, when he was 16 years old.", "In three years there, he did not do well and complained of hazing and rules that he considered an infringement on his freedom.", "Advised by one teacher to seek employment in a bank, he secured help from an English teacher in applying to St John's College, Cambridge.", "He received a scholarship for his high scores on the entrance exams.Louis matriculated at the University of Cambridge, his father's alma mater, in 1922, intending to become a missionary to British East Africa.He frequently told a story about his final exams.", "When he had arrived in Britain, he had notified the register that he was fluent in Swahili.", "When he came to his finals, he asked to be examined in this language, and the authorities agreed.", "Then one day, he received two letters.", "One instructed him to report at a certain time and place for a ''viva voce'' examination in Swahili.", "The other asked if, at the same time and place, he would examine a candidate in Swahili.===Archaeological and paleontological research===In 1922, the British had been awarded German East Africa as part of the settlement of World War I.", "Within the Tanganyika Territory the Germans had discovered a site rich in dinosaur fossils, Tendaguru.", "Louis was told by C. W. Hobley, a friend of the family, that the British Museum of Natural History was going to send a fossil-hunting expedition led by William E. Cutler to the site.", "Louis applied and was hired to locate the site and manage the administrative details.", "In 1924 they departed for Africa.", "They never found a complete dinosaur skeleton, and Louis was recalled from the site by Cambridge in 1925.Louis switched his focus to anthropology, and found a new mentor in Alfred Cort Haddon, head of the Cambridge department.", "In 1926, Louis graduated with a \"double first\", or high honours, in anthropology and archaeology.", "He had used some of his preexisting qualifications; for example, Kikuyu was offered and accepted as the second modern language in which he was required to be proficient, even though no one there could test him on it.", "The university accepted an affidavit from a Kikuyu chief signed with a thumbprint.From 1925 on Louis lectured and wrote on African archaeological and palaeontological topics.", "On graduation he was such a respected figure that Cambridge sent him to East Africa to study prehistoric African humans.", "He excavated dozens of sites, undertaking for the first time a systematic study of the artifacts.", "Some of his names for archaeological cultures are still in use; for example, the Elmenteitan.===Research Fellow===St.", "John's College, Cambridge.In 1927, Louis received a visit at a site called Gamble's Cave, near Lake Elmenteita, by two women on a holiday, one of whom was Frida Avern (1902–1993).", "Avern had done some coursework in archaeology.", "Louis and Frida began a relationship, which continued upon his return to Cambridge.", "In 1928, they married and continued work near Lake Elmenteita.", "Finds from Gamble's Cave were donated by Leakey to the British Museum in 1931.At that time he discovered the Acheulean site of Kariandusi, which he excavated in 1928.On the strength of his work there, he obtained a post-graduate research fellowship at St. John's College and returned to Cambridge in 1929 to classify and prepare the finds from Elmenteita.", "His patron and mentor at Cambridge were now Arthur Keith.", "While cleaning two skeletons he had found, he noticed a similarity to one found in Olduvai Gorge by Professor Hans Reck, a German national, whom Louis had met in 1925 in Germany while on business for Keith.Olduvai Gorge 2011.The geology of Olduvai was known.", "In 1913, Reck had extricated a skeleton from Bed II in the gorge wall.", "He argued that it must have the date of the bed, which was believed to be 600,000 years, in the mid-Pleistocene.", "Early dates for human evolution were not widely accepted by the general public at the time.", "Reck became involved in a media uproar.", "He was barred from going back to settle the question by the war and then the terms of the transfer of Tanganyika from Germany to Britain.", "In 1929, Louis visited Berlin to talk to the now skeptical Reck.", "Noting an Acheulean tool in Reck's collection of artifacts from Olduvai, he bet Reck he could find ancient stone tools at Olduvai within 24 hours.Louis received his PhD in 1930 at the age of 27.His first child, a daughter named Priscilla Muthoni Leakey, was born in 1931.His headaches and epilepsy returned, and he was prescribed Luminal, which he took for the rest of his life." ], [ "Reversals of fortune", "=== Defense of Reck ===In November 1931, Louis led an expedition to Olduvai whose members included Reck, whom Louis allowed to enter the gorge first.", "Leakey had bet Reck that Leakey would find Acheulean tools within the first 24 hours, which he did.", "These verified the provenance of the 1913 find, now called Olduvai Man.", "Non-humanoid fossils and tools were extracted from the ground in large numbers.", "Frida delayed joining her husband and was less enthusiastic about him on behalf of Priscilla.", "She did arrive eventually, however, and Louis put her to work.", "Frida's site became FLK, for Frida Leakey's Karongo (\"gully\").Back in Cambridge, the sceptics were not impressed.", "To find supporting evidence of the antiquity of Reck's Olduvai Man, Louis returned to Africa, excavating at Kanam and Kanjera.", "He easily found more fossils, which he named Homo kanamensis.", "While he was gone, the opposition worked up some \"evidence\" of the intrusion of Olduvai Man into an earlier layer, evidence that seemed convincing at the time, but is missing and unverifiable now.", "On his return, Louis' finds were carefully examined by a committee of 26 scientists and were tentatively accepted as valid.===Scandal===Following their marriage in 1928, Louis and Frida lived in Foxton near Cambridge.", "In November 1932, Frida used an inheritance to purchase a large brick house in Girton, which the family named \"The Close\".The following year, Frida was pregnant, suffered from morning sickness most of the time, and was unable to work on the illustrations for Louis's second book, ''Adam's Ancestors.''", "At a dinner party given in his honor, after a lecture of his at the Royal Anthropological Institute, Gertrude Caton-Thompson introduced her own illustrator, the twenty-year-old Mary Nicol.", "Louis convinced Mary to take on the illustration of his book, and a few months later companionship turned into an affair.", "Frida gave birth to Colin in December 1933, and the next month Louis left her and his newborn son.", "She would not sue for divorce until 1936.A panel at Cambridge investigated his morals.", "Grants dried up, but his mother raised enough money for another expedition to Olduvai, Kanam, and Kanjera, the latter two on the Winam Gulf.", "His previous work there was questioned by P. G. H. Boswell, whom he invited to verify the sites for himself.", "Arriving at Kanam and Kanjera in 1935, they found that the iron markers Louis had used to mark the sites had been removed by the Luo tribe for use as harpoons and the sites could not now be located.", "To make matters worse, all the photos Louis took were ruined by a light leak in the camera.", "After an irritating and fruitless two-month search, Boswell left for England, promising, as Louis understood it, not to publish a word until Louis returned.Boswell immediately set out to publish as many words as he was able, beginning with a letter in ''Nature'' dated 9 March 1935, destroying Reck's and Louis's dates of the fossils and questioning Louis's competence.", "Despite the searches for the iron markers, Boswell averred that \"the earlier expedition (of 1931–32) neither marked the localities on the ground nor recorded the sites on a map.\"", "In a field report of March 1935, Louis accused Boswell of reneging on his word, but Boswell asserted he had made no such promise, and now having public opinion on his side, warned Louis to withdraw the claim.", "Louis was not only forced to retract the accusation in his final field report in June 1935 but also to recant his support of Reck.", "Louis was through at Cambridge.", "Even his mentors turned on him.===On the road in Africa===Meeting Mary in Africa, he proceeded to Olduvai with a small party.", "Louis' parents continued to urge him to return to Frida, and would pay for everyone in the party but Mary.", "Mary joined him under a stigma but her skill and competence eventually won over the other participants.", "Louis and his associates did the groundwork for future excavation at Olduvai, uncovering dozens of sites for a broad sampling, as was his method.", "They were named after the excavator: SHK (Sam Howard's karongo), BK (Peter Bell's), SWK (Sam White's), MNK (Mary Nicol's).", "Louis and Mary conducted a temporary clinic for the Maasai, made preliminary investigations of Laetoli, and ended by studying the rock paintings at the Kisese/Cheke region.===Return to England===Steen Cottage, Nasty, Great Munden in 2011Louis and Mary returned to England in 1935 without positions or any place to stay except Mary's mother's apartment.", "They soon leased Steen Cottage in Great Munden.", "This settlement was in Hertfordshire and had an unusual name which Louis, with his sense of humor noted in his ''Memoirs'', Chapter 5, as \"the village of Nasty.\"", "They lived without heat, electricity, or plumbing, fetching water from a well and writing by oil lantern.", "They lived in poverty for 18 months at this low point of their fortunes, visited at first only by Mary's relatives.", "Louis gardened for subsistence and exercise and improved the house and grounds.", "He appealed at last to the Royal Society, who relented with a small grant to continue work on his collection." ], [ "In British East Africa", "=== Return to British East Africa ===Louis had already involved himself in Kikuyu tribal affairs in 1928, taking a stand against female genital cutting.", "He got into a shouting match in Kikuyu one evening with Jomo Kenyatta, later the president of Kenya, who was lecturing on the topic.", "R. Copeland at Oxford recommended he apply to the Rhodes Trust for a grant to write a study of the Kikuyu and it was given late in 1936 along with a salary for two years.", "In January 1937 the Leakeys travelled to Kenya.", "Colin would not see his father for 20 years.Louis returned to Kiambaa near Nairobi and persuaded Senior Chief Koinange, who designated a committee of chiefs, to help him describe the Kikuyu the way they had been.", "Mary excavated at Waterfall Cave.", "She fell ill with double pneumonia and was near death for two weeks in the hospital in Nairobi, during which time her mother was sent for.", "Contrary to expectation, she recovered and began another excavation at Hyrax Hill and then Njoro River Cave.", "Louis got an extension of his grant, which he used partially for fossil-hunting.", "Leakey discoveries began to appear in the newspapers again.Tensions between the Kikuyu and the settlers increased alarmingly.", "Louis jumped into the fray as an exponent of the middle ground.", "In ''Kenya: Contrasts and Problems'', he angered the settlers by proclaiming Kenya could never be a \"white man's country.", "\"===Fossil police===The government offered Louis work as a policeman in intelligence, which he accepted.", "He traveled the country as a pedlar, reporting on the talk.", "In September 1939, when Britain went to war, the Kenyan government drafted Louis into its African intelligence service.", "Apart from some bumbling around, during which he and some settlers stalked each other as possible saboteurs of the Sagana Railway Bridge, his first task was to supply and arm Ethiopian guerrillas against the Italian invaders of their country.", "He created a clandestine network using his childhood friends among the Kikuyu.", "They also hunted fossils on the sly.Louis conducted interrogations, analyzed handwriting, wrote radio broadcasts and took on regular police investigations.", "He loved a good mystery of any sort.", "The white leadership of the King's African Rifles used him extensively to clear up many cultural mysteries; for example, he helped an officer remove a curse he had inadvertently put on his men.Mary continued to find and excavate sites.", "In 1940, their son Jonathan Leakey was born.", "She worked in the Coryndon Memorial Museum (later called the National Museums of Kenya) where Louis joined her as an unpaid honorary curator in 1941.Their life was a melange of police work and archaeology.", "They investigated Rusinga Island and Olorgesailie.", "At the latter site they were assisted by a team of Italian experts recruited from the prisoners of war and paroled for the purpose.In 1942, the Italian menace ended, but the Japanese began to reconnoiter with a view toward landing in force.", "Louis found himself in counter-intelligence work, which he performed with zest and imagination.", "In the same year, their daughter Deborah was born, but died at the age of three months.", "They lived in a rundown and bug-infested Nairobi home, provided by the museum.", "Jonathan was attacked by army ants in his crib.===Turn of the tide===In 1944 Richard Leakey was born.", "In 1945 the family's income from police work all but vanished.", "By now Louis was getting plenty of job offers but he chose to stay on in Kenya as Curator of the Coryndon Museum, with an annual salary and a house, but more importantly, to continue palaeoanthropological research.In January 1947 Louis conducted the first Pan-African Congress of Prehistory at Nairobi.", "Sixty scientists from 26 countries attended, delivering papers and visiting the Leakey sites.", "The conference restored Louis to the scientific fold and made him a major figure in it.", "With the money that now poured in Louis undertook the famous expeditions of 1948 and beyond at Rusinga Island in Lake Victoria, where Mary discovered the most complete Proconsul fossil up to that time.Charles Watson Boise donated money for a boat to be used for transport on Lake Victoria, ''The Miocene Lady''.", "Its skipper, Hassan Salimu, was later to deliver Jane Goodall to Gombe.", "Philip Leakey was born in 1949.In 1950, Louis was awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford University.===Kenyan affairs===While the Leakeys were at Lake Victoria, the Kikuyu struck at the European settlers of the Kenyan highlands, who seemed to have the upper hand and were insisting on a \"white\" government of a \"white\" Africa.", "In 1949 the Kikuyu formed a secret society, the Mau Mau, which attacked settlers and especially loyalist Kikuyu.Louis had attempted to warn Sir Philip Mitchell, governor of the colony, that nocturnal meetings and forced oaths were not Kikuyu customs and foreboded violence, but was ignored.", "Now he found himself pulled away from anthropology to investigate the Mau Mau.", "During this period his life was threatened and a reward placed on his head.", "The Leakeys began to pack pistols, termed \"European National Dress.\"", "The government placed him under 24-hour guard.In 1952, after a Mau Mau massacre of pro-British chiefs, the government arrested Jomo Kenyatta, president of the Kenya African Union.", "Louis was summoned to be a court interpreter, but withdrew after an accusation of mistranslation because of prejudice against the defendant.", "He returned on request to translate documents only.", "Because of lack of evidence linking Kenyatta to the Mau Mau, although convicted, he did not receive the death penalty, but was sentenced to several years of hard labour.The government brought in British troops and formed a home guard of 20,000 Kikuyu.", "During this time, Louis played a difficult and contradictory role.", "He sided with the settlers, serving as their spokesman and intelligence officer, helping to ferret out bands of guerrillas.", "On the other hand, he continued to advocate for the Kikuyu in his 1954 book ''Defeating Mau Mau'' and numerous talks and articles.", "He recommended a multi-racial government, land reform in the highlands, a wage hike for the Kikuyu, and many other reforms, most of which were eventually adopted.The government then realized the rebellion was being directed from urban centers, instituted martial law and detained the committees.", "Following Louis' suggestion, thousands of Kikuyu were placed in re-education camps and resettled in new villages.", "The rebellion continued from bases under Mount Kenya until 1956, when, deprived of its leadership and supplies, it had to disperse.", "The state of emergency lasted until 1960.In 1963 Kenya became independent, with Jomo Kenyatta as prime minister." ], [ "Work in palaeoanthropology", "===Olduvai Gorge===Beginning in 1951, Louis and Mary began intensive research at Olduvai Gorge.", "A trial trench in Bed II at BK in 1951 was followed by a more extensive excavation in 1952.They found what Louis termed an Oldowan \"slaughter-house\", an ancient bog where animals had been trapped and butchered.", "Excavations stopped in 1953 but were briefly resumed in 1955 with Jean Brown.In 1959, excavations at Bed I were opened.", "While Louis was sick in camp, Mary discovered the fossilized skull OH 5 at FLK, ''Paranthropus boisei'', famously identified as \"''Zinjanthropus''\" or \"Zinj.\"", "The question was whether the fossil belonged to a previous genus discovered by Robert Broom, ''Paranthropus'', or a member of a different genus ancestral to humans.", "Louis opted for ''Zinjanthropus'', a decision opposed by Wilfrid Le Gros Clark, but one which attracted the attention of Melville Bell Grosvenor, president of the National Geographic Society.", "That contact resulted in an article in ''National Geographic'' and a large grant to continue work at Olduvai.In 1960, geophysicists Jack Evernden and Garniss Curtis dated Bed I from 1.89 to 1.75 million years ago, confirming the great antiquity of fossil hominids in Africa.In 1960, Louis appointed Mary director of excavation at Olduvai.", "She brought in a staff of Kamba assistants, including Kamoya Kimeu, who later discovered many of eastern Africa's most famous fossils.", "At Olduvai, Mary set up Camp 5 and began work with her own staff and associates.At \"Jonny's site\", FLK-NN, Jonathan Leakey discovered two skull fragments without the Australopithecine sagittal crest, which Mary connected with Broom's and Robinson's ''Telanthropus''.", "The problem with it was its contemporaneity with ''Zinjanthropus''.", "When mailed photographs, Le Gros Clark retorted casually \"Shades of Piltdown.\"", "Louis cabled him immediately and had some strong words at this suggestion of his incompetence.", "Clark apologized.Not long afterwards, in 1960, Louis, his son Philip and Ray Pickering discovered a fossil he termed \"Chellean Man\", (Olduvai Hominid 9), in context with Oldowan tools.", "After reconstruction Louis and Mary called it \"Pinhead.\"", "It was subsequently identified as ''Homo erectus'', contemporaneous with ''Paranthropus'' at 1.4 million years old.In 1961 Louis got a salary as well as a grant from the National Geographic Society and turned over the acting directorship of Coryndon to a subordinate.", "He created the Centre for Prehistory and Paleontology on the same grounds, moved his collections to it, and appointed himself director.", "This was his new operations center.", "He opened another excavation at Fort Ternan on Lake Victoria.", "Shortly after, Heselon discovered ''Kenyapithecus wickeri'', named after the owner of the property.", "Louis promptly celebrated with George Gaylord Simpson, who happened to be present, aboard the ''Miocene Lady'' with \"Leakey Safari Specials\", a drink made of condensed milk and cognac.In 1962 Louis was visiting Olduvai when Ndibo Mbuika discovered the first tooth of ''Homo habilis'' at MNK.", "Louis and Mary thought it was female and named her Cinderella, or Cindy.", "Phillip Tobias identified Jonny's Child with it and Raymond Dart came up with the name ''Homo habilis'' at Louis' request, which Tobias translated as \"handyman.\"", "It was seen as intermediary between gracile ''Australopithecus'' and ''Homo''.===Calico Hills===In 1959 Leakey, while at the British Museum of Natural History in London, received a visit from Ruth DeEtte Simpson, an archaeologist from California.", "Simpson had acquired what looked like ancient scrapers from a site in the Calico Hills and showed it to Leakey.In 1963, Leakey obtained funds from the National Geographic Society and commenced archaeological excavations with Simpson.", "Excavations at the site carried out by Leakey and Simpson revealed that they had located stone artifacts which were dated 100,000 years or older, suggesting a human presence in North America much earlier than others had estimated.The geologist Vance Haynes had made three visits to the site in 1973 and had claimed that the artifacts found by Leakey were naturally formed geofacts.", "According to Haynes, the geofacts were formed by stones becoming fractured in an ancient river on the site.In her autobiography, Mary Leakey wrote that because of Louis's involvement with the Calico Hills site she had lost academic respect for him and that the Calico excavation project was \"catastrophic to his professional career and was largely responsible for the parting of our ways\"." ], [ "The Trimates", "One of Louis's legacies stems from his role in fostering field research of primates in their natural habitats, which he understood as key to unraveling the mysteries of human evolution.", "He personally chose three female researchers, Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, and Birutė Galdikas, calling them The Trimates.", "Each went on to become an important scholar in the field of primatology, immersing themselves in the study of chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans, respectively.", "Leakey also encouraged and supported many other PhD candidates, most notably from Cambridge University.", "Louis believed that women were better at studying primates than man, as shown in the book ''Primates.''" ], [ "Last years", "During his final years Louis became famous as a lecturer in the United Kingdom and United States.", "He did not excavate any longer, as he was impaired by arthritis, for which he had a hip replacement in 1968.He raised funds and directed his family and associates.", "In Kenya he was a facilitator for hundreds of scientists exploring the East African Rift system for fossils.In 1968, Louis refused an honorary doctorate from the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, primarily because of apartheid in South Africa.", "Mary accepted one, and they thereafter led separate professional lives.In the last few years Louis' health began to fail more seriously.", "He had his first heart attacks and spent six months in the hospital.", "An empathy over health brought him and Dian Fossey together for a brief romance, which she broke off.", "Richard began to assume more and more of his father's responsibilities, which Louis resisted, but in the end was forced to accept." ], [ "Death and legacy", "On 1 October 1972, Louis had a heart attack in Vanne Goodall's apartment in London (Jane Goodall's mother).", "Vanne sat up all night with him in St. Stephen's Hospital and left at 9:00 a.m.", "He died 30 minutes later at the age of 69.Mary wanted to cremate Louis and fly the ashes back to Nairobi.", "Richard intervened.", "Louis' body was flown home and interred at Limuru, near the graves of his parents.In denial, the family did not face the question of a memorial marker for a year.", "When Richard went to place a stone on the grave he found one already there, courtesy of Louis' former secretary Rosalie Osborn.", "The inscription was signed with the letters, ''ILYUA'', \"I'll love you always\", which Rosalie used to place on her letters to him.", "Richard left it in place.