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[ [ "Laurence Sterne" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Laurence Sterne''' (24 November 1713 – 18 March 1768) was an Irish novelist and Anglican cleric who wrote the novels ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman'' and ''A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy'', published sermons and memoirs, and indulged in local politics.", "He grew up in a military family, travelling mainly in Ireland but briefly in England.", "An uncle paid for Sterne to attend Hipperholme Grammar School in the West Riding of Yorkshire, as Sterne's father was ordered to Jamaica, where he died of malaria some years later.", "He attended Jesus College, Cambridge on a sizarship, gaining bachelor's and master's degrees.", "While Vicar of Sutton-on-the-Forest, Yorkshire, he married Elizabeth Lumley in 1741.His ecclesiastical satire ''A Political Romance'' infuriated the church and was burnt.", "With his new talent for writing, he published early volumes of his best-known novel, ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman''.", "Sterne travelled to France to find relief from persistent tuberculosis, documenting his travels in ''A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy'', published weeks before his death.", "His posthumous ''Journal to Eliza'' addresses Eliza Draper, for whom he had romantic feelings.", "Sterne died in 1768 and was buried in the yard of St George's, Hanover Square.", "His body was said to have been stolen after burial and sold to anatomists at Cambridge University, but was recognised and reinterred.", "His ostensible skull was found in the churchyard and transferred to Coxwold in 1969 by the Laurence Sterne Trust." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life and education===Plaque in memory of Sterne in the town walls of ClonmelLaurence Sterne by Joseph Nollekens, 1766, National Portrait Gallery, LondonSterne was born in Clonmel, County Tipperary, on 24 November 1713.His father, Roger Sterne, was an ensign in a British regiment recently returned from Dunkirk.", "His great-grandfather Richard Sterne had been the Master of Jesus College, Cambridge, as well as the Archbishop of York.", "Roger Sterne was the youngest son of Richard Sterne's youngest son, and consequently, Roger Sterne inherited little of Richard Sterne's wealth.", "Roger Sterne left his family and enlisted in the army at the age of 25; he enlisted uncommissioned, which was unusual for someone from a family of high social position.", "Despite being promoted to an officer, he was of the lowest commission and lacked financial resources.", "Roger Sterne married Agnes Hobert, the widow of a military captain.", "Agnes was \"born in Flanders but...was in fact Anglo-Irish and lived for much of her life in Ireland\".The first decade of Laurence Sterne's life was spent from place to place, as his father was regularly reassigned to a new (usually Irish) garrison.", "\"Other than a three-year stint in a Dublin townhouse, the Sternes never lived anywhere for more than a year between Laurence's birth and his departure for boarding school in England a few months shy of his eleventh birthday.", "Besides Clonmel and Dublin, the Sternes also lived in Wicklow Town; Annamoe, County Wicklow; Drogheda, County Louth; Castlepollard, County Westmeath; Carrickfergus, County Antrim; and Derry City.\"", "In 1724, \"shortly before the family's arrival in Derry\", Roger took Sterne to his wealthy brother, Richard, so that Laurence could attend Hipperholme Grammar School near Halifax.", "Laurence never saw his father again as Roger was ordered to Jamaica where he died of malaria in 1731.Laurence was admitted to a sizarship at Jesus College, in July 1733 at the age of 20.He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in January 1737 and returned in the summer of 1740 to be awarded his Master of Arts.===Early career===Sterne was ordained as a deacon on 6 March 1737 and as a priest on 20 August 1738.His religion is said to have been the \"centrist Anglicanism of his time\", known as \"latitudinarianism\".", "A few days after his ordination as a priest, Sterne was awarded the vicarage living of Sutton-on-the-Forest in Yorkshire.", "Sterne married Elizabeth Lumley on 30 March 1741, despite both being ill with consumption.", "In 1743, he was presented to the neighbouring living of Stillington by Reverend Richard Levett, Prebendary of Stillington, who was patron of the living.", "Subsequently, Sterne did duty both there and at Sutton.", "He was also a prebendary of York Minster.", "Sterne's life at this time was closely tied with his uncle, Jaques Sterne, the Archdeacon of Cleveland and Precentor of York Minster.", "Sterne's uncle was an ardent Whig, and urged Sterne to begin a career of political journalism, which resulted in some scandal for Sterne and a terminal falling-out between the two men.", "This falling out occurred after Laurence ended his political career in 1742.He had previously written anonymous propaganda for the ''York Gazetteer'' from 1741 to 1742.Sterne lived in Sutton for 20 years, during which time he kept up an intimacy that had begun at Cambridge with John Hall-Stevenson, a witty and accomplished ''bon vivant'', owner of Skelton Hall in the Cleveland district of Yorkshire.===Writing===Shandy Hall, Sterne's home in Coxwold, North YorkshireSterne wrote a religious satire work called ''A Political Romance'' in 1759.Many copies of his work were destroyed.", "According to a 1760 anonymous letter, Sterne \"hardly knew that he could write at all, much less with humour so as to make his reader laugh\".", "At the age of 46, Sterne dedicated himself to writing for the rest of his life.", "It was while living in the countryside, failing in his attempts to supplement his income as a farmer and struggling with tuberculosis, that Sterne began work on his best-known novel, ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman'', the first volumes of which were published in 1759.Sterne was at work on his celebrated comic novel during the year that his mother died, his wife was seriously ill, and his daughter was also taken ill with a fever.", "He wrote as fast as he possibly could, composing the first 18 chapters between January and March of 1759.Due to his poor financial position, Sterne was forced to borrow money for the printing of his novel, suggesting that Sterne was confident in the prospective commercial success of his work and that the local critical reception of the novel was favourable enough to justify the loan.The publication of ''Tristram Shandy'' made Sterne famous in London and on the continent.", "He was delighted by the attention, famously saying, \"I wrote not to be ''fed'' but to be ''famous''.\"", "He spent part of each year in London, being fêted as new volumes appeared.", "Even after the publication of volumes three and four of ''Tristram Shandy'', his love of attention (especially as related to financial success) remained undiminished.", "In one letter, he wrote, \"One half of the town abuse my book as bitterly, as the other half cry it up to the skies — the best is, they abuse it and buy it, and at such a rate, that we are going on with a second edition, as fast as possible.\"", "Baron Fauconberg rewarded Sterne by appointing him as the perpetual curate of Coxwold, North Yorkshire in March 1760.In 1766, at the height of the debate about slavery, the composer and former slave Ignatius Sancho wrote to Sterne, encouraging him to use his pen to lobby for the abolition of the slave trade.", "In July 1766, Sterne received Sancho's letter shortly after he had finished writing a conversation between his fictional characters Corporal Trim and his brother Tom in ''Tristram Shandy'', wherein Tom described the oppression of a black servant in a sausage shop in Lisbon that he had visited.", "Sterne's widely publicised response to Sancho's letter became an integral part of 18th-century abolitionist literature.===Foreign travel===watercolour by French artist Louis Carrogis Carmontelle, Sterne continued to struggle with his illness and departed England for France in 1762 in an effort to find a climate that would alleviate his suffering.", "Sterne attached himself to a diplomatic party bound for Turin, as England and France were still adversaries in the Seven Years' War.", "Sterne was gratified by his reception in France, where reports of the genius of ''Tristram Shandy'' made him a celebrity.", "Aspects of this trip to France were incorporated into Sterne's second novel, ''A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy''.===Eliza===Early in 1767, Sterne met Eliza Draper, the wife of an official of the East India Company, while she was staying on her own in London.", "He was quickly captivated by Eliza's charm, vivacity, and intelligence, and she did little to discourage his attentions.", "They met frequently and exchanged miniature portraits.", "Sterne's admiration turned into an obsession, which he took no trouble to conceal.", "To his great distress, Eliza had to return to India three months after their first meeting, and he died from consumption a year later without seeing her again.In 1768, Sterne published his ''Sentimental Journey'', which contains some extravagant references to her, and the relationship, though platonic, aroused considerable interest.", "He also wrote his ''Journal to Eliza'', part of which he sent to her, and the rest of which came to light when it was presented to the British Museum in 1894.After Sterne's death, Eliza allowed ten of his letters to be published under the title ''Letters from Yorick to Eliza'' and succeeded in suppressing her letters to him, though some blatant forgeries were produced in a volume of ''Eliza's Letters to Yorick''.===Death===Less than a month after ''Sentimental Journey'' was published, Sterne died in his lodgings at 41 Old Bond Street on 18 March 1768, at the age of 54.He was buried in the churchyard of St George's, Hanover Square on 22 March.", "It was rumoured that Sterne's body was stolen shortly after it was interred and sold to anatomists at Cambridge University.", "Circumstantially, it was said that his body was recognised by Charles Collignon, who knew him and discreetly reinterred him back in St George's, in an unknown plot.", "A year later a group of Freemasons erected a memorial stone with a rhyming epitaph near to his original burial place.", "A second stone was erected in 1893, correcting some factual errors on the memorial stone.", "When the churchyard of St. George's was redeveloped in 1969, amongst 11,500 skulls disinterred, several were identified with drastic cuts from anatomising or a post-mortem examination.", "One was identified to be of a size that matched a bust of Sterne made by Nollekens.The skull was held up to be his, albeit with \"a certain area of doubt\".", "Along with nearby skeletal bones, these remains were transferred to Coxwold churchyard in 1969 by the Laurence Sterne Trust.", "The story of the reinterment of Sterne's skull in Coxwold is alluded to in Malcolm Bradbury's novel ''To the Hermitage''." ], [ "Works", "First editions of ''Tristram Shandy'', part of the collection of the Laurence Sterne Trust at Shandy HallThe works of Laurence Sterne are few in comparison to other eighteenth-century authors of comparable stature.", "Sterne's early works were letters; he had two sermons published (in 1747 and 1750) and tried his hand at satire.", "He was involved in and wrote about local politics in 1742.His major publication prior to ''Tristram Shandy'' was the satire ''A Political Romance'' (1759), aimed at conflicts of interest within York Minster.", "A posthumously published piece on the art of preaching, ''A Fragment in the Manner of Rabelais'', appears to have been written in 1759.Rabelais was by far Sterne's favourite author, and in his correspondence, he made clear that he considered himself as Rabelais' successor in humour writing, distancing himself from Jonathan Swift.Sterne's novel ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman'' sold widely in England and throughout Europe.", "Translations of the work began to appear in all the major European languages almost immediately upon its publication, and Sterne influenced European writers as diverse as Denis Diderot and the German Romanticists.", "His work also had noticeable influence over Brazilian author Machado de Assis, who made use of the digressive technique in the novel ''The Posthumous Memoirs of Bras Cubas''.English writer and literary critic Samuel Johnson's verdict in 1776 was that \"Nothing odd will do long.", "''Tristram Shandy'' did not last.\"", "This is strikingly different from the views of European critics of the day, who praised Sterne and ''Tristram Shandy'' as innovative and superior.", "Voltaire called it \"clearly superior to Rabelais\", and later Goethe praised Sterne as \"the most beautiful spirit that ever lived\".", "Swedish translator Johan Rundahl described Sterne as an arch-sentimentalist.", "The title page to volume one includes a short Greek epigraph, which in English reads: \"Not things, but opinions about things, trouble men.\"", "Before the novel properly begins, Sterne also offers a dedication to Lord William Pitt.", "He urges Pitt to retreat with the book from the cares of statecraft.The novel itself starts with the narration, by Tristram, of his own conception.", "It proceeds mostly by what Sterne calls \"progressive digressions\" so that we do not reach Tristram's birth before the third volume.", "The novel is rich in characters and humour, and the influences of Rabelais and Miguel de Cervantes are present throughout.", "The novel ends after 9 volumes, published over a decade, but without anything that might be considered a traditional conclusion.", "Sterne inserts sermons, essays and legal documents into the pages of his novel; and he explores the limits of typography and print design by including marbled pages and an entirely black page within the narrative.", "Many of the innovations that Sterne introduced, adaptations in form that were an exploration of what constitutes the novel, were highly influential to Modernist writers like James Joyce and Virginia Woolf, and more contemporary writers such as Thomas Pynchon and David Foster Wallace.", "Italo Calvino referred to ''Tristram Shandy'' as the \"undoubted progenitor of all avant-garde novels of our century\".", "The Russian Formalist writer Viktor Shklovsky regarded ''Tristram Shandy'' as the archetypal, quintessential novel, \"the most typical novel of world literature.", "\"However, the leading critical opinions of ''Tristram Shandy'' tend to be markedly polarised in their evaluations of its significance.", "Since the 1950s, following the lead of D. W. Jefferson, there are those who argue that, whatever its legacy of influence may be, ''Tristram Shandy'' in its original context actually represents a resurgence of a much older, Renaissance tradition of \"Learned Wit\" – owing a debt to such influences as the Scriblerian approach.", "''A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy'' has many stylistic parallels with ''Tristram Shandy'', and the narrator is one of the minor characters from the earlier novel.", "Although the story is more straightforward, ''A Sentimental Journey'' is interpreted by critics as part of the same artistic project to which ''Tristram Shandy'' belongs.", "Two volumes of Sterne's ''Sermons'' were published during his lifetime; more copies of his ''Sermons'' were sold in his lifetime than copies of ''Tristram Shandy''.", "The sermons, however, are conventional in substance.", "Several volumes of letters were published after his death, as was ''Journal to Eliza''.", "These collections of letters, more sentimental than humorous, tell of Sterne's relationship with Eliza Draper." ], [ "Publications", "1743 – ''The Unknown World: Verses Occasioned by Hearing a Pass-Bell'' (disputed, possibly written by Hubert Stogdon)1747 – ''The Case of Elijah and the Widow of Zerephath''1750 – ''The Abuses of Conscience''1759 – ''A Political Romance''1759 – ''Tristram Shandy'' vols.", "1 and 21760 – ''The Sermons of Mr. Yorick'' vol.", "1 and 21761 – ''Tristram Shandy'' vols.", "3–61765 – ''Tristram Shandy'' vols.", "7 and 81766 – ''The Sermons of Mr. Yorick'' vols.", "3 and 41767 – ''Tristram Shandy'' vol.", "91768 – ''A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy''1769 – ''Sermons by the Late Rev.", "Mr. Sterne'' vols.", "5–7 (a continuation of ''The Sermons of Mr. Yorick'')" ], [ "See also", "List of abolitionist forerunnersList of Irish writers" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "***********************" ], [ "Further reading", "René Bosch, ''Labyrinth of Digressions: Tristram Shandy as Perceived and Influenced by Sterne's Early Imitators'' (Amsterdam, 2007)W. M. Thackeray, in ''English Humourists of the Eighteenth Century'' (London, 1853; new edition, New York, 1911)Percy Fitzgerald, ''Life of Laurence Sterne'' (London, 1864; second edition, London, 1896)Paul Stapfer, ''Laurence Sterne, sa personne et ses ouvrages'' (second edition, Paris, 1882)H. D. Traill, ''Laurence Sterne'', \"English Men of Letters\", (London, 1882)*Texte, ''Rousseau et le cosmopolitisme littôraire au XVIIIème siècle'' (Paris, 1895)H. W. Thayer, ''Laurence Sterne in Germany'' (New York, 1905)P. E. More, ''Shelburne Essays'' (third series, New York, 1905)L. S. Benjamin, ''Life and Letters'' (two volumes, 1912)* Rousseau, George S. (2004).", "''Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature, Culture and Sensibility.''", "Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan." ], [ "External links", "***** Tristram Shandy ( beta) ''In Our Time'' – BBC Radio 4 * Laurence Sterne at the Google Books Search** \"Tristram Shandy\".", "Annotated, with bibliography, criticism.", "* Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: The Scrapbook Mind of Laurence Sterne* ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy'' & ''A Sentimental Journey''.", "Munich: Edited by Günter Jürgensmeier, 2005* The Shandean: A Journal Devoted to the Works of Laurence Sterne (tables of contents available online)* Laurence Sterne at the National Portrait Gallery, London* The Laurence Sterne Trust** Anonymous parodies of the kinds of letters written by Elizabeth Draper to Laurence Sterne (as Yorick), MSS SC 4, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Linear A" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Linear A''' is a writing system that was used by the Minoans of Crete from 1800 to 1450 BC.", "Linear A was the primary script used in palace and religious writings of the Minoan civilization.", "It was succeeded by Linear B, which was used by the Mycenaeans to write an early form of Greek.", "It was discovered by the archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in 1900.No texts in Linear A have yet been deciphered.", "Evans named the script \"Linear\" because its characters consisted simply of lines inscribed in clay, in contrast to the more pictographic characters in Cretan hieroglyphs that were used during the same period.Linear A belongs to a group of scripts that evolved independently of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian systems.", "During the second millennium BC, there were four major branches: Linear A, Linear B, Cypro-Minoan, and Cretan hieroglyphic.", "In the 1950s, Linear B was deciphered and found to have an underlying language of Mycenaean Greek.", "Linear A shares many symbols with Linear B, and they may notate similar syllabic values, but neither those nor any other proposed readings lead to a language that scholars can read." ], [ "Script", "Most hypotheses about the Linear A script and Minoan language start with Linear B.Linear A has over 100 signs, believed to represent syllabic, ideographic, and semantic values in a manner similar to Linear B.", "While many of those assumed to be syllabic signs are similar to ones in Linear B, approximately 80% of Linear A's logograms are unique; the difference in sound values between Linear A and Linear B signs ranges from 9% to 13%.", "It primarily appears in the left-to-right direction, but occasionally appears as a right-to-left or boustrophedon script.Linear A signs may be divided into four categories:# numerals and metrical signs;# phonetic signs;# ligatures and composite signs;# ideograms.=== Signary ===+ Linear A: signary and numbering according to E. Bennett.", "01-20 21-30 31-53 54-74 76-122 123-306 File:Linear A Sign A001.svg''01'' File:Linear A Sign A021.svg''21'' File:Linear A Sign A031.svg''31'' File:Linear A Sign A054.svg''54'' File:Linear A Sign A076.svg''76'' File:Linear A Sign A123.svg''123'' File:Linear A Sign A002.svg''02'' File:Linear A Sign A021f.svg''21'' File:Linear A Sign A034.svg''34'' File:Linear A Sign A055.svg''55'' File:Linear A Sign A077.svg''77'' File:Linear A Sign A131a.svg''131a'' File:Linear A Sign A003.svg''03'' File:Linear A Sign A021m.svg''21'' File:Linear A Sign A037.svg''37'' File:Linear A Sign A056.svg''56'' File:Linear A Sign A078.svg''78'' File:Linear A Sign A131b.svg''131b'' File:Linear A Sign A004.svg''04'' File:Linear A Sign A022.svg''22'' File:Linear A Sign A038.svg''38'' File:Linear A Sign A057.svg''57'' File:Linear A Sign A079.svg''79'' File:Linear A Sign A131c.svg''131c'' File:Linear A Sign A005.svg''05'' File:Linear A Sign A022f.svg''22'' File:Linear A Sign A039.svg''39'' File:Linear A Sign A058.svg''58'' File:Linear A Sign A080.svg''80'' File:Linear A Sign A164.svg''164'' File:Linear A Sign A006.svg''06'' File:Linear A Sign A022m.svg''22'' File:Linear A Sign A040.svg''40'' File:Linear A Sign A059.svg''59'' File:Linear A Sign A081.svg''81'' File:Linear A Sign A171.svg''171'' File:Linear A Sign A007.svg''07'' File:Linear A Sign A023.svg''23'' File:Linear A Sign A041.svg''41'' File:Linear A Sign A060.svg''60'' File:Linear A Sign A082.svg''82'' File:Linear A Sign A180.svg''180'' File:Linear A Sign A008.svg''08'' File:Linear A Sign A023m.svg''23'' File:Linear A Sign A044.svg''44'' File:Linear A Sign A061.svg''61'' File:Linear A Sign A085.svg''85'' File:Linear A Sign A188.svg''188'' File:Linear A Sign A009.svg''09'' File:Linear A Sign A024.svg''24'' File:Linear A Sign A045.svg''45'' File:Linear A Sign A065.svg''65'' File:Linear A Sign A086.svg''86'' File:Linear A Sign A191.svg''191'' File:Linear A Sign A010.svg''10'' File:Linear A Sign A026.svg''26'' File:Linear A Sign A046.svg''46'' File:Linear A Sign A066.svg''66'' File:Linear A Sign A087.svg''87'' File:Linear A Sign A301.svg''301'' File:Linear A Sign A011.svg''11'' File:Linear A Sign A027.svg''27'' File:Linear A Sign A047.svg''47'' File:Linear A Sign A067.svg''67'' File:Linear A Sign A100.svg''100/102'' File:Linear A Sign A302.svg''302'' File:Linear A Sign A013.svg''13'' File:Linear A Sign A028.svg''28'' File:Linear A Sign A049.svg''49'' File:Linear A Sign A069.svg''69'' File:Linear A Sign A118.svg''118'' File:Linear A Sign A303.svg''303'' File:Linear A Sign A016.svg''16'' File:Linear A Sign A028b.svg''28b'' File:Linear A Sign A050.svg''50'' File:Linear A Sign A070.svg''70'' File:Linear A Sign A120.svg''120'' File:Linear A Sign A304.svg''304'' File:Linear A Sign A017.svg''17'' File:Linear A Sign A029.svg''29'' File:Linear A Sign A051.svg''51'' File:Linear A Sign A073.svg''73'' File:Linear A Sign A120b.svg''120b'' File:Linear A Sign A305.svg''305'' File:Linear A Sign A020.svg''20'' File:Linear A Sign A030.svg''30'' File:Linear A Sign A053.svg''53'' File:Linear A Sign A074.svg''74'' File:Linear A Sign A122.svg''122'' File:Linear A Sign A306.svg''306''===Numbers===Numbers follow a decimal system: units are represented by vertical dashes, tens by horizontal dashes, hundreds by circles, and thousands by circles with rays.", "There are special symbols to indicate fractions and weights.", "Specific signs that coincide with numerals are regarded as fractions; these sign combinations are known as ''klasmatograms''.Integers can be read and the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are quite straightforward, similarly to Roman numerals.+ Aegean numerals123456789𐄇𐄈𐄉𐄊𐄋𐄌𐄍𐄎𐄏123456789102030405060708090𐄐𐄑𐄒𐄓𐄔𐄕𐄖𐄗𐄘102030405060708090100200300400500600700800900𐄙𐄚𐄛𐄜𐄝𐄞𐄟𐄠𐄡100200300400500600700800900====Fractions====There is a lack of scholarly agreement on fractions.", "proposed the following values, most of which had been previously proposed:+Proposed values of fraction glyphs Abbreviation Glyph Value J 𐝆 E 𐝃 B 𐝁 D 𐝂 F 𐝄 K 𐝇 H 𐝅 ?", "L2 𐝉 A 𐝀 ?", "L3 𐝊 L4 𐝋 L6 𐝌 W 𐝍 = BB?", "() X 𐝎 = AA?", "() Y 𐝏 ?", "Ω 𐝐 ?Other fractions are composed by addition: the common 𐝕 JE and 𐝓 DD are and (), 𐝒 BB = , EF = , etc.", "(and indeed B looks like it might derive from KK ).", "propose that the hapax legomenon, glyph L 𐝈, is spurious.Several of these values are supported by Linear B.", "Although Linear B used a different numbering system, several of the Linear A fractions were adopted as fractional units of measurement.", "For example, Linear B 𐝓 DD and 𐝎 (presumably AA) are and of a ''lana'', while 𐝇 K is of the main unit for dry weight." ], [ "Corpus", "Akrotiri, SantoriniLinear A tablet, Chania Archaeological MuseumLinear A has been found chiefly on Crete, but also at other sites in Greece, as well as Turkey and Israel.", "The extant corpus, comprising some 1,427 specimens totals 7,362 to 7,396 signs.", "Linear A has been written on various media, such as stone offering tables and vessels, gold and silver hairpins, roundels, and ceramics.", "A number of the inscriptions, primarily on tables and vessels, contain a \"libation formula\" which has been much studied.", "A similar construct in Cretan Hieroglyphs, the \"Archanes Formula\", is the main proposed link to Linear A.", "The earliest inscriptions of Linear A come from Phaistos, in a layer dated at the end of the Middle Minoan II period: that is, no later than c. 1700 BC.", "Linear A texts have been found throughout the island of Crete and also on some Aegean islands (Kythera, Kea, Thera, Melos), in mainland Greece (Ayos Stephanos), on the west coast of Asia Minor (Miletus, Troy), and in the Levant (Tel Haror, Tel Lachish).", "A few seal stones bearing Linear A have been found.The first comprehensive compendium of Linear A inscriptions was produced by Louis Godart and Jean-Pierre Olivier in multiple columns between 1976 and 1985.===Crete===The main discoveries of Linear A tablets, many fragmentary, have been at Hagia Triada, Zakros, and Khania on Crete:Inscriptions have been discovered at the following locations on Crete:===Outside Crete===Linear A tablet from the palace of Zakros, Archeological Museum of SitiaUntil 1973, only one Linear A tablet had been found outside Crete, on Kea in the Cyclades.", "Since then, other locations have yielded inscriptions.Most—if not all—inscriptions found outside Crete appear to have been made locally, as indicated by the composition of the substrate and other indications.", "Also, close analysis of the inscriptions found outside Crete indicates the use of a script that is somewhere between Linear A and Linear B, combining elements from both.====Other Greek islands====KeaKytheraMelosSamothraceThera (5 vases, 2 ostraka, and 3 clay tablet fragments)====Mainland Greece====MycenaeTirynsHagios Stephanos, Laconia====Anatolian Mainland====Miletus (1 vessel fragment)Troy (2 clay spindles)A Linear A inscription was said to have been found in southeast Bulgaria.", "Another, somewhat more solid, find was at Tel Lachish.", "A Minoan graffito found at Tel Haror on a vessel fragment is either Linear A or Cretan hieroglyphs.Several tablets inscribed in signs similar to Linear A were found in the Troad in northwestern Anatolia.", "While their status is disputed, they may be imports, as there is no evidence of Minoan presence in the Troad.", "Classification of these signs as a unique Trojan script (proposed by contemporary Russian linguist Nikolai Kazansky) is not accepted by other linguists." ], [ "Chronology", "The earliest attestation of Linear A begins around 1800 BC (Middle Minoan IB) during the Protopalatial period.", "It became prominent around 1625 BC (Middle Minoan IIIB) and went out of use around 1450 BC (Late Minoan I) during the Neopalatial period.", "It was contemporary with and possibly derived from Cretan hieroglyphs, and may be an ancestor of Linear B.", "The Cypro-Minoan syllabary, used between Cyprus and its trading partners around the Mediterranean, was also in use during this period.", "The sequence and the geographical spread of Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A, and Linear B, the three overlapping but distinct writing systems on Bronze Age Crete and the Greek mainland, can be summarized as follows: Writing system Geographical area Time spanCretan HieroglyphicCrete, SamothraceLinear ACrete, Aegean islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), and Greek mainland (Laconia)Linear BCrete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns)" ], [ "Comparison of Linear A and Linear B", "Minoan inscriptions, Linear A scriptIn 1945, E. Pugliese Carratelli first introduced the classification of Linear A and Linear B parallels.", "However, in 1961, W. C. Brice modified the Pugliese Carratelli system that was based on a wider range of Linear A sources, but Brice did not suggest Linear B equivalents to the Linear A signs.", "Louis Godart and Jean-Pierre Olivier in the 1985 ''Recueil des inscriptions en linéaire A (GORILA)'', based on E.L Bennett's standard numeration of the signs of Linear B, introduced a joint numeration of the Linear A and B signs.=== Phonetic ===The majority of signs in the Linear A script appear to have graphical equivalents in the Linear B syllabary.", "Comparison of the Hagia Triada tablets HT 95 and HT 86 shows that they contain identical lists of words and some kind of phonetic alteration.", "Scholars who approached Linear A with the phonetic values of Linear B produced a series of identical words.", "The Linear B–Linear A parallels: ku-ku-da-ra, pa-i-to, ku-mi-na, di-de-ro →di-de-ru, qa-qa-ro→qa-qa-ru, a-ra-na-ro→a-ra-na-re.", "Though identical, some of these words, such as ka-pa, are used in much different ways." ], [ "Proposed languages encoded", "Linear A incised on a jug, also found in AkrotiriIt is unknown what the underlying language of Linear A is.", "An early assumption was that it represented a hypothesized indigenous Minoan language.", "Since then a wide array of languages have been proposed.", "A common approach involves assuming that Linear A uses the same language as Linear B (Mycenean Greek).", "It has also been suggested that Linear A encodes two languages.===Greek===In 1957, Bulgarian scholar Vladimir I. Georgiev proposed that Linear A contains Greek linguistic elements.", "Georgiev then published another work in 1963 suggesting that the language of the Hagia Triada tablets was Greek but that the rest of the Linear A corpus was in Hittite-Luwian.", "In December 1963, Gregory Nagy of Harvard University developed a list of Linear A and Linear B terms based on the assumption \"that signs of identical or similar shape in the two scripts will represent similar or identical phonetic values\", concluding that the language of Linear A bears \"Greek-like\" and Indo-European elements.Other researchers have raised doubts about a variant of Greek underlying Linear A. Yves Duhoux, for example, stated:===Anatolian languages===Since the late 1950s, some scholars have suggested that the Linear A language could be an Anatolian language.====Luwian/Hittite/Hattic====Luwian Hieroglyphs In 1958 Leonard Palmer put forward a theory, as yet unsupported, based on Linear B phonetic values, suggesting that Linear A language could be related closely to Luwian.", "There are recent works focused on the Luwian connection, not in terms of the Minoan language being Anatolian, but rather in terms of possible borrowings from Luwian, including the origin of the writing system itself.", "Richard Janke has suggested that \"Hittite and Luwian cognates often reappear in Linear A\".", "Alexander Akulov and Peter Schrijver proposed that the language of Linear A is a quite close relative of the Hattic language.====Lycian====In 2001, Margalit Finkelberg, Professor of Classics emerita at Tel Aviv University, suggested a \"high degree of correspondence between the phonological and morphological system of Minoan and that of Lycian\" and proposed that \"the language of Linear A is either the direct ancestor of Lycian or a closely related idiom, though the earliest known record of the Lycian language dates to much later, circa 500 BC.", "\"=== Semitic languages ===Cyrus H. Gordon, having earlier pointed out that some Linear A words had Semitic roots, first proposed in 1966–1969 that the texts contained Semitic vocabulary that was based on the lexical items such as ''kull-'', meaning 'all'.", "Gordon uses morphological evidence to suggest that ''u-'' serves as a prefix in Linear A like the Semitic copula ''u-''.", "However, Gordon's copula ''u-'' is based on an incomplete word, and even if some of Gordon's identifications were correct, a complete case for a Semitic language has not yet been built.====Phoenician====In 2001, the journal ''Ugarit-Forschungen'' published the article \"The First Inscription in Punic—Vowel Differences in Linear A and B\" by Jan Best, claiming to demonstrate how and why Linear A notates an archaic form of Phoenician.", "This was a continuation of attempts by Cyrus Gordon in finding connections between Minoan and West Semitic languages.===Indo-Iranian===Another recent interpretation, based on the frequencies of the syllabic signs and on complete palaeographic comparative studies, suggests that the Minoan Linear A language belongs to the Indo-Iranian family of Indo-European languages.", "Studies by Hubert La Marle include a presentation of the morphology of the language, avoid the complete identification of phonetic values between Linear A and B, and also avoid comparing Linear A with Cretan hieroglyphs.", "La Marle uses the frequency counts to identify the type of syllables written in Linear A, and takes into account the problem of loanwords in the vocabulary.However, La Marle's interpretation of Linear A has been subject to some criticism; it was rejected by John Younger of the University of Kansas who showed that La Marle had invented at will erroneous and arbitrary new transcriptions, based on resemblances with many different script systems (as Phoenician, Hieroglyphic Egyptian, Hieroglyphic Hittite, Ethiopian, Cypro-Minoan, etc.", "), ignoring established evidence and internal analysis, while for some words La Marle proposes religious meanings inventing names of gods and rites.", "La Marle made a rebuttal in \"An answer to John G. Younger's remarks on Linear A\" in 2010.===Tyrrhenian===Italian scholar Giulio M. Facchetti attempted to link Linear A to the Tyrrhenian language family comprising Etruscan, Rhaetic, and Lemnian.", "This family is reasoned to be a pre-Indo-European Mediterranean substratum of the 2nd millennium BC, sometimes referred to as Pre-Greek.", "Facchetti proposed some possible similarities between the Etruscan language and ancient Lemnian, and other Aegean languages like Minoan.Michael Ventris, who (with John Chadwick) successfully deciphered Linear B, also believed in a link between Minoan and Etruscan.", "The same perspective is supported by S. Yatsemirsky in Russia and Raymond A. Brown.===Other languages===Monti put forward a Hurrian-Urartian hypothesis based on morphematic elements.", "More recently he has changed to the view that \"a direct kinship between this language and Hurro-Urartian (or any other ergative language) must be ruled out\".", "An Indo-European hypothesis was proposed by Krzysztof Tomasz Witczak and Daria Zawiasa based on an analysis of the combinatory data, mostly in libation formulas.===Attempts at decipherment of single words===Some researchers suggest that a few words or word elements may be recognized, without (yet) enabling any conclusion about relationship with other languages.", "In general, they use analogy with Linear B in order to propose phonetic values of the syllabic sounds.", "John Younger, in particular, thinks that place names usually appear in certain positions in the texts, and notes that the proposed phonetic values sometimes correspond to known place names as given in Linear B texts (and to modern Greek names).", "Likewise, in Linear A, ''MA+RU'' is suggested to mean ''wool'', and to correspond both to a Linear B pictogram with this meaning, and to the classical Greek word μαλλός with the same meaning (in that case a loan word from Minoan)." ], [ "Unicode", "The Linear A alphabet (U+10600–U+1077F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June 2014 with the release of version 7.0.Current as of the latest Unicode version, 15.1." ], [ "See also", " Aegean numbers* Cypro-Minoan syllabary* Phaistos Disc* Arkalochori Axe* Dispilio Tablet" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===*****************" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * * * * * Notti, Erika, \" Writing in Late Bronze Age Thera.", "Further Observations on the Theran Corpus of Linear A\", Pasiphae, vol.", "000, no.", "015, 2021 ISSN: 2037-738X* * * * * Salgarella, Ester, \" Drawing lines: The palaeography of Linear A and Linear B\", Kadmos, vol.", "58, no.", "1–2, pp.", "61–92, 2019 * * Unpublished PhD dissertation.", "Supervisor: Professor John Bennet.", "Includes bibliographical references (leaves 311–338).", "* ( Review )" ], [ "External links", "* Cracking the Cretan code Ester Salgarella AEON 2022* The mathematical values of Linear A fraction signs – Science Daily – September 8, 2020* Interactive database of Linear A inscriptions Description* DAIDALIKA – Scripts and Languages of Minoan and Mycenaean Crete * Omniglot: Writing Systems & Languages of the World* Mnamon: Antiche Scritture del Mediterraneo (Antique Writings of the Mediterranean)* GORILA Volume 1* Linear A Explorer* Linear A Research by Hubert La Marle* Interpretation of the Linear A Scripts by Gia Kvashilava" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lucasfilm Games" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lucasfilm Games''' (known as '''LucasArts''' between 1990 and 2021) is an American video game licensor and a subsidiary of Lucasfilm.", "It was founded in May 1982 by George Lucas as a video game development group alongside his film company; as part of a larger 1990 reorganization of the Lucasfilm divisions, the video game development division was grouped and rebranded as part of LucasArts.", "LucasArts became known for its line of adventure games based on its SCUMM engine in the 1990s, including ''Maniac Mansion'', the ''Monkey Island'' series, and several ''Indiana Jones'' titles.", "A number of influential game developers were alumni of LucasArts from this period, including Brian Moriarty, Tim Schafer, Ron Gilbert, and Dave Grossman.", "Later, as Lucasfilm regained control over its licensing over the ''Star Wars'' franchise, LucasArts produced numerous action-based ''Star Wars'' titles in the late 1990s and early 2000s, while dropping adventure game development due to waning interest in the genre.Lucasfilm was wholly acquired by The Walt Disney Company in December 2012, and by April 2013, Disney had announced the shuttering of LucasArts in all but name, keeping the division around to handle licensing of Lucasfilm properties to third-party developers, primarily Electronic Arts, and having any in-house development transferred to Disney Interactive Studios.", "Disney has, since 2021, revitalized the Lucasfilm Games brand as the licenser of all Lucasfilm-related properties." ], [ "History", "===Early history===In 1979, George Lucas wanted to explore other areas of entertainment and created the Lucasfilm Computer Division in 1979, which included a department for computer games (the Games Group) and another for graphics.", "The graphics department was spun off into its own corporation in 1982, ultimately becoming Pixar.The Lucasfilm Games Group originally cooperated with Atari, Inc., which helped fund the video game group's founding, to produce video games.", "Though the group had spun out of Lucasfilm, the video game development license for Lucasfilm's ''Star Wars'' was held by Atari at the time, forcing the group to start with original concepts; Ron Gilbert, one of the group's first employees, believed that if the Lucasfilm Games Group had the rights for ''Star Wars'' from the start, they would have never branched into any new intellectual property.The first products from the Games Group were unique action ''Ballblazer'' and ''Rescue on Fractalus!", "'', developed in 1984 for the Atari 5200 console and the Atari 8-bit family.", "Beta versions of both games were leaked to pirate bulletin boards exactly one week after Atari had received unprotected copies for a marketing review, and were in wide circulation over a year before the original release date.", "Planned to be released in the 3rd quarter of 1984 under the Atari/Lucasfilm label, the games were delayed when Warner Communications sold the assets of the consumer division of Atari, Inc. to Jack Tramiel in July of that year, and were ultimately picked up by publisher Epyx and released for multiple home computers in mid-1985.Lucasfilm's next two games were ''Koronis Rift'' and ''The Eidolon''.", "Their first games were only developed by Lucasfilm, and a publisher would distribute the games.", "Atari published their games for Atari systems, Activision and Epyx would do their computer publishing.", "''Maniac Mansion'' was the first game to be published and developed by Lucasfilm Games.The early charter of Lucasfilm Games was to make experimental, innovative, and technologically advanced video games.", "''Habitat'', an early online role-playing game and one of the first to support a graphical front-end, was one such title.", "It was only released as a beta test in 1986 by Quantum Link, an online service for the Commodore 64.Quantum Link could not provide the bandwidth at the time to support the game, so the full Habitat was never released outside of the beta test.", "However, Lucasfilm Games recouped the cost of development by releasing a sized-down version called ''Club Caribe'' in 1988.Lucasfilm later licensed the software to Fujitsu, who released it in Japan as ''Fujitsu Habitat'' in 1990.Fujitsu later licensed Habitat for world-wide distribution, and released an updated version called ''WorldsAway'' in 1995.The latest iteration of Habitat is still called ''WorldsAway'', which can be found at MetroWorlds.Initially, the Games Group worked from Lucas' Skywalker Ranch near Nicasio, California.", "In 1990, in a reorganization of the Lucas companies, the Games Division of Lucasfilm became part of the newly created LucasArts Entertainment Company, which also comprised Industrial Light & Magic and Skywalker Sound.", "Later ILM and Skywalker Sound were consolidated in Lucas Digital Ltd. and LucasArts became the official name of the former Games Division.", "During this, the division had moved out of Skywalker Ranch to near-by offices in San Rafael, California.Also in 1990, LucasArts started to publish ''The Adventurer'', their own gaming magazine where one could read about their upcoming games and interviews with the developers.", "The final issue was published in 1996.In the same year, Lucas Learning was created as a subsidiary of LucasArts, providing educational software for classrooms.===iMUSE===''iMUSE'' (''Interactive MUsic Streaming Engine'') is an interactive music system used in a number of LucasArts video games.", "It synchronizes music with the visual action in the game, and transitions from one musical theme to another.", "iMUSE was developed in the early 1990s by composers Michael Land and Peter McConnell while working at LucasArts.", "The iMUSE system is patented by LucasArts, and was added to the SCUMM game engine in 1991.The first game to use iMUSE was ''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge'' and it has been used in all LucasArts adventure games since.", "It has also been used for some non-adventure LucasArts titles, including ''Star Wars: X-Wing'' (DOS version), ''Star Wars: TIE Fighter'' (DOS version), and ''Star Wars: Dark Forces''.===Action side-scrolling games===Lucasfilm Games also released several side-scrollers during the ''Lucasarts'' era, focusing primarily on run and gun gameplay.", "A trilogy of games under the name of ''Super Star Wars'' for the SNES, with each game based on each of the three films from the Star Wars original trilogy: ''Super Star Wars'' (1992), ''Super Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back'' (1993) and ''Super Star Wars: Return of the Jedi'' (1994).", "An Indiana Jones game based on the first three films of the franchise titled ''Indiana Jones' Greatest Adventures'' (1994) was developed alongside Factor 5, the first of many joint collaborations between the two studios.They also released some games not based on their existing IPs.", "''Zombies Ate My Neighbors'' (1993) and its sequel ''Ghoul Patrol'' (1994) were overhead run and gun side-scrollers inspired by classic 1950's Horror B-movies.", "A spiritual successor called ''Herc's Adventures'' was released in 1997 and was inspired by Greek mythology.", "''Metal Warriors'' (1995), a side-scroller inspired by mecha anime, and ''Big Sky Trooper'' were also developed using the same engine as ''Zombies Ate My Neighbors''.", "Though these games sold poorly, they later garnered a cult following and are now considered to be Cult Classics from the 16-Bit era.===Adventure games===The first adventure game developed by Lucasfilm Games was ''Labyrinth'' in 1986, based on the Lucasfilm movie of the same name.", "The 1987 title ''Maniac Mansion'' introduced SCUMM, the scripting language behind most of the company's later adventure offerings.", "The adventures released in the following years, such as ''Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders'' in 1988, ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure'' in 1989, and the 1990 titles ''Loom'' and ''The Secret of Monkey Island'' helped Lucasfilm Games build a reputation as one of the leading developers in the genre.", "The original five adventure games created with SCUMM were released in a compilation titled ''LucasArts Classic Adventures'' in 1992.LucasArts was often referred to as one of the two big names in the field, competing with Sierra On-line as a developer of high quality adventures.", "The first half of the 1990s was the heyday for the company's adventure fame, with classic titles such as ''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge'' in 1991, ''Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis'' in 1992, ''Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle'' and ''Sam & Max Hit the Road'' in 1993, and the 1995 titles ''Full Throttle'' and ''The Dig''.In the latter half of the decade, the popularity of adventure games faded and the costs associated with game development increased as high-resolution art and C.D.-quality audio became standard fare.", "The PC market wanted titles that would show off expensive new graphics cards to best effect, a change replicated in the home console market as the 3D capabilities of the PlayStation, Sega Saturn and Nintendo 64 dictated the nature of the majority of games produced for those platforms.", "The adventure genre failed to find popularity with the masses of new gamers.Despite their declining popularity, LucasArts still continued to release adventure titles.", "In 1997, ''The Curse of Monkey Island'', the last LucasArts adventure game to retain traditional two-dimensional graphics and point-and-click interface, was released.", "This was followed by ''Grim Fandango'' in 1998, LucasArts' first attempt to convert a 2D adventure to a 3D environment.", "The highly stylised visuals, outstanding soundtrack, superb voice acting and sophisticated writing earned Grim Fandango many plaudits, including GameSpot's Game of the Year award.", "''Escape from Monkey Island'' (2000), the fourth installment in the ''Monkey Island'' series, featured the same control scheme as Grim Fandango, and was generally well received.", "It is the last original adventure game the company has released.Two sequels to existing franchises, ''Full Throttle: Hell on Wheels'' and ''Sam & Max: Freelance Police'', were announced to be in development but these projects were cancelled, in 2003 and 2004 respectively, before the games were finished.", "When the rights to the Sam & Max franchise expired in 2005, the creator of Sam & Max, Steve Purcell, regained ownership.", "He then licensed Sam & Max to Telltale Games to be developed into an episodic game.", "Telltale Games was made up primarily of former LucasArts employees who had worked on the Sam & Max sequel and were let go after the project was canceled.LucasArts halted adventure game development for the next five years, focusing instead on their ''Star Wars'' games.", "They remained silent and did not rerelease their old games on digital distribution platforms, as other studios were doing at the time.", "However, in 2002, the company pledged that at least 50% of its releases would have nothing to do with ''Star Wars''.", "It was not until 2009 that they returned to the genre.", "On June 1, 2009, LucasArts announced both ''The Secret of Monkey Island Special Edition'', a high-definition remake of the original game with revised graphics, music and voice work, and ''Tales of Monkey Island'', a new episodic installment in the ''Monkey Island'' series that was developed by Telltale Games.Then, on July 6, 2009, they announced that they would be rereleasing a number of their classic games, including ''Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis'' and ''LOOM'', on Steam.", "The rereleases were, for the first time, native versions built for Microsoft Windows.", "This was the first time in many years that the studio had offered any support for its classic adventure titles.The second game in the Monkey Island series also received a high-definition remake, entitled ''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge Special Edition'' in 2010.Both Monkey Island special edition games were released in a compilation, ''Monkey Island Special Edition Collection'', exclusively in Europe in 2011.The release of the unofficial SCUMM virtual machine, ScummVM, has led to something of a resurgence for LucasArts adventure games among present-day gamers.", "Using ScummVM, legacy adventure titles can easily be run on modern computers and even more unusual platforms such as video game consoles, mobile phones and PDAs.===Simulation games===In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Lucasfilm Games developed a series of military vehicle simulation games, the first of which were the naval simulations ''PHM Pegasus'' in 1986 and ''Strike Fleet'' in 1987.These two titles were published by Electronic Arts for a variety of computer platforms, including PC, Commodore 64 and Apple II.In 1988, ''Battlehawks 1942'' launched a trilogy of World War II air combat simulations, giving the player a chance to fly as an American or Japanese pilot in the Pacific Theater.", "Battlehawks 1942 was followed by ''Their Finest Hour: The Battle of Britain'' in 1989, recreating the battle between the ''Luftwaffe'' and RAF for Britain's air supremacy.", "The trilogy ended with ''Secret Weapons of the Luftwaffe'' in 1991, in which the player could choose to fly on either the American or German side.", "The trilogy was lauded for its historical accuracy and detailed supplementary material—Secret Weapons of the Luftwaffe, for instance, was accompanied by a 224-page historical manual.", "The World War II trilogy was released with cover art by illustrator Marc Ericksen, in a compilation titled ''Air Combat Classics'' in 1994.The World War II trilogy was created by a team led by Lawrence Holland, a game designer who later founded Totally Games.", "Totally Games would continue to develop games almost exclusively to LucasArts for a decade, with the most noted outcome of the symbiosis being the X-Wing series.", "They were also responsible for LucasArts' 2003 return to the aerial battles of World War II with ''Secret Weapons Over Normandy'', a title released on PlayStation 2, Xbox and PCIn 1996, LucasArts released ''Afterlife'', a simulator in which players build their own Heaven and Hell, with several jokes and puns (such as a prison in Hell called San Quentin Tarantino).===First ''Star Wars'' games===Even though LucasArts had created games based on other Lucasfilm properties before (''Labyrinth'', ''Indiana Jones''), they did not use the ''Star Wars'' license until the early 1990s, as it had been held by Broderbund before reverting back to Lucasfilm in 1992.The first in-house development was the space combat simulator ''X-Wing'', developed by Larry Holland's independent team, which went on to spawn a successful series.The CD-ROM-only ''Star Wars'' game ''Rebel Assault'' became one of the biggest successes of the company and was considered a killer app for CD-ROM drives in the early 1990s.===First-person shooters===After the unprecedented success of id Software's ''Doom'', the PC gaming market shifted towards production of three-dimensional first person shooters.", "LucasArts contributed to this trend with the 1995 release of ''Star Wars: Dark Forces'', a first person shooter that successfully transplanted the Doom formula to a Star Wars setting.", "The Dark Forces Strategy guide claims that development was well underway before Doom was released and that the game was pushed back once Doom hit shelves so that it could be polished.", "The game was well received and spawned a new franchise: the ''Jedi Knight'' games.", "This began with the sequel to ''Dark Forces'', ''Jedi Knight: Dark Forces II'' released in 1997; this game reflected the changing face of PC gaming, being one of the first games to appreciably benefit when used in conjunction with a dedicated 3D graphics card like 3dfx's Voodoo range.", "The game received an expansion pack, ''Mysteries of the Sith'', in 1998 and a full sequel in 2002 with ''Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast''.", "2003's ''Star Wars Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy'' can be seen as a spin-off from the series, but was less well received by reviewers, who complained that the franchise was becoming formulaic.Apart from ''Star Wars''-themed 3D shooters, LucasArts also created the western-themed game ''Outlaws'' in 1997 and ''Armed and Dangerous'' (in collaboration with Planet Moon Studios) in 2003.===In the new millennium===In 2000, Simon Jeffery became the LucasArts president.", "He was president of LucasArts until 2003 and some successful ''Star Wars'' games released during his management like ''Star Wars Jedi Knight 2: Jedi Outcast'', ''Star Wars Rogue Squadron 2'', ''Knights of the Old Republic'', ''Star Wars Jedi Academy'' and ''Star Wars Galaxies''.", "Development of some other successful ''Star Wars'' Games began during his management, like ''Star Wars Republic Commando'' and ''Star Wars Battlefront''.In April 2000, LucasArts signed a two-year international distribution deal with Activision for over 45 territories across the world including the United Kingdom.", "The deal was extended in May 2003 and renewed again in March 2009.In 2002, LucasArts recognized that the over-reliance on ''Star Wars'' was reducing the quality of its output, and announced that future releases would be at least 50% non-Star Wars-related.", "However, many of the original titles were either unsuccessful or even cancelled before release, and since then LucasArts again had mainly ''Star Wars'' titles in production.Also in 2002, LucasArts released a compilation CD filled with music from their past games.", "The album is titled ''The Best of LucasArts Original Soundtracks'' and features music from the ''Monkey Island'' series, ''Grim Fandango'', ''Outlaws'', and ''The Dig''.2003 saw the fruitful collaboration of LucasArts and BioWare on the well reviewed role-playing game, ''Knights of the Old Republic''.", "Combining modern 3D graphics with high-quality storytelling and a sophisticated role-playing game system, this game reinvigorated the ''Star Wars'' franchise.", "Its 2004 sequel ''Knights of the Old Republic II: The Sith Lords'' continued in the same vein, but LucasArts was criticized for forcing the developer Obsidian Entertainment to release the sequel unfinished, resulting in a significant amount of cut content, a disappointing ending and numerous bugs.", "2003 also saw the release of ''Gladius'', a gladiator Tactical RPG that was positively received but sold poorly and was even rated as one of the \"best Xbox games most people never played\" by ''Official Xbox Magazine''.In 2003, LucasArts and the ''Star Wars'' franchise also branched out in a new direction—the world of the MMORPG, with the creation of ''Star Wars Galaxies''.", "After a successful launch, the first expansion, Jump to Lightspeed, was released in 2004.The new expansion featured the addition of real-time space combat.", "This was continued in ''Rage of the Wookiees'', an additional expansion which added an additional planet for users to explore.", "Also, a new expansion, ''Trials of Obi-Wan'' was released on November 1, 2005, consisting of several new missions focusing on the Episode 3 planet, Mustafar.", "While ''Star Wars Galaxies'' still retained a devoted following, it also alienated many players.", "''Star Wars Galaxies'' chose to ignore the timeline established in the original films, during which the game is set, and also allowed players to play as Jedi characters.", "The game also underwent several major redesigns, which were received with mixed reactions by players.===Restructuring under Jim Ward===In April 2004, Jim Ward, V.P.", "of marketing, online and global distributions at Lucasfilm, was appointed president of LucasArts.", "Ward performed a top-to-bottom audit of LucasArts infrastructure, describing the company's state as \"quite a mess.\"", "In 2003, LucasArts had reportedly grossed just over $100,000,000 according to N.P.D., primarily from its ''Star Wars'' titles — significantly less than the grosses from the year's top single titles such as ''Halo''.", "Ward produced a five-year investment plan to refit the company.", "Previous ''Star Wars'' games had been produced by external developers such as Raven Software, BioWare and Obsidian; Ward now prioritized making LucasArts' internal game development work effectively and adapt to the evolving game industry.", "''Star Wars: Battlefront'', ''Star Wars: Republic Commando'', and ''Star Wars: Episode III'' survived cuts that closed down other in-development games and reduced staff from about 450 to 190 employees.Ward also canceled ''Star Wars Rogue Squadron Trilogy'' which was 50% completed and it was going to be released on the Xbox in 2004.Factor 5 was going to develop a ''Rogue Squadron'' game titled ''Rogue Squadron: X-Wing vs Tie Fighter'' for the Xbox 360 but it was canceled by LucasArts.After Factor 5's exclusivity with Sony ended they decided to release ''Rogue Squadron Trilogy'' for the Wii, but it was eventually cancelled as well.In 2004, LucasArts released ''Star Wars: Battlefront'', based on the same formula as the popular ''Battlefield'' series of games.", "It ended up becoming the best-selling ''Star Wars'' game of all time to that point, aided by a marketing tie-in with the original trilogy D.V.D.", "release.", "Its sequel, ''Star Wars: Battlefront II'', was released on November 1, 2005, and featured new locales such as Episode III planets Mustafar, Mygeeto, etc., in addition to space combat, playable Jedi, and new special units like Bothan spies and Imperial officers.", "In this same year, the second \"Knights of the Old Republic\" game was in production.", "LucasArts told Obsidian Entertainment that the project needed to be finished by that year's holiday season.", "Obsidian was forced to cut huge amounts of content from the game, resulting in a rushed, unfinished Knights of the Old Republic II.In March 2005, LucasArts published ''Lego Star Wars: The Video Game'', the first game in the popular Lego video game franchise by Traveller's Tales.", "It was based on the ''Star Wars'' prequel trilogy.", "In May 2005, LucasArts released ''Revenge of the Sith'', a third person action game based on the film.", "Also in 2005, LucasArts released ''Star Wars: Republic Commando'', and one of their few non-''Star Wars'' games, ''Mercenaries'', developed by Pandemic Studios.On February 16, 2006, LucasArts released ''Star Wars: Empire at War'', a real-time strategy game developed by Petroglyph.", "September 12, 2006, saw the release of ''Lego Star Wars II: The Original Trilogy'', the sequel to the popular ''Lego Star Wars: The Video Game''.", "''Lego Star Wars II'', once again developed by Traveller's Tales and published by LucasArts, follows the same basic format as the first game, but, as the name indicates, covers the original ''Star Wars'' trilogy.A game titled ''Traxion'' was announced.", "''Traxion'' was a rhythm game which was under development for the PlayStation Portable by British developer Kuju Entertainment, scheduled to be released in Q4 2006 by LucasArts, but was instead cancelled in January 2007.The game was to feature a number of minigames, and would support imported songs from the player's own mp3 library as well as the game's bundled collection.In May 2007, LucasArts announced ''Fracture'' and stated that \"new intellectual properties serve a vital role to the growth of LucasArts\".", "''Mercenaries: Playground of Destruction'' was labelled the number one new IP in 2005 and ''Thrillville'' the number one new children's IP in 2006.Fracture was released on October 7, 2008, to average reviews.", "''Mercenaries: Playground of Destruction'' was released on January 11, 2005, to critical and commercial success which led to a sequel, ''Mercenaries 2: World in Flames''.", "''Thrillville'' was released on November 21, 2006, and ''Thrillville: Off the Rails'' was released on October 16, 2007.On September 16, 2008, ''Star Wars: The Force Unleashed'' was released to mixed reviews, though it quickly became the fastest-selling ''Star Wars'' game of all time.The rapid scaling down of internal projects at LucasArts was also reflected in its handling of games developed by external developers.", "During the tenure of Ward, Free Radical was contracted to produce ''Star Wars: Battlefront III'', which had been in production for 2 years.", "Free Radical co-founder Steve Ellis described how working with LucasArts evolved from being \"the best relationship we'd ever had with a publisher\" to withholding money for 6 months and abusing the independent developer's position to withhold the full project cancellation fee—this was a major event which contributed towards Free Radical entering administration.===Last years as part of an independent Lucasfilm===Ward left the company in early February 2008, for personal reasons.", "He was replaced by Howard Roffman as interim president.", "Darrell Rodriguez, who came from Electronic Arts, took Roffman's place in April 2008.About a month prior to release of ''Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II'', LucasArts scaled down the internal development studio.", "The aforementioned game received a mediocre score from some media outlets such as IGN, GameSpot and GameTrailers.", "After release, minor adjustment in staffing resulted in even more layoffs.The successor to ''Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II: The Sith Lords'', in the form of the MMORPG ''Star Wars: The Old Republic'', was announced on October 21, 2008, at an invitation-only press event.", "developed by BioWare.", "It was released in December 2011.They also published ''Star Wars: The Clone Wars – Republic Heroes'' in 2009 for all current systems.", "The game is a tie-in to ''The Clone Wars'' television series and was released on October 6, 2009, receiving generally negative reviews.During television network G4's coverage of the 2006 E3 Convention, a LucasArts executive was asked about the return of popular franchises such as ''Monkey Island''.", "The executive responded that the company was currently focusing on new franchises, and that LucasArts may return to the \"classic franchises\" in 2015, though it was unclear as to whether the date was put forwards as an actual projection, or hyperbole.", "This turned out to be hyperbole, as LucasArts and Telltale Games announced new adventure games in a joint press release in 2009.The games announced were ''Tales of Monkey Island'', which was to be developed by Telltale, and a LucasArts-developed enhanced remake of the 1990 title ''The Secret of Monkey Island'', with the intent of bringing the old game to a new audience.", "According to LucasArts, this announcement was \"just the start of LucasArts' new mission to revitalize its deep portfolio of beloved gaming franchises\".", "Following the success of this, LucasArts released the sequel, ''Monkey Island 2 – Special Edition'' in the summer of 2010.The company began experiencing turnovers in layoffs in 2010.Rodriguez left in May after just two years on the job.", "A Lucasfilm board of Directors and a game industry veteran, Jerry Bowerman, filled in during the transition.", "Rodriguez was ultimately replaced in June by Paul Meegan, formerly of Gears of War developer Epic Games.In July 2010, Haden Blackman, who served as creative director on the original ''Star Wars: The Force Unleashed'', LucasArts' most successful internally produced title of recent years, and the sequel, unexpectedly left.", "However, the company scored a surprise coup in August 2010 when Clint Hocking, a high-profile game director from Ubisoft, announced that he would be joining LucasArts.", "His tenure at LucasArts was short lived however, as Hocking left LucasArts in June 2012 before the game he was working on was released.", "In September 2010, a third of the employees at LucasArts were laid off.In March 2011, LucasArts published a sequel to the popular Lego Star Wars series, ''Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars'', based on the ''Clone Wars'' animated series, once again developed by Traveller's Tales.", "Sony Online Entertainment announced in June 2011 that Star Wars Galaxies would be shutting down at the end of 2011.Its services were terminated on December 15, 2011.Another canceled title of Lucasarts was a Darth Maul game which was going to be developed by the same company which made the Wii version of The Force Unleashed II.On April 26, 2011, LucasArts announced that it had acquired a license from Epic Games to develop a number of future titles using the Unreal Engine 3 for a number of platforms.", "''Star Wars 1313'', a proposed action-adventure about Boba Fett navigating Coruscant's subterranean underworld, was confirmed to use the Unreal Engine 3.However, the game was cancelled as a result of the closure of the development arm of LucasArts.In April 2012, LucasArts published ''Kinect Star Wars'', developed by Terminal Reality, for the Xbox 360.It was poorly reviewed by critics, receiving an aggregated score of 53.32% on GameRankings and 55/100 on Metacritic.In August 2012, Meegan, who replaced Rodriguez as president in 2010, also left his position at LucasArts after just two years on the job.", "Kevin Parker and Gio Corsi were named to co-lead the studio until the studio would choose a permanent president, with the former as interim head of business operations and the latter as interim head of studio production.The last game released through LucasArts as a subsidiary of an independent Lucasfilm was ''Angry Birds Star Wars'', a game that gave the ''Angry Birds'' characters costumes and abilities based on the original ''Star Wars'' trilogy.", "It was released on November 8, 2012, before the Disney acquisition of Lucasfilm was finalized.", "The game was developed and published by Rovio Entertainment, and licensed by LucasArts.===Acquisition by Disney===The Walt Disney Company acquired Lucasfilm and its subsidiaries including LucasArts by December 21, 2012, following regulatory approval in a deal for .", "At the time, there were no plans for any downsizing of Lucasfilm divisions, and a LucasArts representative said that \"for the time being, all projects are business as usual\".", "In the months that followed, LucasArts was believed to be working on three untitled games: an open-world RPG, an FPS, and an aerial combat game.", "This included cancelling ''Star Wars'' games already in development such as ''Star Wars 1313'', ''First Assault'' and ''Star Wars: The Force Unleashed III'' to put more focus on ''Star Wars: Episode VII – The Force Awakens''.Lucasfilm announced on April 3, 2013, that it was shuttering its video game development practice, laying off most of the LucasArts staff.", "Any further game development would be handled by Disney Interactive Studios or licensed to third-party developers.", "A skeleton staff of fewer than ten employees remained at LucasArts to function as a video game licensor.", "Disney indicated that the new business model would \"minimize the company's risk while achieving a broad portfolio of quality ''Star Wars'' games.\"", "Around 150 staff members lost their jobs as a result of the closure.", "The layoffs at LucasArts also resulted in layoffs at fellow visual effects subsidiary Industrial Light & Magic; as many of LucasArts' employees also worked for ILM, the company was left overstaffed.", "Electronic Arts became one of the major third-party publishers for ''Star Wars'' games through an exclusive multi-year license, while Disney Interactive Studios would handle development for the casual gaming market of \"mobile, social, tablet and online game categories\".Lucasfilm announced on January 11, 2021, that it was reestablishing the Lucasfilm Games brand for all future gaming titles from Lucasfilm, though it would remain solely as a licensor of Lucasfilm properties.", "Later that week, it was announced that MachineGames was developing a game based upon the ''Indiana Jones'' franchise with Todd Howard serving as an executive producer and Bethesda publishing the game, and that Massive Entertainment was developing an open world ''Star Wars'' game with Julian Gerighty serving as creative director and Ubisoft publishing the game.", "It was also revealed that EA was still in development on several games based upon the ''Star Wars'' franchise.", "In September 2021, it was announced that a remake of ''Knights of the Old Republic'' was in development.", "The game is being developed by Aspyr for Windows and PlayStation 5, for which it will serve as a timed console-exclusive.", "In December 2021, ''Star Wars Eclipse'' was announced at The Game Awards 2021; it is an action-adventure game in the early stages of development by Quantic Dream.", "The game will feature multiple playable characters with branching narratives.", "It is set in the ''Star Wars'' universe and is part of the ''High Republic'' multimedia project, which places the events of the game 200 years before the original ''Star Wars'' trilogy.", "In January 2022, it was announced that Respawn Entertainment would be developing multiple Star Wars games, including a ''Star Wars Jedi: Fallen Order'' sequel, entitled ''Star Wars Jedi: Survivor'', alongside FPS and Strategy video games.", "In April 2022, it was announced that Lucasfilm Games would be co-publishing ''Return to Monkey Island'' alongside Devolver Digital, a sequel to ''LeChuck's Revenge'' with series creator Ron Gilbert returning to develop the game with his company ''Terrible Toybox.''", "That same month, it was announced that Skydance New Media would be collaborating with Lucasfilm Games to make a game based in the ''Star Wars'' universe, with Amy Hennig leading the project.", "In June 2023, it was revealed that the ''Indiana Jones'' game from MachineGames and Bethesda Softworks would release for Windows and Xbox Series X/S as a console-exclusive." ], [ "Logo", "The original Lucasfilm Games logo was based upon the existing Lucasfilm movie logo, with a number of variations on it being used.", "This logo was later brought back when the Lucasfilm Games branding was revived in 2021.The long-lived LucasArts logo, affectionately known as the \"Gold Guy\", was introduced in 1990 and first used within ''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge'' (the first game shipped under the LucasArts name).", "The logo consisted of a crude gold-colored figure inspired by an Ancestral Puebloan petroglyph, standing on a purple letter \"L\" inscribed with the company name.", "The figure had its hands up in the air, as if a sun were rising from behind him.", "It was also said to resemble an eye, with the rays of the sun as eyelashes.", "The logo was revised in late 2005, losing the letter \"L\" pedestal and introducing a more rounded version of the gold-colored figure.", "The last game to feature the original \"Gold Guy\" was ''Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith'', while the new logo was first seen in ''Star Wars: Battlefront II''.", "In the games, the figure sometimes does an action like throw a lightsaber or cast Force Lightning.In 1998, LucasArts approached Finnish game developer Remedy Entertainment, citing that their logo was copied from the top portion of the LucasArts logo, and threatened legal action.", "Remedy was by that time already in the process of redesigning their logo, so they complied by taking their old logo offline from their website, and introducing their new logo a little later." ], [ "Technology" ], [ "The LucasArts Archives", "The LucasArts Archives are a series of CD-ROM personal computer game re-releases and compilations from publisher LucasArts.", "* ''The LucasArts Archives Vol.", "I'' (1995) ''Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis'' ''Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle'' ''Sam & Max Hit the Road'' ''Star Wars Screen Entertainment'' desktop utility ''Star Wars: Rebel Assault'' (3 level demo) ''LucasArts Super Sampler'' disc featuring demos of ''Full Throttle'', ''Star Wars: Dark Forces'', ''Star Wars: Rebel Assault II: The Hidden Empire'', and ''Star Wars: TIE Fighter Collector's Edition CD-ROM''.", "* ''The LucasArts Macintosh Archives Vol.", "I'' (1996) ''Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis'' ''Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle'' ''Sam & Max Hit the Road'' ''Star Wars: Rebel Assault'' ''Star Wars: Dark Forces'' (3 level demo) ''LucasArts Super Sampler'' disc featuring demos of ''Full Throttle'', ''Star Wars: X-Wing'', ''Star Wars: Rebel Assault II: The Hidden Empire'', ''The Dig'', and ''Mortimer and the Riddles of the Medallion''.", "* ''The LucasArts Archives Vol.", "II: The Star Wars Collection'' (1996) was released as part of Lucasfilm's promotion of the then-upcoming expanded theatrical re-releases of the original ''Star Wars'' trilogy.", "''The Star Wars Collection'' contained: ''Star Wars: Rebel Assault'' ''Star Wars: Rebel Assault II: The Hidden Empire'' ''Star Wars: TIE Fighter Collector's Edition CD-ROM'' ''Star Wars: Dark Forces'' (demo)** ''Star Wars: Making Magic'' (Multimedia CD-ROM featuring a behind-the-scenes look at the new versions of the ''Star Wars'' films)* ''The LucasArts Archives Vol.", "III'' (1997) ''Afterlife'' ''The Dig'' ''Full Throttle'' ''Monkey Island Madness'' (a compilation disc of ''The Secret of Monkey Island'' and ''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge'') ''Star Wars: Dark Forces'' ''LucasArts Super Sampler 2'' disc featuring demos of ''The Curse of Monkey Island'', ''Indiana Jones and His Desktop Adventures'', ''Outlaws'', ''Star Wars Jedi Knight: Dark Forces II'', ''Star Wars: X-Wing vs.", "TIE Fighter'', and ''Star Wars: Yoda Stories''.", "* ''The LucasArts Archives Vol.", "IV: The Star Wars Collection II'' (1998) ''Star Wars: Dark Forces'' ''Star Wars: TIE Fighter Collector's Edition CD-ROM'' ''Star Wars: X-Wing Collector's Edition CD-ROM'' ''Star Wars: Yoda Stories'' ''Star Wars: Making Magic'' (same as from the first ''Star Wars Collection)'' Demo disc of ''Star Wars Jedi Knight: Dark Forces II'', ''Star Wars: Jedi Knight: Mysteries of the Sith'', and ''Star Wars: X-Wing vs.", "TIE Fighter''.Later games published under the ''LucasArts Archives'' brand were budget-priced reissues of individual games, except for ''Monkey Island Archives'', which was a compilation of ''The Secret of Monkey Island'', ''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge'', and ''The Curse of Monkey Island'', released with ''The Curse of Monkey Island'''s box art.Many of the games that were released in these Archive collections are not directly compatible with modern operating systems, but can still be played using the ScummVM software.", "''The LucasArts Macintosh Archives Vol.", "I'' was the top-selling Macintosh game for March, April, and May 1997, selling over 15,000 units over those three months." ], [ "Legacy", "Ex-LucasArts developers have founded numerous San Francisco game development studios such as Double Fine Productions (2000), Telltale Games (2004), MunkyFun (2008), Dynamighty (2011), SoMa Play (2013), and Fifth Journey (2015) playing a significant role in the continued development of computer games in the Bay Area.At the 2014 Electronic Entertainment Expo, Sony Computer Entertainment announced ''Grim Fandango Remastered'', developed by Double Fine Productions as a console exclusive for PlayStation platforms.", "It was released in 2015 for PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Microsoft Windows, OS X, Linux, Android, and iOS.", "During Sony's new PlayStation Experience convention in 2014, another remaster by Double Fine, ''Day of the Tentacle Remastered'', was announced.", "It was released in March 2016 for PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Microsoft Windows, OS X, and Linux.", "At the 2015 PlayStation Experience, another remastered game by Double Fine was announced, ''Full Throttle Remastered''.", "It was released in April 2017 for PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Microsoft Windows, OS X, and Linux." ], [ "See also", "List of LucasArts gamesList of Star Wars games" ], [ "References", "'''Footnotes''''''Citations'''===Sources===" ], [ "External links", "* The Workshop – Official LucasArts Blog*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lafcadio Hearn" ], [ "Introduction", ", born '''Patrick Lafcadio Hearn''' ( ), was an Irish writer, translator, and teacher who introduced the culture and literature of Japan to the West.", "His writings offered unprecedented insight into Japanese culture, especially his collections of legends and ghost stories, such as ''Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things''.", "Before moving to Japan and becoming a Japanese citizen, he worked as a journalist in the United States, primarily in Cincinnati and New Orleans.", "His writings about New Orleans, based on his decade-long stay there, are also well-known.Hearn was born on the Greek island of Lefkada, after which a complex series of conflicts and events led to his being moved to Dublin, where he was abandoned first by his mother, then his father, and finally by his father's aunt (who had been appointed his official guardian).", "At the age of 19, he emigrated to the United States, where he found work as a newspaper reporter, first in Cincinnati and later in New Orleans.", "From there, he was sent as a correspondent to the French West Indies, where he stayed for two years, and then to Japan, where he would remain for the rest of his life.In Japan, Hearn married Koizumi Setsuko, with whom he had four children.", "His writings about Japan offered in the Western world greater insight into a culture that was still unfamiliar to it at the time." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Patrick Lafcadio Hearn was born on the Greek Ionian Island of Lefkada on 27 June 1850.His mother was a Greek named Rosa Cassimati and she was a native of the Greek island of Kythira, while his father, Charles Bush Hearn, was a British Army medical officer of Anglo-Irish descent, who was stationed in Lefkada during the British protectorate of the United States of the Ionian Islands.", "Throughout his life, Lafcadio boasted of his Greek blood and had a passionate leaning towards Greece.", "He was baptized Patrikios Lefcadios Hearn (Greek: Πατρίκιος Λευκάδιος Χερν) in the Greek Orthodox Church, but he seems to have been called \"Patrick Lefcadio Kassimati Charles Hearn\" in English; and, the middle name \"Lafcadio\" was given to him in honour of the island where he was born.", "Hearn's parents were married in a Greek Orthodox ceremony on 25 November 1849, several months after his mother had given birth to Hearn's older brother, George Robert Hearn, on 24 July 1849.George died on 17 August 1850, two months after Lafcadio's birth.====Emigration to Ireland and abandonment====Plaque on Hearn's home on Gardiner Street, DublinHearn's father Charles was promoted to Staff Surgeon Second Class and in 1850 was reassigned from Lefkada to the British West Indies.", "Since his family did not approve of the marriage, and because he was worried that his relationship might harm his career prospects, Charles did not inform his superiors of his son or pregnant wife and left his family behind.", "In 1852, he arranged to send his son and wife to live with his family in Dublin, where they received a cool reception.", "Charles's Protestant mother, Elizabeth Holmes Hearn, had difficulty accepting Rosa's Greek Orthodox views and lack of education (she was illiterate and spoke no English).", "Rosa found it difficult to adapt to a foreign culture and the Protestantism of her husband's family, and was eventually taken under the wing of Elizabeth's sister, Sarah Holmes Brenane, a widow who had converted to Catholicism.Despite Sarah's efforts, Rosa suffered from homesickness.", "When her husband returned to Ireland on medical leave in 1853, it became clear that the couple had become estranged.", "Charles Hearn was assigned to the Crimean Peninsula, again leaving his pregnant wife and child in Ireland.", "When he came back in 1856, severely wounded and traumatized, Rosa had returned to her home island of Cerigo in Greece, where she gave birth to their third son, Daniel James Hearn.", "Lafcadio had been left in the care of Sarah Brenane.Charles petitioned to have the marriage with Rosa annulled, on the basis of her lack of signature on the marriage contract, which made it invalid under English law.", "After being informed of the annulment, Rosa almost immediately married Giovanni Cavallini, a Greek citizen of Italian ancestry who was later appointed by the British as governor of Cerigotto.", "Cavallini required as a condition of the marriage that Rosa give up custody of both Lafcadio and James.", "As a result, James was sent to his father in Dublin and Lafcadio remained in the care of Sarah, who had disinherited Charles because of the annulment.", "Neither Lafcadio nor James ever again saw their mother, who had four children with her second husband.", "Rosa was eventually committed to the National Mental Asylum on Corfu, where she died in 1882.Charles Hearn, who had left Lafcadio in the care of Sarah Brenane for the past four years, now appointed her as Lafcadio's permanent guardian.", "He married his childhood sweetheart, Alicia Goslin, in July 1857, and left with his new wife for a posting in Secunderabad, where they had three daughters prior to Alicia's death in 1861.Lafcadio never saw his father again: Charles Hearn died of malaria in the Gulf of Suez in 1866.In 1857, at age seven and despite the fact that both his parents were still alive, Hearn became the permanent ward of his great aunt, Sarah Brenane.", "She divided her residency between Dublin in the winter months, her husband's estate at Tramore, County Waterford, on the southern Irish coast, and a house at Bangor, North Wales.", "Brenane also engaged a tutor during the school year to provide basic instruction and the rudiments of Catholic dogma.", "Hearn began exploring Brenane's library and read extensively in Greek literature, especially myths.====Catholic education and more abandonment====The first issue of ''Ye Giglampz'', a satirical weekly published in 1874 by Hearn and Henry FarnyIn 1861, Hearn's aunt, aware that Hearn was turning away from Catholicism, and at the urging of Henry Hearn Molyneux, a relative of her late husband and a distant cousin of Hearn, enrolled him at the ''Institution Ecclésiastique'', a Catholic church school in Yvetot, France.", "Hearn's experiences at the school confirmed his lifelong conviction that Catholic education consisted of \"conventional dreariness and ugliness and dirty austerities and long faces and Jesuitry and infamous distortion of children's brains.\"", "Hearn became fluent in French and would later translate into English the works of Guy de Maupassant and Gustave Flaubert.In 1863, again at the suggestion of Molyneux, Hearn was enrolled at St. Cuthbert's College, Ushaw, a Catholic seminary at what is now the University of Durham.", "In this environment, Hearn adopted the nickname \"Paddy\" to try to fit in better, and was the top student in English composition for three years.", "At age 16, while at Ushaw, Hearn injured his left eye in a schoolyard mishap.", "The eye became infected and, despite consultations with specialists in Dublin and London, and a year spent out of school convalescing, went blind.", "Hearn also suffered from severe myopia, so his injury left him permanently with poor vision, requiring him to carry a magnifying glass for close work and a pocket telescope to see anything beyond a short distance (Hearn avoided eyeglasses, believing they would gradually weaken his vision further).", "The iris was permanently discolored, and left Hearn self-conscious about his appearance for the rest of his life, causing him to cover his left eye while conversing and always posing for the camera in profile so that the left eye was not visible.In 1867, Henry Molyneux, who had become Sarah Brenane's financial manager, went bankrupt, along with Brenane.", "There was no money for tuition, and Hearn was sent to London's East End to live with Brenane's former maid.", "She and her husband had little time or money for Hearn, who wandered the streets, spent time in workhouses, and generally lived an aimless, rootless existence.", "His main intellectual activities consisted of visits to libraries and the British Museum.===Immigration to Cincinnati===By 1869, Henry Molyneux had recovered some financial stability and Brenane, now 75, was infirm.", "Resolving to end his financial obligations to the 19-year-old Hearn, he purchased a one-way ticket to New York and instructed the young man to find his way to Cincinnati, where he could locate Molyneux's sister and her husband, Thomas Cullinan, and obtain their assistance in making a living.", "Upon meeting Hearn in Cincinnati, however, it became clear that the family wanted little to do with him: Cullinan all but threw him out into the streets with only $5 in his pocket.", "As Hearn would later write, \"I was dropped moneyless on the pavement of an American city to begin life.", "\"For a time, he was impoverished, living in stables or store rooms in exchange for menial labor.", "He eventually befriended the English printer and communalist Henry Watkin, who employed him in his printing business, helped find him various odd jobs, lent him books from his library, including utopianists Fourier, Dixon and Noyes, and gave Hearn a nickname which stuck with him for the rest of his life, The Raven, from the Poe poem.", "Hearn also frequented the Cincinnati Public Library, which at that time had an estimated 50,000 volumes.", "In the spring of 1871 a letter from Henry Molyneux informed him of Sarah Brenane's death and Molyneux's appointment as sole executor.", "Despite Brenane having named him as the beneficiary of an annuity when she became his guardian, Hearn received nothing from the estate and never heard from Molyneux again.====Newspaper and literary work====Char-Coal: Cartoon published in ''New Orleans Daily Item'' on 25 August 1880By the strength of his talent as a writer, Hearn obtained a job as a reporter for the ''Cincinnati Daily Enquirer'', working for the newspaper from 1872 to 1875.Writing with creative freedom in one of Cincinnati's largest circulating newspapers, he became known for his lurid accounts of local murders, developing a reputation as the paper's premier sensational journalist, as well as the author of sensitive accounts of some of the disadvantaged people of Cincinnati.", "''The Library of America'' selected one of these murder accounts, ''Gibbeted,'' for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of ''American True Crime'', published in 2008.After one of his murder stories, the Tanyard Murder, had run for several months in 1874, Hearn established his reputation as Cincinnati's most audacious journalist, and the ''Enquirer'' raised his salary from $10 to $25 per week.In 1874, Hearn and the young Henry Farny, later a renowned painter of the American West, wrote, illustrated, and published an 8-page weekly journal of art, literature and satire entitled ''Ye Giglampz.''", "The Cincinnati Public Library reprinted a facsimile of all nine issues in 1983.The work was considered by a twentieth century critic to be \"Perhaps the most fascinating sustained project he undertook as an editor.", "\"====Marriage and firing by the ''Enquirer''====On 14 June 1874, Hearn, aged 23, married Alethea (\"Mattie\") Foley, a 20-year-old African American woman, and former slave, an action in violation of Ohio's anti-miscegenation law at that time.", "In August 1875, in response to complaints from a local clergyman about his anti-religious views and pressure from local politicians embarrassed by some of his satirical writing in ''Ye Giglampz,'' the ''Enquirer'' fired him, citing as its reason his illegal marriage.", "He went to work for the rival newspaper ''The Cincinnati Commercial.''", "The ''Enquirer'' offered to re-hire him after his stories began appearing in the ''Commercial'' and its circulation began increasing, but Hearn, incensed at the paper's behavior, refused.", "Hearn and Foley separated, but attempted reconciliation several times before divorcing in 1877.Foley remarried in 1880.While working for the ''Commercial'' he championed the case of Henrietta Wood, a former slave who won a major reparations case.While working for the ''Commercial'' Hearn agreed to be carried to the top of Cincinnati's tallest building on the back of a famous steeplejack, Joseph Roderiguez Weston, and wrote a half-terrified, half-comic account of the experience.", "It was also during this time that Hearn wrote a series of accounts of the Bucktown and Levee neighborhoods of Cincinnati, \"...one of the few depictions we have of black life in a border city during the post-Civil War period.\"", "He also wrote about local black song lyrics from the era, including a song titled \"Shiloh\" that was dedicated to a Bucktown resident named \"Limber Jim.\"", "In addition, Hearn had printed in the ''Commercial'' a stanza he had overheard when listening to the songs of the roustabouts, working on the city's levee waterfront.", "Similar stanzas were recorded in song by Julius Daniels in 1926 and Tommy McClennan in his version of \"Bottle Up and Go\" (1939).===Move to New Orleans===Alligators: Cartoon published in ''New Orleans Daily Item'' on 13 September 1880During the autumn of 1877, recently divorced from Mattie Foley and restless, Hearn had begun neglecting his newspaper work in favor of translating into English works of the French author Gautier.", "He had also grown increasingly disenchanted with Cincinnati, writing to Henry Watkin, \"It is time for a fellow to get out of Cincinnati when they begin to call it the Paris of America.\"", "With the support of Watkin and ''Cincinnati Commercial'' publisher Murat Halstead, Hearn left Cincinnati for New Orleans, where he initially wrote dispatches on the \"Gateway to the Tropics\" for the ''Commercial''.Hearn lived in New Orleans for nearly a decade, writing first for the newspaper ''Daily City Item'' beginning in June 1878, and later for the ''Times Democrat''.", "Since the ''Item'' was a 4-page publication, Hearn's editorial work changed the character of the newspaper dramatically.", "He began at the ''Item'' as a news editor, expanding to include book reviews of Bret Harte and Émile Zola, summaries of pieces in national magazines such as ''Harper's'', and editorial pieces introducing Buddhism and Sanskrit writings.", "As editor, Hearn created and published nearly two hundred woodcuts of daily life and people in New Orleans, making the ''Item'' the first Southern newspaper to introduce cartoons and giving the paper an immediate boost in circulation.", "Hearn gave up carving the woodcuts after six months when he found the strain was too great for his eye.Hearn's former home on Cleveland Avenue in New Orleans is preserved as a registered historic place.At the end of 1881, Hearn took an editorial position with the New Orleans ''Times Democrat'' and was employed translating items from French and Spanish newspapers as well as writing editorials and cultural reviews on topics of his choice.", "He also continued his work translating French authors into English: Gérard de Nerval, Anatole France, and most notably Pierre Loti, an author who influenced Hearn's own writing style.", "Milton Bronner, who edited Hearn's letters to Henry Watkin, wrote: \"The Hearn of New Orleans was the father of the Hearn of the West Indies and of Japan,\" and this view was endorsed by Norman Foerster.", "During his tenure at the ''Times Democrat'', Hearn also developed a friendship with editor Page Baker, who went on to champion Hearn's literary career; their correspondence is archived at the Loyola University New Orleans Special Collections & Archives.The vast number of his writings about New Orleans and its environs, many of which have not been collected, include the city's Creole population and distinctive cuisine, the French Opera, and Louisiana Voodoo.", "Hearn wrote enthusiastically of New Orleans, but also wrote of the city's decay, \"a dead bride crowned with orange flowers\".Hearn's writings for national publications, such as ''Harper's Weekly'' and ''Scribner's Magazine'', helped create the popular reputation of New Orleans as a place with a distinctive culture more akin to that of Europe and the Caribbean than to the rest of North America.", "Hearn's best-known Louisiana works include: * ''Gombo zhèbes: Little dictionary of Creole proverbs'' (1885)* ''La Cuisine Créole'' (1885), a collection of culinary recipes from leading chefs and noted Creole housewives who helped make New Orleans famous for its cuisine* ''Chita: A Memory of Last Island'' (1889), a novella based on the hurricane of 1856 first published in ''Harper's Monthly'' in 1888Hearn also published in ''Harper's Weekly'' the first known written article (1883) about Filipinos in the United States, the Manilamen or Tagalogs, one of whose villages he had visited at Saint Malo, southeast of Lake Borgne in St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana.At the time he lived there, Hearn was little known, and even now he is little known for his writing about New Orleans, except by local cultural devotees.", "However, more books have been written about him than any former resident of New Orleans except Louis Armstrong.Hearn's writings for the New Orleans newspapers included impressionistic descriptions of places and characters and many editorials denouncing political corruption, street crime, violence, intolerance, and the failures of public health and hygiene officials.", "Despite the fact that he is credited with \"inventing\" New Orleans as an exotic and mysterious place, his obituaries of the vodou leaders Marie Laveau and Doctor John Montenet are matter-of-fact and debunking.", "Selections of Hearn's New Orleans writings have been collected and published in several works, starting with ''Creole Sketches'' in 1924, and more recently in ''Inventing New Orleans: Writings of Lafcadio Hearn.", "''===Move to the French West Indies===Hearn with his wife Setsuko—he preferred to hide his injured left eye in pictures.", "''Harper's'' sent Hearn to the West Indies as a correspondent in 1887.He spent two years in Martinique and in addition to his writings for the magazine, produced two books: ''Two Years in the French West Indies'' and ''Youma, The Story of a West-Indian Slave'', both published in 1890.===Later life in Japan===In 1890, Hearn went to Japan with a commission as a newspaper correspondent, which was quickly terminated.", "It was in Japan, however, that he found a home and his greatest inspiration.", "Through the good will of Basil Hall Chamberlain, Hearn gained a teaching position during the summer of 1890 at the Shimane Prefectural Common Middle School and Normal School in Matsue, a town in western Japan on the coast of the Sea of Japan.", "During his fifteen-month stay in Matsue, Hearn married Koizumi Setsuko, the daughter of a local samurai family, with whom he had four children: Kazuo, Iwao, Kiyoshi, and Suzuko.", "He became a Japanese citizen, assuming the legal name Koizumi Yakumo in 1896 after accepting a teaching position in Tokyo; Koizumi is his wife's surname and Yakumo is from ''yakumotatsu'', a poetic modifier word (''makurakotoba'') for Izumo Province, which he translated as \"the Place of the Issuing of Clouds\".", "After having been Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and, later on, Spencerian, he became Buddhist.During late 1891, Hearn obtained another teaching position in Kumamoto, at the Fifth High Middle School (a predecessor of Kumamoto University), where he spent the next three years and completed his book ''Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan'' (1894).", "In October 1894, he secured a journalism job with the English-language newspaper ''Kobe Chronicle'', and in 1896, with some assistance from Chamberlain, he began teaching English literature at Tokyo Imperial University, a job he had until 1903.In 1904, he was a lecturer at Waseda University.While in Japan, he encountered the art of ju-jutsu which made a deep impression upon him: \"Hearn, who encountered judo in Japan at the end of the nineteenth century, contemplated its concepts with the awed tones of an explorer staring about him in an extraordinary and undiscovered land.", "\"What Western brain could have elaborated this strange teaching, never to oppose force by force, but only direct and utilize the power of attack; to overthrow the enemy solely through his own strength, to vanquish him solely by his own efforts?", "Surely none!", "The Western mind appears to work in straight lines; the Oriental, in wonderful curves and circles.\"", "When he was teaching at the Fifth High Middle School, the headmaster was founder of Judo Kano Jigoro himself." ], [ "Death", "Hearn's grave in Zōshigaya CemeteryOn 26 September 1904, Hearn died of heart failure in Tokyo at the age of 54.His grave is at the Zōshigaya Cemetery in Tokyo's Toshima district." ], [ "Legacy", "Kazuo, Hearn's son, aged about 17===Literary tradition===In the late 19th century, Japan was still largely unknown and exotic to Westerners.", "However, with the introduction of Japanese aesthetics, particularly at the Paris Exposition Universelle of 1900, Japanese styles became fashionable in Western countries.", "Consequently, Hearn became known to the world by his writings concerning Japan.", "In later years, some critics would accuse Hearn of exoticizing Japan, but because he offered the West some of its first descriptions of pre-industrial and Meiji Era Japan, his work is generally regarded as having historical value.Admirers of Hearn's work have included Ben Hecht, John Erskine, Malcolm Cowley and Jorge Luis Borges.Hearn was a major translator of the short stories of Guy de Maupassant.Yone Noguchi is quoted as saying about Hearn, \"His Greek temperament and French culture became frost-bitten as a flower in the North.", "\"Hearn won a wide following in Japan, where his books were translated and remain popular to the present day.", "Hearn's appeal to Japanese readers \"lies in the glimpses he offered of an older, more mystical Japan lost during the country’s hectic plunge into Western-style industrialization and nation building.", "His books are treasured here as a trove of legends and folk tales that otherwise might have vanished because no Japanese had bothered to record them.", "\"===Museums===The Lafcadio Hearn Memorial Museum and his old residence in Matsue are still two of the city's most popular tourist attractions.", "In addition, another small museum dedicated to Hearn opened in Yaizu, Shizuoka, in 2007 (:ja:焼津小泉八雲記念館).The first museum in Europe for Lafcadio Hearn was inaugurated in Lefkada, Greece, his birthplace, on 4 July 2014, as Lefcadio Hearn Historical Center.", "It contains early editions, rare books and Japanese collectibles.", "The visitors, through photos, texts and exhibits, can wander in the significant events of Lafcadio Hearn's life, but also in the civilizations of Europe, America and Japan of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries through his lectures, writings and tales.", "The municipalities of Kumamoto, Matsue, Shinjuku, Yaizu, Toyama University, the Koizumi family and other people from Japan and Greece contributed to the establishment of Lefcadio Hearn Historical Center.On a trip to Matsue in 2012, Professor Bon Koizumi (Hearn's great-grandson) and his wife Shoko were introduced by keen supporters of Lafcadio to Dublin-based Motoko Fujita, a published photographer of The Shadow of James Joyce (Lilliput Press Ltd., Ireland, 2011) and the founder of the Experience Japan Festival in Dublin.", "Acting on the Koizumi's desire to reconnect with their Irish roots, Fujita then coordinated a trip for Bon and Shoko in autumn 2013, during which key relationships to more Lafcadio supporters in Ireland were forged.", "Fujita's initiative led to the exhibition ''Coming Home: The Open Mind of Patrick Lafcadio Hearn'' at The Little Museum of Dublin (15 October 2015 to 3 January 2016), the first time Hearn was honoured in the city.", "The exhibit contained first editions of Hearn's works and personal items from the Lafcadio Hearn Memorial Museum.", "Professor Bon Koizumi was in attendance at the opening of the exhibition.", "Fujita also initiated the planning of a Japanese garden in Hearn's honour, and in 2015 the Lafcadio Hearn Japanese Gardens in Tramore, County Waterford opened.", "There is also a cultural centre named after Hearn at the University of Durham, where in 2022 a conference ''Lafcadio Hearn and the Global Imagination at the Fin de Siècle'' was held.===Sister cities===His life journey later connected its both ends; Lefkada and Shinjuku became sister cities in 1989.Another pair of cities he lived in, New Orleans and Matsue did the same in 1994.===Media and theater===The Japanese director Masaki Kobayashi adapted four Hearn tales into his 1964 film, ''Kwaidan''.", "Some of his stories have been adapted by Ping Chong into his puppet theatre, including the 1999 ''Kwaidan'' and the 2002 ''OBON: Tales of Moonlight and Rain''.In 1984, four episode Japanese TV series ''Nihon no omokage'' (:ja:日本の面影, Remnants of Japan), depicting Hearn's departure from the United States and later life in Japan, was broadcast with Greek-American actor George Chakiris as Hearn.", "The story was later adapted to theatrical productions.Two manga book versions of Hearn’s Japanese stories have been made by writer, Sean Michael Wilson, who lives in Kumamoto, as Hearn did, and is also half Irish.", "These are ’The Faceless Ghost’ (2015) with Japanese artist Michiru Morikawa, and ‘Manga Yokai Stories’(2020) with Japanese artist Ai Takita.The video game series Touhou Project is influenced by Hearn's works.", "This doujin soft series is about a fantasy world known as \"Gensokyo\", separated from \"our\" world with a magical barrier.", "Two of its most important characters, Yukari Yakumo and Maribel Hearn, are references to Lafcadio Hearn.", "Yukari is a powerful Yōkai who helped create the border separating Gensokyo from the outside world, and Maribel Hearn is a college student who lives in Kyoto who is able to see Gensokyo in her dreams.", "These two characters are implied to be related or even the same person, but what their relationship is exactly is unknown.", "Yukari Yakumo appears in many Touhou games, books, and manga, and Maribel appears in the stories included in ZUN's music collection, a series of albums." ], [ "Works", "''Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan'', 1895===Louisiana subjects===* ''La Cuisine Creole: A Collection of Culinary Recipes'' (1885)* ''\"Gombo Zhèbes\": A Little Dictionary of Creole Proverbs, Selected from Six Creole Dialects.''", "(1885)* ''Chita: A Memory of Last Island'' (1889)* ''Creole Sketches'' (1878-1880; published 1924) pdf full text===West Indies subjects===* ''Youma: The Story of a West-Indian Slave'' (1889)* ''Two Years in the French West Indies'' (1890)===Japanese subjects===Source:* ''Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan'' (1894)* ''Out of the East: Reveries and Studies in New Japan'' (1895)* ''Kokoro: Hints and Echoes of Japanese Inner Life'' (1896) pdf; free full text* ''Gleanings in Buddha-Fields: Studies of Hand and Soul in the Far East'' (1897)* ''The Boy Who Drew Cats'' (1897)* ''Exotics and Retrospectives'' (1898)* ''Japanese Fairy Tales'' (1898, and sequels)* ''In Ghostly Japan'' (1899)* ''Shadowings'' (1900)* ''Japanese Lyrics'' (1900)* ''A Japanese Miscellany'' (1901)* ''Kottō: Being Japanese Curios, with Sundry Cobwebs'' (1902)* ''Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things'' (1904)* ''Japan: An Attempt at Interpretation'' (1904)* ''The Romance of the Milky Way and Other Studies and Stories'' (1905)===Posthumous anthologies===* ''Letters from the Raven: Being the Correspondence of Lafcadio Hearn with Henry Watkin'' (1907), includes ''Letters from the Raven'', ''Letters to a Lady'', ''Letters of Ozias Midwinter''* ''Leaves from the Diary of an Impressionist'' (1911, Houghton Mifflin Company)* ''Interpretations of Literature'' (1915, Dodd, Mead and Company).", "This is a selection of his University of Tokyo lectures (1896-1902).", "* ''Appreciations of Poetry'' (London: William Heinemann, 1916).", "This is a further selection from his University of Tokyo lectures (1896-1902).", "* ''Karma'' (1918)* ''On Reading in Relation to Literature'' (1921, The Atlantic Monthly Press, Inc.)* ''Creole Sketches'' (1924, Houghton Mifflin)* ''Lectures on Shakespeare'' (1928, Hokuseido Press)* ''Insect-Musicians and Other Stories and Sketches'' (1929)* ''Japan's Religions: Shinto and Buddhism'' (1966)* ''Books and Habits; from the Lectures of Lafcadio Hearn'' (1968, Books for Libraries Press)* ''Writings from Japan: An Anthology'' (1984, Penguin Books)* ''Lafcadio Hearn's America: Ethnographic Sketches and Editorials'' (2002, University Press of Kentucky)* ''Lafcadio Hearn's Japan: An Anthology of His Writings on the Country and Its People'' (2007, Tuttle)* ''American Writings'' (2009, Library of America)* ''Nightmare-Touch'' (2010, Tartarus Press)* ''Insect Literature'' (2015, Swan River Press; for details, see Insects in literature)* ''Japanese Ghost Stories''.", "Murray, Paul, ed.", "2019 London: Penguin.", "* ''Japanese Tales of Lafcadio Hearn''.", "Andrei Codrescu, ed.", "2019.Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "* ''Whimsically Grotesque: Selected Writings of Lafcadio Hearn in the Cincinnati Enquirer, 1872-1875''.", "(2009, KyoVision Books) Bilingual edition in English and Japanese.===Translations===* ''One of Cleopatra's Nights and Other Fantastic Romances'' by Théophile Gautier (1882) * ''Tales from Theophile Gautier'' (1888) * ''The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard'' by Anatole France (1890) * ''The Temptation of Saint Anthony'' by Gustave Flaubert (1910)* ''Stories from Emile Zola'' (1935)* ''The Tales of Guy de Maupassant'' (1964)===Other===* ''Stray Leaves From Strange Literature: Stories Reconstructed from the Anvari-Soheili, Baital Pachisi, Mahabharata, Pantchantra, Gulistan, Talmud, Kalewala, etc.''", "(1884, James R. Osgood and Company)* ''Some Chinese Ghosts'' (1887)" ], [ "See also", "* Lafcadio Hearn Memorial Museum* Goryo Hamaguchi" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Amenomori, Nobushige (1905).", "\"Lafcadio Hearn, the Man,\" ''The Atlantic Monthly'', October 1905.", "* Bisland, Elizabeth (1906).", "''The Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn'', Vol.", "II, New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Company.", "* Bronner, Simon J.", "2002.", "''Lafcadio Hearn's America: Ethnographic Sketches and Editorials''.", "Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.", "* * .", "* Dawson, Carl (1992).", "''Lafcadio Hearn and the Vision of Japan'', Johns Hopkins University Press.", "* .", "Hirakawa, Sukehiro and Yoko Makino (2018), ''What is Shintō?", "Japan, a Country of Gods, as Seen by Lafcadio Hearn'', Tokyo: Kinseisha.", " .", "* Kunst, Arthur E. (1969).", "''Lafcadio Hearn'', Twayne Publishers.", "* Langton, D. H. (1912).", "\"Lafcadio Hearn: Journalist and Writer on Japan,\" ''The Manchester Quarterly'', Vol.", "XXXI.", "* .", "* Mais, S. P. B.", "(1920).", "\"Lafcadio Hearn.\"", "In ''Books and their Writers'', Grant Richards, Ltd.* McWilliams, Vera (1946).", "''Lafcadio Hearn'', Houghton Mifflin Company.", "* Miner, Earl Roy (1958).", "''The Japanese Tradition in British and American Literature'', Princeton University Press.", "* Monaham, Michael (1922).", "\"Lafcadio Hearn,\" ''An Attic Dreamer'', Mitchell Kennerley.", "* More, Paul Elmer (1905).", "\"Lafcadio Hearn.\"", "In ''Shelburne Essays'', Second Series, G. P. Putnam's Sons.", "* Murray, Paul (1993).", "''A Fantastic Journey: The Life and Literature of Lafcadio Hearn'', Japan Library.", "* Noguchi, Yone (1905).", "\"Lafcadio Hearn, A Dreamer,\" ''National Magazine'', Vol.", "XXII, No.", "1.", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ; republished in .", "* Setsu, Koizumi (1918).", "''Reminiscences of Lafcadio Hearn'', Houghton Mifflin Company.", "* .", "* Stevenson, Elizabeth (1961).", "''Lafcadio Hearn'', Macmillan New York* Thomas, Edward (1912).", "''Lafcadio Hearn'', Houghton Mifflin Company.", "Murray, Paul, ed.", "2019.Japanese Ghost Stories.", "Lafcadio Hearn.", "London: Penguin.", "Hearn, Lafcadio.", "2019.Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things.", "By.", "2019.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "(soft cover)." ], [ "External links", "* Lafcadio Hearn Memorial Museum Matsue city in Japan* Lafcadio Hearn History Center Lefkada in Greece* Lafcadio Hearn Gardens Tramore in Ireland* Hearn's Works, by T Russel* * * * * Works by Lafcadio Hearn, at Hathi Trust* .", "* Hearn's influence in literature* .", "* Lafcadio Hearn's papers at the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library, University of Virginia* Japan and the Japanese as Seen by Foreigners* Lafcadio Hearn* Two Years in the French West Indies From the Collections at the Library of Congress* Lafcadio Hearn Correspondence digitized by Loyola University New Orleans* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Learning theory (education)" ], [ "Introduction", "A classroom in Norway'''Learning theory''' describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during learning.", "Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a worldview, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and advocate a system of rewards and targets in education.", "Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as a change in behaviour is too narrow, and study the learner rather than their environment—and in particular the complexities of human memory.", "Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner's ability to learn relies largely on what they already know and understand, and the acquisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction.", "Transformative learning theory focuses on the often-necessary change required in a learner's preconceptions and worldview.", "Geographical learning theory focuses on the ways that contexts and environments shape the learning process.Outside the realm of educational psychology, techniques to directly observe the functioning of the brain during the learning process, such as event-related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging, are used in educational neuroscience.", "The theory of multiple intelligences, where learning is seen as the interaction between dozens of different functional areas in the brain each with their own individual strengths and weaknesses in any particular human learner, has also been proposed, but empirical research has found the theory to be unsupported by evidence." ], [ "Educational philosophy", "===Classical theorists=======Plato====Plato (428 BC–347 BC) proposed the question: \"How does an individual learn something new when the topic is brand new to that person?", "\", This question may seem trivial; however, think of a human-like a computer.", "The question would then become: How does a computer take in any factual information without previous programming?", "Plato answered his own question by stating that knowledge is present at birth and all information learned by a person is merely a recollection of something the soul has already learned previously, which is called the Theory of Recollection or Platonic epistemology.", "This answer could be further justified by a paradox: If a person knows something, they don't need to question it, and if a person does not know something, they don't know to question it.", "Plato says that if one did not previously know something, then they cannot learn it.", "He describes learning as a passive process, where information and knowledge are ironed into the soul over time.", "However, Plato's theory elicits even more questions about knowledge: If we can only learn something when we already had the knowledge impressed onto our souls, then how did our souls gain that knowledge in the first place?", "Plato's theory can seem convoluted; however, his classical theory can still help us understand knowledge today.====Locke====John Locke (1632–1704) offered an answer to Plato's question as well.", "Locke offered the \"blank slate\" theory where humans are born into the world with no innate knowledge and are ready to be written on and influenced by the environment.", "The thinker maintained that knowledge and ideas originate from two sources, which are sensation and reflection.", "The former provides insights regarding external objects (including their properties) while the latter provides the ideas about one's mental faculties (volition and understanding).", "In the theory of empiricism, these sources are direct experience and observation.", "Locke, like David Hume, is considered an empiricist because he locates the source of human knowledge in the empirical world.Locke recognized that something had to be present, however.", "This something, to Locke, seemed to be \"mental powers\".", "Locke viewed these powers as a biological ability the baby is born with, similar to how a baby knows how to biologically function when born.", "So as soon as the baby enters the world, it immediately has experiences with its surroundings and all of those experiences are being transcribed to the baby's \"slate\".", "All of the experiences then eventually culminate into complex and abstract ideas.", "This theory can still help teachers understand their students' learning today." ], [ "Educational psychology", "===Behavior analysis===The term \"behaviorism\" was coined by American psychologist John Watson (1878–1959).", "Watson believed the behaviorist view is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science with a goal to predict and control behavior.", "In an article in the ''Psychological Review'', he stated that, \"Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.", "Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness.", "\"Methodological behaviorism is based on the theory of only explaining public events, or observable behavior.", "B.F. Skinner introduced another type of behaviorism called radical behaviorism, or the conceptual analysis of behavior, which is based on the theory of also explaining private events; particularly, thinking and feelings.", "Radical behaviorism forms the conceptual piece of behavior analysis.In behavior analysis, learning is the acquisition of a new behavior through conditioning and social learning.====Learning and conditioning====The three main types of conditioning and learning:* Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to an antecedent stimulus.", "* Operant conditioning, where antecedent stimuli results from the consequences that follow the behavior through a reward (reinforcement) or a punishment.", "* Social learning theory, where an observation of behavior is followed by modeling.Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning.", "He observed that if dogs come to associate the delivery of food with a white lab coat or the ringing of a bell, they produce saliva, even when there is no sight or smell of food.", "Classical conditioning considers this form of learning the same, whether in dogs or in humans.", "Operant conditioning reinforces this behavior with a reward or a punishment.", "A reward increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, a punishment decreases its likelihood.", "Social learning theory observes behavior and is followed with modeling.These three learning theories form the basis of applied behavior analysis, the application of behavior analysis, which uses analyzed antecedents, functional analysis, replacement behavior strategies, and often data collection and reinforcement to change behavior.", "The old practice was called behavior modification, which only used ''assumed'' antecedents and consequences to change behavior without acknowledging the conceptual analysis; analyzing the function of behavior and teaching of new behaviors that would serve the same function was never relevant in behavior modification.Behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, and arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioral objectives, Competency-based learning, and skill development and training.", "Educational approaches such as Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention, curriculum-based measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model.====Transfer of learning====Transfer of learning is the idea that what one learns in school somehow carries over to situations different from that particular time and that particular setting.", "Transfer was amongst the first phenomena tested in educational psychology.", "Edward Lee Thorndike was a pioneer in transfer research.", "He found that though transfer is extremely important for learning, it is a rarely occurring phenomenon.", "In fact, he held an experiment where he had the subjects estimate the size of a specific shape and then he would switch the shape.", "He found that the prior information did not help the subjects; instead it impeded their learning.One explanation of why transfer does not occur often involves surface structure and deep structure.", "The surface structure is the way a problem is framed.", "The deep structure is the steps for the solution.", "For example, when a math story problem changes contexts from asking how much it costs to reseed a lawn to how much it costs to varnish a table, they have different surface structures, but the steps for getting the answers are the same.", "However, many people are more influenced by the surface structure.", "In reality, the surface structure is unimportant.", "Nonetheless, people are concerned with it because they believe that it provides background knowledge on how to do the problem.", "Consequently, this interferes with their understanding of the deep structure of the problem.", "Even if somebody tries to concentrate on the deep structure, transfer still may be unsuccessful because the deep structure is not usually obvious.", "Therefore, surface structure gets in the way of people's ability to see the deep structure of the problem and transfer the knowledge they have learned to come up with a solution to a new problem.Current learning pedagogies focus on conveying rote knowledge, independent of the context that gives it meaning.", "Because of this, students often struggle to transfer this stand-alone information into other aspects of their education.", "Students need much more than abstract concepts and self-contained knowledge; they need to be exposed to learning that is practiced in the context of authentic activity and culture.", "Critics of situated cognition, however, would argue that by discrediting stand-alone information, the transfer of knowledge across contextual boundaries becomes impossible.", "There must be a balance between situating knowledge while also grasping the deep structure of material, or the understanding of how one arrives to know such information.Some theorists argue that transfer does not even occur at all.", "They believe that students transform what they have learned into the new context.", "They say that transfer is too much of a passive notion.", "They believe students, instead, transform their knowledge in an active way.", "Students don't simply carry over knowledge from the classroom, but they construct the knowledge in a way that they can understand it themselves.", "The learner changes the information they have learned to make it best adapt to the changing contexts that they use the knowledge in.", "This transformation process can occur when a learner feels motivated to use the knowledge—however, if the student does not find the transformation necessary, it is less likely that the knowledge will ever transform.====Techniques and benefits of transfer of learning====There are many different conditions that influence transfer of learning in the classroom.", "These conditions include features of the task, features of the learner, features of the organization and social context of the activity.", "The features of the task include practicing through simulations, problem-based learning, and knowledge and skills for implementing new plans.", "The features of learners include their ability to reflect on past experiences, their ability to participate in group discussions, practice skills, and participate in written discussions.", "All the unique features contribute to a student's ability to use transfer of learning.", "There are structural techniques that can aid learning transfer in the classroom.", "These structural strategies include hugging and bridging.Hugging uses the technique of simulating an activity to encourage reflexive learning.", "An example of the hugging strategy is when a student practices teaching a lesson or when a student role plays with another student.", "These examples encourage critical thinking that engages the student and helps them understand what they are learning—one of the goals of transfer of learning and desirable difficulties.Bridging is when instruction encourages thinking abstractly by helping to identify connections between ideas and to analyze those connections.", "An example is when a teacher lets the student analyze their past test results and the way they got those results.", "This includes amount of study time and study strategies.", "Looking at their past study strategies can help them come up with strategies to improve performance.", "These are some of the ideas important to successful to hugging and bridging practices.There are many benefits of transfer of learning in the classroom.", "One of the main benefits is the ability to quickly learn a new task.", "This has many real-life applications such as language and speech processing.", "Transfer of learning is also very useful in teaching students to use higher cognitive thinking by applying their background knowledge to new situations.===Cognitivism=======Gestalt theory====Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology.", "Gestalt psychology was developed in Germany in the early 1900s by Wolfgang Kohler and was brought to America in the 1920s.", "The German word ''Gestalt'' is roughly equivalent to the English \"emergence (of a form-as in the game pictionary, when all of a sudden one recognises what the person is trying to convey - the form and meaning \"emerge\")\", ''configuration'' or ''organization'' and emphasizes the whole of human experience.", "Over the years, the Gestalt psychologists provided demonstrations and described principles to explain the way we organize our sensations into perceptions.", "Max Wertheimer, one of the founding fathers of Gestalt Theory, observed that sometimes we interpret motion when there is no motion at all.", "For example: a powered sign used at a convenience store to indicate that the store is open or closed might be seen as a sign with \"constant light\".", "However, the lights are actually flashing.", "Each light has been programmed to blink rapidly at their own individual pace.", "Perceived as a whole however, the sign appears fully lit without flashes.", "If perceived individually, the lights turn off and on at designated times.", "Another example of this would be a brick house: As a whole, it is viewed as a standing structure.", "However, it is actually composed of many smaller parts, which are individual bricks.", "People tend to see things from a holistic point of view rather than breaking it down into sub units.In Gestalt theory, psychologists say that instead of obtaining knowledge from what's in front of us, we often learn by making sense of the relationship between what's new and old.", "Because we have a unique perspective of the world, humans have the ability to generate their own learning experiences and interpret information that may or may not be the same for someone else.Gestalt psychologists criticize behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning.", "They propose looking at the patterns rather than isolated events.", "Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled ''cognitive theories''.", "Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.", "Gestalt theorists believe that for learning to occur, prior knowledge must exist on the topic.", "When the learner applies their prior knowledge to the advanced topic, the learner can understand the meaning in the advanced topic, and learning can occur.", "Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to consider how human memory works to promote learning, and an understanding of short-term memory and long-term memory is important to educators influenced by cognitive theory.", "They view learning as an internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory and perception) where the educator focuses on building intelligence and cognitive development.", "The individual learner is more important than the environment.====Other cognitive theories====Once memory theories like the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s.", "Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory.", "These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design.", "Cognitive theory is used to explain such topics as social role acquisition, intelligence and memory as related to age.In the late twentieth century, situated cognition emerged as a theory that recognized current learning as primarily the transfer of decontextualized and formal knowledge.", "Bredo (1994) depicts situated cognition as \"shifting the focus from individual in environment to individual and environment\".", "In other words, individual cognition should be considered as intimately related with the context of social interactions and culturally constructed meaning.", "Learning through this perspective, in which knowing and doing become inseparable, becomes both applicable and whole.Much of the education students receive is limited to the culture of schools, without consideration for authentic cultures outside of education.", "Curricula framed by situated cognition can bring knowledge to life by embedding the learned material within the culture students are familiar with.", "For example, formal and abstract syntax of math problems can be transformed by placing a traditional math problem within a practical story problem.", "This presents an opportunity to meet that appropriate balance between situated and transferable knowledge.", "Lampert (1987) successfully did this by having students explore mathematical concepts that are continuous with their background knowledge.", "She does so by using money, which all students are familiar with, and then develops the lesson to include more complex stories that allow for students to see various solutions as well as create their own.", "In this way, knowledge becomes active, evolving as students participate and negotiate their way through new situations.===Constructivism===Founded by Jean Piaget, constructivism emphasizes the importance of the active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves.", "Students are thought to use background knowledge and concepts to assist them in their acquisition of novel information.", "On approaching such new information, the learner faces a loss of equilibrium with their previous understanding, and this demands a change in cognitive structure.", "This change effectively combines previous and novel information to form an improved cognitive schema.", "Constructivism can be both subjectively and contextually based.", "Under the theory of radical constructivism, coined by Ernst von Glasersfeld, understanding relies on one's subjective interpretation of experience as opposed to objective \"reality\".", "Similarly, William Cobern's idea of contextual constructivism encompasses the effects of culture and society on experience.Constructivism asks why students do not learn deeply by listening to a teacher, or reading from a textbook.", "To design effective teaching environments, it believes one needs a good understanding of what children already know when they come into the classroom.", "The curriculum should be designed in a way that builds on the pupil's background knowledge and is allowed to develop with them.", "Begin with complex problems and teach basic skills while solving these problems.", "The learning theories of John Dewey, Maria Montessori, and David A. Kolb serve as the foundation of the application of constructivist learning theory in the classroom.", "Constructivism has many varieties such as active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building, but all versions promote a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.", "The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working answering open-ended questions and solving real-world problems.", "To do this, a teacher should encourage curiosity and discussion among his/her students as well as promoting their autonomy.", "In scientific areas in the classroom, constructivist teachers provide raw data and physical materials for the students to work with and analyze.===Transformative learning theory===Transformative learning theory seeks to explain how humans revise and reinterpret meaning.", "Transformative learning is the cognitive process of effecting change in a frame of reference.", "A frame of reference defines our view of the world.", "The emotions are often involved.", "Adults have a tendency to reject any ideas that do not correspond to their particular values, associations and concepts.Our frames of reference are composed of two dimensions: habits of mind and points of view.", "Habits of mind, such as ethnocentrism, are harder to change than points of view.", "Habits of mind influence our point of view and the resulting thoughts or feelings associated with them, but points of view may change over time as a result of influences such as reflection, appropriation and feedback.", "Transformative learning takes place by discussing with others the \"reasons presented in support of competing interpretations, by critically examining evidence, arguments, and alternative points of view\".", "When circumstances permit, transformative learners move toward a frame of reference that is more inclusive, discriminating, self-reflective, and integrative of experience." ], [ "Educational neuroscience", "American Universities such as Harvard, Johns Hopkins, and University of Southern California began offering majors and degrees dedicated to educational neuroscience or neuroeducation in the first decade of the twenty-first century.", "Such studies seek to link an understanding of brain processes with classroom instruction and experiences.", "Neuroeducation analyzes biological changes in the brain from processing new information.", "It looks at what environmental, emotional, and social situations best help the brain store and retain new information via the linking of neurons—and best keep the dendrites from being reabsorbed, losing the information.", "The 1990s were designated \"The Decade of the Brain\", and advances took place in neuroscience at an especially rapid pace.", "The three dominant methods for measuring brain activities are event-related potential, functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography (MEG).The integration and application to education of what we know about the brain was strengthened in 2000 when the American Federation of Teachers stated: \"It is vital that we identify what science tells us about how people learn in order to improve the education curriculum.\"", "What is exciting about this new field in education is that modern brain imaging techniques now make it possible, in some sense, to watch the brain as it learns, and the question then arises: can the results of neuro-scientific studies of brains as they are learning usefully inform practice in this area?", "The neuroscience field is young.", "Researchers expected that new technologies and ways of observing will produce new scientific evidence that helps refine the paradigms of what students need and how they learn best.", "In particular, it may bring more informed strategies for teaching students with learning disabilities.===Formal and mental discipline===All individuals have the ability to develop mental discipline and the skill of mindfulness, the two go hand in hand.", "Mental discipline is huge in shaping what people do, say, think and feel.", "It's critical in terms of the processing of information and involves the ability to recognize and respond appropriately to new things and information people come across, or have recently been taught.", "Mindfulness is important to the process of learning in many aspects.", "Being mindful means to be present with and engaged in whatever you are doing at a specific moment in time.", "Being mindful can aid in helping us to more critically think, feel and understand the new information we are in the process of absorbing.", "The formal discipline approach seeks to develop causation between the advancement of the mind by exercising it through exposure to abstract school subjects such as science, language and mathematics.", "With student's repetitive exposure to these particular subjects, some scholars feel that the acquisition of knowledge pertaining to science, language and math is of \"secondary importance\", and believe that the strengthening and further development of the mind that this curriculum provides holds far greater significance to the progressing learner in the long haul.", "D.C. Phillips and Jonas F. Soltis provide some skepticism to this notion.", "Their skepticism stems largely in part from feeling that the relationship between formal discipline and the overall advancement of the mind is not as strong as some would say.", "They illustrate their skepticism by opining that it is foolish to blindly assume that people are better off in life, or at performing certain tasks, because of taking particular, yet unrelated courses." ], [ "Multiple intelligences", "The existence of multiple intelligences is proposed by psychologist Howard Gardner, who suggests that different kinds of intelligence exists in human beings.", "It is a theory that has been fashionable in continuous professional development (CPD) training courses for teachers.", "However, the theory of multiple intelligences is often cited as an example of pseudoscience because it lacks empirical evidence or falsifiability." ], [ "Multimedia learning", "A multimedia classroom at Islington College, in the United KingdomMultimedia learning refers to the use of visual and auditory teaching materials that may include video, computer and other information technology.", "Multimedia learning theory focuses on the principles that determine the effective use of multimedia in learning, with emphasis on using both the visual and auditory channels for information processing.The auditory channel deals with information that is heard, and the visual channel processes information that is seen.", "The visual channel holds less information than the auditory channel.", "If both the visual and auditory channels are presented with information, more knowledge is retained.", "However, if too much information is delivered it is inadequately processed, and long-term memory is not acquired.", "Multimedia learning seeks to give instructors the ability to stimulate both the visual and auditory channels of the learner, resulting in better progress.===Using online games for learning===Many educators and researchers believe that information technology could bring innovation on traditional educational instructions.", "Teachers and technologists are searching for new and innovative ways to design learner-centered learning environments effectively, trying to engage learners more in the learning process.", "Claims have been made that online games have the potential to teach, train and educate and they are effective means for learning skills and attitudes that are not so easy to learn by rote memorization.There has been a lot of research done in identifying the learning effectiveness in game based learning.", "Learner characteristics and cognitive learning outcomes have been identified as the key factors in research on the implementation of games in educational settings.", "In the process of learning a language through an online game, there is a strong relationship between the learner's prior knowledge of that language and their cognitive learning outcomes.", "For the people with prior knowledge of the language, the learning effectiveness of the games is much more than those with none or less knowledge of the language." ], [ "Other learning theories", "Other learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes.", "For example, andragogy is the art and science to help adults learn.", "Connectivism is a recent theory of networked learning, which focuses on learning as making connections.", "The Learning as a Network (LaaN) theory builds upon connectivism, complexity theory, and double-loop learning.", "It starts from the learner and views learning as the continuous creation of a personal knowledge network (PKN).===Learning style theories===Learning style theories propose that individuals learn in different ways, that there are distinct learning styles and that knowledge of a learner's preferred learning style leads to faster and more satisfactory improvement.", "However, the current research has not been able to find solid scientific evidence to support the main premises of learning styles theory.===Affective Context Model===People remember how things made them feel, and use those emotional imprints to create memories on demand.===Informal and post-modern theories===In theories that make use of cognitive restructuring, an informal curriculum promotes the use of prior knowledge to help students gain a broad understanding of concepts.", "New knowledge cannot be told to students, it believes, but rather the students' current knowledge must be challenged.", "In this way, students adjust their ideas to more closely resemble actual theories or concepts.", "By using this method students gain the broad understanding they're taught and later are more willing to learn and keep the specifics of the concept or theory.", "This theory further aligns with the idea that teaching the concepts and the language of a subject should be split into multiple steps.Other informal learning theories look at the sources of motivation for learning.", "Intrinsic motivation may create a more self-regulated learner, yet schools undermine intrinsic motivation.", "Critics argue that the average student learning in isolation performs significantly less well than those learning with collaboration and mediation.", "Students learn through talk, discussion, and argumentation." ], [ "Educational anthropology", "===Philosophical anthropology===According to Theodora Polito, \"every well-constructed theory of education has at its center a philosophical anthropology,\" which is \"a philosophical reflection on some basic problems of mankind.\"", "Philosophical anthropology is an exploration of human nature and humanity.", "Aristotle, an early influence on the field, deemed human nature to be \"rational animality,\" wherein humans are closely related to other animals but still set apart by their ability to form rational thought.", "Philosophical anthropology expanded upon these ideas by clarifying that rationality is, \"determined by the biological and social conditions in which the lives of human beings are embedded.\"", "Fully developed learning theories address some of the \"basic problems of mankind\" by examining these biological and social conditions to understand and manipulate the rationality of humanity in the context of learning.Philosophical anthropology is evident in behaviorism, which requires an understanding of humanity and human nature in order to assert that the similarities between humans and other animals are critical and influential to the process of learning.", "Situated cognition focuses on how humans interact with each other and their environments, which would be considered the \"social conditions\" explored within the field of philosophical anthropology.", "Transformative learning theories operate with the assumption that humans are rational creatures capable of examining and redefining perspectives, something that is heavily considered within philosophical anthropology.An awareness and understanding of philosophical anthropology contributes to a greater comprehension and practice of any learning theory.", "In some cases, philosophy can be used to further explore and define uncertain terms within the field of education.", "Philosophy can also be a vehicle to explore the purpose of education, which can greatly influence an educational theory." ], [ "Criticism", "Critics of learning theories that seek to displace traditional educational practices claim that there is no need for such theories; that the attempt to comprehend the process of learning through the construction of theories creates problems and inhibits personal freedom." ], [ "See also", "* Andragogical learning theory* Cognitivism (learning theory)* Connectivism (learning theory)* Constructivism (learning theory)* Cultural-historical psychology* Evidence-based education* Instructional theory* Instructional design* Kinesthetic learning* Learning by teaching* Learning environment* Learning space* Psychology of learning* Science, technology, society and environment education;About accelerating the learning process* Cognitive acceleration* Spaced repetition* Incremental reading;About the mechanisms of memory and learning* Neural networks in the brain* Sleep and learning* Latent learning* Memory consolidation* Short-term memory versus working memory* Long-term memory* Desirable difficulties* Declarative memory versus procedural memory* The cerebellum and motor learning;About learning theories related to classroom learning:* Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 2: The Learning Process" ], [ "References", "76.Teaching for Transfer of Learning.", "Thomas, Ruth; National Center for Research in Vocational Education, Berkeley, CA.. 93 NCRVE, December 1992.77.Perkins, D. (1992).", "Transfer of Learning.", "International Encyclopedia of Education, 2.Retrieved March 23, 2015." ], [ "Further reading", "* " ], [ "External links", " Social Science Research Network.", "How to Become an Expert Law Teacher by Understanding the Neurobiology of Learning* ERIC Digest.", "How People Learn (and What Technology Might Have To Do with It) * Instructional Design Learning theories* Learning theories Wiki Learning theories" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Long-term memory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Long-term memory''' ('''LTM''') is the stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model in which informative knowledge is held indefinitely.", "It is defined in contrast to sensory memory, the initial stage, and short-term or working memory, the second stage, which persists for about 18 to 30 seconds.", "LTM is grouped into two categories known as explicit memory (declarative memory) and implicit memory (non-declarative memory).", "Explicit memory is broken down into episodic and semantic memory, while implicit memory includes procedural memory and emotional conditioning." ], [ "Stores", "The idea of separate memories for short- and long-term storage originated in the 19th century.", "One model of memory developed in the 1960s assumed that all memories are formed in one store and transfer to another store after a small period of time.", "This model is referred to as the \"modal model\", most famously detailed by Shiffrin.", "The model states that memory is first stored in sensory memory, which has a large capacity but can only maintain information for milliseconds.", "A representation of that rapidly decaying memory is moved to short-term memory.", "Short-term memory does not have a large capacity like sensory memory but holds information for seconds or minutes.", "The final storage is long-term memory, which has a very large capacity and is capable of holding information possibly for a lifetime.The exact mechanisms by which this transfer takes place, whether all or only some memories are retained permanently, and even to have the existence of a genuine distinction between stores, remain controversial.===Evidence=======Anterograde amnesia====One form of evidence cited in favor of the existence of a short-term store comes from anterograde amnesia, the inability to learn new facts and episodes.", "Patients with this form of amnesia have an intact ability to retain small amounts of information over short time scales (up to 30 seconds) but have little ability to form longer-term memories (illustrated by patient HM).", "This is interpreted as showing that the short-term store is protected from damage and diseases.====Distraction tasks====Other evidence comes from experimental studies showing that some manipulations impair memory for the 3 to 5 most recently learned words of a list (it is presumed that they are held in short-term memory).", "Recall for words from earlier in the list (it is presumed, stored in long-term memory) are unaffected.", "Other manipulations (e.g., semantic similarity of the words) affect only memory for earlier list words, but do not affect memory for the most recent few words.", "These results show that different factors affect short-term recall (disruption of rehearsal) and long-term recall (semantic similarity).", "Together, these findings show that long-term memory and short-term memory can vary independently of each other.===Models=======Unitary model====Not all researchers agree that short- and long-term memory are separate systems.", "The alternative Unitary Model proposes that short-term memory consists of temporary activations of long-term representations (that there is one memory that behaves variously over all time scales, from milliseconds to years).", "It has been difficult to identify a sharp boundary between short- and long-term memory.", "Eugen Tarnow, a physics researcher, reported that the recall probability versus latency curve is a straight line from 6 to 600 seconds, with the probability of failure to recall only saturating after 600 seconds.", "If two different stores were operating in this time domain, it is reasonable to expect a discontinuity in this curve.", "Other research has shown that the detailed pattern of recall errors looks remarkably similar to recall of a list immediately after learning (it is presumed, from short-term memory) and recall after 24 hours (necessarily from long-term memory).Further evidence for a unified store comes from experiments involving continual distractor tasks.", "In 1974, Bjork and Whitten, psychology researchers, presented subjects with word pairs to remember; before and after each word pair, subjects performed a simple multiplication task for 12 seconds.", "After the final word-pair, subjects performed the multiplication distractor task for 20 seconds.", "They reported that the recency effect (the increased probability of recall of the last items studied) and the primacy effect (the increased probability of recall of the first few items) was sustained.", "These results are incompatible with a separate short-term memory as the distractor items should have displaced some of the word-pairs in the buffer, thereby weakening the associated strength of the items in long-term memory.Ovid Tzeng (1973) reported an instance where the recency effect in free recall did not seem to result from a short-term memory store.", "Subjects were presented with four study-test periods of 10-word lists, with a continual distractor task (20-second period of counting-backward).", "At the end of each list, participants had to free recall as many words as possible.", "After recall of the fourth list, participants were asked to recall items from all four lists.", "Both the initial and final recall showed a recency effect.", "These results violated the predictions of a short-term memory model, where no recency effect would be expected.Koppenaal and Glanzer (1990) attempted to explain these phenomena as a result of the subjects' adaptation to the distractor task, which allowed them to preserve at least some short-term memory capabilities.", "In their experiment, the long-term recency effect disappeared when the distractor after the last item differed from the distractors that preceded and followed the other items (e.g., arithmetic distractor task and word reading distractor task).", "Thapar and Greene challenged this theory.", "In one of their experiments, participants were given a different distractor task after every study item.", "According to Koppenaal and Glanzer's theory, no recency effect would be expected as subjects would not have had time to adapt to the distractor; yet such a recency effect remained in place in the experiment.====Another explanation====One proposed explanation for recency in a continual distractor condition, and its disappearance in an end-only distractor task is the influence of contextual and distinctive processes.", "According to this model, recency is a result of the similarity of the final items' processing context to the processing context of the other items and the distinctive position of the final items versus intermediate items.", "In the end distractor task, the processing context of the final items is no longer similar to that of the other list items.", "At the same time, retrieval cues for these items are no longer as effective as without the distractor.", "Therefore, recency recedes or vanishes.", "However, when distractor tasks are placed before and after each item, recency returns, because all the list items have similar processing context." ], [ "Dual-store memory model", "According to George Miller, whose paper in 1956 popularized the theory of the \"magic number seven\", short-term memory is limited to a certain number of chunks of information, while long-term memory has a limitless store.===Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model===According to the dual store memory model proposed in 1968 by Richard C. Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, memories can reside in the short-term \"buffer\" for a limited time while they are simultaneously strengthening their associations in LTM.", "When items are first presented, they enter short-term memory for approximately twenty to thirty seconds, but due to its limited space, as new items enter, older ones are pushed out.", "The limit of items that can be held in the short-term memory is an average between four and seven, yet, with practice and new skills that number can be increased.", "However, each time an item in short-term memory is rehearsed, it is strengthened in long-term memory.", "Similarly, the longer an item stays in short-term memory, the stronger its association becomes in long-term memory.===Baddeley's model of working memory===In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch proposed an alternative theory of short-term memory, Baddeley's model of working memory.", "According to this theory, short-term memory is divided into different slave systems for different types of input items, and there is an executive control supervising what items enter and exit those systems.", "The slave systems include the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer (later added by Baddeley)." ], [ "Encoding of information", "LTM encodes information semantically for storage, as researched by Baddeley.", "In vision, the information needs to enter working memory before it can be stored into LTM.", "This is evidenced by the fact that the speed with which information is stored into LTM is determined by the amount of information that can be fit, at each step, into visual working memory.", "In other words, the larger the capacity of working memory for certain stimuli, the faster will these materials be learned.Synaptic consolidation is the process by which items are transferred from short- to long-term memory.", "Within the first minutes or hours after acquisition, the engram (memory trace) is encoded within synapses, becoming resistant (though not immune) to interference from outside sources.As LTM is subject to fading in the natural forgetting process, maintenance rehearsal (several recalls/retrievals of memory) may be needed to preserve long-term memories.", "Individual retrievals can take place in increasing intervals in accordance with the principle of spaced repetition.", "This can happen quite naturally through reflection or deliberate recall (also known as recapitulation), often dependent on the perceived importance of the material.", "Using testing methods as a form of recall can lead to the testing effect, which aids long-term memory through information retrieval and feedback.In LTM, brain cells fire in specific patterns.", "When someone experiences something in the world, the brain responds by creating a pattern of specific nerves firing in a specific way to represent the experience.", "This is called distributed representation.", "Distributed representation can be explained through a scientific calculator.", "At the top of the calculator is an opening in which the numbers typed in show up.", "This small slot is compiled by many blocks that light up to show a specific number.", "In that sense, certain blocks light up when prompted to show the number 4, but other blocks light up to show the number 5.There may be overlap in the blocks used, but ultimately, these blocks are able to generate different patterns for each specific situation.", "The encoding of specific episodic memories can be explained through distributed representation.", "When you try to remember an experience, perhaps your friend's birthday party a year ago, your brain is activating a certain pattern of neurons.", "If you try to remember your mother's birthday party, another pattern of neurons is fired but there may be overlap because they are both birthday parties.", "This kind of remembering is the idea of retrieval because it involves recalling the specific distributed representation created during the encoding of the experience.===Sleep===Some theories consider sleep to be an important factor in establishing well-organized long-term memories.", "''(See also sleep and learning.)''", "Sleep plays a key function in the consolidation of new memories.According to Tarnow's theory, long-term memories are stored in dream format (reminiscent of Penfield & Rasmussen's findings that electrical excitations of the cortex give rise to experiences similar to dreams).", "During waking life an executive function interprets LTM consistent with reality checking .", "It is further proposed in the theory that the information stored in memory, no matter how it was learned, can affect performance on a particular task without the subject being aware that this memory is being used.", "Newly acquired declarative memory traces are believed to be reactivated during NonREM sleep to promote their hippocampo-neocortical transfer for long-term storage.", "Specifically, new declarative memories are better remembered if recall follows Stage II non-rapid eye movement sleep.", "The reactivation of memories during sleep can lead to lasting synaptic changes within certain neural networks.", "It is the high spindle activity, low oscillation activity, and delta wave activity during NREM sleep that helps to contribute to declarative memory consolidation.", "In learning before sleep, spindles are redistributed to neuronally active up-states within slow oscillations during NREM sleep.", "Sleep spindles are thought to induce synaptic changes and thereby contribute to memory consolidation during sleep.", "Here, we examined the role of sleep in the object-place recognition task, a task closely comparable to tasks typically applied for testing human declarative memory: It is a one-trial task, hippocampus-dependent, not stressful and can be repeated within the same animal.", "Sleep deprivation reduces vigilance or arousal levels, affecting the efficiency of certain cognitive functions such as learning and memory.The theory that sleep benefits memory retention is not a new idea.", "It has been around since Ebbinghaus's experiment on forgetting in 1885.More recently studies have been done by Payne and colleagues and Holtz and colleagues.", "In Payne and colleague's experiment participants were randomly selected and split into two groups.", "Both groups were given semantically related or unrelated word pairs, but one group was given the information at 9 A.M. and the other group received theirs at 9 P.M.", "Participants were then tested on the word pairs at one of three intervals 30 minutes, 12 hours, or 24 hours later.", "It was found that participants who had a period of sleep between the learning and testing sessions did better on the memory tests.", "This information is similar to other results found by previous experiments by Jenkins and Dallenbach (1924).", "It has also been found that many domains of declarative memory are affected by sleep such as emotional memory, semantic memory, and direct encoding.Holtz found that not only does sleep affect consolidation of declarative memories, but also procedural memories.", "In this experiment, fifty adolescent participants were taught either word pairs (which represents declarative memory) and a finger tapping task (procedural memory) at one of two different times of day.", "What they found was that the procedural finger tapping task was best encoded and remembered directly before sleep, but the declarative word pairs task was better remembered and encoded if learned at 3 in the afternoon." ], [ "Divisions", "The brain does not store memories in one unified structure.", "Instead, different types of memory are stored in different regions of the brain.", "LTM is typically divided up into two major headings: explicit memory and implicit memory.=== Explicit memory ===Explicit memory (or declarative memory) refers to all memories that are consciously available.", "These are encoded by the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and perirhinal cortex, but consolidated and stored elsewhere.", "The precise location of storage is unknown, but the temporal cortex has been proposed as a likely candidate.", "Research by Meulemans and Van der Linden (2003) found that amnesiac patients with damage to the medial temporal lobe performed more poorly on explicit learning tests than did healthy controls.", "However, these same amnesiac patients performed at the same rate as healthy controls on implicit learning tests.", "This implies that the medial temporal lobe is heavily involved in explicit learning, but not in implicit learning.Declarative memory has three major subdivisions:==== Episodic memory ====Episodic memory refers to memory for specific events in time, as well as supporting their formation and retrieval.", "Some examples of episodic memory would be remembering someone's name and what happened at your last interaction with each other.", "Experiments conducted by Spaniol and colleagues indicated that older adults have worse episodic memories than younger adults because episodic memory requires context dependent memory.", "It is said that episodic memories are not as detailed or accurate as people grow older in age.", "Some people may begin to have issues with identification or presentation related things as they age.", "They may not be able to recall things from their memory or have as good of a storage for details as they may have been able to do in the past.", "The Hippocampus is responsible for the functions of episodic memory and research suggests that the use of exercise can be effective in improving brain functions such as the episodic memory.", "According to Damien Moore and Paul D. Loprinzi, episodic memory can be improved using long-term potentiation, which is when synapses are made to be more durable with exercise.", "The durability and healthiness of the synapses will in time be able to pick up more connections with neurons and eventually help with episodic memory.", "Mnemonic training has also been proven to be effective with the sharpening of episodic memory.", "These trainings include things like the alphabet, music, numerical systems, and other learning systems.", "Studies by Shuyuan Chen and Zhihui Cai have shown that mnemonic training has shown to be able to improve episodic memory long term.==== Semantic memory ====Semantic memory refers to knowledge about factual information, such as the meaning of words.", "Semantic memory is independent information such as information remembered for a test.", "In contrast with episodic memory, older adults and younger adults do not show much of a difference in semantic memory, presumably because semantic memory does not depend on context memory.==== Autobiographical memory ====Autobiographical memory refers to knowledge about events and personal experiences from an individual's own life.", "Autographical memories are facilitated by aids including verbal, face-evoked, picture-evoked, odour-evoked, and music-evoked autobiographical memory cues.", "Though similar to episodic memory, it differs in that it contains only those experiences which directly pertain to the individual, from across their lifespan.", "Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000) argue that this is one component of the self-memory system.=== Implicit memory ===Implicit memory (procedural memory) refers to the use of objects or movements of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil, drive a car, or ride a bicycle.", "This type of memory is encoded, and it is presumed stored by the striatum and other parts of the basal ganglia.", "The basal ganglia is believed to mediate procedural memory and other brain structures and is largely independent of the hippocampus.", "Research by Manelis, Hanson, and Hanson (2011) found that the reactivation of the parietal and occipital regions was associated with implicit memory.", "Procedural memory is considered non-declarative memory or unconscious memory which includes priming and non-associative learning.The first part of nondeclarative memory (implicit memory) involves priming.", "Priming occurs when you do something faster after you have already done that activity, such as writing or using a fork.Other categories of memory may also be relevant to the discussion of LTM.", "For example:Emotional memory, the memory for events that evoke a particularly strong emotion, is a domain that can involve both declarative and procedural memory processes.", "Emotional memories are consciously available, but elicit a powerful, unconscious physiological reaction.", "Research indicates that the amygdala is extremely active during emotional situations and acts with the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in the encoding and consolidation of emotional events.Working memory is not part of LTM but is important for it to function.", "Working memory holds and manipulates information for a short period of time, before it is either forgotten or encoded into LTM.", "Then, in order to remember something from LTM, it must be brought back into working memory.", "If working memory is overloaded, it can affect the encoding of LTM.", "If one has a good working memory, they may have a better LTM encoding." ], [ "Disorders of memory", "Minor slips and lapses of memory are fairly commonplace and may increase naturally with age, when ill, or under stress.", "Some women may experience more memory lapses following the onset of the menopause.In general, more serious problems with memory occur due to traumatic brain injury or neurodegenerative disease.===Traumatic brain injury===The majority of findings on memory have been the result of studies that lesioned specific brain regions in rats or primates, but some of the most important work has been the result of accidental or inadvertent brain trauma.", "The most famous case in recent memory studies is the case study of HM, who had parts of his hippocampus, parahippocampal cortices, and surrounding tissue removed in an attempt to cure his epilepsy.", "His subsequent total anterograde amnesia and partial retrograde amnesia provided the first evidence for the localization of memory function, and further clarified the differences between declarative and procedural memory.===Neurodegenerative diseases===Many neurodegenerative diseases can cause memory loss.", "Some of the most prevalent (and, as a consequence, most intensely researched) include Alzheimer's disease, dementia, Huntington's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease.", "None act specifically on memory; instead, memory loss is often a casualty of generalized neuronal deterioration.", "Currently, these illnesses are irreversible, but research into stem cells, psychopharmacology, and genetic engineering holds much promise.Those with Alzheimer's disease generally display symptoms such as getting momentarily lost on familiar routes, placing possessions in inappropriate locations, and distortions of existing memories or completely forgetting memories.", "Researchers have often used the Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm (DRM) to study the effects of Alzheimer's disease on memory.", "The DRM paradigm presents a list of words such as doze, pillow, bed, dream, nap, etc., but no theme word is presented.", "In this case, the theme word would have been \"sleep.\"", "Alzheimer's disease patients are more likely to recall the theme word as being part of the original list than healthy adults.", "There is a possible link between longer encoding times and increased false memory in LTM.", "The patients end up relying on the gist of the information instead of the specific words themselves.", "Alzheimer's disease leads to an uncontrolled inflammatory response brought on by extensive amyloid deposition in the brain, which leads to cell death in the brain.", "This gets worse over time and eventually leads to cognitive decline after the loss of memory.", "Pioglitazone may improve cognitive impairments, including memory loss, and may help protect long-term and visuospatial memory from neurodegenerative diseases.Parkinson's disease patients have problems with cognitive performance; these issues resemble those seen in frontal lobe patients and can often lead to dementia.", "It is thought that Parkinson's disease is caused by degradation of the dopaminergic mesocorticolimbic projection originating from the ventral tegmental area.", "It has also been indicated that the hippocampus plays an important role in episodic and spatial (parts of LTM) memory, and Parkinson's disease patients have abnormal hippocampuses resulting in abnormal LTM functioning.", "L-dopa injections are often used to try to relieve Parkinson's disease symptoms, as well as behavioral therapy.Schizophrenia patients have trouble with attention and executive functions, which in turn affects LTM consolidation and retrieval.", "They cannot encode or retrieve temporal information properly, which causes them to select inappropriate social behaviors.", "They cannot effectively use the information they possess.", "The prefrontal cortex, where schizophrenia patients have structural abnormalities, is involved with the temporal lobe and also affects the hippocampus, which causes their difficulty in encoding and retrieving temporal information (including LTM)." ], [ "Biological underpinnings at the cellular level", "Long-term memory, unlike short-term memory, is dependent upon the synthesis of new proteins.", "This occurs within the cellular body, and concerns the particular transmitters, receptors, and new synapse pathways that reinforce the communicative strength between neurons.", "The production of new proteins devoted to synapse reinforcement is triggered after the release of certain signaling substances (such as calcium within hippocampal neurons) in the cell.", "In the case of hippocampal cells, this release is dependent upon the expulsion of magnesium (a binding molecule) that is expelled after significant and repetitive synaptic signaling.", "The temporary expulsion of magnesium frees NMDA receptors to release calcium in the cell, a signal that leads to gene transcription and the construction of reinforcing proteins.", "For more information, see long-term potentiation (LTP).One of the newly synthesized proteins in LTP is also critical for maintaining LTM.", "This protein is an autonomously active form of the enzyme protein kinase C (PKC), known as PKMζ.", "PKMζ maintains the activity-dependent enhancement of synaptic strength and inhibiting PKMζ erases established long-term memories, without affecting short-term memory or, once the inhibitor is eliminated, the ability to encode and store new long-term memories is restored.Also, BDNF is important for the persistence of long-term memories.The long-term stabilization of synaptic changes is also determined by a parallel increase of pre- and postsynaptic structures such as synaptic boutons, dendritic spines, and postsynaptic density.On the molecular level, an increase of the postsynaptic scaffolding proteins PSD-95 and HOMER1c has been shown to correlate with the stabilization of synaptic enlargement.The cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) is a transcription factor which is believed to be important in consolidating short- to long-term memories, and which is believed to be downregulated in Alzheimer's disease.===DNA methylation and demethylation===Rats exposed to an intense learning event may retain a life-long memory of the event, even after a single training session.", "The LTM of such an event appears to be initially stored in the hippocampus, but this storage is transient.", "Much of the long-term storage of the memory seems to take place in the anterior cingulate cortex.", "When such an exposure was experimentally applied, more than 5,000 differently methylated DNA regions appeared in the hippocampus neuronal genome of the rats at one and at 24 hours after training.", "These alterations in methylation pattern occurred at many genes that were down-regulated, often due to the formation of new 5-methylcytosine sites in CpG rich regions of the genome.", "Furthermore, many other genes were upregulated, likely often due to hypomethylation.", "Hypomethylation often results from the removal of methyl groups from previously existing 5-methylcytosines in DNA.", "Demethylation is carried out by several proteins acting in concert, including TET enzymes as well as enzymes of the DNA base excision repair pathway (see Epigenetics in learning and memory).", "The pattern of induced and repressed genes in brain neurons subsequent to an intense learning event likely provides the molecular basis for a LTM of the event." ], [ "Contradictory evidence", "A couple of studies have had results that contradict the dual-store memory model.", "Studies showed that in spite of using distractors, there was still both a recency effect for a list of items and a contiguity effect.Another study revealed that how long an item spends in short-term memory is not the key determinant in its strength in long-term memory.", "Instead, whether the participant actively tries to remember the item while elaborating on its meaning determines the strength of its store in LTM." ], [ "Single-store memory model", "An alternative theory is that there is only one memory store with associations among items and their contexts.", "In this model, the context serves as a cue for retrieval, and the recency effect is greatly caused by the factor of context.", "Immediate and delayed free recall will have the same recency effect because the relative similarity of the contexts still exists.", "Also, the contiguity effect still occurs because contiguity also exists between similar contexts." ], [ "See also", "* Intermediate-term memory* De novo protein synthesis theory of memory formation* Memory and aging* Neurogenesis* Short-term memory* Sensory memory" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " The role of testing-effect in a long-term memory" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of Latin phrases" ], [ "Introduction", "__NOTOC__This is a list of Wikipedia articles of Latin phrases and their translation into English.", "''To view all phrases on a single, lengthy document, see: List of Latin phrases (full)''The list is also divided alphabetically into twenty pages:* List of Latin phrases (A)* List of Latin phrases (B)* List of Latin phrases (C)* List of Latin phrases (D)* List of Latin phrases (E)* List of Latin phrases (F)* List of Latin phrases (G)* List of Latin phrases (H)* List of Latin phrases (I)* List of Latin phrases (L)* List of Latin phrases (M)* List of Latin phrases (N)* List of Latin phrases (O)* List of Latin phrases (P)* List of Latin phrases (Q)* List of Latin phrases (R)* List of Latin phrases (S)* List of Latin phrases (T)* List of Latin phrases (U)* List of Latin phrases (V)" ], [ "See also", "* Latin influence in English* Latinism===Lists===List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptionsList of ecclesiastical abbreviationsList of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in EnglishList of Greek phrasesList of Greek and Latin roots in EnglishList of Latin abbreviationsList of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic namesList of Latin words with English derivativesList of Latin legal termsList of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes*List of U.S. state and territory mottosList of university and college mottos===Categories===Ancient Roman namesDog Latin words and phrasesLatin biological phrasesLatin legal termsLatin literary phrasesLatin logical phrases *Latin mottosLatin philosophical phrases*" ], [ "External links", " Notable idioms and concepts in Latin* Commonly used Latin phrases* Latin abbreviations* Over 1000 Latin terms and phrases (archived 20 November 2018)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Latin declension" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Latin declension''' is the set of patterns according to which Latin words are declined—that is, have their endings altered to show grammatical case, number and gender.", "Nouns, pronouns, and adjectives are declined (verbs are conjugated), and a given pattern is called a declension.", "There are five declensions, which are numbered and grouped by ending and grammatical gender.", "Each noun follows one of the five declensions, but some irregular nouns have exceptions.Adjectives are of two kinds: those like 'good' use first-declension endings for the feminine, and second-declension for masculine and neuter.", "Other adjectives such as belong to the third declension.", "There are no fourth- or fifth-declension adjectives.Pronouns are also of two kinds, the personal pronouns such as 'I' and 'you ()', which have their own irregular declension, and the third-person pronouns such as 'this' and 'that' which can generally be used either as pronouns or adjectivally.", "These latter decline in a similar way to the first and second noun declensions, but there are differences; for example the genitive singular ends in ''-īus'' or ''-ius'' instead of ''-ī'' or ''-ae''.The cardinal numbers 'one', 'two', and 'three' also have their own declensions (''ūnus'' has genitive ''-īus'' like a pronoun).", "However, numeral adjectives such as 'a pair, two each' decline like ordinary adjectives." ], [ "Grammatical cases", "A complete Latin noun declension consists of up to seven grammatical cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative and locative.", "However, the locative is limited to a few nouns: generally names of cities, small islands and a few other words.The case names are often abbreviated to the first three letters, for example, \"nom.\"", "for \"nominative\".===Order of cases===The Roman grammarian Aelius Donatus (4th century AD), whose work was used as standard throughout the Middle Ages, placed the cases in this order::.", ":\"There are six cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative and ablative.", "\"This order was based on the order used by earlier Greek grammarians, with the addition of the ablative, which does not exist in Greek.", "The names of the cases also were mostly translated from the Greek terms, such as from the Greek .This traditional order was formerly used in England, such as in ''The School and University Eton Latin Grammar'' (1861).", "That order is still followed in most other European countries.", "Gildersleeve and Lodge's ''Latin Grammar'' (1895) also follow this order.", "More recent Latin grammars published in the United States, such as Allen and Greenough's ''New Latin Grammar'' (1903) and ''Wheelock's Latin'' (first published in 1956) follow this order except they list the vocative last.", "However, in Britain and countries influenced by Britain other than the United States, the Latin cases are usually given in the following order: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative.", "This order was introduced in Benjamin Hall Kennedy's ''Latin Primer'' (1866), with the aim of making tables of declensions easier to recite and memorise (the first three and the last two cases having identical forms in several declensions)..", "It is also used in France and Belgium.", "In ''Rosa'' (1962), a song in French by the Belgian singer Jacques Brel, Brel sings the declension of \"Rosa\" as , following the modern British order of cases.===Syncretism===Syncretism, where one form in a paradigm shares the ending of another form in the paradigm, is common in Latin.", "The following are the most notable patterns of syncretism:====Gender-specific====* For pure Latin neuter nouns, the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases are identical, and the nominative, vocative, and accusative plurals all end in ''-a''.", "(Both of these features are inherited from Proto-Indo-European, and so no actual syncretism is known to have happened in the historical sense, since these cases of these nouns are not known to have ever been different in the first place.", ")====Case-specific====* The vocative form is always the same as the nominative in the plural, and usually the same as the nominative in the singular except for second-declension nouns ending in ''-us'' and a few nouns of Greek origin.", "For example, the vocative of the first-declension is .", "* The genitive singular is the same as the nominative plural in first-, second-, and fourth-declension non-neuter Latin nouns.", "* The dative singular is the same as the genitive singular in first- and fifth-declension pure Latin nouns.", "* The dative is always the same as the ablative in the singular in the second declension, the third-declension full ''i''-stems (i.e.", "neuter ''i''-stems, adjectives), and fourth-declension neuters.", "* The dative, ablative, and locative are always identical in the plural.", "* The locative is identical to the ablative in the 3rd, 4th and 5th declensions.", "* The nominative and accusative plurals are identical in the athematic declensions, the masculine/feminine ending in -ēs (3rd/5th declension) or ''-''ūs (4th declension).=== History of cases ===Old Latin had essentially two patterns of endings.", "One pattern was shared by the first and second declensions, which derived from the Proto-Indo-European thematic declension.", "The other pattern was used by the third, fourth and fifth declensions, and derived from the athematic PIE declension." ], [ "Nouns", "There are two principal parts for Latin nouns: the nominative singular and the genitive singular.", "Each declension can be unequivocally identified by the ending of the genitive singular (-''ae'', -''i'', -''is'', -''ūs'', -''ei'').", "The stem of the noun can be identified by the form of the genitive singular as well.There are five declensions for Latin nouns:=== First declension (''a'' stems) ===Nouns of this declension usually end in ''-a'' in the nominative singular and are mostly feminine, e.g.", "('road') and ('water').", "There is a small class of masculine exceptions generally referring to occupations, e.g.", "('poet'), ('farmer'), ('auriga, charioteer'), ('pirate') and ('sailor').The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is ''a''.", "The nominative singular form consists of the stem and the ending ''-a'', and the genitive singular form is the stem plus ''-ae''.+ First declension paradigm Singular Plural Nominative -a -ae Vocative Accusative -am -ās Genitive -ae -ārum Dative -īs Ablative -ā Locative ''Gen.''", "''Dat.''", "table poet Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative mensa mensae poēta poētae Vocative Accusative mensam mensās poētam poētās Genitive mensae mensārum poētae poētārum Dative mensīs poētīs Ablative mensā poētāThe locative endings for the first declension are ''-ae'' (singular) and ''-īs'' (plural), similar to the genitive singular and ablative plural, as in '''' 'in war' and '''' 'at Athens'.==== First declension Greek nouns ====The first declension also includes three types of Greek loanwords, derived from Ancient Greek's alpha declension.", "They are declined irregularly in the singular, but sometimes treated as native Latin nouns, e.g.", "nominative ('athlete') instead of the original ''athlēt'''ēs'''''.", "Archaic (Homeric) first declension Greek nouns and adjectives had been formed in exactly the same way as in Latin: ''nephelēgerét'''a''' Zeus'' ('Zeus the cloud-gatherer') had in classical Greek become ''nephelēgerét'''ēs'''''.For full paradigm tables and more detailed information, see the Wiktionary appendix First declension.=== Second declension (''o'' stems) ===The second declension is a large group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine nouns like ('horse') and ('boy') and neuter nouns like ('fort').", "There are several small groups of feminine exceptions, including names of gemstones, plants, trees, and some towns and cities.In the nominative singular, most masculine nouns consist of the stem and the ending ''-us'', although some end in ''-er'', which is not necessarily attached to the complete stem.", "Neuter nouns generally have a nominative singular consisting of the stem and the ending ''-um''.", "However, every second-declension noun has the ending ''-ī'' attached as a suffix to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form.", "The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is ''o''.+ Second declension paradigm Singular Plural Masculine Neuter Masculine Neuter Nominative -us -um -ī -a Vocative -e Accusative Genitive Dative -ō -īs Ablative Locative ''Gen.''", "''Dat.", "''+ Masculine master Singular Plural Nominative dominus dominī Vocative domine Accusative dominum dominōs Genitive dominī dominōrum Dative dominō dominīs Ablative+ Neuter war Singular Plural Nominative bellum bella Vocative Accusative Genitive bellī bellōrum Locative bellīs Dative bellō AblativeThe locative endings for the second declension are ''-ī'' (singular) and ''-īs'' (plural); \"at Corinth\", \"at Milan\", and \"at Philippi\".==== Second-declension ''-ius'' and ''-ium'' nouns ====Nouns ending in ''-ius'' and ''-ium'' have a genitive singular in ''-ī'' in earlier Latin, which was regularized to ''-iī'' in the later language.", "Masculine nouns in ''-ius'' have a vocative singular in ''-ī'' at all stages.", "These forms in ''-ī'' are stressed on the same syllable as the nominative singular, sometimes in violation of the usual Latin stress rule.", "For example, the genitive and vocative singular ''Vergilī'' (from ) is pronounced ''Vergílī'', with stress on the penult, even though it is short.", "In Old Latin, however, the vocative was declined regularly, using ''-ie'' instead, e.g.", "''fīlie'' \"O son\", archaic vocative of .There is no contraction of ''-iī(s)'' in plural forms and in the locative.", "son aid, help Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative Vocative Accusative Genitive Dative AblativeIn the older language, nouns ending with ''-vus'', ''-quus'' and ''-vum'' take ''o'' rather than ''u'' in the nominative and accusative singular.", "For example, ('slave') could be ''servos'', accusative ''servom''.==== Second-declension ''-r'' nouns ====Some masculine nouns of the second declension end in ''-er'' or ''-ir'' in the nominative singular.", "The declension of these nouns is identical to that of the regular second declension, except for the lack of suffix in the nominative and vocative singular.Some (but not all) nouns in ''-er'' drop the ''e'' genitive and other cases.", "For example, ('father-in-law') keeps its ''e''.", "However, the noun ('(school)master') drops its ''e'' in the genitive singular.", "For declension tables of second-declension nouns, see the corresponding Wiktionary appendix.", "boy field man Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative puer puerī ager agrī vir virī Vocative Accusative puerum puerōs agrum agrōs virum virōs Genitive puerī puerōrum agrī agrōrum virī virōrum(virum) Dative puerō puerīs agrō agrīs virō virīs AblativeThe vocative ''puere'' is found but only in Plautus.", "The genitive plural ''virum'' is found in poetry.==== Second-declension Greek nouns ====The second declension contains two types of masculine Greek nouns and one form of neuter Greek noun.", "These nouns are irregular only in the singular, as are their first-declension counterparts.", "Greek nouns in the second declension are derived from the Omicron declension.Some Greek nouns may also be declined as normal Latin nouns.", "For example, can appear as ''theātrum''.==== Irregular forms ========= Deus =====The inflection of ('god') is irregular.", "The vocative singular of ''deus'' is not attested in Classical Latin.", "In Ecclesiastical Latin the vocative of ''Deus'' ('God') is ''Deus''.In poetry, ''-um'' may substitute ''-ōrum'' as the genitive plural ending.", "''deus, deī''god Singular Plural Nominativedeus deīdiīdī Vocative Accusative deum deōs Genitive deī deōrumdeum Dative deō deīsdiīsdīs Ablative===== Virus =====The Latin word ''vīrus'' (the ''ī'' indicates a long ''i'') means \"1.slimy liquid, slime; 2.poison, venom\", denoting the venom of a snake.", "This Latin word is probably related to the Greek (''ios'') meaning \"venom\" or \"rust\" and the Sanskrit word '''' meaning \"toxic, poison\".Since ''vīrus'' in antiquity denoted something uncountable, it was a mass noun.", "Mass nouns pluralize only under special circumstances, hence the non-existence of plural forms in the texts.In Neo-Latin, a plural form is necessary in order to express the modern concept of 'viruses', which leads to the following declension:Novum viri computatorii genus nomine Code Red in praesenti in Interreti grassatur, ut nuntiavit institutum SANS, cuius est securitati retis informatici providere.", "Code Red II, quod per cursum electronicum diffunditur, priore viro acerbius est et, postquam in servitoria penetravit, in systema lacunam facit.", "Ita fieri potest, ut alia vira eaque etiam periculosiora in machinas computatorias irrepant.", "Iam vermis Code Red I molestissimus fuit, cum biduo in trecenta milia computatrorum in omni orbe terrarum invasit.\"", "''''poison, venom, virus Singular Plural Nominative vīrus vīra Vocative Accusative Genitive vīrī vīrōrum Dative vīrō vīrīs Ablative=== Third declension===The third declension is the largest group of nouns.", "The nominative singular of these nouns may end in ''-a'', ''-e'', ''-ī'', ''-ō'', ''-y'', ''-c'', ''-l'', ''-n'', ''-r'', ''-s'', ''-t'', or ''-x''.", "This group of nouns includes masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns.====Consonant stems====The stem of a consonant-stem noun may be found from the genitive case by removing the ending ''-is''.", "For example, the stem of 'peace' is ''pāc-,'' the stem of 'river' is ''flūmin-'', and the stem of 'flower' is ''flōr-.", "''Masculine, feminine and neuter nouns often have their own special nominative singular endings.", "For instance, many masculine nouns end in ''-or'' (, 'love').", "Many feminine nouns end in ''-īx'' (, 'phoenix'), and many neuter nouns end in ''-us'' with an ''r'' stem in the oblique cases ( 'burden'; 'time').+ Third declension paradigm(consonant stems) Masculine &feminine Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative(-s) -ēs — -a Vocative Accusative -em Genitive -is -um -is -um Dative -ī -ibus -ī -ibus Ablative -e -e Locative ''Dat./Abl.''", "''Dat.''", "''Dat./Abl.''", "''Dat.''", "leader virtue name Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominativedux ducēs virtūs virtūtēs nōmen nōmina Vocative Accusative ducem virtūtem Genitive ducis ducum virtūtis virtūtum nōminis nōminum Dative ducī ducibus virtūtī virtūtibus nōminī nōminibus Ablative duce virtūte nōmineThe locative endings for the third declension are ''-ī'' or ''-e'' (singular) and ''-ibus'' (plural), as in 'in the country' and 'at Tralles'.==== Third declension ''i''-stem and mixed nouns ====The third declension also has a set of nouns that are declined differently.", "They are called '''''i''-stems'''.", "''i''-stems are broken into two subcategories: pure and mixed.", "Pure ''i''-stems are indicated by special neuter endings.", "Mixed ''i''-stems are indicated by the double consonant rule.", "Stems indicated by the parisyllabic rule are usually mixed, occasionally pure.", ";Masculine and feminine:'''Parisyllabic rule:''' Some masculine and feminine third-declension ''i''-stem nouns have the same number of syllables in the genitive and the nominative.", "For example: ('ship'); ('cloud').", "The nominative ends in ''-is'' or ''-ēs''.", ":'''Double consonant rule:''' The rest of the masculine and feminine third-declension ''i''-stem nouns have two consonants before the ''-is'' in the genitive singular.", "For example: ('part').", ";Neuter:'''Special neuter ending:''' Neuter third-declension ''i''-stems have no rule.", "However, all of them end in ''-al'', ''-ar'' or ''-e''.", "For example: ('animal'); ('spoon'); ('sea').The mixed declension is distinguished from the consonant type only by having ''-ium'' in the genitive plural (and occasionally ''-īs'' in the accusative plural).", "The pure declension is characterized by having ''-ī'' in the ablative singular, ''-ium'' in the genitive plural, ''-ia'' in the nominative and accusative plural neuter, and ''-im'' in the accusative singular masculine and feminine (however, adjectives have ''-em'').The accusative plural ending ''-īs'' is found in early Latin up to Virgil, but from the early empire onwards it was replaced by ''-ēs''.The accusative singular ending ''-im'' is found only in a few words: always in 'cough', 'thirst', 'River Tiber'; usually in 'axe', 'tower', 'poop', 'fever'; occasionally in 'ship'.", "Most nouns, however, have accusative singular ''-em''.The ablative singular ''-ī'' is found in nouns which have ''-im'', and also, optionally, in some other nouns, e.g.", "or 'in the fire'.There are two mixed-declension neuter nouns: ('heart') and ('bone').", "Also, the mixed declension is used in the plural-only adjective ('most').+ Third declension paradigm(''i''-stem nouns) Masculine &Feminine Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative— Vocative Accusative -em-im -ēs-īs Genitive -is -ium -is -ium Dative -ī -ibus -ī -ibus Ablative -e-ī Locative ''Dat./Abl.''", "''Dat.''", "''Dat./Abl.''", "''Dat.", "''+ Third declension paradigm(mixed nouns) Masculine &Feminine Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative— Vocative Accusative -em -ēs-īs Genitive -is -ium -is -ium Dative -ī -ibus -ī -ibus Ablative -e -e Locative ''Dat./Abl.''", "''Dat.''", "''Dat./Abl.''", "''Dat.''", "tower (pure) part, piece (mixed) animal, living being (pure) Parisyllabic rule Double consonant rule Special neuter ending Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominativeturristurrēs pars partēs animal animālia Vocative Accusative turremturrim turrēsturrīs partem partēspartīs Genitive turris turrium partis partium animālis animālium Dative turrī turribus partī partibus animālī animālibus Ablative turreturrī parte(partī)The rules for determining ''i''-stems from non-''i''-stems and mixed ''i''-stems are guidelines rather than rules: many words that might be expected to be ''i''-stems according to the parisyllabic rule actually are not, such as ('dog') or ('youth'), which have genitive plural 'of dogs' and 'of young men'.", "Likewise, ('father'), ('mother'), ('brother'), and ('parent') violate the double-consonant rule.", "This fluidity even in Roman times resulted in much more uncertainty in Medieval Latin.Some nouns in ''-tāt-'', such as 'city, community' can have either consonant-stem or ''i''-stem genitive plural: or 'of the cities'.==== Peculiarities ====In the third declension, there are four irregular nouns.", "Case force, power swine, pig, hog ox, bullock Jupiter Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Nominativevīs vīrēs sūs suēs bōs bovēs IuppiterIūpiter Vocative Accusative '''vim''' vīrēsvīrīs suem bovem Iovem Genitive vīs '''vīrium''' suis suum bovis '''boum''''''bovum''' Iovis Dative vī vīribus suī suibus'''sūbus''' bovī '''bōbus''''''būbus''' Iovī Ablative sue bove Iove=== Fourth declension (''u'' stems) ===The fourth declension is a group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine words such as ('wave') and ('port') with a few feminine exceptions, including ('hand') and ('house').", "The fourth declension also includes several neuter nouns including ('knee').", "Each noun has the ending ''-ūs'' as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form.", "The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is ''u'', but the declension is otherwise very similar to the third-declension ''i'' stems.+ Fourth declension paradigm ''-us'' ending nouns ''-ū'' ending nouns Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative Vocative Accusative -um Genitive -ūs -uum -ūs -uum Dative -uī -ibus-ubus -ū -ibus Ablative -ū Locative -ī ''Dat.''", "-ī ''Dat.''", "port knee Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominativeportus portūs genū genua Vocative Accusative portum Genitive portūs portuum genūs genuum Dative portuī portibus genū genibus Ablative portū* In the genitive singular, ''cornūs'' may in later times be replaced by ''cornū''.", "* The locative endings for the fourth declension are ''-ī'' (singular) and ''-ibus'' (plural); \"at the senate\", \"at home\".====Domus==== ('house, dwelling, building, home, native place, family, household, race') is an irregular noun, mixing fourth and second declension nouns at the same time (especially in literature).", "However, in practice, it is generally declined as a regular ''-us'' stem fourth declension noun (except by the ablative singular and accusative plural, using ''-ō'' and ''-ōs'' instead).", "All possible declensions Singular Plural Nominativedomus domūs Vocative Accusative domum domūsdomōs Genitive domūsdomī domuumdomōrum Dative domuīdomūdomō domibus Ablative domūdomō Locative domī Most common paradigm Singular Plural Nominativedomus domūs Vocative Accusative domum domōs Genitive domūs domuum Dative domuī domibus Ablative domō Locative domī=== Fifth declension (''e'' stems) ===The fifth declension is a small group of nouns consisting of mostly feminine nouns like ('affair, matter, thing') and ''diēs, diēī'' ('day'; but in names of days).", "Each noun has either the ending ''-ēī'' or ''-eī'' as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form.+ Fifth declension paradigm ''-iēs'' ending nouns ''-ēs'' ending nouns Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative Vocative Accusative -iem -em Genitive -iēī -iērum -eī -ērum Dative -iēbus -ēbus Ablative -iē -ē Locative ''Abl.''", "''Abl.''", "''Abl.''", "''Abl.''", "day , thing Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominativediēs diēs rēs rēs Vocative Accusative diem rem Genitive diēī diērum reī rērum Dative diēbus rēbus Ablative diē rēNouns ending in ''-iēs'' have long ''ēī'' in the dative and genitive, while nouns ending in a consonant + ''-ēs'' have short ''eī'' in these cases.The locative ending of the fifth declension was ''-ē'' (singular only), identical to the ablative singular, as in ('today')." ], [ "Pronouns", "=== Personal pronouns ===The first and second persons are irregular, and both pronouns are indeclinable for gender; and the third person reflexive pronoun sē, suī always refers back to the subject, regardless of whether the subject is singular or plural.", "First Person Second Person Third Person , I, we , you himself, herself, itself,oneself,themselves Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative egoegō nōs tū vōs — Accusative mē tē sēsēsē Genitivecomplements meī nostrī tuī vestrī suīGenitive partitive—nostrum—vestrum— Dative mihimihī nōbīs tibitibī vōbīs sibisibī Ablative mē tē sēsēsēThe genitive forms , , , , are used as complements in certain grammatical constructions, whereas , are used with a partitive meaning ('one of us', 'one of you').", "To express possession, the possessive pronouns (essentially adjectives) , , , are used, declined in the first and second declensions to agree in number and case with the thing possessed, e.g.", "''pater meus'' 'my father', ''māter mea'' 'my mother'.", "The vocative singular masculine of ''meus'' is ''mī'': ''mī Attice'' 'my dear Atticus'.==== Possessive pronouns' declensions ==== my, mine Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative meus mea meum meī meae mea Vocative mī (& meus) Accusative meum meam meōs meās Genitive meī meae meī meōrum meārum meōrum Dative meō meō meīs Ablative meā your, yours (for singular possessor) Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativetuus tua tuum tuī tuae tua Vocative Accusative tuum tuam tuōs tuās Genitive tuī tuae tuī tuōrum tuārum tuōrum Dative tuō tuō tuīs Ablative tuā his, her, its, theirs (reflexive) Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativesuus sua suum suī suae sua Vocative Accusative suum suam suōs suās Genitive suī suae suī suōrum suārum suōrum Dative suō suō suīs Ablative suā our, ours Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativenoster nostra nostrum nostrī nostrae nostra Vocative Accusative nostrum nostram nostrōs nostrās Genitive nostrī nostrae nostrī nostrōrum nostrārum nostrōrum Dative nostrō nostrō nostrīs Ablative nostrāThe possessive adjective ''vester'' has an archaic variant, ''voster''; similar to ''noster''.", "Vocative of ''meus'' is usually ''mī'', and rarely ''meus'' also, like the nominative.", "your, yours (for plural possessor) Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativevestervoster vestravostra vestrumvostrum vestrīvostrī vestraevostrae vestravostra Vocative Accusative vestrumvostrum vestramvostram vestrōsvostrōs vestrāsvostrās Genitive vestrīvostrī vestraevostrae vestrīvostrī vestrōrumvostrōrum vestrārumvostrārum vestrōrumvostrōrum Dative vestrōvostrō vestrōvostrō vestrīsvostrīs Ablative vestrāvostrāUsually, to show the ablative of accompaniment, would be added to the ablative form.", "However, with personal pronouns (first and second person), the reflexive and the interrogative, ''-cum'' is added onto the end of the ablative form.", "That is: 'with me', 'with us', 'with you', , and (sometimes ).Pronouns have also an emphatic form bi using the suffix ''-met'' (, /, , ), used in all cases, except by the genitive plural forms.In accusative case, the forms ''mēmē'' and ''tētē'' exist as emphatic, but they are not widely used.", "has a possessive adjective: , meaning 'his/her/its/their own'::''Patrem '''suum''' numquam vīderat.''", "(Cicero):\"He had never seen '''his''' own father.", "\"When 'his' or 'her' refers to someone else, not the subject, the genitive pronoun ''eius'' (as well as ''eōrum'' and ''eārum'') 'of him' is used instead of ''suus''::''Fit obviam Clodiō ante fundum '''eius'''.''", "(Cicero):\"He met Clodius in front of '''the latter's''' farm.", "\"When one sentence is embedded inside another with a different subject, ''sē'' and ''suus'' can refer to either subject::''Patrēs conscrīptī ... lēgātōs in Bīthȳniam miserunt quī ab rēge peterent, nē inimīcissimum '''suum''' '''secum''' haberet '''sibi'''que dēderet.''", "(Nepos):\"The senators ... sent ambassadors to Bithynia, who were to ask the king not to keep '''their''' greatest enemy '''with him''' but hand him over '''to them'''.", "\"For the third-person pronoun 'he', see below.=== Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives ===Relative, demonstrative and indefinite pronouns are generally declined like first and second declension adjectives, with the following differences:* the nominatives are often irregular* the genitive singular ends in ''-īus'' rather than ''-ae'' or ''-ī''.", "* the dative singular ends in ''-ī'': rather than ''-ae'' or ''-ō''.These differences characterize the pronominal declension, and a few special adjectives ( 'whole', 'alone', 'one', 'no', 'another', 'another of two', etc.)", "are also declined according to this pattern.All demonstrative, relative, and indefinite pronouns in Latin can also be used adjectivally, with some small differences; for example in the interrogative pronoun, 'who?'", "and 'what?'", "are usually used for the pronominal form, and 'which?'", "for the adjectival form.===Third person pronoun===The weak demonstrative pronoun , , 'that' also serves as the third person pronoun 'he, she, it': Third person he, she, it Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative is ea id eīiī eae ea Accusative eum eam eōs eās Genitive eius eōrum eārum eōrum Dative eī eīsiīs Ablative eō eā eōThis pronoun is also often used adjectivally, e.g.", "''is homo'' 'that man', ''ea pecunia'' 'that money'.", "It has no possessive adjective; the genitive is used instead: ''pater eius'' 'his/her father'; ''pater eōrum'' 'their father'.=== Declension of ''īdem'' ===The pronoun or pronominal adjective means 'the same'.", "It is derived from ''is'' with the suffix ''-dem''.", "However, some forms have been assimilated.", "the same, same as Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative īdem eadem idem eīdemīdemiīdem eaedem eadem Accusative eundem eandem eōsdem eāsdem Genitive eiusdem eōrundem eārundem eōrundem Dative eīdem eīsdem īsdemiīsdem Ablative eōdem eādem eōdem===Other demonstrative pronouns=== this, this one (proximal) that, that one (distal) that of yours (medial) Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative hic haec hoc hī hae haec ille illa illud illī illae illa iste ista istud istī istae ista Accusative hunc hanc hōs hās illum illam \t illōs illās istum istam istōs istās Genitive huius hōrum hārum hōrum illīus illōrum illārum illōrum istīus istōrum istārum istōrum\t Dative huic hīs illī illīs istī istīs\t Ablative hōc hāc hōc illō illā illō istō istā istōSimilar in declension is 'another'.=== Intensive pronoun === himself, herself, itself Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi ipsae ipsa Accusative ipsum ipsam ipsōs ipsās Genitive ipsīus ipsōrum ipsārum ipsōrum Dative ipsī ipsīs Ablative ipsō ipsā ipsō=== Interrogative pronouns ===The interrogative pronouns are used strictly for asking questions.", "They are distinct from the relative pronoun and the interrogative adjective (which is declined like the relative pronoun).", "Interrogative pronouns rarely occur in the plural.", "The plural interrogative pronouns are the same as the plural relative pronouns.+ Singular who?, what?", "Masculine &Feminine Neuter Nominative quis?", "quid?", "Accusative quem?", "Genitive cuius?", "Dative cui?", "Ablative quō?=== Relative pronouns === who, which, that Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative quī quae quod quī quae quae Accusative quem quam quōs quās Genitive cuius quōrum quārum quōrum Dative cui quibus Ablative quō quā quō" ], [ "Adjectives", "=== First- and second-declension adjectives ===First- and second-declension adjectives are inflected in the masculine, the feminine and the neuter; the masculine form typically ends in ''-us'' (although some end in ''-er'', see below), the feminine form ends in ''-a'', and the neuter form ends in ''-um''.", "Therefore, some adjectives are given like .Adjectives ending ''-ius'' use the vocative ''-ie'' (''ēbrie'', \"O drunk man\", vocative of ''ēbrius''), just as in Old Latin all ''-ius'' nouns did (''fīlie'', \"O son\", archaic vocative of ''fīlius'').", "high, long, tall Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative altus alta altum altī altae alta Vocative alte Accusative altum altam altōs altās Genitive altī altae altī altōrum altārum altōrum Dative altō altō altīs Ablative altā==== First- and second-declension ''-r'' adjectives ====Some first- and second-declension adjectives' masculine forms end in ''-er''.", "As with second-declension ''-r'' nouns, some adjectives retain the ''e'' throughout inflection, and some omit it.", "omits its ''e'' while keeps it.", "sad, poor, unhappy Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativemiser misera miserum miserī miserae misera Vocative Accusative miserum miseram miserōs miserās Genitive miserī miserae miserī miserōrum miserārum miserōrum Dative miserō miserō miserīs Ablative miserā sacred, holy Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativesacer sacra sacrum sacrī sacrae sacra Vocative Accusative sacrum sacram sacrōs sacrās Genitive sacrī sacrae sacrī sacrōrum sacrārum sacrōrum Dative sacrō sacrō sacrīs Ablative sacrā==== First and second declension pronominal adjectives ====Nine first and second declension pronominal adjectives are irregular in the genitive and the dative in all genders.", "They can be remembered by using the mnemonic acronym ''ūnus nauta''.", "They are:* 'any';* 'no, none';* 'which of two, either';* 'sole, alone';* 'neither';* 'another' (the genitive singular ''alīus'' is often replaced by ''alterīus'' or by ''aliēnus'' 'of another');* 'one';* 'whole';* 'other of two'.", "any Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative ūllus ūlla ūllum ūllī ūllae ūlla Accusative ūllum ūllam ūllōs ūllās Genitive ūllīus ūllōrum ūllārum ūllōrum Dative ūllī ūllīs Ablative ūllō ūllā ūllō=== Third-declension adjectives ===Third-declension adjectives are normally declined like third-declension ''i''-stem nouns, except for the fact they usually have ''-ī'' rather than ''-e'' in the ablative singular (unlike ''i''-stem nouns, in which only pure i-stems have ''-ī'').", "Some adjectives, however, like the one-ending ('old, aged'), have ''-e'' in the ablative singular, ''-um'' in the genitive plural, and ''-a'' in the nominative and accusative neuter plural.====Third-declension adjectives with one ending====These have a single nominative ending for all genders, although as usual the endings for the other cases vary.", "As with nouns, a genitive is given for the purpose of showing the inflection.", "terrible, mean, cruel Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativeatrōx atrōx atrōcēs atrōcia Vocative Accusativeatrōcem atrōcēsatrōcīs Genitive atrōcis atrōcium Dative atrōcī atrōcibus Ablative=====Non-''i''-stem variant===== old, aged Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativevetus vetus veterēs vetera Vocative Accusativeveterem Genitive veteris veterum Dative veterī veteribus Ablative vetere==== Third-declension adjectives with two endings ====Third-declension adjectives that have two endings have one form for the masculine and feminine, and a separate form for the neuter.", "The ending for the masculine and feminine is ''-is'', and the ending for the neuter is ''-e''.", "It is not necessary to give the genitive, as it is the same as the nominative masculine singular.", "nimble, swift Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativeagilis agile agilēs agilia Vocative Accusativeagilem agilēsagilīs Genitive agilis agilium Dative agilī agilibus Ablative==== Third-declension adjectives with three endings ====Third-declension adjectives with three endings have three separate nominative forms for all three genders.", "Like third and second declension ''-r'' nouns, the masculine ends in ''-er''.", "The feminine ends in ''-ris'', and the neuter ends in ''-re''.", "The genitive is the same as the nominative feminine singular.", "swift, rapid, brash Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativeceler celeris celere celerēs celeria Vocative Accusative celerem Genitive celeris celerium Dative celerī celeribus Ablative lively, jovial, animated Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativealacer alacris alacre alacrēs alacria Vocative Accusativealacrem alacrēsalacrīs Genitive alacris alacrium Dative alacrī alacribus Ablative=== Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives ===As in English, adjectives have superlative and comparative forms.", "For regular first and second declension and third declension adjectives with one or two endings, the comparative is formed by adding ''-ior'' for the masculine and feminine, and ''-ius'' for the neuter to the stem.", "The genitives for both are formed by adding ''-iōris''.", "Therefore, they are declined in the third declension, but they are not declined as ''i''-stems.", "Superlatives are formed by adding ''-issimus, -issima, -issimum'' to the stem and are thus declined like first and second declension adjectives.====General pattern for comparatives==== higher, deeper (comparative of ) Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativealtior altius altiōrēs altiōra Vocative Accusativealtiōrem Genitive altiōris altiōrum Dative altiōrī altiōribus Ablative altiōre highest, deepest (superlative of ) Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative altissimus altissima altissimum altissimī altissimae altissima Vocative altissime Accusative altissimum altissimam altissimōs altissimās Genitive altissimī altissimae altissimī altissimōrum altissimārum altissimōrum Dative altissimō altissimō altissimīs Ablative altissimā====Comparatives and superlatives with normal endings====PositiveComparativeSuperlative==== Comparatives and superlatives of ''-er'' adjectives ====Adjectives (in the first and second as well as third declensions) that have masculine nominative singular forms ending in ''-er'' are slightly different.", "As with normal adjectives, the comparative is formed by adding ''-ior'' to the stem, but for the superlative, ''-rimus'' is added to the nominative masculine singular.PositiveComparativeSuperlative==== Comparatives and superlatives of ''-lis'' adjectives ====Some third declension adjectives with two endings in ''-lis'' in the masculine–feminine nominative singular have irregular superlative forms.", "The following are the only adjectives that do.PositiveComparativeSuperlative==== Comparatives and superlatives of ''-eus/-ius'' adjectives ====First and second declension adjectives that end in ''-eus'' or ''-ius'' are unusual in that they do not form the comparative and superlative by taking endings at all.", "Instead, ('more') and ('most'), the comparative and superlative degrees of ('much, greatly'), respectively, are used.Many adjectives in ''-uus'', except those in ''-quus'' or ''-guus'', also follow this rule.PositiveComparativeSuperlative ('suitable, fitting, proper')''magis idōneus''''maximē idōneus'' ('solitary, lonely')''magis sōlitārius''''maximē sōlitārius'' ('drunk')''magis ebrius''''maximē ebrius'' ('meritorious')''magis meritōrius''''maximē meritōrius'' ('grassy')''magis grāmineus''''maximē grāmineus'' ('warlike, bellicose')''magis bellātōrius''''maximē bellātōrius'' ('lofty, steep')''magis arduus''''maximē arduus''==== Irregular comparatives and superlatives ====As in most languages, Latin has adjectives that have irregular comparatives and superlatives.PositiveComparativeSuperlative ('good') ('better') ('best') ('bad, evil') ('worse') ('worst') ('great, large') ('greater') ('greatest') ('small, slight') ('lesser') ('least') ('much, many') ('more') ('most') ('near, close') ('nearer') ('nearest, next') ('ripe, mature') ('riper') ('ripest') ('worthless') ('more worthless') ('most worthless') ('next, future') ('later') ('last, latest') ('above') ('upper') ('uppermost') ('outward') ('outer') ('outermost') ('below') ('lower') ('lowest') ('old, aged') ('older, elder') ('oldest, eldest') ('young, youthful') ('younger') ('youngest')=== Declension of numerals ===There are several different kinds of numeral words in Latin: the two most common are cardinal numerals and ordinal numerals.", "There are also several more rare numerals, e.g., distributive numerals and adverbial numerals.==== Cardinal numerals ====All cardinal numerals are indeclinable, except ('one'), ('two'), ('three'), plural hundreds ('two hundred'), ('three hundred') etc., and ('thousand'), which have cases and genders like adjectives.", "is declined like a first- and second-declension pronoun with ''-īus'' or ''-ius'' in the genitive, and ''-ī'' in the dative.", "is declined irregularly, is declined like a third-declension plural adjective, ''-centī'' ('hundred') numerals decline like first- and second-declension adjectives, and is invariable in the singular and declined like a third-declension ''i''-stem neuter noun in the plural:The plural endings for ''ūnus'' are used with ''plūrālia tantum'' nouns, e. g. ''ūna castra'' (one military camp), ''ūnae scālae'' (one ladder).", "one Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative ūnus ūna ūnum ūnī ūnae ūna Vocative ūne Accusative ūnum ūnam ūnōs ūnās Genitive ūnīus / ūnius ūnōrum ūnārum ūnōrum Dative ūnī ūnīs Ablative ūnō ūnā ūnōThe word ('both'), is declined like ''duo'' except that its ''o'' is long.", "Both declensions derive from the Indo-European dual number, otherwise defunct in Latin, rather than the plural.", "two Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativeduo duae duo Vocative Accusative duōsduo duās Genitive duōrum duārum duōrum Dativeduōbus duābus duōbus Ablative both Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative ambō ambae ambō Vocative Accusative ambōsambō ambās Genitive ambōrum ambārum ambōrum Dativeambōbus ambābus ambōbus Ablative three Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativetrēs tria Vocative Accusativetrēs / trīs Genitive trium Dative tribus AblativeThe numeral ('one hundred') is indeclinable, but all the other hundred numerals are declinable (, , , , , , , ).", "two hundred Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominativeducentī ducentae ducenta Vocative Accusative ducentōs ducentās Genitive ducentōrum ducentārum ducentōrum Dative ducentīs AblativeThe word ''mīlle'' 'thousand' is a singular indeclinable adjective.", "However, its plural, ''mīlia'', is a plural third-declension ''i''-stem neuter noun.", "To write the phrase \"four thousand horses\" in Latin, the genitive is used: ''quattuor mīlia equōrum'', literally, \"four thousands of horses\".", "(one) thousand x thousand,thousands Nominative mīlle mīliamīllia '''-ia''' Vocative Accusative Genitive mīliummīllium '''-ium''' Dative mīlibusmīllibus '''-ibus''' AblativeThe rest of the numbers are indeclinable whether used as adjectives or as nouns.For further information on the different sets of Latin numerals, see Latin numerals (linguistics)." ], [ "Adverbs and their comparatives and superlatives", "Adverbs are not declined.", "However, adverbs must be formed if one wants to make an adjective into an adverb.