===Prominent organizations===* In 1947, Leakey was central to the organisation of the first PanAfrican Archaeological Association congress, held in Nairobi.", "From 1955 to 1959 he was its president.", "*In 1958, Leakey founded the Tigoni Primate Research Center with Cynthia Booth, on her farm north of Nairobi.", "Later it was the National Primate Research Center, currently the Institute of Primate Research, now in Nairobi.", "As the Tigoni center, it funded Leakey's Angels.", "* In 1961, Leakey created the Centre for Prehistory and Paleontology on the same grounds as Coryndon Museum, appointing himself director.", "* In 1968, Leakey assisted with the founding of The Leakey Foundation to ensure the legacy of his life's work in the study of human origins.", "The Leakey Foundation exists today as the number-one funder of human-origins research in the United States.===Prominent family members===Louis Leakey was married to Mary Leakey, who made the noteworthy discovery of fossil footprints at Laetoli.", "Found preserved in volcanic ash in Tanzania, they are the earliest record of bipedal gait.He is also the father of paleoanthropologist Richard Leakey and the botanist Colin Leakey.", "Louis's cousin, Nigel Gray Leakey, was a recipient of the Victoria Cross during World War II." ], [ "Books", "Leakey's books are listed below.", "The gaps between books are filled by too many articles to list.", "It was Louis who began the Leakey tradition of publishing in ''Nature''.", "'''First publication date''''''Title''''''Notes'''+1931''The Stone Age Culture of Kenya Colony''Written in 1929.Illustrated by Frida Leakey.1934''Adam's Ancestors: The Evolution of Man and His Culture''Multiple editions with rewrites, the 4th in 1955.Illustrated by Mary Leakey.", "Book reviews:1935''The Stone Age races of Kenya''Proposes Homo kanamensis.1936''Kenya: Contrasts and Problems''Written in 1935.1936''Stone Age Africa: an Outline of Prehistory in Africa''Ten chapters consisting of the ten Munro Lectures delivered in 1936 by Louis to Edinburgh University and intended by him as a textbook.", "Illustrated by Mary Leakey.1937''White African: an Early Autobiography''Louis described it as a \"pot-boiler\" written in 1936 for Hodder & Stoughton.1951''The Miocene Hominoidea of East Africa''With Wilfrid Le Gros Clark.", "Volume I of the series ''Fossil Mammals of Africa'' published by the Natural History Museum in London.1951''Olduvai Gorge: A Report on the Evolution of the Hand-Axe Culture in Beds I–IV''Started in 1935.Names the Olduwan Culture.1952''Mau Mau and the Kikuyu''Online at1953''Animals in Africa''Photographs by Ylla.1954''Defeating Mau Mau''With Peter Schmidt.", "Online at1965''Olduvai Gorge: A Preliminary Report on the Geology and Fauna, 1951–61''Volume 1.1969''Unveiling Man's Origins''With Vanne Morris Goodall.1969''Animals of East Africa: The Wild realm''1970''Olduvai Gorge, 1965–1967''1974''By the Evidence: Memoirs, 1932–1951''Written in 1972 and published posthumously.", "Louis finished writing on the day before his death.1977''The Southern Kikuyu before 1903''Published posthumously.", "The manuscript remained in Louis' safe for decades for lack of a publisher.", "It was 3 volumes.", "He refused to follow editorial advice and shorten it." ], [ "See also", "* Calico Early Man Site* Campaign against female genital mutilation in colonial Kenya* Nigel Leakey Louis' cousin* Leakey family* List of fossil sites ''(with link directory)''* List of hominina (hominid) fossils ''(with images)''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Virginia Morell, ''Ancestral Passions: The Leakey Family and the Quest for Humankind's Beginnings'', 1995.", "* Mary Bowman-Kruhm, ''The Leakeys: a Biography'', Greenwood Press, 2005.", "* Roger Lewin, \"The Old Man of Olduvai Gorge\", ''Smithsonian Magazine'', October 2002." ], [ "External links", "* LeakeyFoundation.org – The Leakey Foundation: a non-profit organization committed to increasing scientific knowledge, education, and public understanding of human origins, evolution, behavior and survival.", "* \"Louis Leakey\", TalkOrigins Archive* \"Louis S. B. Leakey\", the leakey.com biography.", "* Brian M. Fagan, \"Louis Leakey\", in CD Groliers Encyclopedia.", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Liar paradox" ], [ "Introduction", "In philosophy and logic, the classical '''liar paradox''' or '''liar's paradox''' or '''antinomy of the liar''' is the statement of a liar that they are lying: for instance, declaring that \"I am lying\".", "If the liar is indeed lying, then the liar is telling the truth, which means the liar just lied.", "In \"this sentence is a lie\" the paradox is strengthened in order to make it amenable to more rigorous logical analysis.", "It is still generally called the \"liar paradox\" although abstraction is made precisely from the liar making the statement.", "Trying to assign to this statement, the strengthened liar, a classical binary truth value leads to a contradiction.If \"this sentence is false\" is true, then it is false, but the sentence states that it is false, and if it is false, then it must be true, and so on." ], [ "History", "The Epimenides paradox (c. 600 BC) has been suggested as an example of the liar paradox, but they are not logically equivalent.", "The semi-mythical seer Epimenides, a Cretan, reportedly stated that \"All Cretans are liars.\"", "However, Epimenides' statement that all Cretans are liars can be resolved as false, given that he knows of at least one other Cretan who does not lie (alternatively, it can be taken as merely a statement that all Cretans tell lies, not that they tell ''only'' lies).The paradox's name translates as ''pseudómenos lógos'' (ψευδόμενος λόγος) in Ancient Greek.", "One version of the liar paradox is attributed to the Greek philosopher Eubulides of Miletus, who lived in the 4th century BC.", "Eubulides reportedly asked, \"A man says that he is lying.", "Is what he says true or false?", "\"The paradox was once discussed by Jerome of Stridon in a sermon:The Indian grammarian-philosopher Bhartrhari (late fifth century AD) was well aware of a liar paradox which he formulated as \"everything I am saying is false\" (sarvam mithyā bravīmi).", "He analyzes this statement together with the paradox of \"unsignifiability\" and explores the boundary between statements that are unproblematic in daily life and paradoxes.There was discussion of the liar paradox in early Islamic tradition for at least five centuries, starting from late 9th century, and apparently without being influenced by any other tradition.", "Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī could have been the first logician to identify the liar paradox as self-referential." ], [ "Explanation and variants", "The problem of the liar paradox is that it seems to show that common beliefs about truth and falsity actually lead to a contradiction.", "Sentences can be constructed that cannot consistently be assigned a truth value even though they are completely in accord with grammar and semantic rules.The simplest version of the paradox is the sentence:If (A) is true, then \"This statement is false\" is true.", "Therefore, (A) must be false.", "The hypothesis that (A) is true leads to the conclusion that (A) is false, a contradiction.If (A) is false, then \"This statement is false\" is false.", "Therefore, (A) must be true.", "The hypothesis that (A) is false leads to the conclusion that (A) is true, another contradiction.", "Either way, (A) is both true and false, which is a paradox.However, that the liar sentence can be shown to be true if it is false and false if it is true has led some to conclude that it is \"neither true nor false\".", "This response to the paradox is, in effect, the rejection of the claim that every statement has to be either true or false, also known as the principle of bivalence, a concept related to the law of the excluded middle.The proposal that the statement is neither true nor false has given rise to the following, strengthened version of the paradox:If (B) is neither '''true''' nor false, then it must be not '''true'''.", "Since this is what (B) itself states, it means that (B) must be '''true'''.", "Since initially (B) was not '''true''' and is now true, another paradox arises.Another reaction to the paradox of (A) is to posit, as Graham Priest has, that the statement is both true and false.", "Nevertheless, even Priest's analysis is susceptible to the following version of the liar:If (C) is both '''true''' and false, then (C) is only false.", "But then, it is not '''true'''.", "Since initially (C) was '''true''' and is now not '''true''', it is a paradox.", "However, it has been argued that by adopting a two-valued relational semantics (as opposed to functional semantics), the dialetheic approach can overcome this version of the Liar.There are also multi-sentence versions of the liar paradox.", "The following is the two-sentence version:Assume (D1) is true.", "Then (D2) is true.", "This would mean that (D1) is false.", "Therefore, (D1) is both true and false.Assume (D1) is false.", "Then (D2) is false.", "This would mean that (D1) is true.", "Thus (D1) is both true and false.", "Either way, (D1) is both true and false – the same paradox as (A) above.The multi-sentence version of the liar paradox generalizes to any circular sequence of such statements (wherein the last statement asserts the truth/falsity of the first statement), provided there are an odd number of statements asserting the falsity of their successor; the following is a three-sentence version, with each statement asserting the falsity of its successor:Assume (E1) is true.", "Then (E2) is false, which means (E3) is true, and hence (E1) is false, leading to a contradiction.Assume (E1) is false.", "Then (E2) is true, which means (E3) is false, and hence (E1) is true.", "Either way, (E1) is both true and false – the same paradox as with (A) and (D1).There are many other variants, and many complements, possible.", "In normal sentence construction, the simplest version of the complement is the sentence:If F is assumed to bear a truth value, then it presents the problem of determining the object of that value.", "But, a simpler version is possible, by assuming that the single word 'true' bears a truth value.", "The analogue to the paradox is to assume that the single word 'false' likewise bears a truth value, namely that it is false.", "This reveals that the paradox can be reduced to the mental act of assuming that the very idea of fallacy bears a truth value, namely that the very idea of fallacy is false: an act of misrepresentation.", "So, the symmetrical version of the paradox would be:" ], [ "Possible resolutions", "===Fuzzy logic===In fuzzy logic, the truth value of a statement can be any real number between 0 and 1 both inclusive, as opposed to Boolean logic, where the truth values may only be the integer values 0 or 1.In this system, the statement \"This statement is false\" is no longer paradoxical as it can be assigned a truth value of 0.5, making it precisely half true and half false.", "A simplified explanation is shown below.Let's denote the truth value of the statement \"This statement is false\" by x.", "The statement becomes: by generalizing the NOT operator to the equivalent Zadeh operator from fuzzy logic, the statement becomes: from which it follows that: ===Alfred Tarski===Alfred Tarski diagnosed the paradox as arising only in languages that are \"semantically closed\", by which he meant a language in which it is possible for one sentence to predicate truth (or falsehood) of another sentence in the same language (or even of itself).", "To avoid self-contradiction, it is necessary when discussing truth values to envision levels of languages, each of which can predicate truth (or falsehood) only of languages at a lower level.", "So, when one sentence refers to the truth-value of another, it is semantically higher.", "The sentence referred to is part of the \"object language\", while the referring sentence is considered to be a part of a \"meta-language\" with respect to the object language.", "It is legitimate for sentences in \"languages\" higher on the semantic hierarchy to refer to sentences lower in the \"language\" hierarchy, but not the other way around.", "This prevents a system from becoming self-referential.However, this system is incomplete.", "One would like to be able to make statements such as \"For every statement in level ''α'' of the hierarchy, there is a statement at level ''α''+1 which asserts that the first statement is false.\"", "This is a true, meaningful statement about the hierarchy that Tarski defines, but it refers to statements at every level of the hierarchy, so it must be above every level of the hierarchy, and is therefore not possible within the hierarchy (although bounded versions of the sentence are possible).", "Saul Kripke is credited with identifying this incompleteness in Tarski's hierarchy in his highly cited paper \"Outline of a theory of truth,\" and it is recognized as a general problem in hierarchical languages.===Arthur Prior===Arthur Prior asserts that there is nothing paradoxical about the liar paradox.", "His claim (which he attributes to Charles Sanders Peirce and John Buridan) is that every statement includes an implicit assertion of its own truth.Thus, for example, the statement \"It is true that two plus two equals four\" contains no more information than the statement \"two plus two equals four\", because the phrase \"it is true that...\" is always implicitly there.", "And in the self-referential spirit of the Liar Paradox, the phrase \"it is true that...\" is equivalent to \"this whole statement is true and ...\".Thus the following two statements are equivalent:The latter is a simple contradiction of the form \"A and not A\", and hence is false.", "There is therefore no paradox because the claim that this two-conjunct Liar is false does not lead to a contradiction.", "Eugene Mills presents a similar answer.===Saul Kripke===Saul Kripke argued that whether a sentence is paradoxical or not can depend upon contingent facts.", "If the only thing Smith says about Jones isand Jones says only these three things about Smith:If Smith really is a big spender but is ''not'' soft on crime, then both Smith's remark about Jones and Jones's last remark about Smith are paradoxical.Kripke proposes a solution in the following manner.", "If a statement's truth value is ultimately tied up in some evaluable fact about the world, that statement is \"grounded\".", "If not, that statement is \"ungrounded\".", "Ungrounded statements do not have a truth value.", "Liar statements and liar-like statements are ungrounded, and therefore have no truth value.===Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy===Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy propose that the liar sentence (which they interpret as synonymous with the Strengthened Liar) is ambiguous.", "They base this conclusion on a distinction they make between a \"denial\" and a \"negation\".", "If the liar means, \"It is not the case that this statement is true\", then it is denying itself.", "If it means, \"This statement is not true\", then it is negating itself.", "They go on to argue, based on situation semantics, that the \"denial liar\" can be true without contradiction while the \"negation liar\" can be false without contradiction.", "Their 1987 book makes heavy use of non-well-founded set theory.===Dialetheism===Graham Priest and other logicians, including J. C. Beall and Bradley Armour-Garb, have proposed that the liar sentence should be considered to be both true and false, a point of view known as dialetheism.", "Dialetheism is the view that there are true contradictions.", "Dialetheism raises its own problems.", "Chief among these is that since dialetheism recognizes the liar paradox, an intrinsic contradiction, as being true, it must discard the long-recognized principle of explosion, which asserts that any proposition can be deduced from a contradiction, unless the dialetheist is willing to accept trivialism – the view that ''all'' propositions are true.", "Since trivialism is an intuitively false view, dialetheists nearly always reject the explosion principle.", "Logics that reject it are called ''paraconsistent''.===Non-cognitivism===Andrew Irvine has argued in favour of a non-cognitivist solution to the paradox, suggesting that some apparently well-formed sentences will turn out to be neither true nor false and that \"formal criteria alone will inevitably prove insufficient\" for resolving the paradox.===Bhartrhari's perspectivism===The Indian grammarian-philosopher Bhartrhari (late fifth century AD) dealt with paradoxes such as the liar in a section of one of the chapters of his magnum opus the Vākyapadīya.", "Bhartrhari's solution fits into his general approach to language, thought and reality, which has been characterized by some as \"relativistic\", \"non-committal\" or \"perspectivistic\".", "With regard to the liar paradox (''sarvam mithyā bravīmi'' \"everything I am saying is false\") Bhartrhari identifies a hidden parameter that can change unproblematic situations in daily communication into a stubborn paradox.", "Bhartrhari's solution can be understood in terms of the solution proposed in 1992 by Julian Roberts: \"Paradoxes consume themselves.", "But we can keep apart the warring sides of the contradiction by the simple expedient of temporal contextualisation: what is 'true' with respect to one point in time need not be so in another ...", "The overall force of the 'Austinian' argument is not merely that 'things change', but that rationality is essentially temporal in that we need time in order to reconcile and manage what would otherwise be mutually destructive states.\"", "According to Robert's suggestion, it is the factor \"time\" which allows us to reconcile the separated \"parts of the world\" that play a crucial role in the solution of Barwise and Etchemendy.", "The capacity of time to prevent a direct confrontation of the two \"parts of the world\" is here external to the \"liar\".", "In the light of Bhartrhari's analysis, however, the extension in time that separates two perspectives on the world or two \"parts of the world\" – the part before and the part after the function accomplishes its task – is inherent in any \"function\": also the function to signify which underlies each statement, including the \"liar\".", "The unsolvable paradox – a situation in which we have either contradiction (''virodha'') or infinite regress (''anavasthā'') – arises, in case of the liar and other paradoxes such as the unsignifiability paradox (Bhartrhari's paradox), when abstraction is made from this function (''vyāpāra'') and its extension in time, by accepting a simultaneous, opposite function (''apara vyāpāra'') undoing the previous one." ], [ "Logical structure", "For a better understanding of the liar paradox, it is useful to write it down in a more formal way.", "If \"this statement is false\" is denoted by A and its truth value is being sought, it is necessary to find a condition that restricts the choice of possible truth values of A.", "Because A is self-referential it is possible to give the condition by an equation.If some statement, B, is assumed to be false, one writes, \"B = false\".", "The statement (C) that the statement B is false would be written as \"C = 'B = false.", "Now, the liar paradox can be expressed as the statement A, that A is false:This is an equation from which the truth value of A = \"this statement is false\" could hopefully be obtained.", "In the Boolean domain \"A = false\" is equivalent to \"not A\" and therefore the equation is not solvable.", "This is the motivation for reinterpretation of A.", "The simplest logical approach to make the equation solvable is the dialetheistic approach, in which case the solution is A being both \"true\" and \"false\".", "Other resolutions mostly include some modifications of the equation; Arthur Prior claims that the equation should be \"A = 'A = false and A = true and therefore A is false.", "In computational verb logic, the liar paradox is extended to statements like, \"I hear what he says; he says what I don't hear\", where verb logic must be used to resolve the paradox." ], [ "Applications", "===Gödel's first incompleteness theorem===Gödel's incompleteness theorems are two fundamental theorems of mathematical logic which state inherent limitations of sufficiently powerful axiomatic systems for mathematics.", "The theorems were proven by Kurt Gödel in 1931, and are important in the philosophy of mathematics.", "Roughly speaking, in proving the first incompleteness theorem, Gödel used a modified version of the liar paradox, replacing \"this sentence is false\" with \"this sentence is not provable\", called the \"Gödel sentence G\".", "His proof showed that for any sufficiently powerful theory T, G is true, but not provable in T. The analysis of the truth and provability of G is a formalized version of the analysis of the truth of the liar sentence.To prove the first incompleteness theorem, Gödel represented statements by numbers.", "Then the theory at hand, which is assumed to prove certain facts about numbers, also proves facts about its own statements.", "Questions about the provability of statements are represented as questions about the properties of numbers, which would be decidable by the theory if it were complete.", "In these terms, the Gödel sentence states that no natural number exists with a certain, strange property.", "A number with this property would encode a proof of the inconsistency of the theory.", "If there were such a number then the theory would be inconsistent, contrary to the consistency hypothesis.", "So, under the assumption that the theory is consistent, there is no such number.It is not possible to replace \"not provable\" with \"false\" in a Gödel sentence because the predicate \"Q is the Gödel number of a false formula\" cannot be represented as a formula of arithmetic.", "This result, known as Tarski's undefinability theorem, was discovered independently by Gödel (when he was working on the proof of the incompleteness theorem) and by Alfred Tarski.George Boolos has since sketched an alternative proof of the first incompleteness theorem that uses Berry's paradox rather than the liar paradox to construct a true but unprovable formula." ], [ "In popular culture", "The liar paradox is occasionally used in fiction to shut down artificial intelligences, who are presented as being unable to process the sentence.", "In the ''Star Trek: The Original Series'' episode \"I, Mudd\", the liar paradox is used by Captain Kirk and Harry Mudd to confuse and ultimately disable an android holding them captive.", "In the 1973 ''Doctor Who'' serial ''The Green Death'', the Doctor temporarily stumps the insane computer BOSS by asking it \"If I were to tell you that the next thing I say would be true, but that the last thing I said was a lie, would you believe me?