=== Adverbs from first- and second-declension adjectives ===First and second declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding ''-ē'' onto their stems.AdjectiveAdverb ('clear, famous') ('clearly, famously') ('strong, robust') ('strongly, robustly') ('weak') ('weakly') ('complete, firm') ('completely, firmly') ('whole, fresh') ('wholly, freshly') ('free') ('freely')=== Adverbs from third declension adjectives ===Typically, third declension adjectives' adverbs are formed by adding ''-iter'' to the stem.", "However, most third declension adjectives with one ending simply add ''-er'' to the stem.AdjectiveAdverb ('prudent') ('prudently') ('bold') ('boldly') ('courageous, spirited') ('courageously, spiritedly') ('wholesome') ('wholesomely')=== Comparative and superlative of adverbs ===Adverbs' comparative forms are identical to the nominative neuter singular of the corresponding comparative adjective.", "Adverbs' superlative forms are simply formed by attaching the regular ending ''-ē'' to the corresponding superlative adjective.", "As with their corresponding adjectival forms, first and second declensions adjectives ending in ''-eus'' or ''-ius'' use and as opposed to distinct endings.PositiveComparativeSuperlative ('suitably, properly')''magis idōneē''''maximē idōneē''=== Irregular adverbs and their comparative and superlative forms ===As with adjectives, there are irregular adverbs with peculiar comparative and superlative forms.PositiveComparativeSuperlative ('well') ('better') ('best') ('badly, ill') ('worse') ('worst') ('greatly') ('more') ('most') ('much, a lot') ('more') ('most') ('little') ('less') ('least') ('worthlessly') ('more worthlessly') ('most worthlessly') ('often') ('more often') ('most often') ('seasonably, betimes') ('more seasonably') ('most seasonably') ('near') ('nearer') ('nearest, next') ('recently')— ('most recently, previously') ('possible') ('rather') ('especially')— ('before, previously') ('first') ('otherwise') ('less')—" ], [ "Peculiarities within declension", "=== Irregularity in number ===Some nouns are only used in the singular (singulare tantum) such as:* materials, such as 'gold'Some nouns are only used in the plural (plurale tantum), or when plural have a singular meaning such as:* many festivals, such as 'Saturnalia'* 'camp' and 'arms'; 'a letter' (cf.", "'letter of the alphabet')* a few geographical names are plural such as 'Thebes' (both the Greek and the Egyptian cities)=== Indeclinable nouns ===Indeclinable nouns are nouns which only have one form in all cases (of the singular).", "* ('divine law')* ('likeness')* ('morning')* ('sin, abomination')* ('(male or female) sex')=== Heterogeneous nouns ===Heterogeneous nouns are nouns which vary in respect to gender.", "* A few nouns in the second declension occur in both the neuter and masculine.", "However, their meanings remain the same.", "* Some nouns are one gender in the singular, but become another gender in the plural.", "They may also change in meaning.", "Singular Plural ('bath') ''balneae'' or ''balnea'' ('bathhouse') ('feast, banquet') ''epulae'' ('feast, banquet') ('bridle, curb') ''frēnī'' bridle, curb ('joke, jest') ''ioca'' or ''ioci'' ('jokes, fun') ('place, location') ''loca'' ('region'); ''locī'' ('places in books, arguments') ('hoe, rake') ''rāstrī'' ('hoes, rakes')=== Plurals with alternative meanings === Singular Plural ('building, temple') ('rooms, house') ('help, aid') ('auxiliary troops') ('prison, cell') ('starting traps') ('fort, castle, fortress') ('military camp, encampment') ('plenty, much, abundance') ('troops') ('luck, chance') ('wealth, fortune') ('charm, favor') ('thanks') ('impediment, hindrance') ('baggage, baggage train') ('letter alphabet') ('letter message, epistle, scholarship, literature') ('habit, inclination') ('morals, character') ('trouble, pains') ('workmen') ('help') ('resources, wealth') ('part, piece') ('office, function')" ], [ "See also", "* Declension of Greek nouns in Latin* Latin conjugation* Latin mnemonics* William Whitaker's Words* Greek declension" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* New Latin Grammar, an eBook, originally written by Charles Edwin Bennett, at the Project Gutenberg* Interactive Latin Word Endings* ''A Student's Latin Grammar'', by Cambridge Latin Course's Robin Griffin, third edition* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of Latin words with English derivatives" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a list of Latin words with derivatives in English (and other modern languages).Ancient orthography did not distinguish between ''i'' and ''j'' or between ''u'' and ''v''.", "Many modern works distinguish u from v but not i from j.", "In this article, both distinctions are shown as they are helpful when tracing the origin of English words.", "See also Latin phonology and orthography." ], [ "Nouns and adjectives", "The citation form for nouns (the form normally shown in Latin dictionaries) is the Latin nominative singular, but that typically does not exhibit the root form from which English nouns are generally derived.", "Latin nouns and adjectives A–M Citation form Declining stem Meaning English derivatives abdomen abdomin- belly abdomen, abdominal, abdominous, intra-abdominal accipiter accipitr- hawk Accipiter, accipitrine acer acer- maple aceric ācer ācr- sharp acrid, acridine, acridity, acrimonious, acrimony, acritude, acrity, acrolein, eager, vinegar acerbus• acerbior• acerbissimus acerb- bitter acerbic, acerbity, exacerbate, exacerbation acervus acerv- heap acerval, acervate, acervation, acervative, acervose, Acervulinacea, acervuline, acervulus, coacervate, coacervation †acervulus acervul- acētum acēt- vinegar acetabuliform, acetabulum, acetate, acetic, acetone, aceturic, triacetate acinus acin- berry acinaceous, acinar, acinarious, aciniform, acinose, acinous, acinus, interacinous acus acer- chaff acerose acus acū- needle acicular, acuity, aculeate, aculeolate, aculeus, acumen, acuminate, acupuncture, acusector, acutance, acute, acutifoliate, acutilingual, acutilobate, aiguille, cute, eglantine, nonacuity, peracute, subacute †acicula acicul- †acula acul- adeps adip- fat adipocere, adipose aedes, aedis aed- building aedicule, aedile, cavaedium, edification, edifice, edile †aedicula aedicul- aemulus aemul-, im- emulate, emulation, emulator, emulous, image, imagerial, imagery, imagination, imaginative, imagine, imitable, imitate, imitation, inimitable, preimage, subimago aequus aequ-, -iqu- even, level adequacy, adequality, adequate, disequilibrium, equable, equal, equality, equanimity, equant, equation, equational, equative, equator, equatorial, equilibrium, equitable, equity, equivalence, equivalent, inadequacy, inadequate, inequality, iniquitous, iniquity aes aer- ore aeneator, aeneous, aeruginous, aerugite, aerugo, aim, disesteem, eruginous, esteem, estimable, estimate, inestimable aestas aest- summer aestival, aestivate, aestivation, estivate, estivator aestus aestu- estuarial, estuarine, estuary aetās aet- age coetaneity, coetaneous aevum aev- age, eon age, coeternal, coeval, coevality, eternal, eterne, eviternal, grandevity, grandevous, longevity, longevous, mediaeval, nonage, premediaeval, primaeval, primeval ager agr-, -egr- field agrarian, agrestal, agricultural, agriculture, nonagrarian, nonagricultural, peragration, peregrine, peregrinus, pilgrim, pilgrimage †agrellus agrell- āla āl- wing aileron, aisle, alar, alate, aliferous, aliform, aligerous alacer• alacrior alacr- quick alacritous, alacrity, allegresse, allegretto, allegro albus• albior• albissimus alb- dull white alb, alba, albarium, albedo, albino, albite, album, albumen, albumin, aubade alga alg- seaweed algae, algal, algicidal, algicide alius ali- other abalienate, alias, alibi, alien, alienability, alienable, alienate, alienation, aliquot, inalienability, inalienable, nonalien allium, ālium alli- garlic Allium alter alter- other adulterant, adulterate, adulteration, adulterine, adulterous, adultery, alter, alter ego, alterability, alterable, alterant, alteration, alterative, inalterable alternus altern- altern, alternant, alternate, alternation, alternative, alternator, bialternant alumnus alumn- alumnus alumni alveus alve- alveolar, alveolate, alveolus, interalveolar, postalveolar †alveolus alveol- amārus amar- bitter amarelle, amaretti, amaretto, amarine, amaritude, amaro ambō amb- both ambient, ambiguous amoenus amoen- amenity amplus• amplior• amplissimus ampl- ample ample, ampliate, ampliation, amplification, amplitude anas anat- duck Anas, anatine ancūla ancūl- ancillary †ancilla ancill- anguis angu- snake Anguidae, anguiform, Anguilla, anguilliform, anguine, anguineous anguiculus anguicul- †Anguilla anguill- angulus angul- corner angular, angularity, angulose, biangular, biangulate, equiangular, equiangularity, multangular, multiangular, nonrectangular, octangle, octangular, quadrangle, quadrangular, quinquangular, rectangle, rectangular, semiangle, semiangular, septangle, septangular, sexangle, sexangular, triangle, triangular, triangularity, triangulation †angellus angell- anima anim- breath, life, soul anima, animal, animalcule, animate, animation, animato, animator, exanimate, inanimate, reanimate animus anim- mind, anger animadversion, animose, animosity, animus, equanimity, equanimous, multanimous, nonunanimous, pusillanimity, pusillanimous, unanimity, unanimous annus ann-, -enn- year annals, annates, anniversary, annotinous, annual, annuity, biannual, bicentennial, biennial, biennium, bimillennial, centennial, decennial, millennial, millennium, octennial, per annum, perennate, perennial, quadrennial, quadrennium, quinquennial, quinquennium, semiannual, septennial, sexennial, superannuate, superannuation, triennial, triennium ānser ānser- goose Anser, anserine †anserculus ansercul- gosling antenna antenn- antenna, antennal, antennule ānus an- ring anal, annelid, Annelida, annular, annulate, annulation, annulus, anus, biannulate, circumanal, exannulate, penannular, semiannular, subanal †ānulus - †ānellus anell- apis ap- bee apian, apiarian, apiary, apiculture aqua aqu- water acquacotta, akvavit, aqua vitae, aquaculture, aquamanile, aquamarine, aquarelle, aquarial, aquarium, Aquarius, aquatic, aquatile, aqueduct, aqueous, aquifer, aquiferous, aquiform, ewer, gouache, semiaquatic, sewage, sewer, sewerage †aquula aquul- aquila aquil- eagle Aquila, aquiline, aquilinity arbiter arbitr- – arbiter, arbitrable, arbitrage, arbitrageur, arbitral, arbitrament, arbitrarious, arbitrary, arbitrate, arbitration, arbitrator, arbitratrix, arbitress, nonarbitrary arbor, arbōs arbor- tree arboraceous, arboreal, arboreality, arboreous, arborescence, arborescent, arboretum, arboricide, arboriculture, arborous, arborvitae, arbuscle, arbuscular †arbuscula arbuscul- arca arc- arcane †arcula arcul- arcus arc- bow arc, arciform, arco, arcuate arduus ardu- steep arduous argentum argent- silver argent, argentate, argenteous, argentiferous, Argentina, argentite arma arm- arms (weapons) alarm, ambry, armada, armadillo, armament, armamentarium, armarium, armature, armiferous, armiger, armigerous, armipotent, armistice, armor, armorial, armory, army, disarm, disarmament, gendarme, gendarmerie, nonarmigerous, rearm, rearmament armus arm- shoulder armill, armillary, armillifer †armilla armill- ars art--ert- art, skill artifact, artifice, artificial, artificiality, artisan, artisanal, artisanality, inartificial, inert, inertia, inertial, noninert, noninertial artus art- tight arctation, coarct, coarctate, coarctation artūs art- joint article, articulable, articulacy, articular, articulate, articulation, articulative, articulator, articulatory, biarticular, biarticulate, coarticulation, disarticulation, inarticulable, inarticulacy, inarticulate, interarticular, intra-articular, multiarticular, multiarticulate, quinquarticular, subarticle, triarticulate †articulus articul- arvus arv- plowed arval as ass--uss- ace, decussate, decussation, semis, tremissis asinus asin- donkey Aselli, asinine, Asinus, easel †asellus asell- asper asper- rough asperate, asperatus, asperity, exasperate, exasperation astus ast- astute audāx• audācior• audācissimus audāc- brave, bold audacious, audacity auris aur- ear aural, auricle, auricular, auriculate, auriform, auscultation, biauricular, biauriculate, binaural, circumaural, interauricular, scout †auricula auricul- aurum aur- gold aurate, aureate, aureole, auriferous, aurification, aurous, dory, inaurate, inauration, oriole, orpiment avēna avēn- oat Avena, avenaceous, avenary, avener avis avi- bird aucupation, augur, auspex, auspicate, auspice, auspicious, Aves, avian, aviary, aviation, aviator, aviatrix, avicide, Avicula, aviculture, avifauna †aucella aucell- †avicula avicul- avunculus avuncul- uncle, mother's brother avuncular, avunculate, avunculicide, avunculocal, uncle axis axi- axle abaxial, adaxial, axial, axiality, axifugal, axile, biaxial, biaxiality, coaxial, interaxial, multiaxial, semiaxis, triaxial, triaxiality, uniaxial baca bac- berry baccalaureate, baccate, bacciferous, bacciform, baccivorous, bagasse, bagatelle †bacula bacul- baculum bacul- staff bacillary, bacilliform, bacillus, baculiform, baculine, baguette, debacle, imbecile, imbecility †bacillum bacill- bāiulus, bājulus bāiul- carrier bail, bailee, bailie, bailiff, bailiwick, bailliage, baillie, bailment, bailor barba barb- beard barb, barbate, barbel, barbellate, barber, barbet, barbicel, barbine, barbule, rebarbative †barbula barbul- bassus bass- low abase, abasement, bas-relief, base, basset, basso, bassoon, bassus, debase, debasement beatus beat- blessed beatification, Beatitudes bellum bell- war antebellum, bellic, bellicose, bellicosity, belligerence, belligerent, debellatio, imbellic, rebel, rebellion, revel, revelment, revelry bellus bell- pretty beautiful, beauty, embellish, embellishment bene ben- well benediction, benedictional, benedictory, benefaction, benefactive, benefactor, benefactrix, benefic, benefice, beneficence, beneficent, benefit, benign, benignity bestia besti- animal beast, bestial, bestiary bini bin- two each binary, binate, combination, combinatorial, combine, recombinant bonus• melior• optimus bon-• melior-• optim- good• better• best bonbon, bonify, bonitary, bonus, boon, debonair• ameliorate, amelioration, meliority• optimal, optimate, optimum, suboptimal bōs bov- cow, ox bovine, bovinic acid botulus botul- sausage botulin, boudin †botellus botell- bracchium brac- arm, support embrace, braces, bracelet brevis brev- brief, short abbreviate, abbreviation, breve, brevet, breviary, brevity, brief, debrief bucca bucc- cheek, mouth, cavity buccal, buccinator muscle, buckle, debouch, debuccalization †buccula buccul- bulbus bulb- bulbous bulb, bulbar, bulbose, bulbous, bulbule †bulbulus bulbul- bulla bull- bubble, flask bill, billet, boil, boilery, bola, bolillo, bouillon, bowl, bull, bulla, bullion, ebullience, ebullient, ebullition, garboil bursa burs- pouch, purse bolson, bourse, bursa, bursar, bursary, disbursal, disburse, disbursement, imburse, reimburse, reimbursement caballus caball- horse caballero, cavalcade, cavalero, cavalier, cavalry, chevalier, chivalrous, chivalry calvus calv- bald calvarium, Calvary, Calvin, calvities, calvity, calvous calx calc--culc- heel calcaneal, calcaneum, calcaneus, calque, calzone, caulk, inculcate, inculcation, recalcitrance, recalcitrant, retrocalcaneal calx calc- limestone, pebble calcareous, calciferous, calcific, calcification, calciform, calcite, calcium, calculability, calculable, calculate, calculation, calculator, calculus, caliche, chalk, decalcification, incalculable, precalculate, recalcification, recalculate †calculus calcul- camera camer- vault antechamber, bicameral, cabaret, camaraderie, camber, camera, chamber, chamberlain, comrade, concamerate, concameration, multicamera, multicameral, tricameral, unicameral camisia camisi- shirt camisade, camisado, Camisard, camisole, chemise campus camp- field camp, campaign, campesino, campestral, campo, campsite, campus, champart, champarty, champertous, champerty, champignon, champion, decamp, decampment, encamp, encampment cancer cancr- crab cancer, cancerate, cancerous, cancriform, cancrine, canker, precancerous candēla candēl- candle candela, candelabra, candelabrum, chandelier, chandler, chandlery canis can- dog canaille, canary, canicular, canicule, canid, canine, Canis, Canis Major, postcanine cānus cān- gray, grey canescence, canescent capanna capann- cabana, cabin, cabinetry caper, capra capr- goat cabriole, cabriolet, caper, capreolate, capric, Capricorn, caprid, caprifig, capriform, caprigenous, caprine, capriole †capellus capell- †capreolus, capreola capreol- capillus capill- hair capellini, capillaceous, capillarity, capillary, capilliform, capillose, dishevel, dishevelment, precapillary capsa caps- box, case caisson, cajón, capsicum, capsular, capsule, case, cashier, cassette, cassone, chassis, encapsulant, encapsulate, encapsulation, encase, encasement, incase, incasement, intracapsular, subcapsular †capsella capsell- †capsula capsul- caput capit-, head achievable, achieve, achievement, ancipital, ancipitous, biceps, bicipital, cabotage, cad, caddie, cadet, cape, cap, capital, capitular, capitulary, capitulate, capitulation, capitule, capitulum, capo, capodecina, caporegime, captain, captaincy, cattle, caudillo, centicipitous, chapter, chaptrel, chattel, chef, chief, chieftain, co-captain, co-captaincy, decapitate, decapitation, occipital, occiput, per capita, precipice, precipitando, precipitation, precipitous, quadriceps, quadricipital, recapitulate, sincipital, sinciput, sous-chef, subcaptain, tri-captain, triceps, tricipital, unicipital, vice-captain, vice-captaincy †capitellum capitell- †capitulum capitul- carbo carbon- coal bicarbonate, carbon, carbonate, carbonation, Carboniferous, carbuncle, radiocarbon carcer, cancer carcer- jail cancel, cancellable, cancellate, cancellation, cancellous, cancellus, chancel, chancellery, chancellor, chancery, incarcerate, incarceration, subchancel †cancelli cancell- cardo cardin- hinge cardinal, cardinality, kern carduus cardu- thistle card cariēs cari- decay cariosity, carious carīna carīn- keel careen caro carn- flesh carnage, carnal, carnary, carnate, carnation, carneous, carnival, carnivore, carnose, carnosity, carrion, caruncle, carunculate, charcuterie, charnel, discarnate, incarnadine, incarnate, incarnation, reincarnate, reincarnation carrus, carrum carr- wheeled vehicle car, career, cargo, caricature, carriage, carry, charge, chargé, chargée, chariot, charioteer, charrette, countercharge, discharge, dischargee, encharge, multicar, recharge, surcharge cartilago cartilagin- cartilage cartilage, cartilaginous, noncartilaginous, precartilage cārus• cārior• cārissimus cār- dear caress, caressive, charitable, charity, cherish, cherishable, noncharitable casa cas- house casino cāseus cāse- cheese caseic, casein, caseous, cheese, quesadilla castrum castr- fort -caster, castellan, castellation, castle, chateau, chatelain, Chester †castellum castell- castus• castior• castissimus cast-, -cest- pure caste, castigate, castigation, castigator, chaste, chasten, chastenment, chastity, incest, incestuous catēna catēn- chain catenary, catenate, catenation, catenative, catenulate, chain, concatenate, concatenation, enchain, enchaînement, nonconcatenative †catēnula catēnul- cauda caud-, cod- tail cauda, caudal, caudate, caudicle, coda, codetta, curvicaudate, dequeue, enqueue, queue †caudicula caudicul- caulis caul-, col- stalk, stem caulescent, caulicle, cauliflorous, cauliflory, cauliform, cauline, choux †cauliculus caulicul- causa caus-, -cus- motive, accusation accusal, accusation, accusative, accusativity, accusatory, accuse, causality, causation, causative, causativity, excusable, excuse, inexcusable, irrecusable, recusal, recusancy, recusant, recuse, ruse, rush cavus cav- hollow biconcave, biconcavity, cage, cajole, cajolement, caval, cavate, cavatina, cave, cavea, cavern, cavernicolous, cavernous, cavernulous, cavicorn, cavitation, cavity, concave, concavity, encage, excavate, excavation, excavator, quasiconcave, quasiconcavity celeber celebr- famous celebrant, celebrate, celebration, celebratory, celebrity, concelebration celer• celerior• celerrimus celer- quick, swift accelerando, accelerant, accelerate, acceleration, accelerator, celerity, decelerando, decelerate, deceleration, decelerator centeni centen- hundred each bicentenary, centenarian, centenary, centenionalis, supercentenarian, ultracentenarian centesimus centesim- hundredth centavo, centesimal, centesimation, centime, céntimo centum cent- hundred cent, centennial, centifidous, centillion, centurial, centurion, century, semicentennial, sesquicentennial, tricentennial cera cer- wax ceraceous, cereous, ceresin, inceration cerebrum cerebr- brain cerebellar, cerebellum, cerebral, cerebrifugal, cerebripetal, intracerebral †cerebellum cerebell- certus cert- certain ascertain, ascertainable, certificate, certification, certiorari, certitude, decertification, incertitude, recertification cervīx cervīc- neck cervical, cervix, intracervical cervus cerv- deer cervid, Cervidae, cervine ceterus ceter- other et cetera cibus cib- food cibarious, cibarium, cibation cicātrīx cicātrīc- scar cicatrice cilium cili- eyelash cilia, ciliary, ciliate, ciliation, supercilious cinis ciner- ashes cinder, cinerarium, cinerary, cinereous, cinerin, incinerate, incineration, incinerator cippus cipp- stake cep circus circ- circle bicircular, circa, circinate, circular, circularity, circulate, circulation, circulator, circulatory, circumcircle, circus, cirque, encircle, encirclement, multicircular, noncircular, quasicircle, recirculate, recirculation, recirculator, research, ricercar, search, searchable, semicircle, semicircular, tricircular †circulus circul- †circellus circell- cirrus cirr- curl, tentacle cirrate, cirriform, cirriped, cirrose, cirrous, cirrus citer• citerior• citimus citr-• citerior-• citim- on this side• • • citerior• cīvis cīv- citizen citadel, city, civil, civilian, civility, incivil, incivility, intercity clārus• clārior• clārissimus clār- clear chiaroscuro, clairaudience, claircognizance, Claire, clairgustance, clairolfactus, clairsentience, clairvoyance, clairvoyant, Clara, clarain, claret, clarificant, clarification, clarify, clarinet, clarion, Clarissa, claritude, clarity, clear, clearage, clearance, cleartext, declarable, declaration, declarative, declaratory, declare, éclair, glair, glaireous, redeclare clavis clav- key claves, clavicle, clavier, enclave, exclave †clāvicula clāvicul- clemens clement- mild clemency, clement, inclemency, inclement codex codic- code, codex, codical, codicil †codicillus codicill- collis coll- hill colliculus †colliculus collicul- collum coll- neck collar color color- color bicolor, Colorado, coloration, coloratura, concolorous, decolor, discolor, discoloration, multicolor, tricolor, unicolor, versicolor cōl- strainer colander, coulee, coulis, coulisse, couloir, cullender, cullis, percolate, percolation, percolator, piña colada, portcullis columba columb- dove columbarium, columbary, Columbella, columbine cor cord- heart accord, accordance, accordant, accordatura, concord, concordance, concordant, concordat, corcle, cordate, cordial, cordiality, cordiform, core, courage, courageous, discord, discordance, discordant, discourage, discouragement, encourage, encouragement, nonaccordant, obcordate, record, scordatura †corcillum corcill- †corculum corcul- corbis corb- basket corb, corf corium cori- skin, hide coriaceous, excoriate cornū corn- horn bicorn, bicorne, Capricorn, cornea, corneal, corneous, corner, cornicle, corniculate, corniferous, cornification, corniform, cornucopia, quadricorn, quadricornous, tricorn, tricorne, tricornigerous, tricornute, unicorn, unicornous †corniculum cornicul- cornus corn- dogwood cornaceous, cornel, Cornus †cornicula cornicul- corona coron- crown corolla, corollaceous, corollarial, corollary, corona, coronamen, coronary, coronate, coronation, coronavirus, coroner, coronet, coroniform, Coronilla, crown, incoronate †corolla coroll- corpus corpor- body accorporate, bicorporal, concorporate, concorporation, corporal, corporality, corporate, corporation, corporative, corporature, corporeal, corporeality, corporeity, corps, corpse, corpulence, corpulent, corpus, corpuscle, corpuscular, disincorporate, disincorporation, extracorporeal, incorporal, incorporality, incorporate, incorporation, incorporeal, incorporeality, incorporeity, tricorporal †corpusculum corpuscul- cortex cortic- bark, rind cortical, corticate, corticiform, corticifugal, corticipetal, decorticate, decortication, decorticator coruscus corusc- vibrate coruscant, coruscate, coruscation corvus corv- raven corbel, cormorant, corvine †corvellus corvell- costa cost- rib accost, bicostate, coast, coastal, costa, costal, costate, curvicostate, entrecôte, infracostal, intercostal, intracoastal, multicostate, quadricostate, supracostal, tricostate, unicostate cotoneum cotōne- quince cotoneaster coxa cox- hip coxal crapula crapul- inebriation crapulence, crapulent cras cras- tomorrow crastination, procrastinate, procrastination, procrastinator crassus crass- thick crass, crassitude, crassulaceous crātis crāt- lattice, wickerwork crate, grate, graticulation, graticule, griddle, grill, grillade, grillage, grille †craticula craticul- crēna crēn- notch bicrenate, crena, crenate, crenation, crenature, crenulate, crenulation †crēnula crēnul- creta cret- chalk cretaceous cribrum cribr- sieve cribble, cribellum, cribrate, cribriform, garble †cribellum cribell- crimen crimin- judgment, offense criminal, criminality, criminate, incriminate, recriminate, recrimination crīnis crīn- hair crinel, crinigerous, crinite, crinoline, crinose, crinosity crispus crisp- curled crape, crepe, crêpe, crisp, crispate, crispation crista crist- crest crease, crest, cristate crus crur- leg, shank bicrural, crural, crus, equicrural crusta crust- rind, shell, crust crostata, croustade, croûte, crouton, crust, crustacean, crustaceous, crustal, crustation, crustific, crustose, custard, duricrust, encrust, encrustation, incrust, incrustation crux cruc- cross crucial, cruciate, crucifer, cruciferous, crucifix, crucifixion, cruciform, crucify, crucigerous, crusade, cruzeiro, discruciate, excruciate cucullus cucull- hood cowl, cucullate cuculus cucul- cuckoo cuculiform cucurbita cucurbit- gourd cucurbit, Cucurbita, cucurbitaceous culcita culcit- mattress quilt culex culic- gnat Culex, culiciform, culicifuge, culicine, Culicivora culina culin- kitchen culinarian, culinary, kiln culpa culp- blame, fault culpability, culpable, culprit, exculpate, exculpatory, inculpable, inculpate, inculpatory, mea culpa culter cultr- knife colter, coulter, cultellus, cutlass, cutler, cutlery †cultellus cultell- cūlus cul- buttocks culet, culottes, recoil cumulus cumul- heap accumulate, accumulation, accumulator, cumulate, cumulative, cumulativity, cumuliform, cumulose, cumulous, cumulus cūnae cūn- cradle cunabula, incunable, incunabula, incunabular, incunabulum cuneus cune- wedge coign/coigne, coin, cuneate, cuneiform, cuneus, encoignure, obcuneate, precuneus, quoin, sconcheon/scuncheon cūpa cūp- tub, goblet, cask cooper, cooperage, cup, cupel, cupellation, cupola, cupule †cūpella cūpell- †cūpula cūpul- cura cur- care accuracy, accurate, assecure, assurance, assure, curable, curate, curative, curator, cure, curettage, curette, curio, curiosity, curious, ensure, inaccurate, incurable, insecure, insecurity, insurability, insurable, insurance, insure, pococurante, proctor, proctorage, procurable, procuracy, procuration, procurator, procure, procurement, proxy, reassurance, reassure, reinsurance, reinsure, scour, scourage, secure, security, sinecural, sinecure, sure, surety currus curr- chariot corral, curule curtus curt- shortened curt, curtail, curtate, decurt curvus curv- bent curb, curvate, curvation, curvature, curve, curviform, curvilinear, curvity, incurvate, incurvature, incurve, recurvate, recurve, recurvous cuspis cuspid- tip bicuspid, bicuspidate, cusp, quadricuspid, tricuspid custos custod- guardian custodial, custodian, custody, noncustodial cutis cut- hide, skin cutaneous, cuticle, cuticolor, cuticular, cutin, cutis, cutisector, subcutaneous †cuticula cuticul- damnum damn--demn- harm condemn, condemnation, damage, damnation, damnific, damnify, indemnification, indemnify, indemnity decem decem- ten dean, deanery, decan, decanal, December, decemfid, decempedal, decemvirate, decemviri, decennary, decennial, decennium, decuple, decurion, decurionate, decury, dicker, doyen, doyenne decimus decim- tenth decimal, decimate, decimation, dime decus decor- decor, décor, decorament, decorate, decoration, decorative, decorator, decorous, decorum, redecorate deni den- ten each denar, denarian, denarius, denary, denier, dinar, dinero, dinheiro dens dent- tooth bident, bidental, dental, dentate, denticity, denticle, denticulate, dentiferous, dentiform, dentifrice, dentil, dentin, dentinal, dentition, denture, indent, indentation, indenture, interdental, intradental, multidentate, quadridentate, trident, tridentate †denticulus denticul- densus dens- thick condensable, condensate, condensation, condense, dense, density, nondense deter• dēterior• dēterrimus deter-• deterior-• deterrim- • worse• worst • deterior, deteriorate, deterioration• deus de- god deicidal, deicide, deific, deification, deiform, deity dexter• dexterior• dextimus dextr-• dexterior-• dextim- right ambidextrous, dexterity, dexterous, dextral, dextrality, dextrin, dextrorse, dextrose• • diēs diē- day adjourn, adjournment, aggiornamento, antemeridian, circadian, dial, diary, diurnal, diurnality, infradian, jornada, journal, journey, meridian, meridional, nundinal, per diem, postmeridian, quotidian, semidiurnal, sojourn, transmeridional, triduan, triduum, ultradian digitus digit- finger, toe bidigitate, digit, digital, digitate, digitiform, digitigrade, multidigit, multidigitate dignus dign- worthy condign, deign, dignify, dignitarial, dignitary, dignity, disdain, indign, indignance, indignant, indignation, indignity dirus dir- fearful dire discipulus discipul- student disciple, disciplinarian, disciplinary, discipline, interdisciplinarity, interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, transdisciplinarity divus div- god divination, divinatory, divine, divinity dominus domin- lord beldam/beldame, codomain, codominance, codominant, condominium, dam, dame, damsel, demesne, demoiselle, domain, dominance, dominant, dominate, domination, dominative, dominator, dominatrix, domine, domineer, dominicide, dominion, dominium, domino, duenna, madam, madame, mademoiselle, madonna, predominance, predominant, predominate, semidominance, subdominant, superdominant domus dom- house domal, dome, domestic, domesticate, domestication, domesticity, domestique, domicile, domiciliary, major-domo, semidome dōnum dōn- gift condonation, condone, donation, donative, donator, donatory, pardon, pardonable dorsum dors- back disendorse, dorsal, dorsum, dossier, endorse, endorsee, endorsement, indorse, indorsement, reredos dos dot- dowry dotal, dotation dowager dowry endow endowment drappus drapp- cloth drab, drape, drapery dulcis dulc- sweet billet-doux, dolce, dolcetto, douce, doux, dulcet, dulcian, dulcify, dulcimer, edulcorant, edulcorate, subdulcid duo du- two deuce, doubt, dual, duality, dubiety, dubious, duet, duo, duplex, duumvirate, duumviri, nonduality duodecim duodec- twelve dozen, duodecennial, duodecillion duodecimus duodec- twelfth duodecimal duodeni duoden- twelve each duodenal, duodenary, duodenum duplus dupl- twofold dobla, double, doubloon, doublure, duplation, duple, redouble, semidouble durus dur- hard dour, durability, durable, duration, durative, duress, durum, endurable, endurance, endurant, endure, indurate, induration, nondurable, obdurate, obduration, perdurable, perdurance, perdure, subdural ebrius ebri- drunk inebriant, inebriate, inebriation, inebriety, sober, sobriety ensis ens- sword ensiferous, ensiform equus equ- horse equestrian, equine eruca eruc- caterpillar eruciform exterus• exterior• extremus exter-• exterior-• extrem- • outer• outmost extern, external, externality• exterior• extreme, extremity, extremum faba fab- bean faba bean, fabaceous, aquafaba faber fabr- fabric, fabrication, fabricator faenum faen- hay fennel, sainfoin falx falc- sickle defalcation, falcate, falciform fames fam- hunger famine, famish fanum fan- temple profane, profanity fascis fasc- bundle fasces, fascicle, fascicular, fasciculation, fascine †fasciculus fascicul- fatuus fatu- foolish, useless fatuous, infatuation fauces fauc-, -foc- throat faucal, suffocate, suffocation febris febr- fever antefebrile, febrifacient, febriferous, febrifuge, febrile fēlēs fēl- cat felid, Felinae, feline fēlix fēlic- happy felicitations, felicitous, felicity fēmina fēmin- woman effeminacy, effeminate, feminine, feminism, feminist, femininity femur femor- thigh femoral, femur fenestra fenestr- window defenestration ferox feroc- fierce ferocious, ferocity ferrum ferr- iron farrier, farriery, ferrate, ferrite, ferreous, ferrous, ferruginous, ferrugo, nonferrous ferus fer- wild feral, ferine, ferocious, ferocity, fierce festūca festūc- fescue, Festuca festus fest- feast, festal, festival, festive, festivity, festivous, festoon, Festus, fete, fiesta, infestive feudum feud- fee feodary, feudal, feudary, feudatory, subinfeudation fibra fibr- defibrillate, defibrillation, defibrillator, fiber, fibre, fibriform, fibril, fibrillar, fibrillate, fibrin, fibrinous, fibrous, multifibrous †fibrilla fibrill- fībula fībul- clasp, fastener fibula, fibular, infibulate, infibulation ficus fic- fig Ficus fidēs fid- faith, trust affiance, affiant, affidavit, confidant, confidante, confide, confidence, confident, confidential, confidentiality, defiance, defiant, defy, diffide, diffidence, diffident, faith, feal, fealty, fiancé, fiancée, fidelity, fiducial, fiduciary, infidel, infidelity, interfaith, multifaith, perfidious, perfidy, prefident fīliafīlius fīli-fīli- daughterson affiliate, affiliation, affiliative, disaffiliate, disaffiliation, filial, filiate, filiation, filicide, filiety, nonaffiliation filum fil- thread bifilar, defilade, defile, enfilade, filament, filarial, filariform, filet, filiferous, filiform, filigree, fillet, multifilament, profile, unifilar fimbriae fimbri- fimbria, fimbrial, fimbriate, fimbriation, fimbrillate, fringe fimus fim- dung fimicolous fīnis fīn- end, limit affinal, affine, affinitive, affinity, confine, confinement, confines, confinity, define, definiendum, definiens, definite, definition, definitive, equifinality, final, finality, finance, fine, finery, finesse, finis, finish, finite, finito, finitude, indefinite, indefinitude, infinite, infinitesimal, infinitive, infinitude, infinity, nonaffinity, nonfinal, nonfinite, prefinite, raffinate, raffinose, redefine, redefinition, refinance, refine, refinement, refinery, semidefinite, semifinal, superfine, transfinite firmus firm- firm affirm, affirmance, affirmant, affirmation, affirmative, affirmatory, confirm, confirmation, confirmational, confirmatory, disaffirm, disaffirmation, farm, fermata, firmament, infirm, infirmarian, infirmary, infirmity, nonaffirmation, obfirm, obfirmation, reaffirm, reaffirmation, reconfirm, reconfirmation fiscus fisc- basket confiscate, confiscation, confiscatory, fisc, fiscal, fiscus fistula fistul- pipe, tube fistula, fistulate, fistuliform, fistulose, fistulous flaccus flacc- flabby flaccid, flaccidity flagrum flagr- flagellant, flagellar, flagellate, flagellation, flagelliform, flagellin, flagellum, flail, multiflagellate, uniflagellate †flagellum flagell- flamma flamm- flame flamage, flambé, flambeau, flamboyance, flamboyant, inflame, inflammable, inflammation, inflammatory, oriflamme flavus flav- yellow flavin, flavivirus, flavonoid floccus flocc- tuft deflocculant, deflocculation, floc, floccillation, floccinaucinihilipilification, floccose, flocculant, floccular, flocculation, floccule, flocculent, floccus, flock †flocculus floccul- flōs flōr- flower counterflory, deflorate, defloration, effleurage, effloresce, efflorescence, efflorescent, fiori, fioritura, fleur-de-lis, fleury, flora, floral, florescence, florescent, floret, floriculture, florid, floridean, floridity, floriferous, floriform, florilege, florilegium, florin, floruit, florulent, flory, flour, flourish, flower, inflorescence, multiflora, multiflorous, pauciflor, pluriflor, uniflorous †floscellus floscell- focus foc- hearth bifocal, confocal, defuel, focaccia, focal, focus, foyer, fuel, fusillade, multifocal, omnifocal, parfocal, refocus, refuel, trifocal, varifocal foedus foeder- confederate, confederation, federacy, federal, federation folium foli- leaf bifoliate, bifoliolate, centifolious, cinquefoil, counterfoil, defoliant, defoliate, defoliation, exfoliant, exfoliate, exfoliation, exfoliative, feuilleton, foil, folate, foliage, foliar, foliate, foliation, foliature, folic, foliferous, folio, foliolate, foliole, foliose, foliosity, folivore, folivorous, folivory, multifoil, multifoliate, octofoil, perfoliate, portfolio, quadrifoliate, quadrifolium, quatrefoil, septifolious, trefoil, trifoliate, trifoliolate, trifolium, unifoliate †foliolum foliol- leaflet follis foll- bellows follicle, follicular, follis, folly, fool, foolery †folliculus follicul- fons font- fountain, spring font, fontal, fontanelle foris for- outdoors afforest, afforestation, deforest, deforestation, disforest, foreclose, foreign, forensic, forest, forfeit, forum, reforest, reforestation fōrma fōrm- form, shape biform, biformity, conform, conformable, conformance, conformant, conformity, counterreformation, deform, deformable, deformation, deformity, disinformation, formable, formal, formality, formant, format, formation, formative, formula, formulary, formulation, inform, informal, informality, informant, information, informative, irreformable, malformation, nonconformance, perform, performance, preform, preformat, reform, reformable, reformat, reformation, reformatory, transform, transformable, transformation, transformational, transformative, triform, triformity, uniform, uniformity †formella formell- †formula formul- formica formic- ant formic formus form- warm fornix fornic- vault fornication, forniciform fors fort- luck fortuitous, fortuity, fortunate, fortune fortis fort- strong comfort, effort, force, forcible, forte, fortification, fortify, fortis, fortissimo, fortitude fovea fove- shallow round depression fovea, foveal, foveole frāter frātr- brother fraternal, fraternity, fratricide, friar, friary fraus fraud- fraud defraud, defraudation, fraud, fraudulent frēnum frēn- bridle frenal, frenate, frenulum, frenum, refrain, refrainment †frenulum frenul- frequēns• frequentior• frequentissimus frequent- often frequency, frequent, frequentation, frequentative, infrequency, infrequent fretum fret- strait transfretation, transfrete frīgus frigor- cold frigorific †frīgusculum friguscul- frōns, fruns frond- frond, frondent, frondescence, frondiferous, frondlet, frondose frōns front- brow, forehead affront, affrontive, bifront, confront, confrontation, confrontational, effrontery, front, frontage, frontal, frontier, frontispiece, nonconfrontational, nonfrontal, prefrontal, quadrifrons, transfrontier frustum frust- piece bifrustum, frustule, frustulent, frustulum, frustum †frustillum frustill- †frustulum frustul- frutex frutic- shrub frutescence, frutescent, fruticose, fruticulose, suffrutescent, suffruticose, suffruticulose †fruticulus fruticul- frūx frūg- fruit frugal, frugality, frugiferous, frugivore, frugivorous, frumenty, infrugiferous fulvus• fulvissimus fulv- tawny fulvic, fulvid, fulvous fūmus fūm- smoke fumacious, fumade, fumage, fumarine, fumarole, fumatorium, fumatory, fume, fumeuse, fumid, fumidity, fumiferous, fumigant, fumigate, fumigation, fumigator, infumate, infumation, perfume, perfumery, suffumigate, suffumigation fundus fund- bottom cofound, defund, found, foundation, foundational, founder, fund, fundament, fundamental, fundoplication, fundus, profound, profundal, profundity †fundulus fundul- fungus fung- mushroom fungal, fungicidal, fungicide, fungiform, fungus fūnis fūn- rope funambulatory, funicle, funicular, funiculate, funiform †fūniculus fūnicul- fūnus funer- funeral, funerary, funerate, funereal fur fur- thief furuncle furca furc- fork bifurcation, fourchette, furcate, furcula, furcular, multifurcate, trifurcate, trifurcation †furcilla furcill- †furcula furcul- furtum furt- theft furtive fuscus• fuscior fusc- dark fuscation, fuscine, fuscous, infuscate, infuscation, obfuscate, obfuscation, subfuscous fūstis fūst- cudgel fustigate, fustigation †fusticulus fusticul- fūsus fūs- spindle fusain, Fusarium, fusarole, fusee, fuselage, fusilli, fusula, fuze galbus galb- yellow jaundice galea gale- helmet galea, galeate, galeiform galēna galēn- lead ore galena, galenic gallīna gallīn- hen gallinacean, gallinaceous, gallinule †gallīnula gallīnul- gelu gel- congeal, congelation, gel, gelati, gelatin, gelatinous, gelation, gelato, gelée, gelid, gelifluction, gelignite, jellification, jelly geminus gemin- twin bigeminal, bigeminy, gemel, gemelli, gemelliparous, geminal, geminate, gemination, gemini, gimmal, ingeminate, quadrigeminal, trigeminal, trigeminy †gemellus gemell- gemma gemm- bud gem, gemma, gemmaceous, gemmate, gemmiferous, gemmiform, gemmiparous, gemmulation, gemmule, gemmuliferous †gemmula gemmul- gena gen- cheek fixigena, gena, genal, librigena gens gent- gens, genteel, gentile, gentility, gentle, gentrice, gentrification, gentry genū genū- knee genicular, geniculate, geniculation, geniculum, genu, genual, genucubital, genuflect, genuflection, genuflexion †geniculum genicul- genus gener- birth, offspring, creation congener, congeneric, degenerate, degenerative, engender, gender, general, generality, generate, generation, generational, generative, generator, generatrix, generic, generosity, generous, genre, genuine, genus, intergenerational, intergeneric, regenerate, regenerative, subgenre, subgenus, transgender germen germin- sprout germ, germane, germicide, germinal, germinate, germination, nongermane, regerminate gibbus gibb- hump gibbose, gibbosity, gibbous glaber glabr- smooth glabella, glabellar, glabrate, glabrescent, glabrous †glabellus glabell- glacies glaci- ice englacial, glacé, glacial, glaciation, glacier, glacious, glacis, glance, interglacial, interglaciation, postglacial, subglacial, supraglacial gladius gladi- sword gladiate, gladiator, gladiatory, gladiature, gladiolus glāns gland- acorn eglandular, eglandulose, gland, glandiferous, glandula, glandular, glandule, glanduliferous, glandulose, glans †glandula glandul- glēba, glaeba glēb- clod gleba, glebal, glebe, glebosity globus glob- conglobate, global, globate, globe, globose, globosity, globular, globule, globulin, inglobate †globulus globul- glomus glomer- agglomerate, agglomeration, agglomerative, glomerate, glomerular, glomerulation, glomerulus, juxtaglomerular †glomerulus glomerul- gluten glutin- glue agglutinant, agglutinate, agglutination, agglutinative, deglutination, glutelin, gluten, glutinosity, glutinous, nonagglutinative gracilis• gracilior• gracillimus gracil- slender engrail, engrailment, gracile, gracility gradus grad- step aggradation, aggradational, aggrade, antegrade, anterograde, centigrade, degradable, degradation, degradational, degrade, degree, digitigrade, gradation, grade, gradient, gradine, gradual, graduality, graduand, graduate, graduation, gree, laterigrade, multigrade, nongraduate, plantigrade, postgraduate, progradation, prograde, retrogradation, retrograde, saltigrade, tardigrade grandis• grandior• grandissimus grand- aggrandise, aggrandisement, grandee, grandeur, grandific, grandiloquent, grandiose, grandiosity, grandioso, grandity, grandmaster granum gran- grain degranulation, engrain, filigree, garner, garnet, grain, granary, grange, granger, granite, granivore, granivorous, granivory, granular, granularity, granulate, granulation, granule, grenade, grenadier, grogram, grosgrain, ingrain, multigrain, pomegranate †granulum granul- grātus• gratissimus - aggrace, agree, agreeable, agreeance, agreement, congratulant, congratulate, congratulations, congratulatory, disgrace, grace, graciosity, gracious, gratify, gratification, gratis, gratitude, gratuitous, gratuity, gratulant, gratulate, gratulation, gratulatory gravis• gravior• gravissimus grav- heavy aggravate, aggravation, degravation, gravamen, grave, gravid, gravida, gravidity, gravitas, gravitate, gravitation, gravitational, gravity, grief, grieve, grievance, grievant, grievous, ingravescence, ingravescent, multigravida, multigravidity, nongravitational, nulligravida, primigravida, reaggravate, supergravity grex greg- flock, herd aggregate, aggregation, aggregator, congregate, congregation, congregational, desegregate, desegregation, disaggregate, egregious, gregarious, intercongregational, segregate, segregation grossus• grossior gross- thick engross, engrossment, grocer, grocery, grosgrain, gross gula gul- gula, gular, gullet, gully, subgular gurges gurgit- demigorge, disgorge, disgorgement, engorge, engorgement, gorge, gorgeous, gorget, ingurgitate, ingurgitation, regurgitate, regurgitation gustus gust- taste disgust, gustatory, gusto, gustoso gutta gutt- drop gout, gutta, guttate, gutter, guttifer, guttiform guttur guttur- throat goitre, guttural hallux halluc- big toe hallucal, hallux hāmus hām- hook hamate, hamiform, hamular, hamulate, hamulus †hāmulus hāmul- harena haren- sand arena, arenaceous, arenite, arenose hasta hast- spear hasta, hastate, hastatic, hastile hebes hebet- blunt, dull hebetate, hebetude hedera heder- ivy Hedera, hederaceous herba herb- grass herbaceous, herbal, herbarium, herbicide, herbivore, herbivorous, herbivory, non-herbal hērēs hērēd- disinherit, heir, hereditable, hereditament, hereditary, heredity, heritability, heritage, inherit, inheritable, inheritance, inheritor, inheritrix, nonhereditary, noninheritable hibernus hibern- hibernacle, hibernal hiems hiem- winter hiemal hircus hirc- goat hircine homō homin- man (human being) bonhomie, homage, hombre, homicide, hominid, homuncular, homunculus, human, humane, humanitarian, humanity, inhuman, inhumane, inhumanity, Nemo, nonhuman, prehuman, subhuman, superhuman, transhuman †homunculus homuncul- honor honor- honor honorable, honorarium, honorary, honorific hortus hort- garden cohort, court, courteous, courtesan, courtesy, courtier, curtain, horticulture hostis host- enemy hostile, hostility humus hum- ground exhumation, exhume, humate, humation, humic, humiliate, humility, inhumation, inhume ignis ign- fire igneous, ignite, ignition imbecillus imbecile- weak imbecile, imbecility inanis inan- inane, inanity inferus• inferior• infimus infer-• inferior-• infim- • lower• lowest • inferior, inferiority• inguen inguin- groin inguinal īnsula īnsul- island insular, insulate, insulation, peninsula, peninsular, isolate, isolation interus• interior• intimus inter-• interior-• intim- • • entrail, intern, internal, internality• interior• intima, intimacy, intimate, intimation iocusjocus joc- jest jocular, jocularity, joke †joculus jocul- iūdexjūdex iūdic- judge adjudicate, adjudication, adjudicative, adjudicator, adjudicatory, extrajudicial, injudicious, judge, judgement, judgment, judgmental, judicable, judicative, judicator, judicatory, judicature, judicial, judiciary, judicious, nonjudicial, prejudge, prejudgment, prejudice, prejudicial iugumjugum iug- yoke conjugacy, conjugal, conjugate, conjugation, jugal, jugate, jugular iūs iūr- law, right abjuration, abjure, conjure, de jure, jurat, juration, juratory, jurisdiction, jury, justice iuvenisjuvenis juven- young junior, juniorate, juniority, juvenile, juvenilia, juvenility, rejuvenate jejunus jejun- jejunal, jejune, jejunity, jejunum labia labi- lip labial, labium labor labor- toil collaboration, collaborative, collaborator, elaboration, laboratory, laborious labrum labr- lip labrose, labrum lac lact- milk lactate, lactic, lactose lacrima lacrim- tear lachrymose lacus lac- lacuna, lacustrine, lagoon, lake lapis lapid- stone dilapidate, lapidary lassus lass- lassitude latex latic- liquid laticifer latus lat- broad, wide latifoliate, latitude latus later- side collateral, lateral laus laud- praise laud, laudable, Lauds laxus lax- loose laxity, relax lenis leni- gentle leniency, lenient, leniment, lenis, lenition, lenitive, lenitude, lenity lens lent- lentil lens, lenticel, lenticular, lentiform lentus lent- lentic, relent leo leon- lion leonine lepus lepor- hare leporid, leporine levis lev- light (weight) levity, relieve lēx lēg- law alleged, extralegal, illegal, legal, legality, legislation, legislator, privilege liber liber- free illiberal, illiberality, liberal, liberality, liberate, liberation, liberator liber libr- book librarian, library, libretto libra libr- balance, scales deliberate, deliberation, deliberative, equilibrium, libration lignum lign- wood ligneous, ligniform, lignin, lignite, lignose limbus limb- edge limbate, limbic, limbo limes limit- delimit, limes, limit, limitation linea line- line align, collinear, collineation, linea, lineage, linear, linearity, multicollinearity lingua lingu- tongue bilingual, bilinguality, bilinguous, collingual, elinguation, interlanguage, language, ligula, ligular, ligule, lingua franca, lingual, linguiform, linguine, multilingual, prelingual, quadrilingual, sublingual, trilingual †lingula, ligula lingul- lira lir- furrow delirament, delirant, delirate, deliration, deliriant, delirifacient, delirious, delirium littera litter- letter alliteration, alliterative, biliteral, illiteracy, illiterate, literacy, literal, literary, literate, literature, obliterate, obliteration, transliteracy, transliteration, triliteral locus, stlocus loc- place accouchement, bilocation, bilocular, cislocative, collocation, couch, couchant, dislocate, dislocation, interlocal, lieu, local, locale, locality, locate, location, locative, locator, loculament, locular, locule, loculose, loculus, milieu, multilocal, multilocation, multilocular, nonlocal, quasilocal, relocate, relocation, translocal, translocate, translocation, translocative, trilocular, unilocular †locellus locell- †loculus locul- longus• longior• longissimus long- long allonge, elongate, elongation, longa, longanimity, longe, longeron, longinquity, longitude, longitudinal, longum, lunge, lungo, oblong, prolong, prolongation, purloin lūbricus lūbric- slippery lubricant, lubricate, lubrication, lubricator, lubricity, lubricous lucrum lucr- gain, profit lucrative, lucre, lucrific †lucellum lucell- lūmen lūmin- light dislimn, enlumine, illuminable, illuminance, illuminant, illuminate, illuminati, illumination, illumine, intraluminal, limn, lumen, luminaire, luminal, luminance, luminant, luminaria, luminary, lumination, lumine, luminescence, luminescent, luminiferous, luminosity, luminous, relumine, subluminal, subluminous, superluminal, transillumination, transluminal, ultraluminous lūna lūn- Moon circumlunar, cislunar, demilune, interlunar, interlunation, lunar, lunate, lunatic, lunation, lune, lunette, luniform, lunisolar, mezzaluna, mezzelune, plenilunary, semilunar, sublunar, sublunary, superlunary, translunar lupus lup- wolf lupine lūtra lūtr- otter Lutra, lutrine lutum lut- mud lutaceous, lutite lux luc- light elucidate, elucidation, elucubrate, elucubration, lucent, lucid, lucidity, Lucifer, luciferous, lucifugal, noctilucent, pellucid, pellucidity, semipellucid, translucency, translucent, translucid, translucidity, translucidus luxus lux- luxuriant, luxurious, luxury †macula macul- spot immaculate, macula, macular, maculate, maculation, maculature, macule, maculose magister magistr- master maestro, magisterial, magistery, magistracy, magistral, magistrate, magistrature, master, mastery, mistral, quartermaster, remaster magnus• māior• maximus magn-• māior-• maxim- big, great• greater• greatest magnanimity, magnanimous, magnate, magnificent, magnitude• maestoso, majesty, major, majorate, majordomo, majoritarian, majority, majuscule, mayor, mayoral, mayoralty, semimajor, supermajority• maxim, maximal, maximum malleus malle- hammer malleability, malleable, mallet malus• peior• pessimus mal-• peior-• pessim- bad• worse• worst dismal, grand mal, malady, malaise, malevolence, malevolent, malice, malicious, malignancy, malignant, nonmalignant, petit mal, premalignant• impair, impairment, pejoration, pejorative• pessimal mantum mant- dismantle, dismantlement, manta, mantel, mantelet, mantilla, mantle †mantellum mantell- manus manu- hand amanuensis, Bimana, bimanous, bimanual, mainour, maintain, manacle, manage, manageable, management, managerial, mandamus, mandate, maneuver, manicure, manifer, manifest, manifestation, manifesto, maniform, maniple, manipulation, manner, manual, manuary, manubrium, manuduction, manufacture, manumission, manumit, manus, manuscript, Quadrumana, quadrumanous †manicula manicul- mare mar- sea marinade, marinate, marine, mariner, maritime, submarine, ultramarine Mars marti- Mars martial, Martian māter mātr- mother immaterial, material, materiality, maternal, maternity, matricide, matriculant, matriculate, matrilocal, matrimonial, matrimony, matrix, matron, matter maturus matur- ripe immature, immaturity, maturant, maturate, maturation, mature, maturescent, maturity, prematuremaxilla maxill- jaw hemimaxilla, hemimaxillectomy, intermaxilla, maxillar, maxillary, maxillate, maxillectomy, maxilliferous, maxilliform, maxillula, premaxilla, septomaxilla, submaxilla, supermaxilla, supramaxilla, zygomaxillare medius medi- middle antemeridian, dimidiate, dimidiation, immediacy, immediate, intermediary, intermediate, intermedio, intermezzo, mean, media, medial, median, mediant, mediation, mediator, mediatrix, mediety, medieval, mediocre, mediocrity, medium, meridian, mezzanine, postmeridian mel mell- honey melliferous, mellific, mellifluence, mellifluent, mellifluous, melliloquent, mellivorous membrum membr- bimembral, dismember, dismemberment, member, membral, membrane, membranous, nonmember, semimembranous, transmembrane memor memor- mindful commemorate, commemoration, commemorative, immemorial, memoir, memorabilia, memorability, memorable, memorandum, memorial, memory, remember, remembrance, rememorate menda mend- blemish emend, emendation mendicus mendic- beggar mendicant, mendicate, mendication, mendicity mens ment- mind comment, commentary, dementia, mental, mentality merus mer- pure mere mēta met- goal mete miles milit- soldier militant, military, militate, militia mīlle mīll- thousand bimillennium, mile, mileage, miliarense, miliaresion, millefeuille, millefiori, millefleur, millennial, millennium, milli-, million, millionaire, millipede, milreis, multimillion, postmillennial, premillennial millēnī millēn- a thousand each bimillenary, millenarian, millenary, postmillenarian millēsimus millēsim- thousandth mil, millesimal mirus mir- admirability, admirable, admiration, admirative, admire, marvel, miracle, miraculous, mirage, Miranda, mirative, mirativity, mirror †miraculum miracul- miser• miserior• miserrimus miser- wretched commiserate, commiseration, miser, miserable, misericord, misery †misellus misell- missa miss- Mass missal, missificate mitis• mitissimus mit- mitigant, mitigate, mitigation modus mod- accommodate, accommodation, accommodative, accommodator, bimodal, bimodality, commode, commodification, commodious, commodity, decommodification, demodulate, demodulation, demodulator, immodest, immodesty, intermodal, intermodulation, modal, modality, mode, model, modern, modernity, modest, modesty, modicum, modification, modify, modiolus, modular, modularity, modulate, modulation, modulator, module, modulo, modulus, multimodal, multimodality, postmodern, postmodernity, Quasimodo, remodel, remodulate, supermodel, trimodal, trimodality, ultramodern, unimodular, unimodularity †modulus modul- moles mol- mass bimolecular, demolition, mole, molecule mollis moll- soft emollient, mollient, mollify, mollitude, mollusc, molluscicide, molluscivore, mollusk mons mont- mountain cismontane, dismount, montage, montane, monticello, monticule, montiform, montigenous, mount, piedmont, submontane, surmount, tramontane, transmontane, ultramontane †monticellus monticell- †monticulus monticul- mora mor- delay demur, demure, demurrage, demurral, moratorium morbus morb- sickness morbid, morbidity mors mort- death immortal, immortality, mortal, mortality, mortician, rigor mortis mortuus mort- dead mortgage, mortuary, morgue, postmortem mōs mōr- custom immoral, immorality, moral, morale, morality, mores, morigerous, morose, morosity mucrō mucrōn- point mucro, mucronate, mucronation, mucronulate, mucronule mūcus mūc- mucic, muciferous, muciform, mucigel, mucilage, mucilaginous, mucivore, mucosa, mucous, muculent, submucosa mulier muli- woman muliebrity, mulierose multa, mulcta mult- penalty mulct multus• plūs• plūrimus mult-• plūr-• plūrim- many• more• most multiplex, multiplicity, multitude• nonplus, plural, plurality, pluriform, plus, surplus• plurimal mūlus mūl- mule mular mundus mund- world antemundane, demimondaine, demimonde, extramundane, intramundane, mondain, mondaine, mondial, mondo, mundane, mundanity, ultramundane mūrex mūric- murex, muricate, muriculate muria muri- brine muriate, muriatic murmur murmur- murmur, murmuration, murmurous †murmurillum murmurill- mūrus, moerus mūr- wall antemural, immuration, immure, immurement, intramural, murage, mural mūs mūr- mouse intermuscular, murine, muscular, muscularity, musculature †mūsculus mūscul- musca musc- fly Musca, muscarine, Muscicapa, Muscidae, musciform, mosquito mūscus mūsc- moss mustus must- new must mutilus mutil- mutilate, mutilation, mutilous mūtulus mūtul- modillion intermutule, modillion, mutular, mutule mūtus mūt- mute N–V Citation form Declining stem Meaning English derivatives nāpus nāp- turnip neep nāris nār- nostril internarial, nares, narial, prenarial nāsus nās- nose intranasal, nasal, nasalance, nasality, nonnasal nāvis nāv- ship antenave, naval, nave, navicular, navigable, navigate, navy, nonnavigable †nāvicella nāvicell- †nāvicula navicul- nebula nebul- cloud nebula, nebular, nebulizer, nebulous necesse necess- necessary, necessitarian, necessitate, necessitude, necessity, nonnecessity nemus nem- grove nemoral nemorose nemorous nepōs nepōt- nephew grandnephew, nephew, nepoticide, nepotism nervus nerv- innervate, nerval, nervate, nerve, nervose, nervosity, trinervate neuter neutr- neither neutral, neutrality, nonneutrality nīdor nīdor- nidor, nidorose nīdus nīd- nest denidation, niche, nidicolous, nidificate, nidification, nidifugous, nidulant, nidulate †nidulus nidul- nigr- black denigrate, denigration, denigrative, denigrator, negrita, nigrities, negrito, negritude, nigrescence, nigrescent, nigrine, nigritude nihil nihil- nothing annihilate, annihilation, annihilator, nihil, nil nodus nod- knot acnode, crunode, denouement, internodal, internode, nodal, node, nodose, nodosity, nodular, nodule, nodulose, tacnode †nodulus nodul- nomen nomin- name agnomen, agnominal, agnomination, binomen, , denomination, denominational, denominative, denominator, ignominious, ignominy, interdenominational, multidenominational, multinominal, nominal, nomination, nominative, nominator, nominee, nondenominational, noun, postnominal, praenomen, prenominal, pronominal, pronoun, redenomination, renown, surnominal, trinomen, nonageni nonagen- ninety each nonagenarian, nonagenary nonagesimus nonagesim- ninetieth nonagesimal nōnus non- ninth nonary, None, noon norma norm- carpenter's square abnormal, abnormality, denormal, enormity, enormous, nonnormal, nonnormative, norm, normal, normality, normative, seminorm, seminormal, subnormal noster nostr- our nostrum novem novem- nine November, novennial novemdecim novemdec- nineteen novemdecillion noveni noven- nine each Novena, novenary novus• novior• novissimus nov- new innovate, innovation, innovational, innovative, innovator, innovatory, nova, novation, novel, novella, novelty, novice, novitiate, renovatable, renovate, renovation, renovative, renovator, supernova †novellus novell- nox noct- night equinoctial, equinox, noctambulous, noctiluca, noctilucent, noctule, nocturn, nocturnal, nocturnality, nocturne, notturno, seminocturnal, trinoctial nūbēs nūb- cloud enubilate, enubilous, nuance, nubilose, nubilous, obnubilate nudus nud- naked denudation, denude, nonnude, nude, nudity, seminude, seminudity nugae nug- trifles nugacious, nugacity, nugation, nugatory nūmen nūmin- nod numen, numinous numerus numer- number denumerable, enumerable, enumerate, enumeration, enumerative, enumerator, equinumerant, equinumerous, innumerable, innumeracy, innumerate, innumerous, nonenumerative, numerable, numeracy, numeral, numerary, numerate, numeration, numerative, numerator, numerical, numero, numerosity, numerous, renumerate, supernumerary nux nuc- nut enucleate, enucleation, extranuclear, internuclear, intranuclear, nucament, nucellus, nucifer, nuciferine, nuciferous, nuciform, Nucifraga, nucivorous, nuclear, nucleate, nucleation, nucleus, nucleolar, nucleolate, nucleolus †nucula nucul- octāvus octav- eighth octaval, octave, octavo octō oct- eight octal, octangular, octavalent, octennial, October, octofid, octopartite, octuped, octuple, octuplet, octuplicate octōdecim octodecim- eighteen octodecillion, octodecimo octogeni octogen- eighty each octogenarian, octogenary octōgēsimus octogesim- eightieth octogesimal octōni octon- eight each octonary, octonion oculus ocul- eye binocular, circumocular, inoculation, intraocular, inveigle, ocular, oculus †ocellus ocell- odium odi- hatred annoy, ennui, odious, odium odor odor- deodorant, malodor, malodorous, odoriferous, odorous oleum ole- oil oleose, oleosity, oleum omen omin- abominable, abomination, omen, ominous omnis omn- all omnibenevolence, omniform, omnipotence, omnipresence, omniscience, omnivore onus oner- burden, load exonerate, exoneration, onerous, onus opacus opac- shady opacity, opaque ops op- copious, inopulent, opulence, opulent opus oper- work chef-d'oeuvre, cooperate, cooperation, cooperative, hors d'oeuvre, inoperable, interoperability, interoperable, inure, inurement, manoeuvre, oeuvre, opera, operability, operable, operand, operant, operate, operation, operational, operative, operator, operose, operosity, opus, opuscule, postoperative, preoperative †opusculum opuscul- orbis orb- ring deorbit, orb, orbicle, orbicular, orbiculate, orbit, orbital, postorbital, suborbital, superorbital †orbiculus orbicul- ordo ordin- order coordinal, coordinate, coordination, disorder, extraordinary, incoordinate, incoordination, infraorder, inordinate, inordination, insubordinate, insubordination, ordain, ordainment, order, ordinal, ordinance, ordinary, ordinate, ordination, ordinative, ordnance, ornery, parvorder, preordain, preorder, preordination, quasiorder, reordain, reorder, reordination, suborder, subordinate, subordination, superordain, superorder, superordinate, superordination os or- mouth adorable, adoral, adoration, adore, adosculation, exorable, inexorable, inosculate, inosculation, interosculate, intraoral, oral, oration, orator, oratorio, oratory, orifice, oscitate, oscitation, osculant, oscular, oscularity, osculate, osculation, osculator, osculatory, osculatrix, oscule, osculum †osculum oscul- os oss- bone exossation, interosseous, osseous, ossicle, ossicular, ossiferous, ossification, ossifrage, ossify, ossuary †ossiculum ossicul- ōscen ōscin- songbird oscine ostium osti- ostiary, ostiolar, ostiole, ostium †ostiolum ostiol- otium oti- leisure negotiable, negotiate, negotiation, nonnegotiable, otiose, otiosity, renegotiate, renegotiation ovis ov- sheep ovile, ovine †ovicula ovicul- ovum ov- egg oval, ovarian, ovary, ovicapsule, ovicidal, ovicide, oviduct, oviferous, oviform, oviposition, ovipositor, ovolo, ovular, ovulation, ovulatory, ovule, ovum, pluriovulate †ovulum ovul- pagus pag- pagan, paisano, peasant, peasantry pala pal- spade palette palatum palat- roof of the mouth impalatable, palatability, palatable, palatal, palate palla pall- covering, cloak circumpallial, pall, pallial, palliate, palliative, pallium pālus pāl- stake impale, impalement, pale, palisade, pole, travail pălus palūd- marsh paludose paluster palustr- palustral, palustrine panis pan- bread accompaniment, accompany, appanage, companion, company, empanada, impanate, pannier, pantry pannus pann- empanel, impanel, pane, panel, repanel, subpanel panus pan- panicle †panicula panicul- papaver papaver- poppy papaveraceous, papaverine papilio papilion- butterfly pavilion par par- equal comparative, comparator, disparage, disparagement, parity, disparity, impar, imparity, nonpareil, pair, par, parile, parity, peer, peerage, subpar, umpire parcus parc- parcity paries pariet- wall biparietal, parietal pars part--pert- piece apart, apartment, apportion, apportionment, bipartient, bipartisan, bipartite, bipartition, champerty, compart, compartition, compartment, compartmental, coparcenary, coparcener, counterpart, counterparty, depart, department, departmental, departure, dispart, disproportionate, equipartition, ex parte, impart, impartial, intraparty, jeopardous, jeopardy, multipartite, nonpartisan, parcel, parcenary, parcener, parse, partial, partiality, participate, participle, particle, particular, particularity, particulate, partisan, partita, partite, partition, partitive, partner, party, passel, portion, proportion, proportional, proportionality, purpart, purparty, quadripartite, reapportion, reapportionment, repartee, repartition, superparticular, tripartient, tripartite, unipartite †particella particell- †particula particul- parvus• minor• minimus parv-• min-• minim- small• less• least parvifoliate, parvity, parvovirus• administer, administration, administrative, administrator, administratrix, maladminister, minister, ministerial, ministrant, ministrative, ministry, minor, minority, minstrel, minstrelsy, minus, minuscule, semiminor• minim, minimal, minimum passer passer- sparrow passerine passus pass- compass, encompass, pace, passage, passant, passement, passementerie, passenger pater patr- father Jupiter, paternal, paternity, patrician, patrilineal, patrilocal, patrilocality, patrimonial, patrimony, patron, patronage, perpetrate, repatriation paucus pauc- few paucal, pauciloquent, paucity, poco pauper pauper- impoverish, impoverishment, pauperage, poor, poverty pausa paus-pos- compose, composure, counterpose, counterproposal, disposable, disposal, dispose, disposure, exposal, expose, exposé, exposure, imposable, impose, imposure, interposal, interpose, multipurpose, opposable, opposal, oppose, posada, pose, poseur, poseuse, predispose, proposal, propose, purpose, reimpose, reposal, repose, repurpose, supposal, suppose, transposable, transposal, transpose pavo pavon- peacock pavone, pavonine pax pac- peace appease, appeasement, copayment, pacific, pacify, pay, payment, repay, repayment pectus pector- chest pectoral pecu pecu- impecunious, peculiar, pecuniary penna penn- feather pen, pennage, pennate, penniform, pennigerous, pennon perca perc- perch Perca, Percidae, perciform, percoid, Percoidea persona person- person impersonate, impersonation, impersonator, person, personable, personage, personal, personality, personification, subpersonality, transpersonal pēs ped- foot biped, bipedal, expedient, expedite, expedition, impeach, impeachment, impediment, inexpedient, oppidum, pawn, pedal, pedestal, pedestrian, pedicel, pedicle, pedicure, pediform, pedigerous, pedigree, peon, peonage, piedfort, piedmont, pioneer, quadruped, quadrupedal, tripedal †pediculus pedicul- pestis pest- pest pesticide, pestiferous, pestilence pila pil- ball pellet, pelota, peloton, pill †pilula pilul- pileus pile- cap Pilea, pileate, pileum, pileus pilus pil- hair depilation, depilatory, epilation, piliferous, piliform, pilose, pilosity pinna pinn- feather panache, pinnacle, pinnal, pinnate, pinniform, pinniped †pinnaculum pinnacul- pinus pin- pine, pineal pirus pir- pear piriform piscis pisc- fish pisces, pisciform, piscine, piscivore pius pi- dutiful piety, pious, pittance, pity pix pic- Picea, picene, piceous, pitch planca planc- plank planch planta plant- sole implant, implantable, implantation, plant, plantar, plantation, plantigrade, supplant, supplantation, transplant, transplantation planus plan- flat applanate, applanation, complanar, complanate, coplanar, coplanarity, esplanade, explain, explanation, explanatory, piano, pianoforte, plain, plaintext, planar, planary, planate, , plane platea plate- place displace, displacement, emplacement, piazza, placement, plaza, replace, replacement, transplace plēbs pleb- common people plebeian, plebiscite, plebs plenus plen- full plenary, plenipotent, plenipotentiary, plenish, plenishment, plenitude, plenitudinous, plenum plūma plūm- feather deplumation, deplume, displume, plumage, plume, plumose, plumosity, plumulaceous, plumular, plumule, plumulose, semiplume, superplume †plūmula plūmul- plumbum plumb- lead plumb, plumbaginous, plumbago, plumbeous, plummet, plunge, replumb pluvia pluvi- rain compluvium, displuviate, impluvium, plover, pluvial, pluviosity pōculum pōcul- cup poculent, poculiform †pōcillum pōcill- pollen pollin- polenta, pollen, pollinate, pollination, pollinator, polliniferous pollex pollic- thumb pollex, pollical, pollicate, prepollex pondus ponder- weight imponderable, ponder, ponderable, ponderance, ponderation, ponderosa, ponderosity, ponderous, pound, preponderance, preponderate pons pont- bridge pons, pontage, pontic, pontile, pontine, pontonier, pontoon, punt populus popul- depopulate, depopulation, people, populace, popular, popularity, populate, population, pueblo, repopulate, repopulation, subpopulation †popellus popell- pōpulus pōpul- poplar populetum, Populus porca, porcus porc- pig porcine, porcupine, pork porta port- gate anteporch, anteport, anteportico, porch, portal, portcullis, portico, portière †portula portul- portus port- importune, importunity, opportune, opportunity, port posterus• posterior• postremus poster-• posterior-• postrem- • • posterity• a posteriori, posterior, posteriority• postremogeniture potis pot- compossible, idempotence, idempotent, impossible, impotence, impotency, impotent, nilpotence, nilpotent, posse, possible, potence, potency, potent, potentate, potential, potentiality, puissance, puissant, subpotency, superpotency, superpotential, unipotent prandium prandi- lunch prandial, preprandial pravus prav- crooked depravity pretium preti- price appreciate, appreciation, depreciation, precious prex prec- prayer preces prior• prīmus prior-• prīm- former• first a priori, prior, priority, priory, subprior• prima facie, primacy, primal, primary, primate, prime, primer, primine, primitive, primogeniture, primordial, primrose, Primula, subprimal, subprime privus priv- own privacy, private, privy probrum probr- opprobrium probus prob- approbation, approval, approve, improbability, improbable, probability, probable, proband, probate, probation, probationary, probative, probity, reprobate, reproval prope• propior• proximus prop-• propior-• proxim- near, nigh• nearer• nearest propinquity, propitiation, propitiatory, propitious• approach, rapprochement, reproach• proximal, proximate, proximity proprius propri- proper appropriate, appropriation, impropriety, inappropriate, propriety prunus prun- plum prune publicus public- public, publican, publication, publicity puer puer- boy puerile, puerility, puerperant pulcher pulchr- beautiful pulchritude, pulchritudinous pullus pull- poultry, pullet, pullorum, pullulate, pullulation, repullulate, repullulation †pullulus pullul- pulmo pulmon- lung extrapulmonary, intrapulmonary, pulmonary pulvinus pulvin- cushion, pillow pulvilli, pulvinar, pulvinated, pulvinus pulvis pulver- dust, powder pulverize, pulverulence, pulverulent pumex pumic- pumice stone pumicate, pumice, pumiceous, pumiciform, pumicite pupa pup- doll pupae, pupal, puparium, pupation, pupil purus pur- pure depurate, depuration, impure, impurity, pure, purification, purity pus pur- pus purulence, purulent quadrageni quadragen- forty each quadragenarian, quadragenary quadrāgēsimus quadrāgēsim- fortieth Quadragesima, quadragesimal quadrāgintā quadrāgint- forty quarantine quadrini quadrin- four each carillon, carillonneur, quadrin quadrum, quadrus quadr- square biquadrate, biquadratic, cadre, conquadrate, escadrille, intrasquad, quadrance, quadrate, quadratic, quadratrix, quadrature, quadrel, quadric, quadrille, quarry, squad, squadron, squarable, square, subsquadron †quadrellus quadrell- quartus quart- fourth inquartation, interquartile, quadroon, quart, quartal, quartan, quartary, quarter, quartet, quartic, quartile, quartine, quarto, semiquartile quaternī quatern- four each biquaternion, quatern, quaternary, quaternate, quaternion, quaternity, quire quattuor quadr- four quadrangle, quadrennial, quadriceps, quadrifarious, quadrifid, quadrifolium, quadrifrons, quadrilateral, quadrilingual, quadriliteral, quadrillion, quadrinational, quadrinodal, quadrinomial, quadrinominal, quadripara, quadrireme, quadrisection, quadrivalent, quadrivium, quadruped, quadruple, quadruplet, quadruplex, quadruplicate, quatrain, quatre, quatrefoil quattuordecim quattuordecim- fourteen quatorzain, quatorze, quattuordecillion quiēs quiēt- rest acquiesce, acquiescence, acquiescent, acquit, acquittal, acquittance, inquietude, quiescence, quiescent, quiet, quietude, quietus, quit, requiem, requiescat, requital, requite, requitement quīndecim quīndecim- fifteen quindecennial, quindecillion, quindecimal, quindecimvir, quinzaine, quinze quindēni quindēn- fifteen each quindenary quingēnī, quingentēnī quingēn- five hundred each quingenary quīnī quīn- five each biquinary, quinarius, quinary, quinate quinquageni quinquagen- fifty each quinquagenarian, quinquagenary quintus quint- fifth biquintile, quint, quinta, quintal, quintan, quintant, quinte, quintessence, quintessential, quintic, quintile, quintipara, quintus, semiquintile radius radi- ray, spoke biradial, circumradius, interradial, irradiance, irradiate, irradiation, multiradial, nonradiative, nonradioactive, radial, radian, radiance, radiant, radiation, radiator, radio, radioactive, radioactivity, radius, raion, ray, semiradial, transradial rādīx rādīc- root biradical, deracinate, deracination, eradicable, eradicate, radical, radicand, radicant, radicate, radicel, radicle, radicular, radicule, radiculose, radish, ultraradical †radicula radicul- rāmus rām- branch biramous, ramada, ramage, ramal, ramate, ramification, ramiform, ramon, ramose, ramosity, ramulose, ramulus, ramus, ramuscule, uniramous †rāmulus rāmul- rāna rān- frog ranula, ranunculaceous, ranunculus †rānula rānul- †rānunculus rānuncul- rāpa, rāpum rāp- turnip rape, ravioli †rāpulum rāpul- remus rem- oar bireme, quadrireme, quinquereme, remex, remiform, remiges, remigial, remiped, sexireme, trireme rēn ren- kidney adrenal, renal, reniform res re- thing irrealis, real, reality, surreal rete ret- net reticle, reticular, reticulate, reticulation, reticule, retiform, retina †reticulum reticul- rēx rēg- king interregnum, regal, regalia, regality, regency, regent, regicide, regious, reguline, reign, royal, viceroy †regulus regul- ripa rip- bank arrival, arrive, arrivé, riparian, river, riverine, riviera, transriverine ritus rit- rite ritual rivus riv- brook corrival, corrivation, derivation, derivative, derive, nonrivalrous, rival, rivality, rivalrous, rivalry, rivose, rivulet, Rivulus †rivulus rivul- rōbor rōbor- oak corroborant, corroborate, corroboration, corroborative, corroborator, robust rōs rōr- dew irrorate, irroration rosa ros- rose primrose, rosacea, rosaceous, rosarian, rosarium, rosary, rosé, roseola, rosette, rosulate, sub rosa †rosula rosul- rōstrum rōstr- beak, prow brevirostrate, curvirostral, lamellirostral, rostellate, rostelliform, rostellum, rostral, rostrate, rostriform, rostrulum, rostrum †rostellum rostell- †rostrulum rostrul- rota rot- wheel circumrotation, contrarotation, rondeau, rondel, rondo, rotary, rotation, rotational, rotelle, rotifer, Rotifera, rotiferous, rotiform, rotula, rotund, rotunda, rotundifolious, rotundity, roulette, round, roundel, rowel †rotella rotell- †rotula rotul- ruber rubr- red erubescence, erubescent, rubella, Rubio, rubious, rubric, rubricate, rubrication, rubricator, ruby †rubellus rubell- rūdis rūd- rude erudiate, erudite, erudition, rudiment, rudimentary, rudity rūdus rūder- rubbish ruderal rūfus rūf- red rufescence, rufescent, rufous ruga rug- wrinkle arroyo, corrugant, corrugate, corrugation, erugate, rugose rūmen rūmin- throat rumen, rumenic, ruminal, ruminant, ruminate, rumination, ruminator rūpēs rūp- crag, rock rupestrine, rupicolous rūs rūr- countryside, farm nonrural, roister, roisterous, rural, rustic, rusticate, rustication, rusticity sacer sacr--secr- sacred consecrate, consecration, deconsecration, desecration, desecrator, execrable, execrate, execration, inexecrable, obsecrate, reconsecrate, sacrament, sacrifice, sacrificial, sacrilege, sacrilegious, sacristy, sacrosanct, saint, sanctimony, sanction, Sanctus, Tersanctus saeculum saecul- nonsecular, secular, secularity saepēs saep- hedge septal, septarium, septate, septiform, septifragal, septulate, septulum, septum, transept, transeptal, uniseptate saeta, sēta saet- bristle searce, seta, setaceous, setal, setaria, setiferous, setiform, setigerous, setireme, setose †saetula saetul- sagina sagin- fatten saginate, sagination sal sal- salt desalinate, desalination, salami, salary, saline, salinity, salsa, sauce, saucisson, sausage sanguis sanguin- blood consanguineous, sangfrois, sanguinaceous, sanguinary, sanguine sanus san- sound insane, insanity, sanatorium, sane, sanity saxum sax- rock saxatile, saxicavous, saxicoline, saxifrage, saxifragous sēdecim sēdecim- sixteen sedecimal sēdēnī sēdēn- sixteen each sedenion semen semin- seed disseminate, dissemination, disseminative, disseminator, disseminule, inseminate, insemination, semen, seminal, seminar, seminarian, seminary, seminiferous, seminific, seminivorous, seminose semis semi- half semiannual, semicolon, semiconductor, semiconscious, seminatural senex sen- old man senate, senator, senile, senility, senior, seniority seni sen- six each senary septem sept- seven septangular, September, septemfid, septemfluous, septemvir, septennial, septifarious, septilateral, septinsular, septireme, septivalent, septuple, septuplet, septuplicate septeni septen- seven each septenary septimus septim- seventh septimal, septime sex sex- six semester, sexangle, sexangular, sexavalent, sexennial, sexennium, sexireme, sexivalent, sexpartite, sexradiate, sextain, sextuple, sextuplet sexageni sexagen- sixty each sexagenarian, sexagenary sexagesimus sexagesim- sixtieth sexagesimal sextus sext- sixth bissextile, bissextus, semisextile, sestet, sestina, Sext, sextain, sextan, sextans, sextant, sextary, sextic, sextile, sextillion, siesta, sixte †sextula sextul- sibilus sibil- hiss assibilate, assibilation, persiflage, sibilance, sibilant, sibilate, sibilation, sibilous siccus• siccior sicc- dry demi-sec, desiccant, desiccation, exsiccant, exsiccate, exsiccation, exsiccator, exsiccatum, sec, siccant, siccation, siccative, siccific sidus sider- constellation consider, considerable, considerate, consideration, desiderate, desideration, desiderative, desideratum, desideria, desirability, desirable, desire, Desiree, inconsiderable, inconsiderate, inconsideration, reconsider, reconsideration, sidereal signum sign- mark, sign adsignify, assign, assignable, assignat, assignation, assignee, assignment, consign, consignable, consignation, consignee, consignment, cosign, cosignatory, countersign, countersignal, countersignature, design, designate, designation, designative, designator, designatory, designee, ensign, insignia, insignificance, insignificant, nonsignatory, re-sign, reassign, reassignment, redesign, redesignate, redesignation, reseal, resealable, resign, resignation, sain, seal, sealable, sealant, sigil, sigillary, sigillate, sigla, sign, signaculum, signage, signal, signalment, signate, signation, signatory, signature, signee, signet, significance, significant, signification, significative, significavit, signum †sigillum sigill- silva silv- forest sylvan, silviculture similis simil- like assimilate, assimilation, similar, similarity, simile, similitude, verisimilitude sincerus sincer- insincere, insincerity, sincere, sincerity singulus singul- one each single, singularity, singulation, singulative sinister sinistr- left sinister, sinistral sinus sinu- curve insinuation, sine, sinus, sinuose, sinuosity, sinuous soccus socc- slipper sock †socculus soccul- socius, socia soci- associate, association, associative, consociate, consociation, consociational, disassociate, disassociation, dissociable, dissocial, dissociate, dissociation, dissociative, interassociation, nonassociative, sociability, sociable, social, sociality, sociative, societal, society sol sol- sun circumsolar, extrasolar, insolate, insolation, solar, solarium, soliform, soliscence, solstice, subsolar solidus solid- nonsolid, quasisolid, semisolid, sol, solder, soldier, soldiery, soldo, solid, solidarity, solidary, solidification, solidity, solidus, sou solium soli- seat soil, soilure, subsoil solum, solea sol- bottom aridisol, entresol, inceptisol, insole, sole, soleus, solifluxion, solum solus sol- alone, only desolate, desolation, desolatory, saudade, sole, soliloquy, solitaire, solitary, solitude, solitudinarian, solitudinous, solivagous, solo, sullen somnium somni- dream somnial somnus somn- sleep insomnia, somnifacient, somniferous, somnific, somniloquy, somnolent sonus son- sound absonant, ambisonic, assonance, assonant, assonate, consonance, consonant, consonous, dissonance, dissonant, inconsonance, inconsonant, infrasonic, infrasound, resonance, resonant, resonate, resound, sonance, sonant, sonnet, sonorant, sonority, , sound, subsonic, supersonic, triconsonantal, ultrasonic, ultrasound, unison, unisonal, unisonant, unisonous sopor sopor- deep sleep sopor, soporific soror soror- sister cousin, sororal, sororate, sororicide, sorority sors sort- lot consort, consortial, consortium, sort, sortition, subsort †sorticula sorticul- spatium spati- space interspace, interspatial, space, spatial, spatiate, subspace spēs spēr- hope despair, desperado, desperate, desperation, esperance, prosper, prosperity, prosperous spica spic- ear of grain spica, spicate, spicose, spicosity, spicular, spiculate, spicule, spiculiform †spiculum spicul- spina spin- thorn infraspinate, infraspinatus, interspinal, spinal, spine, spinel, spinescent, spiniferous, spiniform, spinose, spinous spūma spūm- foam despumate, despumation, spoom, spumante, spume squāma squām- scale desquamate, desquamation, desquamative, squamate, Squamella, squamiform, squamosal, squamose, squamous, squamule, squamulose, subsquamosal, supersquamosal †squāmula squāmul- squarrōsus squarrōs- squarrose, squarrulose squātina squātin- angel shark Squatina stagnum stagn- restagnant, restagnate, restagnation, stagnancy, stagnant, stagnate, stagnation stella stell- star circumstellar, constellation, interstellar, quasistellar, stellar, stellate, stellation, stelliferous, stelliform, stellula, stellular, substellar sterilis steril- nonsterile, sterilant, sterile, sterility stil- stiletto, stiliform, style, stylet, stylus stimulus stimul- costimulation, costimulatory, stimulate, stimulation, stimulative, stimulator, stimulus stipes stipit- etiolate, etiolation, exstipulate, instipulate, stipe, stipel, stipellate, stipes, stipitate, stipitiform, stipular, stipule, stubble †stipella stipell- †stipula stipul- stips stip- stipend stiria stiri- drop distill, distilland, distillate, distillation, distillery, stillatitious, stillatory †stilla still- stirps stirp- extirpate, extirpation strēnuus strenu- strenuity, strenuous stria stri- furrow extrastriate, striate, striation, striatum, striature strix strig- owl strigine, Strix stuppa stupp- tow stupeous, stupose stuprum stupr- constuprate, constupration suavis suav- sweet assuage, assuagement, suave, suaviloquent, suaviloquy, suavity sucussuccus succ- juice exsuccous, succulence, succulent sulcus sulc- furrow bisulcate, bisulcous, sulcal, sulcate, sulcation, sulciform, sulcus, trisulcate superus• superior• supremus, summus super-• superior-• suprem-, sum- over• higher• highest insuperable, superable• superior, superiority• consummate, sum, summa, summation, summit, summitry, summity, supreme, supremity, supremum supīnus supin- resupinate, resupination, resupine, supinate, supination, supinator, supine, supinity sūra sur- calf sural surdus surd- deaf absurd, absurdity, surd sūrus sur- branch surculate, surculose †sūrculus surcul- sūs su- sow suid, Suidae susurrus susurr- whisper susurrant, susurrate, susurration, susurrous taberna tabern- tabernacle, tabernacular, tavern tabernaculum tabernacul- tabes tab- tabefaction, tabes, tabescence, tabescent, tabid tabula tabul- board tabellion, table, tablet, tabular, tabulate, tabulation, tabulator †tabella tabell- taedium taedi- tediosity, tedium tardus tard- slow retard, retardation, tardy templum templ- temple templar, template tempus tempor- time contemporaneous, contemporary, extemporaneous, tempest, tempo, temporal, temporaneous, temporary tenuis tenu- thin attenuant, attenuate, attenuation, attenuator, extenuate, extenuation, tenuate, tenuifolious, tenuis, tenuity, tenuous terminus termin- boundary coterminous, determinable, determinant, determinate, determination, determinative, determinator, determine, exterminate, extermination, indeterminable, indeterminate, interminable, terminal, terminate, termination, terminative, terminator terni tern- three each tern, ternary, ternate, ternion terra terr- dry land, earth atterration, circumterrestrial, disinter, disinterment, extraterrestrial, extraterritorial, extraterritoriality, inter, interment, parterre, reinter, reinterment, souterrain, subterrane, subterranean, terrace, terracotta, terrain, terran, terrane, terraqueous, terrarium, terrene, terreplein, terrestrial, terricolous, terrier, terrigenous, territorial, territoriality, territory, terroir, tureen tertius terti- third sesquitertian, sesterce, subtertian, Terce, tercet, tercine, tertial, tertian, tertiary, tertiate, tierce testis test- witness attest, attestable, attestation, attestator, contest, contestable, contestant, contestation, counter-protest, detest, detestable, detestation, incontestability, incontestable, intestable, intestacy, intestate, obtest, obtestation, protest, Protestant, protestation, protestator, testacy, testament, testamentary, testamur, testate, testation, testator, testatrix, testicle, testicond, testicular, testiculate, testimonial, testimonium, testimony titulus titul- title disentitle, disentitlement, entitle, entitlement, intertitle, nontitle, retitle, subtitle, tilde, titular, titulary, titulus tōtus tōt- all, whole factotum, subtotal, total, totality, totipotent trēs tri- three trammel, trellis, trey, triangle, triceps, triennial, trillion, triolet, triple, triplet, triplicate, triquetra, triquetrous, triradiate, trireme, triumvirate, trivia tribus trib- attributable, attribute, attribution, attributive, contribute, contribution, contributive, contributor, contributory, deattribute, deattribution, distributable, distributary, distribute, distribution, distributive, distributor, equidistribution, intertribal, nondistributive, redistribute, redistribution, retribute, retribution, retributive, subtribe, tribal, tribe, tribunal, tribune, tributary, tribute tricae tric- tricks extricable, extricate, extrication, inextricable, intricacy, intricate, intrigant, intrigue, treacherous, treachery, trickery trīgēsimus trīgēsim- thirtieth trigesimal trīnī trīn- three each nontrinitarian, trinal, trinary, trine, Trinidad, Trinitarian, trinity tubus tub- tube intubate, intubation, tubal, tubate, tube, tubicolous, tubicorn, tubiform, tubular, tubulate, tubule †tubulus tubul- turba turb- disturb, disturbance, nonperturbative, perturb, perturbance, perturbation, perturbative, trouble, troublous, turbid, turbidity, turbinate, turbine, turbulence, turbulent †turbula turbul- tussis tuss- cough pertussis, tussive ūber ūber- udder exuberance, exuberant, exuberate, uberous, uberty ulcus ulcer- sore nonulcerous, ulcer, ulcerate, ulceration, ulcerative, ulcerous †ulcusculum ulcuscul- ulmus ulm- elm Ulmaceae, ulmaceous, ulmic, Ulmus ulter• ulterior• ultimus ultr-• ulterior-• ultim- –• farther• farmost, farthest –• ulterior, ulteriority• penultimate, ultima, ultimate, ultimatum, ultimogeniture umbra umbr- shade, shadow adumbrate, adumbration, inumbrate, penumbra, umbrage, umbrageous, umbrella †umbella unbell- uncia unci- twelfth inch, ounce, quincuncial, uncial uncus unc- hook unciform, Uncinaria, uncinate, Uncinia unda und- wave abound, abundance, abundant, inundate, redound, redundancy, redundant, superabound, superabundance, superabundant, surround, undulant, undulate, undulation, undulatory, undulose undecim undecim- eleven undecimarticulate undeni unden- eleven each undenary unguis ungu- claw, hoof ungual, unguiferous, unguiform, ungular, ungulate †ungula ungul- ūnus ūn- one adunation, biunique, coadunate, coadunation, disunite, disunity, malunion, nonuniform, nonuniformity, nonunion, nonunique, nonunity, onion, reunification, reunion, reunite, triune, unanimity, unanimous, unary, unate, unicorn, unific, unification, uniform, uniformity, union, unique, unite, unity †ūllus ūll- urbs urb- city conurbation, interurban, suburb, suburban, urban, urbane ursus urs- bear ursine, Ursus uterus uter- womb extrauterine, transuterine, uterine, uterus †uterculus utercul- ūva uv- grape uvea, uveal, uvula, uvular †ūvula uvul- uxor uxōr- wife uxorial, uxoricide, uxorilocal, uxorious vacca vacc- cow vaccary, vaccination, vaccine, vaquero vacuus vacu- empty avoid, avoidable, avoidance, devoid, evacuate, evacuee, vacant, , vacate, vacation, vacuole, vacuous, vacuum, void, voidable, voidance vadum vad- ford vadose vāgīna vāgīn- sheath extravaginal, invaginate, invagination, transvaginal, vagina, vaginal, vanilla vagus vag- wandering astray, evagation, extravagance, extravagant, extravaganza, extravagate, stray, vagabond, vagary, vagile, vagrant, vague, vagus valgus valg- bow-legged valgus vallesvallis val- valley valley, vale, valles, vallis vallum vall- rampart circumvallate, circumvallation, contravallation, interval, multivallate, vallar, vallate, vallation, vallum valva valv- bivalve, valvate, valve vanus van- empty, vain evanesce, evanescence, evanescent, evanish, vaniloquence, vain, vanish, vanitas, vanity, vaunt varius vari- varying bivariate, contravariance, contravariant, countervair, covariance, covariant, covariate, covariation, intervarietal, invariable, invariance, invariant, miniver, multivariable, multivariate, subvariety, univariate, vair, vairy, variability, variable, variance, variant, variate, variation, variational, variegate, variegation, variegator, varietal, variety, variform, variola, variolation, variorum, various, vary vās vās- vessel extravasate, extravasation, extravascular, intravasate, intravasation, intravascular, vas, vasal, vascular, vasculature, vasculose, vasculum, vase, vasiform, vasoconstriction †vāscellum vāscell- †vāsculum vāscul- vassus vass- servant valet, varlet, vassal, vassalage †vassallus vassall- vastus vast- empty devastate, devastation, vast, vastitude, vastity, wastage, waste vellus veller- fleece vellum, vellus velox• velocior• velocissimus veloc- quick, swift velocipede, velociraptor, velocity vēlum vēl- sail, veil reveal, revelation, revelator, revelatory, velamen, velar, velate, veliger, velum, vexil, vexillary, vexillatio, vexillum, voile †vēxillum vēxill- flag vēna vēn- vein devein, intravenous, vein, veinlet, venae cavae, venation, venational, venesection, venipuncture, venisection, venose, venosity, venous, venular, venule, venulose †venula venul- venēnum venēn- envenomation, venenation, venenose, venom, venomous venter ventr- belly eventration, interventricular, subventricular, supraventricular, ventral, ventricle, ventricular, ventriloquy ventus vent- wind ventage, ventail, ventilate, ventilation, ventilator, ventilatory, ventose, ventosity †ventulus ventul- venum ven- venal, venality, vend venus vener- desire venerable, venereal vērātrum vērātr- hellebore veratridine, veratrine, Veratrum verbum verb- word adverb, adverbial, proverb, proverbial, verbal, verbatim, verbiage, verbicide, verbid, verbose, verbosity vermis verm- worm vermeil, vermian, vermicelli, vermicide, vermicular, vermiculate, vermiculation, vermicule, vermiculite, vermiculose, vermiculture, vermiform, vermifuge, vermilion, vermin, verminate, vermination, verminous, vermiparous, vermivore, vermivorous †vermiculus vermicul- vernus vern- spring vernal vērus ver- true veracious, veracity, verify, verisimilitude, veritable, verity, vespa vesp- wasp vespacide vesper vesper- evening vespertine vestigium vestig- trace, track investigate, vestige, vestigial vestis vest- clothing circumvest, disinvest, disinvestment, divest, divestiture, divestment, invest, investiture, investment, reinvest, reinvestment, revest, revet, revetment, transvestite, travesty, vest, vestment, vesture vetus veter- old inveteracy, inveterate, inveteration, veteran, veterovata via vi- way bivial, bivious, bivium, convey, conveyance, convoy, deviance, deviant, deviate, deviation, devious, envoy, impervious, invoice, nontrivial, obviate, obviation, obvious, pervious, previous, quadrivial, quadrivium, semipervious, trivial, triviality, trivium, via, viaduct, vialis, viary, viatical, viaticum, viator, voyage, voyageur viceni vicen-, vigen- twenty each vicenarian, vicenary vīcēsimus vīcēsim- twentieth vicesimary, vicesimate, vicesimation, vigesimal vicis vic- change subvicar, vicar, vicarage, vicarial, vicariance, vicariant, vicariate, vicarious, viceroy, vicissitude, vicissitudinous, viscount, viscountess vicus vic- vicinage, vicinal, vicine, vicinity vīgēsimus vīgēsim- twentieth septemvigesimal, vigesimal vīgintī vīgint- twenty vigintillion, vigintisexviri, vigintivirate, vigintiviri vīlis• vilior• vilissimus vīl- cheap, vile revile, revilement, vile, vilification, vilify, vilipend vīlla vīll- country house demivill, intervillage, supervillain, supervillainess, vill, villa, village, villain, villainess, villainous, villainy, villanelle, villatic, ville, villein, villeinage †vīllula vīllul- villus vill- shaggy hair intervillous, velour, velvet, villiform, villose, villosity, villous, villus vindex vindic- avenge, revanche, revenge, vendetta, vengeance, vindicable, vindicate, vindication, vindicator, vindicatory, vindictive vinum vin- wine vignette, vine, viniculture, vinosity vir vir- man (masculine) quadrumvirate, triumvirate, virago, virile, virility, virtue virga virg- rod, twig virga, virgate, virgule vīrus viru- poison virulent, virus viscus viscer- internal organ eviscerate, visceral, viscus vita vit- life revitalize, viable, vital, vitality, vitamin vitium viti- vice, vicious, vitiate vitrum vitr- glass vitreous, vitriol viverra viverr- ferret viverrid, viverrine vola vol- palm volar vox vōc- voice advocacy, advocate, advowson, avocate, avocation, avoke, avouch, avouchment, avow, avowal, avowance, avowant, avowry, convocation, convoke, devoice, disavouch, disavow, disavowal, disavowance, equivocal, equivocation, equivocator, invocation, irrevocable, nonvocal, prevocalic, provocation, revocable, revocation, revoice, revoke, sub voce, univocal, univocalic, univocity, vocable, vocabulary, vocal, vocalic, vocality, vocation, vocational, vocative, vociferant, vociferous, voice, voiceprint, vouch, voucher, vouchment, vouchsafe, vowel †vōcula vōcul- vulgus vulg- crowd divulge, vulgar, vulgarity, vulgate vulnus vulner- wound invulnerability, invulnerable, vulnerability, vulnerable, vulnerary, vulnerose vulpēs vulp- fox vulpecular, vulpicide, vulpine †vulpēcula vulpēcul- vultur vultur- vulture vulture, vulturine, vulturous Citation form Declining stem Meaning English derivatives+ Key † Diminutive" ], [ "Verbs" ], [ "Prepositions and other words used to form compound words", " Latin prepositions and other words Word Meaning Prefixes Ref.", ", away from ab-, a-, abs-, as- ad to, toward ad-, a-, ac-, af-, ag-, al-, ap-, ar-, at- ambo both ambi-, am-, amb- ante before ante-, anti- bis twice bi-, bis- circum around circum- cis this side of cis- contrā against, opposite to contra-, contro- cum together, with con-, co-, col-, com-, cor- dē down from de- dexter right, to the right hand dextro- dis-, un- apart dis-, di-, dif-, dir- ex, ē from, out of ex-, e-, ef- extrā outside extra-, extro- in in, into in-, il-, im-, ir- below inter among, between , intel- within , intro- iuxtā beside multus much, many ne no ne-, neg- non-, un- not non- ob, obs toward, against, in the way of, by reason of ob-, o-, oc-, of-, og-, op-, os- paene almost, nearly pen- per thorough, through per-, pel- post after, behind prae before praeter by, past preter- prō for, forth, in front of pro-, pol-, por-, prod- re- again, back re-, red- retro backwards sē apart, without se-, sed- sinister left, to the left hand sinistr- sub from below, under , su-, suc-, suf-, sug-, sum-, sup-, sur-, sus- subter beneath subter- super above, over suprā above, more than across , tra-, tran- beyond ultra- ve- out ve-" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Latin phonology and orthography" ], [ "Introduction", "Appius Claudius in Roman square capitals.", "The words are separated by engraved dots, a common but by no means universal practice, and some of the long vowels (e.g., in ) are marked by apices.", "'''Latin phonology''' continually evolved over the centuries, making it difficult for speakers in one era to know how Latin was spoken before then.", "A given phoneme may be represented by different letters in different periods.", "This article deals primarily with modern scholarship's best reconstruction of Classical Latin's phonemes (phonology) and the pronunciation and spelling used by educated people in the late Roman Republic.", "This article then touches upon later changes and other variants.", "Knowledge of how Latin was pronounced comes from Roman grammar books, common misspellings by Romans, transcriptions into other ancient languages, and from how pronunciation has evolved in derived Romance languages.", "'''Latin orthography''' is the spelling of Latin words written in the scripts of all historical phases of Latin from Old Latin to the present.", "All scripts use the Latin alphabet, but conventional spellings may vary from phase to phase.", "The Latin alphabet was adapted from the Old Italic script to represent the phonemes of the Latin language.", "The Old Italic script had in turn been borrowed from the Greek alphabet, itself adapted from the Phoenician alphabet.", "The Latin alphabet most resembles the Greek alphabet around 540 BC, as it appears on the black-figure pottery of the time." ], [ "Letterforms", "A papyrus fragment in Roman cursive with portions of speeches delivered in the Roman SenateThe forms of the Latin alphabet used during the Classical period did not distinguish between upper case and lower case.", "Roman inscriptions typically use Roman square capitals, which resemble modern capitals, and handwritten text often uses old Roman cursive, which includes letterforms similar to modern lowercase." ], [ "Letters and phonemes", "In ancient Latin spelling, individual letters mostly corresponded to individual phonemes, with three main exceptions:# The vowel letters ''a'', ''e'', ''i'', ''o'', ''u'', ''y'' represented both short and long vowels.", "The long vowels were often marked by apices during the Classical period ⟨Á É Ó V́ Ý⟩, and long i was written using a taller version ⟨I⟩, called i longa \"long I\": ⟨ꟾ⟩; but now long vowels are sometimes written with a macron in modern editions (''ā''), while short vowels are marked with a breve (''ă'') in dictionaries when necessary.# Some pairs of vowel letters, such as ''ae'', represented either a diphthong in one syllable or two vowels in adjacent syllables.# The letters ''i'' and ''u (v)'' represented either the close vowels and or the semivowels and .In the tables below, Latin letters and digraphs are paired with the phonemes that they usually represent in the International Phonetic Alphabet.===Consonants===This is a table of the consonant phonemes of Classical Latin.", "Those in parentheses have a debatable status as phonemes, and those marked with an asterisk are only found in Greek loanwords in educated pronunciation, except for some instances of /kʰ/.", "See below for further details.", "Labial Coronal Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive () () * * * Fricative * Nasal Rhotic Approximant ====Notes on phonetics====* The labialized velar stops and may both have been single phonemes rather than clusters like the and in English ''quick'' and ''penguin''.", "is more likely to have been a phoneme in its own right than .", "occurs between vowels and counts as a single consonant in Classical Latin poetry, but occurs only after , where it cannot be identified as a single or double consonant.", "and were palatalized before a front vowel, becoming and , as in compared with , and compared with .", "This sound change did not apply to in the same position: .", "* before may have become by dissimilation.", "This is suggested by the fact that and (Old Latin and ) are spelled and , which may have indicated the pronunciations and .", "These spellings may, however, simply indicate that ''c g'' before ''u'' were labialized like , so that writing a double ''uu'' was redundant.", "* The voiceless plosives in Latin were likely less aspirated than voiceless plosives at the beginning of words in English; for example, Latin was not as strongly aspirated as ''k'' in ''kind'' but more like ''k'' in English ''sky'' or ''look''.", "However, there was no phonemic contrast between voiceless and aspirated plosives in native Latin words, and the voiceless plosives were probably somewhat aspirated at the beginnings of words and near and .", "Some Greek words beginning with the voiceless plosives , when they were borrowed into colloquial Latin, were spelled with the graphemes used to represent voiced plosives ''b d g'' , e.g., Latin besides West Greek (''cybernatas'', helmsman).", "That suggests that Latin speakers felt the Greek voiceless plosives to sound less aspirated than their own native equivalents.", "* The aspirated consonants as distinctive phonemes were originally foreign to Latin, appearing in educated loanwords and names from Greek.", "In such cases, the aspiration was likely produced only by educated speakers.", "* was also not native to Classical Latin.", "It appeared in Greek loanwords starting around the first century BC, when it was probably pronounced initially and doubled between vowels, in contrast to Classical Greek or .", "In Classical Latin poetry, the letter between vowels always counts as two consonants for metrical purposes.", "* In Classical Latin, the coronal sibilant was likely unvoiced in all positions.", "In Old Latin, single between vowels was pronounced as voiced but had changed to by rhotacism by the time of Classical Latin, as in as compared with .", "Single intervocalic in Classical Latin usually derives from an earlier double after a long vowel or diphthong, as in , from earlier , ; or is found in loanwords, such as from Greek (''pausis'').", "In Old Latin, final after a short vowel was often lost, probably after first changing to (debuccalization), as in the inscriptional form for (Classical Latin ).", "Often in the poetry of Plautus, Ennius, and Lucretius, final before a word beginning in a consonant did not make the preceding syllable heavy.", "By the Classical period this was felt to be somewhat of a marker of non-urban speech by Cicero.", " was labiodental in Classical Latin, but it may have been bilabial in Old Latin, or perhaps in free variation with .", "Lloyd, Sturtevant, and Kent make this argument based on certain misspellings in inscriptions, the Proto-Indo-European phoneme from which many instances of the Latin ''f'' descended (others are from and ) and the way the sound appears to have behaved in Vulgar Latin, particularly in Spain.", "* In most cases was pronounced as a bilabial nasal.", "At the end of a word, however, it was generally lost beginning in Old Latin (except when another nasal or a plosive followed it), causing the preceding vowel to be lengthened and nasalized, as in .", "In Old Latin inscriptions, final ''m'' is often omitted, as in for ''virom'' () (Classical ).", "It was frequently elided before a following vowel in Latin poetry, and it was lost without a trace (apart from lengthening, possibly) in the Romance languages, except in monosyllabic words, where it's reflected as or its further developments.", "* assimilated to before labial consonants as in , , to before (when present at all as opposed to representing nasalisation) and to before velar consonants, as in .", "This assimilation, like most other Latin contact processes, occurred regardless of word boundaries, for instance between the preposition and a following word: , , as well as between two lexical words: .", "* assimilated to a velar nasal before .", "Allen and Greenough say that a vowel before is always long, but W. Sidney Allen says that is based on an interpolation in Priscian, and the vowel was actually long or short depending on the root, as for example from the root of , but from the root of .", "probably did not assimilate to before .", "The cluster arose by syncope, as for example from .", "Original developed into in , from the root of .", "At the start of a word, original was reduced to , and this change was reflected in the orthography in later texts: became , became .", "* In Classical Latin, the rhotic was most likely an alveolar trill in some positions and when doubled.", "Gaius Lucilius likens it to the sound of a dog, and later writers describe it as being produced by vibration.", "was sometimes written as , suggesting a tap like Spanish single ''r''.", "* was strongly velarized in syllable coda and probably somewhat palatalized when geminated or followed by /i(ː)/.", "In intervocalic position, it appears to have been velarized before all vowels except /i(ː)/.", "* generally appeared only at the beginning of words, before a vowel, as in , except in compound words such as .", "Between vowels, this sound was generally not found as a single consonant, only as doubled , as in , except in compound words such as .", "This geminate /j:/ is sometimes marked in modern editions by a circumflex on the preceding vowel, e.g.", ", , , etc.", "The phoneme varied with in the same morpheme in and , and in poetry, one could be replaced with the other for the purposes of meter.", "* was pronounced as an approximant until the first century AD, when and began to develop into fricatives.", "In poetry, and could be replaced with each other, as in for and for .", "Unlike , it was not doubled as or between vowels, except in Greek loanwords: , but from .", "* was apparently still pronounced in Classical Latin, but was probably voiced to between vowels and prone to loss in this environment already at an early stage (compare especially with rhotacism from ''disibeō'' and earlier ''dishibeō'').====Notes on spelling====* Doubled consonant letters, such as ''cc'', ''ss'', represented geminated (doubled or long) consonants: .", "In Old Latin, geminate consonants were written singly like single consonants, until the middle of the 2nd century BC, when they began to be doubled in writing.", "Grammarians mention the marking of double consonants with the sicilicus, a diacritic in the shape of a sickle.", "This mark appears in a few inscriptions of the Augustan era.", "* ''c'' and ''k'' both represent the velar stop ; ''qu'' represents the labialized velar stop .", "The letters ''c'' and ''q'' distinguish minimal pairs between and , such as and .", "In Classical Latin, ''k'' appeared in only a few words, such as or (but can also be spelled and respectively).", "* ''x'' represented the consonant cluster .", "In Old Latin, this sequence was also spelled as ''ks'', ''cs'', and ''xs''.", "X was borrowed from the Western Greek alphabet, in which the letterform of chi (Χ) was pronounced as .", "In the standard Ionic alphabet, used for modern editions of Ancient Greek, on the other hand, Χ represented , and the letter xi (Ξ) represented .", "* In Old Latin inscriptions, and were not distinguished.", "They were both represented by ''c'' before ''e'' and ''i'', ''q'' before ''o'' and ''u'', and ''k'' before consonants and ''a''.", "The letterform of ''c'' derives from Greek gamma Γ, which represented , but its use for may come from Etruscan, which did not distinguish voiced and voiceless plosives.", "In Classical Latin, ''c'' represented only in ''c'' and ''cn'', the abbreviations of the praenomina (first names) and .", "The letter ''g'' was created in the third century BC to distinguish the voiced from voiceless .", "Its letterform derived from ''c'' by the addition of a diacritic or stroke.", "Plutarch attributes this innovation to Spurius Carvilius Ruga around 230 BC, but it may have originated with Appius Claudius Caecus in the fourth century BC.", " The combination ''gn'' probably represented the consonant cluster , at least between vowels, as in .", "Vowels before this cluster were sometimes long and sometimes short.", "* The digraphs ''ph'', ''th,'' and ''ch'' represented the aspirated plosives , and .", "They began to be used in writing around 150 BC, primarily as a transcription of Greek phi , theta , and chi , as in , , and .", "Some native words were later also written with these digraphs, such as , , , , probably representing aspirated allophones of the voiceless plosives near and .", "Aspirated plosives and the glottal fricative were also used hypercorrectively, an affectation satirized in Catullus 84.", "* In Old Latin, Koine Greek initial and between vowels were represented by ''s'' and ''ss'', as in from and from .", "Around the second and first centuries B.C., the Greek letter zeta Ζ was adopted to represent and .", "However, the Vulgar Latin spellings ''z'' or ''zi'' for earlier ''di'' and ''d'' before ''e'', and the spellings ''di'' and ''dz'' for earlier ''z'', suggest the pronunciation , as for example for , and for .", "* In ancient times ''u'' and ''i'' represented the approximant consonants and , as well as the close vowels and .", "* ''i'' representing the consonant was usually not doubled in writing, so a single ''i'' represented double or and the sequences and , as in for * , for * , and for * .", "Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of ''i'' could occur in some of the same environments: compare with , and with .", "The vowel before a doubled is sometimes marked with a macron, as in .", "It indicates not that the vowel is long but that the first syllable is heavy from the double consonant.", "* ''v'' between vowels represented single in native Latin words but double in Greek loanwords.", "Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of ''v'' sometimes occurred in similar environments, as in and .===Vowels=======Monophthongs====The Latin vowel-space per Classical Latin had ten native phonemic monophthongs, five short and five long .", "Both sets were generally spelt the same, as ⟨i e a o u⟩.", "The long vowels likely had qualities different from those of the corresponding short vowels (see following section).", "Some loanwords from Greek had ⟨y⟩, which would have been pronounced as by educated speakers but approximated with the native vowels or by the less-educated.", "Front CentralBack Close (y yː) Mid Open ====Long and short vowels====The short mid and close vowels were pronounced with a more open quality than their long counterparts: , , , .", "This made /i u/ similar in quality to /eː oː/ (see illustration on the top right).", "Latin inscriptions often show graphic confusions of /i/ with /eː/ and /u/ with /oː/, as in:* ⟨trebibos⟩ for * ⟨minsis⟩ for * ⟨sob⟩ for * ⟨punere⟩ for most likely had a more open allophone before .", "and were probably pronounced closer when they occurred before another vowel, with e.g.", "written as ⟨mia⟩ in some inscriptions.", "Short before another vowel is often written with the so-called ''i longa'', as in ⟨dꟾes⟩ for ''diēs'', indicating that its quality was similar to that of long ; it was almost never confused with ''e'' in this position.====Adoption of Greek upsilon====''y'' was used in Greek loanwords with upsilon Υ.", "This letter represented the close front rounded vowel, both short and long: .", "Latin did not have this sound as a native phoneme, and speakers tended to pronounce such loanwords with in Old Latin and in Classical and Late Latin if they were unable to produce .========An intermediate vowel sound (likely a close central vowel or possibly its rounded counterpart ), called , can be reconstructed for the classical period.", "Such a vowel is found in , , (also spelled , , ) and other words.", "It developed out of a historical short , later fronted by vowel reduction.", "In the vicinity of labial consonants, this sound was not as fronted and may have retained some rounding, thus being more similar if not identical to the unreduced short .", "The Claudian letter Ⱶ ⱶ was possibly invented to represent this sound, but is never actually found used this way in the epigraphic record (it usually served as a replacement for the upsilon).====Vowel nasalization====Vowels followed by a nasal consonant were allophonically realised as long nasal vowels in two environments:* Before word-final ''m'': > > * Before nasal consonants followed by a fricative: > (in early inscriptions, often written as ) > (often written as and abbreviated as )** > (written as )Those long nasal vowels had the same quality as ordinary long vowels.", "In Vulgar Latin, the vowels lost their nasalisation, and they merged with the long vowels (which were themselves shortened by that time).", "This is shown by many forms in the Romance languages, such as Spanish from Vulgar Latin (originally ) and Italian from Vulgar Latin (Classical Latin ).", "On the other hand, the short vowel and were restored, for example, in French and from and (''e'' is the normal development of Latin short ''i''), likely by analogy with other forms beginning in the prefix ''in-''.When a final ''-m'' occurred before a plosive or nasal in the next word, however, it was pronounced as a nasal at the place of articulation of the following consonant.", "For instance, was written for in inscriptions, and was a double entendre, presumably for .====Diphthongs====+ Diphthongs classified by beginning sound Front Back Close '''''ui''''' Mid '''''ei''''''''''eu''''' '''''oe''''' Open '''''ae''''''''''au'''''''ae'', ''oe'', ''au'', ''ei'', ''eu'' could represent diphthongs: ''ae'' represented , ''oe'' represented , ''au'' represented , ''ei'' represented , and ''eu'' represented .", "''ui'' sometimes represented the diphthong , as in and .", "The diphthong ''ei'' mostly had changed to ''ī'' by the classical epoch; ''ei'' remained only in a few words such as the interjection .If there is a tréma above the second vowel, both vowels are pronounced separately: ''aë'' , ''aü'' , ''eü'' and ''oë'' .", "However, disyllabic ''eu'' in morpheme borders is traditionally written without the tréma: 'my'.In Old Latin, ''ae'', ''oe'' were written as ''ai'', ''oi'' and probably pronounced as , with a fully closed second element, similar to the final syllable in French .", "In the late Old Latin period, the last element of the diphthongs was lowered to , so that the diphthongs were pronounced and in Classical Latin.", "They were then monophthongized to and respectively, starting in rural areas at the end of the Republican period.", "The process, however, does not seem to have been completed before the 3rd century AD, and some scholars say that it may have been regular by the 5th century.===Vowel and consonant length===Vowel and consonant length were more significant and more clearly defined in Latin than in modern English.", "Length is the duration of time that a particular sound is held before proceeding to the next sound in a word.", "In the modern spelling of Latin, especially in dictionaries and academic work, macrons are frequently used to mark long vowels: , while the breve is sometimes used to indicate that a vowel is short: .Long consonants were usually indicated through doubling, but ancient Latin orthography did not distinguish between the vocalic and consonantal uses of ''i'' and ''v''.", "Vowel length was indicated only intermittently in classical sources and even then through a variety of means.", "Later medieval and modern usage tended to omit vowel length altogether.", "A short-lived convention of spelling long vowels by doubling the vowel letter is associated with the poet Lucius Accius.", "Later spelling conventions marked long vowels with an apex (a diacritic similar to an acute accent) or, in the case of long i, by increasing the height of the letter (long i); in the second century AD, those were given apices as well.", "The Classical vowel length system faded in later Latin and ceased to be phonemic in Romance, having been replaced by contrasts in vowel quality.", "Consonant length, however, remains contrastive in much of Italo-Romance, cf.", "Italian \"ninth\" versus \"grandfather\".Recording of ''ānus, annus, anus''A minimal set showing both long and short vowels and long and short consonants is ('anus'), ('year'), ('old woman').