\"", "BOSS tries to figure it out but cannot and eventually decides the question is irrelevant and summons security.In the 2011 video game ''Portal 2'', artificial intelligence GLaDOS attempts to use the \"this sentence is false\" paradox to kill another artificial intelligence, Wheatley.", "However, lacking the intelligence to realize the statement is a paradox, he simply responds, \"Um, true.", "I'll go with true.", "There, that was easy.\"", "and is unaffected.", "Humorously, all other AIs present barring GLaDOS, all of which are significantly less sentient and lucid than both her and Wheatley, are still killed from hearing the paradox.", "However, GLaDOS later notes that she almost killed herself from her own attempt to kill Wheatley.The Devo song, ''Enough Said'', includes the lyrics ''The next thing I say to you will be true / The last thing I said was false.", "''In the seventh episode of ''Minecraft: Story Mode'', titled \"Access Denied\", the main character Jesse and their friends are captured by a supercomputer named PAMA.", "After PAMA controls two of Jesse's friends, Jesse learns that PAMA stalls when processing and uses a paradox to confuse him and escape with their last friend.", "One of the paradoxes the player can make Jesse say is the liar paradox.In Douglas Adams ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'', chapter 21 he describes a solitary old man inhabiting a small asteroid in the spatial coordinates where it should have been a whole planet dedicated to Biro life forms.", "This old man repeatedly claimed that nothing was true, though he was later discovered to be lying.Rollins Band's 1994 song \"Liar\" alluded to the paradox when the narrator ends the song by stating \"I'll lie again and again and I'll keep lying, I promise\".Robert Earl Keen's song \"The Road Goes On and On\" alludes to the paradox.", "The song is widely believed to be written as part of Keen's feud with Toby Keith, who is presumably the \"liar\" Keen refers to." ], [ "See also", "* Hilbert–Bernays paradox* Insolubilia* Knights and Knaves* Performative contradiction* Self-reference" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Greenough, P. M. (2001). \"", "Free Assumptions and the Liar Paradox,\" ''American Philosophical Quarterly 38/2, pp.", "115-135.", "'':* Hughes, G. E. (1992).", "''John Buridan on Self-Reference : Chapter Eight of Buridan's Sophismata, with a Translation, and Introduction, and a Philosophical Commentary'', Cambridge Univ.", "Press, .", "Buridan's detailed solution to a number of such paradoxes.", "* Kirkham, Richard (1992).", "''Theories of Truth''.", "MIT Press.", "Especially chapter 9.ISBN 0262611082, ISBN 978-0262611084* * A. N. Prior (1976).", "''Papers in Logic and Ethics''.", "Duckworth.", "* Smullyan, Raymond (1986).", "''What Is the Name of This Book?''", ".", "A collection of logic puzzles exploring this theme." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
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[ [ "Louchébem" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Louchébem''''' or '''''loucherbem''''' () is Parisian and Lyonnaise butchers' (French ''boucher'') slang, similar to Pig Latin and Verlan.", "It originated in the mid-19th century and was in common use until the 1950s." ], [ "Process", "The ''louchébem'' word-creation process resembles that of ''largonji'', ''verlan'', and ''javanais'', in that existing words are camouflaged according to a set of rules.", "Strictly speaking, ''louchébem'' is a more rigid variety of ''largonji'' in which the ending ''-èm'' is obligatory.", "''Largonji'' substitutes for the consonant or consonant cluster at the beginning of the word, or, if the word begins with an or a vowel, the second syllable; the initial consonant is then reattached to the end of the word along with a suffix particular to the argot: ''-ji'' , ''-oc'' , ''-ic'' , ''-uche'' , ''-ès'' , or in the case of louchébem, ''-em/ème'' .Note that ''louchébem'' is first and foremost an oral language, and spelling is usually phoneticized." ], [ "History", "Despite the name, ''louchébem'' seems to have been created not by butchers, but by inmates at Brest Prison, with records dating back to 1821.Edmund Clerihew Bentley used the language as a plot point in his 1937 short story \"The Old-Fashioned Apache\".During the Nazi occupation ''louchébem'' was used by Parisian members of the Resistance.Even today, ''louchébem'' is still well-known and used among those working at point-of-sale in the meat retail industry.", "Some words have even leaked into common, everyday use by the masses; an example is the word ''loufoque'', meaning \"eccentric\"." ], [ "Examples", "Here are a few example Louchébem words.", "English French Louchébem slang l'argot largomuche butcher boucher louchébem customer client lienclès coffeehouse café lafécaisse (don't) understand comprendre (pas) lomprenquès (dans le lap) woman (lady) femme (dame) lemmefé (lamdé) blunder gaffe lafgué boy/waiter garçon larçonguesse Roma (ethnicity) gitan litjoc leg (of mutton, etc.)", "gigot ligogem insane fou louf; loufoque; louftingue pork porc lorpic mackerel maquereau lacromuche Sir; Mister; gentleman monsieur lesieurmique piece morceau lorsomique overcoat pardessus lardeuss (lardeussupem) excuse me?", "; sorry pardon lardonpem to talk parler larlépem manager patron latronpuche tip pourboire lourboirpem bag sac lacsé expensive cher lerche; lerchem (often in the negative, as ''pas lerchem'') sneakily en douce en loucedé; en loucedoc wallet portefeuille larfeuille; lortefeuillepem thief, crook filou loufiah knife couteau louteaucéThere is another French argot called ''largonji'', which differs from ''louchébem'' only in the suffix that is added (-i instead of -em); the term is derived from ''jargon''." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Marcel Schwob, ''Étude sur l’argot français''.", "Paris: Émile Bouillon, 1889." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Leon M. Lederman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leon Max Lederman''' (July 15, 1922 – October 3, 2018) was an American experimental physicist who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1988, along with Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger, for research on neutrinos.", "He also received the Wolf Prize in Physics in 1982, along with Martin Lewis Perl, for research on quarks and leptons.", "Lederman was director emeritus of Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) in Batavia, Illinois.", "He founded the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy, in Aurora, Illinois in 1986, where he was resident scholar emeritus from 2012 until his death in 2018.An accomplished scientific writer, he became known for his 1993 book ''The God Particle'' establishing the popularity of the term for the Higgs boson." ], [ "Early life and education", "Lederman was born in New York City, New York, to Morris and Minna (Rosenberg) Lederman.", "His parents were Ukrainian-Jewish immigrants from Kyiv and Odesa.", "Lederman graduated from James Monroe High School in the South Bronx, and received his bachelor's degree from the City College of New York in 1943.Lederman enlisted in the United States Army during World War II, intending to become a physicist after his service.", "Following his discharge in 1946, he enrolled at Columbia University's graduate school, receiving his Ph.D. in 1951." ], [ "Academic career", "Lederman became a faculty member at Columbia University, and he was promoted to full professor in 1958 as Eugene Higgins Professor of Physics.", "In 1960, on leave from Columbia, he spent time at CERN in Geneva as a Ford Foundation Fellow.", "He took an extended leave of absence from Columbia in 1979 to become director of Fermilab.", "Resigning from Columbia (and retiring from Fermilab) in 1989, he then taught briefly at the University of Chicago.", "He then moved to the physics department of the Illinois Institute of Technology, where he served as the Pritzker Professor of Science.", "In 1992, Lederman served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.Lederman, rare for a Nobel Prize winning professor, took it upon himself to teach physics to non-physics majors at The University of Chicago.Lederman served as president of the board of sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, and at the time of his death was chair emeritus.", "He also served on the board of trustees for Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, from 1989 to 1992, and was a member of the JASON defense advisory group.", "Lederman was also one of the main proponents of the \"Physics First\" movement.", "Also known as \"Right-side Up Science\" and \"Biology Last,\" this movement seeks to rearrange the current high school science curriculum so that physics precedes chemistry and biology.Lederman was an early supporter of Science Debate 2008, an initiative to get the then-candidates for president, Barack Obama and John McCain, to debate the nation's top science policy challenges.", "In October 2010, Lederman participated in the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Lunch with a Laureate program where middle and high school students engaged in an informal conversation with a Nobel Prize-winning scientist over a brown-bag lunch.", "Lederman was also a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festival's advisory board." ], [ "Academic work", "In 1956, Lederman worked on parity violation in weak interactions.", "R. L. Garwin, Leon Lederman, and R. Weinrich modified an existing cyclotron experiment, and they immediately verified the parity violation.", "They delayed publication of their results until after Wu's group was ready, and the two papers appeared back-to-back in the same physics journal.", "Among his achievements are the discovery of the muon neutrino in 1962 and the bottom quark in 1977.These helped establish his reputation as among the top particle physicists.In 1977, a group of physicists, the E288 experiment team, led by Lederman announced that a particle with a mass of about 6.0 GeV was being produced by the Fermilab particle accelerator.", "After taking further data, the group discovered that this particle did not actually exist, and the \"discovery\" was named \"Oops-Leon\" as a pun on the original name and Lederman's first name.As the director of Fermilab, Lederman was a prominent supporter of the Superconducting Super Collider project, which was endorsed around 1983, and was a major proponent and advocate throughout its lifetime.", "Also at Fermilab, he oversaw the construction of the Tevatron, for decades the world's highest-energy particle collider.", "Lederman later wrote his 1993 popular science book ''The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question?''", "– which sought to promote awareness of the significance of such a project – in the context of the project's last years and the changing political climate of the 1990s.", "The increasingly moribund project was finally shelved that same year after some $2 billion of expenditures.", "In ''The God Particle'' he wrote, \"The history of atomism is one of reductionism – the effort to reduce all the operations of nature to a small number of laws governing a small number of primordial objects\" while stressing the importance of the Higgs boson.In 1988, Lederman received the Nobel Prize for Physics along with Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger \"for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino\".", "Lederman also received the National Medal of Science (1965), the Elliott Cresson Medal for Physics (1976), the Wolf Prize for Physics (1982) and the Enrico Fermi Award (1992).", "In 1995, he received the Chicago History Museum \"Making History Award\" for Distinction in Science Medicine and Technology." ], [ "Personal life", "Lederman in May 2007Lederman's best friend during his college years, Martin J. Klein, convinced him of \"the splendors of physics during a long evening over many beers\".", "He was known for his sense of humor in the physics community.", "On August 26, 2008, Lederman was video-recorded by a science focused organization called ScienCentral, on the street in a major U.S. city, answering questions from passersby.", "He answered questions such as \"What is the strong force?\"", "and \"What happened before the Big Bang?", "\".Lederman was an atheist.", "He had three children with his first wife, Florence Gordon, and toward the end of his life lived with his second wife, Ellen (Carr), in Driggs, Idaho.Lederman began to suffer from memory loss in 2011 and, after struggling with medical bills, he had to sell his Nobel medal for $765,000 to cover the costs in 2015.He died of complications from dementia on October 3, 2018, at a care facility in Rexburg, Idaho, at the age of 96." ], [ "Honors and awards", "* Election to the National Academy of Sciences, 1965.", "* National Medal of Science, 1965.", "* Election to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1970.", "* Elliott Cresson Prize of the Franklin Institute, 1976.", "* Wolf Prize in Physics, 1982.", "* Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 1982.", "* Nobel Prize in Physics, 1988.", "* Election to the American Philosophical Society, 1989.", "* Enrico Fermi Award of the United States Department of Energy, 1992.", "* Appointment as a Tetelman Fellow at Jonathan Edwards College, 1994.", "* Doctor of Humane Letters, DePaul University, 1995.", "* Ordem Nacional do Merito Cientifico (Brazil), 1995.", "* ''In Praise of Reason'' from the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSICOP), 1996.", "* Medallion, Division of Particles and Fields, Mexican Physical Society, 1999.", "* AAAS Philip Hauge Abelson Prize, 2000* Vannevar Bush Prize, 2012.", "* Asteroid 85185 Lederman, discovered by Eric Walter Elst at La Silla Observatory in 1991, was named in his honor.", "The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on January 27, 2013 ()." ], [ "Publications", "* ''The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question?''", "by Leon M. Lederman, Dick Teresi ()* ''From Quarks to the Cosmos'' by Leon Lederman and David N. Schramm ()* ''Portraits of Great American Scientists'' by Leon M. Lederman, et al.", "()* ''Symmetry and the Beautiful Universe'' by Leon M. Lederman and Christopher T. Hill ()* \"What We'll Find Inside the Atom\" by Leon Lederman, an essay he wrote for ''Newsweek'', September 15, 2008* ''Quantum Physics for Poets'' by Leon M. Lederman and Christopher T. Hill ()* ''Beyond the God Particle'' by Leon M. Lederman and Christopher T. Hill ()" ], [ "See also", "* List of Jewish Nobel laureates" ], [ "References and notes" ], [ "External links", "** Education, Politics, Einstein and Charm ''The Science Network'' interview with Leon Lederman* Fermilab's Leon M. Lederman webpage* * Video Interview with Lederman from the Nobel Foundation* Timeline of Nobel Prize Winners in Physics webpage for Leon Max Lederman* ''Story of Leon'' by Leon Lederman* Honeywell – Nobel Interactive Studio* 1976 Cresson Medal recipient from The Franklin Institute* Honoring Leon Lederman at APS April 2019* * * Finding Aid to the Leon M. Lederman Papers at Fermilab" ] ]
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[ [ "LCD (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''LCD''' is a liquid-crystal display, an electronic device.", "'''LCD''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Lowest common denominator, a mathematical quantity* Lacida, a cryptograph* Lattice corneal dystrophy* Liquor carbonis detergens, medical coal tar" ], [ "Music", "* LCD (music act), a performance group* ''Loudest Common Denominator'', an album by Drowning Pool" ], [ "Other uses", "* Lesotho Congress for Democracy, a political party* Lord Chancellor's Department, an historical United Kingdom government department* Low-carbohydrate diet, a food regimen* Local coverage determination, as opposed to national coverage determination in medical insurance* Lechang East railway station, China Railway pinyin code LCD* Lori Chavez-DeRemer, member of the U.S. House of Representatives (as of January 3, 2023)" ], [ "See also", "* LCD Soundsystem, an American rock band" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Louis the Pious" ], [ "Introduction", "''''''''Louis the Pious''' (; ; ; 778 – 20 June 840), also called '''the Fair''' and '''the Debonaire''', was King of the Franks and co-emperor with his father, Charlemagne, from 813.He was also King of Aquitaine from 781.As the only surviving son of Charlemagne and Hildegard, he became the sole ruler of the Franks after his father's death in 814, a position that he held until his death except from November 833 to March 834, when he was deposed.During his reign in Aquitaine, Louis was charged with the defence of the empire's southwestern frontier.", "He conquered Barcelona from the Emirate of Córdoba in 801 and asserted Frankish authority over Pamplona and the Basques south of the Pyrenees in 812.As emperor, he included his adult sons, Lothair, Pepin and Louis, in the government and sought to establish a suitable division of the realm among them.", "The first decade of his reign was characterised by several tragedies and embarrassments, notably the brutal treatment of his nephew Bernard of Italy for which Louis atoned in a public act of self-debasement.In the 830s his empire was torn by civil war between his sons that was only exacerbated by Louis's attempts to include his son Charles by his second wife in the succession plans.", "Though his reign ended on a high note, with order largely restored to his empire, it was followed by three years of civil war.", "Louis is generally compared unfavourably to his father but faced distinctly different problems." ], [ "Birth and rule in Aquitaine", "Louis was born in 778 while his father Charlemagne was on campaign in Spain, at the Carolingian villa of Cassinogilum, according to Einhard and the anonymous chronicler called Astronomus; the place is usually identified with Chasseneuil, near Poitiers.", "He was the third son of Charlemagne by his wife Hildegard.", "He had a twin brother named Lothair, who died young.", "Louis and Lothair were given names from the old Merovingian dynasty, possibly to suggest a connection.Louis was crowned King of Aquitaine as a three-year-old child in 781.In the following year he was sent to Aquitaine accompanied by regents and a court.", "Charlemagne constituted this sub-kingdom in order to secure the border of his realm after the destructive war against the Aquitanians and Basques under Waifar (capitulated 768) and later Hunald II, which culminated in the disastrous Battle of Roncesvalles (778).", "Charlemagne wanted his son Louis to grow up in the area where he was to reign.", "However, wary of the customs son may have been assimilating into in Aquitaine, Charlemagne, who had remarried to Fastrada after the death of Hildegard, sent for Louis in 785.Louis presented himself in Saxony at the royal Council of Paderborn dressed in Basque costumes along with other youths in the same garment, which may have made a good impression in Toulouse, since the Basques of Vasconia were a mainstay of the Aquitanian army.In 794, Charlemagne gave four former Gallo-Roman villas to Louis, in the thought that he would take in each in turn as winter residence: Doué, Ebreuil, Angeac and the Chasseneuil.", "Charlemagne's intention was to see all his sons brought up as natives of their given territories, wearing the national costume of the region and ruling by the local customs.", "Thus were the children sent to their respective realms at a young age.", "The marches—peripheral principalities—played a vital role as bulwarks against exterior threats to the empire.", "Louis reigned over the Spanish March.", "In 797, Barcelona, the largest city of the ''Marca'', fell to the Franks when Zeid, its governor, rebelled against Córdoba and, failing, handed it to them.", "The Córdoban authority recaptured it in 799.However, Louis marched the entire army of his kingdom, including Gascons with their duke Sancho I of Gascony, Provençals under Leibulf, and Goths under Bera, over the Pyrenees and besieged it for seven months, wintering there from 800 to 801, when it capitulated.", "King Louis was formally invested with his armour in 791 at the age of fourteen.", "However, the princes were not given independence from central authority as Charlemagne wished to implant in them the concepts of empire and unity by sending them on remote military expeditions.", "Louis joined his brother Pippin at the Mezzogiorno campaign in Italy against the Duke Grimoald of Benevento at least once.Charlemagne crowns Louis the PiousLouis was one of Charlemagne's three legitimate sons to survive infancy.", "His twin brother, Lothair, died during infancy.", "According to the Frankish custom of partible inheritance, Louis had expected to share his inheritance with his brothers, Charles the Younger, King of Neustria, and Pepin, King of Italy.", "In the ''Divisio Regnorum'' of 806, Charlemagne had slated Charles the Younger as his successor as ruler of the Frankish heartland of Neustria and Austrasia, while giving Pepin the Iron Crown of Lombardy, which Charlemagne possessed by conquest.", "To Louis's kingdom of Aquitaine, he added Septimania, Provence, and part of Burgundy.", "However, Charlemagne's other legitimate sons died—Pepin in 810 and Charles in 811—and Louis was crowned co-emperor with an already ailing Charlemagne in Aachen on 11 September 813.On his father's death in 814, he inherited the entire Carolingian Empire and all its possessions (with the sole exception of the kingdom of Italy; although within Louis's empire, in 813 Charlemagne had ordered that Bernard, Pepin's son, be made and called king)." ], [ "Reign", "Europe in 814''Denarius'' of LouisWhile at his palace of Doué, Anjou, Louis received news of his father's death.", "He rushed to Aachen and crowned himself emperor to shouts of ''Vivat Imperator Ludovicus'' by the attending nobles.Upon arriving at the imperial court in Aachen in an atmosphere of suspicion and anxiety on both sides, Louis's first act was to purge the palace of what he considered undesirable.", "He destroyed the old Germanic pagan tokens and texts which had been collected by Charlemagne.", "He further exiled members of the court he deemed morally \"dissolute\", including some of his own relatives.He quickly sent all of his many unmarried (half-)sisters and nieces to nunneries in order to avoid any possible entanglements from overly powerful brothers-in-law.", "Sparing his illegitimate half-brothers Drogo, Hugh and Theoderic, he forced his father's cousins, Adalard and Wala to be tonsured, sending them into monastic exile at St-Philibert on the island of Noirmoutier and Corbie, respectively, despite the latter's initial loyalty.He made Bernard, margrave of Septimania, and Ebbo, Archbishop of Reims his chief counsellors.", "The latter, born a serf, was raised by Louis to that office, but betrayed him later.", "He retained some of his father's ministers, such as Elisachar, abbot of St. Maximin near Trier, and Hildebold, Archbishop of Cologne.", "Later he replaced Elisachar with Hildwin, abbot of many monasteries.He also employed Benedict of Aniane (the Second Benedict), a Septimanian Visigoth, whom he made abbot of the newly established ''Inden Monastery'' at Aix-la-Chapelle and charged him with the reform of the Frankish church.", "One of Benedict's primary reforms was to ensure that all religious houses in Louis's realm adhered to the Rule of Saint Benedict, named for its creator, Benedict of Nursia.", "From the start of his reign, his coinage imitated his father Charlemagne's portrait, which gave it an image of imperial authority and prestige.", "In 816, Pope Stephen IV, who had succeeded Leo III, visited Reims and again crowned Louis on Sunday 5 October.", "As a result, most French kings were crowned in Reims, following the custom established by Louis the Pious.===''Ordinatio imperii''===On 9 April 817, Maundy Thursday, Louis and his court were crossing a wooden gallery from the cathedral to the palace in Aachen, when the gallery collapsed, killing many.", "Louis, having barely survived and feeling the imminent danger of death, began planning for his succession.", "Three months later among the approval of his Aachen court and the clergy he issued an imperial decree of eighteen chapters, the ''Ordinatio Imperii'', that laid out plans for an orderly dynastic succession.", "The term ''Ordinatio Imperii'' is a modern (19th-century) creation.", "The decree is called ''divisio imperii'' in the only surviving contemporary manuscript.In 815, Louis had already given his two eldest sons a share in the government, when he had sent his elder sons Lothair and Pepin to govern Bavaria and Aquitaine, respectively, though without the royal titles.", "He proceeded to divide the empire among his three sons:* Lothair was proclaimed and crowned co-emperor in Aachen by his father.", "He was promised the succession to most of the Frankish dominions (excluding the exceptions below), and would be the overlord of his brothers and cousin.", "* Pepin was proclaimed King of Aquitaine, his territory including Gascony, the march around Toulouse, and the counties of Carcassonne, Autun, Avallon and Nevers.", "* Louis, the youngest son, was proclaimed King of Bavaria and the neighbouring marches.If one of the subordinate kings died, he was to be succeeded by his sons.", "If he died childless, Lothair would inherit his kingdom.", "In the event of Lothair dying without sons, one of Louis the Pious's younger sons would be chosen to replace him by \"the people\".", "Above all, the Empire would not be divided: the Emperor would rule supreme over the subordinate kings, whose obedience to him was mandatory.With this settlement, Louis attempted to combine his sense for the Empire's unity, supported by the clergy, while at the same time providing positions for all of his sons.", "Instead of treating his sons equally in status and land, he elevated his first-born son Lothair above his younger brothers and gave him the largest part of the Empire as his share.The decree failed to create order as it omitted Bernard, who immediately began to conspire.", "When Louis began to issue changes in favor of his second wife Judith's son Charles the Bald, his sons Lothar, Pepin and Louis refused to accept.", "The rule of sons being favoured over brothers in succession remained also untouched.===Bernard's rebellion and Louis's penance===Louis the Pious doing penance at Attigny in 822The ''ordinatio imperii'' of Aachen left Bernard in Italy in an uncertain and subordinate position as king of Italy, and he began plotting to declare independence.", "Upon hearing of this, Louis immediately directed his army towards Italy, and headed for Chalon-sur-Saône.", "Intimidated by the emperor's swift action, Bernard met his uncle at Chalon, under invitation, and surrendered.", "He was taken to Aachen by Louis, who there had him tried and condemned to death for treason.", "Louis had the sentence commuted to blinding, which was duly carried out; Bernard did not survive the ordeal, however, dying after two days of agony.", "Others also suffered: Theodulf of Orléans, in eclipse since the death of Charlemagne, was accused of having supported the rebellion, and was thrown into a monastic prison, dying soon afterwards; it was rumored that he had been poisoned.", "The fate of his nephew deeply marked Louis's conscience for the rest of his life.In 822, as a deeply religious man, Louis performed penance for causing Bernard's death, at his palace of Attigny near Vouziers in the Ardennes, before Pope Paschal I, and a council of clerics and nobles of the realm that had been convened for the reconciliation of Louis with his three younger half-brothers, Hugo whom he soon made abbot of St-Quentin, Drogo whom he soon made Bishop of Metz, and Theodoric.", "This act of contrition, partly in emulation of Theodosius I, had the effect of greatly reducing his prestige as a Frankish ruler, for he also recited a list of minor offences about which no secular ruler of the time would have taken any notice.", "He also made the egregious error of releasing Wala and Adalard from their monastic confinements, placing the former in a position of power in the court of Lothair and the latter in a position in his own house.===Frontier wars===Louis on a ''denarius'' from Sens, 818–823At the start of Louis's reign, the many tribes—Danes, Obotrites, Slovenes, Bretons and Basques—which inhabited his frontierlands were still in awe of the Frankish emperor's power and dared not stir up any trouble.", "In 816, however, the Sorbs rebelled and were quickly followed by Slavomir, chief of the Obotrites, who was captured and abandoned by his own people, being replaced by Ceadrag in 818.Soon, Ceadrag too had turned against the Franks and allied with the Danes, who were to become the greatest menace of the Franks in a short time.A greater Slavic menace was gathering on the southeast.", "There, Ljudevit, duke of Slavs in Lower Pannonia, was harassing the border at the Drava and Sava rivers.", "The margrave of Friuli, Cadolah, was sent out against him, but he died on campaign and, in 820, his margravate was invaded by Slovenes.", "In 821, an alliance was made with Borna, duke of the Dalmatia, and Liudewit was brought to heel.", "In 824 several Slav tribes in the north-western parts of Bulgaria acknowledged Louis's suzerainty and after he was reluctant to settle the matter peacefully with the Bulgarian ruler Omurtag, in 827 the Bulgarians attacked the Franks in the March of Pannonia and regained their lands.On the far southern edge of his great realm, Louis had to control the Lombard princes of Benevento whom Charlemagne had never subjugated.", "He extracted promises from Princes Grimoald IV and Sico, but to no effect.On the southwestern frontier, problems commenced early when c. 812, Louis the Pious crossed the western Pyrenees 'to settle matters' in Pamplona.", "The expedition made its way back north, where it narrowly escaped an ambush attempt arranged by the Basques in the pass of Roncevaux thanks to the precautions he took, i.e.", "hostages.", "Séguin, duke of Gascony, was then deposed by Louis in 816, possibly for failing to suppress or collaborating with the Basque revolt south of the western Pyrenees, so sparking off a Basque uprising that was duly put down by the Frankish emperor in Dax.", "Seguin was replaced by Lupus III, who was dispossessed in 818 by the emperor.", "In 820 an assembly at Quierzy-sur-Oise decided to send an expedition against the Cordoban caliphate (827).", "The counts in charge of the army, Hugh, count of Tours, and Matfrid, count of Orléans, were slow in acting and the expedition came to naught.===First civil war===Louis's son Charles the Bald as depicted in the Vivian Bible, c. 845In 818, as Louis was returning from a campaign to Brittany, he was greeted by news of the death of his wife, Ermengarde.", "Ermengarde was the daughter of Ingerman, the duke of Hesbaye.", "Louis had been close to his wife, who had been involved in policymaking.", "It was rumoured that she had played a part in her nephew's death and Louis himself believed her own death was divine retribution for that event.", "It took many months for his courtiers and advisors to convince him to remarry, but eventually he did, in 820, to Judith, daughter of Welf, count of Altdorf.", "In 823 Judith gave birth to a son, who was named Charles.The birth of this son damaged the ''Partition of Aachen'', as Louis's attempts to provide for his fourth son met with stiff resistance from his older sons, and the last two decades of his reign were marked by civil war.", "At Worms in 829, Louis gave Alemannia to Charles, with the title of king or duke (historians differ on this), thus enraging his son and co-emperor Lothair, whose promised share was thereby diminished.", "An insurrection was soon at hand.With the urging of the vengeful Wala and the cooperation of his brothers, Lothair accused Judith of having committed adultery with Bernard of Septimania, even suggesting Bernard to be the true father of Charles.", "Ebbo and Hildwin abandoned the emperor at that point, Bernard having risen to greater heights than either of them.", "Agobard, Archbishop of Lyon, and Jesse of Amiens, bishop of Amiens, too, opposed the redivision of the empire and lent their episcopal prestige to the rebels.In 830, at Wala's insistence that Bernard of Septimania was plotting against him, Pepin of Aquitaine led an army of Gascons, with the support of the Neustrian magnates, all the way to Paris.", "At Verberie, Louis the German joined him.", "At that time, the emperor returned from another campaign in Brittany to find his empire at war with itself.", "He marched as far as Compiègne, an ancient royal town, before being surrounded by Pepin's forces and captured.", "Judith was incarcerated at Poitiers and Bernard fled to Barcelona.Then Lothair finally set out with a large Lombard army, but Louis had promised his sons Louis the German and Pepin of Aquitaine greater shares of the inheritance, prompting them to shift loyalties in favour of their father.", "When Lothair tried to call a general council of the realm in Nijmegen, in the heart of Austrasia, the Austrasians and Rhinelanders came with a following of armed retainers, and the disloyal sons were forced to free their father and bow at his feet (831).", "Lothair was pardoned, but disgraced and banished to Italy.Pepin returned to Aquitaine and Judith—after being forced to humiliate herself with a solemn oath of innocence—to Louis's court.", "Only Wala was severely dealt with, making his way to a secluded monastery on the shores of Lake Geneva.", "Although Hilduin, abbot of Saint Denis, was exiled to Paderborn and Elisachar and Matfrid were deprived of their honours north of the Alps, they did not lose their freedom.===Second civil war===The next revolt occurred a mere two years later, in 832.The disaffected Pepin was summoned to his father's court, where he was so poorly received he left against his father's orders.", "Immediately, fearing that Pepin would be stirred up to revolt by his nobles and desiring to reform his morals, Louis the Pious summoned all his forces to meet in Aquitaine in preparation of an uprising, but Louis the German garnered an army of Slav allies and conquered Swabia before the emperor could react.", "Once again the elder Louis divided his vast realm.", "At Jonac, he declared Charles king of Aquitaine and deprived Pepin (he was less harsh with the younger Louis), restoring the whole rest of the empire to Lothair, not yet involved in the civil war.", "Lothair was, however, interested in usurping his father's authority.", "His ministers had been in contact with Pepin and may have convinced him and Louis the German to rebel, promising him Alemannia, the kingdom of Charles.Soon Lothair, with the support of Pope Gregory IV, whom he had confirmed in office without his father's support, joined the revolt in 833.While Louis was at Worms gathering a new force, Lothair marched north.", "Louis marched south.", "The armies met on the plains of the Rothfeld.", "There, Gregory met the emperor and may have tried to sow dissension amongst his ranks.", "Soon much of Louis's army had evaporated before his eyes, and he ordered his few remaining followers to go, because \"it would be a pity if any man lost his life or limb on my account.\"", "The resigned emperor was taken to Saint-Médard de Soissons, his son Charles to Prüm, and the queen to Tortona.", "The despicable show of disloyalty and disingenuousness earned the site the name Field of Lies, or Lügenfeld, or Campus Mendacii, ''ubi plurimorum fidelitas exstincta est''.Louis on a ''sesquisolidus'', essentially Roman in designOn 13 November 833, Ebbo, with Agobard of Lyon, presided over a synod at the Church of Saint Medard in Soissons which saw Louis undertake public penance for the second time in his reign.", "The penitential ritual that was undertaken began when Louis arrived at the church and confessed multiple times to the crimes levied against him.", "The crimes had been historic and recent, with accusations of oath breaking, violation of the public peace and inability to control his adulterous wife, Judith of Bavaria.", "Afterwards, he threw his sword belt at the base of the altar and received judgement through the imposition of the hands of the bishops.", "Louis was to live the rest of his life as a penitent, never to hold office again.", "The penance divided the aristocracy.", "The anonymous biographer of the ''Vita Hludovici'' criticized the whole affair on the basis that God does not judge twice for sins committed and confessed.", "Lothair's allies were generously compensated.", "Ebbo himself received the monastery of St Vaast whilst Pepin was allowed to keep the lands reclaimed from his father.Men like Rabanus Maurus, Louis's younger half-brothers Drogo and Hugh, and Emma, Judith's sister and Louis the German's new wife, worked on the younger Louis to make peace with his father, for the sake of unity of the empire.", "The humiliation to which Louis was then subjected at Notre Dame in Compiègne turned the loyal barons of Austrasia and Saxony against Lothair, and the usurper fled to Burgundy, skirmishing with loyalists near Chalon-sur-Saône.", "Louis was restored the next year, on 1 March 834.On Lothair's return to Italy, Wala, Jesse and Matfrid, formerly count of Orléans, died of a pestilence.", "On 2 February 835 at the palace Thionville, Louis presided over a general council to deal with the events of the previous year.", "Known as the Synod of Thionville, Louis himself was reinvested with his ancestral garb and the crown, symbols of Carolingian rulership.", "Furthermore, the penance of 833 was officially reversed and Archbishop Ebbo officially resigned after confessing to a capital crime, whilst Agobard of Lyon and Bartholmew, Archbishop of Narbonne were also deposed.", "Later that year Lothair fell ill; once again the events turned in Louis favour.In 836, however, the family made peace and Louis restored Pepin and Louis, deprived Lothair of all save Italy, and gave it to Charles in a new division, given at the diet of Crémieu.", "At about that time, the Vikings terrorized and sacked Utrecht and Antwerp.", "In 837, they went up the Rhine as far as Nijmegen, and their king, Rorik, demanded the weregild of some of his followers killed on previous expeditions before Louis the Pious mustered a massive force and marched against them.", "They fled, but it would not be the last time they harried the northern coasts.", "In 838, they even claimed sovereignty over Frisia, but a treaty was confirmed between them and the Franks in 839.Louis the Pious ordered the construction of a North Sea fleet and the sending of ''missi dominici'' into Frisia to establish Frankish sovereignty there.===Third civil war===In 837, Louis crowned Charles king over all of Alemannia and Burgundy and gave him a portion of his brother Louis's land.", "Louis the German promptly rose in revolt, and the emperor redivided his realm again at Quierzy-sur-Oise, giving all of the young king of Bavaria's lands, save Bavaria itself, to Charles.", "Emperor Louis did not stop there, however.", "His devotion to Charles knew no bounds.", "When Pepin died in 838, Louis declared Charles the new king of Aquitaine.", "The nobles, however, elected Pepin's son Pepin II.", "When Louis threatened invasion, the third great civil war of his reign broke out.", "In the spring of 839, Louis the German invaded Swabia, Pepin II and his Gascon subjects fought all the way to the Loire, and the Danes returned to ravage the Frisian coast (sacking Dorestad for a second time).Lothair, for the first time in a long time, allied with his father and pledged support at Worms in exchange for a redivision of the inheritance.", "At a final ''placitum'' held at Worms on 20 May, Louis gave Bavaria to Louis the German and disinherited Pepin II, leaving the entire remainder of the empire to be divided roughly into an eastern part and a western.", "Lothair was given the choice of which partition he would inherit and he chose the eastern, including Italy, leaving the western for Charles.", "The emperor quickly subjugated Aquitaine and had Charles recognised by the nobles and clergy at Clermont-en-Auvergne in 840.Louis then, in a final flash of glory, rushed into Bavaria and forced the younger Louis into the Ostmark.", "The empire now settled as he had declared it at Worms, he returned in July to Frankfurt am Main, where he disbanded the army.", "The final civil war of his reign was over." ], [ "Death", "The parting of the Carolingian Empire by the Treaty of Verdun in 843Louis fell ill soon after his final victorious campaigns and retreated to his summer hunting lodge on an island in the Rhine near his palace at Ingelheim.", "He died on 20 June 840 in the presence of many bishops and clerics and in the arms of his half-brother Drogo as he pardoned his son Louis, proclaimed Lothair emperor and commended the absent Charles and Judith to his protection.Soon dispute plunged the surviving brothers into yet another civil war.", "It lasted until 843 with the signing of the Treaty of Verdun, in which the division of the empire into three souvereign entities was settled.", "West Francia and East Francia became the kernels of modern France and Germany respectively.", "Middle Francia, that included Burgundy, the Low Countries and northern Italy among other regions was only short-lived until 855 and later reorganized as Lotharingia.", "The dispute over the kingship of Aquitaine was not fully settled until 860.Louis was buried in the Abbey of Saint-Arnould in Metz." ], [ "Marriage and issue", "By his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye (married c. 794), he had three sons and three daughters:*Lothair (795–855), king of Middle Francia*Pepin (797–838), king of Aquitaine*Adelaide (b. c. 799)*Rotrude (b.", "800)*Hildegard (or Matilda) (b. c. 802)*Louis the German (c. 806 – 876), king of East FranciaBy his second wife, Judith of Bavaria, he had a daughter and a son:*Gisela, married Eberhard of Friuli*Charles the Bald, king of West FranciaBy an unknown concubine (probably Theodelinde of Sens), he had two illegitimate children:*Arnulf of Sens*Alpais" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes", "===Sources===*''Vita Hludovici Imperatoris'', the main source for his reign, written c. 840 by an unknown author usually called \"the Astronomer\"*''Gesta Hludowici Imperatoris'' by Thegan of Trier on-line Latin text" ], [ "Further reading", "*Booker, Courtney M. ''Past Convictions: The Penance of Louis the Pious and the Decline of the Carolingians'', University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009, *De Jong, Mayke.", "''The Penitential State: Authority and Atonement in the Age of Louis the Pious, 814–840''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.", "*Depreux, Philippe.", "''Prosopographie de l'entourage de Louis le Pieux (781–840)''.", "Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1997.A useful prosopographical overview of Louis's household, court and other subordinates.", "* Eichler, Daniel.", "''Fränkische Reichsversammlungen unter Ludwig dem Frommen''.", "Hannover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 2007 (Monumenta Germaniae Historica Studien und Texte, 45).", "*Ganshof, François-Louis ''The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy''.", "1971.", "*Godman, Peter, and Roger Collins (eds.).", "''Charlemagne's Heir: New Perspectives on the Reign of Louis the Pious (814–840)''.", "Oxford and New York: Clarendon Press, 1990.", "*Oman, Charles.", "''The Dark Ages 476–918''.", "London, 1914.", "*Fischer Drew, Katherine.", "''The Laws of the Salian Franks'', University of Pennsylvania Press.", "*Noble, Thomas F. X.", "''Louis the Pious and his piety re-reconsidered'' Link" ], [ "External links", "* Cassinogilum: an argument for Casseneuil as Louis' birthplace* Chasseneuil-du-Poitou and not Casseuil by Camille Jullian (PDF)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Liquid crystal" ], [ "Introduction", "Schlieren texture of liquid crystal nematic phase'''Liquid crystal''' ('''LC''') is a state of matter whose properties are between those of conventional liquids and those of solid crystals.", "For example, a liquid crystal can flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be oriented