===Table of orthography===The letters ''b'', ''d'', ''f'', ''h'', ''m'', ''n'' are always pronounced as in English , , , , , respectively, and they do not usually cause any difficulties.", "The exceptions are mentioned below:+ Pronunciation of Latin consonants Latingrapheme Latinphoneme English approximation , Always hard as ''k'' in ''sky'', never soft as in ''cellar'', ''cello'', or ''social''.", "is a letter coming from Greek, but seldom used and generally replaced by c. As ''ch'' in ''chemistry'', and aspirated; never as in ''challenge'' or ''change'' and also never as in ''Bach'' or ''chutzpa.''", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨χ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords.", "Always hard as ''g'' in ''good'', never soft as ''g'' in ''gem''.", "As ''ngn'' in ''wingnut''.", "Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as ''y'' in ''yard'', never as ''j'' in ''just''.", "Doubled between vowels, as ''y y'' in ''toy yacht''.", "When doubled or before , as clear ''l'' in ''link'' (known as ).", "In all other positions, as dark ''l'' in ''bowl'' (known as ).", "As ''p'' in ''spy'', never aspirated.", "As ''p'' in ''party'', always aspirated; never as in ''photo'' when being pronounced in English.", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨φ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords.", "Similar to ''qu'' in ''quick'', never as ''qu'' in ''antique''.", "Before , like ''cu'' in French .", "There were two trends: the educated and popular pronunciation.", "Within educated circles it was pronounced , evoking the Old Latin pronunciation (, ); meanwhile, within popular circles it was pronounced (, ).", "As ''r'' in Italian and several Romance languages.", "As ''r'' in Italian and several Romance languages, but voiceless; e.g.", "⟨διάῤῥοια⟩.", "(see Voiceless alveolar trill).", "Transcription of Greek ῥ, mostly used in Greek loanwords.", "As ''s'' in ''say'', never as ''s'' in ''rise'' or ''measure''.", "As ''t'' in ''stay'', never as ''t'' in ''nation''.", "As ''th'' in ''thyme'', and aspirated; never as in ''thing'', or ''that.''", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨θ⟩, mostly used in Greek loanwords.", "Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after and , as ''w'' in ''wine'', never as ''v'' in ''vine''.", "As ''one'' is pronounced in some English accents, but without the nasal sound: , .", "The spelling ''vu'' is post-classical (in order to become regular in spelling).", "A letter representing + , as well as + : as ''x'' in English ''axe''.", "As in ''zoom'', never as in ''pizza'' (mostly used in Greek loanwords).", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨ζ⟩.+ Pronunciation of Latin vowels Latingrapheme Latinphone English approximation Similar to ''u'' in ''cut'' when short.", "Transliteration of Greek short ⟨α⟩.", "Similar to ''a'' in ''father'' when long.", "Transliteration of Greek long ⟨α⟩.", "As ''e'' in ''pet'' when short.", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨ε⟩.", "Similar to ''ey'' in ''they'' when long.", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨η⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ in some cases.", "As ''i'' in ''sit'' when short.", "Transliteration of short Greek ⟨ι⟩.", "Similar to ''i'' in ''machine'' when long.", "Transliteration of Greek long ⟨ι⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ in some cases.", "As ''o'' in ''sort'' when short.", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨ο⟩.", "Similar to ''o'' in ''holy'' when long.", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨ω⟩, and ⟨ου⟩ in some cases.", "Similar to ''u'' in ''put'' when short.", "Similar to ''u'' in ''true'' when long.", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨ου⟩.", "As in German ''Stück'' when short (or as short ''u'' or ''i'') (mostly used in Greek loanwords).", "Transliteration of Greek short ⟨υ⟩.", "As in German ''früh'' when long (or as long ''u'' or ''i'') (mostly used in Greek loanwords).", "Transliteration of Greek long ⟨υ⟩.+ Pronunciation of Latin diphthongs Latingrapheme Latinphone English approximation As in ''aisle''.", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨αι⟩.", "As in ''out''.", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨αυ⟩.", "As to ''ey'' in ''they''.", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨ει⟩ in some cases.", "As in Portuguese ''eu''.", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨ευ⟩.", "As in ''boy''.", "Transliteration of Greek ⟨οι⟩.", "As in Spanish ''muy'', approximately to ''hooey''.", "Transliteration of the Greek diphthong ⟨υι⟩." ], [ "Syllables and stress", "===Nature of the accent===Although some French and Italian scholars believe that the classical Latin accent was purely a pitch accent, which had no effect on the placing of words in a line of poetry, the view of most scholars is that the accent was a stress accent.", "One argument for this is that unlike most languages with tonal accents, there are no minimal pairs like ancient Greek (falling accent) \"light\" vs. (rising accent) \"man\" where a change of accent on the same syllable changes the meaning.", "Among other arguments are the loss of vowels before or after the accent in words such as and ; and the shortening of post or pre-accentual syllables in Plautus and Terence by brevis brevians, for example, scansions such as and with the second syllable short.===Old Latin stress===In Old Latin, as in Proto-Italic, stress normally fell on the first syllable of a word.", "During this period, the word-initial stress triggered changes in the vowels of non-initial syllables, the effects of which are still visible in classical Latin.", "Compare for example:* 'I do/make', 'made'; pronounced and in later Old Latin and Classical Latin.", "* 'I affect', 'affected'; pronounced and in Old Latin following vowel reduction, and in Classical Latin.In the earliest Latin writings, the original unreduced vowels are still visible.", "Study of this vowel reduction, as well as syncopation (dropping of short unaccented syllables) in Greek loan words, indicates that the stress remained word-initial until around the time of Plautus, in the 3rd century BC.", "The placement of the stress then shifted to become the pattern found in classical Latin.===Classical Latin syllables and stress===In Classical Latin, stress changed.", "It moved from the first syllable to one of the last three syllables, called the antepenult, the penult, and the ultima (short for 'before almost last', 'almost last', and 'last syllable').", "Its position is determined by the syllable weight of the penult.", "If the penult is heavy, it is accented; if the penult is light and there are more than two syllables, the antepenult is accented.", "In a few words originally accented on the penult, accent is on the ultima because the two last syllables have been contracted, or the last syllable has been lost.====Syllable====To determine stress, syllable weight of the penult must be determined.", "To determine syllable weight, words must be broken up into syllables.", "In the following examples, syllable structure is represented using these symbols: C (a consonant), K (a stop), R (a liquid), and V (a short vowel), VV (a long vowel or diphthong).====Nucleus====Every short vowel, long vowel, or diphthong belongs to a single syllable.", "This vowel forms the syllable nucleus.", "Thus has four syllables, one for every vowel (a i ā u: V V VV V), has three (ae e u: VV V V), has two (u ō: V VV), and has one (ui: VV).====Onset and coda====A consonant before a vowel or a consonant cluster at the beginning of a word is placed in the same syllable as the following vowel.", "This consonant or consonant cluster forms the syllable onset.", "* (CVV.CV.CVV)* (CV.CVV.CV)* (CV.V.CVV)* (CV.VV.CVV)* (CCV.CV.CVC)* (CCCVV.CVC)After this, if there is an additional consonant inside the word, it is placed at the end of the syllable.", "This consonant is the syllable coda.", "Thus if a consonant cluster of two consonants occurs between vowels, they are broken up between syllables: one goes with the syllable before, the other with the syllable after.", "* (CV.VC.CV)* (CV.CVC.CVC)* (CV.VVC.CVC)* (VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC)There are two exceptions.", "A consonant cluster of a stop ''p t c b d g'' followed by a liquid ''l r'' between vowels usually goes to the syllable after it, although it is also sometimes broken up like other consonant clusters.", "* or (CV.CV.KRVC or CV.CVK.RVC)====Heavy and light syllables====As shown in the examples above, Latin syllables have a variety of possible structures.", "Here are some of them.", "The first four examples are light syllables, and the last six are heavy.", "All syllables have at least one V (vowel).", "A syllable is heavy if it has another V or C (or both) after the first V. In the table below, the extra V or VC is bolded, indicating that it makes the syllable heavy.", "V C V C C V C C C V C V V C V C C V V C V V V C V V CThus, a syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or diphthong, a short vowel and a consonant, a long vowel and a consonant, or a diphthong and a consonant.", "Syllables ending in a diphthong and consonant are rare in Classical Latin.The syllable onset has no relationship to syllable weight; both heavy and light syllables can have no onset or an onset of one, two, or three consonants.In Latin a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a long vowel or diphthong is traditionally called ('syllable long by nature'), and a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a consonant is called ('long by position').", "These terms are translations of Greek (''syllabḕ makrá phýsei'' = 'syllable long by nature') and (''makrà thései'' = 'long by '''pro'''position'), respectively; therefore should not be mistaken for implying a syllable \"is long because of its position/place in a word\" but rather \"is treated as 'long' by convention\".", "This article uses the words ''heavy'' and ''light'' for syllables, and ''long'' and ''short'' for vowels since the two are not the same.====Stress rule====In a word of three or more syllables, the weight of the penult determines where the accent is placed.", "If the penult is light, accent is placed on the antepenult; if it is heavy, accent is placed on the penult.", "Below, stress is marked by placing the stress mark before the stressed syllable.+ Words with stress on antepenult CV.CV.CCVC CVV.CV.CVV CV.V.CVV+ Words with stress on penult CV.CVC.CVC CV.CVV.CV VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC CV.VV.CVV CV.VC.CV CV.VVC.CVC ====Iambic shortening===='''Iambic shortening''' or is vowel shortening that occurs in words of the type ''light–heavy'', where the light syllable is stressed.", "By this sound change, words like , , , with long final vowel change to , , , with short final vowel.The term also refers to shortening of closed syllables following a short syllable, for example and so on.", "This type of shortening is found in early Latin, for example in the comedies of Plautus and Terence, but not in poetry of the classical period." ], [ "Elision", "Where one word ended with a vowel (including the nasalized vowels written ''am em im um~(om)'' and the diphthong ''ae'') and the next word began with a vowel, the former vowel, at least in verse, was regularly elided; that is, it was omitted altogether, or possibly (in the case of and ) pronounced like the corresponding semivowel.", "When the second word was or , and possibly when the second word was , a different form of elision sometimes occurred (prodelision): the vowel of the preceding word was retained, and the ''e'' was elided instead.", "Elision also occurred in Ancient Greek, but in that language, it is shown in writing by the vowel in question being replaced by an apostrophe, whereas in Latin elision is not indicated at all in the orthography, but can be deduced from the verse form.", "Only occasionally is it found in inscriptions, as in for ." ], [ "Modern conventions", "===Spelling=======Letters====Modern usage, even for classical Latin texts, varies in respect of ''I'' and ''V''.", "During the Renaissance, the printing convention was to use ''I'' (upper case) and ''i'' (lower case) for both vocalic and consonantal , to use ''V'' in the upper case and in the lower case to use ''v'' at the start of words and ''u'' subsequently within the word regardless of whether and was represented.Many publishers (such as Oxford University Press) have adopted the convention of using ''I'' (upper case) and ''i'' (lower case) for both and , and ''V'' (upper case) and ''u'' (lower case) for both and .An alternative approach, less common today, is to use ''i'' and ''u'' only for the vowels and ''j'' and ''v'' for the approximants.Most modern editions, however, adopt an intermediate position, distinguishing between ''u'' and ''v'' but not between ''i'' and ''j''.", "Usually, the non-vocalic ''v'' after ''q'' or ''g'' is still printed as ''u'' rather than ''v'', probably because in this position it did not change from to in post-classical times.====Diacritics====Textbooks and dictionaries usually indicate the length of vowels by putting a macron or horizontal bar above the long vowel, but it is not generally done in regular texts.", "Occasionally, mainly in early printed texts up to the 18th century, one may see a circumflex used to indicate a long vowel where this makes a difference to the sense, for instance, ('from Rome' ablative) compared to ('Rome' nominative).Sometimes, for instance in Roman Catholic service books, an acute accent over a vowel is used to indicate the stressed syllable.", "It would be redundant for one who knew the classical rules of accentuation and made the correct distinction between long and short vowels, but most Latin speakers since the 3rd century have not made any distinction between long and short vowels, but they have kept the accents in the same places; thus, the use of accent marks allows speakers to read a word aloud correctly even if they have never heard it spoken aloud.===Pronunciation=======Post-Medieval Latin====Since around the beginning of the Renaissance period onwards, with the language being used as an international language among intellectuals, pronunciation of Latin in Europe came to be dominated by the phonology of local languages, resulting in a variety of different pronunciation systems.", "See the article ''Latin regional pronunciation'' for more details on those (with the exception of the Italian one, which is described in the section on ''Ecclesiastical pronunciation'' below).====Loan words and formal study====When Latin words are used as loanwords in a modern language, there is ordinarily little or no attempt to pronounce them as the Romans did; in most cases, a pronunciation suiting the phonology of the receiving language is employed.Latin words in common use in English are generally fully assimilated into the English sound system, with little to mark them as foreign, for example, ''cranium'', ''saliva''.", "Other words have a stronger Latin feel to them, usually because of spelling features such as the digraphs ''ae'' and ''oe'' (occasionally written as ligatures: ''æ'' and ''œ'', respectively), which both denote in English.", "The digraph ''ae'' or ligature ''æ'' in some words tend to be given an pronunciation, for example, ''curriculum vitae''.However, using loan words in the context of the language borrowing them is a markedly different situation from the study of Latin itself.", "In this classroom setting, instructors and students attempt to recreate at least some sense of the original pronunciation.", "What is taught to native anglophones is suggested by the sounds of today's Romance languages, the direct descendants of Latin.", "Instructors who take this approach rationalize that Romance vowels probably come closer to the original pronunciation than those of any other modern language (see also the section below on \"Derivative languages\").However, other languages—including Romance family members—all have their own interpretations of the Latin phonological system, applied both to loan words and formal study of Latin.", "But English, Romance, or other teachers do not always point out that the particular accent their students learn is not actually the way ancient Romans spoke.====Ecclesiastical pronunciation====Since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an Italianate pronunciation of Latin has grown to be accepted as a universal standard in the Catholic Church.", "Before then, the pronunciation of Latin in church was the same as the pronunciation of Latin in other fields and tended to reflect the sound values associated with the nationality and native language of the speaker.", "Other ecclesiastical pronunciations are still in use, especially outside the Catholic Church.A guide to this Italianate pronunciation is provided below.", "Since the letters or letter-combinations ''b'', ''d'', ''f'', ''m'', ''n'', ''ph'', and ''v'' are pronounced as they are in English, they are not included in the table.+ Consonants Grapheme Pronunciation ContextExample English approximationBefore ''ae'', ''e'', ''i'', ''oe'', ''y''procella'''''ch'''ange'' Before ''a'', ''o'', ''u''carnem ''s'''k'''y'' (never aspirated as in '''''k'''ill'')AlwaysAntiochia Before ''ae'', ''e'', ''i'', ''oe'', ''y''agere '''''g'''em''Before ''a'', ''o'', ''u''plaga'''''g'''ate'' Alwayssignum ''ca'''ny'''on'' (roughly); precisely Italian '''''gn'''occhi''∅In nearly all caseshora(silent) Between vowels in a few wordsmihi ''s'''k'''y'' (never aspirated as in '''''k'''ill'') Beginning of a word and before a vowelianua '''''y'''ard'' Between vowelsGaius Doubled, as in ''to'''y y'''acht''Alwayskalendae''s'''k'''y'' (never aspirated as in '''''k'''ill'') Alwayspaulum ''s'''l'''ip'' (never 'dark' as in ''poo'''l'''s'') Alwayspraeda ''s'''p'''y'' (never aspirated as in '''''p'''ill'') Alwaysatque '''''qu'''ick'' (never as in ''anti'''qu'''e'') Alwaysregina (rolled like Italian or Spanish '''''r'''ana)'' Always (formally)sanctum '''''s'''ing''Between vowels (informally)miser''tea'''s'''e'' Before ''ae'', ''e'', ''i'', ''oe'', ''y''ascendit '''''sh'''ade''Before ''a'', ''o'', ''u''pascunt'''''sc'''are'' Generallytironibus ''s'''t'''ay'' (never aspirated as in '''''t'''able'' nor soft as in ''na'''t'''ion'')Before unstressed ''i'' and not after ''s/t/x''nationem''pi'''zz'''a'' Always conservare preser'''v'''e Generallydextro''fo'''x''''' Word internally before a stressed vowel exaudi''e'''x'''amine'' Generallyexclamavit ''e'''xc'''laim'' Before ''ae'', ''e'', ''i'', ''oe'', ''y''excelsis ''thi'''ck sh'''ell'' Alwayszona ''ma'''d z'''ebra'' (pronounced quickly)+ Vowels Grapheme Pronunciation English approximation ''f'''a'''ther'' (roughly)precisely Spanish ''r'''a'''mo'' / ''p'''e'''t'' ''s'''ee'''k'' / ''s'''o'''rt'' ''c'''oo'''l'' ''s'''ee'''k''+ Diphthongs Grapheme Pronunciation English approximation ''out'' ''they'' no obvious example;roughly EH-oo ''screwy''* Vowel length is not phonemic.", "As a result, the automatic stress accent of Classical Latin, which was dependent on vowel length, becomes a phonemic one in Ecclesiastical Latin.", "(Some Ecclesiastical texts mark the stress with an acute accent in words of three or more syllables.", ")* Word-final ''m'' and ''n'' are pronounced fully, with no nasalization of the preceding vowel.In his ''Vox Latina: A guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin'', William Sidney Allen remarked that this pronunciation, used by the Catholic Church in Rome and elsewhere, and whose adoption Pope Pius X recommended in a 1912 letter to the Archbishop of Bourges, \"is probably less far removed from classical Latin than any other 'national' pronunciation\"; but, as can be seen from the table above, there are, nevertheless, very significant differences.", "The introduction to the ''Liber Usualis'' indicates that Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation should be used at Church liturgies.", "The Pontifical Academy for Latin is the pontifical academy in the Vatican that is charged with the dissemination and education of Catholics in the Latin language.Outside of Austria, Germany, Czechia and Slovakia, it is the most widely used standard in choral singing which, with a few exceptions like Stravinsky's , is concerned with liturgical texts.", "Anglican choirs adopted it when classicists abandoned traditional English pronunciation after World War II.", "The rise of historically informed performance and the availability of guides such as Copeman's ''Singing in Latin'' has led to the recent revival of regional pronunciations." ], [ "Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages", "Because it gave rise to many modern languages, Latin did not \"die\"; it merely evolved over the centuries in different regions in diverse ways.", "The local dialects of Vulgar Latin that emerged eventually became modern Italian, Spanish, French, Romanian, Portuguese, Catalan, Romansh, Dalmatian, Sardinian, Corsican and many others.Key features of Vulgar Latin and Romance languages include:* Total loss of as well as the loss, in polysyllabic words, of final /m/.", "* Conversion of the distinction of vowel length into a distinction of height, and subsequent merger of some of these phonemes.", "Most Romance languages merged short with long and short with long .", "* Monophthongization of into and into .", "* Loss of marginal phonemes such as aspirates (, , , generally replaced by , , ) and the close front-rounded vowel (, generally replaced by ).", "* Loss of before (CL > VL ) but this influence on the later development of Romance languages was limited from written influence, analogy, and learned borrowings.", "* Palatalization of before and (not in all varieties), probably first into and then before it finally developed into or .", "* Palatalization of before and , merging with , which could develop into an affricate , and then further into in some Romance varieties.", "* Palatalization of followed by a vowel (if not preceded by s, t, x) into .", "It merged with in dialects in which had developed into this sound, but it remained separate elsewhere (such as Italian).", "* Palatalization of and followed by a vowel into and .", "* Fortition of syllable-initial into , developing further into in many Romance varieties, or sometimes alternatively into in some contexts.", "* Lenition of between vowels into , developing further into in many Romance varieties." ], [ "Examples", "The following examples are both in verse, which demonstrates several features more clearly than prose.===From Classical Latin===Virgil's , Book 1, verses 1–4.Quantitative metre (dactylic hexameter).", "Translation: \"I sing of arms and the man, who, driven by fate, came first from the borders of Troy to Italy and the Lavinian shores; he was much afflicted both on lands and on the deep by the power of the gods, because of fierce Juno's vindictive wrath.", "\"Recording of first four lines of Aeneid in reconstructed Classical Latin pronunciation# Traditional (19th century) English orthography # Modern orthography with macrons # Modern orthography without macrons # Reconstructed Classical Roman pronunciation#:#:#:#:Note the elisions in and in the third line.", "For a fuller discussion of the prosodic features of this passage, see Dactylic hexameter.Some manuscripts have \"\" rather than \"\" in the second line.===From Medieval Latin===Beginning of by Thomas Aquinas (13th century).", "Rhymed accentual metre.", "Translation: \"Extol, my tongue, the mystery of the glorious body and the precious blood, which the fruit of a noble womb, the king of nations, poured out as the price of the world.", "\"# Traditional orthography as in Roman Catholic service books (stressed syllable marked with an acute accent on words of three syllables or more).", "# Italianate ecclesiastical pronunciation:#: #: #: #: #: #:" ], [ "See also", "Latin alphabetLatin grammarLatin regional pronunciationTraditional English pronunciation of LatinDeutsche Aussprache des Lateinischen – traditional German pronunciationSchulaussprache des Lateinischen – revised \"school\" pronunciationTraditional French pronunciation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "Hall, William Dawson, and Michael De Angelis.", "1971.", "''Latin Pronunciation According to Roman Usage.''", "Anaheim, CA: National Music Publishers.", "Trame, Richard H.", "1983.", "\"A Note On Latin Pronunciation.\"", "''The Choral Journal'' 23, no.", "5: 29.https://www.jstor.org/stable/23546146.Copy" ], [ "External links", " : Classical and ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation with audio examples* * * glottothèque - Ancient Indo-European Grammars online, an online collection of video lectures on Ancient Indo-European languages, including lectures about the phonology and writing systems of Early Latin" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Latin conjugation" ], [ "Introduction", "In linguistics and grammar, ''conjugation'' has two basic meanings.", "One meaning is the creation of derived forms of a verb from basic forms, or principal parts.", "The second meaning of the word ''conjugation'' is a group of verbs which all have the same pattern of inflections.", "Thus all those Latin verbs which in the present tense have 1st singular '''-ō''', 2nd singular '''-ās''', and infinitive '''-āre''' are said to belong to the 1st conjugation, those with 1st singular '''-eō''', 2nd singular '''-ēs''' and infinitive '''-ēre''' belong to the 2nd conjugation, and so on.", "The number of conjugations of regular verbs is usually said to be four.The word \"conjugation\" comes from the Latin , a calque of the Greek (''syzygia''), literally \"yoking together (horses into a team)\".For examples of verbs and verb groups for each inflectional class, see the Wiktionary appendix pages for first conjugation, second conjugation, third conjugation, and fourth conjugation." ], [ "Number of conjugations", "The ancient Romans themselves, beginning with Varro (1st century BC), originally divided their verbs into three conjugations ( \"there are three different conjugations for verbs: the first, second, and third\" (Donatus), 4th century AD), according to whether the ending of the 2nd person singular had an ''a'', an ''e'' or an ''i'' in it.", "However, others, such as Sacerdos (3rd century AD), Dositheus (4th century AD) and Priscian (c. 500 AD), recognised four different groups.In modern times grammarians generally recognise four conjugations according to the ending of the active infinitive: namely '''-āre''', '''-ēre''', '''-ere''', or '''-īre''', for example: '''(1) ''' \"to love\", '''(2) ''' \"to see\", '''(3) ''' \"to rule\" and '''''' \"to capture\", '''(4) ''' \"to hear\".", "(3rd conjugation verbs ending in ''-iō'' such as are sometimes known as \"mixed conjugation\" since they use a mixture of 3rd and 4th conjugation endings.", ")In addition to regular verbs, which belong to one or other of the four regular conjugations, there are also a few irregular verbs, which have a different pattern of endings.", "The most frequent of these is the verb '''''' \"to be\" together with its prefixed derivatives.There also exist deponent Latin verbs, which though active in meaning have endings identical to the passive endings of ordinary verbs.", "Examples in the different conjugations are: '''(1) ''' \"to delay\", '''(2) ''' \"to promise\", '''(3) ''' \"to follow\" and '''''' \"to go back\", '''(4) ''' \"to lie (tell a lie)\".", "Some verbs are semi-deponent, using passive forms for the perfect tenses only.==Principal parts== A verb's full paradigm relies on multiple stems.", "The present indicative active and the present infinitive are both based on the present stem.", "It is not possible to infer the stems for other tenses from the present stem.", "This means that, although the infinitive active form normally shows the verb conjugation, knowledge of several different forms is necessary to be able to confidently produce the full range of forms for any particular verb.In a dictionary, Latin verbs are listed with four \"principal parts\" (or fewer for deponent and defective verbs), which allow the student to deduce the other conjugated forms of the verbs.", "These are:# the first person singular of the present indicative active# the present infinitive active# the first person singular of the perfect indicative active# the supine or, in some grammars, the perfect passive participle, which uses the same stem.", "(Texts that list the perfect passive participle use the future active participle for intransitive verbs.)", "Some verbs lack this principal part altogether." ], [ "Regular conjugations", "=== First conjugation ===The first conjugation is characterized by the vowel ''ā'' and can be recognized by the ''-āre'' ending of the present active infinitive form.", "The non-perfect tenses conjugate as follows:IndicativeSubjunctive'''Present''''''Future''''''Present''''''Imperfect'''Active''I love''''I will love''''I was loving'' ''I may love''''I might love''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Passive''I am loved''''I will be loved''''I was being loved'' ''I may be loved'' ''I might be loved''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' The 2nd person singular passive '''''' can be shortened to ''''''.", "''-re'' was the regular form in early Latin and (except in the present indicative) in Cicero; ''-ris'' was preferred later.In early Latin (Plautus), the 3rd singular endings ''-at'' and ''-et'' were pronounced ''-āt'' and ''-ēt'' with a long vowel.Other forms:Infinitive: '''''' \"to love\"Passive infinitive: '''''' \"to be loved\" (in early Latin often '''''')Imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"love!", "\"Future imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"love!", "(at a future time)\"Indirect imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"let him love!", "\"Passive imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"be loved!\"", "(usually only found in deponent verbs)Passive future imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"be loved!", "(at a future time)\"Passive indirect imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"let him be loved!", "\"Present participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"loving\"Future participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"going to love\"Gerundive: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"needing to be loved\"Gerund: '''''' \"of loving\", '''''' \"by/for loving\", '''''' \"in order to love\" The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:* The perfect has the suffix ''-āvī''.", "The majority of first-conjugation verbs follow this pattern, which is considered to be \"regular\", for example: , \"to love\"; , \"to order\"; , \"to praise\"; , \"to deny\"; , \"to announce, report\"; , \"to beg, pray\"; , \"to prepare\"; , \"to carry\"; , \"to fight\"; , \"to think\"; , \"to ask\"; , \"to save\";** , \"to call\";* The perfect has the suffix ''-uī'', for example: , \"to rub\"; , \"to cut, to divide\";** , \"to forbid, to prohibit\";* The perfect has the suffix ''-ī'' and vowel lengthening in the stem, for example: , \"to help, to assist\"; , \"to wash, to bathe\";* The perfect is reduplicated, for example: , \"to give\" , \"to stand\";The verb '''''' \"I give\" is irregular in that except in the 2nd singular '''''' and imperative '''''', the ''a'' is short, e.g. ''''''", "\"I will give\".The ''a'' is also short in the supine '''''' and its derivatives, but the other parts of '''''' \"I stand\" are regular.Deponent verbs in this conjugation all follow the pattern below, which is the passive of the first type above::* \"to think\":* \"to try\":* \"to hesitate\":* \"to exhort\":* \"to be surprised, to be amazed at\":* \"to delay, stay\"====Perfect tenses====The three tenses of the 1st conjugation go as in the following table:IndicativeSubjunctive'''Perfect''''''Future perfect''''''Perfect''''''Pluperfect'''Active''I loved''''I will have loved''''I had loved'' ''I loved''''I had loved''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Passive''I was loved''''I will have been loved''''I had been loved'' ''I was loved'' ''I had been loved''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''In poetry (and also sometimes in prose, e.g.", "Livy), the 3rd person plural of the perfect indicative is often '''''' instead of ''''''.", "Occasionally the form '''''' is also found.In early Latin, the future perfect indicative had a short ''i'' in '''''', but by the time of Cicero these forms were usually pronounced with a long ''i'', in the same way as in the perfect subjunctive.", "Virgil has a short ''i'' for both tenses; Horace uses both forms for both tenses; Ovid uses both forms for the future perfect, but a long ''i'' in the perfect subjunctive.The ''-v-'' of the perfect active tenses sometimes drops out, especially in the pluperfect subjunctive: '''''' for ''''''.", "Forms such as '''''' and '''''' are also found.The passive tenses also have feminine and neuter forms, e.g. ''''''", "\"she was loved\", '''''' \"it was announced\".Forms made with instead of and instead of are also found, for example and so on, but these are not common in classical Latin.", "See Latin tenses.For other meanings of the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive, see Latin tenses#Jussive subjunctive.Other forms:Perfect infinitive active: '''''' ('''''') \"to have loved\"Perfect infinitive passive: '''''' ('''''') \"to have been loved\"Perfect participle passive: '''''' \"loved (by someone)\"=== Second conjugation ===The second conjugation is characterized by the vowel ē, and can be recognized by the -eō ending of the first person present indicative and the -ēre ending of the present active infinitive form: IndicativeSubjunctive'''Present''''''Future''''''Present''''''Imperfect'''Active''I see''''I will see''''I was seeing'' ''I may see''''I might see''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Passive''I am seen''''I will be seen''''I was being seen'' ''I may be seen'' ''I might be seen''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''The passive '''''' also often means \"I seem\".Other forms:Infinitive: '''''' \"to see\"Passive infinitive: '''''' \"to be seen\"Imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"see!", "\"Future imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"see!", "(at a future time)\" Passive imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"be seen!\"", "(usually only found in deponent verbs)Present participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"seeing\"Future participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"going to see\"Gerundive: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"needing to be seen\"Gerund: '''''' \"of seeing\", '''''' \"by /for seeing\", '''''' \"in order to see\"The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns: The perfect has the suffix ''-uī''.", "Verbs which follow this pattern are considered to be \"regular\".", "Examples: \"to owe, be obliged\" \"to teach, to instruct\" \"to lie (on the ground/bed)\" \"to deserve\" \"to mix\" \"to warn, advise\" \"to be harmful\" \"to provide, show\" \"to hold, to keep\" \"to frighten, to deter\" \"to fear\" \"to be strong\"* The perfect has the suffix ''–ēvī''.", "Example: \"to destroy\" \"to weep\"In verbs with perfect in ''-vī'', syncopated (i.e.", "abbreviated) forms are common, such as for .", "* The perfect has the suffix ''–īvī''.", "Example:** \"to arouse, to stir\"* The perfect has the suffix ''-sī'' (which combines with a preceding ''c'' or ''g'' to ''–xī'').", "Examples: \"to burn\" \"to increase, to enlarge\" \"to stick, to adhere, to get stuck\" \"to order\" \"to remain\" \"to persuade\"** \"to laugh\"* The perfect is reduplicated with ''-ī''.", "Examples: \"to bite\" \"to vow, to promise\"* The perfect has suffix ''-ī'' and vowel lengthening in the stem.", "Examples: \"to be cautious\" \"to favour\" \"to caress, to cherish\" \"to sit\"** \"to see\"* The perfect has suffix ''-ī''.", "Examples: \"to reply\" \"to hiss, to creak\" (also 3rd conj.", ")Deponent verbs in this conjugation are few.", "They mostly go like the passive of , but and have a perfect participle with ''ss''::* \"to confess\":* \"to deserve\":* \"to promise\"The following are semi-deponent, that is, they are deponent only in the three perfect tenses::* \"to dare\":* \"to rejoice, to be glad\":* \"to be accustomed\"=== Third conjugation ===The third conjugation has a variable short stem vowel, which may be e, i, or u in different environments.", "Verbs of this conjugation end in -ere in the present active infinitive.", "Deponent verbs have the infinitive -ī.IndicativeSubjunctive'''Present''''''Future''''''Present''''''Imperfect'''Active''I lead''''I will lead''''I was leading'' ''I may lead''''I might lead''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Passive''I am led''''I will be led''''I was being led'' ''I may be led'' ''I might be led''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''The future tense in the 3rd and 4th conjugation (''-am, -ēs, -et'' etc.)", "differs from that in the 1st and 2nd conjugation (''-bō, -bis, -bit'' etc.).", "Other forms:Infinitive: '''''' \"to lead\"Passive infinitive: '''''' \"to be led\" (the 3rd conjugation has no ''r'')Imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"lead!", "\"Future imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"lead!", "(at a future time)\" Passive imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"be led!\"", "(usually only found in deponent verbs)Present participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"leading\"Future participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"going to lead\"Gerundive: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"needing to be led\"Gerund: '''''' \"of leading\", '''''' \"by /for leading\", '''''' \"in order to lead\"Four 3rd conjugation verbs usually have no ending in the imperative singular: '''''' \"lead!", "\", '''''' \"say!", "\", '''''' \"bring!", "\", '''''' \"do!\".", "Others, like '''''' \"run!", "\", have the ending ''-e''.There is no regular rule for constructing the perfect stem of third-conjugation verbs, but the following patterns are used: The perfect has suffix ''-sī'' (''-xī'' when ''c'', ''g'', or ''h'' comes at the end of the root).", "Examples: \"to pluck, to select\" \"to yield, depart\" \"to close\" \"to despise, disdain, treat with contempt\" \"to say\" \"to divide\" \"to lead\" \"to bend, to twist\" \"to wear, to bear; wage (war)\" \"to send\" \"to rule\" \"to write\" \"to cover, conceal\" \"to drag, to pull\"** \"to live\"* The perfect is reduplicated with suffix ''–ī''.", "Examples: \"to fall\" \"to kill, to slay\" \"to run, to race\" \"to learn\" \"to cheat\" \"to fart\" \"to beat, to drive away\" \"to claim, request\" \"to touch, to hit\" \"to stretch\"Although \"to give\" is 1st conjugation, its compounds are 3rd conjugation and have internal reduplication::* \"to found\":* \"to entrust, believe\":* \"to surrender\":* \"to destroy, lose\":* \"to give back\":* \"to hand over\"Likewise the compounds of have internal reduplication.", "Although is transitive, its compounds are intransitive::* \"to cause to stand\":* \"to come to a halt\":* \"to stand off\":* \"to resist\"* The perfect has suffix ''-vī''.", "Examples: \"to smear, to daub\" (also 4th conj.", ") \"to seek, to attack\" \"to look for, ask\" \"to sow, to plant\" \"to spread, to stretch out\" \"to rub, to wear out\"* The perfect has suffix ''-ī'' and vowel lengthening in the stem.", "If the present stem has an ''n'' infix, as in and , the infix disappears in the perfect.", "In some cases, the long vowel in the perfect is thought to be derived from an earlier reduplicated form, e.g.", ".", "Examples: \"to do, to drive\" \"to compel, gather together\" \"to buy\" \"to pour\" \"to collect, to read\" \"to leave behind\" \"to burst\" \"to conquer, to defeat\"* The perfect has suffix ''-ī'' only.", "Examples: \"to climb, to go up\" \"to establish, decide, cause to stand\" \"to defend\" \"to drive out, expel\" \"to strike\" \"to fear, be apprehensive\" \"to kill\" \"to show\" \"to lift, raise, remove\" \"to turn\"** \"to visit\"* The perfect has suffix ''–uī''.", "Examples: \"to cultivate, to till\" \"to consult, act in the interests of\" \"to beget, to cause\" \"to grind\" \"to place\" \"to weave, to plait\"** \"to vomit\"* The present tense indicative first person singular form has suffix ''–scō''.", "Examples: \"to grow up, to mature\" \"to get to know, to learn\" \"to feed upon, to feed (an animal)\" \"to rest, keep quiet\"Deponent verbs in the 3rd conjugation include the following::* \"to embrace\":* \"to enjoy\" ( is occasionally found) :* \"to perform, discharge, busy oneself with\":* \"to glide, slip\":* \"to speak\":* \"to lean on; to strive\" ( is occasionally found):* \"to complain\":* \"to follow\":* \"to use\":* \"to ride\"There are also a number of 3rd conjugation deponents with the ending ''-scor''::* \"to obtain\":* \"to get angry\":* \"to obtain\":* \"to be born\":* \"to forget\":* \"to set out\":* \"to avenge, take vengeance on\"Deponent in some tenses only is the following::* \"to trust\"The following is deponent only in the non-perfect tenses::* \"to turn back\"====Third conjugation -iō verbs====Intermediate between the third and fourth conjugation are the third-conjugation verbs with suffix –iō.", "These resemble the fourth conjugation in some forms.", "IndicativeSubjunctive'''Present''''''Future''''''Present''''''Imperfect'''Active''I capture''''I will capture''''I was capturing'' ''I may capture''''I might capture''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Passive''I am captured''''I will be captured''''I was being captured'' ''I may be captured'' ''I might be captured''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Other forms:Infinitive: '''''' \"to capture, to take\"Passive infinitive: '''''' \"to be captured\" (the 3rd conjugation has no ''r'')Imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"capture!", "\"Future imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"capture!", "(at a future time)\" Passive imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"be captured!\"", "(usually only found in deponent verbs)Future passive imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"be captured!", "(at a future time)\" (usually only found in deponent verbs)Present participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"capturing\"Future participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"going to capture\"Gerundive: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"needing to be captured\" ('''''' is also sometimes found)Gerund: '''''' \"of capturing\", '''''' \"by /for capturing\", '''''' \"in order to capture\"Some examples are::* \"to receive, accept\":* \"to take, capture\":* \"to watch, examine\":* \"to desire, long for\":* \"to do, to make\":* \"to flee\":* \"to throw\":* \"to kill\":* \"to plunder, seize\":* \"to look back\"Deponent verbs in this group include::* \"to attack\":* \"to go out\":* \"to die\":* \"to suffer, to allow\":* \"to attack\":* \"to go back\"=== Fourth conjugation ===The fourth conjugation is characterized by the vowel ī and can be recognized by the -īre ending of the present active infinitive.", "Deponent verbs have the infinitive -īrī:IndicativeSubjunctive'''Present''''''Future''''''Present''''''Imperfect'''Active''I hear''''I will hear''''I was hearing'' ''I may hear''''I might hear''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Passive''I am heard''''I will be heard''''I was being heard'' ''I may be heard'' ''I might be heard''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Other forms:Infinitive: '''''' \"to hear\"Passive infinitive: '''''' \"to be heard\"Imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"hear!", "\"Future imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"hear!", "(at a future time)\" Passive imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"be heard!\"", "(usually only found in deponent verbs)Present participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"hearing\"Future participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"going to hear\"Gerundive: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"needing to be heard\"Gerund: '''''' \"of hearing\", '''''' \"by /for hearing\", '''''' \"in order to hear\"Principal parts of verbs in the fourth conjugation generally adhere to the following patterns: The perfect has suffix ''-vī''.", "Verbs which adhere to this pattern are considered to be \"regular\".", "Examples: \"to hear, listen (to)\" \"to guard\" \"to sleep\" \"to hinder, impede\" \"to fortify, to build\" \"to punish\"** \"to know\"* The perfect has suffix ''-uī''.", "Examples:** \"to open, to uncover\"* The perfect has suffix ''-sī'' (''-xī'' when ''c'' comes at the end of the root).", "Examples: \"to surround, to enclose\" \"to confirm, to ratify\" \"to feel, to perceive\" \"to bind\"* The perfect has suffix ''-ī'' and reduplication.", "Examples:** \"to find, discover\"* The perfect has suffix ''-ī'' and vowel lengthening in the stem.", "Examples: \"to come, to arrive\" \"to find\"Deponent verbs in the 4th conjugation include the following::* \"to assent\":* \"to experience, test\":* \"to bestow\":* \"to tell a lie\":* \"to measure\":* \"to exert oneself, set in motion, build\":* \"to obtain, gain possession of\":* \"to cast lots\"The verb \"to arise\" is also regarded as 4th conjugation, although some parts, such as the 3rd singular present tense and imperfect subjunctive , have a short vowel like the 3rd conjugation.", "But its compound \"to rise up, attack\" is entirely 4th conjugation.In the perfect tenses, shortened forms without ''-v-'' are common, for example, '''''' for .", "Cicero, however, prefers the full forms to ." ], [ "Irregular verbs", "===''Sum'' and ''possum''===The verb \"to be\" is the most common verb in Latin.", "It is conjugated as follows:IndicativeSubjunctive'''Present''''''Future''''''Present''''''Imperfect'''Active''I am''''I will be''''I was'' ''I may be''''I might be''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Active''I am able''''I will be able''''I was able'' ''I may be able'' ''I might be able''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''In early Latin (e.g.", "Plautus), '''''' can be found for the present subjunctive ''''''.", "In poetry the subjunctive '''''' also sometimes occurs.An alternative imperfect subjunctive is sometimes made using '''''' etc.", "See further: Latin tenses#Foret.Other forms:Infinitive: '''''' \"to be\", '''''' \"to be able\"Perfect infinitive: '''''' \"to have been\", '''''' \"to have been able\"Future infinitive: '''''' \"to be going to be\" (also '''''')Imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"be!", "\"Future imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"be!", "(at a future time)\" Future participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"going to be\" ( has no future participle or future infinitive.", ")The present participle is found only in the compounds '''''' \"absent\" and '''''' \"present\".In Plautus and Lucretius, an infinitive '''''' is sometimes found for '''''' \"to be able\".The principal parts of these verbs are as follows::* \"to be\":* \"to be away\":* \"to be present\":* \"to be wanting\":* \"to be able\":* \"to be for, to profit\" (adds ''d'' before a vowel)The perfect tenses conjugate in the regular way.For the difference in meaning between and , see Latin tenses#Difference between eram and fuī===''Volō'', ''nōlō'', and ''mālō''===The verb and its derivatives and (short for ) resemble a 3rd conjugation verb, but the present subjunctive ending in ''-im'' is different:IndicativeSubjunctive'''Present''''''Future''''''Present''''''Imperfect'''Active''I want''''I will want''''I was wanting'' ''I may want''''I might want''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Active''I am unwilling''''I will be unwilling''''I was unwilling'' ''I may be unwilling'' ''I might be unwilling''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Active''I prefer''''I will prefer''''I was preferring'' ''I may prefer'' ''I might prefer''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''The spellings '''''' and '''''' were used up until the time of Cicero for '''''' and ''''''.These verbs are not used in the passive.Other forms: * Infinitive: '''''' \"to want\", '''''' \"to be unwilling\", '''''' \"to prefer\"* Present participle: '''''' \"willing\", '''''' \"unwilling\"* Imperative: '''''', pl. ''''''", "(used in expressions such as '''''' \"don't be surprised!", "\")Principal parts::* \"to want\":* \"not to want, to be unwilling\":* \"to prefer\"The perfect tenses are formed regularly.===''Eō'' and compounds===The verb \"I go\" is an irregular 4th conjugation verb, in which the ''i'' of the stem sometimes becomes ''e''.", "Like 1st and 2nd conjugation verbs, it uses the future ''-bō, -bis, -bit'':IndicativeSubjunctive'''Present''''''Future''''''Present''''''Imperfect'''Active''I go''''I will go''''I was going'' ''I may go''''I might go''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Other forms:Infinitive: '''''' \"to go\"Passive infinitive: '''''' \"to go\" (used impersonally, e.g.", "\"not knowing which way to go\")Imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"go!", "\"Future imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"go!", "(at a future time)\" (rare)Present participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"going\"Future participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"going to go\"Gerundive: '''''' \"necessary to go\" (used impersonally only)Gerund: '''''' \"of going\", '''''' \"by / for going\", '''''' \"in order to go\"The impersonal passive forms '''''' \"they go\", '''''' \"they went\" are sometimes found.The principal parts of some verbs which conjugate like are the following::* \"to go\":* \"to go away\":* \"to go up to\":* \"to meet, assemble\":* \"to go out\":* \"to enter\":* \"to perish\":* \"to enter\":* \"to die, to perish\":* \"to pass by\":* \"to return, to go back\":* \"to go under, to approach stealthily, to undergo\":* \"to be sold\"In the perfect tenses of these verbs, the ''-v-'' is almost always omitted, especially in the compounds, although the form is common in the Vulgate Bible translation.In some perfect forms, the vowels ''ii-'' are contracted to ''ī-'': second person singular perfect , second person plural perfect ; pluperfect subjunctive ; perfect infinitive (the form is also attested).The verb '''''' \"to be able\" has forms similar to .===''Ferō'' and compounds===The verb \"to bring, to bear, to carry\" is 3rd conjugation, but irregular in that the vowel following the root ''fer-'' is sometimes omitted.", "The perfect tense and supine stem are also irregularly formed.IndicativeSubjunctive'''Present''''''Future''''''Present''''''Imperfect'''Active''I bring''''I will bring''''I was bringing'' ''I may bring''''I might bring''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Passive''I am brought''''I will be brought''''I was being brought'' ''I may be brought'' ''I might be brought''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''The future tense in the 3rd and 4th conjugation (''-am, -ēs, -et'' etc.)", "differs from that in the 1st and 2nd conjugation (''-bō, -bis, -bit'' etc.).", "Other forms:Infinitive: '''''' \"to bring\"Passive infinitive: '''''' \"to be brought\"Imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"bring!", "\"Passive imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"be carried!\"", "(rare)Present participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"bringing\"Future participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"going to bring\"Gerundive: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"needing to be brought\"Gerund: '''''' \"of bringing\", '''''' \"by /for bringing\", '''''' \"in order to bring\"Compounds of include the following:The principal parts of some verbs which conjugate like are the following::* \"to bring (to)\":* \"to carry away, to steal\":* \"to collect\":* \"to put off\":* \"to carry out\":* \"to offer\":* \"to refer\"The perfect tense , however, belongs to the verb ::* \"to raise, to remove\"===''Fīō''===The irregular verb \"to become, to happen, to be done, to be made\" as well as being a verb in its own right serves as the passive of \"to do, to make\".", "The perfect tenses are identical with the perfect passive tenses of .IndicativeSubjunctive'''Present''''''Future''''''Present''''''Imperfect'''Active''I become''''I will become''''I was becoming'' ''I may become''''I might become''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''The 1st and 2nd plural forms are almost never found.Other forms:Infinitive: '''''' \"to become, to be done, to happen\"Imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"become!", "\"===''Edō''===The verb \"to eat\" has regular 3rd conjugation forms appearing alongside irregular ones:IndicativeSubjunctive'''Present''''''Future''''''Present''''''Imperfect'''Active''I eat''''I will eat''''I was eating'' ''I may eat''''I might eat''''Iyou sg.he, she, itweyou pl.they''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''Other forms:Infinitive: '''''' \"to eat\"Passive infinitive: '''''' \"to be eaten\"Imperative: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"eat!", "\"Present participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"eating\"Future participle: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"going to eat\"Gerundive: '''''' (pl. '''''')", "\"needing to be eaten\"Gerund: '''''' \"of eating\", '''''' \"by /for eating\", '''''' \"in order to eat\" / \"for eating\"The passive form '''''' \"it is eaten\" is also found.The present subjunctive '''''' etc.", "is found mostly in early Latin.In writing, there is a possibility of confusion between the forms of this verb and those of \"I am\" and \"I give out, put forth\"; for example, \"to eat\" vs. \"to be\"; \"he eats\" vs. \"he gives out\".The compound verb \"to eat up, consume\" is similar." ], [ "Non-finite forms", "The non-finite forms of verbs are participles, infinitives, supines, gerunds and gerundives.", "The verbs used are::'''1st conjugation:''' – to praise:'''2nd conjugation:''' – to frighten, deter:'''3rd conjugation:''' – to seek, attack:'''3rd conjugation (''-i'' stem):''' – to take, capture:'''4th conjugation:''' – to hear, listen (to)=== Participles ===There are four participles: present active, perfect passive, future active, and future passive (= the gerundive).", "The '''present active participle''' is declined as a 3rd declension adjective.", "The ablative singular is ''-e'', but the plural follows the i-stem declension with genitive ''-ium'' and neuter plural ''-ia''.", "The '''perfect passive participle''' is declined like a 1st and 2nd declension adjective.", "In all conjugations, the perfect participle is formed by removing the ''–um'' from the supine, and adding a ''–us'' (masculine nominative singular).", "The '''future active participle''' is declined like a 1st and 2nd declension adjective.", "*In all conjugations the ''-um'' is removed from the supine, and an ''-ūrus'' (masculine nominative singular) is added.", "The '''future passive participle''', more usually called the '''gerundive''', is formed by taking the present stem, adding \"-nd-\", and the usual first and second declension endings.", "Thus forms .", "The usual meaning is \"needing to be praised\", expressing a sense of obligation.", "Participles Present active Perfect passive Future active Gerundive === Infinitives ===There are seven main infinitives.", "They are in the present active, present passive, perfect active, perfect passive, future active, future passive, and potential active.", "Further infinitives can be made using the gerundive.", "The '''present active infinitive''' is the second principal part (in regular verbs).", "It plays an important role in the syntactic construction of Accusative and infinitive, for instance.", "* means, \"to praise.", "\"The '''present passive infinitive''' is formed by adding a ''–rī'' to the present stem.", "This is only so for the first, second and fourth conjugations.", "In the third conjugation, the thematical vowel, ''e'', is taken from the present stem, and an ''–ī'' is added.", "* translates as \"to be praised.", "\"The '''perfect active infinitive''' is formed by adding an ''–isse'' onto the perfect stem.", "* translates as \"to have praised.", "\"The '''perfect passive infinitive''' uses the perfect passive participle along with the auxiliary verb .", "The perfect passive infinitive must agree with what it is describing in number, gender, and case (nominative or accusative).", "* means, \"to have been praised.", "\"The '''future active infinitive''' uses the future active participle with the auxiliary verb .", "* means, \"to be going to praise.\"", "The future active infinitive must agree with what it is describing in number, gender, and case (nominative or accusative).", "** has two future infinitives: and The '''future passive infinitive''' uses the supine with the auxiliary verb .", "Because the first part is a supine, the ending ''-um'' does not change for gender or number.", "* is translated as \"to be going to be praised.\"", "This is normally used in indirect speech.", "For example: \"He hopes that he will be acquitted.", "\"The '''potential infinitive''' uses the future active participle with the auxiliary verb .", "* is used only in indirect statements to represent a potential imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive of direct speech.", "It is translated with \"would\" or \"would have\".", "For example: (Quintilian) 'it seems unlikely that he would have told a lie, if he had not been desperate'+Infinitives (with masculine endings used for participles) Present active Present passive Perfect active Perfect passive Future active Future passive Potential The future passive infinitive was not very commonly used.", "The Romans themselves often used an alternate expression, followed by a subjunctive clause.=== Supine ===The supine is the fourth principal part of the verb, as given in Latin dictionaries.", "It resembles a masculine noun of the fourth declension.", "Supines only occur in the accusative and ablative cases.", "The accusative form ends in a ''–um'', and is used with a verb of motion in order to show purpose.", "Thus it is only used with verbs like \"to go\", \"to come\", etc.", "The accusative form of a supine can also take an object if needed.", "* – The father came to praise his children.", "The ablative, which ends in a ''–ū'', is used with the Ablative of Specification.", "* – These arms were the easiest to praise.", "Supine Accusative Ablative === Gerund ===The gerund is formed similarly to the present active participle.", "However, the ''-ns'' becomes an ''-ndus'', and the preceding ''ā'' or ''ē'' is shortened.", "Gerunds are neuter nouns of the second declension, but the nominative case is not present.", "The gerund is a noun, meaning \"the act of doing (the verb)\", and forms a suppletive paradigm to the infinitive, which cannot be declined.", "For example, the genitive form can mean \"of praising\", the dative form can mean \"for praising\", the accusative form can mean \"praising\", and the ablative form can mean \"by praising\", \"in respect to praising\", etc.", "Gerund Accusative Genitive Dative AblativeOne common use of the gerund is with the preposition to indicate purpose.", "For example, could be translated as \"ready to attack\".", "However the gerund was avoided when an object was introduced, and a passive construction with the gerundive was preferred.", "For example, for \"ready to attack the enemy\" the construction is preferred over .=== Gerundive ===The gerundive has a form similar to that of the gerund, but it is a first and second declension adjective, and functions as a future passive participle (see above).", "It means \"(which is) to be ...ed\".", "Often, the gerundive is used with part of the verb , to show obligation.", "* \"The boy needs to be praised\"* means \"The speech is to be praised\".", "In such constructions a substantive in dative may be used to identify the agent of the obligation (), as in meaning \"The speech is to be praised '''by us'''\" or \"'''We''' must praise the speech\".", "Gerundive An older form of the 3rd and 4th conjugation gerundive ends in ''-undum'', e.g.", "( for ).", "This ending is also found with the gerundive of 'I go': 'it is necessary to go'.For some examples of uses of Latin gerundives, see the Gerundive article." ], [ "Periphrastic conjugations", "There are two periphrastic conjugations.", "One is active, and the other is passive.=== Active ===The first periphrastic conjugation uses the future participle.", "It is combined with the forms of .", "It is translated as \"I am going to praise,\" \"I was going to praise\", etc.", "Conjugation Translation Pres.", "ind.", "I am going to praise Imp.", "ind.", "I was going to praise Fut.", "ind.", "I shall be going to praise Perf.", "ind.", "I have been going to praise Plup.", "ind.", "I had been going to praise Fut.", "perf.", "ind.", "I shall have been going to praise Pres.", "subj.", "I may be going to praise Imp.", "subj.", "I should be going to praise Perf.", "subj.", "I may have been going to praise Plup.", "subj.", "I should have been going to praise=== Passive ===The second periphrastic conjugation uses the gerundive.", "It is combined with the forms of and expresses necessity.", "It is translated as \"I am needing to be praised\", \"I was needing to be praised\", etc., or as \"I have to (''i.e.", "'', must) be praised\", \"I had to be praised,\" etc.", "It may also be translated in English word by word, as in \"You are to be (''i.e.", "'', must be) praised.\"", "Conjugation Translation Pres.", "ind.", "I am needing to be praised Imp.", "ind.", "I was needing to be praised Fut.", "ind.", "I will be needing to be praised Perf.", "ind.", "I was needing to be praised Plup.", "ind.", "I had been needing to be praised Fut.", "perf.", "ind.", "I will have been needing to be praised Pres.", "subj.", "I may be needing to be praised Imp.", "subj.", "I should be needing to be praised Perf.", "subj.", "I may have been needing to be praised Plup.", "subj.", "I should have been needing to be praised Pres.", "inf.", "To be needing to be praised Perf.", "inf.", "To have been needing to be praised" ], [ "Peculiarities", "=== Deponent and semi-deponent verbs ===Deponent verbs are verbs that are passive in form (that is, conjugated as though in the passive voice) but active in meaning.", "These verbs have only three principal parts, since the perfect of ordinary passives is formed periphrastically with the perfect participle, which is formed on the same stem as the supine.", "Some examples coming from all conjugations are::'''1st conjugation:''' – to admire, wonder:'''2nd conjugation:''' – to promise, offer:'''3rd conjugation:''' – to speak, say:'''4th conjugation:''' – to tell a lieDeponent verbs use active conjugations for tenses that do not exist in the passive: the gerund, the supine, the present and future participles and the future infinitive.", "They cannot be used in the passive themselves (except the gerundive), and their analogues with \"active\" form do not in fact exist: one cannot directly translate \"The word is said\" with any form of , and there are no forms like ''loquō'', ''loquis'', ''loquit'', etc.Semi-deponent verbs form their imperfective aspect tenses in the manner of ordinary active verbs; but their perfect tenses are built periphrastically like deponents and ordinary passives; thus, semi-deponent verbs have a perfect active participle instead of a perfect passive participle.", "An example:: – to dare, ventureUnlike the proper passive of active verbs, which is always intransitive, some deponent verbs are transitive, which means that they can take an object.", "For example:: – he follows the enemy.Note: In the Romance languages, which lack deponent or passive verb forms, the Classical Latin deponent verbs either disappeared (being replaced with non-deponent verbs of a similar meaning) or changed to a non-deponent form.", "For example, in Spanish and Italian, changed to ''mirar(e)'' by changing all the verb forms to the previously nonexistent \"active form\", and changed to ''osar(e)'' by taking the participle and making an ''-ar(e)'' verb out of it (note that ''au'' went to ''o'').=== Defective verbs ===Defective verbs are verbs that are conjugated in only some instances.", "Some verbs are conjugated only in the perfective aspect's tenses, yet have the imperfective aspect's tenses' meanings.", "As such, the perfect becomes the present, the pluperfect becomes the imperfect, and the future perfect becomes the future.", "Therefore, the defective verb ''ōdī'' means, \"I hate.\"", "These defective verbs' principal parts are given in vocabulary with the indicative perfect in the first person and the perfect active infinitive.", "Some examples are::: (future participle ) – to hate:: (imperative ) – to remember:: – to have begunA few verbs, the meanings of which usually have to do with speech, appear only in certain occurrences.", ":: (plur.", "), which means \"Hand it over\" is only in the imperative mood, and only is used in the second person.The following are conjugated irregularly:==== ''Aio'' ==== Conjugation of Indicativepresent Indicativeimperfect Subjunctivepresent Imperativepresent Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular First person — — — — Second person Third person —:'''Present Active Participle:''' – ==== ''Inquam'' ==== Conjugation of Present indicative Futureindicative Perfectindicative Imperfectindicative Singular Plural Singular Singular Singular First person — — Second person Third person ==== ''For'' ==== Conjugation of PresentindicativeFutureindicativePerfectindicativePluperfectindicative Presentimperative Singular Plural Singular Singular Singular Singular Plural First person — — — Second person — — — — Third person — —:'''Present Active Participle''' – :'''Present Active Infinitive''' – (variant: ):'''Supine''' – (acc.)", ", (abl.)", ":'''Gerund''' – (gen.) , (dat.", "and abl.)", ", no accusative:'''Gerundive''' – The Romance languages lost many of these verbs, but others (such as ) survived but became regular fully conjugated verbs (in Italian, ).=== Impersonal verbs ===Impersonal verbs are those lacking a person.", "In English impersonal verbs are usually used with the neuter pronoun \"it\" (as in \"It seems,\" or \"it is raining\").", "Latin uses the third person singular.", "These verbs lack a fourth principal part.", "A few examples are:: – to rain (it rains): – to snow (it snows): – to be proper (it is proper, one should/ought to): – to be permitted to (it is allowed to)=== Irregular future active participles ===The future active participle is normally formed by removing the ''–um'' from the supine, and adding a ''–ūrus.''", "However, some deviations occur.", "Presentactiveinfinitive Supine Futureactiveparticiple Meaning going to help (but PPP ) going to wash going to produce going to fall going to cut going to enjoy going to be born going to die going to rise=== Alternative verb forms ===Several verb forms may occur in alternative forms (in some authors these forms are fairly common, if not more common than the canonical ones):The ending ''–ris'' in the passive voice may be ''–re'' as in::: → The ending ''–ērunt'' in the perfect may be ''–ēre'' (primarily in poetry) as in::: → The ending ''–ī'' in the passive infinitive may be ''–ier'' as in::: → , → === Syncopated verb forms ===Like in most Romance languages, syncopated forms and contractions are present in Latin.", "They may occur in the following instances:Perfect stems that end in a ''–v'' may be contracted when inflected.", ":: → :: → :: → :: → The compounds of (to learn) and (to move, dislodge) can also be contracted.", ":: → :: → :: → :: →" ], [ "See also", " Grammatical conjugation* Latin declension* Romance copula* William Whitaker's Words" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Gildersleeve, B.L.", "& Gonzalez Lodge (1895).", "''Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar''.", "3rd Edition.", "(Macmillan)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Verbix automatically conjugates verbs in Latin.", "* Latin Verb Synopsis Drill tests a user on his ability to conjugate verbs correctly.", "* Arbuckle Latin Conjugator automatically conjugates and translates verbs in Latin." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Louisa May Alcott" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Louisa May Alcott''' (; November 29, 1832March 6, 1888) was an American novelist, short story writer, and poet best known for writing the novel ''Little Women'' (1868) and its sequels ''Little Men'' (1871) and ''Jo's Boys'' (1886).", "Raised in New England by her transcendentalist parents, Abigail May and Amos Bronson Alcott, she grew up among many well-known intellectuals of the day, including Margaret Fuller, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry David Thoreau, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.Alcott's family suffered from financial difficulties, and while she worked to help support the family from an early age, she also sought an outlet in writing.", "She began to receive critical success for her writing in the 1860s.", "Early in her career, she sometimes used pen names such as '''A.", "M. Barnard''', under which she wrote lurid short stories and sensation novels for adults that focused on passion and revenge.Published in 1868, ''Little Women'' is set in the Alcott family home, Orchard House, in Concord, Massachusetts, and is loosely based on Alcott's childhood experiences with her three sisters, Abigail May Alcott Nieriker, Elizabeth Sewall Alcott, and Anna Alcott Pratt.", "The novel was well-received at the time and is still popular today among both children and adults.", "It has been adapted for stage plays, films, and television many times.Alcott was an abolitionist and a feminist and remained unmarried throughout her life.", "She also spent her life active in reform movements such as temperance and women's suffrage.", "She died from a stroke in Boston on March 6, 1888, just two days after her father's death." ], [ "Early life", "Louisa May Alcott at age 20Louisa May Alcott was born on November 29, 1832, in Germantown, which is now part of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on her father's 33rd birthday.", "Her parents were transcendentalist and educator Amos Bronson Alcott and social worker Abigail \"Abby\" May.", "She was the second of four daughters: Anna Bronson Alcott was the eldest, while Elizabeth Sewall Alcott and Abigail May Alcott were the two youngest.", "As a child, she was a tomboy who preferred boys' games.", "The family moved to Boston in 1834, where Alcott's father established the experimental Temple School and joined the Transcendental Club with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.", "Bronson Alcott's opinions on education, tough views on child-rearing, and moments of mental instability shaped young Alcott's mind with a desire to achieve perfection, a goal of the transcendentalists.", "His attitudes towards Alcott's wild and independent behavior and his inability to provide for his family created conflict between Bronson Alcott, his wife, and their daughters.", "Abigail reportedly resented her husband's inability to recognize her sacrifices and related his thoughtlessness to the larger issue of the inequality of sexes.", "She passed this recognition and desire to redress wrongs done to women on to Louisa.In 1840, after several setbacks with Temple School, the Alcott family moved to a cottage on of land, situated along the Sudbury River in Concord, Massachusetts.", "The three years they spent at the rented Hosmer Cottage were described as idyllic.", "By 1843, the Alcott family moved, along with six other members of the Consociate Family, to the Utopian Fruitlands community for a brief interval in 1843–1844.After the collapse of the Utopian Fruitlands, they rented rooms and finally, with Abigail May Alcott's inheritance and financial help from Emerson, they purchased a homestead in Concord.", "They moved into the home they named \"Hillside\" on April 1, 1845, but had moved on by 1852, when it was sold to Nathaniel Hawthorne, who renamed it The Wayside.", "Moving 21 times in 30 years, the Alcotts returned to Concord once again in 1857 and moved into Orchard House, a two-story clapboard farmhouse, in the spring of 1858.Louisa May AlcottAlcott's early education included lessons from the naturalist Henry David Thoreau who inspired her to write the poem ''Thoreau's Flute'' based on her time at Walden Pond.", "She was primarily educated by her father, who was strict and believed in \"the sweetness of self-denial.\"", "She also received some instruction from writers and educators such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Margaret Fuller, and Julia Ward Howe, all of whom were family friends.", "She later described these early years in a newspaper sketch entitled \"Transcendental Wild Oats.\"", "The sketch was reprinted in the volume ''Silver Pitchers'' (1876), which relates the family's experiment in \"plain living and high thinking\" at Fruitlands.", "She was also instructed by Sophia Foord, who lived with the family for a time, and whom she would later eulogize.Poverty made it necessary for Alcott to go to work at an early age as a teacher, seamstress, governess, domestic helper, and writer.", "Her sisters also supported the family, working as seamstresses, while their mother took on social work among the Irish immigrants.", "Only the youngest, Abigail, was able to attend public school.", "Due to all of these pressures, writing became a creative and emotional outlet for Alcott.", "Her first book was ''Flower Fables'' (1849), a selection of tales originally written for Ellen Emerson, daughter of Ralph Waldo Emerson.", "Alcott is quoted as saying \"I wish I was rich, I was good, and we were all a happy family this day\" and was driven in life not to be poor.In 1847, Alcott and her family served as station masters on the Underground Railroad, when they housed a fugitive slave for one week and had discussions with Frederick Douglass.", "Alcott read and admired the Declaration of Sentiments published by the Seneca Falls Convention on women's rights, advocating for women's suffrage and became the first woman to register to vote in Concord, Massachusetts in a school board election.", "The 1850s were hard times for the Alcotts, and in 1854 Louisa found solace at The Boston Theatre where she wrote ''The Rival Prima Donnas'', which she later burned due to a quarrel between the actresses over who would play what role.", "At one point in 1857, unable to find work and filled with despair, Alcott contemplated suicide.", "During that year, she read ''The Life of Charlotte Brontë'' by Elizabeth Gaskell and found many parallels between Charlotte Brontë's life and her own.", "In 1858, her younger sister Elizabeth died and her older sister Anna married a man named John Pratt.", "Alcott considered these events catalysts to breaking up their sisterhood.===Life in Dedham===Alcott's mother, Abba, ran an \"intelligence office\" to help the destitute find employment.", "When James Richardson came to Abba in the winter of 1851 seeking a companion for his frail sister who could also help out with some light housekeeping, Alcott volunteered to serve in the house filled with books, music, artwork, and good company on Highland Avenue.", "Alcott may have imagined the experience as something akin to being a heroine in a Gothic novel as Richardson described their home in a letter as stately but decrepit.Richardson's sister, Elizabeth, was 40 years old and suffered from neuralgia.", "She was shy and did not seem to have much use for Alcott.", "Instead, Richardson spent hours reading her poetry and treating her like his confidant and companion, sharing his personal thoughts and feelings with her.", "Alcott reminded Richardson that she was supposed to be Elizabeth's companion, not his, and she was tired of listening to his \"philosophical, metaphysical, and sentimental rubbish.\"", "He responded by assigning her more laborious duties, including chopping wood and scrubbing the floors.Alcott quit after seven weeks, when neither of the two girls her mother sent to replace her decided to take the job.", "As she walked from Richardson's home to Dedham station, she opened the envelope he handed her with her pay.", "According to Alcott family tradition, she was so unsatisfied with the four dollars she found inside that she mailed the money back to him in contempt.She later wrote a slightly fictionalized account of her time in Dedham titled ''How I went into service,'' which she submitted to Boston publisher James T. Fields.", "He rejected the piece, telling Alcott that she had no future as a writer." ], [ "Literary success", "Louisa May AlcottAs an adult, Alcott was an abolitionist and a feminist.", "In 1860, Alcott began writing for the ''Atlantic Monthly''.", "When the American Civil War broke out, she served as a nurse in Union Hospital in the Georgetown area of Washington, D.C., for six weeks in 1862–1863.She intended to serve three months as a nurse, but contracted typhoid fever and became deathly ill halfway through her service, although she eventually recovered.", "Her letters homerevised and published in the Boston anti-slavery paper ''Commonwealth'' and collected as ''Hospital Sketches'' (1863, republished with additions in 1869)brought her first critical recognition for her observations and humor.", "This was her first book and was inspired by her army experience.", "She wrote about the mismanagement of hospitals, the indifference and callousness of some of the surgeons she encountered, and her passion for seeing the war firsthand.", "Her main character, Tribulation Periwinkle, shows a passage from innocence to maturity and is a \"serious and eloquent witness\".", "Her novel ''Moods'' (1864), based on her own experience, was also promising.After she served as a nurse, Alcott's father wrote her a heartfelt poem titled \"To Louisa May Alcott.", "From her father\".", "The poem describes her father's pride in her nursing work, helping injured soldiers, and bringing cheer and love into their home.", "He ends the poem by telling her she's in his heart for being a selfless faithful daughter.", "This poem was featured in the books ''Louisa May Alcott: Her Life, Letters, and Journals'' (1889) and ''Louisa May Alcott, the Children's Friend'', which details her childhood and close relationship with her father.Between 1863 and 1872, Alcott anonymously wrote at least thirty-three \"gothic thrillers\" for popular magazines and papers such as ''The Flag of Our Union''; they were rediscovered in 1975.In the mid-1860s she wrote passionate, fiery novels and sensation stories akin to those of English authors Wilkie Collins and Mary Elizabeth Braddon under the nom de plume ''' A. M. Barnard'''.", "Among these are ''A Long Fatal Love Chase'' and ''Pauline's Passion and Punishment''.", "The protagonists of these books, like those of Collins and Braddon (who also included feminist characters in their writings), are strong, smart, and determined.", "She also wrote stories for children and she did not return to writing for adults after her children’s stories became popular.", "Alcott also wrote the novelette ''A Modern Mephistopheles'' (1877), which was published anonymously and then believed to be the work of Julian Hawthorne, and the semi-autobiographical novel ''Work'' (1873).Catherine Ross Nickerson credits Alcott with creating one of the earliest works of detective fiction in American literature, preceded only by Edgar Allan Poe's \"The Murders in the Rue Morgue\" and his other Auguste Dupin stories, with the 1865 thriller \"V.V., or Plots and Counterplots.\"", "Alcott published the story anonymously and it concerns a Scottish aristocrat who tries to prove that a mysterious woman has killed his fiancée and cousin.", "The detective on the case, Antoine Dupres, is a parody of Poe's Dupin who is less concerned with solving the crime than in setting up a way to reveal the solution with a dramatic flourish.Alcott achieved further success with the first part of ''Little Women: or Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy'' (1868), a semi-autobiographical account of her childhood with her sisters in Concord, Massachusetts, published by the Roberts Brothers.", "When Alcott returned to Boston following her travels in Europe, she became an editor of the children's magazine ''Merry's Museum''.", "There she met Thomas Niles, who encouraged the writing of Part I of the novel by asking her to create a book, especially for girls.", "Part II, or ''Part Second'', also known as ''Good Wives'' (1869), followed the March sisters into adulthood and marriage.", "''Little Men'' (1871) detailed Jo's life at the Plumfield School she founded with her husband Professor Bhaer after Part Two of ''Little Women''.", "Lastly, ''Jo's Boys'' (1886) completed the \"March Family Saga\".Louisa May Alcott commemorative stamp, 1940 issueIn ''Little Women'', Alcott based her heroine \"Jo\" on herself.", "However, Jo marries at the end of the story, whereas Alcott remained single throughout her life.", "She explained her \"spinsterhood\" in an interview with Louise Chandler Moulton, saying \"I am more than half-persuaded that I am a man's soul put by some freak of nature into a woman's body.... because I have fallen in love with so many pretty girls and never once the least bit with any man.” However, Alcott's romance while in Europe with the young Polish man Ladislas \"Laddie\" Wisniewski was detailed in her journals but then deleted by Alcott before her death.", "Alcott identified Laddie as the model for the character Laurie in ''Little Women''.", "Likewise, each of her characters seems to have parallels with people from Alcott's lifefrom Beth's death mirroring Lizzie's to Jo's rivalry with the youngest sister, Amy, mirroring Alcott's own rivalry with her sister (Abigail) May.", "Though Alcott never married, she did take in May's daughter, Louisa, after May's untimely death in 1879, caring for little \"Lulu\" for the next eight years.In addition to drawing on her own life during the development of ''Little Women,'' Alcott also took influence from several of her earlier works including \"The Sisters' Trial,\" \"A Modern Cinderella,\" and \"In the Garret.\"", "The characters within these short stories and poems, in addition to Alcott's own family and personal relationships, inspired the general concepts and bases for many of the characters in ''Little Women'' and the author's subsequent novels.", "''Little Women'' was well-received, with critics and audiences finding it to be a fresh, natural representation of daily life suitable for many age groups.", "An ''Eclectic Magazine'' reviewer called it \"the very best of books to reach the hearts of the young of any age from six to sixty\".", "With the success of ''Little Women'', Alcott shied away from public attention and would sometimes act as a servant when fans came to her house.Louisa May Alcott's grave in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord, Massachusetts.Along with Elizabeth Stoddard, Rebecca Harding Davis, Anne Moncure Crane, and others, Alcott was part of a group of female authors during the Gilded Age who addressed women's issues in a modern and candid manner.", "Their works were, as one newspaper columnist of the period commented, \"among the decided 'signs of the times\".Louisa May Alcott was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1996." ], [ "Later years", "In 1877, Alcott was one of the founders of the Women's Educational and Industrial Union in Boston.", "After her youngest sister May died in 1879, Louisa assumed the care of her niece, Lulu, who was named after Louisa.", "Alcott suffered chronic health problems in her later years, including vertigo.", "She and her earliest biographers attributed her illness and death to mercury poisoning.", "During her American Civil War service, Alcott contracted typhoid fever and was treated with Calomel, a compound containing mercury.", "Recent analysis of Alcott's illness suggests that her chronic health problems may have been associated with an autoimmune disease, not mercury exposure.", "However, mercury is a known trigger for autoimmune diseases as well.", "An 1870 portrait of Alcott does show her cheeks to be quite flushed, perhaps with the \"butterfly rash\" across cheeks and nose which is often characteristic of lupus, but there is no conclusive evidence available for a firm diagnosis.Alcott died of a stroke at age 55 in Boston, on March 6, 1888, two days after her father's death.", "She is buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Concord, near Emerson, Hawthorne, and Thoreau, on a hillside now known as \"Authors' Ridge\".", "Her niece Lulu was only eight years old when Louisa died.", "She was cared for by Anna Alcott Pratt, then reunited with her father in Europe and lived abroad until her death in 1976.Louisa frequently wrote in her journals about going on long walks and runs.", "She challenged prevailing social norms regarding gender by encouraging her young female readers to run as well.", "The Alcotts' Concord, Massachusetts home, Orchard House (c. 1650), where the family lived for 25 years and where ''Little Women'' was written and set in 1868, has been a historic house museum since 1912, and pays homage to the Alcotts by focusing on public education and historic preservation.", "Her Boston home is featured on the Boston Women's Heritage Trail." ], [ "Selected works", "Bust of Louisa May Alcott===The ''Little Women'' series===* ''Little Women'', or ''Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy'' (1868)* Second Part of ''Little Women'', or ''Good Wives'', published in 1869 and afterward published together with ''Little Women''.", "* ''Little Men: Life at Plumfield with Jo's Boys'' (1871)* ''Jo's Boys and How They Turned Out: A Sequel to \"Little Men\"'' (1886)===Novels===* ''The Inheritance'' (1849, unpublished until 1997)* ''Moods'' (1865, revised 1882)* ''The Mysterious Key and What It Opened'' (1867)* ''An Old Fashioned Girl'' (1870)* ''Will's Wonder Book'' (1870)* ''Work: A Story of Experience'' (1873)* ''Beginning Again, Being a Continuation of Work'' (1875)* ''Eight Cousins'' or ''The Aunt-Hill'' (1875)* ''Rose in Bloom'': A Sequel to Eight Cousins (1876)* ''Under the Lilacs'' (1878)* ''Jack and Jill: A Village Story'' (1880)===As A. M. Barnard===* ''Behind a Mask, or a Woman's Power'' (1866)* ''The Abbot's Ghost, or Maurice Treherne's Temptation'' (1867)* ''A Long Fatal Love Chase'' (1866; first published 1995)===Published anonymously===* ''A Modern Mephistopheles'' (1877)===Short story collections for children===* ''Aunt Jo's Scrap-Bag'' (1872–1882).", "(66 short stories in six volumes) 1.", "\"Aunt Jo's Scrap-Bag\" 2.", "\"Shawl-Straps\" 3.", "\"Cupid and Chow-Chow\" 4.", "\"My Girls, Etc.", "\" 5.", "\"Jimmy's Cruise in the Pinafore, Etc.", "\" 6.", "\"An Old-Fashioned Thanksgiving, Etc.", "\"* ''Lulu's Library'' (1886–1889) A collection of 32 short stories in three volumes.", "* ''Flower Fables'' (1849)* ''On Picket Duty, and other tales'' (1864)* ''Morning-Glories and Other Stories'' (1867) Eight fantasy stories and four poems for children, including: \"A Strange Island\", (1868); \"The Rose Family: A Fairy Tale\" (1864), \"A Christmas Song\", \"Morning Glories\", \"Shadow-Children\", \"Poppy's Pranks\", \"What the Swallows did\", \"Little Gulliver\", \"The Whale's story\", \"Goldfin and Silvertail\".", "* ''Kitty's Class Day and Other Stories (Three Proverb Stories)'', 1868, (includes \"Kitty's Class Day\", \"Aunt Kipp\" and \"Psyche's Art\")* ''Spinning-Wheel Stories* '' (1884).", "A collection of 12 short stories.", "* ''The Candy Country'' (1885) (One short story)* ''May Flowers'' (1887) (One short story)* ''Mountain-Laurel and Maidenhair'' (1887) (One short story)* ''A Garland for Girls'' (1887).", "A collection of seven short stories, including \"May Flowers\", \"An Ivy Spray and Ladies' Slippers\", \"Pansies\", \"Water-Lilies\", \"Poppies and Wheat\", \"Little Button-Rose\", and \"Mountain-Laurel and Maidenhair\".", "* ''Morning Glories and Queen Aster'' (1904) Two short stories.", "* ''The Brownie and the Princess'' (2004).", "A collection of ten short stories.===Other short stories and novelettes===* ''Hospital Sketches'' (1863)* ''Pauline's Passion and Punishment'' (1863)* ''Thoreau's Flute'' (1863)* ''My Contraband'', first published as ''The Brothers'' (1863)* ''Doctor Dorn's Revenge'' (1868)* ''La Jeune; or, Actress and Woman'' (1868)* ''Countess Varazoff'' (1868)* ''The Romance of a Bouquet'' (1868)* ''A Laugh and A Look'' (1868)* ''Perilous Play'' (1869)* ''Lost in a Pyramid, or the Mummy's Curse''* ''Transcendental Wild Oats'' (1873) A short piece about Alcott's family and the Transcendental Movement.", "* ''Silver Pitchers, and Independence: A Centennial Love Story'' (1876)* ''A Whisper in the Dark'' (1877)* ''Proverb Stories'' (1882), (includes \"The Baron's Gloves or Amy's Romance\")* ''Comic Tragedies'' (1893, posthumous)===In popular culture===''Little Women'' inspired film versions in 1933, 1949, 1994, 2018, and 2019.The novel also inspired television series in 1958, 1970, 1978, and 2017, anime versions in 1981 and 1987, and a 2005 musical.", "''Little Women'' also inspired a BBC Radio 4 version in 2017.", "''Little Men'' inspired film versions in 1934, 1940, and 1998.This novel also was the basis for a 1998 television series.Other films based on Alcott novels and stories are ''An Old-Fashioned Girl'' (1949), ''The Inheritance'' (1997), and ''An Old Fashioned Thanksgiving'' (2008).", "In 2009 PBS produced an ''American Masters'' episode titled \"Louisa May Alcott – The Woman Behind 'Little Women' \".", "In 2016 a Google Doodle of the author was created by Google artist Sophie Diao.A dramatized version of Alcott appeared as a character in the television series ''Dickinson'', in the episode \"There's a Certain Slant of Light,\" which premiered on November 1, 2019.Alcott was portrayed by Zosia Mamet.Geraldine Brooks’s 2006 novel ''March'' tells the backstory of the absent father in ''Little Women''.", "It won the 2006 Pulitzer Prize." ], [ "References", "===Citations======Print sources===* * * * Madeleine Stern ''Louisa May Alcott'' (Normal, Okla. 1950 and London 1952).", "* Majorie Worthington ''Miss Alcott of Concord: A Biography'' (Doubleday 1958).", "* Atlantic's ''Brief lives: A Biographical Companion to the Arts'', edited by Louis Kronenberger, Assoc.", "Ed.", "Emily Morison Beck, Little Brown & Co. 1965." ], [ "Further reading", "Alcott, Louisa May, May Alcott, and Daniel Shealy.", "''Little Women Abroad : The Alcott Sisters' Letters from Europe, 1870-1871''.", "Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008.", " * * Elbert, Sarah.", "''A Hunger for Home: Louisa May Alcott and Little Women'' (Temple UP, 1984).", "* * * * This book won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography in 2008.", "* * * * Paolucci, Stefano. ''", "Da Piccole donne a Piccoli uomini: Louisa May Alcott ai Colli Albani'', \"Castelli Romani,\" LVII, n. 6, nov.–dec.", "2017, pp. 163–175.", "* This book was the basis for a PBS documentary directed by Nancy Porter.", "* * Seiple, Samantha (2019).", "''Louisa on the Front Lines: Louisa May Alcott in the Civil War''.", "New York: Seal Press, Hachette Book Group.", ".", "* Shealy, Daniel (2022).", "''Little Women at 150''.", "University Press of Mississippi.", "." ], [ "External links", "'''Sources'''* * * Works by Louisa May Alcott at Project Gutenberg Australia* * * Works by Louisa May Alcott at Online Books Page* Index entry for Louisa May Alcott at Poets' Corner* Bibliography (including primary works and information on secondary literature – critical essays, theses and dissertations)'''Archival materials'''* Guide to Louisa May Alcott papers, MS Am 800.23 at Houghton Library, Harvard University* Guide to Louisa May Alcott additional papers, 1839–1888, MS Am 2114 at Houghton Library, Harvard University* Guide to Louisa May Alcott additional papers, 1845–1945, MS Am 1817 at Houghton Library, Harvard University* Guide to Louisa May Alcott additional papers, 1849–1887, MS Am 1130.13 at Houghton Library, Harvard University* Guide to Louisa May Alcott papers, MSS 503 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University* Madeline B. Stern Papers on Louisa May Alcott, MSS 3953 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University* Carolyn Davis collection of Louisa May Alcott at the University of Maryland Libraries'''Other''' * Louisa May Alcott: The Woman Behind ‘Little Women’ – American Masters documentary (PBS)* The Louisa May Alcott Society A scholarly organization devoted to her life and works.", "* Louisa May Alcott, the real woman who wrote Little Women.", "Documentary materials.", "* Obituary, ''New York Times'', March 7, 1888, ''Louisa M. Alcott Dead''* ''Minneapolis Tribune'', March 7, 1888, ''Obituary: Miss Louisa M. Alcott''* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', Louisa May Alcott* Louisa May Alcott's Orchard House Louisa May Alcott's Orchard House historic site in Concord, MA.", "* Norwood, Arlisha.", "\"Louisa Alcott\".", "National Women's History Museum.", "2017.", "* Matteson, J.", "(November 2009).", "Little Woman; The devilish, dutiful daughter Louisa May Alcott.", "''Humanities'', ''30''(6), 1–6.", "* Louisa May Alcott s Orchard House.", "(n.d.).", "Retrieved March 20, 2018* Hooper, E. (September 23, 2017).", "Louisa May Alcott: A Difficult Woman Who Got Things Done.", "Retrieved March 20, 2018,* Powell, K. (n.d.).", "Louisa May Alcott Family Tree and Genealogy – ThoughtCo.. Retrieved March 20, 2018* Louisa M. Alcott Dead – archive.nytimes.com.", "(March 7, 1888).", "Retrieved March 20, 2018* Alcott: 'Not The Little Woman You Thought She Was'.", "(December 28, 2009).", "Retrieved March 20, 2018* Raga, S. (November 29, 2017).", "10 Little Facts About Louisa May Alcott.", "Retrieved March 20, 2018, National Women's Hall of Fame" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "LDS" ], [ "Introduction", "'''LDS''' may refer to:" ], [ "Organizations", "===Religion===* Latter Day Saint movement (LDS movement), a collection of independent church groups*The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the largest group within the Latter Day Saint movement Latvijas Dievturu Sadraudze, a Latvian neopagan organization===Politics===* Liberal Democracy of Slovenia, a political party in Slovenia* Liberal Democratic Party (Serbia, 1989), a defunct political party in Serbia* Linyon Demokratik Seselwa, a political party in Seychelles===Other===* LDS Hospital, Salt Lake City, Utah, US" ], [ "Science, technology and engineering", "* Laser direct structuring, a manufacturing method* LDS fluid, a Citroën hydraulic fluid* LDS (automobile), South African racing cars* Leak detection system, for fluids* Lipodermatosclerosis, a skin and connective tissue disease, affecting the lower extremities* Lymphedema–distichiasis syndrome, a genetic disorder of eyelashes and lymphatic system* Loeys–Dietz syndrome, a genetic disorder affecting connective tissue* LDS-1 (Line Drawing System-1), an early computer graphics system* Lithium dodecyl sulfate (LDS), an anionic detergent and surfactant used in protein electrophoresis and chromatography" ], [ "Places", "* Yichun Lindu Airport (IATA airport code), China* Leeds railway station (National Rail station code), England* Landkreis Dahme-Spreewald, a district in Germany" ], [ "Other uses", "* League Division Series, a round of playoffs in Major League Baseball* Licentiate in Dental Surgery, a dental degree" ], [ "See also", "* LSD (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "LALR parser" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer science, an '''LALR parser''' ('''look-ahead, left-to-right, rightmost derivation parser''') is part of the compiling process where human readable text is converted into a structured representation to be read by computers.", "An LALR parser is a software tool to process (parse) text into a very specific internal representation that other programs, such as compilers, can work with.", "This process happens according to a set of production rules specified by a formal grammar for a computer language.", "An LALR parser is a simplified version of a canonical LR parser.The LALR parser was invented by Frank DeRemer in his 1969 PhD dissertation, ''Practical Translators for LR(k) languages'', in his treatment of the practical difficulties at that time of implementing LR(1) parsers.", "He showed that the LALR parser has more language recognition power than the LR(0) parser, while requiring the same number of states as the LR(0) parser for a language that can be recognized by both parsers.", "This makes the LALR parser a memory-efficient alternative to the LR(1) parser for languages that are LALR.", "It was also proven that there exist LR(1) languages that are not LALR.", "Despite this weakness, the power of the LALR parser is sufficient for many mainstream computer languages, including Java, though the reference grammars for many languages fail to be LALR due to being ambiguous.The original dissertation gave no algorithm for constructing such a parser given a formal grammar.", "The first algorithms for LALR parser generation were published in 1973.In 1982, DeRemer and Tom Pennello published an algorithm that generated highly memory-efficient LALR parsers.", "LALR parsers can be automatically generated from a grammar by an LALR parser generator such as Yacc or GNU Bison.", "The automatically generated code may be augmented by hand-written code to augment the power of the resulting parser." ], [ "History", "In 1965, Donald Knuth invented the LR parser ('''L'''eft to Right, '''R'''ightmost derivation).", "The LR parser can recognize any deterministic context-free language in linear-bounded time.", "Rightmost derivation has very large memory requirements and implementing an LR parser was impractical due to the limited memory of computers at that time.", "To address this shortcoming, in 1969, Frank DeRemer proposed two simplified versions of the LR parser, namely the '''Look-Ahead LR''' (LALR) and the '''Simple LR parser''' (SLR) that had much lower memory requirements at the cost of less language-recognition power, with the LALR parser being the most-powerful alternative.", "In 1977, memory optimizations for the LR parser were invented but still the LR parser was less memory-efficient than the simplified alternatives.In 1979, Frank DeRemer and Tom Pennello announced a series of optimizations for the LALR parser that would further improve its memory efficiency.", "Their work was published in 1982." ], [ "Overview", "Generally, the LALR parser refers to the LALR(1) parser, just as the LR parser generally refers to the LR(1) parser.", "The \"(1)\" denotes one-token lookahead, to resolve differences between rule patterns during parsing.", "Similarly, there is an LALR(2) parser with two-token lookahead, and LALR(''k'') parsers with ''k''-token lookup, but these are rare in actual use.", "The LALR parser is based on the LR(0) parser, so it can also be denoted LALR(1) = LA(1)LR(0) (1 token of lookahead, LR(0)) or more generally LALR(''k'') = LA(''k'')LR(0) (k tokens of lookahead, LR(0)).", "There is in fact a two-parameter family of LA(''k'')LR(''j'') parsers for all combinations of ''j'' and ''k'', which can be derived from the LR(''j'' + ''k'') parser, but these do not see practical use.As with other types of LR parsers, an LALR parser is quite efficient at finding the single correct bottom-up parse in a single left-to-right scan over the input stream, because it does not need to use backtracking.", "Being a lookahead parser by definition, it always uses a lookahead, with being the most-common case." ], [ "Relation to other parsers", "=== LR parsers ===The LALR(1) parser is less powerful than the LR(1) parser, and more powerful than the SLR(1) parser, though they all use the same production rules.", "The simplification that the LALR parser introduces consists in merging rules that have identical '''kernel item sets''', because during the LR(0) state-construction process the lookaheads are not known.", "This reduces the power of the parser because not knowing the lookahead symbols can confuse the parser as to which grammar rule to pick next, resulting in '''reduce/reduce conflicts'''.", "All conflicts that arise in applying a LALR(1) parser to an unambiguous LR(1) grammar are reduce/reduce conflicts.", "The SLR(1) parser performs further merging, which introduces additional conflicts.The standard example of an LR(1) grammar that cannot be parsed with the LALR(1) parser, exhibiting such a reduce/reduce conflict, is: S → a E c → a F d → b F c → b E d E → e F → eIn the LALR table construction, two states will be merged into one state and later the lookaheads will be found to be ambiguous.", "The one state with lookaheads is: E → e. {c,d} F → e. {c,d}An LR(1) parser will create two different states (with non-conflicting lookaheads), neither of which is ambiguous.", "In an LALR parser this one state has conflicting actions (given lookahead c or d, reduce to E or F), a \"reduce/reduce conflict\"; the above grammar will be declared ambiguous by a LALR parser generator and conflicts will be reported.To recover, this ambiguity is resolved by choosing E, because it occurs before F in the grammar.", "However, the resultant parser will not be able to recognize the valid input sequence b e c, since the ambiguous sequence e c is reduced to (E → e) c, rather than the correct (F → e) c, but b E c is not in the grammar.=== LL parsers ===The LALR(''j'') parsers are incomparable with LL(''k'') parsers: for any ''j'' and ''k'' both greater than 0, there are LALR(''j'') grammars that are not LL(''k'') grammars and conversely.", "In fact, it is undecidable whether a given LL(1) grammar is LALR(''k'') for any .Depending on the presence of empty derivations, a LL(1) grammar can be equal to a SLR(1) or a LALR(1) grammar.", "If the LL(1) grammar has no empty derivations it is SLR(1) and if all symbols with empty derivations have non-empty derivations it is LALR(1).", "If symbols having only an empty derivation exist, the grammar may or may not be LALR(1)." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of parser generators* Context-free grammar* Lookahead* Parser generator* Token scanner" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* " ], [ "External links", " Parsing Simulator This simulator is used to generate parsing tables LALR and resolve the exercises of the book.", "* JS/CC JavaScript based implementation of a LALR(1) parser generator, which can be run in a web-browser or from the command-line.", "* , a flash card-like tutorial on LALR(1) parsing." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Language center" ], [ "Introduction", "In neuroscience and psychology, the term '''language center''' refers collectively to the areas of the brain which serve a particular function for speech processing and production.", "Language is a core system that gives humans the capacity to solve difficult problems and provides them with a unique type of social interaction.", "Language allows individuals to attribute symbols (e.g.", "words or signs) to specific concepts, and utilize them through sentences and phrases that follow proper grammatical rules.", "Finally, speech is the mechanism by which language is orally expressed.Language Areas of the brain.", "The Angular Gyrus is represented in orange, the Supramarginal Gyrus is represented in yellow, Broca's area in blue, Wernicke's area in green, and the Primary Auditory Cortex in pink.Information is exchanged in a larger system, including language-related regions.", "These regions are connected by white matter fiber tracts that make possible the transmission of information between regions.", "The white matter fiber bunches were recognized to be important for language production after suggesting that it is possible to make a connection between multiple language centers.", "The three classical language areas that are involved in language production and processing are Broca's and Wernicke's areas, and the angular gyrus." ], [ "Broca's area", "Broca's Area was first suggested to play a role in speech function by the French neurologist and anthropologist Paul Broca in 1861.The basis for this discovery was analyzing speech problems resulting from injuries to this brain region, located in the inferior frontal gyrus.", "Paul Broca had a patient called Leborgne who could only pronounce the word \"tan\" when speaking.", "After working with another patient with a similar impairment, Paul Broca concluded that damage in the inferior frontal gyrus affected articulate language.", "'''Broca's area''' is well known for being the syntactic processing \"center\".", "It has been known of since Paul Broca associated speech production with an area in the '''posterior inferior frontal gyrus''', which he called \"Broca's area\".", "Although this area is in charge of speech production, the specific details of its role in the language system is unknown.", "However, it is involved in phonological, semantic, and syntactic processing, and working memory.", "The anterior region of Broca's area is involved in semantic processing, while the posterior region involves phonological processing (Bohsali, 2015).", "The whole of Broca's area has been shown to have a higher activation while doing reading tasks than other types of tasks.In a simple explanation of speech production, this area approaches phonological word representation chronologically divided into segments of syllables which then is sent to different motor areas where they are converted into a phonetic code.", "The study of how this area produces speech has been made with paradigms using both single and complex words.Broca's area is correlated with phonological segmentation, unification, and syntactic processing, all connected to linguistic information.", "This area, although it synchronizes the transformation of information within cortical systems involved in spoken word production, does not contribute to the production of single words.", "The inferior frontal lobe is the one in charge of word production.Furthermore, Broca's area is structurally related to the thalamus, and both are engaged in language processing.", "The connectivity between both areas is two thalamic nuclei, the pulvinar, and the ventral nucleus, which are involved in language processing and linguistic functions similar to BA 44 and 45 in Broca's area.", "Pulvinar is connected to many frontal regions of the frontal cortex and the ventral nucleus is involved in speech production.", "The frontal speech regions of the brain have been shown to participate in speech sound perception.Broca's Area is today still considered an important language center, playing a central role in processing syntax, grammar, and sentence structure.Broca's and Wernicke's areas." ], [ "Wernicke's area", "Wernicke's area was named for German doctor Carl Wernicke, who discovered it in 1874 in the course of his research into aphasias (loss of ability to speak).", "This area of the brain is involved in language comprehension.", "Therefore, Wernicke's area is for understanding oral language.", "Besides Wernicke's area, the left posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG), middle temporal gyrus (MTG), inferior temporal gyrus (ITG), supramarginal gyrus (SMG), and angular gyrus (AG) participate in language comprehension.", "Therefore, language comprehension is not located in a specific area.", "Contrarily, it involves large regions of the inferior parietal lobe and left temporal.While the finale of speech production is a sequence of muscle movements, activating knowledge about the sequence of phonemes (consonants and vowel speech sounds) that creates a word is a phonological retrieval.", "Wernicke's area contributes to phonological retrieval.", "All speech production tasks (e.g.", "word retrieval, repetition, and reading aloud) require phonological retrieval.", "The phonological retrieval system involved in speech repetition is the auditory phoneme perception system, and the visual letter perception system is the one that serves for reading aloud.", "Communicative speech production entails a phase preceding phonological retrieval.", "Speech comprehension involves mapping sequences of phonemes onto word meaning." ], [ "Angular gyrus", "The angular gyrus is important in processing concrete and abstract concepts.", "It also has a role in verbal working memory during retrieval of verbal information and in visual memory when turning written language into spoken language.", "The left AG is activated in semantic processing that requires concept retrieval and conceptual integration.", "Also, the left AG is activated during problems of multiplication and addition requiring return of arithmetic factors in verbal memory.", "Thus, it is involved in verbal coding of numbers." ], [ "Insular cortex", "The insula is implicated in speech and language, taking part in functional and structural connections with motor neurons, linguistic, sensory, and limbic brain areas.", "The knowledge about the function of the insula in speech production comes from different studies with patients having speech apraxia.", "These studies have led researchers to learn of the involvement of different parts of the insula.", "These parts are the left anterior insula, which is related to speech production, and the bilateral anterior insula, which is involved in misleading speech comprehension." ], [ "Speech and language disorders", "Many different sources state that the study of the brain, and therefore, language disorders, originated in the 19th century, and linguistic analysis of those disorders began in the 20th century.", "Studying language impairments in the brain after injuries aids in comprehending how the brain works and changes after an injury.", "When this happens, the brain's impairment is referred to as \"aphasia\".", "Lesions to Broca's Area results primarily in disruptions to speech production; damage to Wernicke's Area, which is located in the lower part of the temporal lobe, leads mainly to disruptions in speech reception.There are numerous distinctive ways in which language can be affected.", "'''Phonemic paraphasia''', an attribute of conduction aphasia and Wernicke aphasia, does not involve speech comprehension impairment.", "Instead, it requires speech production damage, where the desired phonemes are selected erroneously or in an incorrect sequence.", "Therefore, although '''Wernicke's aphasia''', a combination of phonological retrieval and semantic systems impairment, affects speech comprehension, it also involves speech production damage.", "Phonemic paraphasia and anomia (impaired word retrieval) are the results of phonological retrieval impairment.Another lesion that involves impairment in language production and processing is '''\"apraxia of speech\"''', a difficulty synchronizing articulators essential for speech production.", "This type of lesion is located in the superior pre-central gyrus of the insula, and is more likely to occur in patients with Broca's aphasia.", "Dominant ventral anterior (VA) nucleus, another type of lesion, is the result of word-finding and semantic paraphasia's difficulties engaging in language processing.", "Also, individuals with thalamic lesions experience difficulties linking semantic concepts with correct phonological representations in word production.Dyslexia is a language-processing disorder.", "It involves learning difficulties in reading, writing, word recognition, phonological recording, numeracy, and spelling.", "Even with access to appropriate intervention during childhood, these difficulties continue throughout the lifespan.", "Children are diagnosed with dyslexia when more than one factor affecting learning (e.g.", "reading or writing) appears.", "When children diagnosed with dyslexia have difficulties in concrete cognitive functioning, this is called an assumption of specificity, and it aids in the diagnosis of dyslexia.Some characteristics that distinguish dyslexics include errors in phonological processing, causing misreading of unfamiliar words, affecting comprehension; inadequacy of working memory, affecting speaking, reading, and writing; errors in oral reading; oral skill difficulties such as expressing oneself; and writing skill problems in areas such as spelling and general expression.", "Dyslexics not only experience learning difficulties, but also other secondary characteristics, such as having difficulties in organizing, planning, social interaction, motor skills, visual perception, and short-term memory.", "These characteristics affect personal and academic life.Dysarthria is a motor speech disorder caused by damage to the central and/or peripheral nervous system, and it is related to degenerative neurological diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, cerebrovascular accident (CVA), and traumatic brain injury (TBI).", "Dysarthria can be caused by a mechanical difficulty in the vocal cords, or neurological disease, and produces abnormal articulation of phonemes, such as using \"b\" in place of \"p\".", "Apraxic dysarthria is a type of dyspraxia that involves distortions of words.", "This type is related to facial apraxia and motor aphasia if Broca's area is involved." ], [ "Current scientific consensus", "Improvements in computer technology in the late 20th century has allowed a better understanding of the correlation between brain and language, in the disorders that this entails.", "This improvement has permitted better visualization of the brain structure in high-resolution three-dimensional images.", "It has also allowed observation of brain activity through blood flow (Dronkers, Ivanova, & Baldo, 2017).New medical imaging techniques such as PET and fMRI have allowed researchers to generate pictures showing which areas of a living brain are active at a given time.", "Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) localizes specific brain functions to particular brain regions by observing blood flow in different areas.", "This technique shows the location and magnitude of neural activity variations, influenced by external stimulation and fluctuation at rest.", "MRI is a technique that was developed in the 20th century to observe brain activity in healthy and abnormal brains.", "Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging, or diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), is a technique used for tracking white matter bundles ''in vivo'', and gives information on the internal fibrous structure via measuring water diffusion.", "This diffusion tensor is used for inferring white matter connectivity.In the past, research was primarily based on observations of loss of ability resulting from damage to the cerebral cortex.", "In the modern era, medical imaging has represented a radical step forward for research on speech processing.", "It is now known that a whole series of relatively large brain areas are involved in speech processing.", "In more recent research, subcortical regions (those lying below the cerebral cortex such as the putamen and the caudate nucleus), as well as the pre-motor areas (BA 6), have received increased attention.", "It is now generally assumed that the following structures of the cerebral cortex near the primary and secondary auditory cortices play a fundamental role in speech processing:· ''Superior temporal gyrus'' (STG): morphosyntactic processing (anterior section), integration of syntactic and semantic information (posterior section)· ''Inferior frontal gyrus'' (IFG, Brodmann area (BA) 45/47): syntactic processing, working memory· ''Inferior frontal gyrus'' (IFG, BA 44): syntactic processing, working memory· ''Middle temporal gyrus'' (MTG): lexical semantic processing· Angular gyrus (AG): semantic processes (posterior temporal cortex)The left hemisphere is usually dominant in right-handed people, although bilateral activations are not uncommon in syntactic processing.", "It is now accepted that the right hemisphere plays an important role in the processing of suprasegmental acoustic features like prosody, which is \"the rhythmic and melodic variations in speech\".", "There are two types of prosodic information: emotional prosody (right hemisphere), which is the emotional content of the speech, and linguistic prosody (left hemisphere), the syntactic and thematic structure of the speech.Most areas of speech processing develop in the second year of life in the dominant half (hemisphere) of the brain, which often (though not necessarily) corresponds to the opposite of the dominant hand.", "98% of right-handed people are left-hemisphere dominant, and the majority of left-handed people are as well.Computerized tomographic (CT) scans are a technique dating to the 1970s, and produce low spatial resolution, but are capable of providing the location of injuries ''in vivo''.", "Also, Voxel-based Lesion Symptom Mapping (VLSM) and Voxel-Based Morphometry (VBM) techniques have contributed to the understanding that specific brain regions have different roles when supporting speech processing.", "VLSM has been used to observe complex language functions supported by multiple brain regions.", "VBM is a helpful technique for analyzing language impairments related to neurodegenerative disease." ], [ "Older models", "The differentiation of speech production into only two large sections of the brain (i.e.", "Broca's and Wernicke's areas), which was accepted long before medical imaging techniques, is now considered outdated.", "Broca's area was first suggested to play a role in speech function by the French neurologist and anthropologist Paul Broca in 1861.The basis for this discovery was the analysis of speech problems resulting from injuries to this brain region, located in the inferior frontal gyrus.", "Lesions to Broca's Area result primarily in disruptions to speech production.", "Damage to Wernicke's Area, located in the lower part of the temporal lobe, mainly leads to speech reception disruptions.", "This area was named for German doctor Carl Wernicke, who discovered it in 1874 in the course of his research into aphasias (loss of ability to speak).Broca's Area is today still considered an important language center, playing a central role in processing syntax, grammar, and sentence structure.In summary, these early research efforts demonstrated that semantic and structural speech production occurs in different brain areas." ], [ "See also", "Language module" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Donald Loritz: ''How the Brain evolved Language'', Oxford University Press 1999, (hardcover), (paperback).", "* Friederici, A.D.: '' Towards a neural basis of auditory sentence processing''.", "Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6:78, 2002.", "* Kaan, E. and Swaab, T.Y.", ": '' The brain circuitry of syntactic comprehension.''", "Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6:350, 2002.", "* Dronkers, N.F., Pinker, S. & Damasio, A.: ''Language and the Aphasias.''", "In: Kandel, E.R., Schwartz, J.H.", "& Jessel, T.M.", "(eds.)", "Principles of Neuroscience, Fourth Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000, 1169–1187.", "* Ardila, A., Bernal, B. and Rosselli, M. \" How localized are language brain areas?", "A review of Brodmann areas involvement in oral language.\"", "Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31(1), 112–122, 2016." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lift (force)" ], [ "Introduction", "The 1902 Wright Glider shows its lift by pulling upWhen a fluid flows around an object, the fluid exerts a force on the object.", "'''Lift''' is the component of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction.", "It contrasts with the drag force, which is the component of the force parallel to the flow direction.", "Lift conventionally acts in an upward direction in order to counter the force of gravity, but it is defined to act perpendicular to the flow and therefore can act in any direction.If the surrounding fluid is air, the force is called an aerodynamic force.", "In water or any other liquid, it is called a hydrodynamic force.Dynamic lift is distinguished from other kinds of lift in fluids.", "Aerostatic lift or buoyancy, in which an internal fluid is lighter than the surrounding fluid, does not require movement and is used by balloons, blimps, dirigibles, boats, and submarines.", "Planing lift, in which only the lower portion of the body is immersed in a liquid flow, is used by motorboats, surfboards, windsurfers, sailboats, and water-skis." ], [ "Overview", "Lift is defined as the component of the aerodynamic force that is perpendicular to the flow direction, and drag is the component that is parallel to the flow direction.A fluid flowing around the surface of a solid object applies a force on it.", "It does not matter whether the object is moving through a stationary fluid (e.g.", "an aircraft flying through the air) or whether the object is stationary and the fluid is moving (e.g.", "a wing in a wind tunnel) or whether both are moving (e.g.", "a sailboat using the wind to move forward).", "'''Lift''' is the component of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction.", "Lift is always accompanied by a drag force, which is the component of the surface force parallel to the flow direction.Lift is mostly associated with the wings of fixed-wing aircraft, although it is more widely generated by many other streamlined bodies such as propellers, kites, helicopter rotors, racing car wings, maritime sails, wind turbines, and by sailboat keels, ship's rudders, and hydrofoils in water.", "Lift is also used by flying and gliding animals, especially by birds, bats, and insects, and even in the plant world by the seeds of certain trees.While the common meaning of the word \"lift\" assumes that lift opposes weight, lift can be in any direction with respect to gravity, since it is defined with respect to the direction of flow rather than to the direction of gravity.", "When an aircraft is cruising in straight and level flight, most of the lift opposes gravity.", "However, when an aircraft is climbing, descending, or banking in a turn the lift is tilted with respect to the vertical.", "Lift may also act as downforce in some aerobatic manoeuvres, or on the wing on a racing car.", "Lift may also be largely horizontal, for instance on a sailing ship.The lift discussed in this article is mainly in relation to airfoils, although marine hydrofoils and propellers share the same physical principles and work in the same way, despite differences between air and water such as density, compressibility, and viscosity.The flow around a lifting airfoil is a fluid mechanics phenomenon that can be understood on essentially two levels: There are mathematical theories, which are based on established laws of physics and represent the flow accurately, but which require solving partial differential equations.", "And there are physical explanations without math, which are less rigorous.", "Correctly explaining lift in these qualitative terms is difficult because the cause-and-effect relationships involved are subtle.", "A comprehensive explanation that captures all of the essential aspects is necessarily complex.", "There are also many simplified explanations, but all leave significant parts of the phenomenon unexplained, while some also have elements that are simply incorrect." ], [ "Simplified physical explanations of lift on an airfoil", "A cross-section of a wing defines an airfoil shape.An airfoil is a streamlined shape that is capable of generating significantly more lift than drag.", "A flat plate can generate lift, but not as much as a streamlined airfoil, and with somewhat higher drag.Most simplified explanations follow one of two basic approaches, based either on Newton's laws of motion or on Bernoulli's principle.===Explanation based on flow deflection and Newton's laws===When an airfoil generates lift, it deflects air downward, and to do this it must exert a downward force on the air.", "Newton's third law requires that the air must exert an equal upward force on the airfoil.An airfoil generates lift by exerting a downward force on the air as it flows past.", "According to Newton's third law, the air must exert an equal and opposite (upward) force on the airfoil, which is lift.As the airflow approaches the airfoil it is curving upward, but as it passes the airfoil it changes direction and follows a path that is curved downward.", "According to Newton's second law, this change in flow direction requires a downward force applied to the air by the airfoil.", "Then Newton's third law requires the air to exert an upward force on the airfoil; thus a reaction force, lift, is generated opposite to the directional change.", "In the case of an airplane wing, the wing exerts a downward force on the air and the air exerts an upward force on the wing.The downward turning of the flow is not produced solely by the lower surface of the airfoil, and the air flow above the airfoil accounts for much of the downward-turning action.This explanation is correct but it is incomplete.", "It does not explain how the airfoil can impart downward turning to a much deeper swath of the flow than it actually touches.", "Furthermore, it does not mention that the lift force is exerted by pressure differences, and does not explain how those pressure differences are sustained.====Controversy regarding the Coandă effect====Some versions of the flow-deflection explanation of lift cite the Coandă effect as the reason the flow is able to follow the convex upper surface of the airfoil.", "The conventional definition in the aerodynamics field is that the ''Coandă effect'' refers to the tendency of a fluid jet to stay attached to an adjacent surface that curves away from the flow, and the resultant entrainment of ambient air into the flow.More broadly, some consider the effect to include the tendency of any fluid boundary layer to adhere to a curved surface, not just the boundary layer accompanying a fluid jet.", "It is in this broader sense that the Coandă effect is used by some popular references to explain why airflow remains attached to the top side of an airfoil.", "This is a controversial use of the term \"Coandă effect\"; the flow following the upper surface simply reflects an absence of boundary-layer separation, thus it is not an example of the Coandă effect.", "Regardless of whether this broader definition of the \"Coandă effect\" is applicable, calling it the \"Coandă effect\" does not provide an explanation, it just gives the phenomenon a name.The ability of a fluid flow to follow a curved path is not dependent on shear forces, viscosity of the fluid, or the presence of a boundary layer.", "Air flowing around an airfoil, adhering to both upper and lower surfaces, and generating lift, is accepted as a phenomenon in inviscid flow.===Explanations based on an increase in flow speed and Bernoulli's principle===There are two common versions of this explanation, one based on \"equal transit time\", and one based on \"obstruction\" of the airflow.An illustration of the incorrect equal transit-time explanation of airfoil lift.====False explanation based on equal transit-time====The \"equal transit time\" explanation starts by arguing that the flow over the upper surface is faster than the flow over the lower surface because the path length over the upper surface is longer and must be traversed in equal transit time.", "Bernoulli's principle states that under certain conditions increased flow speed is associated with reduced pressure.", "It is concluded that the reduced pressure over the upper surface results in upward lift.A serious flaw in the equal transit time explanation is that it does not correctly explain what causes the flow to speed up.", "The longer-path-length explanation is simply wrong.", "No difference in path length is needed, and even when there is a difference, it is typically much too small to explain the observed speed difference.", "This is because the assumption of equal transit time is wrong.", "There is no physical principle that requires equal transit time and experimental results show that this assumption is false.", "In fact, the air moving over the top of an airfoil generating lift moves ''much'' ''faster'' than equal transit time predicts.", "The much higher flow speed over the upper surface can be clearly seen in this animated flow visualization.====Obstruction of the airflow====Streamlines and streamtubes around an airfoil generating lift.", "Note the narrower streamtubes above and the wider streamtubes below.Like the equal transit time explanation, the \"obstruction\" or \"streamtube pinching\" explanation argues that the flow over the upper surface is faster than the flow over the lower surface, but gives a different reason for the difference in speed.", "It argues that the curved upper surface acts as more of an obstacle to the flow, forcing the streamlines to pinch closer together, making the streamtubes narrower.", "When streamtubes become narrower, conservation of mass requires that flow speed must increase.", "Reduced upper-surface pressure and upward lift follow from the higher speed by Bernoulli's principle, just as in the equal transit time explanation.", "Sometimes an analogy is made to a venturi nozzle, claiming the upper surface of the wing acts like a venturi nozzle to constrict the flow.One serious flaw in the obstruction explanation is that it does not explain how streamtube pinching comes about, or why it is greater over the upper surface than the lower surface.", "For conventional wings that are flat on the bottom and curved on top this makes some intuitive sense, but it does not explain how flat plates, symmetric airfoils, sailboat sails, or conventional airfoils flying upside down can generate lift, and attempts to calculate lift based on the amount of constriction or obstruction do not predict experimental results.", "Another flaw is that conservation of mass is not a satisfying physical reason why the flow would speed up.", "Effectively explaining the acceleration of an object requires identifying the force that accelerates it.====Issues common to both versions of the Bernoulli-based explanation====A serious flaw common to all the Bernoulli-based explanations is that they imply that a speed difference can arise from causes other than a pressure difference, and that the speed difference then leads to a pressure difference, by Bernoulli's principle.", "This implied one-way causation is a misconception.", "The real relationship between pressure and flow speed is a mutual interaction.", "As explained below under a more comprehensive physical explanation, producing a lift force requires maintaining pressure differences in both the vertical and horizontal directions.", "The Bernoulli-only explanations do not explain how the pressure differences in the vertical direction are sustained.", "That is, they leave out the flow-deflection part of the interaction.Although the two simple Bernoulli-based explanations above are incorrect, there is nothing incorrect about Bernoulli's principle or the fact that the air goes faster on the top of the wing, and Bernoulli's principle can be used correctly as part of a more complicated explanation of lift." ], [ "Basic attributes of lift", "Lift is a result of pressure differences and depends on angle of attack, airfoil shape, air density, and airspeed.===Pressure differences===Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted by the air on itself and on surfaces that it touches.", "The lift force is transmitted through the pressure, which acts perpendicular to the surface of the airfoil.", "Thus, the net force manifests itself as pressure differences.", "The direction of the net force implies that the average pressure on the upper surface of the airfoil is lower than the average pressure on the underside.These pressure differences arise in conjunction with the curved airflow.", "When a fluid follows a curved path, there is a pressure gradient perpendicular to the flow direction with higher pressure on the outside of the curve and lower pressure on the inside.", "This direct relationship between curved streamlines and pressure differences, sometimes called the streamline curvature theorem, was derived from Newton's second law by Leonhard Euler in 1754::The left side of this equation represents the pressure difference perpendicular to the fluid flow.", "On the right side of the equation, ρ is the density, v is the velocity, and R is the radius of curvature.", "This formula shows that higher velocities and tighter curvatures create larger pressure differentials and that for straight flow (R → ∞), the pressure difference is zero.===Angle of attack===Angle of attack of an airfoilThe angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of an airfoil and the oncoming airflow.", "A symmetrical airfoil generates zero lift at zero angle of attack.", "But as the angle of attack increases, the air is deflected through a larger angle and the vertical component of the airstream velocity increases, resulting in more lift.", "For small angles, a symmetrical airfoil generates a lift force roughly proportional to the angle of attack.As the angle of attack increases, the lift reaches a maximum at some angle; increasing the angle of attack beyond this critical angle of attack causes the upper-surface flow to separate from the wing; there is less deflection downward so the airfoil generates less lift.", "The airfoil is said to be stalled.===Airfoil shape===An airfoil with camber compared to a symmetrical airfoilThe maximum lift force that can be generated by an airfoil at a given airspeed depends on the shape of the airfoil, especially the amount of camber (curvature such that the upper surface is more convex than the lower surface, as illustrated at right).", "Increasing the camber generally increases the maximum lift at a given airspeed.Cambered airfoils generate lift at zero angle of attack.", "When the chord line is horizontal, the trailing edge has a downward direction and since the air follows the trailing edge it is deflected downward.", "When a cambered airfoil is upside down, the angle of attack can be adjusted so that the lift force is upward.", "This explains how a plane can fly upside down.===Flow conditions===The ambient flow conditions which affect lift include the fluid density, viscosity and speed of flow.", "Density is affected by temperature, and by the medium's acoustic velocity – i.e.", "by compressibility effects.===Air speed and density===Lift is proportional to the density of the air and approximately proportional to the square of the flow speed.", "Lift also depends on the size of the wing, being generally proportional to the wing's area projected in the lift direction.", "In calculations it is convenient to quantify lift in terms of a lift coefficient based on these factors.===Boundary layer and profile drag===No matter how smooth the surface of an airfoil seems, any surface is rough on the scale of air molecules.", "Air molecules flying into the surface bounce off the rough surface in random directions relative to their original velocities.", "The result is that when the air is viewed as a continuous material, it is seen to be unable to slide along the surface, and the air's velocity relative to the airfoil decreases to nearly zero at the surface (i.e., the air molecules \"stick\" to the surface instead of sliding along it), something known as the no-slip condition.", "Because the air at the surface has near-zero velocity but the air away from the surface is moving, there is a thin boundary layer in which air close to the surface is subjected to a shearing motion.", "The air's viscosity resists the shearing, giving rise to a shear stress at the airfoil's surface called skin friction drag.", "Over most of the surface of most airfoils, the boundary layer is naturally turbulent, which increases skin friction drag.Under usual flight conditions, the boundary layer remains attached to both the upper and lower surfaces all the way to the trailing edge, and its effect on the rest of the flow is modest.", "Compared to the predictions of inviscid flow theory, in which there is no boundary layer, the attached boundary layer reduces the lift by a modest amount and modifies the pressure distribution somewhat, which results in a viscosity-related pressure drag over and above the skin friction drag.", "The total of the skin friction drag and the viscosity-related pressure drag is usually called the profile drag.===Stalling===Airflow separating from a wing at a high angle of attackAn airfoil's maximum lift at a given airspeed is limited by boundary-layer separation.", "As the angle of attack is increased, a point is reached where the boundary layer can no longer remain attached to the upper surface.", "When the boundary layer separates, it leaves a region of recirculating flow above the upper surface, as illustrated in the flow-visualization photo at right.", "This is known as the ''stall'', or ''stalling''.", "At angles of attack above the stall, lift is significantly reduced, though it does not drop to zero.", "The maximum lift that can be achieved before stall, in terms of the lift coefficient, is generally less than 1.5 for single-element airfoils and can be more than 3.0 for airfoils with high-lift slotted flaps and leading-edge devices deployed.===Bluff bodies===The flow around bluff bodies – i.e.", "without a streamlined shape, or stalling airfoils – may also generate lift, in addition to a strong drag force.", "This lift may be steady, or it may oscillate due to vortex shedding.", "Interaction of the object's flexibility with the vortex shedding may enhance the effects of fluctuating lift and cause vortex-induced vibrations.", "For instance, the flow around a circular cylinder generates a Kármán vortex street: vortices being shed in an alternating fashion from the cylinder's sides.", "The oscillatory nature of the flow produces a fluctuating lift force on the cylinder, even though the net (mean) force is negligible.", "The lift force frequency is characterised by the dimensionless Strouhal number, which depends on the Reynolds number of the flow.For a flexible structure, this oscillatory lift force may induce vortex-induced vibrations.", "Under certain conditions – for instance resonance or strong spanwise correlation of the lift force – the resulting motion of the structure due to the lift fluctuations may be strongly enhanced.", "Such vibrations may pose problems and threaten collapse in tall man-made structures like industrial chimneys.In the Magnus effect, a lift force is generated by a spinning cylinder in a freestream.", "Here the mechanical rotation acts on the boundary layer, causing it to separate at different locations on the two sides of the cylinder.", "The asymmetric separation changes the effective shape of the cylinder as far as the flow is concerned such that the cylinder acts like a lifting airfoil with circulation in the outer flow." ], [ "A more comprehensive physical explanation", "As described above under \"Simplified physical explanations of lift on an airfoil\", there are two main popular explanations: one based on downward deflection of the flow (Newton's laws), and one based on pressure differences accompanied by changes in flow speed (Bernoulli's principle).", "Either of these, by itself, correctly identifies some aspects of the lifting flow but leaves other important aspects of the phenomenon unexplained.", "A more comprehensive explanation involves both downward deflection and pressure differences (including changes in flow speed associated with the pressure differences), and requires looking at the flow in more detail.===Lift at the airfoil surface===The airfoil shape and angle of attack work together so that the airfoil exerts a downward force on the air as it flows past.", "According to Newton's third law, the air must then exert an equal and opposite (upward) force on the airfoil, which is the lift.The net force exerted by the air occurs as a pressure difference over the airfoil's surfaces.", "Pressure in a fluid is always positive in an absolute sense, so that pressure must always be thought of as pushing, and never as pulling.", "The pressure thus pushes inward on the airfoil everywhere on both the upper and lower surfaces.", "The flowing air reacts to the presence of the wing by reducing the pressure on the wing's upper surface and increasing the pressure on the lower surface.", "The pressure on the lower surface pushes up harder than the reduced pressure on the upper surface pushes down, and the net result is upward lift.The pressure difference which results in lift acts directly on the airfoil surfaces; however, understanding how the pressure difference is produced requires understanding what the flow does over a wider area.===The wider flow around the airfoil===time slices, which split into two – an upper and lower part – at the leading edge.", "A marked speed difference between the upper-and lower-surface streamlines is shown most clearly in the image animation, with the upper markers arriving at the trailing edge long before the lower ones.", "Colors of the dots indicate streamlines.An airfoil affects the speed and direction of the flow over a wide area, producing a pattern called a ''velocity field''.", "When an airfoil produces lift, the flow ahead of the airfoil is deflected upward, the flow above and below the airfoil is deflected downward leaving the air far behind the airfoil in the same state as the oncoming flow far ahead.", "The flow above the upper surface is sped up, while the flow below the airfoil is slowed down.", "Together with the upward deflection of air in front and the downward deflection of the air immediately behind, this establishes a net circulatory component of the flow.", "The downward deflection and the changes in flow speed are pronounced and extend over a wide area, as can be seen in the flow animation on the right.", "These differences in the direction and speed of the flow are greatest close to the airfoil and decrease gradually far above and below.", "All of these features of the velocity field also appear in theoretical models for lifting flows.The pressure is also affected over a wide area, in a pattern of non-uniform pressure called a ''pressure field''.", "When an airfoil produces lift, there is a diffuse region of low pressure above the airfoil, and usually a diffuse region of high pressure below, as illustrated by the isobars (curves of constant pressure) in the drawing.", "The pressure difference that acts on the surface is just part of this pressure field.===Mutual interaction of pressure differences and changes in flow velocity===isobars of equal pressure along their length.", "The arrows show the pressure differential from high (red) to low (blue) and hence also the net force which causes the air to accelerate in that direction.The non-uniform pressure exerts forces on the air in the direction from higher pressure to lower pressure.", "The direction of the force is different at different locations around the airfoil, as indicated by the block arrows in the ''pressure field around an airfoil'' figure.", "Air above the airfoil is pushed toward the center of the low-pressure region, and air below the airfoil is pushed outward from the center of the high-pressure region.According to ''Newton's second law'', a force causes air to accelerate in the direction of the force.", "Thus the vertical arrows in the accompanying pressure field diagram indicate that air above and below the airfoil is accelerated, or turned downward, and that the non-uniform pressure is thus the cause of the downward deflection of the flow visible in the flow animation.", "To produce this downward turning, the airfoil must have a positive angle of attack or have sufficient positive camber.", "Note that the downward turning of the flow over the upper surface is the result of the air being pushed downward by higher pressure above it than below it.", "Some explanations that refer to the \"Coandă effect\" suggest that viscosity plays a key role in the downward turning, but this is false.", "(see above under \"Controversy regarding the Coandă effect\").The arrows ahead of the airfoil indicate that the flow ahead of the airfoil is deflected upward, and the arrows behind the airfoil indicate that the flow behind is deflected upward again, after being deflected downward over the airfoil.", "These deflections are also visible in the flow animation.The arrows ahead of the airfoil and behind also indicate that air passing through the low-pressure region above the airfoil is sped up as it enters, and slowed back down as it leaves.", "Air passing through the high-pressure region below the airfoil is slowed down as it enters and then sped back up as it leaves.", "Thus the non-uniform pressure is also the cause of the changes in flow speed visible in the flow animation.", "The changes in flow speed are consistent with ''Bernoulli's principle'', which states that in a steady flow without viscosity, lower pressure means higher speed, and higher pressure means lower speed.Thus changes in flow direction and speed are directly caused by the non-uniform pressure.", "But this cause-and-effect relationship is not just one-way; it works in both directions simultaneously.", "The air's motion is affected by the pressure differences, but the existence of the pressure differences depends on the air's motion.", "The relationship is thus a mutual, or reciprocal, interaction: Air flow changes speed or direction in response to pressure differences, and the pressure differences are sustained by the air's resistance to changing speed or direction.", "A pressure difference can exist only if something is there for it to push against.", "In aerodynamic flow, the pressure difference pushes against the air's inertia, as the air is accelerated by the pressure difference.", "This is why the air's mass is part of the calculation, and why lift depends on air density.Sustaining the pressure difference that exerts the lift force on the airfoil surfaces requires sustaining a pattern of non-uniform pressure in a wide area around the airfoil.", "This requires maintaining pressure differences in both the vertical and horizontal directions, and thus requires both downward turning of the flow and changes in flow speed according to Bernoulli's principle.", "The pressure differences and the changes in flow direction and speed sustain each other in a mutual interaction.", "The pressure differences follow naturally from Newton's second law and from the fact that flow along the surface follows the predominantly downward-sloping contours of the airfoil.", "And the fact that the air has mass is crucial to the interaction.===How simpler explanations fall short===Producing a lift force requires both downward turning of the flow and changes in flow speed consistent with Bernoulli's principle.", "Each of the simplified explanations given above in Simplified physical explanations of lift on an airfoil falls short by trying to explain lift in terms of only one or the other, thus explaining only part of the phenomenon and leaving other parts unexplained." ], [ "Quantifying lift", "===Pressure integration===When the pressure distribution on the airfoil surface is known, determining the total lift requires adding up the contributions to the pressure force from local elements of the surface, each with its own local value of pressure.", "The total lift is thus the integral of the pressure, in the direction perpendicular to the farfield flow, over the airfoil surface.", ": where:* '''S''' is the projected (planform) area of the airfoil, measured normal to the mean airflow;* '''n''' is the normal unit vector pointing into the wing;* '''k''' is the vertical unit vector, normal to the freestream direction.The above '''lift equation''' neglects the skin friction forces, which are small compared to the pressure forces.By using the streamwise vector '''i''' parallel to the freestream in place of '''k''' in the integral, we obtain an expression for the pressure drag ''Dp'' (which includes the pressure portion of the profile drag and, if the wing is three-dimensional, the induced drag).", "If we use the spanwise vector '''j''', we obtain the side force ''Y''.", ":The validity of this integration generally requires the airfoil shape to be a closed curve that is piecewise smooth.===Lift coefficient===Lift depends on the size of the wing, being approximately proportional to the wing area.", "It is often convenient to quantify the lift of a given airfoil by its ''lift coefficient'' , which defines its overall lift in terms of a unit area of the wing.If the value of for a wing at a specified angle of attack is given, then the lift produced for specific flow conditions can be determined::where * is the lift force* is the air density* is the velocity or true airspeed* is the planform (projected) wing area* is the lift coefficient at the desired angle of attack, Mach number, and Reynolds number" ], [ "Mathematical theories of lift", "Mathematical theories of lift are based on continuum fluid mechanics, assuming that air flows as a continuous fluid.", "Lift is generated in accordance with the fundamental principles of physics, the most relevant being the following three principles:* Conservation of momentum, which is a consequence of Newton's laws of motion, especially Newton's second law which relates the net force on an element of air to its rate of momentum change,* Conservation of mass, including the assumption that the airfoil's surface is impermeable for the air flowing around, and* Conservation of energy, which says that energy is neither created nor destroyed.Because an airfoil affects the flow in a wide area around it, the conservation laws of mechanics are embodied in the form of partial differential equations combined with a set of boundary condition requirements which the flow has to satisfy at the airfoil surface and far away from the airfoil.To predict lift requires solving the equations for a particular airfoil shape and flow condition, which generally requires calculations that are so voluminous that they are practical only on a computer, through the methods of computational fluid dynamics (CFD).", "Determining the net aerodynamic force from a CFD solution requires \"adding up\" (integrating) the forces due to pressure and shear determined by the CFD over every surface element of the airfoil as described under \"pressure integration\".The Navier–Stokes equations (NS) provide the potentially most accurate theory of lift, but in practice, capturing the effects of turbulence in the boundary layer on the airfoil surface requires sacrificing some accuracy, and requires use of the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS).", "Simpler but less accurate theories have also been developed.===Navier–Stokes (NS) equations===These equations represent conservation of mass, Newton's second law (conservation of momentum), conservation of energy, the Newtonian law for the action of viscosity, the Fourier heat conduction law, an equation of state relating density, temperature, and pressure, and formulas for the viscosity and thermal conductivity of the fluid.In principle, the NS equations, combined with boundary conditions of no through-flow and no slip at the airfoil surface, could be used to predict lift in any situation in ordinary atmospheric flight with high accuracy.", "However, airflows in practical situations always involve turbulence in the boundary layer next to the airfoil surface, at least over the aft portion of the airfoil.", "Predicting lift by solving the NS equations in their raw form would require the calculations to resolve the details of the turbulence, down to the smallest eddy.", "This is not yet possible, even on the most powerful computer.", "So in principle the NS equations provide a complete and very accurate theory of lift, but practical prediction of lift requires that the effects of turbulence be modeled in the RANS equations rather than computed directly.===Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations===These are the NS equations with the turbulence motions averaged over time, and the effects of the turbulence on the time-averaged flow represented by turbulence modeling (an additional set of equations based on a combination of dimensional analysis and empirical information on how turbulence affects a boundary layer in a time-averaged average sense).", "A RANS solution consists of the time-averaged velocity vector, pressure, density, and temperature defined at a dense grid of points surrounding the airfoil.The amount of computation required is a minuscule fraction (billionths) of what would be required to resolve all of the turbulence motions in a raw NS calculation, and with large computers available it is now practical to carry out RANS calculations for complete airplanes in three dimensions.", "Because turbulence models are not perfect, the accuracy of RANS calculations is imperfect, but it is adequate for practical aircraft design.", "Lift predicted by RANS is usually within a few percent of the actual lift.===Inviscid-flow equations (Euler or potential)===The Euler equations are the NS equations without the viscosity, heat conduction, and turbulence effects.", "As with a RANS solution, an Euler solution consists of the velocity vector, pressure, density, and temperature defined at a dense grid of points surrounding the airfoil.", "While the Euler equations are simpler than the NS equations, they do not lend themselves to exact analytic solutions.Further simplification is available through potential flow theory, which reduces the number of unknowns to be determined, and makes analytic solutions possible in some cases, as described below.Either Euler or potential-flow calculations predict the pressure distribution on the airfoil surfaces roughly correctly for angles of attack below stall, where they might miss the total lift by as much as 10–20%.", "At angles of attack above stall, inviscid calculations do not predict that stall has happened, and as a result they grossly overestimate the lift.In potential-flow theory, the flow is assumed to be irrotational, i.e.", "that small fluid parcels have no net rate of rotation.", "Mathematically, this is expressed by the statement that the curl of the velocity vector field is everywhere equal to zero.", "Irrotational flows have the convenient property that the velocity can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function called a potential.", "A flow represented in this way is called potential flow.In potential-flow theory, the flow is assumed to be incompressible.", "Incompressible potential-flow theory has the advantage that the equation (Laplace's equation) to be solved for the potential is linear, which allows solutions to be constructed by superposition of other known solutions.", "The incompressible-potential-flow equation can also be solved by conformal mapping, a method based on the theory of functions of a complex variable.", "In the early 20th century, before computers were available, conformal mapping was used to generate solutions to the incompressible potential-flow equation for a class of idealized airfoil shapes, providing some of the first practical theoretical predictions of the pressure distribution on a lifting airfoil.A solution of the potential equation directly determines only the velocity field.", "The pressure field is deduced from the velocity field through Bernoulli's equation.Comparison of a non-lifting flow pattern around an airfoil; and a lifting flow pattern consistent with the Kutta condition in which the flow leaves the trailing edge smoothlyApplying potential-flow theory to a lifting flow requires special treatment and an additional assumption.", "The problem arises because lift on an airfoil in inviscid flow requires circulation in the flow around the airfoil (See \"Circulation and the Kutta–Joukowski theorem\" below), but a single potential function that is continuous throughout the domain around the airfoil cannot represent a flow with nonzero circulation.", "The solution to this problem is to introduce a branch cut, a curve or line from some point on the airfoil surface out to infinite distance, and to allow a jump in the value of the potential across the cut.", "The jump in the potential imposes circulation in the flow equal to the potential jump and thus allows nonzero circulation to be represented.", "However, the potential jump is a free parameter that is not determined by the potential equation or the other boundary conditions, and the solution is thus indeterminate.", "A potential-flow solution exists for any value of the circulation and any value of the lift.", "One way to resolve this indeterminacy is to impose the Kutta condition, which is that, of all the possible solutions, the physically reasonable solution is the one in which the flow leaves the trailing edge smoothly.", "The streamline sketches illustrate one flow pattern with zero lift, in which the flow goes around the trailing edge and leaves the upper surface ahead of the trailing edge, and another flow pattern with positive lift, in which the flow leaves smoothly at the trailing edge in accordance with the Kutta condition.===Linearized potential flow===This is potential-flow theory with the further assumptions that the airfoil is very thin and the angle of attack is small.", "The linearized theory predicts the general character of the airfoil pressure distribution and how it is influenced by airfoil shape and angle of attack, but is not accurate enough for design work.", "For a 2D airfoil, such calculations can be done in a fraction of a second in a spreadsheet on a PC.===Circulation and the Kutta–Joukowski theorem===Circulation component of the flow around an airfoilWhen an airfoil generates lift, several components of the overall velocity field contribute to a net circulation of air around it: the upward flow ahead of the airfoil, the accelerated flow above, the decelerated flow below, and the downward flow behind.The circulation can be understood as the total amount of \"spinning\" (or vorticity) of an inviscid fluid around the airfoil.The Kutta–Joukowski theorem relates the lift per unit width of span of a two-dimensional airfoil to this circulation component of the flow.", "It is a key element in an explanation of lift that follows the development of the flow around an airfoil as the airfoil starts its motion from rest and a starting vortex is formed and left behind, leading to the formation of circulation around the airfoil.", "Lift is then inferred from the Kutta-Joukowski theorem.", "This explanation is largely mathematical, and its general progression is based on logical inference, not physical cause-and-effect.The Kutta–Joukowski model does not predict how much circulation or lift a two-dimensional airfoil produces.", "Calculating the lift per unit span using Kutta–Joukowski requires a known value for the circulation.", "In particular, if the Kutta condition is met, in which the rear stagnation point moves to the airfoil trailing edge and attaches there for the duration of flight, the lift can be calculated theoretically through the conformal mapping method.The lift generated by a conventional airfoil is dictated by both its design and the flight conditions, such as forward velocity, angle of attack and air density.", "Lift can be increased by artificially increasing the circulation, for example by boundary-layer blowing or the use of blown flaps.", "In the Flettner rotor the entire airfoil is circular and spins about a spanwise axis to create the circulation." ], [ "Three-dimensional flow", "Cross-section of an airplane wing-body combination showing the isobars of the three-dimensional lifting flow Cross-section of an airplane wing-body combination showing velocity vectors of the three-dimensional lifting flowThe flow around a three-dimensional wing involves significant additional issues, especially relating to the wing tips.", "For a wing of low aspect ratio, such as a typical delta wing, two-dimensional theories may provide a poor model and three-dimensional flow effects can dominate.", "Even for wings of high aspect ratio, the three-dimensional effects associated with finite span can affect the whole span, not just close to the tips.===Wing tips and spanwise distribution===The vertical pressure gradient at the wing tips causes air to flow sideways, out from under the wing then up and back over the upper surface.", "This reduces the pressure gradient at the wing tip, therefore also reducing lift.", "The lift tends to decrease in the spanwise direction from root to tip, and the pressure distributions around the airfoil sections change accordingly in the spanwise direction.", "Pressure distributions in planes perpendicular to the flight direction tend to look like the illustration at right.", "This spanwise-varying pressure distribution is sustained by a mutual interaction with the velocity field.", "Flow below the wing is accelerated outboard, flow outboard of the tips is accelerated upward, and flow above the wing is accelerated inboard, which results in the flow pattern illustrated at right.There is more downward turning of the flow than there would be in a two-dimensional flow with the same airfoil shape and sectional lift, and a higher sectional angle of attack is required to achieve the same lift compared to a two-dimensional flow.", "The wing is effectively flying in a downdraft of its own making, as if the freestream flow were tilted downward, with the result that the total aerodynamic force vector is tilted backward slightly compared to what it would be in two dimensions.", "The additional backward component of the force vector is called lift-induced drag.Euler computation of a tip vortex rolling up from the trailed vorticity sheetThe difference in the spanwise component of velocity above and below the wing (between being in the inboard direction above and in the outboard direction below) persists at the trailing edge and into the wake downstream.", "After the flow leaves the trailing edge, this difference in velocity takes place across a relatively thin shear layer called a vortex sheet.===Horseshoe vortex system===Planview of a wing showing the horseshoe vortex systemThe wingtip flow leaving the wing creates a tip vortex.", "As the main vortex sheet passes downstream from the trailing edge, it rolls up at its outer edges, merging with the tip vortices.", "The combination of the wingtip vortices and the vortex sheets feeding them is called the vortex wake.In addition to the vorticity in the trailing vortex wake there is vorticity in the wing's boundary layer, called 'bound vorticity', which connects the trailing sheets from the two sides of the wing into a vortex system in the general form of a horseshoe.", "The horseshoe form of the vortex system was recognized by the British aeronautical pioneer Lanchester in 1907.Given the distribution of bound vorticity and the vorticity in the wake, the Biot–Savart law (a vector-calculus relation) can be used to calculate the velocity perturbation anywhere in the field, caused by the lift on the wing.", "Approximate theories for the lift distribution and lift-induced drag of three-dimensional wings are based on such analysis applied to the wing's horseshoe vortex system.", "In these theories, the bound vorticity is usually idealized and assumed to reside at the camber surface inside the wing.Because the velocity is deduced from the vorticity in such theories, some authors describe the situation to imply that the vorticity is the cause of the velocity perturbations, using terms such as \"the velocity induced by the vortex\", for example.", "But attributing mechanical cause-and-effect between the vorticity and the velocity in this way is not consistent with the physics.", "The velocity perturbations in the flow around a wing are in fact produced by the pressure field." ], [ "Manifestations of lift in the farfield", "===Integrated force/momentum balance in lifting flows===Control volumes of different shapes that have been used in analyzing the momentum balance in the 2D flow around a lifting airfoil.", "The airfoil is assumed to exert a downward force −L' per unit span on the air, and the proportions in which that force is manifested as momentum fluxes and pressure differences at the outer boundary are indicated for each different shape of control volume.The flow around a lifting airfoil must satisfy Newton's second law regarding conservation of momentum, both locally at every point in the flow field, and in an integrated sense over any extended region of the flow.", "For an extended region, Newton's second law takes the form of the ''momentum theorem for a control volume'', where a control volume can be any region of the flow chosen for analysis.", "The momentum theorem states that the integrated force exerted at the boundaries of the control volume (a surface integral), is equal to the integrated time rate of change (material derivative) of the momentum of fluid parcels passing through the interior of the control volume.", "For a steady flow, this can be expressed in the form of the net surface integral of the flux of momentum through the boundary.The lifting flow around a 2D airfoil is usually analyzed in a control volume that completely surrounds the airfoil, so that the inner boundary of the control volume is the airfoil surface, where the downward force per unit span is exerted on the fluid by the airfoil.", "The outer boundary is usually either a large circle or a large rectangle.", "At this outer boundary distant from the airfoil, the velocity and pressure are well represented by the velocity and pressure associated with a uniform flow plus a vortex, and viscous stress is negligible, so that the only force that must be integrated over the outer boundary is the pressure.", "The free-stream velocity is usually assumed to be horizontal, with lift vertically upward, so that the vertical momentum is the component of interest.For the free-air case (no ground plane), the force exerted by the airfoil on the fluid is manifested partly as momentum fluxes and partly as pressure differences at the outer boundary, in proportions that depend on the shape of the outer boundary, as shown in the diagram at right.", "For a flat horizontal rectangle that is much longer than it is tall, the fluxes of vertical momentum through the front and back are negligible, and the lift is accounted for entirely by the integrated pressure differences on the top and bottom.", "For a square or circle, the momentum fluxes and pressure differences account for half the lift each.", "For a vertical rectangle that is much taller than it is wide, the unbalanced pressure forces on the top and bottom are negligible, and lift is accounted for entirely by momentum fluxes, with a flux of upward momentum that enters the control volume through the front accounting for half the lift, and a flux of downward momentum that exits the control volume through the back accounting for the other half.The results of all of the control-volume analyses described above are consistent with the Kutta–Joukowski theorem described above.", "Both the tall rectangle and circle control volumes have been used in derivations of the theorem.===Lift reacted by overpressure on the ground under an airplane===Illustration of the distribution of higher-than-ambient pressure on the ground under an airplane in subsonic flightAn airfoil produces a pressure field in the surrounding air, as explained under \"The wider flow around the airfoil\" above.", "The pressure differences associated with this field die off gradually, becoming very small at large distances, but never disappearing altogether.", "Below the airplane, the pressure field persists as a positive pressure disturbance that reaches the ground, forming a pattern of slightly-higher-than-ambient pressure on the ground, as shown on the right.", "Although the pressure differences are very small far below the airplane, they are spread over a wide area and add up to a substantial force.", "For steady, level flight, the integrated force due to the pressure differences is equal to the total aerodynamic lift of the airplane and to the airplane's weight.", "According to Newton's third law, this pressure force exerted on the ground by the air is matched by an equal-and-opposite upward force exerted on the air by the ground, which offsets all of the downward force exerted on the air by the airplane.", "The net force due to the lift, acting on the atmosphere as a whole, is therefore zero, and thus there is no integrated accumulation of vertical momentum in the atmosphere, as was noted by Lanchester early in the development of modern aerodynamics." ], [ "See also", "* Drag coefficient* Flow separation* Fluid dynamics* Foil (fluid mechanics)* Küssner effect* Lift-to-drag ratio* Lifting-line theory* Spoiler (automotive)" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "****************************************" ], [ "Further reading", "''Introduction to Flight'', John D. Anderson, Jr., McGraw-Hill, – Dr. Anderson is Curator of Aerodynamics at the Smithsonian Institution's National Air & Space Museum and Professor Emeritus at the University of Maryland.", "''Understanding Flight'', by David Anderson and Scott Eberhardt, McGraw-Hill, – A physicist and an aeronautical engineer explain flight in non-technical terms and specifically address the equal-transit-time myth.", "They attribute airfoil circulation to the Coanda effect, which is controversial.", " ''Aerodynamics'', Clancy, L. J.", "(1975), Section 4.8, Pitman Publishing Limited, London .", "* ''Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics'', McCormick, Barnes W., (1979), Chapter 3, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York .", "''Fundamentals of Flight'', Richard S. Shevell, Prentice-Hall International Editions, – This is a text for a one-semester undergraduate course in mechanical or aeronautical engineering.", "Its sections on theory of flight are understandable with a passing knowledge of calculus and physics.", " – Experiments under superfluidity conditions, resulting in the vanishing of lift in inviscid flow since the Kutta condition is no longer satisfied.", "\"Aerodynamics at the Particle Level\", Charles A. Crummer (2005, revised 2012) – A treatment of aerodynamics emphasizing the particle nature of air, as opposed to the fluid approximation commonly used.", "\"Flight without Bernoulli\" Chris Waltham Vol.", "36, Nov. 1998 The Physics Teacher – using a physical model based on Newton's second law, the author presents a rigorous fluid dynamical treatment of flight.", "''Bernoulli, Newton, and Dynamic Lift'' Norman F. Smith School Science and Mathematics vol 73 Part I: Bernoulli, Newton, and Dynamic Lift Part II Part II Bernoulli, Newton, and Dynamic Lift Part I" ], [ "External links", " Discussion of the apparent \"conflict\" between the various explanations of lift* NASA tutorial, with animation, describing lift * NASA FoilSim II 1.5 beta.", "Lift simulator* Explanation of Lift with animation of fluid flow around an airfoil* A treatment of why and how wings generate lift that focuses on pressure* Physics of Flight – reviewed .", "Online paper by Prof. Dr. Klaus Weltner* How do Wings Work?", "Holger Babinsky* Bernoulli Or Newton: Who's Right About Lift?", "''Plane and Pilot'' magazine* One Minute Physics How Does a Wing actually work?", "(YouTube video)* How wings really work, University of Cambridge Holger Babinsky ''(referred by \"One Minute Physics How Does a Wing actually work?\"", "YouTube video)''* From Summit to Seafloor – Lifted Weight as a Function of Altitude and Depth by Rolf Steinegger* Joukowski Transform Interactive WebApp* How Planes Fly YouTube video presentation by Krzysztof Fidkowski, associate professor of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Michigan" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leo III the Isaurian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leo III the Isaurian''' (; ; 685 – 18 June 741), also known as '''the Syrian''', was Byzantine Emperor from 717 until his death in 741 and founder of the Isaurian dynasty.", "He put an end to the Twenty Years' Anarchy, a period of great instability in the Byzantine Empire between 695 and 717, marked by the rapid succession of several emperors to the throne.", "He also successfully defended the Empire against the invading Umayyads and forbade the veneration of icons." ], [ "Early life", "Leo III was born in Germanikeia, Commagene, which is in modern Kahramanmaraş in Turkey.", "His original name was '''Konon''' (; or ''Cononus'').", "Leo III was fluent in Arabic, possibly as a native language, and was described by Theophanes the Confessor as \"the Saracen minded.", "\"After the victory of Justinian II, Konon was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to Alania and Lazica to organize an alliance against the Umayyad caliphate under Al-Walid I.", "According to the chronicle written by Theophanes the Confessor, Justinian wanted to get rid of Konon and took back the money that had been given to him to help advance Byzantine interests, thus leaving Konon stranded in Alania.", "The chronicle describes the mission as successful and Konon returning eventually to Justinian after crossing the Caucasus mountains in May with snowshoes and taking the fortress of Sideron, associated with the Tsebelda fortress, on the way.Konon was appointed commander (''stratēgos'') of the Anatolic Theme by Emperor Anastasius II.", "On his deposition, Konon joined with his colleague Artabasdos, the ''stratēgos'' of the Armeniac Theme, in conspiring to overthrow the new Emperor Theodosius III.", "Artabasdos was betrothed to Konon's daughter Anna." ], [ "Siege of Constantinople", "Leo entered Constantinople on 25 March 717 and forced the abdication of Theodosius III, becoming emperor as Leo III.", "The new emperor was immediately forced to attend to the Second Arab siege of Constantinople, which commenced in August of the same year.", "The Arabs were Umayyad forces sent by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik and serving under his brother Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik.", "They had taken advantage of the civil discord in the Byzantine Empire to bring a force of 80,000 to 150,000 men and a massive fleet to the Bosphorus.Careful preparations, begun three years earlier under Anastasius II, and the stubborn resistance put up by Leo wore out the invaders.", "An important factor in the victory of the Byzantines was their use of Greek fire.", "The Arab forces also fell victim to Bulgarian reinforcements arriving to aid the Byzantines.", "Leo was allied with the Bulgarians but the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor was uncertain if they were still serving under Tervel of Bulgaria or his eventual successor Kormesiy of Bulgaria.Faced with the Bulgarian onslaught, the impenetrability of Constantinople's walls, and their own exhausted provisions, the Arabs were forced to abandon the siege in August 718.Sulayman had died the previous year, and his successor Umar II never made a second attempt to capture the city.", "The siege had lasted 12 months." ], [ "Reign", " Byzantine Empire 717 AD.", "1.Ravenna 2.Venetia and Istria 3.Rome 4.Naples 5.Calabria 6.Hellas 7.Thrace 8.Opsikion 9.Thrakesion 10.Anatolikon 11.Karabisianoi 12.Armeniakon.", "Hatched area: Frequently invaded by Umayyad CaliphateHaving thus saved the Empire from extinction, Leo proceeded to consolidate its administration, which in the previous years of anarchy had become completely disorganized.", "In 718 he suppressed a rebellion in Sicily; the following year saw the deposed Emperor Anastasius II raise an army and attempt to retake the throne, but he was captured and executed by Leo's government.Leo secured the Empire's frontiers by inviting Slavic settlers into the depopulated districts and by restoring the army to efficiency; when the Umayyad Caliphate renewed its invasions in 726 and 739, as part of the campaigns of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, the Arab forces were decisively beaten, particularly at Akroinon in 740.His military efforts were supplemented by his alliances with the Khazars and the Georgians.Leo undertook a set of civil reforms including the abolition of the system of prepaying taxes which had weighed heavily upon the wealthier proprietors, the elevation of the serfs into a class of free tenants and the remodelling of Family law, maritime law and criminal law, notably substituting mutilation for the death penalty in many cases.", "The new measures, which were embodied in a new code called the ''Ecloga'' (''Selection''), published in 726, met with some opposition on the part of the nobles and higher clergy.", "The Emperor also undertook some reorganization of the theme structure by creating new themata in the Aegean region.=== Iconoclastic policies ===Example of the ''miliaresion'' silver coins, first struck by Leo III to commemorate the coronation of his son, Constantine V in 720.Leo's most striking legislative reforms dealt with religious matters, especially iconoclasm (\"icon-breaking,\" therefore an iconoclast is an \"icon-breaker\").", "After an apparently successful attempt to enforce the baptism of all Jews and Montanists in the empire (722), he issued a series of edicts against the veneration of images (726–729).A revolt broke out in Greece under the leadership of Agallianos Kontoskeles, mainly on religious grounds, with a certain Kosmas being declared rival emperor.", "The imperial fleet quashed the uprising in 727 by way of Greek fire.", "In 730, Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople opted to resign rather than subscribe to iconoclasm; Leo appointed Anastasius, who willingly sided with the Emperor on the question of icons, to replace him.", "In the Italian Peninsula, the defiant attitude of Popes Gregory II and later Gregory III on behalf of image-veneration led to a fierce quarrel with the Emperor.", "The former summoned councils in Rome to anathematize and excommunicate the iconoclasts (730, 732); in 740 Leo retaliated by transferring Southern Italy and Illyricum from the papal diocese to that of the patriarch of Constantinople.", "The struggle was accompanied by an armed outbreak in the exarchate of Ravenna in 727, which Leo endeavoured to subdue by means of a large fleet.", "But the destruction of the armament by a storm forced Leo to backpedal; his southern Italian subjects successfully defied his religious edicts, and the Exarchate of Ravenna became effectively detached from the Empire.Scholars have discussed the mutual influence of Muslim and Byzantine iconoclasm, noting that Caliph Yazid II had issued an iconoclastic edict, also targeting his Christian subjects, already in 721.=== Legislation ===The legislative reforms of Leo III and his successor Constantine V transformed the Byzantine ''orphanotrophos'' into a magistrate.", "Prior to these legislative reforms, Byzantine law required that all orphans are passed into the Byzantine orphanage or to a monastery.=== Coinage ===The coins minted during Leo's reign exclusively depicted male imperial dynasts, promoting the dynastic order of succession.", "The gold coins of Leo IV the Khazar show posthumous portraits of Leo III." ], [ "Death and family", "Solidus of Leo III with Constantine VLeo III died of dropsy on 18 June 741 and was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles.With his wife Maria, Leo III had four known children:* Constantine V, born in 718.He was crowned co-emperor in 720 and became senior emperor in 741.", "* Anna, born before 705.She married the future emperor Artabasdos.", "Kosmo and Irene.", "They were both buried in a sarcophagus of Proconnesian marble in the Church of the Apostles." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1573 a translation of John of Damascus' attack on Leo III was published, under the title ''Apologie divisee en troits livres contre Leon Isaure'', triggering religious controversy." ], [ "See also", "List of Byzantine emperors" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lombards" ], [ "Introduction", "Neustria, Austria and Tuscia)'' and the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto and BeneventoThe '''Lombards''' () or '''Longobards''' () were a Germanic people who conquered most of the Italian Peninsula between 568 and 774.The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the ''History of the Lombards'' (written between 787 and 796) that the Lombards descended from a small tribe called the Winnili, who dwelt in northern Germany before migrating to seek new lands.", "Earlier Roman-era historians wrote of the Lombards in the first century AD as being one of the Suebian peoples, also from what is now northern Germany, near the Elbe river.", "They migrated south, and by the end of the fifth century, the Lombards had moved into the area roughly coinciding with modern Austria and Slovakia north of the Danube.", "Here they subdued the Heruls and later fought frequent wars with the Gepids.", "The Lombard king Audoin defeated the Gepid leader Thurisind in 551 or 552, and Audoin's successor Alboin eventually destroyed the Gepids in 567.The Lombards also settled in Pannonia (modern-day Hungary).", "Near Szólád, archaeologists have unearthed burial sites of Lombard men and women buried together as families, unusual among Germanic peoples at the time.", "Contemporary traces have also been discovered of Mediterranean Greeks and a possible migrant from France.Following Alboin's victory over the Gepids, he led his people into North Eastern Italy, which had become severely depopulated and devastated after the long Gothic War (535–554) between the Byzantine Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom.", "The Lombards were joined by numerous Saxons, Heruls, Gepids, Bulgars, Thuringians and Ostrogoths, and their invasion of Italy was almost unopposed.", "By late 569, they had conquered all of northern Italy and the principal cities north of the Po River except Pavia, which fell in 572.At the same time, they occupied areas in central and southern Italy.", "They established a Lombard Kingdom in north and central Italy, which reached its zenith under the eighth-century ruler Liutprand.", "In 774, the kingdom was conquered by the Frankish king Charlemagne and integrated into the Frankish Empire.", "However, Lombard nobles continued to rule southern parts of the Italian peninsula well into the eleventh century, when they were conquered by the Normans and added to the County of Sicily.", "In this period, the southern part of Italy still under Lombard domination was known to the Norse as Langbarðaland ('land of the Lombards'), as inscribed in the Norse runestones.", "Their legacy is also apparent in the name of the region of Lombardy in northern Italy." ], [ "Name", "According to their traditions, the Lombards initially called themselves the ''Winnili''.", "After a reported major victory against the Vandals in the first century, they changed their name to ''Lombards''.", "The name ''Winnili'' is generally translated as 'the wolves', related to the Proto-Germanic root ''wulfaz'' 'wolf'.''''", "The name ''Lombard'' was reportedly derived from the distinctively long beards of the Lombards.", "It is probably a compound of the Proto-Germanic elements ''langaz'' (long) and ''bardaz'' (beard)." ], [ "History", "===Early history=======Legendary origins====According to their own legends, the Lombards originated in Northern Germany/Denmark zone including modern-day Denmark.", "The Germanic origins of the Lombards is supported by genetic, anthropological, archaeological and earlier literary evidence.A legendary account of Lombard origins, history, and practices is the ''Historia Langobardorum'' (''History of the Lombards'') of Paul the Deacon, written in the eighth century.", "Paul's chief source for Lombard origins, however, is the seventh-century ''Origo Gentis Langobardorum'' (''Origin of the Lombard People'').The ''Origo Gentis Langobardorum'' tells the story of a small tribe called the ''Winnili'' dwelling in Northern Germany/Denmark zone (the ''Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani'' writes that the Winnili first dwelt near a river called ''Vindilicus'' on the extreme boundary of Gaul).", "The Winnili were split into three groups and one part left their native land to seek foreign fields.", "The reason for the exodus was probably overpopulation.", "The departing people were led by Gambara and her sons Ybor and Aio and arrived in the lands of ''Scoringa'', perhaps the Baltic coast or the Bardengau on the banks of the Elbe.", "Scoringa was ruled by the Vandals and their chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, who granted the Winnili a choice between tribute or war.Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards, circa 720–799The Winnili were young and brave and refused to pay tribute, saying \"It is better to maintain liberty by arms than to stain it by the payment of tribute.\"", "The Vandals prepared for war and consulted Godan (the god Odin), who answered that he would give victory to those whom he would see first at sunrise.", "The Winnili were fewer in number and Gambara sought help from Frea (the goddess Frigg), who advised that all Winnili women should tie their hair in front of their faces like beards and march in line with their husbands.", "At sunrise, Frea turned her husband's bed so that he was facing east, and woke him.", "So Godan spotted the Winnili first and asked, \"Who are these long-beards?,\" and Frea replied, \"My lord, thou hast given them the name, now give them also the victory.\"", "From that moment onwards, the Winnili were known as the ''Longbeards'' (Latinised as ''Langobardi'', Italianised as ''Longobardi'', and Anglicized as ''Langobards'' or ''Lombards'').When Paul the Deacon wrote the ''Historia'' between 787 and 796 he was a Catholic monk and devoted Christian.", "He thought the pagan stories of his people \"silly\" and \"laughable\".", "Paul explained that the name \"Langobard\" came from the length of their beards.", "A modern theory suggests that the name \"Langobard\" comes from ''Langbarðr'', a name of Odin.", "Priester states that when the Winnili changed their name to \"Lombards\", they also changed their old agricultural fertility cult to a cult of Odin, thus creating a conscious tribal tradition.", "Fröhlich inverts the order of events in Priester and states that with the Odin cult, the Lombards grew their beards in resemblance of the Odin of tradition and their new name reflected this.", "Bruckner remarks that the name of the Lombards stands in close relation to the worship of Odin, whose many names include \"the Long-bearded\" or \"the Grey-bearded\", and that the Lombard given name ''Ansegranus'' (\"he with the beard of the gods\") shows that the Lombards had this idea of their chief deity.", "The same Old Norse root Barth or Barði, meaning \"beard\", is shared with the Heaðobards mentioned in both ''Beowulf'' and in ''Widsith'', where they conflict with the Danes.", "They were possibly a branch of the Langobards.Alternatively, some etymological sources suggest an Old High German root, barta, meaning “axe” (and related to English halberd), while Edward Gibbon puts forth an alternative suggestion which argues that:…Börde (or Börd) still signifies “a fertile plain by the side of a river,” and a district near Magdeburg is still called the lange Börde.", "According to this view Langobardi would signify “inhabitants of the long bord of the river;” and traces of their name are supposed still to occur in such names as Bardengau and Bardewick in the neighborhood of the Elbe.According to the Gallaecian Christian priest, historian and theologian Paulus Orosius (translated by Daines Barrington), the Lombards or Winnili lived originally in the Vinuiloth (Vinovilith) mentioned by Jordanes, in his masterpiece Getica, to the north of Uppsala, Sweden.", "Scoringa was near the province of Uppland, so just north of Östergötland.The footnote then explains the etymology of the name Scoringa:The shores of Uppland and Östergötland are covered with small rocks and rocky islands, which are called in German Schæren and in Swedish Skiaeren.", "Heal signifies a port in the northern languages; consequently, Skiæren-Heal is the port of the Skiæren, a name well adapted to the port of Stockholm, in the Upplandske Skiæren, and the country may be justly called Scorung or Skiærunga.The legendary king Sceafa of Scandza was an ancient Lombardic king in Anglo-Saxon legend.", "The Old English poem Widsith, in a listing of famous kings and their countries, has Sceafa weold Longbeardum, so naming Sceafa as ruler of the Lombards.Similarities between Langobardic and Gothic migration traditions have been noted among scholars.", "These early migration legends suggest that a major shifting of tribes occurred sometime between the first and second century BC, which would coincide with the time that the Teutoni and Cimbri left their homelands in Northern Germany and migrated through central Germany, eventually invading Roman Italy.====Archaeology and migrations====Lower Elbe Lands (according to W. Wegewitz)The first mention of the Lombards occurred between AD 9 and 16, by the Roman court historian Velleius Paterculus, who accompanied a Roman expedition as prefect of the cavalry.", "Paterculus says that under Tiberius the \"power of the Langobardi was broken, a race surpassing even the Germans in savagery\".From the combined testimony of Strabo (AD 20) and Tacitus (AD 117), the Lombards dwelt near the mouth of the Elbe shortly after the beginning of the Christian era, next to the Chauci.", "Strabo states that the Lombards dwelt on both sides of the Elbe.", "He treats them as a branch of the Suebi, and states that:Now as for the tribe of the Suebi, it is the largest, for it extends from the Rhenus to the Albis; and a part of them even dwells on the far side of the Albis, as, for instance, the Hermondori and the Langobardi; and at the present time these latter, at least, have, to the last man, been driven in flight out of their country into the land on the far side of the river.Suetonius wrote that Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus defeated a large force of Germans and drove some “to the farther side of the Albis (Elbe)” river.", "It is conceivable that these refugees were the Langobardi and the Hermunduri mentioned by Strabo not long after.The German archaeologist Willi Wegewitz defined several Iron Age burial sites at the Lower Elbe as ''Langobardic''.", "The burial sites are crematorial and are usually dated from the sixth century BC through the third century AD, so a settlement breakoff seems unlikely.", "The lands of the lower Elbe fall into the zone of the Jastorf Culture and became Elbe-Germanic, differing from the lands between Rhine, Weser, and the North Sea.", "Archaeological finds show that the Lombards were an agricultural people.Tacitus also counted the Lombards as a remote and aggressive Suebian tribe, one of those united in worship of the deity Nerthus, whom he referred to as \"Mother Earth\", and also as subjects of Marobod the King of the Marcomanni.", "Marobod had made peace with the Romans, and that is why the Lombards were not part of the Germanic confederacy under Arminius at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9.In AD 17, war broke out between Arminius and Marobod.", "Tacitus records:In 47, a struggle ensued amongst the Cherusci and they expelled their new leader, the nephew of Arminius, from their country.", "The Lombards appeared on the scene with sufficient power to control the destiny of the tribe that had been the leader in the struggle for independence thirty-eight years earlier, for they restored the deposed leader to sovereignty.To the south, Cassius Dio reported that just before the Marcomannic Wars, 6,000 Lombards and Obii (sometimes thought to be Ubii) crossed the Danube and invaded Pannonia.", "The two tribes were defeated, whereupon they ceased their invasion and sent Ballomar, King of the Marcomanni, as ambassador to Aelius Bassus, who was then administering Pannonia.", "Peace was made and the two tribes returned to their homes, which in the case of the Lombards was the lands of the lower Elbe.", "At about this time, in his ''Germania'' Tacitus says that \"their scanty numbers are a distinction\" because \"surrounded by a host of most powerful tribes, they are safe, not by submitting, but by daring the perils of war\".In the mid-second century, the Lombards supposedly appeared in the Rhineland, because according to Claudius Ptolemy, the Suebic Lombards lived \"below\" the Bructeri and Sugambri, and between these and the Tencteri.", "To their east stretching northwards to the central Elbe are the Suebi Angili.", "But Ptolemy also mentions the \"Laccobardi\" to the north of the above-mentioned Suebic territories, east of the Angrivarii on the Weser, and south of the Chauci on the coast, probably indicating a Lombard expansion from the Elbe to the Rhine.", "This double mention has been interpreted as an editorial error by Gudmund Schütte, in his analysis of Ptolemy.", "However, the ''Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani'' also mentions ''Patespruna'' (Paderborn) in connection with the Lombards.From the second century onwards, many of the Germanic tribes recorded as active during the Principate started to unite into bigger tribal unions, such as the Franks, Alamanni, Bavarii, and Saxons.", "The Lombards are not mentioned at first, perhaps because they were not initially on the border of Rome, or perhaps because they were subjected to a larger tribal union, like the Saxons.", "It is, however, highly probable that, when the bulk of the Lombards migrated, a considerable part remained behind and afterwards became absorbed by the Saxon tribes in the Elbe region, while the emigrants alone retained the name of Lombards.", "However, the ''Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani'' states that the Lombards were subjected by the Saxons around 300 but rose up against them under their first king, Agelmund, who ruled for 30 years.", "In the second half of the fourth century, the Lombards left their homes, probably due to bad harvests, and embarked on their migration.The migration route of the Lombards in 489, from their homeland to \"Rugiland\", encompassed several places: ''Scoringa'' (believed to be their land on the Elbe shores), ''Mauringa'', ''Golanda'', ''Anthaib'', ''Banthaib'', and ''Vurgundaib'' (''Burgundaib'').", "According to the Ravenna Cosmography, Mauringa was the land east of the Elbe.The crossing into Mauringa was very difficult.", "The Assipitti (possibly the Usipetes) denied them passage through their lands and a fight was arranged for the strongest man of each tribe.", "The Lombard was victorious, passage was granted, and the Lombards reached Mauringa.The Lombards departed from Mauringa and reached Golanda.", "Scholar Ludwig Schmidt thinks this was further east, perhaps on the right bank of the Oder.", "Schmidt considers the name the equivalent of Gotland, meaning simply \"good land\".", "This theory is highly plausible; Paul the Deacon mentions the Lombards crossing a river, and they could have reached ''Rugiland'' from the Upper Oder area via the Moravian Gate.Moving out of Golanda, the Lombards passed through Anthaib and Banthaib until they reached Vurgundaib, believed to be the old lands of the Burgundes.", "In Vurgundaib, the Lombards were stormed in camp by \"Bulgars\" (probably Huns) and were defeated; King Agelmund was killed and Laimicho was made king.", "He was in his youth and desired to avenge the slaughter of Agelmund.", "The Lombards themselves were probably made subjects of the Huns after the defeat but rose up and defeated them with great slaughter, gaining great booty and confidence as they \"became bolder in undertaking the toils of war.\"", "During the reign of King Claffo, the Langobards occupied parts of modern-day Upper and Lower Austria and converted to Arian Christianity.", "In 505 the Herulians attacked and defeated them, obliging them to pay tax and withdraw to Northern Bohemia.", "In 508, King Rodulf sent his brother to the Lombard court to collect tribute and extend the truce; however, he was stabbed by Rometrud, sister of King Tato.", "Rodulf personally led his forces against Tato, but was ambushed and killed from a hill.In the 540s, Audoin (ruled 546–560) led the Lombards across the Danube once more into Pannonia.", "Thurisind, King of the Gepids attempted to expel them, and both peoples asked for help from the Byzantines.", "Justinian I sent his army against the Gepids; however, it was routed on the way by the Herulians and the sides signed a two-year truce.", "Revenging what he felt as a betrayal, Thurisind made an alliance with the Kutrigurs who devastated Moesia before end of the armistice.", "The Langobard and Roman army joined together and defeated the Gepids in 551.In the battle, Audoin's son, Alboin killed Thurisind's son, Turismod.In 552, the Byzantines, aided by a large contingent of Foederati, notably Lombards, Heruls and Bulgars, defeated the last Ostrogoths led by Teia in the Battle of Taginae.===Kingdom of the Lombards, 568–774=======Invasion and conquest of the Italian peninsula====''Rosamund forced to drink from the skull of her father'' by Pietro della Vecchia.", "According to Samu Szádeczky-Kardoss, the cup could be a gift from Bayan, as it was a nomad habit to make cups from the enemy's skullsIn approximately 560, Audoin was succeeded by his son Alboin, a young and energetic leader who defeated the neighboring Gepidae and made them his subjects; in 566, he married Rosamund, daughter of the Gepid king Cunimund.", "In the same year, he made a pact with Khagan Bayan.", "Next year the Lombards and the Avars destroyed the Gepid kingdom in the Lombard-Gepid War, the allies halved the prize of war and the nomads settled in Transylvania.", "In the spring of 568, Alboin, now fearing the aggressive Avars, led the Lombard migration into Italy, which he planned for years.", "According to the ''History of the Lombards,'' \"Then the Langobards, having left Pannonia, hastened to take possession of Italy with their wives and children and all their goods.\"", "The Avars have agreed to shelter them if they wish to come back.Various other peoples who either voluntarily joined or were subjects of King Alboin were also part of the migration.", "Whence, even until today, we call the villages in which they dwell Gepidan, Bulgarian, Sarmatian, Pannonian, Suabian, Norican, or by other names of this kind.\"", "At least 20,000 Saxon warriors, old allies of the Lombards, and their families joined them in their new migration.The first important city to fall was ''Forum Iulii'' (Cividale del Friuli) in northeastern Italy, in 569.There, Alboin created the first Lombard duchy, which he entrusted to his nephew Gisulf.", "Soon Vicenza, Verona and Brescia fell into Germanic hands.", "In the summer of 569, the Lombards conquered the main Roman centre of northern Italy, Milan.", "The area was then recovering from the terrible Gothic Wars, and the small Byzantine army left for its defence could do almost nothing.", "Longinus, the Exarch sent to Italy by Emperor Justin II, could only defend coastal cities that could be supplied by the powerful Byzantine fleet.", "Pavia fell after a siege of three years, in 572, becoming the first capital city of the new Lombard kingdom of Italy.Lombard grave goods (sixth–seventh century), Milan, LombardyIn the following years, the Lombards penetrated further south, conquering Tuscany and establishing two duchies, Spoleto and Benevento under Zotto, which soon became semi-independent and even outlasted the northern kingdom, surviving well into the twelfth century.", "Wherever they went, they were joined by the Ostrogothic population, which was allowed to live peacefully in Italy with their Rugian allies under Roman sovereignty.", "The Byzantines managed to retain control of the area of Ravenna and Rome, linked by a thin corridor running through Perugia.When they entered Italy, some Lombards retained their native form of paganism, while some were Arian Christians.", "Hence they did not enjoy good relations with the Early Christian Church.", "Gradually, they adopted Roman or Romanized titles, names, and traditions, and partially converted to orthodoxy (in the seventh century), though not without a long series of religious and ethnic conflicts.", "By the time Paul the Deacon was writing, the Lombard language, dress and even hairstyles had nearly all disappeared ''in toto''.Plutei of Theodota, mid-eighth century, Civic Museums of Pavia.The whole Lombard territory was divided into 36 duchies, whose leaders settled in the main cities.", "The king ruled over them and administered the land through emissaries called ''gastaldi''.", "This subdivision, however, together with the independent indocility of the duchies, deprived the kingdom of unity, making it weak even when compared to the Byzantines, especially since these had begun to recover from the initial invasion.", "This weakness became even more evident when the Lombards had to face the increasing power of the Franks.", "In response, the kings tried to centralize power over time, but they definitively lost control over Spoleto and Benevento in the attempt.=====Langobardia major=====Duchy of FriuliDuchy of TridentumDuchy of PersicetaDuchy of PaviaDuchy of Tuscia=====Langobardia minor=====Duchy of Spoleto and List of Dukes of SpoletoDuchy of Benevento and List of Dukes and Princes of Benevento====Arian monarchy====The Frankish Merovingian King Chlothar II in combat with the LombardsIn 572, Alboin was murdered in Verona in a plot led by his wife, Rosamund, who later fled to Ravenna.", "His successor, Cleph, was also assassinated, after a ruthless reign of 18 months.", "His death began an interregnum of years (the \"Rule of the Dukes\") during which the dukes did not elect any king, a period regarded as a time of violence and disorder.", "In 586, threatened by a Frankish invasion, the dukes elected Cleph's son, Authari, as king.", "In 589, he married Theodelinda, daughter of Garibald I of Bavaria, the Duke of Bavaria.", "The Catholic Theodelinda was a friend of Pope Gregory I and pushed for Christianization.", "In the meantime, Authari embarked on a policy of internal reconciliation and tried to reorganize royal administration.", "The dukes yielded half their estates for the maintenance of the king and his court in Pavia.", "On the foreign affairs side, Authari managed to thwart the dangerous alliance between the Byzantines and the Franks.Authari died in 591 and was succeeded by Agilulf, the duke of Turin, who also married Theodelinda in the same year.", "Agilulf successfully fought the rebel dukes of northern Italy, conquering Padua in 601, Cremona and Mantua in 603, and forcing the Exarch of Ravenna to pay tribute.", "Agilulf died in 616; Theodelinda reigned alone until 628 when she was succeeded by Adaloald.", "Arioald, the head of the Arian opposition who had married Theodelinda's daughter Gundeperga, later deposed Adaloald.Arioald was succeeded by Rothari, regarded by many authorities as the most energetic of all Lombard kings.", "He extended his dominions, conquering Liguria in 643 and the remaining part of the Byzantine territories of inner Veneto, including the Roman city of ''Opitergium'' (Oderzo).", "Rothari also made the famous edict bearing his name, the ''Edictum Rothari'', which established the laws and the customs of his people in Latin: the edict did not apply to the tributaries of the Lombards, who could retain their own laws.", "Rothari's son Rodoald succeeded him in 652, still very young, and was killed by his opponents.At the death of King Aripert I in 661, the kingdom was split between his children Perctarit, who set his capital in Milan, and Godepert, who reigned from Pavia (Ticinum).", "Perctarit was overthrown by Grimoald, son of Gisulf, duke of Friuli and Benevento since 647.Perctarit fled to the Avars and then to the Franks.", "Grimoald managed to regain control over the duchies and deflected the late attempt of the Byzantine emperor Constans II to conquer southern Italy.", "He also defeated the Franks.", "At Grimoald's death in 671 Perctarit returned and promoted tolerance between Arians and Catholics, but he could not defeat the Arian party, led by Arachi, duke of Trento, who submitted only to his son, the philo-Catholic Cunincpert.The Lombards engaged in fierce battles with Slavic peoples during these years: from 623 to 626 the Lombards unsuccessfully attacked the Carantanians, and, in 663–64, the Slavs raided the Vipava Valley and the Friuli.====Catholic monarchy====King Liutprand (712–744) \"was a zealous Catholic, generous and a great founder of monasteries\"Religious strife and the Slavic raids remained a source of struggle in the following years.", "In 705, the Friuli Lombards were defeated and lost the land to the west of the Soča River, namely the Gorizia Hills and the Venetian Slovenia.", "A new ethnic border was established that has lasted for over 1200 years up until the present time.The Lombard reign began to recover only with Liutprand the Lombard (king from 712), son of Ansprand and successor of the brutal Aripert II.", "He managed to regain a certain control over Spoleto and Benevento, and, taking advantage of the disagreements between the Pope and Byzantium concerning the reverence of icons, he annexed the Exarchate of Ravenna and the duchy of Rome.", "He also helped the Frankish marshal Charles Martel drive back the Arabs.", "The Slavs were defeated in the Battle of Lavariano, when they tried to conquer the Friulian Plain in 720.Liutprand's successor Aistulf conquered Ravenna for the Lombards for the first time but had to relinquish it when he was subsequently defeated by the king of the Franks, Pippin III, who was called by the Pope.After the death of Aistulf, Ratchis attempted to become king of Lombardy, but he was deposed by Desiderius, duke of Tuscany, the last Lombard to rule as king.", "Desiderius managed to take Ravenna definitively, ending the Byzantine presence in northern Italy.", "He decided to reopen struggles against the Pope, who was supporting the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento against him, and entered Rome in 772, the first Lombard king to do so.", "But when Pope Hadrian I called for help from the powerful Frankish king Charlemagne, Desiderius was defeated at Susa and besieged in Pavia, while his son Adelchis was forced to open the gates of Verona to Frankish troops.", "Desiderius surrendered in 774, and Charlemagne, in an utterly novel decision, took the title \"King of the Lombards\".", "Before then the Germanic kingdoms had frequently conquered each other, but none had adopted the title of King of another people.", "Charlemagne took part of the Lombard territory to create the Papal States.The Lombardy region in Italy, which includes the cities of Brescia, Bergamo, Milan, and the old capital Pavia, is a reminder of the presence of the Lombards.===Later history=======Falling to the Franks and the Duchy of Benevento, 774–849====Lombard Duchy of Benevento in the eighth centuryThough the kingdom centred on Pavia in the north fell to Charlemagne and the Franks in 774, the Lombard-controlled territory to the south of the Papal States was never subjugated by Charlemagne or his descendants.", "In 774, Duke Arechis II of Benevento, whose duchy had only nominally been under royal authority, though certain kings had been effective at making their power known in the south, claimed that Benevento was the successor state of the kingdom.", "He tried to turn Benevento into a ''secundum Ticinum'': a second Pavia.", "He tried to claim the kingship, but with no support and no chance of a coronation in Pavia.Charlemagne came down with an army, and his son Louis the Pious sent men, to force the Beneventan duke to submit, but his submission and promises were never kept and Arechis and his successors were ''de facto'' independent.", "The Beneventan dukes took the title ''prínceps'' (prince) instead of that of king.The Lombards of southern Italy were thereafter in the anomalous position of holding land claimed by two empires: the Carolingian Empire to the north and west and the Byzantine Empire to the east.", "They typically made pledges and promises of tribute to the Carolingians, but effectively remained outside Frankish control.", "Benevento meanwhile grew to its greatest extent yet when it imposed a tribute on the Duchy of Naples, which was tenuously loyal to Byzantium and even conquered the Neapolitan city of Amalfi in 838.At one point in the reign of Sicard, Lombard control covered most of southern Italy save the very south of Apulia and Calabria and Naples, with its nominally attached cities.", "It was during the ninth century that a strong Lombard presence became entrenched in formerly Greek Apulia.", "However, Sicard had opened up the south to the invasive actions of the Saracens in his war with Andrew II of Naples and when he was assassinated in 839, Amalfi declared independence and two factions fought for power in Benevento, crippling the principality and making it susceptible to external enemies.The civil war lasted ten years and ended with a peace treaty imposed in 849 by Emperor Louis II, the only Frankish king to exercise actual sovereignty over the Lombard states.", "The treaty divided the kingdom into two states: the Principality of Benevento and the Principality of Salerno, with its capital at Salerno on the Tyrrhenian Sea.====Southern Italy and the Arabs, 836–915====Andrew II of Naples hired Islamic mercenaries and formed a Muslim-Christian alliance for his war with Sicard of Benevento in 836; Sicard responded with other Muslim mercenaries.", "The Saracens initially concentrated their attacks on Sicily and Byzantine Italy, but soon Radelchis I of Benevento called in more mercenaries, who destroyed Capua in 841.Landulf the Old founded the present-day Capua, \"New Capua\", on a nearby hill.", "In general, the Lombard princes were less inclined to ally with the Saracens than with their Greek neighbours of Amalfi, Gaeta, Naples, and Sorrento.", "Guaifer of Salerno, however, briefly put himself under Muslim suzerainty.In 847 a large Muslim force seized Bari, until then a Lombard gastaldate under the control of Pandenulf.", "Saracen incursions proceeded northwards until Adelchis of Benevento sought the help of his suzerain, Louis II, who allied with the Byzantine emperor Basil I to expel the Arabs from Bari in 869.An Arab landing force was defeated by the emperor in 871.Adelchis and Louis remained at war until the death of Louis in 875.Adelchis regarded himself as the true successor of the Lombard kings, and in that capacity he amended the ''Edictum Rothari'', the last Lombard ruler to do so.After the death of Louis, Landulf II of Capua briefly flirted with a Saracen alliance, but Pope John VIII convinced him to break it off.", "Guaimar I of Salerno fought the Saracens with Byzantine troops.", "Throughout this period the Lombard princes swung in allegiance from one party to another.", "Finally, towards 915, Pope John X managed to unite the Christian princes of southern Italy against the Saracen establishments on the Garigliano river.", "The Saracens were ousted from Italy in the Battle of the Garigliano in 915.====Lombard principalities in the tenth century====Italy around the turn of the millennium, showing the Lombard states in the south on the eve of the arrival of the Normans.The independent state of Salerno inspired the gastalds of Capua to move towards independence, and by the end of the century they were styling themselves \"princes\" and as a third Lombard state.", "The Capuan and Beneventan states were united by Atenulf I of Capua in 900.He subsequently declared them to be in perpetual union, and they were separated only in 982, on the death of Pandulf Ironhead.", "With all of the Lombard south under his control, except Salerno, Atenulf felt safe to use the title ''Princeps Gentis Langobardorum'' (\"prince of the Lombard people\"), which Arechis II had begun using in 774.Among Atenulf's successors the principality was ruled jointly by fathers, sons, brothers, cousins, and uncles for the greater part of the century.", "Meanwhile, the prince Gisulf I of Salerno began using the title ''Langobardorum Gentis Princeps'' around mid-century, but the ideal of a united Lombard principality was realised only in December 977, when Gisulf died and his domains were inherited by Pandulf Ironhead, who temporarily held almost all Italy south of Rome and brought the Lombards into an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire.", "His territories were divided upon his death.Landulf the Red of Benevento and Capua tried to conquer the principality of Salerno with the help of John III of Naples, but with the aid of Mastalus I of Amalfi, Gisulf repulsed him.", "The rulers of Benevento and Capua made several attempts on Byzantine Apulia at this time, but late in the century, the Byzantines, under the stiff rule of Basil II, gained ground on the Lombards.The principal source for the history of the Lombard principalities in this period is the ''Chronicon Salernitanum'', composed late in the tenth century at Salerno.====Norman conquest, 1017–1078====The diminished Beneventan principality soon lost its independence to the papacy and declined in importance until it fell in the Norman conquest of southern Italy.", "The Normans, first called in by the Lombards to fight the Byzantines for control of Apulia and Calabria (under the likes of Melus of Bari and Arduin, among others), had become rivals for hegemony in the south.", "The Salernitan principality experienced a golden age under Guaimar III and Guaimar IV, but under Gisulf II, the principality shrank to insignificance and fell in 1078 to Robert Guiscard, who had married Gisulf's sister Sichelgaita.", "The Capua principality was hotly contested during the reign of the hated Pandulf IV, the ''Wolf of the Abruzzi'', and, under his son, it fell, almost without contest, to the Norman Richard Drengot (1058).", "The Capuans revolted against Norman rule in 1091, expelling Richard's grandson Richard II and setting up one Lando IV.Capua was again put under Norman rule after the Siege of Capua of 1098 and the city quickly declined in importance under a series of ineffective Norman rulers.", "The independent status of these Lombard states is in general attested by the ability of their rulers to switch suzerains at will.", "Often the legal vassal of the pope or the emperor (either Byzantine or Holy Roman), they were the real power-brokers in the south until their erstwhile allies, the Normans, rose to preeminence." ], [ "Genetics", "A genetic study published in ''Nature Communications'' in September 2018 found strong genetic similarities between Lombards of Italy and earlier Lombards of Central Europe.", "Lombard males were primarily carriers of subclades of haplogroup R1b and I2a2a1, both of which are common among Germanic peoples.", "Lombard males were found to be more genetically homogeneous than Lombard females.", "The evidence suggested that the Lombards originated in Central/Northern Europe, and were a patriarchal people who settled Central Europe and then later Italy through a migration from the north.A genetic study published in ''Science Advances'' in September 2018 examined the remains of a Lombard male buried at an Alemannic graveyard.", "He was found to be a carrier of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1c2b2b and the maternal haplogroup H65a.", "The graveyard also included the remains of a Frankish and a Byzantine male, both of whom were also carriers of subclades of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1.The Lombard, Frankish and Byzantine males were all found to be closely related, and displayed close genetic links to Northern Europe, particularly Lithuania and Iceland.A genetic study published in the ''European Journal of Human Genetics'' in January 2019 examined the mtDNA of a large number of early medieval Lombard remains from Central Europe and Italy.", "These individuals were found to be closely related and displayed strong genetic links to Central Europe.", "The evidence suggested that the Lombard settlement of Italy was the result of a migration from the north involving both males and females." ], [ "Culture", "===Language===The West-Germanic languages around the sixth century CEThe Lombardic language is extinct (unless Cimbrian and Mòcheno represent surviving dialects).", "It declined beginning in the seventh century, but may have been in scattered use until as late as about the year 1000.Only fragments of the language have survived, the main evidence being individual words quoted in Latin texts.", "In the absence of Lombardic texts, it is not possible to draw any conclusions about the language's morphology and syntax.", "The genetic classification of the language depends entirely on phonology.", "Since there is evidence that Lombardic participated in, and indeed shows some of the earliest evidence for, the High German consonant shift, it is usually classified as an Elbe Germanic or Upper German dialect.The runic inscription from the Pforzen buckle may be the earliest written example of Lombardic languageLombardic fragments are preserved in runic inscriptions.", "Primary source texts include short inscriptions in the Elder Futhark, among them the \"bronze capsule of Schretzheim\" (c. 600) and the silver belt buckle found in Pforzen, Ostallgäu (Schwaben).", "A number of Latin texts include Lombardic names, and Lombardic legal texts contain terms taken from the legal vocabulary of the vernacular.", "In 2005, Emilia Denčeva argued that the inscription of the Pernik sword may be Lombardic.The Italian language preserves a large number of Lombardic words, although it is not always easy to distinguish them from other Germanic borrowings such as those from Gothic or from Frankish.", "They often bear some resemblance to English words, as Lombardic was akin to Old Saxon.", "For instance, ''landa'' from ''land'', ''guardia'' from ''wardan'' (warden), ''guerra'' from ''werra'' (war), ''ricco'' from ''rikki'' (rich), and ''guadare'' from ''wadjan'' (to wade).The ''Codice diplomatico longobardo'', a collection of legal documents, makes reference to many Lombardic terms, some of them still in use in the Italian language:''barba'' (beard), ''marchio'' (mark), ''maniscalco'' (blacksmith), ''aia'' (courtyard), ''braida'' (suburban meadow), ''borgo'' (burg, village), ''fara'' (fundamental unity of Lombard social and military organization, presently used as toponym), ''picco'' (peak, mountain top, also used as toponym), ''sala'' (hall, room, also used as toponym), ''staffa'' (stirrup), ''stalla'' (stable), ''sculdascio'', ''faida'' (feud), ''manigoldo'' (scoundrel), ''sgherro'' (henchman); ''fanone'' (baleen), ''stamberga'' (hovel); ''anca'' (hip), ''guancia'' (cheek), ''nocca'' (knuckle), ''schiena'' (back); ''gazza'' (magpie), ''martora'' (marten); ''gualdo'' (wood, presently used as toponym), ''pozza'' (pool); verbs like ''bussare'' (to knock), ''piluccare'' (to peck), ''russare'' (to snore).===Social structure=======Migration Period society====During their stay at the mouth of the Elbe, the Lombards came into contact with other western Germanic populations, such as the Saxons and the Frisians.", "From these populations, which had long been in contact with the Celts (especially the Saxons), they adopted a rigid social organization into castes, rarely present in other Germanic peoples.The Lombard kings can be traced back as early as c. 380 and thus to the beginning of the Great Migration.", "Kingship developed among the Germanic peoples when the unity of a single military command was found necessary.", "Schmidt believed that the Germanic tribes were divided into cantons and that the earliest government was a general assembly that selected canton chiefs and war leaders in times of conflict.", "All such figures were probably selected from a caste of nobility.", "As a result of the wars of their wanderings, royal power developed such that the king became the representative of the people, but the influence of the people on the government did not fully disappear.", "Paul the Deacon gives an account of the Lombard tribal structure during the migration:.", ".", ".", "in order that they might increase the number of their warriors, the Lombards confer liberty upon many whom they deliver from the yoke of bondage, and that the freedom of these may be regarded as established, they confirm it in their accustomed way by an arrow, uttering certain words of their country in confirmation of the fact.Complete emancipation appears to have been granted only among the Franks and the Lombards.