in a common direction as in solid.", "There are many types of LC phases, which can be distinguished by their optical properties (such as textures).", "The contrasting textures arise due to molecules within one area of material (\"domain\") being oriented in the same direction but different areas having different orientations.", "An LC material may not always be in an LC state of matter (just as water may be ice or water vapor).Liquid crystals can be divided into three main types: thermotropic, lyotropic, and metallotropic.", "Thermotropic and lyotropic liquid crystals consist mostly of organic molecules, although a few minerals are also known.", "Thermotropic LCs exhibit a phase transition into the LC phase as temperature changes.", "Lyotropic LCs exhibit phase transitions as a function of both temperature and concentration of molecules in a solvent (typically water).", "Metallotropic LCs are composed of both organic and inorganic molecules; their LC transition additionally depends on the inorganic-organic composition ratio.Examples of LCs exist both in the natural world and in technological applications.", "Lyotropic LCs abound in living systems; many proteins and cell membranes are LCs, as well as the tobacco mosaic virus.", "LCs in the mineral world include solutions of soap and various related detergents, and some clays.", "Widespread liquid-crystal displays (LCD) use liquid crystals." ], [ "History", "In 1888, Austrian botanical physiologist Friedrich Reinitzer, working at the Karl-Ferdinands-Universität, examined the physico-chemical properties of various derivatives of cholesterol which now belong to the class of materials known as cholesteric liquid crystals.", "Previously, other researchers had observed distinct color effects when cooling cholesterol derivatives just above the freezing point, but had not associated it with a new phenomenon.", "Reinitzer perceived that color changes in a derivative cholesteryl benzoate were not the most peculiar feature.Chemical structure of cholesteryl benzoate molecule He found that cholesteryl benzoate does not melt in the same manner as other compounds, but has two melting points.", "At it melts into a cloudy liquid, and at it melts again and the cloudy liquid becomes clear.", "The phenomenon is reversible.", "Seeking help from a physicist, on March 14, 1888, he wrote to Otto Lehmann, at that time a '''' in Aachen.", "They exchanged letters and samples.", "Lehmann examined the intermediate cloudy fluid, and reported seeing crystallites.", "Reinitzer's Viennese colleague von Zepharovich also indicated that the intermediate \"fluid\" was crystalline.", "The exchange of letters with Lehmann ended on April 24, with many questions unanswered.", "Reinitzer presented his results, with credits to Lehmann and von Zepharovich, at a meeting of the Vienna Chemical Society on May 3, 1888.By that time, Reinitzer had discovered and described three important features of cholesteric liquid crystals (the name coined by Otto Lehmann in 1904): the existence of two melting points, the reflection of circularly polarized light, and the ability to rotate the polarization direction of light.After his accidental discovery, Reinitzer did not pursue studying liquid crystals further.", "The research was continued by Lehmann, who realized that he had encountered a new phenomenon and was in a position to investigate it: In his postdoctoral years he had acquired expertise in crystallography and microscopy.", "Lehmann started a systematic study, first of cholesteryl benzoate, and then of related compounds which exhibited the double-melting phenomenon.", "He was able to make observations in polarized light, and his microscope was equipped with a hot stage (sample holder equipped with a heater) enabling high temperature observations.", "The intermediate cloudy phase clearly sustained flow, but other features, particularly the signature under a microscope, convinced Lehmann that he was dealing with a solid.", "By the end of August 1889 he had published his results in the Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie.Otto LehmannLehmann's work was continued and significantly expanded by the German chemist Daniel Vorländer, who from the beginning of the 20th century until he retired in 1935, had synthesized most of the liquid crystals known.", "However, liquid crystals were not popular among scientists and the material remained a pure scientific curiosity for about 80 years.After World War II, work on the synthesis of liquid crystals was restarted at university research laboratories in Europe.", "George William Gray, a prominent researcher of liquid crystals, began investigating these materials in England in the late 1940s.", "His group synthesized many new materials that exhibited the liquid crystalline state and developed a better understanding of how to design molecules that exhibit the state.", "His book ''Molecular Structure and the Properties of Liquid Crystals'' became a guidebook on the subject.", "One of the first U.S. chemists to study liquid crystals was Glenn H. Brown, starting in 1953 at the University of Cincinnati and later at Kent State University.", "In 1965, he organized the first international conference on liquid crystals, in Kent, Ohio, with about 100 of the world's top liquid crystal scientists in attendance.", "This conference marked the beginning of a worldwide effort to perform research in this field, which soon led to the development of practical applications for these unique materials.Liquid crystal materials became a focus of research in the development of flat panel electronic displays beginning in 1962 at RCA Laboratories.", "When physical chemist Richard Williams applied an electric field to a thin layer of a nematic liquid crystal at 125 °C, he observed the formation of a regular pattern that he called domains (now known as Williams Domains).", "This led his colleague George H. Heilmeier to perform research on a liquid crystal-based flat panel display to replace the cathode ray vacuum tube used in televisions.", "But the para-azoxyanisole that Williams and Heilmeier used exhibits the nematic liquid crystal state only above 116 °C, which made it impractical to use in a commercial display product.", "A material that could be operated at room temperature was clearly needed.In 1966, Joel E. Goldmacher and Joseph A. Castellano, research chemists in Heilmeier group at RCA, discovered that mixtures made exclusively of nematic compounds that differed only in the number of carbon atoms in the terminal side chains could yield room-temperature nematic liquid crystals.", "A ternary mixture of Schiff base compounds resulted in a material that had a nematic range of 22–105 °C.", "Operation at room temperature enabled the first practical display device to be made.", "The team then proceeded to prepare numerous mixtures of nematic compounds many of which had much lower melting points.", "This technique of mixing nematic compounds to obtain wide operating temperature range eventually became the industry standard and is still used to tailor materials to meet specific applications.Chemical structure of N-(4-methoxybenzylidene)-4-butylaniline (MBBA) moleculeIn 1969, Hans Kelker succeeded in synthesizing a substance that had a nematic phase at room temperature, N-(4-methoxybenzylidene)-4-butylaniline (MBBA), which is one of the most popular subjects of liquid crystal research.", "The next step to commercialization of liquid-crystal displays was the synthesis of further chemically stable substances (cyanobiphenyls) with low melting temperatures by George Gray.", "That work with Ken Harrison and the UK MOD (RRE Malvern), in 1973, led to design of new materials resulting in rapid adoption of small area LCDs within electronic products.These molecules are rod-shaped, some created in the laboratory and some appearing spontaneously in nature.", "Since then, two new types of LC molecules have been synthesized: disc-shaped (by Sivaramakrishna Chandrasekhar in India in 1977) and cone or bowl shaped (predicted by Lui Lam in China in 1982 and synthesized in Europe in 1985).In 1991, when liquid crystal displays were already well established, Pierre-Gilles de Gennes working at the Université Paris-Sud received the Nobel Prize in physics \"for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers\"." ], [ "Design of liquid crystalline materials", "A large number of chemical compounds are known to exhibit one or several liquid crystalline phases.", "Despite significant differences in chemical composition, these molecules have some common features in chemical and physical properties.", "There are three types of thermotropic liquid crystals: discotic, conic (bowlic), and rod-shaped molecules.", "Discotics are disc-like molecules consisting of a flat core of adjacent aromatic rings, whereas the core in a conic LC is not flat, but is shaped like a rice bowl (a three-dimensional object).", "This allows for two dimensional columnar ordering, for both discotic and conic LCs.", "Rod-shaped molecules have an elongated, anisotropic geometry which allows for preferential alignment along one spatial direction.", "*The molecular shape should be relatively thin, flat or conic, especially within rigid molecular frameworks.", "*The molecular length should be at least 1.3 nm, consistent with the presence of long alkyl group on many room-temperature liquid crystals.", "*The structure should not be branched or angular, except for the conic LC.", "*A low melting point is preferable in order to avoid metastable, monotropic liquid crystalline phases.", "Low-temperature mesomorphic behavior in general is technologically more useful, and alkyl terminal groups promote this.An extended, structurally rigid, highly anisotropic shape seems to be the main criterion for liquid crystalline behavior, and as a result many liquid crystalline materials are based on benzene rings." ], [ "Liquid-crystal phases", "The various liquid-crystal phases (called mesophases together with plastic crystal phases) can be characterized by the type of ordering.", "One can distinguish positional order (whether molecules are arranged in any sort of ordered lattice) and orientational order (whether molecules are mostly pointing in the same direction).", "Liquid crystals are characterized by orientational order, but only partial or completely absent positional order.", "In contrast, materials with positional order but no orientational order are known as plastic crystals.", "Most thermotropic LCs will have an isotropic phase at high temperature: heating will eventually drive them into a conventional liquid phase characterized by random and isotropic molecular ordering and fluid-like flow behavior.", "Under other conditions (for instance, lower temperature), a LC might inhabit one or more phases with significant anisotropic orientational structure and short-range orientational order while still having an ability to flow.The ordering of liquid crystals extends up to the entire domain size, which may be on the order of micrometers, but usually not to the macroscopic scale as often occurs in classical crystalline solids.", "However some techniques, such as the use of boundaries or an applied electric field, can be used to enforce a single ordered domain in a macroscopic liquid crystal sample.", "The orientational ordering in a liquid crystal might extend along only one dimension, with the material being essentially disordered in the other two directions.===Thermotropic liquid crystals===Thermotropic phases are those that occur in a certain temperature range.", "If the temperature rise is too high, thermal motion will destroy the delicate cooperative ordering of the LC phase, pushing the material into a conventional isotropic liquid phase.", "At too low temperature, most LC materials will form a conventional crystal.", "Many thermotropic LCs exhibit a variety of phases as temperature is changed.", "For instance, a particular type of LC molecule (called a mesogen) may exhibit various smectic phases followed by the nematic phase and finally the isotropic phase as temperature is increased.", "An example of a compound displaying thermotropic LC behavior is para-azoxyanisole.====Nematic phase====Alignment in a nematic phasePhase transition between a nematic (left) and smectic A (right) phases observed between crossed polarizers.", "The black color corresponds to isotropic medium.The simplest liquid crystal phase is the nematic.", "In a nematic phase, organic molecules lack a crystalline positional order, but do self-align with their long axes roughly parallel.", "The molecules are free to flow and their center of mass positions are randomly distributed as in a liquid, but their orientation is constrained to form a long-range directional order.", "The word ''nematic'' comes from the Greek (''''), which means \"thread\".", "This term originates from the disclinations: thread-like topological defects observed in nematic phases.", "Nematics also exhibit so-called \"hedgehog\" topological defects.", "In two dimensions, there are topological defects with topological charges and .", "Due to hydrodynamics, the defect moves considerably faster than the defect.", "When placed close to each other, the defects attract; upon collision, they annihilate.", "Most nematic phases are uniaxial: they have one axis (called a directrix) that is longer and preferred, with the other two being equivalent (can be approximated as cylinders or rods).", "However, some liquid crystals are biaxial nematic, meaning that in addition to orienting their long axis, they also orient along a secondary axis.", "Nematic crystals have fluidity similar to that of ordinary (isotropic) liquids but they can be easily aligned by an external magnetic or electric field.", "Aligned nematics have the optical properties of uniaxial crystals and this makes them extremely useful in liquid-crystal displays (LCD).Nematic phases are also known in non-molecular systems: at high magnetic fields, electrons flow in bundles or stripes to create an \"electronic nematic\" form of matter.====Smectic phases====Schematic of alignment in the smectic phases.", "The smectic A phase (left) has molecules organized into layers.", "In the smectic C phase (right), the molecules are tilted inside the layers.The smectic phases, which are found at lower temperatures than the nematic, form well-defined layers that can slide over one another in a manner similar to that of soap.", "The word \"smectic\" originates from the Latin word \"smecticus\", meaning cleaning, or having soap-like properties.The smectics are thus positionally ordered along one direction.", "In the Smectic A phase, the molecules are oriented along the layer normal, while in the Smectic C phase they are tilted away from it.", "These phases are liquid-like within the layers.", "There are many different smectic phases, all characterized by different types and degrees of positional and orientational order.", "Beyond organic molecules, Smectic ordering has also been reported to occur within colloidal suspensions of 2-D materials or nanosheets.", "One example of smectic LCs is ''p,p'''-dinonylazobenzene.====Chiral phases or twisted nematics====Schematic of ordering in chiral liquid crystal phases.", "The chiral nematic phase (left), also called the cholesteric phase, and the smectic C* phase (right).The chiral nematic phase exhibits chirality (handedness).", "This phase is often called the ''cholesteric'' phase because it was first observed for cholesterol derivatives.", "Only chiral molecules can give rise to such a phase.", "This phase exhibits a twisting of the molecules perpendicular to the director, with the molecular axis parallel to the director.", "The finite twist angle between adjacent molecules is due to their asymmetric packing, which results in longer-range chiral order.", "In the smectic C* phase (an asterisk denotes a chiral phase), the molecules have positional ordering in a layered structure (as in the other smectic phases), with the molecules tilted by a finite angle with respect to the layer normal.", "The chirality induces a finite azimuthal twist from one layer to the next, producing a spiral twisting of the molecular axis along the layer normal, hence they are also called ''twisted nematics''.Chiral nematic phase.", "The numerator ''p'' refers to the chiral pitch (see text).The ''chiral pitch'', p, refers to the distance over which the LC molecules undergo a full 360° twist (but note that the structure of the chiral nematic phase repeats itself every half-pitch, since in this phase directors at 0° and ±180° are equivalent).", "The pitch, p, typically changes when the temperature is altered or when other molecules are added to the LC host (an achiral LC host material will form a chiral phase if doped with a chiral material), allowing the pitch of a given material to be tuned accordingly.", "In some liquid crystal systems, the pitch is of the same order as the wavelength of visible light.", "This causes these systems to exhibit unique optical properties, such as Bragg reflection and low-threshold laser emission, and these properties are exploited in a number of optical applications.", "For the case of Bragg reflection only the lowest-order reflection is allowed if the light is incident along the helical axis, whereas for oblique incidence higher-order reflections become permitted.", "Cholesteric liquid crystals also exhibit the unique property that they reflect circularly polarized light when it is incident along the helical axis and elliptically polarized if it comes in obliquely.A planar cell, filled with achiral LC host doped with an optically active Tröger base analog, placed between a pair of parallel (A) and crossed (B) linear polarizers.", "This doped mesogenic phase forms self-organized helical superstructures, that allow specific wavelengths of light to pass through the crossed polarizers, and selectively reflects a particular wavelength of light.====Blue phases====Blue phases are liquid crystal phases that appear in the temperature range between a chiral nematic phase and an isotropic liquid phase.", "Blue phases have a regular three-dimensional cubic structure of defects with lattice periods of several hundred nanometers, and thus they exhibit selective Bragg reflections in the wavelength range of visible light corresponding to the cubic lattice.", "It was theoretically predicted in 1981 that these phases can possess icosahedral symmetry similar to quasicrystals.Although blue phases are of interest for fast light modulators or tunable photonic crystals, they exist in a very narrow temperature range, usually less than a few kelvins.", "Recently the stabilization of blue phases over a temperature range of more than 60 K including room temperature (260–326 K) has been demonstrated.", "Blue phases stabilized at room temperature allow electro-optical switching with response times of the order of 10−4 s. In May 2008, the first blue phase mode LCD panel had been developed.Blue phase crystals, being a periodic cubic structure with a bandgap in the visible wavelength range, can be considered as 3D photonic crystals.", "Producing ideal blue phase crystals in large volumes is still problematic, since the produced crystals are usually polycrystalline (platelet structure) or the single crystal size is limited (in the micrometer range).", "Recently, blue phases obtained as ideal 3D photonic crystals in large volumes have been stabilized and produced with different controlled crystal lattice orientations.====Discotic phases====Disk-shaped LC molecules can orient themselves in a layer-like fashion known as the discotic nematic phase.", "If the disks pack into stacks, the phase is called a discotic columnar.", "The columns themselves may be organized into rectangular or hexagonal arrays.", "Chiral discotic phases, similar to the chiral nematic phase, are also known.====Conic phases====Conic LC molecules, like in discotics, can form columnar phases.", "Other phases, such as nonpolar nematic, polar nematic, stringbean, donut and onion phases, have been predicted.", "Conic phases, except nonpolar nematic, are polar phases.===Lyotropic liquid crystals===Structure of lyotropic liquid crystal.", "The red heads of surfactant molecules are in contact with water, whereas the blue tails of surfactant molecules are immersed in oil:bilayer (left) and micelle (right).A lyotropic liquid crystal consists of two or more components that exhibit liquid-crystalline properties in certain concentration ranges.", "In the lyotropic phases, solvent molecules fill the space around the compounds to provide fluidity to the system.", "In contrast to thermotropic liquid crystals, these lyotropics have another degree of freedom of concentration that enables them to induce a variety of different phases.A compound that has two immiscible hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts within the same molecule is called an amphiphilic molecule.", "Many amphiphilic molecules show lyotropic liquid-crystalline phase sequences depending on the volume balances between the hydrophilic part and hydrophobic part.", "These structures are formed through the micro-phase segregation of two incompatible components on a nanometer scale.", "Soap is an everyday example of a lyotropic liquid crystal.The content of water or other solvent molecules changes the self-assembled structures.", "At very low amphiphile concentration, the molecules will be dispersed randomly without any ordering.", "At slightly higher (but still low) concentration, amphiphilic molecules will spontaneously assemble into micelles or vesicles.", "This is done so as to 'hide' the hydrophobic tail of the amphiphile inside the micelle core, exposing a hydrophilic (water-soluble) surface to aqueous solution.", "These spherical objects do not order themselves in solution, however.", "At higher concentration, the assemblies will become ordered.", "A typical phase is a hexagonal columnar phase, where the amphiphiles form long cylinders (again with a hydrophilic surface) that arrange themselves into a roughly hexagonal lattice.", "This is called the middle soap phase.", "At still higher concentration, a lamellar phase (neat soap phase) may form, wherein extended sheets of amphiphiles are separated by thin layers of water.", "For some systems, a cubic (also called viscous isotropic) phase may exist between the hexagonal and lamellar phases, wherein spheres are formed that create a dense cubic lattice.", "These spheres may also be connected to one another, forming a bicontinuous cubic phase.The objects created by amphiphiles are usually spherical (as in the case of micelles), but may also be disc-like (bicelles), rod-like, or biaxial (all three micelle axes are distinct).", "These anisotropic self-assembled nano-structures can then order themselves in much the same way as thermotropic liquid crystals do, forming large-scale versions of all the thermotropic phases (such as a nematic phase of rod-shaped micelles).For some systems, at high concentrations, inverse phases are observed.", "That is, one may generate an inverse hexagonal columnar phase (columns of water encapsulated by amphiphiles) or an inverse micellar phase (a bulk liquid crystal sample with spherical water cavities).A generic progression of phases, going from low to high amphiphile concentration, is:* Discontinuous cubic phase (micellar cubic phase)* Hexagonal phase (hexagonal columnar phase) (middle phase)* Lamellar phase* Bicontinuous cubic phase* Reverse hexagonal columnar phase* Inverse cubic phase (Inverse micellar phase)Even within the same phases, their self-assembled structures are tunable by the concentration: for example, in lamellar phases, the layer distances increase with the solvent volume.", "Since lyotropic liquid crystals rely on a subtle balance of intermolecular interactions, it is more difficult to analyze their structures and properties than those of thermotropic liquid crystals.Similar phases and characteristics can be observed in immiscible diblock copolymers.===Metallotropic liquid crystals===Liquid crystal phases can also be based on low-melting inorganic phases like ZnCl2 that have a structure formed of linked tetrahedra and easily form glasses.", "The addition of long chain soap-like molecules leads to a series of new phases that show a variety of liquid crystalline behavior both as a function of the inorganic-organic composition ratio and of temperature.", "This class of materials has been named metallotropic.===Laboratory analysis of mesophases===Thermotropic mesophases are detected and characterized by two major methods, the original method was use of thermal optical microscopy, in which a small sample of the material was placed between two crossed polarizers; the sample was then heated and cooled.", "As the isotropic phase would not significantly affect the polarization of the light, it would appear very dark, whereas the crystal and liquid crystal phases will both polarize the light in a uniform way, leading to brightness and color gradients.", "This method allows for the characterization of the particular phase, as the different phases are defined by their particular order, which must be observed.", "The second method, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), allows for more precise determination of phase transitions and transition enthalpies.", "In DSC, a small sample is heated in a way that generates a very precise change in temperature with respect to time.", "During phase transitions, the heat flow required to maintain this heating or cooling rate will change.", "These changes can be observed and attributed to various phase transitions, such as key liquid crystal transitions.Lyotropic mesophases are analyzed in a similar fashion, though these experiments are somewhat more complex, as the concentration of mesogen is a key factor.", "These experiments are run at various concentrations of mesogen in order to analyze that impact." ], [ "Biological liquid crystals", "Lyotropic liquid-crystalline phases are abundant in living systems, the study of which is referred to as lipid polymorphism.", "Accordingly, lyotropic liquid crystals attract particular attention in the field of biomimetic chemistry.", "In particular, biological membranes and cell membranes are a form of liquid crystal.", "Their constituent molecules (e.g.", "phospholipids) are perpendicular to the membrane surface, yet the membrane is flexible.", "These lipids vary in shape (see page on lipid polymorphism).", "The constituent molecules can inter-mingle easily, but tend not to leave the membrane due to the high energy requirement of this process.", "Lipid molecules can flip from one side of the membrane to the other, this process being catalyzed by flippases and floppases (depending on the direction of movement).", "These liquid crystal membrane phases can also host important proteins such as receptors freely \"floating\" inside, or partly outside, the membrane, e.g.", "CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT).Many other biological structures exhibit liquid-crystal behavior.", "For instance, the concentrated protein solution that is extruded by a spider to generate silk is, in fact, a liquid crystal phase.", "The precise ordering of molecules in silk is critical to its renowned strength.", "DNA and many polypeptides, including actively-driven cytoskeletal filaments, can also form liquid crystal phases.", "Monolayers of elongated cells have also been described to exhibit liquid-crystal behavior, and the associated topological defects have been associated with biological consequences, including cell death and extrusion.", "Together, these biological applications of liquid crystals form an important part of current academic research." ], [ "Mineral liquid crystals", "Examples of liquid crystals can also be found in the mineral world, most of them being lyotropic.", "The first discovered was vanadium(V) oxide, by Zocher in 1925.Since then, few others have been discovered and studied in detail.", "The existence of a true nematic phase in the case of the smectite clays family was raised by Langmuir in 1938, but remained an open question for a very long time and was only confirmed recently.With the rapid development of nanosciences, and the synthesis of many new anisotropic nanoparticles, the number of such mineral liquid crystals is increasing quickly, with, for example, carbon nanotubes and graphene.", "A lamellar phase was even discovered, H3Sb3P2O14, which exhibits hyperswelling up to ~250 nm for the interlamellar distance." ], [ "Pattern formation in liquid crystals", "Anisotropy of liquid crystals is a property not observed in other fluids.", "This anisotropy makes flows of liquid crystals behave more differentially than those of ordinary fluids.", "For example, injection of a flux of a liquid crystal between two close parallel plates (viscous fingering) causes orientation of the molecules to couple with the flow, with the resulting emergence of dendritic patterns.", "This anisotropy is also manifested in the interfacial energy (surface tension) between different liquid crystal phases.", "This anisotropy determines the equilibrium shape at the coexistence temperature, and is so strong that usually facets appear.", "When temperature is changed one of the phases grows, forming different morphologies depending on the temperature change.", "Since growth is controlled by heat diffusion, anisotropy in thermal conductivity favors growth in specific directions, which has also an effect on the final shape." ], [ "Theoretical treatment of liquid crystals", "Microscopic theoretical treatment of fluid phases can become quite complicated, owing to the high material density, meaning that strong interactions, hard-core repulsions, and many-body correlations cannot be ignored.", "In the case of liquid crystals, anisotropy in all of these interactions further complicates analysis.", "There are a number of fairly simple theories, however, that can at least predict the general behavior of the phase transitions in liquid crystal systems.===Director===As we already saw above, the nematic liquid crystals are composed of rod-like molecules with the long axes of neighboring molecules aligned approximately to one another.", "To describe this anisotropic structure, a dimensionless unit vector '''''n''''' called the ''director'', is introduced to represent the direction of preferred orientation of molecules in the neighborhood of any point.", "Because there is no physical polarity along the director axis, '''''n''''' and '''''-n''''' are fully equivalent.===Order parameter===The ''local nematic director'', which is also the ''local optical axis'', is given by the spatial and temporal average of the long molecular axes.The description of liquid crystals involves an analysis of order.", "A second rank symmetric traceless tensor order parameter is used to describe the orientational order of the most general biaxial nematic liquid crystal.", "However, to describe the more common case of uniaxial nematic liquid crystals, a scalar order parameter is sufficient.", "To make this quantitative, an orientational order parameter is usually defined based on the average of the second Legendre polynomial::where is the angle between the liquid-crystal molecular axis and the ''local director'' (which is the 'preferred direction' in a volume element of a liquid crystal sample, also representing its ''local optical axis'').", "The brackets denote both a temporal and spatial average.", "This definition is convenient, since for a completely random and isotropic sample, ''S'' = 0, whereas for a perfectly aligned sample S=1.For a typical liquid crystal sample, ''S'' is on the order of 0.3 to 0.8, and generally decreases as the temperature is raised.", "In particular, a sharp drop of the order parameter to 0 is observed when the system undergoes a phase transition from an LC phase into the isotropic phase.", "The order parameter can be measured experimentally in a number of ways; for instance, diamagnetism, birefringence, Raman scattering, NMR and EPR can be used to determine S.The order of a liquid crystal could also be characterized by using other even Legendre polynomials (all the odd polynomials average to zero since the director can point in either of two antiparallel directions).", "These higher-order averages are more difficult to measure, but can yield additional information about molecular ordering.A positional order parameter is also used to describe the ordering of a liquid crystal.", "It is characterized by the variation of the density of the center of mass of the liquid crystal molecules along a given vector.", "In the case of positional variation along the ''z''-axis the density is often given by::The complex positional order parameter is defined as and the average density.", "Typically only the first two terms are kept and higher order terms are ignored since most phases can be described adequately using sinusoidal functions.", "For a perfect nematic and for a smectic phase will take on complex values.", "The complex nature of this order parameter allows for many parallels between nematic to smectic phase transitions and conductor to superconductor transitions.===Onsager hard-rod model===A simple model which predicts lyotropic phase transitions is the hard-rod model proposed by Lars Onsager.", "This theory considers the volume excluded from the center-of-mass of one idealized cylinder as it approaches another.", "Specifically, if the cylinders are oriented parallel to one another, there is very little volume that is excluded from the center-of-mass of the approaching cylinder (it can come quite close to the other cylinder).", "If, however, the cylinders are at some angle to one another, then there is a large volume surrounding the cylinder which the approaching cylinder's center-of-mass cannot enter (due to the hard-rod repulsion between the two idealized objects).", "Thus, this angular arrangement sees a ''decrease'' in the net positional entropy of the approaching cylinder (there are fewer states available to it).The fundamental insight here is that, whilst parallel arrangements of anisotropic objects lead to a decrease in orientational entropy, there is an increase in positional entropy.", "Thus in some case greater positional order will be entropically favorable.", "This theory thus predicts that a solution of rod-shaped objects will undergo a phase transition, at sufficient concentration, into a nematic phase.", "Although this model is conceptually helpful, its mathematical formulation makes several assumptions that limit its applicability to real systems.", "An extension of Onsager Theory was proposed by Flory to account for non entropic effects.===Maier–Saupe mean field theory===This statistical theory, proposed by Alfred Saupe and Wilhelm Maier, includes contributions from an attractive intermolecular potential from an induced dipole moment between adjacent rod-like liquid crystal molecules.", "The anisotropic attraction stabilizes parallel alignment of neighboring molecules, and the theory then considers a mean-field average of the interaction.", "Solved self-consistently, this theory predicts thermotropic nematic-isotropic phase transitions, consistent with experiment.", "Maier-Saupe mean field theory is extended to high molecular weight liquid crystals by incorporating the bending stiffness of the molecules and using the method of path integrals in polymer science.===McMillan's model===McMillan's model, proposed by William McMillan, is an extension of the Maier–Saupe mean field theory used to describe the phase transition of a liquid crystal from a nematic to a smectic A phase.", "It predicts that the phase transition can be either continuous or discontinuous depending on the strength of the short-range interaction between the molecules.", "As a result, it allows for a triple critical point where the nematic, isotropic, and smectic A phase meet.", "Although it predicts the existence of a triple critical point, it does not successfully predict its value.", "The model utilizes two order parameters that describe the orientational and positional order of the liquid crystal.", "The first is simply the average of the second Legendre polynomial and the second order parameter is given by:: The values ''zi, θi'', and ''d'' are the position of the molecule, the angle between the molecular axis and director, and the layer spacing.", "The postulated potential energy of a single molecule is given by::Here constant α quantifies the strength of the interaction between adjacent molecules.", "The potential is then used to derive the thermodynamic properties of the system assuming thermal equilibrium.", "It results in two self-consistency equations that must be solved numerically, the solutions of which are the three stable phases of the liquid crystal.===Elastic continuum theory===In this formalism, a liquid crystal material is treated as a continuum; molecular details are entirely ignored.", "Rather, this theory considers perturbations to a presumed oriented sample.", "The distortions of the liquid crystal are commonly described by the Frank free energy density.", "One can identify three types of distortions that could occur in an oriented sample: (1) twists of the material, where neighboring molecules are forced to be angled with respect to one another, rather than aligned; (2) splay of the material, where bending occurs perpendicular to the director; and (3) bend of the material, where the distortion is parallel to the director and molecular axis.", "All three of these types of distortions incur an energy penalty.", "They are distortions that are induced by the boundary conditions at domain walls or the enclosing container.", "The response of the material can then be decomposed into terms based on the elastic constants corresponding to the three types of distortions.", "Elastic continuum theory is an effective tool for modeling liquid crystal devices and lipid bilayers." ], [ "External influences on liquid crystals", "Scientists and engineers are able to use liquid crystals in a variety of applications because external perturbation can cause significant changes in the macroscopic properties of the liquid crystal system.", "Both electric and magnetic fields can be used to induce these changes.", "The magnitude of the fields, as well as the speed at which the molecules align are important characteristics industry deals with.", "Special surface treatments can be used in liquid crystal devices to force specific orientations of the director.===Electric and magnetic field effects===The ability of the director to align along an external field is caused by the electric nature of the molecules.", "Permanent electric dipoles result when one end of a molecule has a net positive charge while the other end has a net negative charge.", "When an external electric field is applied to the liquid crystal, the dipole molecules tend to orient themselves along the direction of the field.Even if a molecule does not form a permanent dipole, it can still be influenced by an electric field.", "In some cases, the field produces slight re-arrangement of electrons and protons in molecules such that an induced electric dipole results.", "While not as strong as permanent dipoles, orientation with the external field still occurs.The response of any system to an external electrical field is: where , and are the components of the electric field, electric displacement field and polarization density.", "The electric energy per volume stored in the system is: (summation over the doubly appearing index ).", "In nematic liquid crystals, the polarization, and electric displacement both depend linearly on the direction of the electric field.", "The polarization should be even in the director since liquid crystals are invariants under reflexions of .", "The most general form to express is: (summation over the index ) with and the electric permittivity parallel and perpendicular to the director .", "Then density of energy is (ignoring the constant terms that do not contribute to the dynamics of the system): (summation over ).", "If is positive, then the minimum of the energy is achieved when and are parallel.", "This means that the system will favor aligning the liquid crystal with the externally applied electric field.", "If is negative, then the minimum of the energy is achieved when and are perpendicular (in nematics the perpendicular orientation is degenerated, making possible the emergence of vortices).The difference is called dielectrical anisotropy and is an important parameter in liquid crystal applications.", "There are both and commercial liquid crystals.", "5CB and E7 liquid crystal mixture are two liquid crystals commonly used.", "MBBA is a common liquid crystal.The effects of magnetic fields on liquid crystal molecules are analogous to electric fields.", "Because magnetic fields are generated by moving electric charges, permanent magnetic dipoles are produced by electrons moving about atoms.", "When a magnetic field is applied, the molecules will tend to align with or against the field.", "Electromagnetic radiation, e.g.", "UV-Visible light, can influence light-responsive liquid crystals which mainly carry at least a photo-switchable unit.===Surface preparations===In the absence of an external field, the director of a liquid crystal is free to point in any direction.", "It is possible, however, to force the director to point in a specific direction by introducing an outside agent to the system.", "For example, when a thin polymer coating (usually a polyimide) is spread on a glass substrate and rubbed in a single direction with a cloth, it is observed that liquid crystal molecules in contact with that surface align with the rubbing direction.", "The currently accepted mechanism for this is believed to be an epitaxial growth of the liquid crystal layers on the partially aligned polymer chains in the near surface layers of the polyimide.Several liquid crystal chemicals also align to a 'command surface' which is in turn aligned by electric field of polarized light.", "This process is called photoalignment.===Fréedericksz transition===The competition between orientation produced by surface anchoring and by electric field effects is often exploited in liquid crystal devices.", "Consider the case in which liquid crystal molecules are aligned parallel to the surface and an electric field is applied perpendicular to the cell.", "At first, as the electric field increases in magnitude, no change in alignment occurs.", "However at a threshold magnitude of electric field, deformation occurs.", "Deformation occurs where the director changes its orientation from one molecule to the next.", "The occurrence of such a change from an aligned to a deformed state is called a Fréedericksz transition and can also be produced by the application of a magnetic field of sufficient strength.The Fréedericksz transition is fundamental to the operation of many liquid crystal displays because the director orientation (and thus the properties) can be controlled easily by the application of a field." ], [ "Effect of chirality", "As already described, chiral liquid-crystal molecules usually give rise to chiral mesophases.", "This means that the molecule must possess some form of asymmetry, usually a stereogenic center.", "An additional requirement is that the system not be racemic: a mixture of right- and left-handed molecules will cancel the chiral effect.", "Due to the cooperative nature of liquid crystal ordering, however, a small amount of chiral dopant in an otherwise achiral mesophase is often enough to select out one domain handedness, making the system overall chiral.Chiral phases usually have a helical twisting of the molecules.", "If the pitch of this twist is on the order of the wavelength of visible light, then interesting optical interference effects can be observed.", "The chiral twisting that occurs in chiral LC phases also makes the system respond differently from right- and left-handed circularly polarized light.", "These materials can thus be used as polarization filters.It is possible for chiral LC molecules to produce essentially achiral mesophases.", "For instance, in certain ranges of concentration and molecular weight, DNA will form an achiral line hexatic phase.", "An interesting recent observation is of the formation of chiral mesophases from achiral LC molecules.", "Specifically, bent-core molecules (sometimes called banana liquid crystals) have been shown to form liquid crystal phases that are chiral.", "In any particular sample, various domains will have opposite handedness, but within any given domain, strong chiral ordering will be present.", "The appearance mechanism of this macroscopic chirality is not yet entirely clear.", "It appears that the molecules stack in layers and orient themselves in a tilted fashion inside the layers.", "These liquid crystals phases may be ferroelectric or anti-ferroelectric, both of which are of interest for applications.Chirality can also be incorporated into a phase by adding a chiral dopant, which may not form LCs itself.", "Twisted-nematic or super-twisted nematic mixtures often contain a small amount of such dopants." ], [ "Applications of liquid crystals", "Structure of liquid crystal display: 1 – vertical polarization filter, 2, 4 – glass with electrodes, 3 – liquid crystals, 5 – horizontal polarization filter, 6 – reflector\"Wikipedia\" displayed on an LCDLiquid crystals find wide use in liquid crystal displays, which rely on the optical properties of certain liquid crystalline substances in the presence or absence of an electric field.", "In a typical device, a liquid crystal layer (typically 4 μm thick) sits