====Society of the Catholic kingdom====Lombard society was divided into classes comparable to those found in the other Germanic successor states of Rome, Frankish Gaul and Spain under the Visigoths.", "There was a noble class, a class of free persons beneath them, a class of unfree non-slaves (serfs), and finally slaves.", "The aristocracy itself was poorer, more urbanised, and less landed than elsewhere.", "Aside from the richest and most powerful of the dukes and the king himself, Lombard noblemen tended to live in cities (unlike their Frankish counterparts) and hold little more than twice as much in land as the merchant class (a far cry from provincial Frankish aristocrats who held vast swathes of land, hundreds of times larger than those beneath his status).", "The aristocracy by the eighth century was highly dependent on the king for means of income related especially to judicial duties: many Lombard nobles are referred to in contemporary documents as ''iudices'' (judges) even when their offices had important military and legislative functions as well.The freemen of the Lombard kingdom were far more numerous than in Frankish lands, especially in the eighth century, when they are almost invisible in surviving documentary evidence.", "Smallholders, owner-cultivators, and rentiers are the most numerous types of person in surviving diplomata for the Lombard kingdom.", "They may have owned more than half of the land in Lombard Italy.", "The freemen were ''exercitales'' and ''viri devoti'', that is, soldiers and \"devoted men\" (a military term like \"retainers\"); they formed the levy of the Lombard army, and they were sometimes, if infrequently, called to serve, though this seems not to have been their preference.", "The small landed class, however, lacked the political influence necessary with the king (and the dukes) to control the politics and legislation of the kingdom.", "The aristocracy was more thoroughly powerful politically if not economically in Italy than in contemporary Gaul and Spain.Lombard warrior, bronze statue, eighth century, Pavia Civic MuseumsThe urbanisation of Lombard Italy was characterised by the (or \"city as islands\").", "It appears from archaeology that the great cities of Lombard Italy—Pavia, Lucca, Siena, Arezzo, Milan—were themselves formed of small urban cores within the old Roman city walls.", "The cities of the Roman Empire had been partially destroyed in the series of wars of the fifth and sixth centuries.", "Many sectors were left in ruins and ancient monuments became fields of grass used as pastures for animals, thus the Roman Forum became the ''Campo Vaccino'', the field of cows.", "The portions of the cities that remained intact were small, modest, contained a cathedral or major church (often sumptuously decorated), and a few public buildings and townhouses of the aristocracy.", "Few buildings of importance were stone, most were wood.", "In the end, the inhabited parts of the cities were separated from one another by stretches of pasture even within the city walls.====Lombard states====Lombard state on the Carpathians (sixth century)Lombard state in Pannonia (sixth century)Kingdom of Italy and List of Kings of the LombardsPrincipality of Benevento and List of Dukes and Princes of BeneventoPrincipality of Salerno and List of Princes of SalernoPrincipality of Capua and List of Princes of Capua===Religious history===The legend from Origo may hint that initially, before the passage from Scandinavia to the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, the Lombards worshiped the Vanir.", "Later, in contact with other Germanic populations, they adopted the worship of the Æsir: an evolution that marked the passage from the adoration of deities related to fertility and the earth to the cult of warlike gods.In chapter 40 of his ''Germania'', Roman historian Tacitus, discussing the Suebian tribes of Germania, writes that the Lombards were one of the Suebian tribes united in worship of the deity Nerthus, who is often identified with the Norse goddess Freyja.", "The other tribes were the Reudigni, Aviones, Anglii, Varini, Eudoses, Suarines and Nuitones.St.", "Barbatus of Benevento observed many pagan rituals and traditions among the Lombards authorised by the Duke Romuald, son of King Grimoald:====Christianisation====The Lombards first adopted Christianity while still in Pannonia, but their conversion and Christianisation was largely nominal and far from complete.", "During the reign of Wacho, they were Orthodox Catholics allied with the Byzantine Empire, but Alboin converted to Arianism as an ally of the Ostrogoths and invaded Italy.", "All these Christian conversions primarily affected the aristocracy, while the common people remained pagan.In Italy, the Lombards were intensively Christianised, and the pressure to convert to Catholicism was great.", "With the Bavarian queen Theodelinda, a Catholic, the monarchy was brought under heavy Catholic influence.", "After initial support for the anti-Rome party in the Schism of the Three Chapters, Theodelinda remained a close contact and supporter of Pope Gregory I.", "In 603, Adaloald, the heir to the throne, received Catholic baptism.", "However, the lack of spiritual involvement of most of the Lombards in religious disputes remained constant, so much so that the opposition between Catholics, on the one hand, and pagans, Arians and schismatics, on the other, soon took on political significance.", "The supporters of Roman orthodoxy, led by the Bavarian dynasty, were politically the proponents of greater integration with the Romans, accompanied by a strategy of preserving the status quo with the Byzantines.", "Arians, pagans and schismatics, rooted above all in the northeastern regions of the kingdom (Austria), were instead interpreters of the preservation of the warlike and aggressive spirit of the people.", "Thus, to the \"pro-Catholic\" phase of Agilulf, Theodolinda and Adaloald followed, from 626 (Arioald's accession to the throne) to 690 (definitive defeat of the rebel Alahis), a long phase of the revival of Arianism, embodied by militarily aggressive kings like Rothari and Grimoald.", "However, tolerance towards Catholics was never questioned by the various kings, also safeguarded by the influential contribution of the respective queens (largely chosen, for reasons of dynastic legitimacy, among the Catholic princesses of the Bavarian dynasty).In the seventh century, the nominally Christian aristocracy of Benevento was still practising pagan rituals such as sacrifices in \"sacred\" woods.", "By the end of the reign of Cunincpert, however, the Lombards were more or less completely Catholicised.", "Under Liutprand Catholicism became tangible as the king sought to justify his title ''rex totius Italiae'' by uniting the south of the peninsula with the north, thereby bringing together his Italo-Roman and Germanic subjects into one Catholic State.====Beneventan Christianity====The Rule of Saint Benedict in Beneventan (i.e.", "Lombard) scriptThe Duchy and eventually Principality of Benevento in southern Italy developed a unique Christian rite in the seventh and eighth centuries.", "The Beneventan rite is more closely related to the liturgy of the Ambrosian rite than to the Roman rite.", "The Beneventan rite has not survived in its complete form, although most of the principal feasts and several feasts of local significance are extant.", "The Beneventan rite appears to have been less complete, less systematic, and more liturgically flexible than the Roman rite.Characteristic of this rite was the Beneventan chant, a Lombard-influenced chant that bore similarities to the Ambrosian chant of Milan.", "The Beneventan chant is largely defined by its role in the liturgy of the Beneventan rite; many Beneventan chants were assigned multiple roles when inserted into Gregorian chantbooks, appearing variously as antiphons, offertories, and communions, for example.", "It was eventually supplanted by the Gregorian chant in the eleventh century.The chief centre of the Beneventan chant was Montecassino, one of the first and greatest abbeys of Western monasticism.", "Gisulf II of Benevento had donated a large swathe of land to Montecassino in 744, and that became the basis for an important state, the ''Terra Sancti Benedicti'', which was a subject only to Rome.", "The Cassinese influence on Christianity in southern Italy was immense.", "Montecassino was also the starting point for another characteristic of Beneventan monasticism, the use of the distinct Beneventan script, a clear, angular script derived from the Roman cursive as used by the Lombards.===Art===During their nomadic phase, the Lombards primarily created art that was easily carried with them, like arms and jewellery.", "Though relatively little of this has survived, it bears resemblance to the similar endeavours of other Germanic tribes of central Europe from the same era.The first major modifications to the Germanic style of the Lombards came in Pannonia and especially in Italy, under the influence of local, Byzantine, and Christian styles.", "The conversions from nomadism and paganism to settlement and Christianity also opened up new arenas of artistic expressions, such as architecture (especially churches) and its accompanying decorative arts (such as frescoes).Langobard Shield Boss 7th Century.jpg\|Lombard shield bossnorthern Italy, seventh century, Metropolitan Museum of ArtLangobardic - Fibula - Walters 542440.jpg\|Lombard S-shaped fibulaArte longobarda, da sutri, bicchiere a forma di corno, fine VI-inizio VII sec.JPG\|A glass drinking horn from Castel TrosinoLangobardic - Shroud Cross - Walters 571773.jpg\|Lombard ''Goldblattkreuz''Cividale fibula1.jpg\|Lombard fibulaeCividale Ratchis1.JPG\|Altar of RatchisCividale Tempietto Longobardo - Westwand Märtyrerinnen 1.jpg\|Eighth-century Lombard sculpture depicting female martyrs, based on a Byzantine model.", "''Tempietto Longobardo'', Cividale del FriuliInterno della cripta.jpg\|Crypt of Sant'Eusebio, Pavia.====Architecture====Church of alt=Chiesa di santa sofia, benevento.jpgFew Lombard buildings have survived.", "Most have been lost, rebuilt, or renovated at some point, so they preserve little of their original Lombard structure.", "Lombard architecture was well-studied in the twentieth century, and the four-volume ''Lombard Architecture'' (1919) by Arthur Kingsley Porter is a \"monument of illustrated history\".The small Oratorio di Santa Maria in Valle in Cividale del Friuli is probably one of the oldest preserved examples of Lombard architecture, as Cividale was the first Lombard city in Italy.", "Parts of Lombard constructions have been preserved in Pavia (San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, crypts of Sant'Eusebio and San Giovanni Domnarum) and Monza (cathedral).", "The ''Basilic autariana'' in Fara Gera d'Adda near Bergamo and the church of San Salvatore in Brescia also have Lombard elements.", "All these buildings are in northern Italy (Langobardia major), but by far the best-preserved Lombard structure is in southern Italy (Langobardia minor).", "The Church of Santa Sofia in Benevento was erected in 760 by Duke Arechis II, and it preserves Lombard frescoes on the walls and even Lombard capitals on the columns.Lombard architecture flourished under the impulse provided by the Catholic monarchs like Theodelinda, Liutprand, and Desiderius to the foundation of monasteries to further their political control.", "Bobbio Abbey was founded during this time.Some of the late Lombard structures of the ninth and tenth centuries have been found to contain elements of style associated with Romanesque architecture and so have been dubbed \"first Romanesque\".", "These edifices are considered, along with some similar buildings in southern France and Catalonia, to mark a transitory phase between the Pre-Romanesque and full-fledged Romanesque." ], [ "List of rulers" ], [ "Notes and sources", "===Notes======Sources==='''Ancient sources'''* ''Cosmographer of Ravenna''* ''Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani''* ''Historia Langobardorum''* ''Origo Gentis Langobardorum''* Tacitus.", "''Annals''* Tacitus.", "''Germania'''''Modern sources'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * In two volumes.", "Diss.", "Eberhard-Karls-Universität zu Tübingen.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Limit" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Limit''' or '''Limits''' may refer to:" ], [ "Arts and media", "* ''Limit'' (manga), a manga by Keiko Suenobu* ''Limit'' (film), a South Korean film* Limit (music), a way to characterize harmony* \"Limit\" (song), a 2016 single by Luna Sea* \"Limits\", a 2019 song by Paenda; see Austria in the Eurovision Song Contest 2019* ''Limits'' (collection), a collection of short stories and essays by Larry Niven* The Limit, a Dutch band* \"The Limit\", an episode from ''Adventure Time''* \"The Limit\", an episode from ''The Amazing World of Gumball''* \"The Limit is Just Me\", a documentary film about world's longest triathlon." ], [ "Mathematics", "* Limit (mathematics), the value that a function or sequence \"approaches\" as the input or index approaches some value Limit of a function(ε,_δ)-definition of limit, formal definition of the mathematical notion of limit* Limit of a sequence** One-sided limit, either of the two limits of a function as a specified point is approached from below or from above* Limit inferior and limit superior* Limit of a net* Limit point, in topological spaces* Limit (category theory) Direct limit Inverse limit" ], [ "Other uses", "* Limits (BDSM), activities that a partner feels strongly about, and to which special attention is paid* limits.h, the header of a general purpose standard library of the C programming language* Els Límits, a village in the municipality of La Jonquera, Catalonia* Limit order, a type of order to buy a security at no more (or sell at no less) than a specific price on an exchange* Speed limit, the maximum speed at which road vehicles may legally travel on particular stretches of road* Setting limits, a life skill for protecting against having personal values compromised or violated* A concept developed by Eugenio Trías: Being is the being of limit" ], [ "See also", "* * Limited (disambiguation)* Limitation (disambiguation)* Limitless (disambiguation)* Unlimited (disambiguation)* No Limits (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Loki" ], [ "Introduction", "Loki with a fishing net (per ''Reginsmál'') as depicted on an 18th-century Icelandic manuscript (SÁM 66)'''Loki''' is a god in Norse mythology.", "Loki is the son of Fárbauti (a jötunn) and Laufey (mentioned as a goddess), and the brother of Helblindi and Býleistr.", "Loki is married to Sigyn and they have two sons, Narfi or Nari and Váli.", "By the jötunn Angrboða, Loki is the father of Hel, the wolf Fenrir, and the world serpent Jörmungandr.", "In the form of a mare, Loki was impregnated by the stallion Svaðilfari and gave birth to the eight-legged horse Sleipnir.Loki's relation with the gods varies by source; he sometimes assists the gods and sometimes behaves maliciously towards them.", "Loki is a shape shifter and in separate incidents appears in the form of a salmon, a mare, a fly, and possibly an elderly woman named Þökk (Old Norse 'thanks').", "Loki's positive relations with the gods end with his role in engineering the death of the god Baldr, and eventually, Odin's specially engendered son Váli binds Loki with the entrails of one of his sons; in the ''Prose Edda'', this son, Nari or Narfi, is killed by another son of Loki who is also called Váli.", "In both the ''Prose Edda'' and the ''Poetic Edda'', the goddess Skaði is responsible for placing a serpent above him while he is bound.", "The serpent drips venom from above him that Sigyn collects into a bowl; however, she must empty the bowl when it is full, and the venom that drips in the meantime causes Loki to writhe in pain, thereby causing earthquakes.", "With the onset of Ragnarök, Loki is foretold to slip free from his bonds and to fight against the gods among the forces of the jötnar, at which time he will encounter the god Heimdallr, and the two will slay each other.Loki is referred to in the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; the ''Prose Edda'' and ''Heimskringla'', written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson; the Norwegian Rune Poems, in the poetry of skalds, and in Scandinavian folklore.", "Loki may be depicted on the Snaptun Stone, the Kirkby Stephen Stone, and the Gosforth Cross.", "Scholars have debated Loki's origins and role in Norse mythology, which some have described as that of a trickster god.", "Loki has been depicted in or referenced in a variety of media in modern popular culture." ], [ "Etymology and alternate names", "The etymology of the name ''Loki'' has been extensively debated.", "The name has at times been associated with the Old Norse word ''logi'' ('flame'), but there seems not to be a sound linguistic basis for this.", "Rather, the later Scandinavian variants of the name (such as Faroese ''Lokki'', Danish ''Lokkemand'', Norwegian ''Loke'' and ''Lokke'', Swedish ''Luki'' and ''Luku'') point to an origin in the Germanic root ''luk''-, which denoted things to do with loops (like knots, hooks, closed-off rooms, and locks).", "This corresponds with usages such as the Swedish ''lockanät'' and Faroese ''lokkanet'' ('cobweb', literally 'Lokke's web') and Faroese ''lokki''~''grindalokki''~''grindalokkur'', 'daddy-long-legs' referring both to crane flies and harvestmen, modern Swedish ''lockespindlar'' (\"Locke-spiders\").", "Some Eastern Swedish traditions referring to the same figure use forms in ''n''- like ''Nokk(e)'', but this corresponds to the ''luk''- etymology insofar as those dialects consistently used a different root, Germanic ''hnuk''-, in contexts where western varieties used ''luk''-: \"''nokke'' corresponds to ''nøkkel''\" ('key' in Eastern Scandinavian) \"as ''loki''~''lokke'' to ''lykil''\" ('key' in Western Scandinavian).While it has been suggested that this association with closing could point to Loki's apocalyptic role at Ragnarök, \"there is quite a bit of evidence that Loki in premodern society was thought to be the causer of knots/tangles/loops, or himself a knot/tangle/loop.", "Hence, it is natural that Loki is the inventor of the fishnet, which consists of loops and knots, and that the word ''loki'' (''lokke'', ''lokki'', ''loke'', ''luki'') is a term for makers of cobwebs: spiders and the like.\"", "Though not prominent in the oldest sources, this identity as a \"tangler\" may be the etymological meaning of Loki's name.In various poems from the ''Poetic Edda'' (stanza 2 of ''Lokasenna'', stanza 41 of ''Hyndluljóð'', and stanza 26 of ''Fjölsvinnsmál''), and sections of the ''Prose Edda'' (chapter 32 of ''Gylfaginning'', stanza 8 of ''Haustlöng'', and stanza 1 of ''Þórsdrápa'') Loki is alternatively referred to as ''Loptr'', which is generally considered derived from Old Norse ''lopt'' meaning \"air\", and therefore points to an association with the air.The name ''Hveðrungr'' (Old Norse '?roarer') is also used in reference to Loki, occurring in names for Hel (such as in ''Ynglingatal'', where she is called ''hveðrungs mær'') and in reference to Fenrir (as in ''Völuspa'')." ], [ "Attestations", "''Loki and Sigyn'' (1863) by Mårten Eskil Winge===''Poetic Edda''===In the ''Poetic Edda'', Loki appears (or is referenced) in the poems ''Völuspá'', ''Lokasenna'', ''Þrymskviða'', ''Reginsmál'', ''Baldrs draumar'', and ''Hyndluljóð''.====''Völuspá''====In stanza 35 of the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Völuspá'', a völva tells Odin that, among many other things, she sees Sigyn sitting very unhappily with her bound husband, Loki, under a \"grove of hot springs\".", "In stanza 51, during the events of Ragnarök, Loki appears free from his bonds and is referred to as the \"brother of Býleistr\" (here transcribed as ''Byleist''):In stanza 54, after consuming Odin and being killed by Odin's son Víðarr, Fenrir is described as \"Loki's kinsman\".====''Lokasenna''====''Loki taunts Bragi'' (1908) by W. G. CollingwoodA depiction of ''Lokasenna'' (1895) by Lorenz FrølichThe poem ''Lokasenna'' (Old Norse \"Loki's Flyting\") centers around Loki flyting with other gods; Loki puts forth two stanzas of insults while the receiving figure responds with a single stanza, and then another figure chimes in.", "The poem begins with a prose introduction detailing that Ægir, a figure associated with the sea, is hosting a feast in his hall for a number of the gods and elves.", "There, the gods praise Ægir's servers Fimafeng and Eldir.", "Loki \"could not bear to hear that\", and kills the servant Fimafeng.", "In response, the gods grab their shields, shrieking at Loki, and chase him out of the hall and to the woods.", "The gods then return to the hall, and continue drinking.=====Entrance and rejection=====Loki comes out of the woods and meets Eldir outside of the hall.", "Loki greets Eldir (and the poem itself begins) with a demand that Eldir tell him what the gods are discussing over their ale inside the hall.", "Eldir responds that they discuss their \"weapons and their prowess in war\" and yet no one there has anything friendly to say about Loki.", "Loki says that he will go into the feast, and that, before the end of the feast, he will induce quarrelling among the gods, and \"mix their mead with malice\".", "Eldir responds that \"if shouting and fighting you pour out on\" to the gods, \"they'll wipe it off on you\".", "Loki then enters the hall, and everyone there falls silent upon noticing him.=====Re-entrance and insults=====Breaking the silence, Loki says that, thirsty, he had come to these halls from a long way away to ask the gods for a drink of \"the famous mead\".", "Calling the gods arrogant, Loki asks why they are unable to speak, and demands that they assign him a seat and a place for him at the feast, or tell him to leave.", "The skaldic god Bragi is the first to respond to Loki by telling him that Loki will not have a seat and place assigned to him by the gods at the feast, for the gods know what men they should invite.", "Loki does not respond to Bragi directly, but instead directs his attention to Odin, and states:Odin then asks his silent son Víðarr to stand up, so that Loki (here referred to as the \"wolf's father\") may sit at the feast, and so that he may not speak words of blame to the gods in Ægir's hall.", "Víðarr stands and pours a drink for Loki.", "Prior to drinking, Loki declaims a toast to the gods, with a specific exception for Bragi.", "Bragi responds that he will give a horse, sword, and ring from his possessions so that he does not repay the gods \"with hatred\".", "Loki responds that Bragi will always be short of all of these things, accusing him of being \"wary of war\" and \"shy of shooting\".", "Bragi responds that, were they outside of Ægir's hall, Bragi would be holding Loki's head as a reward for his lies.", "Loki replies that Bragi is brave when seated, calling him a \"bench-ornament\", and that Bragi would run away when troubled by an angry, spirited man.The goddess Iðunn interrupts, asking Bragi, as a service to his relatives and adopted relatives, not to say words of blame to Loki in Ægir's hall.", "Loki tells Iðunn to be silent, calling her the most \"man-crazed\" of all women, and saying that she placed her washed, bright arms around her brother's slayer.", "Iðunn says that she will not say words of blame in Ægir's hall, and affirms that she quietened Bragi, who was made talkative by beer, and that she does not want the two of them to fight.", "The goddess Gefjun asks why the two gods must fight, saying that Loki knows that he is joking, and that \"all living things love him\".", "Loki responds to Gefjun by stating that Gefjun's heart was once seduced by a \"white boy\" who gave her a jewel, and who Gefjun laid her thigh over.Odin says that Loki must be insane to make Gefjun his enemy, as her wisdom about the fates of men may equal Odin's own.", "Loki says that Odin does a poor job in handing out honor in war to men, and that he's often given victory to the faint-hearted.", "Odin responds that even if this is true, Loki (in a story otherwise unattested) once spent eight winters beneath the earth as a woman milking cows, and during this time bore children.", "Odin declares this perverse.", "Loki counters that Odin once practiced seiðr (a type of sorcery) on the island of ''Samsey'' (now Samsø, Denmark), and, appearing as a wizard, traveled among mankind, which Loki condemns as perverse.Frigg, a major deity who is married to Odin, says that what Loki and Odin did in the ancient past should not be spoken of in front of others, and that ancient matters should always remain hidden.", "Loki brings up that Frigg is the daughter of Fjörgyn, a personification of the earth, and that she had once taken Odin's brothers Vili and Vé into her embrace.", "Frigg responds that if there was a boy like her now-deceased son Baldr in the hall, Loki would not be able to escape from the wrath of the gods.", "Loki reminds Frigg that he is responsible for the death of her son Baldr.The goddess Freyja declares that Loki must be mad, stating that Frigg knows all fate, yet she does not speak it.", "Loki claims each of the gods and elves that are present have been Freyja's lover.", "Freyja replies that Loki is lying, that he just wants to \"yelp about wicked things\" that gods and goddesses are furious with him, and that he will go home thwarted.", "In response, Loki calls Freyja a malicious witch, and claims that Freyja was once astride her brother Freyr, when all of the other laughing gods surprised her and Freyja then farted.", "This scenario is otherwise unattested.", "Njörðr (Freyja and Freyr's father) says that it is harmless for a woman to have a lover or \"someone else\" beside her husband, and that what is surprising is a \"pervert god coming here who has borne children\".Loki tells Njörðr to be silent, recalling Njörðr's status as once having been a hostage from the Vanir to the Æsir during the Æsir-Vanir War, that the \"daughters of Hymir\" once used Njörðr \"as a pisspot\", urinating in his mouth (an otherwise unattested comment).", "Njörðr responds that this was his reward when he was sent as a hostage to the Æsir, and that he fathered his son (Freyr), whom no one hates, and is considered a prince of the Æsir.", "Loki tells Njörðr to maintain his moderation, and that he will not keep it secret any longer that Njörðr fathered this son with his sister (unnamed), although one would expect him to be worse than he turned out.The god Tyr defends Freyr, to which Loki replies that Tyr should be silent, for Tyr cannot \"deal straight with people\", and points out that it was Loki's son, the wolf Fenrir, who tore Tyr's hand off.", "(According to the prose introduction to the poem Tyr is now one-handed from having his arm bitten off by Loki's son Fenrir while Fenrir was bound.)", "Tyr responds that while he may have lost a hand, Loki has lost the wolf, and trouble has come to them both.", "Further, that Fenrir must now wait in shackles until the onset of Ragnarök.", "Loki tells Tyr to be silent a second time, and states that Tyr's wife (otherwise unattested) had a son by Loki, and that Tyr never received any compensation for this \"injury\", further calling him a \"wretch\".Freyr himself interrupts at this point, and says that he sees a wolf lying before a river mouth, and that, unless Loki is immediately silent, like the wolf, Loki shall also be bound until Ragnarök.", "Loki retorts that Freyr purchased his consort Gerðr with gold, having given away his sword, which he will lack at Ragnarök.", "Byggvir (referred to in the prose introduction to the poem as a servant of Freyr) says that if he had as noble a lineage and as an honorable a seat as Freyr, he would grind down Loki, and make all of his limbs lame.", "Loki refers to Byggvir in terms of a dog, and says that Byggvir is always found at Freyr's ears, or twittering beneath a grindstone.", "Byggvir says that he is proud to be here by all the gods and men, and that he is said to be speedy.", "Loki tells him to be silent, that Byggvir does not know how to apportion food among men, and that he hides among the straw and dais when men go to battle.The god Heimdallr says that Loki is drunk and witless, and asks Loki why he will not stop speaking.", "Loki tells Heimdallr to be silent, that he was fated a \"hateful life\", that Heimdallr must always have a muddy back, and serve as watchman of the gods.", "The goddess Skaði says that while Loki now appears light-hearted and \"playing\" with his \"tail-wagging\", he will soon be bound with his ice-cold son's guts on a sharp rock by the gods.", "Loki says that, even if this is his fate, that he was \"first and foremost\" with the other gods at the killing of Skaði's father, Þjazi.", "Skaði says that, with these events in mind, \"baneful advice\" will always come from her \"sanctuaries and plains\" to Loki.", "Loki says that Skaði was once gentler in speech to him (referring to himself as the \"son of Laufey\") when Skaði once invited him to her bed (an event that is unattested elsewhere), and that such events must be mentioned if they are to recall \"shameful deeds\".Sif goes forth and pours Loki a glass of mead into a crystal cup in a prose narrative.", "Continuing the poem, Sif welcomes Loki and invites him to take a crystal cup filled with ancient mead, and says that among the children of the Æsir, she is singularly blameless.", "Loki \"takes the horn\", drinks it, and says that she would be, if it were so, and states that Sif and Loki had been lovers, despite her marriage to Thor (an affair that is otherwise unattested).", "Beyla (referred to in the prose introduction to the poem as a servant of Freyr) says that all of the mountains are shaking, that she thinks Thor must be on his way home, and when Thor arrives he will bring peace to those that quarrel there.", "Loki tells Beyla to be silent, that she is \"much imbued with malice\", that no worse woman has ever been among the \"Æsir's children\", and calling her a bad \"serving-wench\".=====The arrival of Thor and the bondage of Loki=====''Loki threatens the Æsir with fire'' (1895) by Lorenz Frølich''The Punishment of Loki'' by Louis HuardThor arrives, and tells Loki to be silent, referring to him as an \"evil creature\", stating that with his hammer Mjöllnir he will silence Loki by hammering his head from his shoulders.", "Acknowledging that Thor has arrived, Loki asks Thor why he is raging, and says that Thor will not be so bold to fight against the wolf when he swallows Odin at Ragnarök.", "Thor again tells Loki to be silent, and threatens him with Mjöllnir, adding that he will throw Loki \"up on the roads to the east\", and thereafter no one will be able to see Loki.", "Loki states that Thor should never brag of his journeys to the east, claiming that there Thor crouched cowering in the thumb of a glove, mockingly referring to him as a \"hero\", and adding that such behaviour was unlike Thor.", "Thor responds by telling Loki to be silent, threatening him with Mjöllnir, and adding that every one of Loki's bones will be broken with it.", "Loki says he intends to live for a long while yet despite Thor's threats, and taunts Thor about an encounter Thor once had with the Skrýmir (Útgarða-Loki in disguise).", "Thor again commands Loki to be silent, threatens Loki with Mjöllnir, and says he will send Loki to Hel, below the gates of Nágrind.In response to Thor, Loki says that he \"spoke before the Æsir\", and \"before the sons of the Æsir\" what his \"spirit urged\" him to say, yet before Thor alone he will leave, as he knows that Thor does strike.", "Loki ends the poetic verses of ''Lokasenna'' with a final stanza:Following this final stanza a prose section details that after Loki left the hall, he disguised himself as a salmon and hid in the waterfall of Franangrsfors, where the Æsir caught him.", "The narrative continues that Loki was bound with the entrails of his son Nari, and his son Narfi changed into a wolf.", "Skaði fastened a venomous snake over Loki's face, and from it poison dripped.", "Sigyn, his spouse, sat with him holding a basin beneath the dripping venom, yet when the basin became full, she carried the poison away; and during this time the poison dripped on to Loki, causing him to writhe with such violence that all of the earth shook from the force, resulting in what are now known as earthquakes.====''Þrymskviða''====''Loki's flight to Jötunheim'' (1908) by W. G. Collingwood''Ah, what a lovely maid it is!''", "(1902) by Elmer Boyd SmithIn the poem ''Þrymskviða'', Thor wakes and finds that his powerful hammer, Mjöllnir, is missing.", "Thor turns to Loki first, and tells him that nobody knows that the hammer has been stolen.", "The two then go to the court of the goddess Freyja, and Thor asks her if he may borrow her feather cloak so that he may attempt to find Mjöllnir.", "Freyja agrees, saying she would lend it even if it were made of silver and gold, and Loki flies off, the feather cloak whistling.In Jötunheimr, the jötunn Þrymr sits on a burial mound, plaiting golden collars for his female dogs, and trimming the manes of his horses.", "Þrymr sees Loki, and asks what could be amiss among the Æsir and the Elves; why is Loki alone in the Jötunheimr?", "Loki responds that he has bad news for both the elves and the Æsir: that Thor's hammer, Mjöllnir, is gone.", "Þrymr says that he has hidden Mjöllnir eight leagues beneath the earth, from which it will be retrieved if Freyja is brought to marry him.", "Loki flies off, the feather cloak whistling, away from Jötunheimr and back to the court of the gods.Thor asks Loki if his efforts were successful, and that Loki should tell him while he is still in the air as \"tales often escape a sitting man, and the man lying down often barks out lies\".", "Loki states that it was indeed an effort, and also a success, for he has discovered that Þrymr has the hammer, but that it cannot be retrieved unless Freyja is brought to marry Þrymr.", "The two return to Freyja, and tell her to dress herself in a bridal head dress, as they will drive her to Jötunheimr.", "Freyja, indignant and angry, goes into a rage, causing all of the halls of the Æsir to tremble in her anger, and her necklace, the famed Brísingamen, falls from her.", "Freyja pointedly refuses.As a result, the gods and goddesses meet and hold a thing to discuss and debate the matter.", "At the thing, the god Heimdallr puts forth the suggestion that, in place of Freyja, Thor should be dressed as the bride, complete with jewels, women's clothing down to his knees, a bridal head-dress, and the necklace Brísingamen.", "Thor rejects the idea, and Loki (here described as \"son of Laufey\") interjects that this will be the only way to get back Mjöllnir, and points out that without Mjöllnir, the jötnar will be able to invade and settle in Asgard.", "The gods dress Thor as a bride, and Loki states that he will go with Thor as his maid, and that the two shall drive to Jötunheimr together.After riding together in Thor's goat-driven chariot, the two, disguised, arrive in Jötunheimr.", "Þrymr commands the jötnar in his hall to spread straw on the benches, for Freyja has arrived to marry him.", "Þrymr recounts his treasured animals and objects, stating that Freyja was all that he was missing in his wealth.Early in the evening, the disguised Loki and Thor meet with Þrymr and the assembled jötnar.", "Thor eats and drinks ferociously, consuming entire animals and three casks of mead.", "Þrymr finds the behaviour at odds with his impression of Freyja, and Loki, sitting before Þrymr and appearing as a \"very shrewd maid\", makes the excuse that \"Freyja's\" behaviour is due to her having not consumed anything for eight entire days before arriving due to her eagerness to arrive.", "Þrymr then lifts \"Freyja's\" veil and wants to kiss \"her\" until catching the terrifying eyes staring back at him, seemingly burning with fire.", "Loki states that this is because \"Freyja\" had not slept for eight nights in her eagerness.The \"wretched sister\" of the jötnar appears, asks for a bridal gift from \"Freyja\", and the jötnar bring out Mjöllnir to \"sanctify the bride\", to lay it on her lap, and marry the two by \"the hand\" of the goddess Vár.", "Thor laughs internally when he sees the hammer, takes hold of it, strikes Þrymr, beats all of the jötnar, and kills the \"older sister\" of the jötnar.====''Reginsmál''====Loki appears in both prose and the first six stanzas of the poem ''Reginsmál''.", "The prose introduction to ''Reginsmál'' details that, while the hero Sigurd was being fostered by Regin, son of Hreidmar, Regin tells him that once the gods Odin, Hœnir, and Loki went to Andvara-falls, which contained many fish.", "Regin, a dwarf, had two brothers; Andvari, who gained food by spending time in the Andvara-falls in the form of a pike, and Ótr, who would often go to the Andvara-falls in the form of an otter.While the three gods are at the falls, Ótr (in the form of an otter) catches a salmon and eats it on a river bank, his eyes shut, when Loki hits and kills him with a stone.", "The gods think that this is great, and flay the skin from the otter to make a bag.", "That night, the three gods stay with Hreidmar (the father of Regin, Andvari, and the now-dead Ótr) and show him their catches, including the skin of the otter.", "Upon seeing the skin, Regin and Hreidmar \"seized them and made them ransom their lives\" in exchange for filling the otterskin bag the gods had made with gold and covering the exterior of the bag with red gold.Loki is sent to retrieve the gold, and Loki goes to the goddess Rán, borrows her net, and then goes back to the Andvara-falls.", "At the falls, Loki spreads his net before Andvari (who is in the form of a pike), which Andvari jumps into.", "The stanzas of the poem then begin: Loki mocks Andvari, and tells him that he can save his head by telling Loki where his gold is.", "Andvari gives some background information about himself, including that he was cursed by a \"norn of misfortune\" in his \"early days\".", "Loki responds by asking Andvari \"what requital\" does mankind get if \"they wound each other with words\".", "Andvari responds that lying men receive a \"terrible requital\": having to wade in the river Vadgelmir, and that their suffering will be long.Loki looks over the gold that Andvari possesses, and after Andvari hands over all of his gold, Andvari holds on to but a single ring; the ring Andvarinaut, which Loki also takes.", "Andvari, now in the form of a dwarf, goes into a rock, and tells Loki that the gold will result in the death of two brothers, will cause strife between eight princes, and will be useless to everyone.Loki returns, and the three gods give Hreidmar the money from the gold hoard and flatten out the otter skin, stretch out its legs, and heap gold atop it, covering it.", "Hreidmar looks it over, and notices a single hair that has not been covered.", "Hreidmar demands that it be covered as well.", "Odin puts forth the ring Andvarinaut, covering the single hair.Loki states that they have now handed over the gold, and that gold is cursed as Andvari is, and that it will be the death of Hreidmar and Regin both.", "Hreidmar responds that if he had known this before, he would have taken their lives, yet that he believes those are not yet born whom the curse is intended for, and that he does not believe him.", "Further, with the hoard, he will have red gold for the rest of his life.", "Hreidmar tells them to leave, and the poem continues without further mention of Loki.====''Baldrs draumar''====In ''Baldr draumar'', Odin has awoken a deceased völva in Hel, and questions her repeatedly about his son Baldr's bad dreams.", "Loki is mentioned in stanza 14, the final stanza of the poem, where the völva tells Odin to ride home, to be proud of himself, and that no one else will come visit until \"Loki is loose, escaped from his bonds\" and the onset of Ragnarök.====''Hyndluljóð''====John Bauer.Loki is referenced in two stanzas in ''Völuspá hin skamma'', found within the poem ''Hyndluljóð''.", "The first stanza notes that Loki produced \"the wolf\" with the jötunn Angrboða, that Loki himself gave birth to the horse Sleipnir by the stallion Svaðilfari, and that Loki (referred to as the \"brother of Býleistr\") thirdly gave birth to \"the worst of all marvels\".", "This stanza is followed by:In the second of the two stanzas, Loki is referred to as ''Lopt''.", "Loki's consumption of a woman's heart is otherwise unattested.====''Fjölsvinnsmál''====In the poem ''Fjölsvinnsmál'', a stanza mentions Loki (as ''Lopt'') in association with runes.", "In the poem, Fjölsviðr describes to the hero Svipdagr that Sinmara keeps the weapon Lævateinn within a chest, locked with nine strong locks (due to significant translation differences, two translations of the stanza are provided here):===''Prose Edda''=======''Gylfaginning''====The ''Prose Edda'' book ''Gylfaginning'' tells various myths featuring Loki, including Loki's role in the birth of the horse Sleipnir and Loki's contest with Logi, fire personified.=====High's introduction=====Loki first appears in the ''Prose Edda'' in chapter 20 of the book ''Gylfaginning'', where he is referred to as the \"ás called Loki\" while the enthroned figure of Third explains to \"Gangleri\" (King Gylfi in disguise) the goddess Frigg's prophetic abilities while citing a stanza of ''Lokasenna''.", "\"The children of Loki\" (1920) by Willy PoganyLoki is more formally introduced by High in chapter 34, where he is \"reckoned among the Æsir\", and High states that Loki is called by some \"the Æsir's calumniator\", \"originator of deceits\", and \"the disgrace of all gods and men\".", "High says that Loki's alternative name is ''Lopt'', that he is the son of the male jötunn Fárbauti, his mother is \"Laufey or Nál\", and his brothers are Helblindi and Býleistr.", "High describes Loki as \"pleasing and handsome\" in appearance, malicious in character, \"very capricious in behaviour\", and as possessing \"to a greater degree than others\" learned cunning, and \"tricks for every purpose\", often getting the Æsir into trouble, and then getting them out of it with his trickery.", "Sigyn is introduced as being married to Loki, and they have a son named \"Nari or Narfi\".", "Otherwise, Loki had three children with the female jötunn Angrboða from Jötunheimr; the wolf Fenrir, the serpent Jörmungandr, and the female being Hel.", "The gods realized that these three children were being raised in Jötunheimr, and expected trouble from them partially due to the nature of Angrboða, but worse yet Loki.", "In chapter 35, Gangleri comments that Loki produced a \"pretty terrible\"—yet important—family.=====Loki, Svaðilfari, and Sleipnir=====In chapter 42, High tells a story set \"right at the beginning of the gods' settlement, when the gods at established Midgard and built Val-Hall\".", "The story is about an unnamed builder who has offered to build a fortification for the gods that will keep out invaders in exchange for the goddess Freyja, the sun, and the moon.", "After some debate, the gods agree to these conditions, but place a number of restrictions on the builder, including that he must complete the work within three seasons without the help of any man.", "The builder makes a single request; that he may have help from his stallion Svaðilfari, and due to Loki's influence, this is allowed.", "The stallion Svaðilfari performs twice the deeds of strength as the builder, and hauls enormous rocks—to the surprise of the gods.", "The builder, with Svaðilfari, makes fast progress on the wall, and three days before the deadline of summer, the builder is nearly at the entrance to the fortification.", "The gods convene, and figure out who is responsible, resulting in a unanimous agreement that, along with most trouble, Loki is to blame (here referred to as ''Loki Laufeyjarson''—his surname derived from his mother's name, ''Laufey'').", "''Loki and Svaðilfari'' (1909) by Dorothy HardyThe gods declare that Loki deserves a horrible death if he cannot find a scheme that will cause the builder to forfeit his payment, and threaten to attack him.", "Loki, afraid, swears oaths that he will devise a scheme to cause the builder to forfeit the payment, whatever it may cost himself.", "That night, the builder drives out to fetch stone with his stallion Svaðilfari, and out from a wood runs a mare.", "The mare neighs at Svaðilfari, and \"realizing what kind of horse it was\", Svaðilfari becomes frantic, neighs, tears apart his tackle, and runs towards the mare.", "The mare runs to the wood, Svaðilfari follows, and the builder chases after.", "The two horses run around all night, causing the building to be halted and the builder is then unable to regain the previous momentum of his work.The builder goes into a rage, and when the Æsir realize that the builder is a hrimthurs, they disregard their previous oaths with the builder, and call for Thor.", "Thor arrives, and subsequently kills the builder by smashing the builder's skull into shards with the hammer Mjöllnir.", "However, Loki \"had such dealings\" with Svaðilfari that \"somewhat later\" Loki gives birth to a gray foal with eight legs; the horse Sleipnir—\"the best horse among gods and men.", "\"=====Loki, Útgarða-Loki, and Logi=====In chapter 44, Third reluctantly relates a tale where Thor and Loki are riding in Thor's chariot, which is pulled by his two goats.", "Loki and Thor stop at the house of a peasant farmer, and there they are given lodging for a night.", "Thor slaughters his goats, prepares them, puts them in a pot, and Loki and Thor sit down for their evening meal.", "Thor invites the peasant family who own the farm to share with him the meal he has prepared, but warns them not to break the bones.", "Afterward, at the suggestion of Loki, the peasant child Þjálfi sucks the bone marrow from one of the goat bones, and when Thor goes to resurrect the goats, he finds one of the goats to be lame.", "In their terror, the family atones to Thor by giving Thor their son Þjálfi and their daughter Röskva.", "''I am the giant Skrymir'' by Elmer Boyd SmithMinus the goats, Thor, Loki, and the two children continue east until they arrive at a vast forest in Jötunheimr.", "They continue through the woods until dark.", "The four seek shelter for the night.", "They encounter an immense building.", "Finding shelter in a side room, they experience earthquakes through the night.", "The earthquakes cause all four but Thor, who grips his hammer in preparation of defense, to be fearful.", "The building turns out to be the huge glove of Skrymir, who has been snoring throughout the night, causing what seemed to be earthquakes.", "All four sleep beneath an oak tree near Skrymir in fear.Thor wakes up in the middle of the night, and a series of events occur where Thor twice attempts to kill the sleeping Skrýmir with his hammer.", "Skrýmir awakes after each attempt, only to say that he detected an acorn falling on his head or that he wonders if bits of tree from the branches above have fallen on top of him.", "The second attempt awakes Skrýmir.", "Skrýmir gives them advice; if they are going to be cocky at the keep of Útgarðr it would be better for them to turn back now, for Útgarða-Loki's men there will not put up with it.", "Skrýmir throws his knapsack onto his back and abruptly goes into the forest.", "High comments that \"there is no report that the Æsir expressed hope for a happy reunion\".The four travelers continue their journey until midday.", "They find themselves facing a massive castle in an open area.", "The castle is so tall that they must bend their heads back to their spines to see above it.", "At the entrance to the castle is a shut gate, and Thor finds that he cannot open it.", "Struggling, all four squeeze through the bars of the gate, and continue to a large hall.", "Inside the great hall are two benches, where many generally large people sit on two benches.", "The four see Útgarða-Loki, the king of the castle, sitting.Útgarða-Loki says that no visitors are allowed to stay unless they can perform a feat.", "Loki, standing in the rear of the party, is the first to speak, claiming that he can eat faster than anyone.", "Útgarða-Loki comments that this would be a feat indeed, and calls for a being by the name of Logi to come from the benches.", "A trencher is fetched, placed on the floor of the hall, and filled with meat.", "Loki and Logi sit down on opposing sides.", "The two eat as quickly as they can and meet at the midpoint of the trencher.", "Loki consumed all of the meat off of the bones on his side, yet Logi had not only consumed his meat, but also the bones and the trencher itself.", "It was evident to all that Loki had lost.", "In turn, Þjálfi races against a figure by the name of Hugi three times and thrice loses.Thor agrees to compete in a drinking contest but after three immense gulps fails.", "Thor agrees to lift a large, gray cat in the hall but finds that it arches his back no matter what he does, and that he can raise only a single paw.", "Thor demands to fight someone in the hall, but the inhabitants say doing so would be demeaning, considering Thor's weakness.", "Útgarða-Loki then calls for his nurse Elli, an old woman.", "The two wrestle but the harder Thor struggles the more difficult the battle becomes.", "Thor is finally brought down to a single knee.", "Útgarða-Loki says to Thor that fighting anyone else would be pointless.", "Now late at night, Útgarða-Loki shows the group to their rooms and they are treated with hospitality.The next morning the group gets dressed and prepares to leave the keep.", "Útgarða-Loki appears, has his servants prepare a table, and they all merrily eat and drink.", "As they leave, Útgarða-Loki asks Thor how he thought he fared in the contests.", "Thor says that he is unable to say he did well, noting that he is particularly annoyed that Útgarða-Loki will now speak negatively about him.", "Útgarða-Loki points out that the group has left his keep and says that he hopes that they never return to it, for if he had an inkling of what he was dealing with he would never have allowed the group to enter in the first place.", "Útgarða-Loki reveals that all was not what it seemed to the group.", "Útgarða-Loki was in fact the immense Skrýmir, and that if the three blows Thor attempted to land had hit their mark, the first would have killed Skrýmir.", "In reality, Thor's blows were so powerful that they had resulted in three square valleys.The contests, too, were an illusion.", "Útgarða-Loki reveals that Loki had actually competed against wildfire itself (''Logi'', Old Norse \"flame\"), Þjálfi had raced against thought (''Hugi'', Old Norse \"thought\"), Thor's drinking horn had actually reached to the ocean and with his drinks he lowered the ocean level (resulting in tides).", "The cat that Thor attempted to lift was in actuality the world serpent, Jörmungandr, and everyone was terrified when Thor was able to lift the paw of this \"cat\", for Thor had actually held the great serpent up to the sky.", "The old woman Thor wrestled was in fact old age (''Elli'', Old Norse \"old age\"), and there is no one that old age cannot bring down.", "Útgarða-Loki tells Thor that it would be better for \"both sides\" if they did not meet again.", "Upon hearing this, Thor takes hold of his hammer and swings it at Útgarða-Loki but he is gone and so is his castle.", "Only a wide landscape remains.===Norwegian rune poem===Bjarkan runeLoki is mentioned in stanza 13 of the Norwegian rune poem in connection with the Younger Futhark Bjarkan rune:According to Bruce Dickins, the reference to \"Loki's deceit\" in the poem \"is doubtless to Loki's responsibility for Balder's death\"." ], [ "Archaeological record", "===Snaptun Stone===The Snaptun Stone may feature a depiction of LokiIn 1950, a semi-circular flat stone featuring a depiction of a mustachioed face was discovered on a beach near Snaptun, Denmark.", "Made of soapstone that originated in Norway or Sweden, the depiction was carved around the year 1000 CE and features a face with scarred lips.", "The figure is identified as Loki due to his lips, considered a reference to a tale recorded in ''Skáldskaparmál'' where sons of Ivaldi stitch up Loki's lips.The stone is identified as a hearth stone; the nozzle of the bellows would be inserted into the hole in the front of the stone, and the air produced by the bellows pushed flame through the top hole, all the while the bellows were protected from the heat and flame.", "The stone may point to a connection between Loki and smithing and flames.", "According to Hans Jørgen Madsen, the Snaptun Stone is \"the most beautifully made hearth-stone that is known.\"", "The stone is housed and on display at the Moesgård Museum near Aarhus, Denmark.===Kirkby Stephen Stone and Gosforth Cross===A fragmentary late 10th-century cross located in St Stephen's Church, Kirkby Stephen, Cumbria, England, features a bound figure with horns and a beard.", "This figure is sometimes theorized as depicting the bound Loki.", "Discovered in 1870, the stone consists of yellowish-white sandstone, and now sits at the front of the Kirkby Stephen church.", "A depiction of a similarly horned and round-shouldered figure was discovered in Gainford, County Durham and is now housed in the Durham Cathedral Library.The mid-11th century Gosforth Cross has been interpreted as featuring various figures from Norse mythology and, like the Kirkby Stephen Stone, is also located in Cumbria.", "The bottom portion of the west side of the cross features a depiction of a long-haired female, kneeling figure holding an object above another prostrate, bound figure.", "Above and to their left is a knotted serpent.", "This has been interpreted as Sigyn soothing the bound Loki.File:Kirkby Stephen Stone by Petersen.jpg\|The bound figure on the Kirkby Stephen StoneFile:Gosforth Cross Loki and Sigyn.jpg\|Detail from the Gosforth Cross" ], [ "Scandinavian folklore", "The notion of Loki survived into the modern period in the folklore of Scandinavia.", "In Denmark, Loki appeared as ''Lokke''.", "In Jutland, the phrases \"Lokke slår sin havre\" (\"Lokke is reaping his oats\") and \"Lokkemand driver sine geder\" (\"Lokkemand drives his goats\") are thereby recorded in the beginning of the 20th century, the latter with the variation of simply \"Lokke\".", "In Zealand the name \"Lokke lejemand\" (\"Lokke the Playing Man\") was used.", "In his study of Loki's appearance in Scandinavian folklore in the modern period, Danish folklorist Axel Olrik cites numerous examples of natural phenomena explained by way of Lokke in popular folk tradition, including rising heat.", "An example from 1841 reads as follows::The expressions: \"Lokke (Lokki) sår havre i dag\" (Lokke (Lokki) sows oats today), or: \"Lokke driver i dag med sine geder\" (Lokke herds his goats today), are used in several regions of Jutland, for example in Medelsom shire, the diocese of Viborg etc.", "... and stand for the sight in the springtime, when the sunshine generates vapour from the ground, which can be seen as fluttering or shimmering air in the horizon of the flat landscape, similar to the hot steam over a kettle or a burning fireAnd in Thy, from the same source: \"... when you look at the horizon in clear weather and sunshine, and the air seems to move in shimmering waves, or like a sheet of water which seems to rise and sink in waves.\"", "Olrik further cites several different types of plants named after Loki.", "Olrik detects three major themes in folklore attestations; Lokke appeared as an \"air phenomenon\", connected with the \"home fire\", and as a \"teasing creature of the night\".", "''Loka Táttur'' or ''Lokka Táttur'' (Faroese \"tale—or ''þáttr''—of Loki\") is a Faroese ballad dating to the late Middle Ages that features the gods Loki, Odin, and Hœnir helping a farmer and a boy escape the wrath of a bet-winning jötunn.", "The tale notably features Loki as a benevolent god in this story, although his slyness is in evidence as usual." ], [ "Origin and identification with other figures", "Regarding scholarship on Loki, scholar Gabriel Turville-Petre comments (1964) that \"more ink has been spilled on Loki than on any other figure in Norse myth.", "This, in itself, is enough to show how little scholars agree, and how far we are from understanding him.", "\"===Origin===Loki's origins and role in Norse mythology have been much debated by scholars.", "In 1835, Jacob Grimm was first to produce a major theory about Loki, in which he advanced the notion of Loki as a \"god of fire\".", "In 1889, Sophus Bugge theorized Loki to be variant of Lucifer of Christianity, an element of Bugge's larger effort to find a basis of Christianity in Norse mythology.", "After World War II, four scholarly theories dominated.", "The first of the four theories is that of Folke Ström, who in 1956 concluded that Loki is a hypostasis of the god Odin.", "In 1959, Jan de Vries theorized that Loki is a typical example of a trickster figure.", "In 1961, by way of excluding all non-Scandinavian mythological parallels in her analysis, Anna Birgitta Rooth concluded that Loki was originally a spider.", "Anne Holtsmark, writing in 1962, concluded that no conclusion could be made about Loki.===Identification with Lóðurr===A popular theory proposed by a variety of scholars is that ''Lóðurr'' is \"a third name of Loki/Loptr\".", "The main argument for this is that the gods Odin, Hœnir and Loki occur as a trio in ''Haustlöng'', in the prose prologue to ''Reginsmál'' and also in the ''Loka Táttur'' a Faroese ballad, an example of Norse deities appearing in later folklore.", "The Odin-kenning \"Lóðurr's friend\" furthermore appears to parallel the kenning \"Loptr's friend\" and Loki is similarly referred to as \"Hœnir's friend\" in ''Haustlöng'', strengthening the trio connection.", "While many scholars agree with this identification, it is not universally accepted.", "One argument against it is that Loki appears as a malevolent being later in ''Völuspá'', seemingly conflicting with the image of Lóðurr as a \"mighty and loving\" figure.", "Many scholars, including Jan de Vries and Georges Dumézil, have also identified Lóðurr as being the same deity as Loki.", "Scholar Haukur Þorgeirsson suggests that ''Loki'' and ''Lóðurr'' were different names for the same deity based on that Loki is referred to as Lóður in the rímur ''Lokrur''.", "Þorgeirsson argues that the writer must have had information about the identification from either a tradition or that the author drew the conclusion based on the ''Prose Edda'', as Snorri does not mention Lóðurr.", "Since the contents of the ''Poetic Edda'' are assumed to have been forgotten around 1400 when the rímur was written, Haukur argues for a traditional identification.", "Þorgeirsson also points to ''Þrymlur'' where the same identification is made with Loki and Lóðurr.", "Haukur says that unless the possible but unlikely idea that the 14th- and 15th-century poets possessed written sources unknown to us is true, the idea must have come from either an unlikely amount of sources from where the poets could have drawn a similar conclusion that Loki and Lóðurr are identical (like some recent scholars) or that remnants of an oral tradition remained.", "Haukur concludes that if Lóðurr was historically considered an independent deity from Loki, then a discussion of when and why he became identified with Loki is appropriate.===Binding===The scholar John Lindow highlights the recurring pattern of the bound monster in Norse mythology as being particularly associated to Loki.", "Loki and his three children by Angrboda were all bound in some way, and were all destined to break free at Ragnarok to wreak havoc on the world.", "He suggests a borrowed element from the traditions of the Caucasus region, and identifies a mythological parallel with the \"Christian legend of the bound Antichrist awaiting the Last Judgment\"." ], [ "Modern popular culture", "In the 19th century, Loki was depicted in a variety of ways, some strongly at odds with others.", "According to Stefan Arvidssen, \"the conception of Loki varied during the nineteenth century.", "Sometimes he was presented as a dark-haired Semitic fifth columnist among the Nordic Aesir, but sometimes he was described as a Nordic Prometheus, a heroic bearer of culture\".Loki appears in Richard Wagner's opera cycle ''Ring of the Nibelung'' as ''Loge'' (a play on Old Norse ''loge'', \"fire\"), depicted as an ally of the gods (specifically as Wotan's assistant rather than Donner's), although he generally dislikes them and thinks of them as greedy, as they refuse to return the Rhine Gold to its rightful owners.", "In the conclusion of the first opera ''Das Rheingold'', he reveals his hope to turn into fire and destroy Valhalla, and in the final opera ''Götterdämmerung'' Valhalla is set alight, destroying the Gods.In 2008, five black smokers were discovered between Greenland and Norway, the most northerly group so far discovered, and given the name Loki's Castle, as their shape reminded discoverers of a fantasy castle, and (a University of Bergen press release says) \"Loki\" was \"an appropriate name for a field that was so difficult to locate\".Loki appears in Marvel Comics and in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, played by Tom Hiddleston, as a villain (or antihero) who consistently comes into conflict with the superhero Thor, his adopted brother and archenemy.", "Loki is a central character in Neil Gaiman's novel ''American Gods'' and an important character in a few arcs of Gaiman's comic ''The Sandman''." ], [ "See also", "* Dystheism" ], [ "References", "=== Cited sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository) Illustrations of Loki from manuscripts and early print books." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lisp (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lisp''' (historically '''LISP''', an abbreviation of \"list processing\") is a family of programming languages with a long history and a distinctive, fully parenthesized prefix notation.Originally specified in 1960, Lisp is the third-oldest high-level programming language still in common use, after Fortran and COBOL.", "Lisp has changed since its early days, and many dialects have existed over its history.", "Today, the best-known general-purpose Lisp dialects are Common Lisp, Scheme, Racket, and Clojure.Lisp was originally created as a practical mathematical notation for computer programs, influenced by (though not originally derived from) the notation of Alonzo Church's lambda calculus.", "It quickly became a favored programming language for artificial intelligence (AI) research.", "As one of the earliest programming languages, Lisp pioneered many ideas in computer science, including tree data structures, automatic storage management, dynamic typing, conditionals, higher-order functions, recursion, the self-hosting compiler, and the read–eval–print loop.The name ''LISP'' derives from \"LISt Processor\".", "Linked lists are one of Lisp's major data structures, and Lisp source code is made of lists.", "Thus, Lisp programs can manipulate source code as a data structure, giving rise to the macro systems that allow programmers to create new syntax or new domain-specific languages embedded in Lisp.The interchangeability of code and data gives Lisp its instantly recognizable syntax.", "All program code is written as ''s-expressions'', or parenthesized lists.", "A function call or syntactic form is written as a list with the function or operator's name first, and the arguments following; for instance, a function that takes three arguments would be called as ." ], [ "History", "John McCarthy began developing Lisp in 1958 while he was at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).", "McCarthy published its design in a paper in ''Communications of the ACM'' in April 1960, entitled \"Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine, Part I\".", "He showed that with a few simple operators and a notation for anonymous functions borrowed from Church, one can build a Turing-complete language for algorithms.Information Processing Language was the first AI language, from 1955 or 1956, and already included many of the concepts, such as list-processing and recursion, which came to be used in Lisp.McCarthy's original notation used bracketed \"M-expressions\" that would be translated into S-expressions.", "As an example, the M-expression is equivalent to the S-expression .", "Once Lisp was implemented, programmers rapidly chose to use S-expressions, and M-expressions were abandoned.", "M-expressions surfaced again with short-lived attempts of MLisp by Horace Enea and CGOL by Vaughan Pratt.Lisp was first implemented by Steve Russell on an IBM 704 computer using punched cards.", "Russell had read McCarthy's paper and realized (to McCarthy's surprise) that the Lisp ''eval'' function could be implemented in machine code.According to McCarthyThe result was a working Lisp interpreter which could be used to run Lisp programs, or more properly, \"evaluate Lisp expressions\".Two assembly language macros for the IBM 704 became the primitive operations for decomposing lists: car (''Contents of the Address part of Register'' number) and cdr (''Contents of the Decrement part of Register'' number), where \"register\" refers to registers of the computer's central processing unit (CPU).", "Lisp dialects still use and ( and ) for the operations that return the first item in a list and the rest of the list, respectively.The first complete Lisp compiler, written in Lisp, was implemented in 1962 by Tim Hart and Mike Levin at MIT, and could be compiled by simply having an existing LISP interpreter interpret the compiler code, producing machine code output able to be executed at a 40-fold improvement in speed over that of the interpreter.", "This compiler introduced the Lisp model of incremental compilation, in which compiled and interpreted functions can intermix freely.", "The language used in Hart and Levin's memo is much closer to modern Lisp style than McCarthy's earlier code.Garbage collection routines were developed by MIT graduate student Daniel Edwards, prior to 1962.During the 1980s and 1990s, a great effort was made to unify the work on new Lisp dialects (mostly successors to Maclisp such as ZetaLisp and NIL (New Implementation of Lisp) into a single language.", "The new language, Common Lisp, was somewhat compatible with the dialects it replaced (the book ''Common Lisp the Language'' notes the compatibility of various constructs).", "In 1994, ANSI published the Common Lisp standard, \"ANSI X3.226-1994 Information Technology Programming Language Common Lisp\".=== Timeline ======Connection to artificial intelligence===Since inception, Lisp was closely connected with the artificial intelligence research community, especially on PDP-10 systems.", "Lisp was used as the implementation of the language Micro Planner, which was used in the famous AI system SHRDLU.", "In the 1970s, as AI research spawned commercial offshoots, the performance of existing Lisp systems became a growing issue, as programmers needed to be familiar with the performance ramifications of the various techniques and choices involved in the implementation of Lisp.===Genealogy and variants===Over its sixty-year history, Lisp has spawned many variations on the core theme of an S-expression language.", "Moreover, each given dialect may have several implementations—for instance, there are more than a dozen implementations of Common Lisp.Differences between dialects may be quite visible—for instance, Common Lisp uses the keyword defun to name a function, but Scheme uses define.Scheme: (define f (lambda (x) x)) or (define (f x) x) Within a dialect that is standardized, however, conforming implementations support the same core language, but with different extensions and libraries.====Historically significant dialects====A Lisp machine in the MIT Museum4.3 BSD from the University of Wisconsin, displaying the man page for Franz Lisp* LISP 1 – First implementation.", "* LISP 1.5 – First widely distributed version, developed by McCarthy and others at MIT.", "So named because it contained several improvements on the original \"LISP 1\" interpreter, but was not a major restructuring as the planned LISP 2 would be.", "* Stanford LISP 1.6 – This was a successor to LISP 1.5 developed at the Stanford AI Lab, and widely distributed to PDP-10 systems running the TOPS-10 operating system.", "It was rendered obsolete by Maclisp and InterLisp.", "* MACLISP – developed for MIT's Project MAC, MACLISP is a direct descendant of LISP 1.5.It ran on the PDP-10 and Multics systems.", "MACLISP would later come to be called Maclisp, and is often referred to as MacLisp.", "The \"MAC\" in MACLISP is related neither to Apple's Macintosh nor to McCarthy.", "* Interlisp – developed at BBN Technologies for PDP-10 systems running the TENEX operating system, later adopted as a \"West coast\" Lisp for the Xerox Lisp machines as InterLisp-D. A small version called \"InterLISP 65\" was published for the 6502-based Atari 8-bit family computer line.", "For quite some time, Maclisp and InterLisp were strong competitors.", "* Franz Lisp – originally a University of California, Berkeley project; later developed by Franz Inc.", "The name is a humorous deformation of the name \"Franz Liszt\", and does not refer to Allegro Common Lisp, the dialect of Common Lisp sold by Franz Inc., in more recent years.", "* XLISP, which AutoLISP was based on.", "* Standard Lisp and Portable Standard Lisp were widely used and ported, especially with the Computer Algebra System REDUCE.", "* ZetaLisp, also termed Lisp Machine Lisp – used on the Lisp machines, direct descendant of Maclisp.", "ZetaLisp had a big influence on Common Lisp.", "* LeLisp is a French Lisp dialect.", "One of the first Interface Builders (called SOS Interface) was written in LeLisp.", "* Scheme (1975).", "* Common Lisp (1984), as described by ''Common Lisp the Language'' – a consolidation of several divergent attempts (ZetaLisp, Spice Lisp, NIL, and S-1 Lisp) to create successor dialects to Maclisp, with substantive influences from the Scheme dialect as well.", "This version of Common Lisp was available for wide-ranging platforms and was accepted by many as a de facto standard until the publication of ANSI Common Lisp (ANSI X3.226-1994).", "Among the most widespread sub-dialects of Common Lisp are Steel Bank Common Lisp (SBCL), CMU Common Lisp (CMU-CL), Clozure OpenMCL (not to be confused with Clojure!", "), GNU CLisp, and later versions of Franz Lisp; all of them adhere to the later ANSI CL standard (see below).", "* Dylan was in its first version a mix of Scheme with the Common Lisp Object System.", "* EuLisp – attempt to develop a new efficient and cleaned-up Lisp.", "* ISLISP – attempt to develop a new efficient and cleaned-up Lisp.", "Standardized as ISO/IEC 13816:1997 and later revised as ISO/IEC 13816:2007: ''Information technology – Programming languages, their environments and system software interfaces – Programming language ISLISP''.", "* IEEE Scheme – IEEE standard, 1178–1990 (R1995).", "* ANSI Common Lisp – an American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard for Common Lisp, created by subcommittee X3J13, chartered to begin with ''Common Lisp: The Language'' as a base document and to work through a public consensus process to find solutions to shared issues of portability of programs and compatibility of Common Lisp implementations.", "Although formally an ANSI standard, the implementation, sale, use, and influence of ANSI Common Lisp has been and continues to be seen worldwide.", "* ACL2 or \"A Computational Logic for Applicative Common Lisp\", an applicative (side-effect free) variant of Common LISP.", "ACL2 is both a programming language which can model computer systems, and a tool to help proving properties of those models.", "* Clojure, a recent dialect of Lisp which compiles to the Java virtual machine and has a particular focus on concurrency.", "* Game Oriented Assembly Lisp (or GOAL) is a video game programming language developed by Andy Gavin at Naughty Dog.", "It was written using Allegro Common Lisp and used in the development of the entire Jak and Daxter series of games developed by Naughty Dog.===2000 to present===After having declined somewhat in the 1990s, Lisp has experienced a resurgence of interest after 2000.Most new activity has been focused around implementations of Common Lisp, Scheme, Emacs Lisp, Clojure, and Racket, and includes development of new portable libraries and applications.Many new Lisp programmers were inspired by writers such as Paul Graham and Eric S. Raymond to pursue a language others considered antiquated.", "New Lisp programmers often describe the language as an eye-opening experience and claim to be substantially more productive than in other languages.", "This increase in awareness may be contrasted to the \"AI winter\" and Lisp's brief gain in the mid-1990s., there were eleven actively maintained Common Lisp implementations.The open source community has created new supporting infrastructure: CLiki is a wiki that collects Common Lisp related information, the Common Lisp directory lists resources, #lisp is a popular IRC channel and allows the sharing and commenting of code snippets (with support by lisppaste, an IRC bot written in Lisp), Planet Lisp collects the contents of various Lisp-related blogs, on LispForum users discuss Lisp topics, Lispjobs is a service for announcing job offers and there is a weekly news service, ''Weekly Lisp News''.", "''Common-lisp.net'' is a hosting site for open source Common Lisp projects.", "Quicklisp is a library manager for Common Lisp.Fifty years of Lisp (1958–2008) was celebrated at LISP50@OOPSLA.", "There are regular local user meetings in Boston, Vancouver, and Hamburg.", "Other events include the European Common Lisp Meeting, the European Lisp Symposium and an International Lisp Conference.The Scheme community actively maintains over twenty implementations.", "Several significant new implementations (Chicken, Gambit, Gauche, Ikarus, Larceny, Ypsilon) have been developed in the 2000s (decade).", "The Revised5 Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme standard of Scheme was widely accepted in the Scheme community.", "The Scheme Requests for Implementation process has created a lot of quasi standard libraries and extensions for Scheme.", "User communities of individual Scheme implementations continue to grow.", "A new language standardization process was started in 2003 and led to the R6RS Scheme standard in 2007.Academic use of Scheme for teaching computer science seems to have declined somewhat.", "Some universities are no longer using Scheme in their computer science introductory courses; MIT now uses Python instead of Scheme for its undergraduate computer science program and MITx massive open online course.There are several new dialects of Lisp: Arc, Hy, Nu, Liskell, and LFE (Lisp Flavored Erlang).", "The parser for Julia is implemented in Femtolisp, a dialect of Scheme (Julia is inspired by Scheme, which in turn is a Lisp dialect).In October 2019, Paul Graham released a specification for Bel, \"a new dialect of Lisp.\"" ], [ "Major dialects", "Common Lisp and Scheme represent two major streams of Lisp development.", "These languages embody significantly different design choices.Common Lisp is a successor to Maclisp.", "The primary influences were Lisp Machine Lisp, Maclisp, NIL, S-1 Lisp, Spice Lisp, and Scheme.", "It has many of the features of Lisp Machine Lisp (a large Lisp dialect used to program Lisp Machines), but was designed to be efficiently implementable on any personal computer or workstation.", "Common Lisp is a general-purpose programming language and thus has a large language standard including many built-in data types, functions, macros and other language elements, and an object system (Common Lisp Object System).", "Common Lisp also borrowed certain features from Scheme such as lexical scoping and lexical closures.", "Common Lisp implementations are available for targeting different platforms such as the LLVM, the Java virtual machine,x86-64, PowerPC, Alpha, ARM, Motorola 68000, and MIPS, and operating systems such as Windows, macOS, Linux, Solaris, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, Dragonfly BSD, and Heroku.Scheme is a statically scoped and properly tail-recursive dialect of the Lisp programming language invented by Guy L. Steele, Jr. and Gerald Jay Sussman.", "It was designed to have exceptionally clear and simple semantics and few different ways to form expressions.", "Designed about a decade earlier than Common Lisp, Scheme is a more minimalist design.", "It has a much smaller set of standard features but with certain implementation features (such as tail-call optimization and full continuations) not specified in Common Lisp.", "A wide variety of programming paradigms, including imperative, functional, and message passing styles, find convenient expression in Scheme.", "Scheme continues to evolve with a series of standards (Revisedn Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme) and a series of Scheme Requests for Implementation.Clojure is a dialect of Lisp that targets mainly the Java virtual machine, and the Common Language Runtime (CLR), the Python VM, the Ruby VM YARV, and compiling to JavaScript.", "It is designed to be a pragmatic general-purpose language.", "Clojure draws considerable influences from Haskell and places a very strong emphasis on immutability.", "Clojure provides access to Java frameworks and libraries, with optional type hints and type inference, so that calls to Java can avoid reflection and enable fast primitive operations.", "Clojure is not designed to be backwards compatible with other Lisp dialects.Further, Lisp dialects are used as scripting languages in many applications, with the best-known being Emacs Lisp in the Emacs editor, AutoLISP and later Visual Lisp in AutoCAD, Nyquist in Audacity, and Scheme in LilyPond.", "The potential small size of a useful Scheme interpreter makes it particularly popular for embedded scripting.", "Examples include SIOD and TinyScheme, both of which have been successfully embedded in the GIMP image processor under the generic name \"Script-fu\".", "LIBREP, a Lisp interpreter by John Harper originally based on the Emacs Lisp language, has been embedded in the Sawfish window manager.===Standardized dialects===Lisp has officially standardized dialects: R6RS Scheme, R7RS Scheme, IEEE Scheme, ANSI Common Lisp and ISO ISLISP." ], [ "Language innovations", "Paul Graham identifies nine important aspects of Lisp that distinguished it from existing languages like Fortran:* Conditionals not limited to goto* First-class functions* Recursion* Treating variables uniformly as pointers, leaving types to values* Garbage collection* Programs made entirely of expressions with no statements* The symbol data type, distinct from the string data type* Notation for code made of trees of symbols (using many parentheses)* Full language available at load time, compile time, and run timeLisp was the first language where the structure of program code is represented faithfully and directly in a standard data structure—a quality much later dubbed \"homoiconicity\".", "Thus, Lisp functions can be manipulated, altered or even created within a Lisp program without lower-level manipulations.", "This is generally considered one of the main advantages of the language with regard to its expressive power, and makes the language suitable for syntactic macros and meta-circular evaluation.A conditional using an ''if–then–else'' syntax was invented by McCarthy for a chess program written in Fortran.", "He proposed its inclusion in ALGOL, but it was not made part of the Algol 58 specification.", "For Lisp, McCarthy used the more general ''cond''-structure.", "Algol 60 took up ''if–then–else'' and popularized it.Lisp deeply influenced Alan Kay, the leader of the research team that developed Smalltalk at Xerox PARC; and in turn Lisp was influenced by Smalltalk, with later dialects adopting object-oriented programming features (inheritance classes, encapsulating instances, message passing, etc.)", "in the 1970s.", "The Flavors object system introduced the concept of multiple inheritance and the mixin.", "The Common Lisp Object System provides multiple inheritance, multimethods with multiple dispatch, and first-class generic functions, yielding a flexible and powerful form of dynamic dispatch.", "It has served as the template for many subsequent Lisp (including Scheme) object systems, which are often implemented via a metaobject protocol, a reflective meta-circular design in which the object system is defined in terms of itself: Lisp was only the second language after Smalltalk (and is still one of the very few languages) to possess such a metaobject system.", "Many years later, Alan Kay suggested that as a result of the confluence of these features, only Smalltalk and Lisp could be regarded as properly conceived object-oriented programming systems.Lisp introduced the concept of automatic garbage collection, in which the system walks the heap looking for unused memory.", "Progress in modern sophisticated garbage collection algorithms such as generational garbage collection was stimulated by its use in Lisp.Edsger W. Dijkstra in his 1972 Turing Award lecture said,Largely because of its resource requirements with respect to early computing hardware (including early microprocessors), Lisp did not become as popular outside of the AI community as Fortran and the ALGOL-descended C language.", "Because of its suitability to complex and dynamic applications, Lisp enjoyed some resurgence of popular interest in the 2010s." ], [ "Syntax and semantics", ":'''''Note''': This article's examples are written in Common Lisp (though most are also valid in Scheme).", "''===Symbolic expressions (S-expressions)===Lisp is an expression oriented language.", "Unlike most other languages, no distinction is made between \"expressions\" and \"statements\"; all code and data are written as expressions.", "When an expression is ''evaluated'', it produces a value (possibly multiple values), which can then be embedded into other expressions.", "Each value can be any data type.McCarthy's 1958 paper introduced two types of syntax: ''Symbolic expressions'' (S-expressions, sexps), which mirror the internal representation of code and data; and ''Meta expressions'' (M-expressions), which express functions of S-expressions.", "M-expressions never found favor, and almost all Lisps today use S-expressions to manipulate both code and data.The use of parentheses is Lisp's most immediately obvious difference from other programming language families.", "As a result, students have long given Lisp nicknames such as ''Lost In Stupid Parentheses'', or ''Lots of Irritating Superfluous Parentheses''.", "However, the S-expression syntax is also responsible for much of Lisp's power: the syntax is simple and consistent, which facilitates manipulation by computer.", "However, the syntax of Lisp is not limited to traditional parentheses notation.", "It can be extended to include alternative notations.", "For example, XMLisp is a Common Lisp extension that employs the metaobject protocol to integrate S-expressions with the Extensible Markup Language (XML).The reliance on expressions gives the language great flexibility.", "Because Lisp functions are written as lists, they can be processed exactly like data.", "This allows easy writing of programs which manipulate other programs (metaprogramming).", "Many Lisp dialects exploit this feature using macro systems, which enables extension of the language almost without limit.===Lists===A Lisp list is written with its elements separated by whitespace, and surrounded by parentheses.", "For example, is a list whose elements are the three ''atoms'' , , and .", "These values are implicitly typed: they are respectively two integers and a Lisp-specific data type called a \"symbol\", and do not have to be declared as such.The empty list is also represented as the special atom .", "This is the only entity in Lisp which is both an atom and a list.Expressions are written as lists, using prefix notation.", "The first element in the list is the name of a function, the name of a macro, a lambda expression or the name of a \"special operator\" (see below).", "The remainder of the list are the arguments.", "For example, the function returns its arguments as a list, so the expression (list 1 2 (quote foo))evaluates to the list .", "The \"quote\" before the in the preceding example is a \"special operator\" which returns its argument without evaluating it.", "Any unquoted expressions are recursively evaluated before the enclosing expression is evaluated.", "For example, (list 1 2 (list 3 4))evaluates to the list .", "Note that the third argument is a list; lists can be nested.===Operators===Arithmetic operators are treated similarly.", "The expression (+ 1 2 3 4)evaluates to 10.The equivalent under infix notation would be \"\".Lisp has no notion of operators as implemented in Algol-derived languages.", "Arithmetic operators in Lisp are variadic functions (or ''n-ary''), able to take any number of arguments.", "A C-style '++' increment operator is sometimes implemented under the name incf giving syntax (incf x)equivalent to (setq x (+ x 1)), returning the new value of x.", "\"Special operators\" (sometimes called \"special forms\") provide Lisp's control structure.", "For example, the special operator takes three arguments.", "If the first argument is non-nil, it evaluates to the second argument; otherwise, it evaluates to the third argument.", "Thus, the expression (if nil (list 1 2 \"foo\") (list 3 4 \"bar\"))evaluates to .", "Of course, this would be more useful if a non-trivial expression had been substituted in place of .Lisp also provides logical operators '''and''', '''or''' and '''not'''.", "The '''and''' and '''or''' operators do short-circuit evaluation and will return their first nil and non-nil argument respectively.", "(or (and \"zero\" nil \"never\") \"James\" 'task 'time)will evaluate to \"James\".===Lambda expressions and function definition===Another special operator, , is used to bind variables to values which are then evaluated within an expression.", "This operator is also used to create functions: the arguments to are a list of arguments, and the expression or expressions to which the function evaluates (the returned value is the value of the last expression that is evaluated).", "The expression (lambda (arg) (+ arg 1))evaluates to a function that, when applied, takes one argument, binds it to and returns the number one greater than that argument.", "Lambda expressions are treated no differently from named functions; they are invoked the same way.", "Therefore, the expression ((lambda (arg) (+ arg 1)) 5)evaluates to .", "Here, we're doing a function application: we execute the anonymous function by passing to it the value 5.Named functions are created by storing a lambda expression in a symbol using the defun macro.", "(defun foo (a b c d) (+ a b c d)) defines a new function named in the global environment.", "It is conceptually similar to the expression: (setf (fdefinition 'f) #'(lambda (a) (block f b...)))where is a macro used to set the value of the first argument to a new function object.", "is a global function definition for the function named .", "is an abbreviation for special operator, returning a function object.===Atoms===In the original '''LISP''' there were two fundamental data types: atoms and lists.", "A list was a finite ordered sequence of elements, where each element is either an atom or a list, and an atom was a number or a symbol.", "A symbol was essentially a unique named item, written as an alphanumeric string in source code, and used either as a variable name or as a data item in symbolic processing.", "For example, the list contains three elements: the symbol , the list , and the number 2.The essential difference between atoms and lists was that atoms were immutable and unique.", "Two atoms that appeared in different places in source code but were written in exactly the same way represented the same object, whereas each list was a separate object that could be altered independently of other lists and could be distinguished from other lists by comparison operators.As more data types were introduced in later Lisp dialects, and programming styles evolved, the concept of an atom lost importance.", "Many dialects still retained the predicate ''atom'' for legacy compatibility, defining it true for any object which is not a cons.===Conses and lists===pointer diagram for the list (42 69 613)A Lisp list is implemented as a singly linked list.", "Each cell of this list is called a ''cons'' (in Scheme, a ''pair'') and is composed of two pointers, called the ''car'' and ''cdr''.", "These are respectively equivalent to the and fields discussed in the article ''linked list''.Of the many data structures that can be built out of cons cells, one of the most basic is called a ''proper list''.", "A proper list is either the special (empty list) symbol, or a cons in which the points to a datum (which may be another cons structure, such as a list), and the points to another proper list.If a given cons is taken to be the head of a linked list, then its car points to the first element of the list, and its cdr points to the rest of the list.", "For this reason, the and functions are also called and when referring to conses which are part of a linked list (rather than, say, a tree).Thus, a Lisp list is not an atomic object, as an instance of a container class in C++ or Java would be.", "A list is nothing more than an aggregate of linked conses.", "A variable that refers to a given list is simply a pointer to the first cons in the list.", "Traversal of a list can be done by ''cdring down'' the list; that is, taking successive cdrs to visit each cons of the list; or by using any of several higher-order functions to map a function over a list.Because conses and lists are so universal in Lisp systems, it is a common misconception that they are Lisp's only data structures.", "In fact, all but the most simplistic Lisps have other data structures, such as vectors (arrays), hash tables, structures, and so forth.====S-expressions represent lists====Parenthesized S-expressions represent linked list structures.", "There are several ways to represent the same list as an S-expression.", "A cons can be written in ''dotted-pair notation'' as , where is the car and the cdr.", "A longer proper list might be written in dotted-pair notation.", "This is conventionally abbreviated as in ''list notation''.", "An improper list may be written in a combination of the two – as for the list of three conses whose last cdr is (i.e., the list in fully specified form).====List-processing procedures====Lisp provides many built-in procedures for accessing and controlling lists.", "Lists can be created directly with the procedure, which takes any number of arguments, and returns the list of these arguments.", "(list 1 2 'a 3) ;Output: (1 2 a 3) (list 1 '(2 3) 4) ;Output: (1 (2 3) 4)Because of the way that lists are constructed from cons pairs, the procedure can be used to add an element to the front of a list.", "Note that the procedure is asymmetric in how it handles list arguments, because of how lists are constructed.", "(cons 1 '(2 3)) ;Output: (1 2 3) (cons '(1 2) '(3 4)) ;Output: ((1 2) 3 4)The procedure appends two (or more) lists to one another.", "Because Lisp lists are linked lists, appending two lists has asymptotic time complexity (append '(1 2) '(3 4)) ;Output: (1 2 3 4) (append '(1 2 3) '() '(a) '(5 6)) ;Output: (1 2 3 a 5 6)====Shared structure====Lisp lists, being simple linked lists, can share structure with one another.", "That is to say, two lists can have the same ''tail'', or final sequence of conses.", "For instance, after the execution of the following Common Lisp code:(setf foo (list 'a 'b 'c))(setf bar (cons 'x (cdr foo)))the lists and are and respectively.", "However, the tail is the same structure in both lists.", "It is not a copy; the cons cells pointing to and are in the same memory locations for both lists.Sharing structure rather than copying can give a dramatic performance improvement.", "However, this technique can interact in undesired ways with functions that alter lists passed to them as arguments.", "Altering one list, such as by replacing the with a , will affect the other: (setf (third foo) 'goose)This changes to , but thereby also changes to – a possibly unexpected result.", "This can be a source of bugs, and functions which alter their arguments are documented as ''destructive'' for this very reason.Aficionados of functional programming avoid destructive functions.", "In the Scheme dialect, which favors the functional style, the names of destructive functions are marked with a cautionary exclamation point, or \"bang\"—such as (read ''set car bang''), which replaces the car of a cons.", "In the Common Lisp dialect, destructive functions are commonplace; the equivalent of is named for \"replace car\".", "This function is rarely seen, however, as Common Lisp includes a special facility, , to make it easier to define and use destructive functions.", "A frequent style in Common Lisp is to write code functionally (without destructive calls) when prototyping, then to add destructive calls as an optimization where it is safe to do so.===Self-evaluating forms and quoting===Lisp evaluates expressions which are entered by the user.", "Symbols and lists evaluate to some other (usually, simpler) expression – for instance, a symbol evaluates to the value of the variable it names; evaluates to .", "However, most other forms evaluate to themselves: if entering into Lisp, it returns .Any expression can also be marked to prevent it from being evaluated (as is necessary for symbols and lists).", "This is the role of the special operator, or its abbreviation (one quotation mark).", "For instance, usually if entering the symbol , it returns the value of the corresponding variable (or an error, if there is no such variable).", "To refer to the literal symbol, enter or, usually, .Both Common Lisp and Scheme also support the ''backquote'' operator (termed ''quasiquote'' in Scheme), entered with the character (grave accent).", "This is almost the same as the plain quote, except it allows expressions to be evaluated and their values interpolated into a quoted list with the comma ''unquote'' and comma-at ''splice'' operators.", "If the variable has the value then evaluates to , while evaluates to .", "The backquote is most often used in defining macro expansions.Self-evaluating forms and quoted forms are Lisp's equivalent of literals.", "It may be possible to modify the values of (mutable) literals in program code.", "For instance, if a function returns a quoted form, and the code that calls the function modifies the form, this may alter the behavior of the function on subsequent invocations.", "(defun should-be-constant () '(one two three))(let ((stuff (should-be-constant))) (setf (third stuff) 'bizarre)) ; bad!", "(should-be-constant) ; returns (one two bizarre)Modifying a quoted form like this is generally considered bad style, and is defined by ANSI Common Lisp as erroneous (resulting in \"undefined\" behavior in compiled files, because the file-compiler can coalesce similar constants, put them in write-protected memory, etc.", ").Lisp's formalization of quotation has been noted by Douglas Hofstadter (in ''Gödel, Escher, Bach'') and others as an example of the philosophical idea of self-reference.===Scope and closure===The Lisp family splits over the use of dynamic or static (a.k.a.", "lexical) scope.", "Clojure, Common Lisp and Scheme make use of static scoping by default, while newLISP, Picolisp and the embedded languages in Emacs and AutoCAD use dynamic scoping.", "Since version 24.1, Emacs uses both dynamic and lexical scoping.===List structure of program code; exploitation by macros and compilers===A fundamental distinction between Lisp and other languages is that in Lisp, the textual representation of a program is simply a human-readable description of the same internal data structures (linked lists, symbols, number, characters, etc.)", "as would be used by the underlying Lisp system.Lisp uses this to implement a very powerful macro system.", "Like other macro languages such as the one defined by the C preprocessor (the macro preprocessor for the C, Objective-C and C++ programming languages), a macro returns code that can then be compiled.", "However, unlike C preprocessor macros, the macros are Lisp functions and so can exploit the full power of Lisp.Further, because Lisp code has the same structure as lists, macros can be built with any of the list-processing functions in the language.", "In short, anything that Lisp can do to a data structure, Lisp macros can do to code.", "In contrast, in most other languages, the parser's output is purely internal to the language implementation and cannot be manipulated by the programmer.This feature makes it easy to develop ''efficient'' languages within languages.", "For example, the Common Lisp Object System can be implemented cleanly as a language extension using macros.", "This means that if an application needs a different inheritance mechanism, it can use a different object system.", "This is in stark contrast to most other languages; for example, Java does not support multiple inheritance and there is no reasonable way to add it.In simplistic Lisp implementations, this list structure is directly interpreted to run the program; a function is literally a piece of list structure which is traversed by the interpreter in executing it.", "However, most substantial Lisp systems also include a compiler.", "The compiler translates list structure into machine code or bytecode for execution.", "This code can run as fast as code compiled in conventional languages such as C.Macros expand before the compilation step, and thus offer some interesting options.", "If a program needs a precomputed table, then a macro might create the table at compile time, so the compiler need only output the table and need not call code to create the table at run time.", "Some Lisp implementations even have a mechanism, eval-when, that allows code to be present during compile time (when a macro would need it), but not present in the emitted module.===Evaluation and the read–eval–print loop===Lisp languages are often used with an interactive command line, which may be combined with an integrated development environment (IDE).", "The user types in expressions at the command line, or directs the IDE to transmit them to the Lisp system.", "Lisp ''reads'' the entered expressions, ''evaluates'' them, and ''prints'' the result.", "For this reason, the Lisp command line is called a ''read–eval–print loop'' (REPL).The basic operation of the REPL is as follows.", "This is a simplistic description which omits many elements of a real Lisp, such as quoting and macros.The function accepts textual S-expressions as input, and parses them into an internal data structure.", "For instance, if you type the text at the prompt, translates this into a linked list with three elements: the symbol , the number 1, and the number 2.It so happens that this list is also a valid piece of Lisp code; that is, it can be evaluated.", "This is because the car of the list names a function—the addition operation.Note that a will be read as a single symbol.", "will be read as the number one hundred and twenty-three.", "will be read as the string \"123\".The function evaluates the data, returning zero or more other Lisp data as a result.", "Evaluation does not have to mean interpretation; some Lisp systems compile every expression to native machine code.", "It is simple, however, to describe evaluation as interpretation: To evaluate a list whose car names a function, first evaluates each of the arguments given in its cdr, then applies the function to the arguments.", "In this case, the function is addition, and applying it to the argument list yields the answer .", "This is the result of the evaluation.The symbol evaluates to the value of the symbol foo.", "Data like the string \"123\" evaluates to the same string.", "The list evaluates to the list (1 2 3).It is the job of the function to represent output to the user.", "For a simple result such as this is trivial.", "An expression which evaluated to a piece of list structure would require that traverse the list and print it out as an S-expression.To implement a Lisp REPL, it is necessary only to implement these three functions and an infinite-loop function.", "(Naturally, the implementation of will be complex, since it must also implement all special operators like or .)", "This done, a basic REPL is one line of code: .The Lisp REPL typically also provides input editing, an input history, error handling and an interface to the debugger.Lisp is usually evaluated eagerly.", "In Common Lisp, arguments are evaluated in applicative order ('leftmost innermost'), while in Scheme order of arguments is undefined, leaving room for optimization by a compiler.===Control structures===Lisp originally had very few control structures, but many more were added during the language's evolution.", "(Lisp's original conditional operator, , is the precursor to later structures.", ")Programmers in the Scheme dialect often express loops using tail recursion.", "Scheme's commonality in academic computer science has led some students to believe that tail recursion is the only, or the most common, way to write iterations in Lisp, but this is incorrect.", "All oft-seen Lisp dialects have imperative-style iteration constructs, from Scheme's loop to Common Lisp's complex expressions.", "Moreover, the key issue that makes this an objective rather than subjective matter is that Scheme makes specific requirements for the handling of tail calls, and thus the reason that the use of tail recursion is generally encouraged for Scheme is that the practice is expressly supported by the language definition.", "By contrast, ANSI Common Lisp does not require the optimization commonly termed a tail call elimination.", "Thus, the fact that tail recursive style as a casual replacement for the use of more traditional iteration constructs (such as , or ) is discouraged in Common Lisp is not just a matter of stylistic preference, but potentially one of efficiency (since an apparent tail call in Common Lisp may not compile as a simple jump) and program correctness (since tail recursion may increase stack use in Common Lisp, risking stack overflow).Some Lisp control structures are ''special operators'', equivalent to other languages' syntactic keywords.", "Expressions using these operators have the same surface appearance as function calls, but differ in that the arguments are not necessarily evaluated—or, in the case of an iteration expression, may be evaluated more than once.In contrast to most other major programming languages, Lisp allows implementing control structures using the language.", "Several control structures are implemented as Lisp macros, and can even be macro-expanded by the programmer who wants to know how they work.Both Common Lisp and Scheme have operators for non-local control flow.", "The differences in these operators are some of the deepest differences between the two dialects.", "Scheme supports ''re-entrant continuations'' using the procedure, which allows a program to save (and later restore) a particular place in execution.", "Common Lisp does not support re-entrant continuations, but does support several ways of handling escape continuations.Often, the same algorithm can be expressed in Lisp in either an imperative or a functional style.", "As noted above, Scheme tends to favor the functional style, using tail recursion and continuations to express control flow.", "However, imperative style is still quite possible.", "The style preferred by many Common Lisp programmers may seem more familiar to programmers used to structured languages such as C, while that preferred by Schemers more closely resembles pure-functional languages such as Haskell.Because of Lisp's early heritage in list processing, it has a wide array of higher-order functions relating to iteration over sequences.", "In many cases where an explicit loop would be needed in other languages (like a loop in C) in Lisp the same task can be accomplished with a higher-order function.", "(The same is true of many functional programming languages.", ")A good example is a function which in Scheme is called and in Common Lisp is called .", "Given a function and one or more lists, applies the function successively to the lists' elements in order, collecting the results in a new list: (mapcar #'+ '(1 2 3 4 5) '(10 20 30 40 50))This applies the function to each corresponding pair of list elements, yielding the result ." ], [ "Examples", "Here are examples of Common Lisp code.The basic \"Hello, World!\"", "program:(print \"Hello, World!", "\")Lisp syntax lends itself naturally to recursion.", "Mathematical problems such as the enumeration of recursively defined sets are simple to express in this notation.", "For example, to evaluate a number's factorial:(defun factorial (n) (if (zerop n) 1 (* n (factorial (1- n)))))An alternative implementation takes less stack space than the previous version if the underlying Lisp system optimizes tail recursion:(defun factorial (n &optional (acc 1)) (if (zerop n) acc (factorial (1- n) (* acc n))))Contrast the examples above with an iterative version which uses Common Lisp's macro:(defun factorial (n) (loop for i from 1 to n for fac = 1 then (* fac i) finally (return fac)))The following function reverses a list.", "(Lisp's built-in ''reverse'' function does the same thing.", ")(defun -reverse (list) (let ((return-value)) (dolist (e list) (push e return-value)) return-value))" ], [ "Object systems", "Various object systems and models have been built on top of, alongside, or into Lisp, including* The Common Lisp Object System, CLOS, is an integral part of ANSI Common Lisp.", "CLOS descended from New Flavors and CommonLOOPS.", "ANSI Common Lisp was the first standardized object-oriented programming language (1994, ANSI X3J13).", "* ObjectLisp or Object Lisp, used by Lisp Machines Incorporated and early versions of Macintosh Common Lisp* LOOPS (Lisp Object-Oriented Programming System) and the later CommonLoops* Flavors, built at MIT, and its descendant New Flavors (developed by Symbolics).", "* KR (short for Knowledge Representation), a constraints-based object system developed to aid the writing of Garnet, a GUI library for Common Lisp.", "* Knowledge Engineering Environment (KEE) used an object system named UNITS and integrated it with an inference engine and a truth maintenance system (ATMS)." ], [ "Operating systems", "Several operating systems, including language-based systems, are based on Lisp (use Lisp features, conventions, methods, data structures, etc.", "), or are written in Lisp, includingGenera, renamed Open Genera, by Symbolics; Medley, written in Interlisp, originally a family of graphical operating systems that ran on Xerox's later Star workstations; Mezzano; Interim; ChrysaLisp, by developers of Tao Systems' TAOS." ], [ "See also", "* Self-modifying code" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * My Lisp Experiences and the Development of GNU Emacs, transcript of Richard Stallman's speech, 28 October 2002, at the International Lisp Conference* * ** Article largely based on the ''LISP - A Simple Introduction'' chapter: " ], [ "External links", ";History History of Lisp – John McCarthy's history of 12 February 1979* Lisp History – Herbert Stoyan's history compiled from the documents (acknowledged by McCarthy as more complete than his own, see: McCarthy's history links)* History of LISP at the Computer History Museum* about the use of LISP software on NASA robots.", "* ;Associations and meetings* Association of Lisp Users* European Common Lisp Meeting* European Lisp Symposium* International Lisp Conference;Books and tutorials* '' Casting SPELs in Lisp'', a comic-book style introductory tutorial* '' On Lisp'', a free book by Paul Graham* '' Practical Common Lisp'', freeware edition by Peter Seibel* Lisp for the web* Land of Lisp* Let over Lambda;Interviews* Oral history interview with John McCarthy at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.", "McCarthy discusses his role in the development of time-sharing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.", "He also describes his work in artificial intelligence (AI) funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency, including logic-based AI (LISP) and robotics.", "* Interview with Richard P. Gabriel (Podcast);Resources* CLiki: the Common Lisp wiki* The Common Lisp Directory (via the Wayback Machine; archived from the original)* Lisp FAQ Index* lisppaste* Planet Lisp* Weekly Lisp News* newLISP - A modern, general-purpose scripting language* Lisp Weekly*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of logarithmic identities" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, many '''logarithmic identities''' exist.", "The following is a compilation of the notable of these, many of which are used for computational purposes." ], [ "Trivial identities", "''Trivial'' mathematical identities are relatively simple (for an experienced mathematician), though not necessarily unimportant.", "Trivial logarithmic identities are:: because because === Explanations ===By definition, we know that::,where and .Setting ,we can see that: .", "So, substituting these values into the formula, we see that:, which gets us the first property.Setting ,we can see that: .", "So, substituting these values into the formula, we see that:, which gets us the second property." ], [ "Cancelling exponentials", "Logarithms and exponentials with the same base cancel each other.", "This is true because logarithms and exponentials are inverse operations—much like the same way multiplication and division are inverse operations, and addition and subtraction are inverse operations.", "::Both of the above are derived from the following two equations that define a logarithm:(note that in this explanation, the variables of and may not be referring to the same number):Looking at the equation , and substituting the value for of, we get the following equation: , which gets us the first equation.Another more rough way to think about it is that ,and that that \"\" is .Looking at the equation , and substituting the value for of , we get the following equation:, which gets us the second equation.Another more rough way to think about it is that ,and that that something \"\" is ." ], [ "Using simpler operations", "Logarithms can be used to make calculations easier.", "For example, two numbers can be multiplied just by using a logarithm table and adding.", "These are often known as logarithmic properties, which are documented in the table below.", "The first three operations below assume that and/or , so that and .", "Derivations also use the log definitions and .", ": because because because because because because Where , , and are positive real numbers and , and and are real numbers.The laws result from canceling exponentials and the appropriate law of indices.", "Starting with the first law::The law for powers exploits another of the laws of indices::The law relating to quotients then follows:::Similarly, the root law is derived by rewriting the root as a reciprocal power::=== Derivations of product, quotient, and power rules ===These are the three main logarithm laws/rules/principles, from which the other properties listed above can be proven.", "Each of these logarithm properties correspond to their respective exponent law, and their derivations/proofs will hinge on those facts.", "There are multiple ways to derive/prove each logarithm law – this is just one possible method.==== Logarithm of a product ====To state the ''logarithm of a product'' law formally::Derivation:Let , where ,and let .", "We want to relate the expressions and .", "This can be done more easily by rewriting in terms of exponentials, whose properties we already know.", "Additionally, since we are going to refer to and quite often, we will give them some variable names to make working with them easier: Let , and let .Rewriting these as exponentials, we see that:From here, we can relate (i.e. )", "and (i.e. )", "using exponent laws as:To recover the logarithms, we apply to both sides of the equality.", ":The right side may be simplified using one of the logarithm properties from before: we know that , giving:We now resubstitute the values for and into our equation, so our final expression is only in terms of , , and .", ":This completes the derivation.