between two polarizers that are crossed (oriented at 90° to one another).", "The liquid crystal alignment is chosen so that its relaxed phase is a twisted one (see Twisted nematic field effect).", "This twisted phase reorients light that has passed through the first polarizer, allowing its transmission through the second polarizer (and reflected back to the observer if a reflector is provided).", "The device thus appears transparent.", "When an electric field is applied to the LC layer, the long molecular axes tend to align parallel to the electric field thus gradually untwisting in the center of the liquid crystal layer.", "In this state, the LC molecules do not reorient light, so the light polarized at the first polarizer is absorbed at the second polarizer, and the device loses transparency with increasing voltage.", "In this way, the electric field can be used to make a pixel switch between transparent or opaque on command.", "Color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels.", "Chiral smectic liquid crystals are used in ferroelectric LCDs which are fast-switching binary light modulators.", "Similar principles can be used to make other liquid crystal based optical devices.Liquid crystal tunable filters are used as electrooptical devices, e.g., in hyperspectral imaging.Thermotropic chiral LCs whose pitch varies strongly with temperature can be used as crude liquid crystal thermometers, since the color of the material will change as the pitch is changed.", "Liquid crystal color transitions are used on many aquarium and pool thermometers as well as on thermometers for infants or baths.", "Other liquid crystal materials change color when stretched or stressed.", "Thus, liquid crystal sheets are often used in industry to look for hot spots, map heat flow, measure stress distribution patterns, and so on.", "Liquid crystal in fluid form is used to detect electrically generated hot spots for failure analysis in the semiconductor industry.Liquid crystal lenses converge or diverge the incident light by adjusting the refractive index of liquid crystal layer with applied voltage or temperature.", "Generally, the liquid crystal lenses generate a parabolic refractive index distribution by arranging molecular orientations.", "Therefore, a plane wave is reshaped into a parabolic wavefront by a liquid crystal lens.", "The focal length of liquid crystal lenses could be continuously tunable when the external electric field can be properly tuned.", "Liquid crystal lenses are a kind of adaptive optics.", "Imaging systems can benefit from focusing correction, image plane adjustment, or changing the range of depth-of-field or depth of focus.", "The liquid crystal lense is one of the candidates to develop vision correction devices for myopia and presbyopia (e.g., tunable eyeglass and smart contact lenses).", "Being an optical phase modulator, a liquid crystal lens feature space-variant optical path length (i.e., optical path length as the function of its pupil coordinate).", "In different imaging system, the required function of optical path length varies from one to another.", "For example, to converge a plane wave into a diffraction limited spot, for a physically-planar liquid crystal structure, the refractive index of liquid crystal layer should be spherical or paraboloidal under paraxial approximation.", "As for projecting images or sensing objects, it may be expected to have the liquid crystal lens with aspheric distribution of optical path length across its aperture of interest.", "Liquid crystal lenses with electrically tunable refractive index (by addressing the different magnitude of electric field on liquid crystal layer) have potentials to achieve arbitrary function of optical path length for modulating incoming wavefront; current liquid crystal freeform optical elements were extended from liquid crystal lens with same optical mechanisms.", "The applications of liquid crystals lenses includes pico-projectors, prescriptions lenses (eyeglasses or contact lenses), smart phone camera, augmented reality, virtual reality etc.Liquid crystal lasers use a liquid crystal in the lasing medium as a distributed feedback mechanism instead of external mirrors.", "Emission at a photonic bandgap created by the periodic dielectric structure of the liquid crystal gives a low-threshold high-output device with stable monochromatic emission.Polymer dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) sheets and rolls are available as adhesive backed Smart film which can be applied to windows and electrically switched between transparent and opaque to provide privacy.Many common fluids, such as soapy water, are in fact liquid crystals.", "Soap forms a variety of LC phases depending on its concentration in water.Liquid crystal films have revolutionized the world of technology.", "Currently they are used in the most diverse devices, such as digital clocks, mobile phones, calculating machines and televisions.", "The use of liquid crystal films in optical memory devices, with a process similar to the recording and reading of CDs and DVDs may be possible.Liquid crystals are also used as basic technology to imitate quantum computers, using electric fields to manipulate the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules, to store data and to encode a different value for every different degree of misalignment with other molecules." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Definitions of basic terms relating to low-molar-mass and polymer liquid crystals (IUPAC Recommendations 2001)* An intelligible introduction to liquid crystals from Case Western Reserve University* Liquid Crystal Physics tutorial from the Liquid Crystals Group, University of Colorado* Liquid Crystals & Photonics Group – Ghent University (Belgium) , good tutorial* Simulation of light propagation in liquid crystals, free program* Liquid Crystals Interactive Online * Liquid Crystal Institute Kent State University* Liquid Crystals a journal by Taylor&Francis* Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals a journal by Taylor & Francis* Hot-spot detection techniques for ICs* What are liquid crystals?", "from Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden* Progress in liquid crystal chemistry Thematic series in the Open Access Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry* DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- \"Liquid Crystals\"* Bowlic liquid crystal from San Jose State University* Phase calibration of a Spatial Light Modulator" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Long gun" ], [ "Introduction", "used by the United States military during World War II, including rifles, carbines, submachine guns, and shotguns.", "In contrast, partially visible to the left are various handguns.A '''long gun''' is a category of firearms with long barrels.", "In small arms, a ''long gun'' or '''longarm''' is generally designed to be held by both hands and braced against the shoulder, in contrast to a handgun, which can be fired being held with a single hand.", "In the context of cannons and mounted firearms, an artillery ''long gun'' would be contrasted with a field gun or howitzer." ], [ "Small arms", "U.S. Army Brigadier General Claudius Miller Easley practicing with an M1 Garand|leftThe actual length of the barrels of a long gun is subject to various laws in many jurisdictions, mainly concerning minimum length, sometimes as measured in a specific position or configuration.", "The National Firearms Act in the United States sets a minimum length of for rifle barrels and for shotgun barrels.", "Canada sets a minimum of for either.", "In addition, Canada sets a minimum fireable length for long guns with detachable or folding stocks .", "In the United States, the minimum length for long guns with detachable or folding stocks is with the stock in the extended position.Examples of various classes of small arms generally considered long arms include, but are not limited to shotguns, personal defense weapons, submachine guns, carbines, assault rifles, designated marksman rifles, sniper rifles, anti-material rifles, light machine guns, medium machine guns, and heavy machine guns.===Advantages and disadvantages===Almost all long arms have front grips (forearms) and shoulder stocks, which provide the user the ability to hold the firearm more steadily than a handgun.", "In addition, the long barrel of a long gun usually provides a longer distance between the front and rear sights, providing the user with more precision when aiming.", "The presence of a stock makes the use of a telescopic sight or red dot sight easier than with a handgun.The mass of a long gun is usually greater than that of a handgun, making the long gun more expensive to transport, and more difficult and tiring to carry.", "The increased moment of inertia makes the long gun slower and more difficult to traverse and elevate, and it is thus slower and more difficult to adjust the aim.", "However, this also results in greater stability in aiming.", "The greater amount of material in a long gun tends to make it more expensive to manufacture, other factors being equal.", "The greater size makes it more difficult to conceal, and more inconvenient to use in confined quarters, as well as requiring larger storage space.As long guns include a stock that is braced against the shoulder, the recoil when firing is transferred directly into the body of the user.", "This allows better control of aim than handguns, which do not include stock, and thus all their recoil must be transferred to the arms of the user.", "It also makes it possible to manage larger amounts of recoil without damage or loss of control; in combination with the higher mass of long guns, this means more propellant (such as gunpowder) can be used and thus larger projectiles can be fired at higher velocities.", "This is one of the main reasons for the use of long guns over handguns—faster or heavier projectiles help with penetration and accuracy over longer distances.Shotguns are long guns that are designed to fire many small projectiles at once.", "This makes them very effective at close ranges, but with diminished usefulness at long ranges, even with shotgun slugs they are mostly only effective to about ." ], [ "Naval long guns", "Long guns on display in front of the Préfecture maritime in ToulonIn historical navy usage, a '''long gun''' was the standard type of cannon mounted by a sailing vessel, called such to distinguish it from the much shorter carronades.", "In informal usage, the length was combined with the weight of the shot, yielding terms like \"long 9s\", referring to full-length cannons firing a 9-pound round shot." ], [ "See also", "* Large-calibre artillery* Java arquebus, a long firearm" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Law of definite proportions" ], [ "Introduction", "In chemistry, the '''law of definite proportions''', sometimes called '''Proust's law''' or the '''law of constant composition''', states that a given chemical compound always contains its component elements in fixed ratio (by mass) and does not depend on its source and method of preparation.", "For example, oxygen makes up about 8/9 of the mass of any sample of pure water, while hydrogen makes up the remaining 1/9 of the mass: the mass of two elements in a compound are always in the same ratio.", "Along with the law of multiple proportions, the law of definite proportions forms the basis of stoichiometry." ], [ "History", "The law of definite proportion was given by Joseph Proust in the Spanish city of Segovia in 1797.This observation was first made by the English theologian and chemist Joseph Priestley, and Antoine Lavoisier, a French nobleman and chemist centered on the process of combustion.", "This is how Proust phrased the law in 1794.The law of definite proportions might seem obvious to the modern chemist, inherent in the very definition of a chemical compound.", "At the end of the 18th century, however, when the concept of a chemical compound had not yet been fully developed, the law was novel.", "In fact, when first proposed, it was a controversial statement and was opposed by other chemists, most notably Proust's fellow Frenchman Claude Louis Berthollet, who argued that the elements could combine in any proportion.", "The existence of this debate demonstrates that, at the time, the distinction between pure chemical compounds and mixtures had not yet been fully developed.The law of definite proportions contributed to, and was placed on a firm theoretical basis by, the atomic theory that John Dalton promoted beginning in 1803, which explained matter as consisting of discrete atoms, that there was one type of atom for each element, and that the compounds were made of combinations of different types of atoms in fixed proportions.A related early idea was Prout's hypothesis, formulated by English chemist William Prout, who proposed that the hydrogen atom was the fundamental atomic unit.", "From this hypothesis was derived the whole number rule, which was the rule of thumb that atomic masses were whole number multiples of the mass of hydrogen.", "This was later rejected in the 1820s and 30s following more refined measurements of atomic mass, notably by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, which revealed in particular that the atomic mass of chlorine was 35.45, which was incompatible with the hypothesis.", "Since the 1920s this discrepancy has been explained by the presence of isotopes; the atomic mass of any isotope is very close to satisfying the whole number rule, with the mass defect caused by differing binding energies being significantly smaller." ], [ "Non-stoichiometric compounds and isotopes", "Although very useful in the foundation of modern chemistry, the law of definite proportions is not universally true.", "There exist non-stoichiometric compounds whose elemental composition can vary from sample to sample.", "Such compounds follow the law of multiple proportion.", "An example is the iron oxide wüstite, which can contain between 0.83 and 0.95 iron atoms for every oxygen atom, and thus contain anywhere between 23% and 25% oxygen by mass.", "The ideal formula is FeO, but due to crystallographic vacancies it is about Fe0.95O.", "In general, Proust's measurements were not precise enough to detect such variations.In addition, the isotopic composition of an element can vary depending on its source, hence its contribution to the mass of even a pure stoichiometric compound may vary.", "This variation is used in radiometric dating since astronomical, atmospheric, oceanic, crustal and deep Earth processes may concentrate some environmental isotopes preferentially.", "With the exception of hydrogen and its isotopes, the effect is usually small, but is measurable with modern-day instrumentation.Many natural polymers vary in composition (for instance DNA, proteins, carbohydrates) even when \"pure\".", "Polymers are generally not considered \"pure chemical compounds\" except when their molecular weight is uniform (mono-disperse) and their stoichiometry is constant.", "In this unusual case, they still may violate the law due to isotopic variations." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Limbo" ], [ "Introduction", "''Christ in Limbo'' ( 1575) by an anonymous follower of Hieronymus BoschIn Catholic theology, '''Limbo''' (, or , referring to the edge of Hell) is the afterlife condition of those who die in original sin without being assigned to the Hell of the Damned.", "Medieval theologians of Western Europe described the underworld (\"hell\", \"hades\", \"infernum\") as divided into three distinct parts: Hell of the Damned, Limbo of the Fathers or Patriarchs, and Limbo of the Infants.", "The Limbo of the Fathers is an official doctrine of the Catholic Church, but the Limbo of the Infants is not.", "The concept of Limbo comes from the idea that, in the case of Limbo of the Fathers, good people were not able to achieve heaven just because they were born before the birth of Jesus Christ.", "This is also true for Limbo of the Infants in that simply because a child died before baptism, does not mean they deserve punishment, though they cannot achieve salvation." ], [ "Limbo of the Patriarchs", "''Jesus in Limbo'' by Domenico BeccafumiThe \"Limbo of the Patriarchs\" or \"Limbo of the Fathers\" (Latin ) is seen as the temporary state of those who, despite the sins they may have committed, died in the friendship of God but could not enter Heaven until redemption by Jesus Christ made it possible.", "The term ''Limbo of the Fathers'' was a medieval name for the part of the underworld (Hades) where the patriarchs of the Old Testament were believed to be kept until Christ's soul descended into it by his death through crucifixion and freed them.", "The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes Christ's descent into Hell as meaning primarily that \"the crucified one sojourned in the realm of the dead prior to his resurrection.", "This was the first meaning given in the apostolic preaching to Christ's descent into Hell: that Jesus, like all men, experienced death and in his soul joined the others in the realm of the dead.\"", "It adds: \"But he descended there as Saviour, proclaiming the Good News to the spirits imprisoned there.\"", "It does not use the word ''Limbo''.This concept of Limbo affirms that admittance to Heaven is possible only through the intervention of Jesus Christ, but does not portray Moses, etc.", "as being punished eternally in Hell.", "The concept of Limbo of the Patriarchs is not spelled out in Scripture, but is seen by some as implicit in various references:* Luke 16:22 speaks of the \"bosom of Abraham\", which both the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, following early Christian writers, understand as a temporary state of souls awaiting entrance into Heaven.", "The end of that state is set either at the Resurrection of the Dead, the most common interpretation in the East, or at the Harrowing of Hell, the most common interpretation in the West, but adopted also by some in the East.", "* Jesus told the Good Thief that the two of them would be together \"this day\" in Paradise (Luke 23:43; see also Matthew 27:38); but on the Sunday of his resurrection he said that he had \"not yet ascended to the Father\" (John 20:17).", "At least one Medieval devotional source and a course of Catholic religious instruction dating to or before the early 1900s posit the view that the descent of Jesus Christ to the abode of the dead, his presence among them, turned it into a paradise.", "Others understand the text to mean not \"I say to you, This day you will be with me in paradise\", but \"I say to you this day, You will be with me in paradise\".", "Timothy Radcliffe explained the \"today\" as a reference to the \"Today of eternity\".", "* Jesus is also described as preaching to \"the spirits in prison\" (1 Peter 3:19).", "Medieval drama sometimes portrayed Christ leading a dramatic assault – the Harrowing of Hell – during the three days between the Crucifixion and the resurrection.", "In this assault, Jesus freed the souls of the just and escorted them triumphantly into heaven.", "This imagery is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church's Holy Saturday liturgy (between Good Friday and Pascha) and in Eastern Orthodox icons of the Resurrection of Jesus.", "* The doctrine expressed by the term ''Limbo of the Fathers'' was taught, for instance, by Clement of Alexandria (), who maintained: \"It is not right that these should be condemned without trial, and that those alone who lived after the coming of Christ should have the advantage of the divine righteousness.\"" ], [ "Limbo of Infants", "Church of Chora of the resurrection of Christ, raising Adam and Eve who represent all humankind, with the righteous prophets of the Old Testament observingThe Limbo of Infants (Latin or ) is the hypothetical permanent status of the unbaptised who die in infancy, too young to have committed actual sins, but not having been freed from original sin.", "Recent Catholic theological speculation tends to stress the hope, although not the certainty, that these infants may attain heaven instead of the state of Limbo.", "Many Catholic priests and prelates say that the souls of unbaptized children must simply be \"entrusted to the mercy of God\", and whatever their status is cannot be known.While the Catholic Church has a defined doctrine on original sin, it has none on the eternal fate of unbaptised infants, leaving theologians free to propose different theories, which magisterium is free to accept or reject.", "Nonetheless, according to Catholic dogma, baptism, or at least the desire for it, along with supernatural faith or at least the \"habit of faith\", are necessary for salvation.", "Hence, it is not immediately clear how to reconcile the mercy of God for unbaptized infants with the necessity of baptism and Catholic faith for salvation.", "Several theories have been proposed.", "Limbo is one such theory, although the word ''limbo'' itself is never mentioned in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.", "Nonetheless, the theory of limbo has weighty support in the traditional teaching of the Doctors of the Church, such as Saint Thomas Aquinas, Saint Augustine, and Saint Alphonsus Liguori.===Latin Fathers===In countering Pelagius, who denied original sin, Saint Augustine of Hippo was led to state that because of original sin, \"such infants as quit the body without being baptized will be involved in the mildest condemnation of all.", "That person, therefore, greatly deceives both himself and others, who teaches that they will not be involved in condemnation; whereas the apostle says: 'Judgment from one offence to condemnation' (Romans 5:16), and again a little after: 'By the offence of one upon all persons to condemnation'.", "\"In 418, the Council of Carthage, a synod of North African bishops which included Augustine of Hippo, did not explicitly endorse all aspects of Augustine's stern view about the destiny of infants who die without baptism, but stated in some manuscripts \"that there is no intermediate or other happy dwelling place for children who have left this life without Baptism, without which they cannot enter the kingdom of heaven, that is, eternal life\".", "So great was Augustine's influence in the West, however, that the Latin Fathers of the 5th and 6th centuries (e.g., Jerome, Avitus of Vienne, and Gregory the Great) did adopt his position.