==== Logarithm of a quotient ====To state the ''logarithm of a quotient'' law formally::Derivation:Let , where ,and let .We want to relate the expressions and .", "This can be done more easily by rewriting in terms of exponentials, whose properties we already know.", "Additionally, since we are going to refer to and quite often, we will give them some variable names to make working with them easier: Let , and let .Rewriting these as exponentials, we see that::From here, we can relate (i.e. )", "and (i.e. )", "using exponent laws as:To recover the logarithms, we apply to both sides of the equality.", ":The right side may be simplified using one of the logarithm properties from before: we know that , giving:We now resubstitute the values for and into our equation, so our final expression is only in terms of , , and .", ":This completes the derivation.==== Logarithm of a power ====To state the ''logarithm of a power'' law formally,:Derivation:Let , where , let , and let .", "For this derivation, we want to simplify the expression .", "To do this, we begin with the simpler expression .", "Since we will be using often, we will define it as a new variable: Let .To more easily manipulate the expression, we rewrite it as an exponential.", "By definition, , so we have:Similar to the derivations above, we take advantage of another exponent law.", "In order to have in our final expression, we raise both sides of the equality to the power of ::where we used the exponent law .To recover the logarithms, we apply to both sides of the equality.", ":The left side of the equality can be simplified using a logarithm law, which states that .", ":Substituting in the original value for , rearranging, and simplifying gives:This completes the derivation." ], [ "Changing the base", "To state the change of base logarithm formula formally:This identity is useful to evaluate logarithms on calculators.", "For instance, most calculators have buttons for ln and for log10, but not all calculators have buttons for the logarithm of an arbitrary base.=== Proof/derivation ===Let , where Let .", "Here, and are the two bases we will be using for the logarithms.", "They cannot be 1, because the logarithm function is not well defined for the base of 1.The number will be what the logarithm is evaluating, so it must be a positive number.", "Since we will be dealing with the term quite frequently, we define it as a new variable: Let .To more easily manipulate the expression, it can be rewritten as an exponential.Applying to both sides of the equality,Now, using the logarithm of a power property, which states that ,Isolating , we get the following:Resubstituting back into the equation,This completes the proof that .This formula has several consequences:where is any permutation of the subscripts .", "For example=== Summation/subtraction ===The following summation/subtraction rule is especially useful in probability theory when one is dealing with a sum of log-probabilities:becausebecauseNote that the subtraction identity is not defined if , since the logarithm of zero is not defined.", "Also note that, when programming, and may have to be switched on the right hand side of the equations if to avoid losing the \"1 +\" due to rounding errors.", "Many programming languages have a specific log1p(x) function that calculates without underflow (when is small).More generally:=== Exponents ===A useful identity involving exponents:or more universally:=== Other/resulting identities ===" ], [ "Inequalities", "Based on, and ::All are accurate around , but not for large numbers." ], [ "Calculus identities", "=== Limits ===::::::The last limit is often summarized as \"logarithms grow more slowly than any power or root of ''x''\".=== Derivatives of logarithmic functions ===:::=== Integral definition ===:=== Integrals of logarithmic functions ===::To remember higher integrals, it is convenient to define:where is the ''n''th harmonic number:::::Then::" ], [ "Approximating large numbers", "The identities of logarithms can be used to approximate large numbers.", "Note that , where ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' are arbitrary constants.", "Suppose that one wants to approximate the 44th Mersenne prime, .", "To get the base-10 logarithm, we would multiply 32,582,657 by , getting .", "We can then get .Similarly, factorials can be approximated by summing the logarithms of the terms." ], [ "Complex logarithm identities", "The complex logarithm is the complex number analogue of the logarithm function.", "No single valued function on the complex plane can satisfy the normal rules for logarithms.", "However, a multivalued function can be defined which satisfies most of the identities.", "It is usual to consider this as a function defined on a Riemann surface.", "A single valued version, called the principal value of the logarithm, can be defined which is discontinuous on the negative x axis, and is equal to the multivalued version on a single branch cut.=== Definitions ===In what follows, a capital first letter is used for the principal value of functions, and the lower case version is used for the multivalued function.", "The single valued version of definitions and identities is always given first, followed by a separate section for the multiple valued versions.", "* is the standard natural logarithm of the real number .", "* is the principal value of the arg function; its value is restricted to .", "It can be computed using .", "* is the principal value of the complex logarithm function and has imaginary part in the range .", "*The multiple valued version of is a set, but it is easier to write it without braces and using it in formulas follows obvious rules.", " is the set of complex numbers ''v'' which satisfy * is the set of possible values of the arg function applied to ''z''.When ''k'' is any integer::::=== Constants ===Principal value forms:::Multiple value forms, for any ''k'' an integer:::=== Summation ===Principal value forms:::::Multiple value forms:::=== Powers ===A complex power of a complex number can have many possible values.Principal value form:::Multiple value forms::Where , are any integers:::" ], [ "See also", "* * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Logarithm in Mathwords" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lost city" ], [ "Introduction", "Hiram Bingham rediscovered the ruins of Machu Picchu in 1911, preceded by Agustín Lizárraga in 1902Ruins of Ciudad Perdida, a city built by the Tayrona in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, ColombiaA '''lost city''' is an urban settlement that fell into terminal decline and became extensively or completely uninhabited, with the consequence that the site's former significance was no longer known to the wider world.", "The locations of many lost cities have been forgotten, but some have been rediscovered and studied extensively by scientists.", "Recently abandoned cities or cities whose location was never in question might be referred to as ruins or ghost towns.", "Smaller settlements may be referred to as abandoned villages.", "The search for such lost cities by European explorers and adventurers in Africa, the Americas, and Southeast Asia from the 15th century onwards eventually led to the development of archaeology.Lost cities generally fall into two broad categories: those where all knowledge of the city's existence was forgotten before it was rediscovered, and those whose memory was preserved in myth, legend, or historical records but whose location was lost or at least no longer widely recognized." ], [ "How cities are lost", "Cities may become lost for a variety of reasons including natural disasters, economic or social upheaval, or war.The Incan capital city of Vilcabamba was destroyed and depopulated during the Spanish conquest of Peru in 1572.The Spanish did not rebuild the city, and the location went unrecorded and was forgotten until it was rediscovered through a detailed examination of period letters and documents.Troy was a city located in northwest Anatolia in what is now Turkey.", "It is best known for being the focus of the Trojan War described in the Greek Epic Cycle and especially in the ''Iliad'', one of the two epic poems attributed to Homer.", "Repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt, the city slowly declined and was abandoned in the Byzantine era.", "Buried by time, the city was consigned to the realm of legend until the location was first excavated in the 1860s.Other settlements are lost with few or no clues to their abandonment.", "For example, Malden Island, in the central Pacific, was deserted when first visited by Europeans in 1825, but the remains of temples and other structures on the island indicate that a population of Polynesians had lived there for perhaps several generations in the past.", "Typically this lack of information is due to a lack of surviving written or oral histories and a lack of archaeological data as in the case of the remote and fairly unknown Malden Island." ], [ "Rediscovery", "With the development of archaeology and the application of modern techniques, many previously lost cities have been rediscovered.Machu Picchu is a pre-Columbian Inca site situated on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru.", "Often referred to as the \"Lost City of the Incas\", it is perhaps the most familiar icon of the Inca World.", "Machu Picchu was built around 1450, at the height of the Inca Empire.", "It was abandoned just over 100 years later, in 1572, as a belated result of the Spanish Conquest.", "It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travelers before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area.", "In 1911, Melchor Arteaga led the explorer Hiram Bingham to Machu Picchu, which had been largely forgotten by everybody except the small number of people living in the immediate valley.", "Nevertheless, Peruvian explorer and farmer Agustín Lizárraga predated this discovery by 9 years, having found the Inca site on July 14, 1902.He left a charcoal inscription bearing the words \"A. Lizárraga 1902\".Helike was an ancient Greek city that sank at night in the winter of 373 BCE.", "The city was located in Achaea, Northern Peloponnesos, two kilometres (12 stadia) from the Corinthian Gulf.", "The city was thought to be legend until 2001, when it was rediscovered in the Helike Delta.", "In 1988, the Greek archaeologist Dora Katsonopoulou launched the Helike Project to locate the site of the lost city.", "In 1994, in collaboration with the University of Patras, a magnetometer survey was carried out in the midplain of the delta, which revealed the outlines of a buried building.", "In 1995, this target was excavated (now known as the Klonis site), and a large Roman building with standing walls was brought to light." ], [ "Lost cities by continent", "=== Africa ======= Rediscovered ========= Egypt =====* Akhetaten – capital during the reign of 18th Dynasty pharaoh Akhenaten.", "Later abandoned and almost totally destroyed.", "Modern day Amarna.", "* Avaris – capital city of the Hyksos in the Nile Delta.", "* Canopus – located on the now-dry Canopic branch of the Nile, east of Alexandria.", "* Memphis – administrative capital of ancient Egypt.", "Little remains.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Pi-Ramesses – imperial city of Rameses the Great, now thought to exist beneath Qantir* Tanis – capital during the 21st and 22nd Dynasties, in the Delta region.===== Maghreb ===== * Carthage – initially a Phoenician city in Tunisia, destroyed and then rebuilt by Rome.", "Later served as the capital of the Vandal Kingdom of North Africa, before being destroyed by the Arabs after its capture in 697 CE.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Dougga, Tunisia – Roman city located in present-day Tunisia.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Leptis Magna – Roman city located in present-day Libya.", "It was the birthplace of Emperor Septimius Severus, who lavished an extensive public works program on the city, including diverting the course of a nearby river.", "The river later returned to its original course, burying much of the city in silt and sand.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Timgad, Algeria – Roman city founded by the emperor Trajan around 100 CE, covered by sand in the 7th century.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Aoudaghost, Mauritania – wealthy Berber city in medieval Ghana.===== Horn of Africa =====* Adulis, Eritrea – a port city of the Aksumite kingdom built between 500 and 300 BC.", "* Qohaito, Eritrea – 1000 BC city of the Kingdom of Axum.", "* Metera, Eritrea – 800 BC lost town.", "* Keskese, Eritrea – 700 BC lost city.", "* Hubat, Ethiopia – capital of Harla Kingdom===== Subsaharan Africa =====* Great Zimbabwe – built between the 11th and the 14th century, this city is the namesake of modern-day Zimbabwe.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Niani, Guinea – lost capital of the Mali Empire==== Uncertain or disputed ====* Lost City of the Kalahari – possibly invented==== Undiscovered ====* Itjtawy, Egypt – capital during the 12th Dynasty.", "Exact location still unknown, but it is believed to lie near the modern town of el-Lisht.", "* Thinis, Egypt – undiscovered city and centre of the Thinite Confederacy, the leader of which, Menes, united Upper and Lower Egypt and was the first pharaoh.", "* Kubar, Ethiopia – a lost major city of the Kingdom of Aksum* Dakkar, Ethiopia – capital of the Adal Sultanate=== Asia ======= Central Asia ========= Rediscovered =====* Ai-Khanoum* Karakorum – capital of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan.", "* Khara-Khoto — Western Xia centre of trade located in Inner Mongolia, mentioned in ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' as Etzina.", "* Loulan – located in the Taklamakan Desert, on the ancient Silk Road route.", "* Mangazeya, Siberia* Niya – located in the Taklamakan Desert, on the ancient Silk Road route.", "* Old Urgench – capital of Khwarezm.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Otrar – city located along the Silk Road, important in the history of Central Asia.", "* Poykent* Subashi – located in the Taklamakan Desert, on the ancient Silk Road route.===== Undiscovered =====* Abaskun – medieval Caspian Sea trading port* Alexandria in Margiana==== East Asia ========= Rediscovered =====* Xanadu, China – now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.===== Uncertain or disputed =====* Yamatai, Japan==== South Asia ========= India =========== Rediscovered ======* Dholavira – located in Gujarat.", "City of the Indus Valley civilization.", "* Dvārakā – ancient city of Krishna, hero of the Mahabharata.", "Now largely excavated.", "Off the coast of the Indian state of Gujarat.", "* Kalibangan – located in Rajasthan, India – early city of the Indus Valley Civilization.", "* Lothal – located in Gujarat, India – early city of the Indus Valley Civilization.", "* Pattadakal – located in Karnataka, South India.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Puhar, Mayiladuthurai – located in Tamil Nadu, South India.", "* Rakhigarhi – located in Haryana, largest Indus Valley Civilization site, dating back to 4600 BCE.", "* Surkotada – located in Gujarat, India – early city of the Indus Valley Civilization.", "* Vasai – located in India, former capital (1533–1740) of the Northern Provinces of Portuguese India* Vijayanagara – located in Karnataka, India.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.======Uncertain or disputed======* Kumari Kandam — a fictional lost continent south of India.====== Undiscovered ======* Muziris – located near Cranganore, Kerala, southern India===== Nepal =====* Lumbini – located in Rupandehi district, birthplace of Gautam Buddha.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Sinja Valley – located in Jumla district, capital city of medieval Khasa Kingdom and origin of Khas (Nepali) language.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.===== Pakistan =========== Rediscovered ======* Chanhudaro – located in Pakistan's Sindh province, an Indus Valley civilization cityGanweriwal – located in the Cholistan Desert of Punjab, Pakistan – was a large town of the Indus Valley Civilization, not yet excavated.", "Harappa – located in Punjab, Pakistan – early city of the Indus Valley Civilization* Kot Diji – located in Pakistan's Sindh province Indus Valley civilization city* Mehrgarh – located in Pakistan's Balochistan province Indus Valley civilization city* Mohenjo-daro – located in Sindh, Pakistan — early city of the Indus Valley civilization.", "The city was one of the early urban settlements in the world.", "Seri Bahlol – located in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province — an ancient town, now the site of ruins.", "Sokhta Koh – located near the city of Pasni — another ancient settlement of the Indus Valley.", "Sutkagan Dor – located near the Dasht River — was a small settlement in the Indus Valley, now in ruins.", "Takht-i-Bahi – located in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province — an ancient Indo-Parthian Buddhist monastery site.", "* Taxila – located in Pakistan's Punjab province.====== Undiscovered ======* Naga Puram – located in Pakistan's Sindh province, a city of the Indus Valley civilization.", "The city was on the banks of the Ghaghara River.===== Sri Lanka =========== Rediscovered ======* Anuradhapura – now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Sigiriya – now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Polonnaruwa – now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.==== Southeast Asia ========= Rediscovered =====Angkor was rediscovered by Henri Mouhot in 1860* Angkor, Cambodia – now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Ayutthaya, Thailand – now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Mahendraparvata, Cambodia* Sukhothai, Thailand – now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Wilwatikta, Indonesia – capital city of Majapahit Kingdom, now in Trowulan, Mojokerto, East Java, Indonesia.===== Undiscovered =====* Gangga Negara, Malaysia===== Uncertain or disputed =====* Kota Gelanggi, Malaysia* Ma-i, Philippines – was a sovereign polity that pre-dated the Hispanic establishment of the Philippines and notable for having established trade relations with the Kingdom of Brunei, and with Song and Ming Dynasty China.", "Its existence was recorded both in the Chinese Imperial annals Zhu Fan Zhi (諸番志) and History of Song.==== Western Asia ========= Rediscovered =====* Ani – medieval Armenian capital, located on the Turkish side of the Armenia–Turkey border.", "* Antioch – ancient Greek city, important stronghold in the time of the Crusades.", "* Babylon - Ancient Mesopotamian capital.", "* Caesarea* Çatalhöyük – a Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement, located near the modern city of Konya, Turkey.", "* Choqa Zanbil* Ctesiphon - Capital of the Parthian and Sassanid Empires in Iran.", "* Göbekli Tepe - 12,000 years old Paleolithic settlement.", "It was likely not a city, but rather a temple complex.", "* Hattusa – capital of the Hittite Empire.", "Located near the modern village of Boğazköy in north-central Turkey.", "* Karahan Tepe - Paleolithic settlement built by the same culture as Göbekli Tepe.", "* Kourion, Cyprus* Kish - the ''Sumerian king list'' states that Kish was the first city to have kings following the deluge.", "* Lagash - Sumerian city.", "* Mada'in Saleh (and capitol Petra) – now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* New Sarai – capital of the Golden Horde* Nineveh - Second Capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.", "* Persepolis - Ceremonial Complex built by Achaemenid kings.", "* Samaria* Tmutarakan* Troy - Bronze Age anatolian city made famous by Homer's Iliad.", "* Ur - Sumerian city.===== Undiscovered =====* Akkad* Arimathea* Balanjar – second Khazar capital* Dilmun* Ekallatum* Khazaran* Kussara* Samandar* Turquoise Mountain (Firozkoh) – summer capital of the Ghurid dynasty of Afghanistan, destroyed 1223* Washukanni – capital of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni====== Uncertain or disputed ======* Atil — final capital of the Khazar Khagnate, located in the vicinity of Samosdelka, Russia.", "* Iram of the Pillars* Irisaĝrig – Southern Iraq, near the town of Afak* Narbata – Hebrew: נרבתא.", "Jewish city in The Great Revolt.", "* Old Sarai – capital of the Golden Horde, its status as a separated city from New Sarai is still disputed.", "* Saqsin=== Europe ======= Austria ====* Noreia – the capital of the ancient Celtic kingdom of Noricum.", "Possibly in southern Austria or Slovenia.==== Bosnia and Herzegovina ====* Daorson – the capital of ancient Illyrian community in present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina.==== Bulgaria ====* Perperikon – the megalith complex had been laid in ruins and re-erected many times in history – from the Bronze Age until Middle Ages.", "* Seuthopolis – an ancient Thracian city, discovered and excavated in 1948.It was founded by king Seuthes III around 325 BC.", "Its ruins are now located at the bottom of the Koprinka Reservoir near the city of Kazanlak.==== Croatia ====* Heraclea somewhere in the Adriatic on the Croatian coast.", "Exact location unknown.==== Denmark ====* Høgekøbing* Ræveleje* Serridslev* Sønderside==== Finland ====* Teljä==== France ====* Quentovic – In 842, the ancient port of ''Quentovicus'' was destroyed by a Viking fleet.", "* Thérouanne – In 1553, the city was razed, the roads broken up and the fields ploughed and salted by command of Charles V.==== Germany ====* Damasia – An ancient hill-top settlement on the Lech, of the Licates, a tribe of the Celtic Vindelici.", "Commonly identified with either the Auerberg or pre-Roman Augsburg.", "According to folklore, sunken into the Ammersee.", "* Hedeby* Rungholt – Wadden Sea in Germany, sunk during the \"Grote Mandrenke\", a storm surge in the North Sea on January 16, 1362* Niedam – near Rungholt* Vineta==== Greece ====* Akrotiri – on the island of Thera, Greece.", "* Chryse Island – in the Aegean, reputed site of an ancient temple still visible on the sea floor.", "* Helike – sunk by an earthquake in the 4th century BC and rediscovered in the 1990s.", "* Mycenae* Pavlopetri – underwater off the coast of southern Laconia in Peloponnese, is about 5,000 years old, and is the oldest submerged archaeological town site.==== Hungary ====* Avar Ring – central stronghold of the Avars, it is believed to have been in the wide plain between the Danube and the Tisza.==== Italy ====* Acerrae Vatriae – a town of the Sarranates mentioned by Pliny the Elder as having been situated in an unknown location in Umbria.", "* Castro – a city in Lazio, capital of a Duchy ruled by the Farnese family.", "It was destroyed by a Papal army in 1649.", "* Luni* Paestum – Greek and Roman city south of Naples; three famous Greek temples.", "* Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae – buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD and rediscovered in the 18th century.", "* Sybaris, Italy – ancient Greek colonial city of unsurpassed wealth utterly destroyed by its arch-rival Crotona in 510 BC.", "* Tripergole – ancient Roman spa village on the eastern shores of the Lucrine Lake in the Campi Flegrei.", "The village and most of the lake were buried by tephra in 1538 during the volcanic eruption that created Monte Nuovo.", "The exact location of the village and its associated hot springs can no longer be identified.==== Lithuania ====* Apuolė==== Netherlands ====* Brittenburg – ancient Roman settlement* Dorestad* Reimerswaal – flooded in the 16th century.", "* Saeftinghe – prosperous city lost to the sea in 1584.==== Norway ====* Kaupang – In Viksfjord near Larvik, Norway.", "Largest trading city around the Oslo Fjord during the Viking age.", "As sea levels retreated (the shoreline is 7m lower today than in 1000) the city was no longer accessible from the ocean and was abandoned.==== Poland ====* Biskupin* Truso==== Portugal ====* Conímbriga – early trading post dating to the 9th century BC.", "Abandoned in the 8th century AD.==== Romania ====* Sarmisegetuza Regia – the old capital of the Ancient Dacian Kingdom.", "* Vicina – a port on the Danube, near the Delta.==== Russia ====* Bolghar – important Silk Road city on the Volga river, razed by the Tatar.", "* Ilimsk – a small town in Siberia.", "Flooded by the Ust-Ilimsk Reservoir in the mid-1970s.", "* Kitezh – mythical city beneath the waters in central Russia.", "* Mangazeya – a trading colony on the Pomors' Northern Sea Route, was abandoned in the 17th century after the Northern Sea Route was banned.", "Mangazeya was considered lost until it was re-discovered by archaeologists in 1967.", "* Peremyshl – town that was founded in 1152.", "* Tmutarakan – a trading town of Rus' Khaganate==== Serbia ====* Stari Ras – one of the first capitals of the medieval Serbian state of Raška, abandoned in the 13th century.==== Slovakia ====* Myšia Hôrka (near Spišský Štvrtok) – 3500 years old town (rediscovered in the 20th century) and archaeological site.==== Spain ====* Amaya – either the capital or one of the most important cities of the Cantabri.", "Probably located in what nowadays is called \"Amaya Peak\" in Burgos, northern Spain.", "* Cypsela – drowned Ibero-Greek settlement in the Catalan shore, Spain.", "Mentioned by Greek, Roman and Medieval chroniclers.", "* Reccopolis – one of the capital cities founded in Hispania by the Visigoths.", "The site was incrementally abandoned in the 10th century.", "* Tartessos – a harbor city or an economical complex of small harbors and trade routes set on the mouth of the Guadalquivir river, in modern Andalusia, Spain.", "Tartessos is believed to be either the seat of an independent kingdom or a community of palatial cities devoted to exporting the mineral resources of the Hispanic mainland to the sea, to meet the Phoenician and Greek traders.", "Its destruction is still a matter of debate among historians, and one modern tendency tends to believe that Tartessos was never a city, but a culture complex.==== Sweden ====* Birka* Ny Varberg* Uppåkra==== United Kingdom ====* Calleva Atrebatum, Silchester, England – large Romano-British walled city south of present-day Reading, Berkshire.", "Just the walls remain and a street pattern can be discerned from the air.", "* Dunwich, England – lost to coastal erosion.", "Once a large town, now reduced to a small village* Evonium, Scotland – purported coronation site and capital of 40 kings* Fairbourne, Wales – managed retreat policy adopted by council in 2019 due to flooding prospects following climate change* Hallsands, Devon – built on a beach, last resident left in 1960, closed to public.", "Several derelict buildings still stand.", "* Hampton-on-Sea, England – a village in what is now the Hampton area of Herne Bay, Kent, drowned and abandoned between 1916 and 1921.", "* Kenfig, Wales – a village in Bridgend, encroached by sand and abandoned around the 13th century.", "* Nant Gwrtheyrn, Wales – former village on the North Welsh coast, abandoned after its quarry closed during World War II.", "Now regenerated as a language centre.", "* Old Sarum, England – population moved to nearby Salisbury in the 13th and 14th centuries, although the owners of the archaeological site retained the right to elect a Member of Parliament to represent Old Sarum until the 19th century (see William Pitt).", "* Ravenser Odd, England – important port near the mouth of the Humber, lost to coastal erosion in the 14th century.", "* Ravenspurn, England – near to Ravenser Odd, lost to coastal erosion at some time after 1471.", "* Roxburgh, Scotland – abandoned in the 15th century* Selsey, England – mostly abandoned to coastal erosion after 1043.", "* Skara Brae, Orkney, Scotland – Neolithic settlement buried under sediment.", "Uncovered by a winter storm in 1850.", "* Trellech, Wales – declined between the 13th and 15th centuries.", "* Winchelsea, East Sussex – old Winchelsea, important Channel port, population of over 4000, abandoned after 1287 inundation and coastal erosion.", "Modern Winchelsea, inland, was built to replace it as a planned town by Edward I of England==== Ukraine ====* Árheimar – a capital of the Goths, that was located near the Dnieper river* Bolokhiv – abandoned in the 13th century.=== North America ======= Canada ========= Rediscovered =====* L'Anse aux Meadows – Viking settlement founded around 1000.Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Lost Villages – The Lost Villages are ten communities (Aultsville, Dickinson's Landing, Farran's Point, Maple Grove, Mille Roches, Moulinette, Santa Cruz, Sheek's Island, Wales, Woodlands) in the Canadian province of Ontario, in the former townships of Cornwall and Osnabruck (now South Stormont) near Cornwall, which were permanently submerged by the creation of the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1958.==== Caribbean ========= Rediscovered =====* Port Royal, Jamaica – Destroyed by the 1692 Jamaica earthquake.==== Mexico and Central America ========= Maya cities =====''Incomplete list – for further information, see Maya civilization''====== Rediscovered ======* Calakmul – One of two superpowers in the classic Maya period.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Chichen Itza – This ancient place of pilgrimage is still the most visited Maya ruin.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Coba* Copán – In modern Honduras.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Naachtun – Rediscovered in 1922, it remains one of the most remote and least visited Maya sites.", "Located south-south-east of Calakmul, and north of Tikal, it is believed to have had strategic importance to, and been vulnerable to military attacks by, both neighbours.", "Its ancient name was identified in the mid-1990s as ''Masuul''.", "* Palenque — in the Mexican state of Chiapas, known for its beautiful art and architecture.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Tikal — One of two major powers in the classic Maya period.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Tulum – Mayan coastal city.===== Olmec cities =========== Rediscovered ======* La Venta – In the present day Mexican state of Tabasco.", "* San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán – In the present day Mexican state of Veracruz.===== Totonac Cities =========== Rediscovered ======* Teotihuacan – Pre-Aztec Mexico.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.===== Other =========== Rediscovered ======* Izapa – Chief city of the Izapa civilization, whose territory extended from the Gulf Coast across to the Pacific Coast of Chiapas, in present-day Mexico, and Guatemala.", "* Guayabo – In Costa Rica.", "It is believed that the site was inhabited from 1500 BCE to 1400 CE, and had at its peak a population of around 10,000.==== United States ========= Rediscovered =====* The cities of the Ancestral Pueblo (or Anasazi) culture, located in the Four Corners region of the Southwest United States – The best known are located at Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde.", "* Etzanoa – located in Arkansas City, Kansas.", "City of the Wichita culture.", "It was home to around 20,000 people at its height, and it was inhabited from c. 1450–1700 AD.", "* Bethel Indian Town, New Jersey – Lenape settlement which disappeared as the Lenape were pushed west.", "* Cahokia – Located near present-day St. Louis, Missouri.", "At its height Cahokia is believed to have had a population of between 40,000 and 80,000 people, making it amongst the largest Pre-Columbian cities of the Americas.", "It is known chiefly for its huge pyramidal mounds of compacted earth.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Pueblo Grande de Nevada a complex of villages, located near Overton, Nevada* Roanoke Colony* Sarabay – a Mocama settlement in northeast Florida, mentioned in both French and Spanish documents dating to the 1560s.=== South America ======= Inca cities ========= Rediscovered =====* Choquequirao – One of the last bastions of Incan resistance against the Spaniards and refuge of Manco Inca Yupanqui.", "* Machu Picchu – Possibly Pachacuti's Family Palace.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Vilcabamba – Currently known as Espiritu Pampa, the capital of the Neo-Inca State (1539–1572).", "* Vitcos – Currently known as Rosaspata, a residence and ceremonial center of the Neo-Inca State.==== Other ========= Rediscovered =====* Cahuachi – Nazca, in present-day Peru.", "* Caral – An important center of the Norte Chico civilization, in present-day Peru.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Chan Chan – Chimu.", "Located near Trujillo, in present-day Peru.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Kuelap – A massive ruined city, still covered in jungle, that was the capital of the Chachapoyas culture in Northern Peru.", "* Moche City - Largest city of the Moche culture.", "Known for its large semi-pyramidal buildings, Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna.", "* Nueva Cádiz, in Venezuela.", "It was one of the first Spanish settlements in the Americas.", "* Santa María la Antigua del Darién – First permanent European settlement in the mainland of the continental Americas, in the Darién region between Panama and Colombia.", "Founded by Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1510.Found in 2012.", "* Teyuna (Ciudad Perdida) located in present-day Colombia* Tiahuanaco – pre-Inca.", "Also known as Tiwanaku.", "Located in present-day Bolivia.", "Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "* Upano Valley Sites - Urban complex in Ecuadorian Amazon, discovered in early 2024.===== Status Unknown =====* La Ciudad Blanca" ], [ "Undiscovered and fictional lost cities", "=== Legendary ===* Ai – important city in the Hebrew Bible* Arthurian Camelot* Atlantis* Aztlán- the ancestral homeland in Aztec mythology* Ciudad de los Cesares (City of the Caesars, also variously known as City of Patagonia, Elelín, Lin Lin, Trapalanda, Trapananda, or Wandering City) – a legendary city in Patagonia, never found* Dvārakā – An ancient city of Krishna, submerged in the sea.", "* El Dorado* Iram of the Pillars – this may refer to a lost Arabian city in the Empty Quarter, but sources also identify it as a tribe or an area mentioned in the Quran* Kitezh, Russia – legendary underwater city which supposedly may be seen in good weather* Lemuria – An ancient, now sunken, land in the Pacific Ocean * Libertatia, Madagascar – (Also known as Libertalia) was a pirate colony founded in the 17th century by pirate Captain James Misson (occasionally spelled \"Mission\") that is still disputed by historians today.", "* Lost City of Z – a city allegedly located in the jungles of the Mato Grosso region of Brazil, said to have been seen by the British explorer Col. Percy Harrison Fawcett some time before World War I* Lyonesse* Otuken – legendary capital city of Gokturks in Turkic mythology* Paititi – a legendary city and refuge in the rainforests where Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru meet* The Seven Cities of Gold* Shambhala – Mythical kingdom said to be located in Tibet * Sodom and Gomorrah* Vineta – legendary city somewhere at the Baltic coast of Germany or Poland* Ys – legendary city on the western coast of FranceThat some cities are considered legendary does not mean they did not in fact exist.", "Some that were once considered legendary are now known to have existed, such as Troy and Bjarmaland.=== Fictional ===* Brigadoon – from the musical of the same name* Charn – from ''The Chronicles of Narnia''* Leng – Antarctic city described in H.P.", "Lovecraft's At the Mountains of Madness* Númenor – from ''The Lord of the Rings''* Opar – from the Tarzan novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs (named for his long-time hometown of Oak Park, Illinois)* R'lyeh – sunken city referenced in many of the works of H. P. Lovecraft, where the godlike being Cthulhu is buried* Sarnath – city described in H.P.", "Lovecraft's short story \"The Doom that Came to Sarnath\"* Shangri-La – fictional place from James Hilton's 1933 novel Lost Horizon* Skull Island – from the King Kong movies* The Nameless City – ancient city in the Arabian desert described in H.P.", "Lovecraft's short story The Nameless City * Valyria – from George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire universe" ], [ "See also", "* Abandoned village* Ephemerality * Ghost town* List of mythological places* List of lost lands* Ruins* Societal collapse" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Louis Agassiz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz''' ( ; ) FRS (For) FRSE (May 28, 1807 – December 14, 1873) was a Swiss-born American biologist and geologist who is recognized as a scholar of Earth's natural history.Spending his early life in Switzerland, he received a PhD at Erlangen and a medical degree in Munich.", "After studying with Georges Cuvier and Alexander von Humboldt in Paris, Agassiz was appointed professor of natural history at the University of Neuchâtel.", "He emigrated to the United States in 1847 after visiting Harvard University.", "He went on to become professor of zoology and geology at Harvard, to head its Lawrence Scientific School, and to found its Museum of Comparative Zoology.Agassiz is known for observational data gathering and analysis.", "He made institutional and scientific contributions to zoology, geology, and related areas, including multivolume research books running to thousands of pages.", "He is particularly known for his contributions to ichthyological classification, including of extinct species such as megalodon, and to the study of historical geology, including the founding of glaciology.His theories on human, animal and plant polygenism have been criticised as implicitly supporting scientific racism." ], [ "Early life", "Louis Agassiz was born in the village of Môtier (''fr'') (now part of Haut-Vully which merged into Mont-Vully in 2016) in the Swiss Canton of Fribourg.", "He was the son of a pastor, Louis Rudolphe and his wife, Rose Mayor.His father was a Protestant clergyman, as had been his progenitors for six generations, and his mother was the daughter of a physician and an intellectual in her own right, who had assisted her husband in the education of her boys.", "He was educated at home until he spent four years at secondary school in Bienne, which he entered in 1818 and completed his elementary studies in Lausanne.", "Agassiz studied at the Universities of Zürich, Heidelberg and Munich.", "At the last one, he extended his knowledge of natural history, especially of botany.", "In 1829, he received the degree of doctor of philosophy at Erlangen and, in 1830, that of doctor of medicine at Munich.", "Moving to Paris, he came under the tutelage of Alexander von Humboldt and later received his financial benevolence.", "Humboldt and Georges Cuvier launched him on his careers of respectively geology and zoology.", "Ichthyology soon became a focus of Agassiz's life's work." ], [ "Early work", "Agassiz in 1870In 1819 to 1820, the German biologists Johann Baptist von Spix and Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius undertook an expedition to Brazil.", "They returned home to Europe with many natural objects, including an important collection of the freshwater fish of Brazil, especially of the Amazon River.", "Spix, who died in 1826, likely from a tropical disease, did not live long enough to work out the history of those fish, and Martius selected Agassiz for this project.Agassiz threw himself into the work with an enthusiasm that would go on to characterize the rest of his life's work.", "The task of describing the Brazilian fish was completed and published in 1829.It was followed by research into the history of fish found in Lake Neuchâtel.", "Enlarging his plans, he in 1830 issued a prospectus of a ''History of the Freshwater Fish of Central Europe''.", "In 1839, however, the first part of the publication appeared, and it was completed in 1842.In November 1832, Agassiz was appointed professor of natural history at the University of Neuchâtel, at a salary of about US$400 and declined brilliant offers in Paris because of the leisure for private study that that position afforded him.", "The fossil fish in the rock of the surrounding region, the slates of Glarus and the limestones of Monte Bolca, soon attracted his attention.", "At the time, very little had been accomplished in their scientific study.", "Agassiz as early as 1829, planned the publication of a work.", "More than any other, it would lay the foundation of his worldwide fame.", "Five volumes of his ''Recherches sur les poissons fossiles'' (''Research on Fossil Fish'') were published from 1833 to 1843.They were magnificently illustrated, chiefly by Joseph Dinkel.", "In gathering materials for that work, Agassiz visited the principal museums in Europe.", "Meeting Cuvier in Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance from him.In 1833, he married Cecile Braun, the sister of his friend Alexander Braun and established his household at Neuchâtel.", "Trained to scientific drawing by her brothers, his wife was of the greatest assistance to Agassiz, with some of the most beautiful plates in ''fossil'' and ''freshwater'' fishes being drawn by her.With Benjamin Peirce Agassiz found that his palaeontological analyses required a new ichthyological classification.", "The fossils that he examined rarely showed any traces of the soft tissues of fish but instead, consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales, and fins, with the bones being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances.", "He therefore adopted a classification that divided fish into four groups (ganoids, placoids, cycloids, and ctenoids), based on the nature of the scales and other dermal appendages.", "That did much to improve fish taxonomy, but Agassiz's classification has since been superseded.With Louis de Coulon, both father and son, he founded the ''Societé des Sciences Naturelles'', of which he was the first secretary and in conjunction with the Coulons also arranged a provisional museum of natural history in the orphan's home.", "Agassiz needed financial support to continue his work.", "The British Association and the Earl of Ellesmere, then Lord Francis Egerton, stepped in to help.", "The 1290 original drawings made for the work were purchased by the Earl and presented by him to the Geological Society of London.", "In 1836, the Wollaston Medal was awarded to Agassiz by the council of that society for his work on fossil ichthyology.", "In 1838, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society.", "Meanwhile, invertebrate animals engaged his attention.", "In 1837, he issued the \"Prodrome\" of a monograph on the recent and fossil Echinodermata, the first part of which appeared in 1838; in 1839–1840, he published two quarto volumes on the fossil echinoderms of Switzerland; and in 1840–1845, he issued his ''Études critiques sur les mollusques fossiles'' (''Critical Studies on Fossil Mollusks'').Before Agassiz's first visit to England in 1834, Hugh Miller and other geologists had brought to light the remarkable fossil fish of the Old Red Sandstone of the northeast of Scotland.", "The strange forms of ''Pterichthys'', ''Coccosteus'', and other genera were then made known to geologists for the first time.", "They were of intense interest to Agassiz and formed the subject of a monograph by him published in 1844–1(45: ''Monographie des poissons fossiles du Vieux Grès Rouge, ou Système Dévonien (Old Red Sandstone) des Îles Britanniques et de Russie'' (''Monograph on Fossil Fish of the Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian System of the British Isles and of Russia'').", "In the early stages of his career in Neuchatel, Agassiz also made a name for himself as a man who could run a scientific department well.", "Under his care, the University of Neuchâtel soon became a leading institution for scientific inquiry.Portrait photograph by John Adams Whipple, ''circa'' 1865In 1842 to 1846, Agassiz issued his ''Nomenclator Zoologicus'', a classification list with references of all names used in zoological genera and groups.He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1843." ], [ "Ice age", "''Nouvelles études et expériences sur les glaciers actuels'', 1847The vacation of 1836 was spent by Agassiz and his wife in the little village of Bex, where he met Jean de Charpentier and Ignaz Venetz.", "Their recently announced glacial theories had startled the scientific world, and Agassiz returned to Neuchâtel as an enthusiastic convert.", "In 1837, Agassiz proposed that the Earth had been subjected to a past ice age.", "He presented the theory to the Helvetic Society that ancient glaciers flowed outward from the Alps, and even larger glaciers had covered the plains and mountains of Europe, Asia, and North America and smothered the entire Northern Hemisphere in a prolonged ice age.", "In the same year, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.", "Before that proposal, Goethe, de Saussure, Ignaz Venetz, Jean de Charpentier, Karl Friedrich Schimper, and others had studied the glaciers of the Alps, and Goethe, Charpentier, and Schimper had even concluded that the erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered over the slopes and summits of the Jura Mountains had been moved there by glaciers.", "Those ideas attracted the attention of Agassiz, and he discussed them with Charpentier and Schimper, whom he accompanied on successive trips to the Alps.", "Agassiz even had a hut constructed upon one of the Aar Glaciers and for a time made it his home to investigate the structure and movements of the ice.Agassiz visited England, and with William Buckland, the only English naturalist who shared his ideas, made a tour of the British Isles in search of glacial phenomena, and became satisfied that his theory of an ice age was correct.", "In 1840, Agassiz published a two-volume work, ''Études sur les glaciers'' (\"Studies on Glaciers\").", "In it, he discussed the movements of the glaciers, their moraines, and their influence in grooving and rounding the rocks and in producing the striations and ''roches moutonnées'' seen in Alpine-style landscapes.", "He accepted Charpentier and Schimper's idea that some of the alpine glaciers had extended across the wide plains and valleys of the Aar and Rhône, but he went further by concluding that in the recent past, Switzerland had been covered with one vast sheet of ice originating in the higher Alps and extending over the valley of northwestern Switzerland to the southern slopes of the Jura.", "The publication of the work gave fresh impetus to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the world.Familiar then with recent glaciation, Agassiz and the English geologist William Buckland visited the mountains of Scotland in 1840.There, they found clear evidence in different locations of glacial action.", "The discovery was announced to the Geological Society of London in successive communications.", "The mountainous districts of England, Wales, and Ireland were understood to have been centres for the dispersion of glacial debris.", "Agassiz remarked \"that great sheets of ice, resembling those now existing in Greenland, once covered all the countries in which unstratified gravel (boulder drift) is found; that this gravel was in general produced by the trituration of the sheets of ice upon the subjacent surface, etc.", "\"auger that was used by Agassiz to drill up to 7.5 m deep into the Unteraar Glacier to take its temperature (Swiss Alpine Museum, Bern)In his later years, Agassiz applied his glacial theories to the geology of the Brazilian tropics, including the Amazon.", "Agassiz began with a working hypothesis which could be tested by the results of fieldwork to find either inconclusive, or conclusively supporting or refuting evidence.", "A hypothesis that can be conclusively refuted is better than a hypothesis that is difficult to test.", "Agassiz had a close association with his student and field assistant, the geologist Charles Hartt who eventually refuted Agassiz's theories about the Amazon based on his fieldwork there.", "Instead of evidence for any glacial processes, he found chemically weathered sediments from marine and tropical fluvial, not glacial, processes, a finding that later geologists confirmed.", "Agassiz hypothesis that the Amazon was affected by the Last Glacial Maximum was correct, although the mechanism causing the effect was non-glacial.", "The Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna during the LGM." ], [ "United States", "With the aid of a grant of money from the king of Prussia, Agassiz crossed the Atlantic in the autumn of 1846 to investigate the natural history and geology of North America and to deliver a course of lectures on \"The Plan of Creation as shown in the Animal Kingdom\" by invitation from John Amory Lowell, at the Lowell Institute in Boston, Massachusetts.", "The financial offers that were presented to him in the United States induced him to settle there, where he remained to the end of his life.", "He was elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1846.In 1846, still married to Cecilie, who remained with their three children in Switzerland, Agassiz met Elizabeth Cabot Cary at a dinner.", "The two developed a romantic attachment, and when his wife died in 1848, they made plans to marry.", "The ceremony took place on April 25, 1850, in Boston, Massachusetts at King's Chapel.", "Agassiz brought his children to live with them, and Elizabeth raised and developed close relationships with her step-children.", "She had no children of her own.Agassiz had a mostly cordial relationship with the Harvard botanist Asa Gray despite their disagreements.", "Agassiz believed each human race had been separately created, but Gray, a supporter of Charles Darwin, believed in the shared evolutionary ancestry of all humans.", "In addition, Agassiz was a member of the Scientific Lazzaroni, a group of mostly physical scientists who wanted American academia to mimic the more autocratic academic structures of European universities, but Gray was a staunch opponent of that group.Agassiz's engagement for the Lowell Institute lectures precipitated the establishment in 1847 of the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard University, with Agassiz as its head.", "Harvard appointed him professor of zoology and geology, and he founded the Museum of Comparative Zoology there in 1859 and served as its first director until his death in 1873.During his tenure at Harvard, Agassiz studied the effect of the last ice age in North America.", "In August 1857, Agassiz was offered the chair of palaeontology in the Museum of Natural History, Paris, which he refused.", "He was later decorated with the Cross of the Legion of Honor.Agassiz continued his lectures for the Lowell Institute.", "In succeeding years, he gave lectures on \"Ichthyology\" (1847–1848), \"Comparative Embryology\" (1848–1849), \"Functions of Life in Lower Animals\" (1850–1851), \"Natural History\" (1853–1854), \"Methods of Study in Natural History\" (1861–1862), \"Glaciers and the Ice Period\" (1864–1865), \"Brazil\" (1866–1867), and \"Deep Sea Dredging\" (1869–1870).", "In 1850, he had married Elizabeth Cabot Cary, who later wrote introductory books about natural history and a lengthy biography of her husband after he had died.Agassiz served as a nonresident lecturer at Cornell University while he was also on faculty at Harvard.", "In 1852, he accepted a medical professorship of comparative anatomy at Charlestown, Massachusetts, but he resigned in two years.", "From then on, Agassiz's scientific studies dropped off, but he became one of the best-known scientists in the world.", "By 1857, Agassiz was so well-loved that his friend Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote \"The Fiftieth Birthday of Agassiz\" in his honor and read it at a dinner given for Agassiz by the Saturday Club in Cambridge.", "Agassiz's own writing continued with four (of a planned 10) volumes of ''Natural History of the United States'', published from 1857 to 1862.He also published a catalog of papers in his field, ''Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae'', in four volumes between 1848 and 1854.Stricken by ill health in the 1860s, Agassiz resolved to return to the field for relaxation and to resume his studies of Brazilian fish.", "In April 1865, he led the Thayer Expedition to Brazil.", "While there, he commissioned two photographers, Augusto Stahl and Georges Leuzinger, to accompany the expedition and produce somatological images of Indigenous people and enslaved Africans and Black people.", "After his return in August 1866, an account of the expedition, ''A Journey in Brazil'', was published in 1868.In December 1871, he made a second eight-month excursion, known as the ''Hassler'' expedition under the command of Commander Philip Carrigan Johnson (the brother of Eastman Johnson) and visited South America on its southern Atlantic and Pacific Seaboards.", "The ship explored the Magellan Strait, which drew the praise of Charles Darwin.Following the establishment of the first U.S. Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in New York City in 1866, Agassiz was called on to help settle disputes about animal behavior.", "He deemed the way turtles were shipped caused them suffering, while P.T.", "Barnum argued with Agassiz' support that his snakes would eat only live animals.His second wife, Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, assisted him in preparing his ''A Journey in Brazil''.", "Along with her stepson, Alexander Agassiz, she wrote ''Seaside Studies in Natural History'' and ''Marine Animals of Massachusetts''.", "Elizabeth wrote at the Strait that \"the ''Hassler'' pursued her course, past a seemingly endless panorama of mountains and forests rising into the pale regions of snow and ice, where lay glaciers in which every rift and crevasse, as well as the many cascades flowing down to join the waters beneath, could be counted as she steamed by them....", "These were weeks of exquisite delight to Agassiz.", "The vessel often skirted the shore so closely that its geology could be studied from the deck.\"" ], [ "Family", "Agassiz in middle ageFrom his first marriage to Cecilie Braun, Agassiz had two daughters, Ida and Pauline, and a son, Alexander.In 1863, Agassiz's daughter Ida married Henry Lee Higginson, who later founded the Boston Symphony Orchestra and was a benefactor to Harvard and other schools.", "On November 30, 1860, Agassiz's daughter Pauline was married to Quincy Adams Shaw (1825–1908), a wealthy Boston merchant and later a benefactor to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.", "Pauline Agassiz Shaw later became a prominent educator, suffragist, and philanthropist." ], [ "Later life", "In the last years of his life, Agassiz worked to establish a permanent school in which zoological science could be pursued amid the living subjects of its study.", "In 1873, the private philanthropist John Anderson gave Agassiz the island of Penikese, in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts (south of New Bedford), and presented him with $50,000 to endow it permanently as a practical school of natural science that would be especially devoted to the study of marine zoology.", "The school collapsed soon after Agassiz's death but is considered to be a precursor of the nearby Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory.Agassiz had a profound influence on the American branches of his two fields and taught many future scientists who would go on to prominence, including Alpheus Hyatt, David Starr Jordan, Joel Asaph Allen, Joseph Le Conte, Ernest Ingersoll, William James, Charles Sanders Peirce, Nathaniel Shaler, Samuel Hubbard Scudder, Alpheus Packard, and his son Alexander Emanuel Agassiz.", "He had a profound impact on the paleontologist Charles Doolittle Walcott and the natural scientist Edward S. Morse.", "Agassiz had a reputation for being a demanding teacher.", "He would allegedly \"lock a student up in a room full of turtle-shells, or lobster-shells, or oyster-shells, without a book or a word to help him, and not let him out till he had discovered all the truths which the objects contained.\"", "Two of Agassiz's most prominent students detailed their personal experiences under his tutelage: Scudder, in a short magazine article for'' Every Saturday'', and Shaler, in his ''Autobiography''.", "Those and other recollections were collected and published by Lane Cooper in 1917, which Ezra Pound would draw on for his anecdote of Agassiz and the sunfish.In the early 1840s, Agassiz named two fossil fish species after Mary Anning (''Acrodus anningiae'' and ''Belenostomus anningiae'') and another after her friend, Elizabeth Philpot.", "Anning was a paleontologist known around the world for important finds, but because of her gender, she was often not formally recognized for her work.", "Agassiz was grateful for the help that the women gave him in examining fossil fish specimens during his visit to Lyme Regis in 1834.Agassiz died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1873 and was buried on the Bellwort Path at Mount Auburn Cemetery, joined later by his wife.", "His monument is a boulder from a glacial moraine of the Aar near the site of the old Hôtel des Neuchâtelois, not far from the spot where his hut once stood.", "His grave is sheltered by pine trees from his old home in Switzerland." ], [ "Legacy", "The Cambridge elementary school north of Harvard University was named in his honor, and the surrounding neighborhood became known as \"Agassiz\" as a result.", "The school's name was changed to the Maria L. Baldwin School on May 21, 2002, because of concerns about Agassiz's involvement in scientific racism and to honor Maria Louise Baldwin, the African-American principal of the school, who served from 1889 to 1922.The neighborhood, however, continued to be known as Agassiz.", ", neighborhood residents decided to rename the neighborhood's community council as the \"Agassiz-Baldwin Community\".", "Then, in July 2021, culminating a two-year effort on the part of neighborhood residents, the Cambridge City Council voted unanimously to change the name to the Baldwin Neighborhood.", "An elementary school, the Agassiz Elementary School in Minneapolis, Minnesota, existed from 1922 to 1981.===Geological tributes===Agassiz's grave, Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts, is a boulder from the moraine of the Aar Glaciers, near where he once lived.An ancient glacial lake that formed in central North America, Lake Agassiz, is named after him, as are Mount Agassiz in California's Palisades, Mount Agassiz in the Uinta Mountains of Utah, Agassiz Peak in Arizona, Agassiz Rock in Massachusetts, and the Agassizhorn in the Bernese Alps in his native Switzerland.", "Agassiz Glacier in Montana, Agassiz Creek in Glacier National Park, Agassiz Glacier in the Saint Elias Mountains of Alaska, and Mount Agassiz in the White Mountains of New Hampshire also bear his name.", "A crater on Mars, ''Crater Agassiz'', and a promontorium on the moon are also named in his honor.", "Cape Agassiz, a headland situated in Palmer Land, Antarctica, is named in his honor.", "A main-belt asteroid, 2267 Agassiz, is also named in association with him.===Biological tributes===Several animal species are named in honor of him, including Agassiz's dwarf cichlid ''Apistogramma agassizii'' ;Agassiz's perchlet, also known as Agassiz's glass fish; and the olive perchlet ''Ambassis agassizii'' ; The Spring Cavefish ''Forbesichthys agassizii'' ; the catfish ''Corydoras agassizii'' ; the Rio Skate ''Rioraja agassizii'' ;The South American fish ''Leporinus agassizii'' the Snailfish ''Liparis agassizii'' ; a sea snail, ''Borsonella agassizii'' ; a species of crab ''Eucratodes agassizii'' ;''Isocapnia agassizi'' (a stonefly); ''Publius agassizi'' (a passalid beetle);''Xylocrius agassizi'' (a longhorn beetle);''Exoprosopa agassizii'' (a bee fly);''Chelonia agassizii'' (Galápagos green turtle); ''Philodryas agassizii'' (a South American snake); and the most well-known, ''Gopherus agassizii'' (the desert tortoise).", "In 2020, a new genus of pycnodont fish (Actinopterygii, Pycnodontiformes) named ''Agassazilia erfoundina'' (Cooper and Martill, 2020) from the Moroccan Kem Kem Group was named in honor of Agassiz, who first identified the group in the 1830s.===Tribute awards===In 2005, the European Geosciences Union Division on Cryospheric Sciences established the Louis Agassiz Medal, awarded to individuals in recognition of their outstanding scientific contribution to the study of the cryosphere on Earth or elsewhere in the solar system.Agassiz took part in a monthly gathering called the Saturday Club at the Parker House, a meeting of Boston writers and intellectuals.", "He was therefore mentioned in a stanza of the Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. poem \"At the Saturday Club:\"=== Daguerreotypes of Renty and Delia Taylor ===Renty TaylorIn 1850, Agassiz commissioned daguerreotypes, which were described as \"haunting and voyeuristic\" of the enslaved Renty Taylor and Taylor's daughter, Delia, to further his arguments about black inferiority.", "They are the earliest known photographs of enslaved persons.", "Agassiz left the images to Harvard, and they remained in the Peabody Museum's attic until 1976, when they were rediscovered by Ellie Reichlin, a former staff member.", "The 15 daguerrotypes were in a case with the embossing \"J. T. Zealy, Photographer, Columbia,\" with several handwritten labels, which helped in later identification.", "Reichlin spent months doing research to try to identify the people in the photos, but Harvard University did not make efforts to contact the families and licensed the photos for use.In 2011, Tamara Lanier wrote a letter to the president of Harvard that identified herself as a direct descendant of the Taylors and asked the university to turn over the photos to her.In 2019, Taylor's descendants sued Harvard for the return of the images and unspecified damages.", "The lawsuit was supported by 43 living descendants of Agassiz, who wrote in a letter of support, \"For Harvard to give the daguerreotypes to Ms. Lanier and her family would begin to make amends for its use of the photos as exhibits for the white supremacist theory Agassiz espoused.\"", "Everyone must evaluate fully \"his role in promoting a pseudoscientific justification for white supremacy.", "\"Aggasiz-Zeally GalleryFile:Renty an African slave.jpg\| \"Papa\" Renty Taylor Born Congo, 1775-died on/after 1866.Field hand on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina Note a side profile picture can be found at online article \"Louis Agassiz Two Faces\"File:Delia1850FrontPortrait.jpg\|Delia (Born America); daughter of Renty on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina Picture # 1File:Slave Portrait Agassiz Zealy Woman Side Bust 2.jpg\|Delia daughter of Renty on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina Picture # 2File:JackGuineaProfileSlavePortrait.jpg\|Jack of Guinea, a slave driver on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina Picture # 1File:Jack1850FrontZealy.jpg\|Jack of Guinea, a slave driver on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina Picture # 2File:Drana (frontal portrait).jpg\|Drana daughter of Jack on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina Picture # 1File:Drana (profile view).jpg\|Drana daughter of Jack on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina Picture # 2File:Slave Portrait Agassiz Zealy Man Side Bust 2.jpg\|Fassena a mandingo Carpender on Wade Hampton Plantation, South CarolinaNote a full face picture can be found at https://saa3dm.org/2021/11/16/1850File:Slave Portrait Agassiz Zealy Man Standing Back.jpg\| \"Jem.", "A Gullah..B.W.", "Green Plantation See American Heritage June 1977 \"Faces of Slavery\"File:Slave Portrait Agassiz Zealy Man Front 01.jpg\|File:Slave Portrait Agassiz Zealy Man Side One Leg.jpg\|" ], [ "Polygenism and racism", "1906 San Francisco earthquake toppled Agassiz's statue from the façade of Stanford's zoology building, Stanford President David Starr Jordan wrote, \"SomebodyDr.", "Angell, perhapsremarked that 'Agassiz was great in the abstract but not in the concrete.Agassiz was a well-known natural scientist of his generation in America.", "In addition to being a natural scientist, Agassiz wrote prolifically in the field of scientific polygenism after he came to the United States.Upon arriving in Boston in 1846, Agassiz spent a few months acquainting himself with the northeast region of the United States.", "He spent much of his time with Samuel George Morton, a famous American anthropologist at the time who became well known by analyzing fossils brought back by Lewis and Clark.", "One of Morton’s personal projects involved studying cranial capacity of human skulls from around the world.", "Morton aimed to use craniometry to prove that white people were biologically superior to other races.", "His work \"''Crania Aegyptiaca\"'' claimed to support the polygenism belief that the races were created separately and each had their own unique attributes.Morton relied on other scientists to send him skulls along with information about where they were acquired.", "Factors that can affect cranial capacity, such as body size and gender, were not taken into consideration by Morton.", "He made questionable judgment calls such as dismissing Hindu skull calculations from his Caucasian cranial measurements because they brought the overall average down.", "Oppositely, he included Peruvian skull measurements alongside Native American calculations even though the Peruvian numbers lowered the average score.", "Despite Morton's unsound methods, his published work on cranial capacities across races was deemed authoritative in the United States and Europe.", "Morton is a primary influence on Agassiz's belief in polygenism.John Amory Lowell invited Agassiz to present twelve lectures in December 1846 on three subjects titled \"''The Plan of Creation as shown in the Animal Kingdom'', ''Ichthyology,'' and ''Comparative Embryology”'' as a part of the Lowell Lecture series.", "These lectures were widely attended with up to 5,000 people in attendance on some nights.", "It was during these lectures that Agassiz announced for the first time that black and white people had different origins but were part of the same species.", "Agassiz repeated this lecture 10 months later to the Charleston Literary Club but changed his original stance, claiming that black people were physiologically and anatomically a distinct species.Agassiz believed that humans did not descend from one single common ancestor.", "He believed that like plants and animals, various regions have differentiated species of humans'''.'''", "He considered this hypothesis testable, and matched to the available evidence.", "He also indicated that there were obvious geographical barriers that were the likely cause of speciation.Stephen Jay Gould asserted that Agassiz's observations sprang from racist bias, in particular from his revulsion on first encountering African-Americans in the United States.", "Referencing letters written by Agassiz, Gould compares Agassiz' public display of dispassionate objectivity to his private correspondence, in which he describes \"the production of half breeds\" as \"a sin against nature...\" Describing the interbreeding of white and black people, he warns, \"We have already had to struggle, in our progress, against the influence of universal equality... but how shall we eradicate the stigma of a lower race when its blood has once been allowed to flow freely into our children.\"", "In contrast, others have asserted that, despite favoring polygenism, Agassiz rejected racism and believed in a spiritualized human unity.", "However, in the same article, Agassiz asks the reader to consider the hierarchy of races, mentioning \"The indomitable, courageous, proud Indian, — in how very different a light he stands by the side of the submissive, obsequious, imitative negro, or by the side of the tricky, cunning, and cowardly Mongolian!", "Are not these facts indications that the different races do not rank upon one level in nature?", "\"Agassiz never supported slavery and claimed his views on polygenism had nothing to do with politics.", "His views on polygenism have been claimed to have emboldened proponents of slavery.Accusations of racism against Agassiz have prompted the renaming of landmarks, schoolhouses, and other institutions (which abound in Massachusetts) that bear his name.", "Opinions about those moves are often mixed, given his extensive scientific legacy in other areas, and uncertainty about his actual racial beliefs.", "In 2007, the Swiss government acknowledged his \"racist thinking\", but declined to rename the Agassizhorn summit.", "In 2017, the Swiss Alpine Club declined to revoke Agassiz's status as a member of honor, which he received in 1865 for his scientific work, because the club considered that status to have lapsed on Agassiz's death.", "In 2020, the Stanford Department of Psychology asked for a statue of Louis Agassiz to be removed from the front façade of its building.", "In 2021, Chicago Public Schools announced they would remove Agassiz's name from an elementary school and rename it for the abolitionist and political activist, Harriet Tubman.", "In 2022, The Trustees of Reservations renamed Agassiz Rock as The Monoliths." ], [ "Works", " '' Recherches sur les poissons fossiles'' (1833–1843)* ''History of the Freshwater Fishes of Central Europe'' (1839–1842)* '' Études sur les glaciers'' (1840)* '' Études critiques sur les mollusques fossiles'' (1840–1845)* '' Nomenclator Zoologicus'' (1842–1846)* '' Monographie des poissons fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou Systeme Devonien (Old Red Sandstone) des Iles Britanniques et de Russie'' (1844–1845)* '' Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae'' (1848)* (with A.", "A. Gould) ''Principles of Zoology for the use of Schools and Colleges'' (Boston, 1848)* '' Lake Superior: Its Physical Character, Vegetation and Animals, compared with those of other and similar regions'' (Boston: Gould, Kendall and Lincoln, 1850)* '' Contributions to the Natural History of the United States of America'' (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1857–1862)* '' Geological Sketches'' (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1866)* '' A Journey in Brazil'' (1868)* '' De l'espèce et de la classification en zoologie'' ''Essay on classification'' (Trans.", "Felix Vogeli.", "Paris: Bailière, 1869)* '' Geological Sketches (Second Series)'' (Boston: J.R. Osgood, 1876)* ''Essay on Classification'', by Louis Agassiz (1962, Cambridge)" ], [ "Taxa described by him", "See :Category:Taxa named by Louis Agassiz" ], [ "See also", " List of geologists" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * Smith, Harriet Knight, ''The history of the Lowell Institute'', Boston: Lamson, Wolffe and Co., 1898.", "* * '''Attribution:'''* " ], [ "Archive sources", "A collection of Louis Agassiz's professional and personal life is conserved in the State Archives of Neuchâtel.", "" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Works by Louis Agassiz online at the Biodiversity Heritage Library.", "* * Pictures and texts of ''Excursions et séjours dans les glaciers et les hautes régions des Alpes'' and of ''Nouvelles études et expériences sur les glaciers actuels'' by Louis Agassiz can be found in the database VIATIMAGES.", "* \"Geographical Distribution of Animals\", by Louis Agassiz (1850)* ''Runner of the Mountain Tops: The Life of Louis Agassiz'', by Mabel Louise Robinson (1939) – free download at ''A Celebration of Women Writers'' – UPenn Digital Library* Thayer Expedition to Brazil, 1865–1866 (Agassiz went to Brazil to find glacial boulders and to refute Darwin.", "Dom Pedro II gave his support for Agassiz's expedition on the Amazon River.", ")* Louis Agassiz Correspondence, Houghton Library, Harvard University* Illustrations from 'Monographies d'échinodermes vivans et fossiles'* National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir* Agassiz, Louis (1842) \"The glacial theory and its recent progress\" ''The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol.", "33''.", "p. 217–283.", "(Linda Hall Library)* Agassiz, Louis (1863) ''Methods of study in natural history'' – (Linda Hall Library)* Agassiz Rock, Edinburgh – during a visit to Edinburgh in 1840, Agassiz explained the striations on this rock's surface as due to glaciation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Li Bai" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Li Bai''' (, 701–762), formerly pronounced '''Li Bo''', courtesy name '''Taibai''' (), was a Chinese poet acclaimed as one of the greatest and most important poets of the Tang dynasty and in Chinese history as a whole.", "He and his friend Du Fu (712–770) were two of the most prominent figures in the flourishing of Chinese poetry under the Tang dynasty, which is often called the \"Golden Age of Chinese Poetry\".", "The expression \"Three Wonders\" denotes Li Bai's poetry, Pei Min's swordplay, and Zhang Xu's calligraphy.Around 1,000 poems attributed to Li are extant.", "His poems have been collected into the most important Tang dynasty collection, ''Heyue yingling ji'', compiled in 753 by Yin Fan.", "Thirty-four of Li Bai's poems are included in the anthology ''Three Hundred Tang Poems'', which was first published in the 18th century.", "Around the same time, translations of his poems began to appear in Europe.", "The poems became models for celebrating the pleasures of friendship, the depth of nature, solitude, and the joys of drinking.", "Among the most famous are \"Waking from Drunkenness on a Spring Day\"(Chinese: 春日醉起言志), \"The Hard Road to Shu\"(Chinese: 蜀道难), \"Bring in the Wine\"(Chinese: 将进酒), and \"Quiet Night Thought\"(Chinese: 静夜思), which are still taught in schools in China.", "In the West, multilingual translations of Li's poems continue to be made.", "His life has even taken on a legendary aspect, including tales of drunkenness and chivalry, and the well-known tale that Li drowned when he reached from his boat to grasp the moon's reflection in the river while he was drunk.Much of Li's life is reflected in his poems, which are about places he visited; friends whom he saw off on journeys to distant locations, perhaps never to meet again; his own dream-like imaginings, embroidered with shamanic overtones; current events of which he had news; descriptions of nature, perceived as if in a timeless moment; and more.", "However, of particular importance are the changes in China during his lifetime.", "His early poems were written in a \"golden age\" of internal peace and prosperity, under an emperor who actively promoted and participated in the arts.", "This ended with the beginning of the rebellion of general An Lushan, which eventually left most of Northern China devastated by war and famine.", "Li's poems during this period take on new tones and qualities.", "Unlike his younger friend Du Fu, Li did not live to see the end of the chaos.", "Li Bai is depicted in the ''Wu Shuang Pu'' (無雙譜, ''Table of Peerless Heroes'') by Jin Guliang." ], [ "Names", "NamesChinese:Pinyin:''Lǐbaí'' ''or'' Li BoZi ():Taìbaí (Tai-pai; )Hao ():Qinglian Jushi (Ch'ing-lien Chu-shih; )aka:Shixian () The Poet Saint Immortal PoetLi Bai's name has been romanized as Li Bai, Li Po, Li Bo (romanizations of Standard Chinese pronunciations), and Ri Haku (a romanization of the Japanese pronunciation).", "The varying Chinese romanizations are due to the facts that his given name (白) has two pronunciations in Standard Chinese: the literary reading ''bó'' () and the colloquial reading ''bái''; and that earlier authors used Wade–Giles while modern authors prefer pinyin.", "The reconstructed version of how he and others during the Tang dynasty would have pronounced this is ''Bhæk''.", "His courtesy name was Taibai (太白), literally \"Great White\", as the planet Venus was called at the time.", "This has been romanized variously as ''Li Taibo'', ''Li Taibai'', ''Li Tai-po'', among others.", "The Japanese pronunciation of his name and courtesy name may be romanized as \"Ri Haku\" and \"Ri Taihaku\" respectively.He is also known by his art name (''hao'') ''Qīnglián Jūshì'' (), meaning ''Householder of Azure Lotus'', or by the nicknames \"Immortal Poet\" (Poet Transcendent; Wine Immortal (), Banished Transcendent (), Poet-Knight-errant (, or \"Poet-Hero\")." ], [ "Life", "Wushuang Pu'' by Jin Guliang, Ming dynastyThe two \"Books of Tang\", ''The Old Book of Tang'' and ''The New Book of Tang'', remain the primary sources of bibliographical material on Li Bai.", "Other sources include internal evidence from poems by or about Li Bai, and certain other sources, such as the preface to his collected poems by his relative and literary executor, Li Yangbin.===Background and birth===Li Bai is generally considered to have been born in 701, in Suyab (碎葉) of ancient Chinese Central Asia (present-day Kyrgyzstan), where his family had prospered in business at the frontier.", "Afterwards, the family under the leadership of his father, Li Ke (李客), moved to Jiangyou (江油), near modern Chengdu, in Sichuan, when the youngster was about five years old.", "There is some mystery or uncertainty about the circumstances of the family's relocations, due to a lack of legal authorization which would have generally been required to move out of the border regions, especially if one's family had been assigned or exiled there.====Background====Two accounts given by contemporaries Li Yangbing (a family relative) and Fan Chuanzheng state that Li's family was originally from what is now southwestern Jingning County, Gansu.", "Li's ancestry is traditionally traced back to Li Gao, the noble founder of the state of Western Liang.", "This provides some support for Li's own claim to be related to the Li dynastic royal family of the Tang dynasty: the Tang emperors also claimed descent from the Li rulers of West Liang.", "This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage (隴西李氏).", "Evidence suggests that during the Sui dynasty, Li's own ancestors, at that time for some reason classified socially as commoners, were forced into a form of exile from their original home (in what is now Gansu) to some location or locations further west.", "During their exile in the far west, the Li family lived in the ancient Silk Road city of Suiye (Suyab, now an archeological site in present-day Kyrgyzstan), and perhaps also in Tiaozhi (), a state near modern Ghazni, Afghanistan.", "These areas were on the ancient Silk Road, and the Li family were likely merchants.", "Their business was quite prosperous.====Birth====In one hagiographic account, while Li Bai's mother was pregnant with him, she had a dream of a great white star falling from heaven.", "This seems to have contributed to the idea of his being a banished immortal (one of his nicknames).", "That the Great White Star was synonymous with Venus helps to explain his courtesy name: \"Tai Bai\", or \"Venus\".===Early years===In 705, when Li Bai was four years old, his father secretly moved his family to Sichuan, near Chengdu, where he spent his childhood.", "Currently, there is a monument commemorating this in Zhongba Town, Jiangyou, Sichuan province (the area of the modern province known then as Shu, after a former independent state which had been annexed by the Sui dynasty and later incorporated into the Tang dynasty lands).", "The young Li spent most of his growing years in Qinglian (青莲; lit.", "\"Blue also translated as 'green', 'azure', or 'nature-coloured' Lotus\"), a town in Chang-ming County, Sichuan, China.", "This now nominally corresponds with Qinglian Town (青蓮鎮) of Jiangyou County-level city, in Sichuan.The young Li read extensively, including Confucian classics such as ''The Classic of Poetry (Shijing)'' and the ''Classic of History (Shujing)'', as well as various astrological and metaphysical materials which Confucians tended to eschew, though he disdained to take the literacy exam.", "Reading the \"Hundred Authors\" was part of the family literary tradition, and he was also able to compose poetry before he was ten.", "The young Li also engaged in other activities, such as taming wild birds and fencing.", "His other activities included riding, hunting, traveling, and aiding the poor or oppressed by means of both money and arms.", "Eventually, the young Li seems to have become quite skilled in swordsmanship; as this autobiographical quote by Li himself both testifies to and also helps to illustrate the wild life that he led in the Sichuan of his youth:Before he was twenty, Li had fought and killed several men, apparently for reasons of chivalry, in accordance with the knight-errant tradition (''youxia'').In 720, he was interviewed by Governor Su Ting, who considered him a genius.", "Though he expressed a wish to become an official, he never took the civil service examination.===Marriage and family===Li is known to have married four times.", "His first marriage, in 727, in Anlu, Hubei, was to the granddaughter of a former government minister.", "His wife was from the well-connected Wú (吳) family.", "Li Bai made this his home for about ten years, living in a home owned by his wife's family on Mt.", "Bishan (碧山).", "In 744, he married for the second time in what now is the Liangyuan District of Henan.", "This marriage was to another poet, surnamed Zong (宗), with whom he both had children and exchanges of poems, including many expressions of love for her and their children.", "His wife, Zong, was a granddaughter of Zong Chuke (宗楚客, died 710), an important government official during the Tang dynasty and the interregnal period of Wu Zetian.===On the way to Chang'an===The China of Li Bai and Du Fu====Leaving Sichuan====In his mid-twenties, about 725, Li Bai left Sichuan, sailing down the Yangzi River through Dongting Lake to Nanjing, beginning his days of wandering.", "He then went back up-river, to Yunmeng, in what is now Hubei, where his marriage to the granddaughter of a retired prime minister, Xu Yushi, seems to have formed but a brief interlude.", "During the first year of his trip, he met celebrities and gave away much of his wealth to needy friends.In 730, Li Bai stayed at Zhongnan Mountain near the capital Chang'an (Xi'an), and tried but failed to secure a position.", "He sailed down the Yellow River, stopped by Luoyang, and visited Taiyuan before going home.", "In 735, Li Bai was in Shanxi, where he intervened in a court martial against Guo Ziyi, who was later, after becoming one of the top Tang generals, to repay the favour during the An Shi disturbances.", "By perhaps 740, he had moved to Shandong.", "It was in Shandong at this time that he became one of the group known as the \"Six Idlers of the Bamboo Brook\", an informal group dedicated to literature and wine.", "He wandered about the area of Zhejiang and Jiangsu, eventually making friends with a famous Daoist priest, Wu Yun.", "In 742, Wu Yun was summoned by the Emperor to attend the imperial court, where his praise of Li Bai was great.===At Chang'an===Wu Yun's praise of Li Bai led Emperor Xuanzong (born Li Longji and also known as Emperor Minghuang) to summon Li to the court in Chang'an.", "Li's personality fascinated the aristocrats and common people alike, including another Taoist (and poet), He Zhizhang, who bestowed upon him the nickname the \"Immortal Exiled from Heaven\".", "Indeed, after an initial audience, where Li Bai was questioned about his political views, the Emperor was so impressed that he held a big banquet in his honor.", "At this banquet, the Emperor was said to show his favor, even to the extent of personally seasoning his soup for him.Emperor Xuanzong employed him as a translator, as Li Bai knew at least one non-Chinese language.", "Ming Huang eventually gave him a post at the Hanlin Academy, which served to provide scholarly expertise and poetry for the Emperor.Emperor Minghuang, seated on a terrace, observes Li Bai write poetry while having his boots taken off (Qing dynasty illustration).When the emperor ordered Li Bai to the palace, he was often drunk, but quite capable of performing on the spot.Li Bai wrote several poems about the Emperor's beautiful and beloved Yang Guifei, the favorite royal consort.", "A story, probably apocryphal, circulates about Li Bai during this period.", "Once, while drunk, Li Bai had gotten his boots muddy, and Gao Lishi, the most politically powerful eunuch in the palace, was asked to assist in the removal of these, in front of the Emperor.", "Gao took offense at being asked to perform this menial service, and later managed to persuade Yang Guifei to take offense at Li's poems concerning her.", "At the persuasion of Yang Guifei and Gao Lishi, Xuanzong reluctantly, but politely, and with large gifts of gold and silver, sent Li Bai away from the royal court.", "After leaving the court, Li Bai formally became a Taoist, making a home in Shandong, but wandering far and wide for the next ten some years, writing poems.", "Li Bai lived and wrote poems at Bishan (or Bi Mountain (碧山), today Baizhao Mountain (白兆山)) in Yandian, Hubei.", "Bi Mountain (碧山) in the poem ''Question and Answer Amongst the Mountains'' (山中问答 Shanzhong Wenda) refers to this mountain.===Meeting Du Fu===He met Du Fu in the autumn of 744, when they shared a single room and various activities together, such as traveling, hunting, wine, and poetry, thus established a close and lasting friendship.", "They met again the following year.", "These were the only occasions on which they met, in person, although they continued to maintain a relationship through poetry.", "This is reflected in the dozen or so poems by Du Fu to or about Li Bai which survive, and the one from Li Bai directed toward Du Fu which remains.===War and exile===Riders on Horseback, Northern Qi Dynasty, the general area of the rebel heartland, although of an earlier date.At the end of 755, the disorders instigated by the rebel general An Lushan burst across the land.", "The Emperor eventually fled to Sichuan and abdicated.", "During the confusion, the Crown Prince opportunely declared himself Emperor and head of the government.", "The An Shi disturbances continued (as they were later called, since they lasted beyond the death of their instigator, carried on by Shi Siming and others).", "Li Bai became a staff adviser to Prince Yong, one of Ming Huang's (Emperor Xuanzong's) sons, who was far from the top of the primogeniture list, yet named to share the imperial power as a general after Xuanzong had abdicated, in 756.However, even before the empire's external enemies were defeated, the two brothers fell to fighting each other with their armies.", "Upon the defeat of the Prince's forces by his brother the new emperor in 757, Li Bai escaped, but was later captured, imprisoned in Jiujiang, and sentenced to death.", "The famous and powerful army general Guo Ziyi and others intervened; Guo Ziyi was the very person whom Li Bai had saved from court martial a couple of decades before.", "His wife, the lady Zong, and others (such as Song Ruosi) wrote petitions for clemency.", "Upon General Guo Ziyi's offering to exchange his official rank for Li Bai's life, Li Bai's death sentence was commuted to exile: he was consigned to Yelang.", "Yelang (in what is now Guizhou) was in the remote extreme southwestern part of the empire, and was considered to be outside the main sphere of Chinese civilization and culture.", "Li Bai headed toward Yelang with little sign of hurry, stopping for prolonged social visits (sometimes for months), and writing poetry along the way, leaving detailed descriptions of his journey for posterity.", "Notice of an imperial pardon recalling Li Bai reached him before he even got near Yelang.", "He had only gotten as far as Wushan, when news of his pardon caught up with him in 759.===Return and other travels===When Li received the news of his imperial reprieve, he returned down the river to Jiangxi, passing on the way through Baidicheng, in Kuizhou Prefecture, still engaging in the pleasures of food, wine, good company, and writing poetry; his poem \"Departing from Baidi in the Morning\" records this stage of his travels, as well as poetically mocking his enemies and detractors, implied in his inclusion of imagery of monkeys.", "Although Li did not cease his wandering lifestyle, he then generally confined his travels to Nanjing and the two Anhui cities of Xuancheng and Li Yang (in modern Zhao County).", "His poems of this time include nature poems and poems of socio-political protest.", "Eventually, in 762, Li's relative Li Yangbing became magistrate of Dangtu, and Li Bai went to stay with him there.", "In the meantime, Suzong and Xuanzong both died within a short period of time, and China had a new emperor.", "Also, China was involved in renewed efforts to suppress further military disorders stemming from the Anshi rebellions, and Li volunteered to serve on the general staff of the Chinese commander Li Guangbi.", "However, at age 61, Li became critically ill, and his health would not allow him to fulfill this plan.===Death===Li Bai Memorial Hall in Jiangyou, SichuanThe new Emperor Daizong named Li Bai the Registrar of the Left Commandant's office in 762.However, by the time that the imperial edict arrived in Dangtu, Anhui, Li Bai was already dead.There is a long and fanciful tradition regarding his death, from uncertain Chinese sources, that Li Bai drowned after falling from his boat one day while drunk, as he tried to embrace the reflection of the moon in the Yangtze River.", "However, the actual cause appears to have been natural enough, although perhaps related to his hard-living lifestyle.", "Nevertheless, the legend has a place in Chinese culture.A memorial of Li Bai lies just west of Ma'anshan.===Calligraphy===The only surviving calligraphy in Li Bai's own handwriting, titled ''Shangyangtai'' (To Yangtai Temple), located at the Palace Museum in Beijing, China.Li Bai was also a skilled calligrapher, though there is only one surviving piece of his calligraphy work in his own handwriting that exists today.", "The piece is titled ''Shàng yáng tái'' (''Going Up To Sun Terrace''), a long scroll (with later addition of a title written by Emperor Huizong of Song and a postscript added by Qianlong Emperor himself); the calligraphy is housed in the Palace Museum in Beijing, China.===Surviving texts and editing===Even Li Bai and Du Fu, the two most famous and most comprehensively edited Tang poets, were affected by the destruction of the imperial Tang libraries and the loss of many private collections in the periods of turmoil (An Lushan Rebellion and Huang Chao Rebellion).", "Although many of Li Bai's poems have survived, even more were lost and there is difficulty regarding variant texts.", "One of the earliest endeavors at editing Li Bai's work was by his relative Li Yangbing, the magistrate of Dangtu, with whom he stayed in his final years and to whom he entrusted his manuscripts.", "However, the most reliable texts are not necessarily in the earliest editions.", "Song dynasty scholars produced various editions of his poetry, but it was not until the Qing dynasty that such collections as the ''Complete Tang Poems'' made the most comprehensive studies of the then surviving texts." ], [ "Themes", "Critics have focused on Li Bai's strong sense of the continuity of poetic tradition, his glorification of alcoholic beverages (and, indeed, frank celebration of drunkenness), his use of persona, the fantastic extremes of some of his imagery, his mastery of formal poetic rules—and his ability to combine all of these with a seemingly effortless virtuosity to produce inimitable poetry.", "Other themes in Li's poetry, noted especially in the 20th century, are sympathy for the common folk and antipathy towards needless wars (even when conducted by the emperor himself).===Poetic tradition===A Painting of Li Bai with his poetryLi Bai had a strong sense of himself as being part of a poetic tradition.", "The \"genius\" of Li Bai, says one recent account, \"lies at once in his total command of the literary tradition before him and his ingenuity in bending (without breaking) it to discover a uniquely personal idiom...\" Burton Watson, comparing him to Du Fu, says Li's poetry, \"is essentially backward-looking, that it represents more a revival and fulfillment of past promises and glory than a foray into the future.\"", "Watson adds, as evidence, that of all the poems attributed to Li Bai, about one sixth are in the form of ''yuefu'', or, in other words, reworked lyrics from traditional folk ballads.", "As further evidence, Watson cites the existence of a fifty-nine poem collection by Li Bai entitled ''Gu Feng'', or ''In the Old Manner'', which is, in part, tribute to the poetry of the Han and Wei dynasties.", "His admiration for certain particular poets is also shown through specific allusions, for example to Qu Yuan or Tao Yuanming, and occasionally by name, for example Du Fu.A more general appreciation for history is shown on the part of Li Bai in his poems of the ''huaigu'' genre, or meditations on the past, wherein following \"one of the perennial themes of Chinese poetry\", \"the poet contemplates the ruins of past glory\".===Rapt with wine and moon===Painting of the Drunken Li Taibai, painted by Qing dynasty painter Su Liupeng in 1884John C. H. Wu observed that \"while some may have drunk more wine than Li Bai, no-one has written more poems about wine.\"", "Classical Chinese poets were often associated with drinking wine, and Li Bai was part of the group of Chinese scholars in Chang'an his fellow poet Du Fu called the \"Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup.\"", "The Chinese generally did not find the moderate use of alcohol to be immoral or unhealthy.", "James J. Y Liu comments that ''zui'' in poetry \"does not mean quite the same thing as 'drunk', 'intoxicated', or 'inebriated', but rather means being mentally carried away from one's normal preoccupations ...\" Liu translates ''zui'' as \"rapt with wine\".", "The \"Eight Immortals\", however, drank to an unusual degree, though they still were viewed as pleasant eccentrics.", "Burton Watson concluded that \"nearly all Chinese poets celebrate the joys of wine, but none so tirelessly and with such a note of genuine conviction as Li Bai\".The following two poems, \"Rising Drunk on a Spring Day, Telling My Intent\" and \"Drinking Alone by Moonlight\", are among Li Bai's most famous and demonstrate different aspects of his use of wine and drunkenness.===Fantastic imagery===An important characteristic of Li Bai's poetry \"is the fantasy and note of childlike wonder and playfulness that pervade so much of it\".", "Burton Watson attributes this to a fascination with the Taoist priest, Taoist recluses who practiced alchemy and austerities in the mountains, in the aim of becoming xian, or immortal beings.", "There is a strong element of Taoism in his works, both in the sentiments they express and in their spontaneous tone, and \"many of his poems deal with mountains, often descriptions of ascents that midway modulate into journeys of the imagination, passing from actual mountain scenery to visions of nature deities, immortals, and 'jade maidens' of Taoist lore\".", "Watson sees this as another affirmation of Li Bai's affinity with the past, and a continuity with the traditions of the Chuci and the early fu.", "Watson finds this \"element of fantasy\" to be behind Li Bai's use of hyperbole and the \"playful personifications\" of mountains and celestial objects.===Nostalgia===The critic James J.Y.", "Liu notes \"Chinese poets seem to be perpetually bewailing their exile and longing to return home.", "This may seem sentimental to Western readers, but one should remember the vastness of China, the difficulties of communication... the sharp contrast between the highly cultured life in the main cities and the harsh conditions in the remoter regions of the country, and the importance of family...\" It is hardly surprising, he concludes, that nostalgia should have become a \"constant, and hence conventional, theme in Chinese poetry.", "\"Liu gives as a prime example Li's poem \"A Quiet Night Thought\" (also translated as \"Contemplating Moonlight\"), which is often learned by schoolchildren in China.", "In a mere 20 words, the poem uses the vivid moonlight and frost imagery to convey the feeling of homesickness.", "This translation is by Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie:===Use of persona===Li Bai also wrote a number of poems from various viewpoints, including the personae of women.", "For example, he wrote several poems in the ''Zi Ye'', or \"Lady Midnight\" style, as well as Han folk-ballad style poems.===Technical virtuosity===Li Bai is well known for the technical virtuosity of his poetry and the mastery of his verses.", "In terms of poetic form, \"critics generally agree that Li Bai produced no significant innovations ...", "In theme and content also, his poetry is notable less for the new elements it introduces than for the skill with which he brightens the old ones.", "\"Burton Watson comments on Li Bai's famous poem, which he translates \"Bring the Wine\": \"like so much of Li Bai's work, it has a grace and effortless dignity that somehow make it more compelling than earlier treatment of the same.", "\"Li Bai's yuefu poems have been called the greatest of all time by Ming-dynasty scholar and writer Hu Yinglin.Li Bai especially excelled in the Gushi form, or \"old style\" poems, a type of poetry allowing a great deal of freedom in terms of the form and content of the work.", "An example is his poem \"蜀道難\", translated by Witter Bynner as \"Hard Roads in Shu\".", "Shu is a poetic term for Sichuan, the destination of refuge that Emperor Xuanzong considered fleeing to escape the approaching forces of the rebel General An Lushan.", "Watson comments that, this poem, \"employs lines that range in length from four to eleven characters, the form of the lines suggesting by their irregularity the jagged peaks and bumpy mountain roads of Sichuan depicted in the poem.", "\"Li Bai was also noted as a master of the jueju, or cut-verse.", "Ming-dynasty poet Li Pan Long thought Li Bai was the greatest jueju master of the Tang dynasty.Li Bai was noted for his mastery of the lüshi, or \"regulated verse\", the formally most demanding verse form of the times.", "Watson notes, however, that his poem \"Seeing a Friend Off\" was \"unusual in that it violates the rule that the two middle couplets ... must observe verbal parallelism\", adding that Chinese critics excused this kind of violation in the case of a genius like Li." ], [ "Influence", "''Spring Evening Banquet at the Peach and Pear Blossom Garden'' with quoted text by Li Bai, painted by Leng Mei, late 17th or early 18th century, National Palace Museum, Taipei===In the East===Li Bai's poetry was immensely influential in his own time, as well as for subsequent generations in China.", "From early on, he was paired with Du Fu.", "The recent scholar Paula Varsano observes that \"in the literary imagination they were, and remain, the two greatest poets of the Tang—or even of China\".", "Yet she notes the persistence of \"what we can rightly call the 'Li-Du debate', the terms of which became so deeply ingrained in the critical discourse surrounding these two poets that almost any characterization of the one implicitly critiqued the other\".", "Li's influence has also been demonstrated in the immediate geographical area of Chinese cultural influence, being known as Ri Haku in Japan.", "This influence continues even today.", "Examples range from poetry to painting and to literature.In his own lifetime, during his many wanderings and while he was attending court in Chang'an, Li Bai met and parted from various contemporary poets.", "These meetings and separations were typical occasions for versification in the tradition of the literate Chinese of the time, a prime example being his relationship with Du Fu.After his lifetime, Li Bai's influence continued to grow.", "Some four centuries later, during the Song dynasty, for example, just in the case of his poem that is sometimes translated \"Drinking Alone Beneath the Moon\", the poet Yang Wanli wrote a whole poem alluding to it (and to two other Li Bai poems), in the same ''gushi'', or old-style poetry form.In the 20th century, Li Bai even influenced the poetry of Mao Zedong.In China, his poem \"Quiet Night Thoughts\", reflecting a nostalgia of a traveller away from home, has been widely \"memorized by school children and quoted by adults\".He is sometimes worshipped as an immortal in Chinese folk religion and is also considered a divinity in Vietnam Cao Dai religion.===In the West===Austrian composer Gustav Mahler used German adaptations of four of Li's poems as texts for four of the songs in his song-symphony Das Lied von der Erde in 1908.American composer Harry Partch based his ''Seventeen Lyrics by Li Po'' (early 1930s, his earliest surviving acknowledged work) for intoning voice and Adapted Viola (an instrument of Partch's own invention) on texts in ''The Works of Li Po, the Chinese Poet'' translated by Shigeyoshi Obata.", "Around the same time (1931), Swiss composer Volkmar Andreae set eight poems as ''Li-Tai-Pe: Eight Chinese songs for tenor and orchestra, op.", "37''.", "In Brazil, the songwriter Beto Furquim included a musical setting of the poem \"Jing Ye Si\" in his album \"Muito Prazer\".====Ezra Pound====Li Bai is influential in the West partly due to Ezra Pound's versions of some of his poems in the collection ''''Cathay'''', (Pound transliterating his name according to the Japanese manner as \"Rihaku\").", "Li Bai's interactions with nature, friendship, his love of wine and his acute observations of life inform his more popular poems.", "Some, like ''Changgan xing'' (translated by Ezra Pound as \"The River Merchant's Wife: A Letter\"), record the hardships or emotions of common people.", "An example of the liberal, but poetically influential, translations, or adaptations, of Japanese versions of his poems made, largely based on the work of Ernest Fenollosa and professors Mori and Ariga.====Gustav Mahler====Gustav Mahler integrated four of Li Bai's works into his symphonic song cycle ''Das Lied von der Erde''.", "These were derived from free German translations by Hans Bethge, published in an anthology called (''The Chinese Flute''), Bethge based his versions on the collection ''Chinesische Lyrik'' by Hans Heilmann (1905).", "Heilmann worked from pioneering 19th-century translations into French: three by the Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys and one (only distantly related to the Chinese) by Judith Gautier.", "Mahler freely changed Bethge's text.====Reference in Beat Generation====Li Bai's poetry can be seen as having an influence on Beat Generation writer Gary Snyder during Snyder's years of studying Asian culture and Zen.", "Li Bai's style of descriptive writing contributed to the diversity within the Beat writing style.====Dena Merriem====Dena recounts her memories of her past lives from across more than 10,000 years, revealing who was Li Bai in his past lives and how a vow taken 16,000 years ago finally takes fruition when Li Bai is born and she was his loved wife.", "In the book 'When The Bright Moon Rises'" ], [ "Translation", "Li Bai's poetry was introduced to Europe by Jean Joseph Marie Amiot, a Jesuit missionary in Beijing, in his ''Portraits des Célèbres Chinois'', published in the series ''Mémoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences, les arts, les mœurs, les usages, &c. des Chinois, par les missionnaires de Pekin''.", "(1776–1797).", "Further translations into French were published by Marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys in his 1862 ''Poésies de l'Époque des Thang''.Joseph Edkins read a paper, \"On Li Tai-po\", to the Peking Oriental Society in 1888, which was subsequently published in that society's journal.", "The early sinologist Herbert Allen Giles included translations of Li Bai in his 1898 publication ''Chinese Poetry in English Verse'', and again in his ''History of Chinese Literature'' (1901).", "The third early translator into English was L. Cranmer-Byng (1872–1945).", "His ''Lute of Jade: Being Selections from the Classical Poets of China'' (1909) and ''A Feast of Lanterns'' (1916) both featured Li's poetry.Renditions of Li Bai's poetry into modernist English poetry were influential through Ezra Pound in ''Cathay'' (1915) and Amy Lowell in ''Fir-Flower Tablets'' (1921).", "Neither worked directly from the Chinese: Pound relied on more or less literal, word for word, though not terribly accurate, translations of Ernest Fenollosa and what Pound called the \"decipherings\" of professors Mori and Ariga; Lowell on those of Florence Ayscough.", "Witter Bynner with the help of Kiang Kang-hu included several of Li's poems in ''The Jade Mountain'' (1939).", "Although Li was not his preferred poet, Arthur Waley translated a few of his poems into English for the ''Asiatic Review'', and included them in his ''More Translations from the Chinese''.", "Shigeyoshi Obata, in his 1922 ''The Works of Li Po'', claimed he had made \"the first attempt ever made to deal with any single Chinese poet exclusively in one book for the purpose of introducing him to the English-speaking world.", "A translation of Li Bai's poem ''Green Moss'' by poet William Carlos Williams was sent as a letter to Chinese American poet David Rafael Wang where Williams was seen as having a similar tone as Pound.Li Bai became a favorite among translators for his straightforward and seemingly simple style.", "Later translations are too numerous to discuss here, but an extensive selection of Li's poems, translated by various translators, is included in John Minford and Joseph S. M. Lau, ''Classical Chinese Literature'' (2000)" ], [ "In popular culture", "Portrayed by Wong Wai-leung in the 2000 television series ''The Legend of Lady Yang''An actor playing Li Bai narrates the Wonders of China and Reflections of China films at the China Pavilion at EpcotLi Bai's poem 'Hard Roads in Shu' is sung by a Chinese singer AnAn in a Liu Bei trailer for a game Total War: Three Kingdoms He appears as a \"great writer\" in the game Civilization VI* He appears as the main character in the 2023 Light Chaser Animation Studios Movie ''Chang'an''" ], [ "See also", "* Chinese martial arts* Ci (poetry)* Classical Chinese poetry* Classical Chinese poetry forms* Guqin* Jiangyou* Modernist poetry in English* Monkeys in Chinese culture#Literature* Poetry of Mao Zedong* Iranians in China* Shi (poetry)* Simians (Chinese poetry)#In Baidicheng, back from the way to exile* Tang poetry* List of Three Hundred Tang Poems poets* Tomb of Li Bai* Xu Yushi* A Quiet Night Thought* Ode to Gallantry" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Translations into English===* Cooper, Arthur (1973).", "''Li Po and Tu Fu: Poems Selected and Translated with an Introduction and Notes'' (Penguin Classics, 1973).", ".", "* Hinton, David (2008).", "''Classical Chinese Poetry: An Anthology''.", "New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.", "* Hinton, David (1998).", "''The Selected Poems of Li Po'' (Anvil Press Poetry, 1998).", "* Holyoak, Keith (translator) (2007).", "''Facing the Moon: Poems of Li Bai and Du Fu''.", "(Durham, NH: Oyster River Press).", "* Obata, Shigeyoshi (1922).", "''The Works of Li Po, the Chinese Poet.''", "(New York: Dutton).", "Reprinted: New York: Paragon, 1965.Free E-Book.", "** Pound, Ezra (1915).", "''Cathay'' (Elkin Mathews, London).", "* Smith, Kidder and Zhai, Mike (2021).", "''Li Bo Unkempt''.", "Punctum Press.", "* Stimson, Hugh M. (1976).", "''Fifty-five T'ang Poems''.", "Far Eastern Publications: Yale University.", "* Seth, Vikram (translator) (1992).", "''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of Poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''.", "(London: Faber & Faber).", "* Weinberger, Eliot.", "''The New Directions Anthology of Classical Chinese Poetry''.", "(New York: New Directions, 2004).", ".", "Introduction, with translations by William Carlos Williams, Ezra Pound, Kenneth Rexroth, Gary Snyder, and David Hinton.", "* Watson, Burton (1971).", "''Chinese Lyricism: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "* * Sun, Yu 孫瑜, translation, introduction, and commentary (1982).", "''Li Po-A New Translation 李白詩新譯''.", "Hong Kong: The Commercial Press, ===Background and criticism===* Edkins, Joseph (1888).", "\"Li Tai-po as a Poet\", ''The China Review'', Vol.", "17 No.", "1 (1888 Jul) .", "Retrieved from , 19 January 2011.", "* Eide, Elling (1973).", "\"On Li Po\", in ''Perspectives on the T'ang''.", "New Haven, London: Yale University Press, 367–403.", "* Frankel, Hans H. (1978).", "''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady''.", "(New Haven and London: Yale University Press) .", "* Kroll, Paul (2001).", "\"Poetry of the T’ang Dynasty,\" in Victor H. Mair.", "ed., ''The Columbia History of Chinese Literature.''", "(New York: Columbia University Press, 2001).", ", pp. 274–313.", "* Stephen Owen 'Li Po: a new concept of genius,\" in Stephen Owen.", "''The Great Age of Chinese Poetry : The High T'ang.''", "(New Haven Conn.: Yale University Press, 1981).", ".", "* Varsano, Paula M. (2003).", "''Tracking the Banished Immortal: The Poetry of Li Bo and its Critical Reception'' (University of Hawai'i Press, 2003).", ", * .", "Lists and evaluates scholarship and translations.", "* Waley, Arthur (1950).", "''The Poetry and Career of Li Po'' (New York: MacMillan, 1950).", "* Wu, John C.H.", "(1972).", "''The Four Seasons of Tang Poetry''.", "Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle." ], [ "Further reading", "* Hsieh, Chinghsuan Lily. \"", "Chinese Poetry of Li Po Set by Four Twentieth Century British Composers: Bantock, Warlock, Bliss and Lambert\" ( Archive) (PhD thesis).", "Ohio State University, 2004.", "* Li Bo Unkempt / ''Kidder Smith, Mike Zhai'' // Punctum Books, 2021.