===Medieval theologians===In the later Medieval period, some theologians continued to hold Augustine's view.", "In the 12th century, Peter Abelard (1079–1142) said that these infants suffered no material torment or positive punishment, just the pain of loss at being denied the beatific vision.", "Others held that unbaptised infants suffered no pain at all: unaware of being deprived of the beatific vision, they enjoyed a state of natural, not supernatural happiness.", "This theory was associated with but independent of the term \"Limbo of Infants\", which was coined about the year 1300.If Heaven is a state of supernatural happiness and union with God, and Hell is understood as a state of torture and separation from God then, in this view, the Limbo of Infants, although technically part of hell (the outermost part, ''limbo'' meaning 'outer edge' or 'hem') is seen as a sort of intermediate state.The question of Limbo is not treated in the parts of the by Thomas Aquinas, but is dealt with in an appendix to the supplement added after his death compiled from his earlier writings.", "The Limbo of Infants is there described as an eternal state of natural joy, untempered by any sense of loss at how much greater their joy might have been had they been baptised:The natural happiness possessed in this place would consist in the perception of God mediated through creatures.", "As stated in the International Theological Commission's document on the question:===Modern era===In 1442, the Ecumenical Council of Florence spoke of baptism as necessary even for children, and required that they be baptised soon after birth.", "This had earlier been affirmed at the Council of Carthage in 418.The Council of Florence also stated that those who die in original sin alone go to Hell, but with pains unequal to those suffered by those who had committed actual mortal sins.", "John Wycliffe's attack on the necessity of infant baptism was condemned by another general council, the Council of Constance.", "In 1547, the Council of Trent explicitly decreed that baptism (or desire for baptism) was the means by which one is transferred \"from that state wherein man is born a child of the first Adam, to the state of grace, and of the adoption of the sons of God, through the second Adam, Jesus Christ, our Saviour.", "Pope Pius X taught of Limbo's existence in his Catechism.However, throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, individual theologians (Bianchi in 1768, H. Klee in 1835, Caron in 1855, H. Schell in 1893) continued to formulate theories of how children who died unbaptised might still be saved.", "By 1952 a theologian such as Ludwig Ott could, in a widely used and well-regarded manual, openly teach the possibility that children who die unbaptised might be saved for heaven.", "He also told about Thomas Cajetan, a major 16th-century theologian, that suggested infants dying in the womb before birth, and so before ordinary sacramental baptism could be administered, might be saved through their mother's wish for their baptism.", "In its 1980 instruction on children's baptism the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith stated that \"with regard to children who die without having received baptism, the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God, as indeed she does in the funeral rite established for them\", leaving all theories as to their fate, including Limbo, as viable possibilities.", "In 1984, when Joseph Ratzinger, then Cardinal Prefect of that Congregation, stated that he rejected the claim that children who die unbaptised cannot attain salvation, he was speaking for many academic theologians of his training and background.The Church's teaching, expressed in the 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church, is that \"Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament\", and that \"God has bound salvation to the sacrament of Baptism, but he himself is not bound by his sacraments\".", "It recalls that, apart from the sacrament, baptism of blood (as in the case of Christian martyrs) and in the case of catechumens who die before receiving the sacrament, explicit desire for baptism, together with Catholic faith, repentance for their sins (specifically perfect contrition, in the case of catechumens) and charity, ensures salvation.", "It also states that since Christ died for all and all are called to the same divine destiny, \"every man who is ignorant of the Gospel of Christ and of his Church, but seeks the truth and does the will of God in accordance with his understanding of it, can be saved\", seeing that, if they had known of the necessity of baptism, they would have desired it explicitly.", "Additionally, at the Council of Trent and in the Vatican's response to Feeneyism in the 1940s, the Church affirmed in every case the necessity of Catholic faith (also called \"supernatural faith\"), or at least the \"habit of faith\", for salvation.It then states:Merely stating that one can \"hope\" in a way of salvation other than baptism, the Church thus urgently reiterates its appeal to baptize infants, the only certain means to \"not prevent\" their \"coming to Christ\" for salvation.On 20 April 2007, the advisory body known as the International Theological Commission released a document, originally commissioned by Pope John Paul II, entitled \"The Hope of Salvation for Infants Who Die without Being Baptized.\"", "After tracing the history of the various opinions that have been and are held on the eternal fate of unbaptized infants, including that connected with the theory of the Limbo of Infants, and after examining the theological arguments, the document stated its conclusion as follows:Pope Benedict XVI authorized publication of this document, indicating that he considers it consistent with the Church's teaching, though it is not an official expression of that teaching.", "Media reports that by the document \"the Pope closed Limbo\" are thus without foundation.", "In fact, the document explicitly states that \"the theory of ''limbo'', understood as a state which includes the souls of infants who die subject to original sin and without baptism, and who, therefore, neither merit the beatific vision, nor yet are subjected to any punishment, because they are not guilty of any personal sin.", "This theory, elaborated by theologians beginning in the Middle Ages, never entered into the dogmatic definitions of the Magisterium.", "Still, that same Magisterium did at times mention the theory in its ordinary teaching up until the Second Vatican Council.", "It remains therefore a possible theological hypothesis\" (second preliminary paragraph); and in paragraph 41 it repeats that the theory of Limbo \"remains a possible theological opinion\".", "The document thus allows the hypothesis of a limbo of infants to be held as one of the existing theories about the fate of children who die without being baptised, a question on which there is \"no explicit answer\" from Scripture or tradition.", "The traditional theological alternative to Limbo was not Heaven, but rather some degree of suffering in Hell.", "At any rate, these theories are not the official teaching of the Catholic Church, but are only opinions that the Church does not condemn, permitting them to be held by its members, just as is the theory of possible salvation for infants dying without baptism." ], [ "In other denominations and religions", "The Old Testament righteous follow Christ from Hades to Heaven (Russian icon).=== Judaism ===While Jewish sources are conflicted about what happens to individuals after they die, the concept of limbo does not arise.", "Furthermore, even the conception of Hell in Judaism is presented as a temporary stage, typically transpiring over a short period of time.", "According to Talmud, the judgment of the wicked in Gehenna lasts for twelve months.", "This teaching is attributed to Rabbi Akiva (50-135 AD).===Christianity=======Protestant and Eastern Orthodox====Neither the Eastern Orthodox Church nor Protestantism accepts the concept of a limbo of infants; but, while not using the expression \"Limbo of the Patriarchs\", the Eastern Orthodox Church lays much stress on the resurrected Christ's action of liberating Adam and Eve and other righteous figures of the Old Testament, such as Abraham and David, from Hades (see Harrowing of Hell).Some Protestants have a similar understanding of those who died as believers prior to the crucifixion of Jesus residing in a place that is not Heaven, but not Hell.", "The doctrine holds that Hades has two \"compartments\", one an unnamed place of torment, the other named \"Abraham's bosom\".", "Luke 16:19–16:26 speaks of a chasm fixed between the two which cannot be crossed.", "Those in the unnamed \"compartment\" have no hope, and will ultimately be consigned to hell.", "Those in Abraham's bosom are those of whom it is written of Jesus, \"When He ascended on high, He led captive a host of captives\" (Ephesians 4:8), quoting Psalm 68:18).", "These individuals, the captives, now reside with God in Heaven.", "Both \"Compartments\" still exist, but Abraham's bosom is now empty, while the other chamber is not, according to this doctrine.====Nontrinitarian====Latter-day Saints teach that \"there is a space between death and the resurrection of the body... a state of the soul in happiness or in misery until the time... that the dead shall come forth, and be reunited, both soul and body, and be brought to stand before God, and be judged according to their works.\"", "It is also taught that \"all who have died without a knowledge of the gospel, who would have received it if they had been permitted to tarry, shall be heirs of the celestial kingdom of God.", "\".Jehovah's Witnesses, Christadelphians, and others have taught that the dead are unconscious (or even nonexistent), awaiting their destiny on Judgment Day.===Zoroastrianism===The Zoroastrian concept of ''hamistagan'' is similar to Limbo.", "Hamistagan is a neutral state in which a soul that was neither good nor evil awaits Judgment Day.===Islam===In Islam, which denies the existence of original sin in totality, the concept of Limbo exists as , the state that exists after death, prior to the day of resurrection.", "During this period, sinners are punished and the adequately purified rest in comfort.", "Children, however, are exempt from this stage, as they are regarded as innocent and are automatically classed as Muslims (despite religious upbringing).", "After death, they go directly to Heaven, where they are cared for by Abraham.", "According to Christian Louis Lange, Islam also possesses a (cf.", "Q.7:46) \"a residual place or limbo\" situated between heaven and hell where there is \"neither punishment nor reward\".===Greek mythology===In Classical Greek mythology, the section of Hades known as the Fields of Asphodel were a realm much resembling Limbo, to which the vast majority of people who were held to have deserved neither the Elysian Fields (Heaven) nor Tartarus (Hell) were consigned for eternity.===Buddhism===In Buddhism, ''Bardo'' (Sanskrit: ) is sometimes described as similar to limbo.", "It is an intermediate state in which the recently deceased experiences various phenomena before being reborn in another state, including heaven or hell.", "According to Mahāyāna Buddhism, the arhat must ultimately embrace the path of the bodhisattva, despite having reached enlightenment.", "The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra states that an arhat obtains a () and is reborn in a lotus in a transitory state of existence, unable to awaken for a whole eon.", "This is likened to a person intoxicated who must spend a certain period of time before becoming sober." ], [ "See also", "* First circle of hell* Intermediate state* Matarta in Mandaeism* Shatrin in Mandaeism* Spirit world (Latter Day Saints)* Spirits in prison" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Vanhoutte, Kristof K.P.", "(2018) '' Limbo Reapplied.", "On Living in Perennial Crisis and the Immanent Afterlife''.", "Cham, Palgrave Macmillan.", "* * ''The Hope of Salvation for Infants Who Die Without Being Baptized'' (document of the International Theological Commission)* ''Unbaptized Infants Suffer Fire and Limbo Is a Heretical Pelagian Fable''(a Traditionalist sedevacantist perspective)" ] ]
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[ [ "Lethe" ], [ "Introduction", "In Greek mythology, '''Lethe''' (; Ancient Greek: ''Lḗthē''; , ), also referred to as '''Lesmosyne''', was one of the rivers of the underworld of Hades.", "Also known as the ''Amelēs potamos'' (river of unmindfulness), the Lethe flowed around the cave of Hypnos and through the Underworld where all those who drank from it experienced complete forgetfulness.", "Lethe was also the name of the Greek spirit of forgetfulness and oblivion, with whom the river was often identified.In Classical Greek, the word ''lethe'' (λήθη) literally means \"oblivion\", \"forgetfulness\", or \"concealment\".", "It is related to the Greek word for \"truth\", ''aletheia'' (ἀλήθεια), which through the privative alpha literally means \"un-forgetfulness\" or \"un-concealment\"." ], [ "Infernal river", "Lethe, the river of forgetfulness, is one of the five rivers of the Greek underworld; the other four are Acheron (the river of sorrow), Cocytus (the river of lamentation), Phlegethon (the river of fire) and Styx (the river that separates Earth and the Underworld).", "According to Statius, Lethe bordered Elysium, the final resting place of the virtuous.", "Ovid wrote that the river flowed through the cave of Hypnos, god of sleep, where its murmuring would induce drowsiness.The shades of the dead were required to drink the waters of the Lethe in order to forget their earthly life.", "In the ''Aeneid'' (VI.703-751), Virgil writes that it is only when the dead have had their memories erased by the Lethe that they may be reincarnated.The river Lethe was said to be located next to Hades' palace in the underworld under a cypress tree.", "Orpheus would give some shades (the Greek term for ghosts or spirits) a password to tell Hades' servants which would allow them to drink instead from the Mnemosyne (the pool of memory), which was located under a poplar tree.", "An Orphic inscription, said to be dated from between the second and third century B.C.", "warns readers to avoid the Lethe and to seek the Mnemosyne instead.", "Drinkers of the Lethe's water would not be quenched of their thirst, often causing them to drink more than necessary." ], [ "Goddess", "Lethe was also the name of the personification of forgetfulness and oblivion, with whom the river was often associated.", "Although some sources have identified Lethe as the daughter of Oceanus, the father of other river goddesses, Hesiod's ''Theogony'' identifies her as the daughter of Eris (Strife):Lethe is often compared to Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory.", "Roger Brooke describes their dynamic in his 1999 book ''Pathways into the Jungian World: Phenomenology and Analytical Psychology'' stating \"Rather than only constituting disaster and darkness, Lethe also presents their obliteration – something like the withdrawal of life...\"." ], [ "Role in religion and philosophy", "Some ancient Greeks believed that souls were made to drink from the river before being reincarnated, so that they would not remember their past lives.", "The Myth of Er in Book X of Plato's ''Republic'' tells of the dead arriving at a barren waste called the \"plain of Lethe\", through which the river ''Ameles'' (\"careless\") runs.", "\"Of this they were all obliged to drink a certain quantity,\" Plato wrote, \"and those who were not saved by wisdom drank more than was necessary; and each one as he drank forgot all things.\"", "A few mystery religions taught the existence of another river, the Mnemosyne; those who drank from the Mnemosyne would remember everything and attain omniscience.", "Initiates were taught that they would receive a choice of rivers to drink from after death, and to drink from Mnemosyne instead of Lethe.These two rivers are attested in several verse inscriptions on gold plates dating to the 4th century BC and onward, found at Thurii in Southern Italy and elsewhere throughout the Greek world.", "There were rivers of Lethe and Mnemosyne at the oracular shrine of Trophonius in Boeotia, from which worshippers would drink before making oracular consultations with the god.More recently, Martin Heidegger used \"lēthē\" to symbolize not only the \"concealment of Being\" or \"forgetting of Being\", but also the \"concealment of concealment\", which he saw as a major problem of modern philosophy.", "Examples are found in his books on Nietzsche (Vol 1, p. 194) and on Parmenides.", "Philosophers since, such as William J. Richardson have expanded on this school of thought.The goddess Lethe has been compared to the goddess Meng Po of Chinese Mythology, who would wait on the Bridge of Forgetfulness to serve dead souls soup which would erase their memories before they were reincarnated." ], [ "Real rivers", "Lima Bridge on Lima River in Ponte de Lima, PortugalAmongst authors in antiquity, the tiny Lima river between Norte Region, Portugal, and Galicia, Spain, was said to have the same properties of memory loss as the legendary Lethe River, being mistaken for it.", "In 138 BCE, the Roman general Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus sought to dispose of the myth, as it impeded his military campaigns in the area.", "He was said to have personally crossed the Lima, and then called his soldiers from the other side, one by one, by name.", "The soldiers, astonished that their general remembered their names, crossed the river as well without fear.", "This act proved that the Lima was not as dangerous as the local myths described.In Cádiz, Spain, the river Guadalete was originally named \"Lethe\" by local Greek and Phoenician colonists who, about to go to war, solved instead their differences by diplomacy and named the river Lethe to forever forget their former differences.", "When the Arabs conquered the region much later, their name for the river became Guadalete from the Arabic phrase ''وادي لكة'' (Wadi lakath) meaning \"River of Forgetfulness\".In Alaska, a river which runs through the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes is called the River Lethe.", "It is located within the Katmai National Park and Preserve in southwest Alaska." ], [ "References in literature", "John Roddam Spencer Stanhope's ''The Waters of the Lethe by the Plains of Elysium.", "''* Simonides of Ceos, an ancient Greek lyrical poet, references Lethe in the sixty-seventh fragment of one of his poems.", "* In 29 BCE, Virgil wrote about Lethe in his didactic hexameter poem, the ''Georgics''.", "Lethe is also referenced in Virgil's epic Latin poem, ''Aeneid'', when the title protagonist travels to Lethe to meet the ghost of his father in Book VI of the poem.", "* Ovid includes a description of Lethe as a stream that puts people to sleep in his work ''Metamorphoses'' (8 AD)* In the ''Purgatorio'', the second ''cantica'' of Dante Alighieri's ''Divine Comedy'', the Lethe is located in the Earthly Paradise atop the Mountain of Purgatory.", "The piece, written in the early 14th century, tells of Dante's immersion in the Lethe so that his memories are wiped of sin (''Purg''.", "XXXI).", "The Lethe is also mentioned in the ''Inferno'', the first part of the ''Comedy'', as flowing down to Hell from Purgatory to be frozen in the ice around Satan, \"the last lost vestiges of the sins of the saved\" (''Inf.''", "XXXIV.130).", "He then proceeds to sip from the waters of the river Eunoe so that the soul may enter heaven full of the strength of his or her life's good deeds.", "* William Shakespeare references Lethe's identity as the \"river of forgetfulness\" in a speech of the Ghost in Act 1 Scene 5 of ''Hamlet'': \"and duller should thoust be than the fat weed / That roots itself in ease on Lethe wharf,\" written sometime between 1599 and 1601.", "* In John Milton's ''Paradise Lost'', written in 1667, his first speech in Satan describes how \"The associates and copartners of our loss, Lie thus astonished on ''the oblivious pool''\", referencing Lethe.", "*The English poet John Keats references the river in poems \"Ode to a Nightingale\" and \"Ode on Melancholy\" written in 1819.", "* The French poet Charles Baudelaire referred to the river in his poem \"Spleen\", published posthumously in 1869.The final line is \"Où coule au lieu de sang l'eau verte du Léthé\" which one translator renders as \"... in whose veins flows the green water of Lethe ...\" (the reference offers a few more English translations).", "Baudelaire also wrote a poem called \"Lethe\".", "* Allen Ginsberg refers to the river in the final line of his poem \"A Supermarket in California\".", "* Throughout Stephen Baxter's Xeelee Sequence, 'Lethe' is used as an exclamation from the early 21st century onwards.", "* Thomas Mann in his short story \"A Man And His Dog\" has the pointer Bashan's owner express the sentiment: \"It is good to walk like this in the early morning, with senses rejuvenated and spirit cleansed by the night's long healing draught of Lethe\".", "* ''Lethe'' is a memory-erasing tool in Sugaru Miaki's (三秋縋) science-fiction novel ''Your Story (君の話)''." ], [ "References in visual art", "''Le Lethe'' by Cyrus Dallin* In 1880 John Roddam Spencer Stanhope painted ''The Waters of the Lethe by the Plains of Elysium'', depicting pilgrims traveling to the Lethe River.", "* Romaine Brooks' 1930 sketch entitled '' Lethe'' depicts genderless figures surrounding a woman dipping her foot into the river of forgetfulness.", "* Cyrus Dallin's plaster sculpture ''Le Lethe,'' 1903, depicts the goddess Lethe asleep upon a bed of poppies and a truncated tree." ], [ "See also", "* The Golden Bough (mythology)* Meng Po" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Caldwell, Richard, ''Hesiod's Theogony'', Focus Publishing/R.", "Pullins Company (June 1, 1987).", ".", "* Gaius Julius Hyginus, ''Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus'' translated and edited by Mary Grant.", "University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies.", "Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "* Hesiod, ''Theogony'' from ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica'' with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Greek text available from the same website.", "* Publius Papinius Statius'', The Achilleid'' translated by Mozley, J H. Loeb Classical Library Volumes.", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928.Online version at the theoi.com* Publius Papinius Statius, ''The Achilleid.", "Vol.", "II''.", "John Henry Mozley.", "London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P.", "Putnam's Sons.", "1928.Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Strabo, ''The Geography of Strabo.''", "Edition by H.L.", "Jones.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Strabo, ''Geographica'' edited by A. Meineke.", "Leipzig: Teubner.", "1877.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library." ] ]
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