— ; ." ], [ "External links", "Online translations (some with original Chinese, pronunciation, and literal translation): Li Bai: Poems Extensive collection of Li Bai poems in English* 20 Li Bai poems, in Chinese using simplified and traditional characters and pinyin, with literal and literary English translations by Mark Alexander.", "* 34 Li Bai poems, in Chinese with English translation by Witter Bynner, from the Three Hundred Tang Poems anthology.", "* Complete text of ''Cathay'', the Ezra Pound/Ernest Fenollosa translations of poems principally by Li Po (J., Rihaku)* Profile Variety of translations of Li Bai's poetry by a range of translators, along with photographs of geographical sites relevant to his life.", "* At Project Gutenberg from ''More Translations From The Chinese'' by Arthur Waley, 1919 (includes six titles of poems by Li Po).", "* The works of Li Po, the Chinese poet, translated by Shigeyoshi Obata, Obata's 1922 translation.", "* Li Po's poems at PoemHunter.com site* * John Thompson on Li Bai and the qin musical instrument" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Longship" ], [ "Introduction", "Schematic drawing of the longship type.", "They were not always equipped with shields.", "'''Longships''' were a type of specialised Scandinavian warships that have a long history in Scandinavia, with their existence being archaeologically proven and documented from at least the fourth century BC.", "Originally invented and used by the Norsemen (commonly known as the Vikings) for commerce, exploration, and warfare during the Viking Age, many of the longship's characteristics were adopted by other cultures, like Anglo-Saxons, and continued to influence shipbuilding for centuries.The longship's design evolved over many centuries, and continued up until the sixth century with clinker-built ships like Nydam.", "The character and appearance of these ships have been reflected in Scandinavian boatbuilding traditions to the present day.", "The particular skills and methods employed in making longships are still used worldwide, often with modern adaptations.", "They were all made out of wood, with cloth sails (woven wool), and had several details and carvings on the hull." ], [ "Characteristics", "The longships were characterized as graceful, long, narrow, and light, with a shallow-draft hull designed for speed.", "The ship's shallow draft allowed navigation in waters only one meter deep and permitted arbitrary beach landings, while its light weight enabled it to be carried over portages or used bottom-up for shelter in camps.", "Longships were fitted with oars along almost the entire length of the boat itself.", "Later versions had a rectangular sail on a single mast, which was used to replace or augment the effort of the rowers, particularly during long journeys.", "The average speed of Viking ships varied from ship to ship, but lay in the range of and the maximum speed of a longship under favorable conditions was around .", "The Viking Ship museum in Oslo houses the remains of three such ships, the Oseberg, the Gokstad and the Tune ship." ], [ "History", "The Viking longships were powerful naval weapons in their time and were highly valued possessions.", "Archaeological finds show that the Viking ships were not standardized.", "Ships varied from designer to designer and place to place and often had regional characteristics.", "For example, the choice of material was mostly dictated by the regional forests, such as pine from Norway and Sweden, and oak from Denmark.", "Moreover, each Viking longship had particular features adjusted to the natural conditions under which it was sailed.They were owned by coastal farmers, and by the leidang system, in times of conflict the King could quickly assemble a large and powerful war fleet.", "While longships were used by the Norse in warfare, they were mostly used as troop transports, not warships.", "In the tenth century, longships would sometimes be tied together in offshore battles to form a steady platform for infantry warfare.", "During the ninth-century peak of the Viking expansion, large fleets set out to attack the degrading Frankish empire by attacking navigable rivers such as the Rhine, the Seine, the Loire and others.", "Rouen was sacked in 841, the year after the death of Louis the Pious, a son of Charlemagne.", "Quentovic, near modern Étaples, was attacked in 842 and 600 Danish ships attacked Hamburg in 845.In the same year, 129 ships returned to attack the Seine.", "They were called \"dragon ships\" by enemies such as the English because some had a dragon-shaped decoration atop the bow beam.", "The Norse had a strong sense of naval architecture, and during the early medieval period, they were advanced for their time." ], [ "Types of longships", "Longships can be classified into a number of different types, depending on size, construction details, and prestige.", "The most common way to classify longships is by the number of rowing positions on board.===Karvi===The Karvi (or ''Karve'') is the smallest vessel that is considered a longship.", "According to the tenth-century Gulating Law, a ship with 13 rowing benches is the smallest ship suitable for military use.", "A ship with 6 to 16 benches would be classified as a Karvi.", "These ships were considered to be \"general purpose\" ships, mainly used for fishing and trade, but occasionally commissioned for military use.", "While most longships held a length to width ratio of 7:1, the Karvi ships were closer to 9:2.The Gokstad Ship is a famous Karvi ship, built around the end of the ninth century, excavated in 1880 by Nicolay Nicolaysen.", "It was approximately long with 16 rowing positions.===Snekkja===Full-scale replica of a Viking snekkja based in Morąg, PolandThe '''' (or ''snekke'') was typically the smallest longship used in warfare and was classified as a ship with at least 20 rowing benches.", "A typical snekkja might have a length of , a width of , and a draught of only .", "It would carry a crew of around 41 men (40 oarsmen and one cox).The snekkja was one of the most common types of ships.", "According to Viking lore, Canute the Great used 1,200 in Norway in 1028.The Norwegian type snekkja typically had more draught than the Danish ships designed for low coasts and beaches.", "A snekkja was so light that it had no need of ports it could simply be beached, and even carried across a portage.The snekkja continued to evolve after the end of the Viking age, with later Norwegian examples becoming larger and heavier than Viking age ships.", "A modern version is still being used in Scandinavia, and is now called ''snipa'' in Swedish and ''snekke'' in Norwegian.Construction of the 35 m long Skeid longship ''Draken Harald Hårfagre''===Skeid===''Skeid'' (''skeið''), meaning 'slider' (referring to a sley, a weavers reed, or to a sheath that a knife slides into) and probably connoting 'speeder' (referring to a running race) (Zoega, Old Icelandic Dictionary).", "These ships were larger warships, consisting of more than 30 rowing benches.", "Ships of this classification are some of the largest (see Busse) longships ever discovered.", "A group of these ships were discovered by Danish archaeologists in Roskilde during development in the harbour-area in 1962 and 1996–97.The ship discovered in 1962, ''Skuldelev 2'' is an oak-built Skeid longship.", "It is believed to have been built in the Dublin area around 1042.", "''Skuldelev 2'' could carry a crew of some 70–80 and measures just less than in length.", "They had around 30 rowing chairs.", "In 1996–97 archaeologists discovered the remains of another ship in the harbour.", "This ship, called the ''Roskilde 6'', at is the longest Viking ship ever discovered and has been dated to around 1025.", "''Skuldelev 2'' was replicated as ''Seastallion from Glendalough'' at the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde and launched in 2004.In 2012, a long skeid longship named ''Draken Harald Hårfagre'' was launched in Norway.", "It was built from scratch by experts, using original Viking and experimental archaeological methods.===Drakkar===The city seal of Bergen depicts a Viking longship — possibly a drakkar.", "''Drakkar'', or ''dreki'' 'dragon', are the type of ship, of thirty rowing benches and upwards that are only known from historical sources, such as the 13th-century ''Göngu-Hrólfs saga''.", "Here, the ships are described as most unusual, elegant, ornately decorated, and used by those who went raiding and plundering.", "These ships were likely skeids that differed only in the carvings of menacing beasts, such as dragons and snakes, carried on the prow of the ship.The earliest mentioned drakkar was the ship of unstated size owned by Harald Fairhair in the tenth century.", "The first drakkar ship whose size was mentioned in the source was Olav Tryggvason's thirty-room Tranin, built at Nidaros circa 995.By far the most famous in this period was his later ship the Ormrinn Langi ('Long Serpent') of thirty-four rooms, built over the winter of 999 to 1000.No true dragon ship, as described in the sagas, has been found by archaeological excavation.The city seal of Bergen, Norway, created in 1299, depicts a ship with a dragon's head at either end, which might be intended to represent a drakkar ship." ], [ "Construction", "The first longships can trace their origin back to between 500 and 300 BC, when the Danish Hjortspring boat was built.", "It was fastened with cord, not nailed, and paddled, not rowed.", "It had rounded cross sections and although long was only wide.", "The rounded sections gave maximum displacement for the lowest wetted surface area, similar to a modern narrow rowing skiff, so were very fast but had little carrying capacity.", "The shape suggests mainly river use.", "Unlike later boats, it had a low bow and stern.", "A distinctive feature is the two-prong cutaway bow section.Stora Hammars I stone, Sweden showing armed warriors in a longshipThe earliest rowed true longship that has been found is the Nydam ship, built in Denmark around 350 AD.", "It also had very rounded underwater sections but had more pronounced flare in the topsides, giving it more stability as well as keeping more water out of the boat at speed or in waves.", "It had no sail.", "It was of lapstrake construction fastened with iron nails.", "The bow and stern had slight elevation.", "The keel was a flattened plank about twice as thick as a normal strake plank but still not strong enough to withstand the downwards thrust of a mast.The Sutton Hoo longship, sometimes referred to as the ghost ship of the Wulflings, is about maximum beam and built about 625 AD.", "It is associated with the Saxons.", "The ship was crushed by the weight of soil when buried but most details have been reconstructed.", "The ship was similar in hull section to the Nydam ship with flared topsides.", "Compared to later longships, the oak planks are wide—about including laps, with less taper at bow and stern.", "Planks were thick.", "The 26 heavy frames are spaced at in the centre.", "Each frame tapers from the turn of the bilge to the inwale.", "This suggests that knees were used to brace the upper two or three topside planks but have rotted away.", "The hull had a distinctive leaf shape with the bow sections much narrower than the stern quarters.", "There were nine wide planks per side.", "The ship had a light keel plank but pronounced stem and stern deadwood.", "The reconstruction suggests the stern was much lower than the bow.", "It had a steering oar to starboard braced by an extra frame.", "The raised prow extended about above the keel and the hull was estimated to draw when lightly laden.", "Between each futtock the planks were lapped in normal clinker style and fastened with six iron rivets per plank.", "There is no evidence of a mast, sail, or strengthening of the keel amidships but a half-sized replica, the Soe Wylfing, sailed very well with a modest sail area.Sails started to be used from possibly the eighth century.", "The earliest had either plaited or chequered pattern, with narrow strips sewn together.In the late eighth century, the Kvalsund ship was built.", "It is the first with a true keel.", "Its cross sectional shape was flatter on the bottom with less flare to the topsides.", "This shape is far more stable and able to handle rougher seas.", "It had the high prow of the later longships.", "After several centuries of evolution, the fully developed longship emerged some time in the middle of the ninth century.", "Its long, graceful, menacing head figure carved in the stern, such as the Oseburg ship, echoed the designs of its predecessors.", "The mast was now square in section and located toward the middle of the ship, and could be lowered and raised.", "The hull's sides were fastened together to allow it to flex with the waves, combining lightness and ease of handling on land.", "The ships were large enough to carry cargo and passengers on long ocean voyages, but still maintained speed and agility, making the longship a versatile warship and cargo carrier.===Keel, stems and hull===Schematic drawing of a longship construction representing the Sebbe Als ship.", "It is a reconstructed ''snekke'' from Denmark.The ships' design gave both strength, agility and versatility.", "They could navigate the open ocean, coastal waters, fjords and many rivers and could be landed on a beach.", "The pictured ship is the reconstructed ''Imme Gram''.The Viking shipbuilders had no written diagrams or standard written design plan.", "The shipbuilder pictured the longship before its construction, based on previous builds, and the ship was then built from the keel up.", "The keel and stems were made first.", "The shape of the stem was based on segments of circles of varying sizes.", "The keel was an inverted T shape to accept the garboard planks.", "In the longships the keel was made up of several sections spliced together and fastened with treenails.", "The next step was building the strakes—the lines of planks joined endwise from stem to stern.", "Nearly all longships were clinker (also known as lapstrake) built, meaning that each hull plank overlapped the next.", "Each plank was hewn from an oak tree so that the finished plank was about thick and tapered along each edge to a thickness of about .", "The planks were riven (radially hewn) so that the grain is approximately at right angles to the surface of the plank.", "This provides maximum strength, an even bend and an even rate of expansion and contraction in water.", "This is called in modern terms quartersawn timber, and has the least natural shrinkage of any cut section of wood.", "The plank above the turn of the bilge, the ''meginhufr'', was about thick on very long ships, but narrower to take the strain of the crossbeams.", "This was also the area subject to collisions.", "The planks overlapped by about and were joined by iron rivets.", "Each overlap was stuffed with wool or animal hair or sometimes hemp soaked in pine tar to ensure water tightness.", "Amidships, where the planks are straight, the rivets are about apart, but they were closer together as the planks sweep up to the curved bow and stern.", "There is considerable twist and bend in the end planks.", "This was achieved by use of both thinner (by 50%) and narrower planks.", "In more sophisticated builds, forward planks were cut from natural curved trees called reaction wood.", "Planks were installed unseasoned or wet.", "Partly worked stems and sterns have been located in bogs.", "It has been suggested that they were stored there over winter to stop the wood from drying and cracking.", "The moisture in wet planks allowed the builder to force the planks into a more acute bend, if need be; once dry it would stay in the forced position.", "At the bow and the stern builders were able to create hollow sections, or compound bends, at the waterline, making the entry point very fine.", "In less sophisticated ships short and nearly straight planks were used at the bow and stern.", "Where long timber was not available or the ship was very long, the planks were butt-joined, although overlapping scarf joints fixed with nails were also used.As the planks reached the desired height, the interior frame (futtocks) and cross beams were added.", "Frames were placed close together, which is an enduring feature of thin planked ships, still used today on some lightweight wooden racing craft such as those designed by Bruce Farr.", "Viking boat builders used a spacing of about .", "Part of the reason for this spacing was to achieve the correct distance between rowing stations and to create space for the chests used by Norse sailors as thwarts (seats).", "The bottom futtocks next to the keel were made from natural L-shaped crooks.", "The upper futtocks were usually not attached to the lower futtocks to allow some hull twist.", "The parts were held together with iron rivets, hammered in from the outside of the hull and fastened from the inside with a rove (washers).", "The surplus rivet was then cut off.", "A ship normally used about of iron nails in a long ship.", "In some ships the gap between the lower uneven futtock and the lapstrake planks was filled with a spacer block about long.", "In later ships spruce stringers were fastened lengthwise to the futtocks roughly parallel to the keel.", "Longships had about five rivets for each yard () of plank.", "In many early ships treenails (trenails, trunnels) were used to fasten large timbers.", "First, a hole about wide hole was drilled through two adjoining timbers, a wooden pegs inserted which was split and a thin wedge inserted to expand the peg.", "Some treenails have been found with traces of linseed oil suggesting that treenails were soaked before the pegs were inserted.", "When dried the oil would act as a semi-waterproof weak filler/glue.The longship's narrow deep keel provided strength beneath the waterline.", "A typical size keel of a longer ship was amidships, tapering in width at the bow and stern.", "Sometimes there was a false outer keel to take the wear while being dragged up a beach.", "These large timbers were shaped with both adze and broadaxe.", "At the bow the cut water was especially strong, as longboats sailed in ice strewn water in spring.", "Hulls up to wide gave stability, making the longship less likely to tip when sailed.", "The greater beam provided more moment of leverage by placing the crew or any other mobile weight on the windward side.", "Oceangoing longships had higher topsides about a high to keep out water.", "Higher topsides were supported with knees with the long axis fastened to the top of the crossbeams.", "The hull was waterproofed with animal hair, wool, hemp or moss drenched in pine tar.", "The ships would be tarred in the autumn and then left in a boathouse over the winter to allow time for the tar to dry.", "Evidence of small scale domestic tar production dates from between 100 AD and 400 AD.", "Larger industrial scale tar pits, estimated to be capable of producing up to 300 litres of tar in a single firing have been dated to between 680 AD and 900 AD.", "A drain plug hole about was drilled in the garboard plank on one side to allow rain water drainage.The oars did not use rowlocks or thole pins but holes cut below the gunwale line.", "To keep seawater out, these oar holes were sealed with wooden disks from the inside, when the oars were not in use.", "The holes were also used for belaying mooring lines and sail sheets.", "At the bow the forward upper futtock protruded about above the sheerline and was carved to retain anchor or mooring lines.===Timber===Analysis of timber samples from Viking long boats shows that a variety of timbers were used, but there was strong preference for oak, a tree associated with Thor in Viking mythology.", "Oak is a heavy, durable timber that can be easily worked by adze and axe when green (wet/unseasoned).", "Generally large and prestigious ships were made from oak.", "Other timber used were ash, elm, pine, spruce and larch.", "Spruce is light and seems to have been more common in later designs for internal hull battens (stringers).", "Although it is used for spars in modern times there is as yet no evidence the Vikings used spruce for masts.", "All timber was used unseasoned.", "The bark was removed by a bark spade.", "This consisted of a wooden handle with a T crossbar at the upper end, fitted with a broad chisel-like cutting edge of iron.", "The cutting edge was wide and long with a neck where the handle was inserted.", "It appears that in cold winters wood work stopped and partly completed timber work was buried in mud to prevent it drying out.", "Timber was worked with iron adzes and axes.", "Most of the smoothing was done with a side axe.", "Other tools used in woodwork were hammers, wedges, drawknives, planes and saws.", "Iron saws were probably very rare.", "The Domesday Book in England (1086 AD) records only 13 saws.", "Possibly these were pit saws and it is uncertain if they were used in longship construction.===Sail and mast===Even though no longship sail has been found, accounts and depictions verify that longships had square sails.", "Sails measured perhaps across, and were made of rough wool cloth.", "Unlike in knarrs, a longship sail was not stitched.The sail was held in place by the mast which was up to tall.", "Its base was about .", "The mast was supported by a large wooden maststep called a ''kerling'' (\"old woman\" in Old Norse) that was semicircular in shape.", "(Trent) The kerling was made of oak, and about wide and up to long in the larger ships.", "It usually heavily tapered into a joint with the internal keelson, although keelsons were by no means universal.", "The kerling lay across two strong frames that ran width-wise above the keel in the centre of the boat.", "The kerling also had a companion: the \"mast fish\", a wooden timber above the kerling just below deck height that provided extra help in keeping the mast erect.", "It was a large wooden baulk of timber about long with a slot, facing aft to accommodate the mast as it was raised.", "This acted as a mechanism to catch and secure the mast before the stays were secured.", "It was an early form of mast partner but was aligned fore and aft.", "In later longships there is no mast fish—the mast partner is an athwartwise beam similar to more modern construction.", "Most masts were about half the length of the ship so that it did not project beyond the hull when unstepped.", "When lowered the mast foot was kept in the base of the mast step and the top of the mast secured in a natural wooden crook about high, on the port side, so that it did not interfere with steering on the starboard side.There is a suggestion that the rig was sometimes used in a lateen style with the top cross spar dipped at an angle to aid sailing to windward i.e.", "the spar became the luff.", "There is little or no evidence to support this theory.", "No explanation is offered as to how this could be accomplished with a square sail as the lower reefed portion of the sail would be very bulky and would prevent even an approximation of the laminar flow necessary for windward sailing.", "There is no evidence of any triangular sails in use.", "Masts were held erect by side stays and possibly fore and aft stays.", "Each side stay was fitted at it lower end with a toggle.", "There were no chain plates.", "The lower part of the side stay consisted of ropes looped under the end of a knee of upper futtock which had a hole underneath.", "The lower part of the stay was about long and attached to a combined flat wooden turnblock and multi V jamb cleat called an angel (maiden, virgin).", "About four turns of rope went between the angel and the toggle to give the mechanical advantage to tighten the side stays.", "At each turn the v-shape at the bottom of the angel's \"wings\" jambed the stay, preventing slippage and movement.===Rudder===Early long boats used some form of steering oar but by the tenth century the side rudder (called a steerboard, the source for the etymology for the word starboard itself) was well established.", "It consisted of a length of timber about long.", "The upper section was rounded to a diameter of about .", "The lower blade was about .", "The steerboard on the Gokstad ship in the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo, Norway, is about wide, completely flat inboard and with about a maximum width at the center of the foil.", "The head of the rudder shaft had two square holes about apart.", "When the rudder was in its normal position the tiller was inserted in the upper hole so that the tiller faced athwartwise.", "The shaft was attached to the gunwale by a U-shaped joint.", "Near the stern, about halfway down the starboard topsides, was a rounded wooden block about in diameter and high, with a central hole for a rope.", "This corresponded to a hole in the midsection of the rudder blade.", "From the outside the rope ran through the blade, through the round block and topsides and was fastened inside the hull.", "The flexibility of the hemp rope allowed the blade to pivot.", "When beached or in shallow water the tiller was moved to the lower hole, the blade rope was slackened and the rudder head pulled up so the rudder could operate in shallow waters.", "Modern facsimiles are reported to steer quite well but require a very large amount of physical effort compared to the modern fore and aft tiller.===Anchors===Longships for the most part used two different kinds of anchors.", "The most common was a natural wood yoke formed from a tree branch.", "The weight was supplied by a stone passing laterally through the U of the yoke.", "The top of the yoke was closed by either a length of hardwood or a curved iron head, which kept the stone in place.", "One side of the head stuck out so it could dig into mud or sand.", "In the Ladby ship burial in Denmark, a unique iron anchor has been found, resembling the modern fisherman's anchor but without the crossbar.", "The cross bar may have rusted away.", "This anchor—made of Norwegian iron—has a long iron chain to which the hemp warp was attached.", "This construction has several advantages when anchored in deep waters or in rough seas.===Ship builders' toolkit===At the height of Viking expansion into Dublin and Jorvik 875–954 AD the longship reached a peak of development such as the Gokstad ship 890.Archaeological discoveries from this period at Coppergate, in York, show the shipwright had a large range of sophisticated woodwork tools.", "As well as the heavy adze, broad axe, wooden mallets and wedges, the craftsman had steel tools such as anvils, files, snips, awls, augers, gouges, draw knife, knives, including folding knives, chisels and small long bow saws with antler handles.", "Edged tools were kept sharp with sharpening stones from Norway.", "One of the most sophisticated tools was a diameter twist drill bit, perfect for drilling holes for treenails.", "Simple mechanical pole wood lathes were used to make cups and bowls.===Replica longships===Since the discovery of the original longships in the 1800s, many boat builders have built Viking ship replicas.", "However, most have not been able to resist the temptation to use more modern techniques and tools in the construction process.", "In 1892–93, a full-size near-replica of the Gokstad ship, the Viking, was built by the Norwegian Magnus Andersen in Bergen.", "It was used to sail the Atlantic.", "It had a deeper keel with a draught to stiffen the hull, a range of non-authentic triangular sails to help performance, and big fenders on each gunwale filled with reindeer hair to give extra buoyancy in case of swamping.", "The skipper recorded that the keel bowed upwards as much as and the gunwale flexed inwards as much as in heavy seas.", "A half-size replica of the Sutton Hoo longship has been equipped with a substantial sail, despite the original having oar power only.", "They took a year to make." ], [ "Navigation and propulsion", "===Navigation===Three-dimensional drawing of the Viking sundial (stamp illustration) with a conical vertical gnomon and its shadow, the endpoint of which touches the hyperbola scratched into the horizontal wooden discDuring the Viking Age (900–1200 AD) Vikings were the dominant seafarers of the North Atlantic.", "One of the keys to their success was the ability to navigate skillfully across the open waters.", "The Vikings were experts in judging speed and wind direction, and in knowing the current and when to expect high and low tides.", "Viking navigational techniques are not well understood, but historians postulate that the Vikings probably had some sort of primitive astrolabe and used the stars to plot their course.", "'''Viking Sundial'''During an excavation of a Viking Age farm in southern Greenland part of a circular disk with carvings was recovered.", "The discovery of the so-called Viking Sundial suggested a hypothesis that it was used as a compass.", "Archaeologists found a piece of stone and a fragment of wooden disk both featuring straight and hyperbolic carvings.", "It turned out that the two items had been parts of sundials used by the Vikings as a compass during their sea-crossings along latitude 61 degrees North.Archaeologists have found two devices which they interpret as navigation instruments.", "Both appear to be sundials with gnomon curves etched on a flat surface.", "The devices are small enough to be held flat in the hand at diameter.", "A wooden version dated to about 1000 AD was found in Greenland.", "A stone version was also found at Vatnahverfi, Greenland.", "By looking at the place where the shadow from the rod falls on a carved curve, a navigator is able to sail along a line of latitude.", "Both gnomon curve devices show the curve for 61° north very prominently.", "This was the approximate latitude that the Vikings would have sailed along to get to Greenland from Scandinavia.", "The wooden device also has north marked and had 32 arrow heads around the edge that may be the points of a compass.", "Other lines are interpreted as the solstice and equinox curves.", "The device was tested successfully, as a sun compass, during a 1984 reenactment when a longship sailed across the North Atlantic.", "It was accurate to within ± 5°.", "'''Hypothesis'''The Danish archaeologist Thorkild Ramskou suggested in 1967 that the \"sun-stones\" referred to in some sagas might have been natural crystals capable of polarizing skylight.", "The mineral cordierite occurring in Norway has the local name \"Viking's Compass.\"", "Its changes in colour would allow determining the sun's position (azimuth) even through an overcast or foggy horizon.", "The sunstones are doubly refracting, meaning that objects viewed through them can be seen as double because of positively charged calcium ions and negatively charged carbonate ions.", "When looking at the sun the stone, it will project two overlapping shadows on the crystal.", "The opacities of these shadows will vary depending on the sunstone's direction to the sun.", "When the two projected shapes have exactly the same opacity, it means the stone's long side is facing directly toward the sun.", "Since the stone uses light polarization, it works the best when the sun is at lower altitudes, or closer to the horizon.", "It makes sense that Norsemen were able to make use of sunstones, since much of the area they travelled and explored was near polar, where the sun is very close to the horizon for a good amount of the year.", "For example, in the Vinland sagas we see long voyages to North America, the majority sailed at over 61 degrees north.An ingenious navigation method is detailed in ''Viking Navigation Using the Sunstone, Polarized Light and the Horizon Board'' by Leif K. Karlsen.", "To derive a course to steer relative to the sun direction, he uses a sun-stone (solarsteinn) made of Iceland spar (optical calcite or silfurberg), and a \"horizon-board.\"", "The author constructed the latter from an Icelandic saga source, and describes an experiment performed to determine its accuracy.", "Karlsen also discusses why on North Atlantic trips the Vikings might have preferred to navigate by the sun rather than by stars, as at high latitudes in summer the days are long and the nights short.A Viking named Stjerner Oddi compiled a chart showing the direction of sunrise and sunset, which enabled navigators to sail longships from place to place with ease.", "Almgren, an earlier Viking, told of another method: \"All the measurements of angles were made with what was called a 'half wheel' (a kind of half sun-diameter which corresponds to about sixteen minutes of arc).", "This was something that was known to every skipper at that time, or to the long-voyage pilot or ''kendtmand'' ('man who knows the way') who sometimes went along on voyages ...", "When the sun was in the sky, it was not, therefore, difficult to find the four points of the compass, and determining latitude did not cause any problems either.\"", "(Almgren)Birds provided a helpful guide to finding land.", "A Viking legend states that Vikings used to take caged crows aboard ships and let them loose if they got lost.", "The crows would instinctively head for land, giving the sailors a course to steer.===Propulsion===The longships had two methods of propulsion: oars and sail.", "At sea, the sail enabled longships to travel faster than by oar and to cover long distances overseas with far less manual effort.", "Sails could be raised or lowered quickly.", "In a modern facsimile the mast can be lowered in 90 seconds.", "Oars were used when near the coast or in a river, to gain speed quickly, and when there was an adverse (or insufficient) wind.", "In combat, the variability of wind power made rowing the chief means of propulsion.", "The ship was steered by a vertical flat blade with a short round handle, at right angles, mounted over the starboard side of the aft gunwale.Longships were not fitted with benches.", "When rowing, the crew sat on sea chests (chests containing their personal possessions) that would otherwise take up space.", "The chests were made the same size and were the perfect height for a Viking to sit on and row.", "Longships had hooks for oars to fit into, but smaller oars were also used, with crooks or bends to be used as oarlocks.", "If there were no holes then a loop of rope kept the oars in place.An innovation that improved the sail's performance was the beitaass, or stretching pole—a wooden spar stiffening the sail.", "The windward performance of the ship was poor by modern standards as there was no centreboard, deep keel or leeboard.", "To assist in tacking the beitaass kept the luff taut.", "Bracing lines were attached to the luff and led through holes on the forward gunwale.", "Such holes were often reinforced with short sections of timber about long on the outside of the hull." ], [ "Legacy", "Image from the Bayeux Tapestry showing Harold Godwinson's ship approaching a beach, probably in the Somme EstuaryThe Vikings were major contributors to the shipbuilding technology of their day.", "Their shipbuilding methods spread through extensive contact with other cultures, and ships from the 11th and 12th centuries are known to borrow many of the longships' design features, despite the passing of many centuries.Many historians, archaeologists and adventurers have reconstructed longships in an attempt to understand how they worked.", "These re-creators have been able to identify many of the advances that the Vikings implemented in order to make the longship a superior vessel.The longship was a master of all trades.", "It was wide and stable, yet light, fast, and nimble.", "With all these qualities combined in one ship, the longship was unrivalled for centuries, until the arrival of the great cog.In Scandinavia, the longship was the usual vessel for war even with the introduction of cogs in the 12th–13th centuries.", "Leidang fleet-levy laws remained in place for most of the Middle Ages, demanding that the freemen should build, man, and furnish ships for war if demanded by the king—ships with at least 20 or 25 oar-pairs (40–50+ rowers).", "However, by the late 14th century, these low-boarded vessels were at a disadvantage against newer, taller vessels—when the Victual Brothers, in the employ of the Hansa, attacked Bergen in the autumn of 1393, the \"great ships\" of the pirates could not be boarded by the Norwegian levy ships called out by Margaret I of Denmark, and the raiders were able to sack the town with impunity.", "While earlier times had seen larger and taller longships in service, by this time the authorities had also gone over to other types of ships for warfare.", "The last Viking longship was defeated in 1429." ], [ "Notable longships", "=== Preserved originals ===Several of the original longships built in the Viking Age have been excavated by archaeologists.", "A selection of vessels that has been particularly important to our understanding of the longships design and construction, comprise the following:* The Nydam ship (c. 310–320 AD) is a burial ship from Denmark.", "This oaken vessel is long and was propelled by oars only.", "No mast is attached, as it was a later addition to the longship design.", "The Nydam ship shows a combination of building styles and is important to our understanding of the evolution of the early Viking ships.", "* \"''Puck 2''\" is the name given to a longship found in the Bay of Gdansk in Poland in 1977.It has been dated to the first half of the tenth century and was long in its day.", "It is peculiar and important because it was constructed by Western Slavic craftsmen, not Scandinavian.", "The design only differs very slightly from the Scandinavian built longships.", "* ''Hedeby 1'' is the name given to a longship found in the harbour of Hedeby in 1953.At nearly long, it is of the Skeid type, built around 985 AD.", "With a maximum width of just it has a width-to-length ratio of more than 11, making it the slimmest longship ever discovered.", "It is made of oaken wood and its construction would have required a very high level of craftsmanship.", "* The Oseberg ship and the Gokstad ship – both from Vestfold in Norway.", "They both represent the longship design of the later Viking Age.", "* '''' is the name given to the longest longship ever found at approximately .", "It was discovered in 1996–97 at the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde, Denmark.", "The ship was constructed around 1025.", "* The Gjellestad ship, built in Norway around 732, was discovered in 2018.Excavations were completed in December 2022, and the remains of the keel are undergoing preservation.=== Historical examples ===A selection of important longships known only from written sources includes:* The Ormen Lange (\"''The Long Serpent''\") was the most famous longship of Norwegian king Olaf Tryggvason.", "* The Mora was the ship given to William the Conqueror by his wife, Matilda, and used as the flagship in the Norman conquest of England.", "It is said to be of the ''drakar'' type.", "* The Mariasuda, flagship of Norwegian king Sverre at the Battle of Fimreite, the largest recorded longship.=== Replicas ===''Viking'', was sailed across the Atlantic to the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893.There are many replicas of Viking ships – including longships – in existence.", "Some are just inspired by the longship design in general, while others are intricate works of experimental archaeology, trying to replicate the originals as accurately as possible.", "Replicas important to our understanding of the original longships design and construction include:* ''Viking'', the very first Viking ship replica, was built by the Rødsverven shipyard in Sandefjord, Norway, modelled after the Gokstad ship.", "In 1893, it sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to Chicago in The United States for the World's Columbian Exposition.", "* The Skuldelev replicas.", "All the five Skuldelev ships have been replicated, some of them several times.", "They are each of a different design and only Skuldelev 1, 2 and 5 are longships.", "* The ''Sea Stallion'' is a replica of the Skuldelev 2 ship, constructed by authentic methods.", "At , it is the second longest Viking ship replica ever made.", "Skuldelev 2 was originally built near Dublin around 1042, and was rediscovered in Roskilde, Denmark in 1962.The ''Sea Stallion'' sailed from Roskilde to Dublin in summer 2007, to commemorate the voyage of the original.", "In the winter of 2007–2008, the ship was exhibited outside the National Museum in Dublin.", "In the summer of 2008, it returned to Roskilde on a searoute south of England.", "* ''Dragon Harald Fairhair'' is the largest longship built in modern times at .", "The ship is not a replica of any specific original longship, but was built by authentic construction methods.", "It was constructed in Haugesund, Norway and launched in 2012.", "* The ''Íslendingur (Icelander)'' is a replica of the Gokstad ship that was built using traditional building techniques.", "In 2000, it was sailed from Iceland to L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, to participate in the 1000 year anniversary of Leif Erikson's discovery of America.", "* ''The Munin'' is a half-sized replica of the Gokstad ship.", "Berthed at the Vancouver Maritime Museum, she was built at the Scandinavian Community Centre, Burnaby, British Columbia and launched in 2001.", "The Myklebust Ship is a 30 m replica of the original ship of the same name found in Nordfjordeid, Norway.", "The replica is situated in the Sagastad knowledge center, and is the largest longship ever discovered in Norway.", "The replica is the largest replica based on an original find.", "The replica was christened in 2019, as part of the opening of Sagastad." ], [ "See also", " Viking ships* Medieval ships* Birlinn* Nordland* Leidang* Hugin" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Bill, Jan (1997).", "\"Ships and seamanship\", in Sawyer, P.", "(ed.", "), ''Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings\", Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Bill, Jan (2008).", "\"Viking Ships and the Sea\", in Brink, S. and Price, N. (eds), ''The Viking World'', Routledge, 2008, pp. 170–80.", "Hegedüs, R., Åkesson, S., Wehner, R., & Horváth, G. (2007).", "Could Vikings Have Navigated under Foggy and Cloudy Conditions by Skylight Polarization?", "On the Atmospheric Optical Prerequisites of Polarimetric Viking Navigation under Foggy and Cloudy Skies.", "Proceedings: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 463(2080), 1081–1095.. Brøgger, A.W.", "and Shetelig, H. (1951).", "''The Vikings Ships.", "Their Ancestry and Evolution'', Oslo: Dreyer, 1951.", "* Bruun, Per (1997).", "\"The Viking Ship\", ''Journal of Coastal Research'', 4 (1997): 1282–89.JSTOR* Durham, Keith (2002).", "''Viking Longship'', New Vanguard 47, Osprey Publishing, 2002.", "* W. Fitzhugh and E. Ward, ''Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga''.", "Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.", "2000.", "* A. W. Brøgger (1951).", "''The Viking ships, their ancestry and evolution'', Oslo: Dreyer.", "1951.", "* Hale, J.R.", "(1998).", "\"'The Viking Longship\", ''Scientific American'' February 1998, pp. 58–66.", "* K. McCone, 'Zisalpinisch-gallisch uenia und lokan' in ''Festschrift Untermann'', ed Heidermans et al., Innsbruck, 1993.1.", "* L. Trent (1999).", "''The Viking Longship'', San Diego: Lucent Books, 1999.", "* A.", "Forte, R. Oram, and F. Pederson. ''", "Viking Empires ''.", "1st.", "ed.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005 .", "* D. Dersin, ed., ''What Life Was Like When Longships Sailed''.", "first ed.", "Richmond: Time Life Books, 1998.", "* D. Dersin, ed., ''What Life Was Like When Longships Sailed''.", "1st ed.", "Richmond: Time Life Books, 1998.", "* Chartrand, Rene, Mark Harrison, Ian Heath, and Keith Durham.", "''The Vikings: voyagers of discovery and plunder''.", "Osprey Publishing, 2006.142–90.", "Jesch, J.", "(2001).", "Ships and Sailing.", "In Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse (pp. 119–179).", "N. A. M. Rodger.", "(1995).", "Cnut's Geld and the Size of Danish Ships.", "The English Historical Review, 110(436), 392–403.", "Per Bruun.", "(1997).", "The Viking Ship.", "Journal of Coastal Research, 13(4), 1282–1289.", "Horváth, G., Barta, A., Pomozi, I., Suhai, B., Hegedüs, R., Åkesson, S., Wehner, R. (2011).", "On the trail of Vikings with polarized skylight: Experimental study of the atmospheric optical prerequisites allowing polarimetric navigation by Viking seafarers.", "Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 366 (1565), 772–782.", "Bill, J.", "(2003).", "SCANDINAVIAN WARSHIPS AND NAVAL POWER IN THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES.", "In Hattendorf J.", "& Unger R.", "(Eds.", "), War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (pp. 35–52).", "Boydell and Brewer." ], [ "External links", " The Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde* The Viking Ship Museum in Oslo* The ''Ormen Friske'' disaster – a warning against construction errors in Viking ship replicas* The ''Ormen Friske'' disaster in 1950 investigated* Viking ships and traditional Norse wooden boats" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Luigi Alamanni" ], [ "Introduction", "Luigi Alamanni'''Luigi Alamanni''' (sometimes spelt '''Alemanni''') (6 March 149518 April 1556) was an Italian poet and statesman.", "He was regarded as a prolific and versatile poet.", "He was credited with introducing the epigram into Italian poetry." ], [ "Biography", "Alamanni was born in Florence.", "His father was a devoted adherent of the Medici party, but Luigi, smarting under a supposed injustice, joined an unsuccessful conspiracy against Giulio de' Medici, soon to be elected Pope Clement VII.", "Consequently, he was forced to take refuge in Venice, and, on the accession of Medici to pope, to flee to France.", "When Florence had exiled the Medici in 1527, Alamanni returned, and took a prominent part in the management of the affairs of the short-lived republic.", "The Florentines had thrown off Medici rule and established a republic after the Sack of Rome in 1527; the Florentine Republic had continued to participate in the war on the side of the French.", "The French defeats at Naples in 1528 and Landriano in 1529, however, led to Francis I of France concluding the Treaty of Cambrai with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. When Pope Clement VII and the Republic of Venice also concluded treaties with the Emperor, Florence was left to fight alone.", "Charles, attempting to gain Clement's favor, ordered his armies to seize Florence and return the Medici to power.After the siege of Florence in 1530 by Imperial forces, succeeded in restoring the Medici to the duchy, Alamanni again fled, this time to France, where he composed the greater part of his works.", "He was a favourite with the French King Francis I, who sent him as ambassador to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V after the Peace of Crepy in 1544.An instance of Alammani's diplomatic tact is reflected in an encounter with the emperor.", "Alamanni, while giving a complimentary address to Charles, was interrupted by the emperor who quoted a line from a satirical poem of Alamanni: ''\"l'aquila grifagna, Che per piu devorar, duoi rostri porta''\" (''\"Two crooked bills the ravenous eagle bears, The better to devour''\").", "The double eagle was a symbol of the Hapsburg monarchy.", "Upon this interruption, Alamanni immediately replied that he spoke that line only as a poet using fictions, now as an ambassador, he could only speak the truth.", "The ready reply pleased Charles, who added some complimentary words.After the death of Francis, Alamanni enjoyed the confidence of his successor Henry II, and in 1551 was sent as his ambassador to Genoa.", "He died at Amboise on 18 April 1556.He wrote a large number of poems, distinguished by the purity and excellence of their style.", "The best is a didactic poem, ''La Coltivazione'' (Paris, 1546; see 1546 in poetry), written in imitation of Virgil's Georgics.", "His ''Opere Toscane'' (Lyon, 1532) consists of satirical pieces written in blank verse.", "His use of Horatian epistolary satire is important and his tenth satire was used as a model by Sir Thomas Wyatt in his poem 'Mine own John Poyntz' which introduced the form into English literature.", "An unfinished poem, ''Avarchide'', in imitation of the Iliad, was the work of his old age and has little merit.It has been said by some that Alamanni was the first to use blank verse in Italian poetry, but that distinction belongs rather to his contemporary Giangiorgio Trissino.The contemporary poet Isabella di Morra dedicated a sonnet to Alamanni called ''Non sol il ciel vi fu largo e cortese'' (''\"Not only was heaven generous and courteous to you\"'').Alamanni is a minor speaker in Machiavelli's ''The Art of War'', a book structured as a dialogue between real people known to Machiavelli, and set in the gardens of Cosimo Rucellai.", "In this book, Alamanni is present as a loyal friend of the host, and is mentioned to be the youngest of Rucellai's friends present." ], [ "Bibliography", "A poetical romance, ''Girone il Cortese'' (Paris, 1548; see 1548 in poetry)A tragedy, ''Antigone''A comedy, ''Flora''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Louis Aleman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Louis Aleman''' (16 September 1450) was a French Roman Catholic cardinal and a professed member of the now-suppressed Canons Regular of Saint John Baptist.", "He served as the Archbishop of Arles from 1423 until his resignation in 1440 when he had resigned from the cardinalate.", "But he was later reinstated as a cardinal on 19 December 1449 at which point he served as the Protopriest and also reclaimed his titular church.Aleman served as the Bishop of Maguelonne from 1418 until his archepiscopal elevation at which point he was later named a cardinal.", "Aleman once led opposition to Pope Eugene IV while pledging allegiance to an antipope which led to Eugene IV stripping Aleman of all ecclesiastical dignities that he had been entitled to.", "But he later convinced the antipope to abdicate as a means of ending the Western Schism at which stage Aleman was restored to the cardinalate and returned to full communion with the Roman see under Pope Nicholas V. He has often been dubbed as the \"Cardinal of Arles\".His beatification received approval on 9 April 1527 from Pope Clement VII." ], [ "Life", "Louis Aleman was born to nobles circa 1390 at the castle in Arbent to Jean Aleman and Marie de Châtillon de Michaille.", "His archbishop grand-uncle was François de Conzie (c.1356-31.12.1431/2).He was present at the Council of Pisa in 1409.He studied canon law and graduated in that area with a doctorate in 1414 at the college in Avignon.", "In 1417 he was made the abbot commendatario of Saint-Pierre de la Tour.Aleman served as the governor of the Romagna since 1424 and had to face the ongoing struggles between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines in Bologna.", "One of the Guelph families - the Canetols - even imprisoned Aleman for several weeks but Aleman was later released and moved to Rome to serve in the court of Pope Martin V. Aleman served as a noted advisor to the pope and also served as a courtier while in the papal court.", "He had served in the papal court for Martin V since July 1417.On 22 June 1418 he was appointed as the Bishop of Maguelonne and he was installed into his new see on 17 May 1419.The pope himself granted episcopal consecration to Aleman in Mantua.", "He later became a diplomat to Siena in 1422.Aleman was later promoted as the newest Archbishop of Arles on 3 December 1423 and was installed in that see on 16 May 1424.Martin V named him a cardinal on 24 May 1426 as the Cardinal-Priest of Santa Cecilia - he received that title on 27 May.", "From 1427 until 1431 he served as the Camerlengo for the College of Cardinals.", "He served as a legate to Bologna from 1426 to 1428 and did not participate in the conclave of 1431.He was a prominent member of the Council of Basel since 1432 and together with Cardinal Julian Cesarini led the forces that maintained the power of the general councils over the pope's own control of the Church.", "It was while the council was proceeding that he tended to victims of the plague.", "He later led opposition to the pope but Cesarini was reconciled with Pope Eugene IV and had a prominent part in the pope's convoked Council of Florence.", "In 1439 he led the effort to depose Eugene IV and the election of a successor.", "In 1440 he placed the tiara upon Antipope Felix V and consecrated him as a bishop.", "This was a misguided attempt at reforming the Church which Aleman believed was vital.", "Eugene IV was responded to this and excommunicated the antipope while also depriving Aleman of all his ecclesiastical dignities.", "This also meant that Aleman could no longer be considered a cardinal and he was deprived of the dignities that came with the cardinalate.", "This occurred on 11 April 1440: he was stripped of Arles as his archdiocese and was stripped of his titular church.Antipope Felix V made him the legate to the Diet of Frankfurt to the court of Emperor Friedrich III.", "He was further involved in the unsuccessful efforts to win over Europe's princes to Basel's antipope.", "In order to make an end of the schism the former cardinal advised Felix V to abdicate at which stage Pope Nicholas V restored the cardinal to all his honors and appointed him as a papal legate to the German kingdom in 1449; his full restoration was on 19 December 1449.He was granted back his titular church as well and from that moment until his death served as the Protopriest of the College of Cardinals.", "It was due to his estrangement to the Roman see that he was not permitted to participate in the conclave of 1447.He returned to his former archdiocese where he dedicated himself with great zeal to the catechetical formation of the people.He died on 16 September 1450 at the Franciscan convent in Salon at Arles.", "Aleman's remains are housed in Saint-Trophine d'Arles." ], [ "Beatification", "His beatification was approved and celebrated on 9 April 1527 after Pope Clement VII confirmed that there had been a longstanding and popular cultus (otherwise known as an enduring public veneration) of the late cardinal." ], [ "Notes and references", "'''Attribution:'''" ], [ "Further reading", " See U.", "Chevalier, ''Repert.", "des sources hist''.", "(Paris, 1905), p. 130." ], [ "External links", "* Saints SQPN* New Advent* Theodora* Catholic Hierarchy" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "LR parser" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer science, '''LR parsers''' are a type of bottom-up parser that analyse deterministic context-free languages in linear time.", "There are several variants of LR parsers: SLR parsers, LALR parsers, canonical LR(1) parsers, minimal LR(1) parsers, and generalized LR parsers (GLR parsers).", "LR parsers can be generated by a parser generator from a formal grammar defining the syntax of the language to be parsed.", "They are widely used for the processing of computer languages.An LR parser (left-to-right, rightmost derivation in reverse) reads input text from left to right without backing up (this is true for most parsers), and produces a rightmost derivation in reverse: it does a bottom-up parse – not a top-down LL parse or ad-hoc parse.", "The name \"LR\" is often followed by a numeric qualifier, as in \"LR(1)\" or sometimes \"LR(''k'')\".", "To avoid backtracking or guessing, the LR parser is allowed to peek ahead at ''k'' lookahead input symbols before deciding how to parse earlier symbols.", "Typically ''k'' is 1 and is not mentioned.", "The name \"LR\" is often preceded by other qualifiers, as in \"SLR\" and \"LALR\".", "The \"LR(''k'')\" notation for a grammar was suggested by Knuth to stand for \"translatable from left to right with bound ''k''.", "\"LR parsers are deterministic; they produce a single correct parse without guesswork or backtracking, in linear time.", "This is ideal for computer languages, but LR parsers are not suited for human languages which need more flexible but inevitably slower methods.", "Some methods which can parse arbitrary context-free languages (e.g., Cocke–Younger–Kasami, Earley, GLR) have worst-case performance of O(3) time.", "Other methods which backtrack or yield multiple parses may even take exponential time when they guess badly.The above properties of '''L''', '''R''', and '''''k''''' are actually shared by all shift-reduce parsers, including precedence parsers.", "But by convention, the LR name stands for the form of parsing invented by Donald Knuth, and excludes the earlier, less powerful precedence methods (for example Operator-precedence parser).LR parsers can handle a larger range of languages and grammars than precedence parsers or top-down LL parsing.", "This is because the LR parser waits until it has seen an entire instance of some grammar pattern before committing to what it has found.", "An LL parser has to decide or guess what it is seeing much sooner, when it has only seen the leftmost input symbol of that pattern." ], [ "Overview", "===Bottom-up parse tree for example ===Bottom-up parse tree built in numbered stepsAn LR parser scans and parses the input text in one forward pass over the text.", "The parser builds up the parse tree incrementally, bottom up, and left to right, without guessing or backtracking.", "At every point in this pass, the parser has accumulated a list of subtrees or phrases of the input text that have been already parsed.", "Those subtrees are not yet joined together because the parser has not yet reached the right end of the syntax pattern that will combine them.At step 6 in an example parse, only \"A2\" has been parsed, incompletely.", "Only the shaded lower-left corner of the parse tree exists.", "None of the parse tree nodes numbered 7 and above exist yet.", "Nodes 3, 4, and 6 are the roots of isolated subtrees for variable A, operator , and number 2, respectively.", "These three root nodes are temporarily held in a parse stack.", "The remaining unparsed portion of the input stream is \"+ 1\".===Shift and reduce actions===As with other shift-reduce parsers, an LR parser works by doing some combination of Shift steps and Reduce steps.", "* A '''Shift''' step advances in the input stream by one symbol.", "That shifted symbol becomes a new single-node parse tree.", "* A '''Reduce''' step applies a completed grammar rule to some of the recent parse trees, joining them together as one tree with a new root symbol.If the input has no syntax errors, the parser continues with these steps until all of the input has been consumed and all of the parse trees have been reduced to a single tree representing an entire legal input.LR parsers differ from other shift-reduce parsers in how they decide when to reduce, and how to pick between rules with similar endings.", "But the final decisions and the sequence of shift or reduce steps are the same.Much of the LR parser's efficiency is from being deterministic.", "To avoid guessing, the LR parser often looks ahead (rightwards) at the next scanned symbol, before deciding what to do with previously scanned symbols.", "The lexical scanner works one or more symbols ahead of the parser.", "The '''lookahead''' symbols are the 'right-hand context' for the parsing decision.===Bottom-up parse stack===Bottom-Up Parser at step 6Like other shift-reduce parsers, an LR parser lazily waits until it has scanned and parsed all parts of some construct before committing to what the combined construct is.", "The parser then acts immediately on the combination instead of waiting any further.", "In the parse tree example, the phrase A gets reduced to Value and then to Products in steps 1-3 as soon as lookahead * is seen, rather than waiting any later to organize those parts of the parse tree.", "The decisions for how to handle A are based only on what the parser and scanner have already seen, without considering things that appear much later to the right.Reductions reorganize the most recently parsed things, immediately to the left of the lookahead symbol.", "So the list of already-parsed things acts like a stack.", "This '''parse stack''' grows rightwards.", "The base or bottom of the stack is on the left and holds the leftmost, oldest parse fragment.", "Every reduction step acts only on the rightmost, newest parse fragments.", "(This accumulative parse stack is very unlike the predictive, leftward-growing parse stack used by top-down parsers.", ")===Bottom-up parse steps for example A2 + 1 === Step Parse Stack Unparsed Shift/Reduce 0 ''empty'' A2 + 1 shift 1 ''id'' 2 + 1 Value → ''id'' 2 Value 2 + 1 Products → Value 3 Products 2 + 1 shift 4 Products 2 + 1 shift 5 Products * ''int'' + 1 Value → ''int'' 6 Products * Value + 1 Products → Products * Value 7 Products + 1 Sums → Products 8 Sums + 1 shift 9 Sums + 1 shift 10 Sums + ''int'' ''eof'' Value → ''int'' 11 Sums + Value ''eof'' Products → Value 12 Sums + Products ''eof'' Sums → Sums + Products 13 Sums ''eof'' accept Step 6 applies a grammar rule with multiple parts:: Products → Products * ValueThis matches the stack top holding the parsed phrases \"... Products * Value\".", "The reduce step replaces this instance of the rule's right hand side, \"Products * Value\" by the rule's left hand side symbol, here a larger Products.", "If the parser builds complete parse trees, the three trees for inner Products, , and Value are combined by a new tree root for Products.", "Otherwise, semantic details from the inner Products and Value are output to some later compiler pass, or are combined and saved in the new Products symbol.===LR parse steps for example A2 + 1 ===In LR parsers, the shift and reduce decisions are potentially based on the entire stack of everything that has been previously parsed, not just on a single, topmost stack symbol.", "If done in an unclever way, that could lead to very slow parsers that get slower and slower for longer inputs.", "LR parsers do this with constant speed, by summarizing all the relevant left context information into a single number called the LR(0) '''parser state'''.", "For each grammar and LR analysis method, there is a fixed (finite) number of such states.", "Besides holding the already-parsed symbols, the parse stack also remembers the state numbers reached by everything up to those points.At every parse step, the entire input text is divided into a stack of previously parsed phrases, a current look-ahead symbol, and the remaining unscanned text.", "The parser's next action is determined by its current LR(0) (rightmost on the stack) and the lookahead symbol.", "In the steps below, all the black details are exactly the same as in other non-LR shift-reduce parsers.", "LR parser stacks add the state information in purple, summarizing the black phrases to their left on the stack and what syntax possibilities to expect next.", "Users of an LR parser can usually ignore state information.", "These states are explained in a later section.", "Step Parse Stack Symbol* LookAhead Unscanned ParserAction Grammar Rule NextState 0 ''id'' 2 + 1 shift 1 ''id'' 2 + 1 reduce Value → ''id'' 2 Value * 2 + 1 reduce Products → Value 3 Products * 2 + 1 shift 4 Products * ''int'' + 1 shift 5 Products ''int'' + 1 reduce Value → ''int'' 6 Products Value + 1 reduce Products → Products * Value 7 Products + 1 reduce Sums → Products 8 Sums + 1 shift 9 Sums + ''int'' ''eof'' shift 10 Sums + ''int'' ''eof'' reduce Value → ''int'' 11 Sums + Value ''eof'' reduce Products → Value 12 Sums + Products ''eof'' reduce Sums → Sums + Products 13 Sums ''eof'' accept At initial step 0, the input stream \"A2 + 1\" is divided into an empty section on the parse stack,* lookahead text \"A\" scanned as an ''id'' symbol, and* the remaining unscanned text \"2 + 1\".The parse stack begins by holding only initial state 0.When state 0 sees the lookahead ''id'', it knows to shift that ''id'' onto the stack, and scan the next input symbol '''''', and advance to state 9.At step 4, the total input stream \"A2 + 1\" is currently divided into the parsed section \"A \" with 2 stacked phrases Products and '''''',* lookahead text \"2\" scanned as an ''int'' symbol, and* the remaining unscanned text \" + 1\".The states corresponding to the stacked phrases are 0, 4, and 5.The current, rightmost state on the stack is state 5.When state 5 sees the lookahead ''int'', it knows to shift that ''int'' onto the stack as its own phrase, and scan the next input symbol '''+''', and advance to state 8.At step 12, all of the input stream has been consumed but only partially organized.", "The current state is 3.When state 3 sees the lookahead ''eof'', it knows to apply the completed grammar rule::Sums → Sums + Productsby combining the stack's rightmost three phrases for Sums, '''+''', and Products into one thing.", "State 3 itself doesn't know what the next state should be.", "This is found by going back to state 0, just to the left of the phrase being reduced.", "When state 0 sees this new completed instance of a Sums, it advances to state 1 (again).", "This consulting of older states is why they are kept on the stack, instead of keeping only the current state.===Grammar for the example A2 + 1===LR parsers are constructed from a grammar that formally defines the syntax of the input language as a set of patterns.", "The grammar doesn't cover all language rules, such as the size of numbers, or the consistent use of names and their definitions in the context of the whole program.", "LR parsers use a context-free grammar that deals just with local patterns of symbols.The example grammar used here is a tiny subset of the Java or C language:::r0: Goal → Sums ''eof''::r1: Sums → Sums + Products::r2: Sums → Products::r3: Products → Products Value::r4: Products → Value::r5: Value → ''int''::r6: Value → ''id''The grammar's terminal symbols are the multi-character symbols or 'tokens' found in the input stream by a lexical scanner.", "Here these include '''+''' '''''' and ''int'' for any integer constant, and ''id'' for any identifier name, and ''eof'' for end of input file.", "The grammar doesn't care what the ''int'' values or ''id'' spellings are, nor does it care about blanks or line breaks.", "The grammar uses these terminal symbols but does not define them.", "They are always leaf nodes (at the bottom bushy end) of the parse tree.The capitalized terms like Sums are nonterminal symbols.", "These are names for concepts or patterns in the language.", "They are defined in the grammar and never occur themselves in the input stream.", "They are always internal nodes (above the bottom) of the parse tree.", "They only happen as a result of the parser applying some grammar rule.", "Some nonterminals are defined with two or more rules; these are alternative patterns.", "Rules can refer back to themselves, which are called ''recursive''.", "This grammar uses recursive rules to handle repeated math operators.", "Grammars for complete languages use recursive rules to handle lists, parenthesized expressions, and nested statements.Any given computer language can be described by several different grammars.", "An LR(1) parser can handle many but not all common grammars.", "It is usually possible to manually modify a grammar so that it fits the limitations of LR(1) parsing and the generator tool.The grammar for an LR parser must be unambiguous itself, or must be augmented by tie-breaking precedence rules.", "This means there is only one correct way to apply the grammar to a given legal example of the language, resulting in a unique parse tree with just one meaning, and a unique sequence of shift/reduce actions for that example.", "LR parsing is not a useful technique for human languages with ambiguous grammars that depend on the interplay of words.", "Human languages are better handled by parsers like Generalized LR parser, the Earley parser, or the CYK algorithm that can simultaneously compute all possible parse trees in one pass.===Parse table for the example grammar===Most LR parsers are table driven.", "The parser's program code is a simple generic loop that is the same for all grammars and languages.", "The knowledge of the grammar and its syntactic implications are encoded into unchanging data tables called '''parse tables''' (or '''parsing tables''').", "Entries in a table show whether to shift or reduce (and by which grammar rule), for every legal combination of parser state and lookahead symbol.", "The parse tables also tell how to compute the next state, given just a current state and a next symbol.The parse tables are much larger than the grammar.", "LR tables are hard to accurately compute by hand for big grammars.", "So they are mechanically derived from the grammar by some parser generator tool like Bison.Depending on how the states and parsing table are generated, the resulting parser is called either a '''SLR''' (simple LR) parser, '''LALR''' (look-ahead LR) parser, or canonical LR parser.", "LALR parsers handle more grammars than SLR parsers.", "Canonical LR parsers handle even more grammars, but use many more states and much larger tables.", "The example grammar is SLR.LR parse tables are two-dimensional.", "Each current LR(0) parser state has its own row.", "Each possible next symbol has its own column.", "Some combinations of state and next symbol are not possible for valid input streams.", "These blank cells trigger syntax error messages.The '''Action''' left half of the table has columns for lookahead terminal symbols.", "These cells determine whether the next parser action is shift (to state ''n''), or reduce (by grammar rule '''r'''n).The '''Goto''' right half of the table has columns for nonterminal symbols.", "These cells show which state to advance to, after some reduction's Left Hand Side has created an expected new instance of that symbol.", "This is like a shift action but for nonterminals; the lookahead terminal symbol is unchanged.The table column \"Current Rules\" documents the meaning and syntax possibilities for each state, as worked out by the parser generator.", "It is not included in the actual tables used at parsing time.", "The (pink dot) marker shows where the parser is now, within some partially recognized grammar rules.", "The things to the left of have been parsed, and the things to the right are expected soon.", "A state has several such current rules if the parser has not yet narrowed possibilities down to a single rule.", "Curr Lookahead LHS Goto State Current Rules ''int'' ''id'' + ''eof'' Sums Products Value 0 Goal → Sums ''eof'' 8 9 1 4 7 1 Goal → Sums ''eof'' Sums → Sums + Products 2 2 Sums → Sums + Products 8 9 3 7 3 Sums → Sums + Products Products → Products * Value 5 r1 4 Sums → Products Products → Products * Value 5 r2 5 Products → Products * Value 8 9 6 6 Products → Products * Value r3 r3 7 Products → Value r4 r4 8 Value → ''int'' r5 r5 9 Value → ''id'' r6 r6 In state 2 above, the parser has just found and shifted-in the '''+''' of grammar rule::r1: Sums → Sums + ProductsThe next expected phrase is Products.", "Products begins with terminal symbols ''int'' or ''id''.", "If the lookahead is either of those, the parser shifts them in and advances to state 8 or 9, respectively.", "When a Products has been found, the parser advances to state 3 to accumulate the complete list of summands and find the end of rule r0.A Products can also begin with nonterminal Value.", "For any other lookahead or nonterminal, the parser announces a syntax error.In state 3, the parser has just found a Products phrase, that could be from two possible grammar rules:::r1: Sums → Sums + Products ::r3: Products → Products * ValueThe choice between r1 and r3 can't be decided just from looking backwards at prior phrases.", "The parser has to check the lookahead symbol to tell what to do.", "If the lookahead is '''''', it is in rule 3, so the parser shifts in the '''''' and advances to state 5.If the lookahead is ''eof'', it is at the end of rule 1 and rule 0, so the parser is done.In state 9 above, all the non-blank, non-error cells are for the same reduction r6.Some parsers save time and table space by not checking the lookahead symbol in these simple cases.", "Syntax errors are then detected somewhat later, after some harmless reductions, but still before the next shift action or parser decision.Individual table cells must not hold multiple, alternative actions, otherwise the parser would be nondeterministic with guesswork and backtracking.", "If the grammar is not LR(1), some cells will have shift/reduce conflicts between a possible shift action and reduce action, or reduce/reduce conflicts between multiple grammar rules.", "LR(k) parsers resolve these conflicts (where possible) by checking additional lookahead symbols beyond the first.=== LR parser loop ===The LR parser begins with a nearly empty parse stack containing just the start state 0, and with the lookahead holding the input stream's first scanned symbol.", "The parser then repeats the following loop step until done, or stuck on a syntax error:The topmost state on the parse stack is some state ''s'', and the current lookahead is some terminal symbol ''t''.", "Look up the next parser action from row ''s'' and column ''t'' of the Lookahead Action table.", "That action is either Shift, Reduce, Accept, or Error:* Shift ''n'':::Shift the matched terminal ''t'' onto the parse stack and scan the next input symbol into the lookahead buffer.", "::Push next state ''n'' onto the parse stack as the new current state.", "* Reduce rm: Apply grammar rule rm: Lhs → S1 S2 ... SL::Remove the matched topmost L symbols (and parse trees and associated state numbers) from the parse stack.", "::This exposes a prior state ''p'' that was expecting an instance of the Lhs symbol.", "::Join the L parse trees together as one parse tree with new root symbol Lhs.", "::Lookup the next state ''n'' from row ''p'' and column ''Lhs'' of the LHS Goto table.", "::Push the symbol and tree for Lhs onto the parse stack.", "::Push next state ''n'' onto the parse stack as the new current state.", "::The lookahead and input stream remain unchanged.", "* Accept: Lookahead ''t'' is the ''eof'' marker.", "End of parsing.", "If the state stack contains just the start state report success.", "Otherwise, report a syntax error.", "* Error: Report a syntax error.", "The parser ends, or attempts some recovery.LR parser stack usually stores just the LR(0) automaton states, as the grammar symbols may be derived from them (in the automaton, all input transitions to some state are marked with the same symbol, which is the symbol associated with this state).", "Moreover, these symbols are almost never needed as the state is all that matters when making the parsing decision." ], [ "LR generator analysis", "This section of the article can be skipped by most users of LR parser generators.===LR states===State 2 in the example parse table is for the partially parsed rule ::r1: Sums → Sums + ProductsThis shows how the parser got here, by seeing Sums then '''+''' while looking for a larger Sums.", "The marker has advanced beyond the beginning of the rule.", "It also shows how the parser expects to eventually complete the rule, by next finding a complete Products.", "But more details are needed on how to parse all the parts of that Products.The partially parsed rules for a state are called its \"core LR(0) items\".", "The parser generator adds additional rules or items for all the possible next steps in building up the expected Products:::r3: Products → Products * Value::r4: Products → Value::r5: Value → ''int''::r6: Value → ''id''The marker is at the beginning of each of these added rules; the parser has not yet confirmed and parsed any part of them.", "These additional items are called the \"closure\" of the core items.", "For each nonterminal symbol immediately following a , the generator adds the rules defining that symbol.", "This adds more markers, and possibly different follower symbols.", "This closure process continues until all follower symbols have been expanded.", "The follower nonterminals for state 2 begins with Products.", "Value is then added by closure.", "The follower terminals are ''int'' and ''id''.The kernel and closure items together show all possible legal ways to proceed from the current state to future states and complete phrases.", "If a follower symbol appears in only one item, it leads to a next state containing only one core item with the marker advanced.", "So ''int'' leads to next state 8 with core::r5: Value → ''int'' If the same follower symbol appears in several items, the parser cannot yet tell which rule applies here.", "So that symbol leads to a next state that shows all remaining possibilities, again with the marker advanced.", "Products appears in both r1 and r3.So Products leads to next state 3 with core::r1: Sums → Sums + Products ::r3: Products → Products * ValueIn words, that means if the parser has seen a single Products, it might be done, or it might still have even more things to multiply together.", "All the core items have the same symbol preceding the marker; all transitions into this state are always with that same symbol.Some transitions will be to cores and states that have been enumerated already.", "Other transitions lead to new states.", "The generator starts with the grammar's goal rule.", "From there it keeps exploring known states and transitions until all needed states have been found.These states are called \"LR(0)\" states because they use a lookahead of ''k''=0, i.e.", "no lookahead.", "The only checking of input symbols occurs when the symbol is shifted in.", "Checking of lookaheads for reductions is done separately by the parse table, not by the enumerated states themselves.===Finite state machine===The parse table describes all possible LR(0) states and their transitions.", "They form a finite state machine (FSM).", "An FSM is a simple engine for parsing simple unnested languages, without using a stack.", "In this LR application, the FSM's modified \"input language\" has both terminal and nonterminal symbols, and covers any partially parsed stack snapshot of the full LR parse.Recall step 5 of the Parse Steps Example: Step Parse Stack Symbol ... LookAhead Unscanned 5 Products ''int'' + 1 The parse stack shows a series of state transitions, from the start state 0, to state 4 and then on to 5 and current state 8.The symbols on the parse stack are the shift or goto symbols for those transitions.", "Another way to view this, is that the finite state machine can scan the stream \"Products ''int'' + 1\" (without using yet another stack) and find the leftmost complete phrase that should be reduced next.", "And that is indeed its job!How can a mere FSM do this when the original unparsed language has nesting and recursion and definitely requires an analyzer with a stack?", "The trick is that everything to the left of the stack top has already been fully reduced.", "This eliminates all the loops and nesting from those phrases.", "The FSM can ignore all the older beginnings of phrases, and track just the newest phrases that might be completed next.", "The obscure name for this in LR theory is \"viable prefix\".===Lookahead sets===The states and transitions give all the needed information for the parse table's shift actions and goto actions.", "The generator also needs to calculate the expected lookahead sets for each reduce action.In '''SLR''' parsers, these lookahead sets are determined directly from the grammar, without considering the individual states and transitions.", "For each nonterminal S, the SLR generator works out Follows(S), the set of all the terminal symbols which can immediately follow some occurrence of S. In the parse table, each reduction to S uses Follow(S) as its LR(1) lookahead set.", "Such follow sets are also used by generators for LL top-down parsers.", "A grammar that has no shift/reduce or reduce/reduce conflicts when using Follow sets is called an SLR grammar.", "'''LALR''' parsers have the same states as SLR parsers, but use a more complicated, more precise way of working out the minimum necessary reduction lookaheads for each individual state.", "Depending on the details of the grammar, this may turn out to be the same as the Follow set computed by SLR parser generators, or it may turn out to be a subset of the SLR lookaheads.", "Some grammars are okay for LALR parser generators but not for SLR parser generators.", "This happens when the grammar has spurious shift/reduce or reduce/reduce conflicts using Follow sets, but no conflicts when using the exact sets computed by the LALR generator.", "The grammar is then called LALR(1) but not SLR.An SLR or LALR parser avoids having duplicate states.", "But this minimization is not necessary, and can sometimes create unnecessary lookahead conflicts.", "'''Canonical LR''' parsers use duplicated (or \"split\") states to better remember the left and right context of a nonterminal's use.", "Each occurrence of a symbol S in the grammar can be treated independently with its own lookahead set, to help resolve reduction conflicts.", "This handles a few more grammars.", "Unfortunately, this greatly magnifies the size of the parse tables if done for all parts of the grammar.", "This splitting of states can also be done manually and selectively with any SLR or LALR parser, by making two or more named copies of some nonterminals.", "A grammar that is conflict-free for a canonical LR generator but has conflicts in an LALR generator is called LR(1) but not LALR(1), and not SLR.SLR, LALR, and canonical LR parsers make exactly the same shift and reduce decisions when the input stream is the correct language.", "When the input has a syntax error, the LALR parser may do some additional (harmless) reductions before detecting the error than would the canonical LR parser.", "And the SLR parser may do even more.", "This happens because the SLR and LALR parsers are using a generous superset approximation to the true, minimal lookahead symbols for that particular state.===Syntax error recovery===LR parsers can generate somewhat helpful error messages for the first syntax error in a program, by simply enumerating all the terminal symbols that could have appeared next instead of the unexpected bad lookahead symbol.", "But this does not help the parser work out how to parse the remainder of the input program to look for further, independent errors.", "If the parser recovers badly from the first error, it is very likely to mis-parse everything else and produce a cascade of unhelpful spurious error messages.In the yacc and bison parser generators, the parser has an ad hoc mechanism to abandon the current statement, discard some parsed phrases and lookahead tokens surrounding the error, and resynchronize the parse at some reliable statement-level delimiter like semicolons or braces.", "This often works well for allowing the parser and compiler to look over the rest of the program.Many syntactic coding errors are simple typos or omissions of a trivial symbol.", "Some LR parsers attempt to detect and automatically repair these common cases.", "The parser enumerates every possible single-symbol insertion, deletion, or substitution at the error point.", "The compiler does a trial parse with each change to see if it worked okay.", "(This requires backtracking to snapshots of the parse stack and input stream, normally unneeded by the parser.)", "Some best repair is picked.", "This gives a very helpful error message and resynchronizes the parse well.", "However, the repair is not trustworthy enough to permanently modify the input file.", "Repair of syntax errors is easiest to do consistently in parsers (like LR) that have parse tables and an explicit data stack.===Variants of LR parsers===The LR parser generator decides what should happen for each combination of parser state and lookahead symbol.", "These decisions are usually turned into read-only data tables that drive a generic parser loop that is grammar- and state-independent.", "But there are also other ways to turn those decisions into an active parser.Some LR parser generators create separate tailored program code for each state, rather than a parse table.", "These parsers can run several times faster than the generic parser loop in table-driven parsers.", "The fastest parsers use generated assembler code.In the recursive ascent parser variation, the explicit parse stack structure is also replaced by the implicit stack used by subroutine calls.", "Reductions terminate several levels of subroutine calls, which is clumsy in most languages.", "So recursive ascent parsers are generally slower, less obvious, and harder to hand-modify than recursive descent parsers.Another variation replaces the parse table by pattern-matching rules in non-procedural languages such as Prolog.", "'''GLR''' Generalized LR parsers use LR bottom-up techniques to find all possible parses of input text, not just one correct parse.", "This is essential for ambiguous grammar such as used for human languages.", "The multiple valid parse trees are computed simultaneously, without backtracking.", "GLR is sometimes helpful for computer languages that are not easily described by a conflict-free LALR(1) grammar.", "'''LC''' Left corner parsers use LR bottom-up techniques for recognizing the left end of alternative grammar rules.", "When the alternatives have been narrowed down to a single possible rule, the parser then switches to top-down LL(1) techniques for parsing the rest of that rule.", "LC parsers have smaller parse tables than LALR parsers and better error diagnostics.", "There are no widely used generators for deterministic LC parsers.", "Multiple-parse LC parsers are helpful with human languages with very large grammars.===Theory===LR parsers were invented by Donald Knuth in 1965 as an efficient generalization of precedence parsers.", "Knuth proved that LR parsers were the most general-purpose parsers possible that would still be efficient in the worst cases.", ":\"LR(''k'') grammars can be efficiently parsed with an execution time essentially proportional to the length of the string.", "\":For every ''k''≥1, \"a language can be generated by an LR(''k'') grammar if and only if it is deterministic and context-free, if and only if it can be generated by an LR(1) grammar.", "\"In other words, if a language was reasonable enough to allow an efficient one-pass parser, it could be described by an LR(''k'') grammar.", "And that grammar could always be mechanically transformed into an equivalent (but larger) LR(1) grammar.", "So an LR(1) parsing method was, in theory, powerful enough to handle any reasonable language.", "In practice, the natural grammars for many programming languages are close to being LR(1).The canonical LR parsers described by Knuth had too many states and very big parse tables that were impractically large for the limited memory of computers of that era.", "LR parsing became practical when Frank DeRemer invented SLR and LALR parsers with much fewer states.For full details on LR theory and how LR parsers are derived from grammars, see ''The Theory of Parsing, Translation, and Compiling, Volume 1'' (Aho and Ullman).Earley parsers apply the techniques and notation of LR parsers to the task of generating all possible parses for ambiguous grammars such as for human languages.While LR(''k'') grammars have equal generative power for all ''k''≥1, the case of LR(0) grammars is slightly different.A language ''L'' is said to have the ''prefix property'' if no word in ''L'' is a proper prefix of another word in ''L''.A language ''L'' has an LR(0) grammar if and only if ''L'' is a deterministic context-free language with the prefix property.As a consequence, a language ''L'' is deterministic context-free if and only if ''L''$ has an LR(0) grammar, where \"$\" is not a symbol of ''L''s alphabet." ], [ "Additional example 1+1", "Bottom-up parse of 1+1This example of LR parsing uses the following small grammar with goal symbol E:: (1) E → E * B: (2) E → E + B: (3) E → B: (4) B → 0: (5) B → 1to parse the following input:: '''1 + 1'''=== Action and goto tables ===The two LR(0) parsing tables for this grammar look as follows: '''''state''''''''''action''''''''''goto''''' '''''''''+''''''0''''''1''''''$''''''E''''''B''' '''0''' s1 s2 3 4 '''1''' r4 r4 r4 r4 r4 '''2''' r5 r5 r5 r5 r5 '''3''' s5 s6 acc '''4''' r3 r3 r3 r3 r3 '''5''' s1 s2 7 '''6''' s1 s2 8 '''7''' r1 r1 r1 r1 r1 '''8''' r2 r2 r2 r2 r2 The '''action table''' is indexed by a state of the parser and a terminal (including a special terminal $ that indicates the end of the input stream) and contains three types of actions: ''shift'', which is written as \"s''n''\" and indicates that the next state is ''n''* ''reduce'', which is written as \"r''m''\" and indicates that a reduction with grammar rule ''m'' should be performed* ''accept'', which is written as \"acc\" and indicates that the parser accepts the string in the input stream.The '''goto table''' is indexed by a state of the parser and a nonterminal and simply indicates what the next state of the parser will be if it has recognized a certain nonterminal.", "This table is important to find out the next state after every reduction.", "After a reduction, the next state is found by looking up the '''goto table''' entry for top of the stack (i.e.", "current state) and the reduced rule's LHS (i.e.", "non-terminal).=== Parsing steps ===The table below illustrates each step in the process.", "Here the state refers to the element at the top of the stack (the right-most element), and the next action is determined by referring to the action table above.", "A $ is appended to the input string to denote the end of the stream.", "State Input stream Output stream Stack Next action 0 1+1$ 0 Shift 2 2 +1$ 0,2 Reduce 5 4 +1$ 5 0,4 Reduce 3 3 +1$ 5,3 0,3 Shift 6 6 1$ 5,3 0,3,6 Shift 2 2 $ 5,3 0,3,6,2 Reduce 5 8 $ 5,3,5 0,3,6,8 Reduce 2 3 $ 5,3,5,2 0,3 Accept=== Walkthrough ===The parser starts out with the stack containing just the initial state ('0'):: '''0'''The first symbol from the input string that the parser sees is '1'.", "To find the next action (shift, reduce, accept or error), the action table is indexed with the current state (the \"current state\" is just whatever is on the top of the stack), which in this case is 0, and the current input symbol, which is '1'.", "The action table specifies a shift to state 2, and so state 2 is pushed onto the stack (again, all the state information is in the stack, so \"shifting to state 2\" is the same as pushing 2 onto the stack).", "The resulting stack is: '''0''' '1' '''2'''where the top of the stack is 2.For the sake of explaining the symbol (e.g., '1', B) is shown that caused the transition to the next state, although strictly speaking it is not part of the stack.In state 2, the action table says to reduce with grammar rule 5 (regardless of what terminal the parser sees on the input stream), which means that the parser has just recognized the right-hand side of rule 5.In this case, the parser writes 5 to the output stream, pops one state from the stack (since the right-hand side of the rule has one symbol), and pushes on the stack the state from the cell in the goto table for state 0 and B, i.e., state 4.The resulting stack is:: '''0''' B '''4'''However, in state 4, the action table says the parser should now reduce with rule 3.So it writes 3 to the output stream, pops one state from the stack, and finds the new state in the goto table for state 0 and E, which is state 3.The resulting stack:: '''0''' E '''3'''The next terminal that the parser sees is a '+' and according to the action table it should then shift to state 6:: '''0''' E '''3''' '+' '''6'''The resulting stack can be interpreted as the history of a finite state automaton that has just read a nonterminal E followed by a terminal '+'.", "The transition table of this automaton is defined by the shift actions in the action table and the goto actions in the goto table.The next terminal is now '1' and this means that the parser performs a shift and go to state 2:: '''0''' E '''3''' '+' '''6''' '1' '''2'''Just as the previous '1' this one is reduced to B giving the following stack:: '''0''' E '''3''' '+' '''6''' B '''8'''The stack corresponds with a list of states of a finite automaton that has read a nonterminal E, followed by a '+' and then a nonterminal B.", "In state 8 the parser always performs a reduce with rule 2.The top 3 states on the stack correspond with the 3 symbols in the right-hand side of rule 2.This time we pop 3 elements off of the stack (since the right-hand side of the rule has 3 symbols) and look up the goto state for E and 0, thus pushing state 3 back onto the stack: '''0''' E '''3'''Finally, the parser reads a '$' (end of input symbol) from the input stream, which means that according to the action table (the current state is 3) the parser accepts the input string.", "The rule numbers that will then have been written to the output stream will be 5, 3, 5, 2 which is indeed a rightmost derivation of the string \"1 + 1\" in reverse." ], [ "Constructing LR(0) parsing tables", "=== Items ===The construction of these parsing tables is based on the notion of ''LR(0) items'' (simply called ''items'' here) which are grammar rules with a special dot added somewhere in the right-hand side.", "For example, the rule E → E + B has the following four corresponding items:: E → E + B: E → E + B: E → E + B: E → E + B Rules of the form ''A'' → ε have only a single item ''A'' → .", "The item E → E + B, for example, indicates that the parser has recognized a string corresponding with E on the input stream and now expects to read a '+' followed by another string corresponding with B.=== Item sets ===It is usually not possible to characterize the state of the parser with a single item because it may not know in advance which rule it is going to use for reduction.", "For example, if there is also a rule E → E * B then the items E → E + B and E → E * B will both apply after a string corresponding with E has been read.", "Therefore, it is convenient to characterize the state of the parser by a set of items, in this case the set { E → E + B, E → E * B }.=== Extension of Item Set by expansion of non-terminals ===An item with a dot before a nonterminal, such as E → E + B, indicates that the parser expects to parse the nonterminal B next.", "To ensure the item set contains all possible rules the parser may be in the midst of parsing, it must include all items describing how B itself will be parsed.", "This means that if there are rules such as B → 1 and B → 0 then the item set must also include the items B → 1 and B → 0.In general this can be formulated as follows:: If there is an item of the form ''A'' → ''v'' ''Bw'' in an item set and in the grammar there is a rule of the form ''B'' → ''w' '' then the item ''B'' → ''w' '' should also be in the item set.=== Closure of item sets ===Thus, any set of items can be extended by recursively adding all the appropriate items until all nonterminals preceded by dots are accounted for.", "The minimal extension is called the ''closure'' of an item set and written as '''clos'''(''I'') where ''I'' is an item set.", "It is these closed item sets that are taken as the states of the parser, although only the ones that are actually reachable from the begin state will be included in the tables.=== Augmented grammar ===Before the transitions between the different states are determined, the grammar is augmented with an extra rule: (0) S → E eofwhere S is a new start symbol and E the old start symbol.", "The parser will use this rule for reduction exactly when it has accepted the whole input string.For this example, the same grammar as above is augmented thus:: (0) S → E eof: (1) E → E * B: (2) E → E + B: (3) E → B: (4) B → 0: (5) B → 1It is for this augmented grammar that the item sets and the transitions between them will be determined." ], [ "Table construction", "=== Finding the reachable item sets and the transitions between them ===The first step of constructing the tables consists of determining the transitions between the closed item sets.", "These transitions will be determined as if we are considering a finite automaton that can read terminals as well as nonterminals.", "The begin state of this automaton is always the closure of the first item of the added rule: S → E eof:: '''Item set 0''': S → E eof: '''+''' E → E * B: '''+''' E → E + B: '''+''' E → B: '''+''' B → 0: '''+''' B → 1The boldfaced \"'''+'''\" in front of an item indicates the items that were added for the closure (not to be confused with the mathematical '+' operator which is a terminal).", "The original items without a \"'''+'''\" are called the ''kernel'' of the item set.Starting at the begin state (S0), all of the states that can be reached from this state are now determined.", "The possible transitions for an item set can be found by looking at the symbols (terminals and nonterminals) found following the dots; in the case of item set 0 those symbols are the terminals '0' and '1' and the nonterminals E and B.", "To find the item set that each symbol leads to, the following procedure is followed for each of the symbols:# Take the subset, ''S'', of all items in the current item set where there is a dot in front of the symbol of interest, ''x''.# For each item in ''S'', move the dot to the right of ''x''.# Close the resulting set of items.For the terminal '0' (i.e.", "where x = '0') this results in:: '''Item set 1''': B → 0 and for the terminal '1' (i.e.", "where x = '1') this results in:: '''Item set 2''': B → 1 and for the nonterminal E (i.e.", "where x = E) this results in:: '''Item set 3''': S → E eof: E → E * B: E → E + Band for the nonterminal B (i.e.", "where x = B) this results in:: '''Item set 4''': E → B The closure does not add new items in all cases - in the new sets above, for example, there are no nonterminals following the dot.Above procedure is continued until no more new item sets are found.", "For the item sets 1, 2, and 4 there will be no transitions since the dot is not in front of any symbol.", "For item set 3 though, we have dots in front of terminals '' and '+'.", "For symbol the transition goes to:: '''Item set 5''': E → E B: '''+''' B → 0: '''+''' B → 1and for the transition goes to:: '''Item set 6''': E → E + B: '''+''' B → 0: '''+''' B → 1Now, the third iteration begins.For item set 5, the terminals '0' and '1' and the nonterminal B must be considered, but the resulting closed item sets for the terminals are equal to already found item sets 1 and 2, respectively.", "For the nonterminal B, the transition goes to:: '''Item set 7''': E → E * B For item set 6, the terminal '0' and '1' and the nonterminal B must be considered, but as before, the resulting item sets for the terminals are equal to the already found item sets 1 and 2.For the nonterminal B the transition goes to:: '''Item set 8''': E → E + B These final item sets 7 and 8 have no symbols beyond their dots so no more new item sets are added, so the item generating procedure is complete.", "The finite automaton, with item sets as its states is shown below.The transition table for the automaton now looks as follows:Item Set+01EB0 1 2 3 41 2 3 5 6 4 5 1 2 76 1 2 87 8 === Constructing the action and goto tables ===From this table and the found item sets, the action and goto table are constructed as follows: # The columns for nonterminals are copied to the goto table.# The columns for the terminals are copied to the action table as shift actions.# An extra column for '$' (end of input) is added to the action table.", "An ''acc'' action is added to the '$' column for each item set that contains an item of the form S → w eof.# If an item set ''i'' contains an item of the form ''A'' → ''w'' and ''A'' → ''w'' is rule ''m'' with ''m'' > 0 then the row for state ''i'' in the action table is completely filled with the reduce action r''m''.The reader may verify that these steps produce the action and goto table presented earlier.==== A note about LR(0) versus SLR and LALR parsing ====Only step 4 of the above procedure produces reduce actions, and so all reduce actions must occupy an entire table row, causing the reduction to occur regardless of the next symbol in the input stream.", "This is why these are LR(0) parse tables: they don't do any lookahead (that is, they look ahead zero symbols) before deciding which reduction to perform.", "A grammar that needs lookahead to disambiguate reductions would require a parse table row containing different reduce actions in different columns, and the above procedure is not capable of creating such rows.Refinements to the '''LR'''(0) table construction procedure (such as SLR and LALR) are capable of constructing reduce actions that do not occupy entire rows.", "Therefore, they are capable of parsing more grammars than LR(0) parsers.=== Conflicts in the constructed tables ===The automaton is constructed in such a way that it is guaranteed to be deterministic.", "However, when reduce actions are added to the action table it can happen that the same cell is filled with a reduce action and a shift action (a ''shift-reduce conflict'') or with two different reduce actions (a ''reduce-reduce conflict'').", "However, it can be shown that when this happens the grammar is not an LR(0) grammar.", "A classic real-world example of a shift-reduce conflict is the dangling else problem.A small example of a non-LR(0) grammar with a shift-reduce conflict is:: (1) E → 1 E: (2) E → 1One of the item sets found is:: '''Item set 1''': E → 1 E: E → 1 : '''+''' E → 1 E: '''+''' E → 1There is a shift-reduce conflict in this item set: when constructing the action table according to the rules above, the cell for item set 1, terminal '1' contains '''s1''' (shift to state 1) '''and r2''' (reduce with grammar rule 2).A small example of a non-LR(0) grammar with a reduce-reduce conflict is:: (1) E → A 1: (2) E → B 2: (3) A → 1: (4) B → 1In this case the following item set is obtained:: '''Item set 1''': A → 1 : B → 1 There is a reduce-reduce conflict in this item set because in the cells in the action table for this item set there will be both a reduce action for rule 3 and one for rule 4.Both examples above can be solved by letting the parser use the follow set (see LL parser) of a nonterminal ''A'' to decide if it is going to use one of ''A''s rules for a reduction; it will only use the rule ''A'' → ''w'' for a reduction if the next symbol on the input stream is in the follow set of ''A''.", "This solution results in so-called Simple LR parsers." ], [ "See also", "Canonical LR parserSimple LRLook-Ahead LRGeneralized LR" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Chapman, Nigel P., ''LR Parsing: Theory and Practice'', Cambridge University Press, 1987.", "* Pager, D., A Practical General Method for Constructing LR(k) Parsers.", "Acta Informatica 7, 249 - 268 (1977)* \"Compiler Construction: Principles and Practice\" by Kenneth C. Louden." ], [ "External links", "* dickgrune.com, Parsing Techniques - A Practical Guide 1st Ed.", "web page of book includes downloadable pdf.", "* Parsing Simulator This simulator is used to generate parsing tables LR and to resolve the exercises of the book* Internals of an LALR(1) parser generated by GNU Bison - Implementation issues* Course notes on LR parsing* Shift-reduce and Reduce-reduce conflicts in an LALR parser* A LR parser example* Practical LR(k) Parser Construction* The Honalee LR(k) Algorithm" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leon Battista Alberti" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leon Battista Alberti''' (; 14 February 1404 – 25 April 1472) was an Italian Renaissance humanist author, artist, architect, poet, priest, linguist, philosopher, and cryptographer; he epitomised the nature of those identified now as polymaths.", "He is considered the founder of Western cryptography, a claim he shares with Johannes Trithemius.He is often considered primarily an architect.", "However, as James Beck has observed, \"to single out one of Leon Battista's 'fields' over others as somehow functionally independent and self-sufficient is of no help at all to any effort to characterize Alberti's extensive explorations in the fine arts\".", "Although Alberti is known mostly as an artist, he was also a mathematician: he made significant contributions to this field.", "Among the most famous buildings he designed are the churches of San Sebastiano (1460) and Sant'Andrea (1472), both in Mantua.Alberti's life was told in Giorgio Vasari's ''Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects''." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===A portrait of Alberti by Filippino Lippi is thought to exist in the Brancacci Chapel, as part of Lippi's completion of the Masaccio painting, the ''Raising of the Son of Theophilus and St. Peter Enthroned''Leon Battista Alberti was born in 1404 in Genoa.", "His mother was Bianca Fieschi.", "His father, Lorenzo di Benedetto Alberti, was a wealthy Florentine who had been exiled from his own city, but allowed to return in 1428.Alberti was sent to boarding school in Padua, then studied law at Bologna.", "He lived for a time in Florence, then in 1431 travelled to Rome, where he took holy orders and entered the service of the papal court.", "During this time he studied the ancient ruins, which excited his interest in architecture and strongly influenced the form of the buildings that he designed.Leon Battista Alberti was gifted in many ways.", "He was tall, strong, and a fine athlete who could ride the wildest horse and jump over a person's head.", "He distinguished himself as a writer while still a child at school, and by the age of twenty had written a play that was successfully passed off as a genuine piece of Classical literature.", "In 1435 he began his first major written work, ''Della pittura'', which was inspired by the burgeoning pictorial art in Florence in the early fifteenth century.", "In this work he analysed the nature of painting and explored the elements of perspective, composition, and colour.In 1438 he began to focus more on architecture and was encouraged by the Marchese Leonello d'Este of Ferrara, for whom he built a small triumphal arch to support an equestrian statue of Leonello's father.", "In 1447 Alberti became architectural advisor to Pope Nicholas V and was involved in several projects at the Vatican.===First major commission===His first major architectural commission was in 1446 for the façade of the Rucellai Palace in Florence.", "This was followed in 1450 by a commission from Sigismondo Malatesta to transform the Gothic church of San Francesco in Rimini into a memorial chapel, the Tempio Malatestiano.", "In Florence, he designed the upper parts of the façade for the Dominican church of Santa Maria Novella, famously bridging the nave and lower aisles with two ornately inlaid scrolls, solving a visual problem and setting a precedent to be followed by architects of churches for four hundred years.", "In 1452, he completed , a treatise on architecture, using as its basis the work of Vitruvius and influenced by the ancient roman buildings.", "The work was not published until 1485.It was followed in 1464 by his less influential work, ''De statua'', in which he examines sculpture.", "Alberti's only known sculpture is a self-portrait medallion, sometimes attributed to Pisanello.Palazzo RucellaiAlberti was employed to design two churches in Mantua, San Sebastiano, which was never completed and for which Alberti's intention can only be speculated upon, and the Basilica of Sant'Andrea.", "The design for the latter church was completed in 1471, a year before Alberti's death: the construction was completed after his death and is considered as his most significant work.===Alberti as artist===As an artist, Alberti distinguished himself from the contemporary ordinary craftsmen educated in workshops.", "He was a humanist who studied Aristotle and Plotinus.", "He was among the rapidly growing group of intellectuals and artists whom at that time were supported by the courts of nobility.", "As a member of noble family and as part of the Roman curia, Alberti enjoyed special status.", "He was a welcomed guest at the Este court in Ferrara, and spent time with the soldier-prince Federico III da Montefeltro in Urbino.", "The Duke of Urbino was a shrewd military commander, who generously funded artists.", "Alberti planned to dedicate his treatise on architecture to him.Among Alberti's minor but pioneering studies, were an essay on cryptography, ''De componendis cifris'', and the first Italian grammar.", "He collaborated with the Florentine cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli in astronomy, a science close to geography at that time.", "He also wrote a small Latin work on geography, ''Descriptio urbis Romae'' (''The Panorama of the City of Rome'').", "Just a few years before his death, Alberti completed ''De iciarchia'' (''On Ruling the Household''), a dialogue about Florence during the Medici rule.Alberti took holy orders and never married.", "He loved animals and had a pet dog, a mongrel, about whom he wrote a panegyric (''Canis'').", "Vasari describes Alberti as \"an admirable citizen, a man of culture... a friend of talented men, open and courteous with everyone.", "He always lived honourably and like the gentleman he was.\"", "Alberti died in Rome on 25 April 1472 at the age of 66." ], [ "Publications", "Alberti considered mathematics as the foundation of arts and sciences.", "\"To make clear my exposition in writing this brief commentary on painting,\" Alberti began his treatise, ''Della Pittura'' (On Painting) dedicated to Brunelleschi, \"I will take first from the mathematicians those things with which my subject is concerned.", "\"''Della pittura'' (also known in Latin as ''De Pictura'') relied on the study classical optics to approach the perspective in artistic and architectural representations.", "Alberti was well-versed in the sciences of his age.", "His knowledge of optics was connected to the tradition of the ''Kitab al-manazir'' (''The Optics''; ''De aspectibus'') of the Arab polymath Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham, d. ), which was transmitted by Franciscan optical workshops of the thirteenth-century ''Perspectivae'' traditions of scholars such as Roger Bacon, John Peckham, and Witelo (similar influences are also traceable in the third commentary of Lorenzo Ghiberti, ''Commentario terzo'').English title page of the first edition of Giacomo Leoni's translation of Alberti's ''De Re Aedificatoria'' (1452) - the book is bilingual, with the Italian version being printed on the left and the English version printed on the rightIn both ''Della pittura'' and ''De statua'', Alberti stressed that \"all steps of learning should be sought from nature\".", "The ultimate aim of an artist is to imitate nature.", "Painters and sculptors strive \"through by different skills, at the same goal, namely that as nearly as possible the work they have undertaken shall appear to the observer to be similar to the real objects of nature\".", "However, Alberti did not mean that artists should imitate nature objectively, as it is, but the artist should be especially attentive to beauty, \"for in painting beauty is as pleasing as it is necessary\".", "The work of art is, according to Alberti, so constructed that it is impossible to take anything away from it or to add anything to it, without impairing the beauty of the whole.", "Beauty was for Alberti \"the harmony of all parts in relation to one another,\" and subsequently \"this concord is realized in a particular number, proportion, and arrangement demanded by harmony\".", "Alberti's thoughts on harmony were not new—they could be traced back to Pythagoras—but he set them in a fresh context, which fit in well with the contemporary aesthetic discourse.In Rome, Alberti spent considerable time studying its ancient sites, ruins, and arts.", "His detailed observations, included in his (1452, ''On the Art of Building''), were inspired by the essay ''De architectura'' written by the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius (fl.", "46–30 BC).", "Alberti's work was the first architectural treatise of the Renaissance.", "It covered a wide range of subjects, from history to town planning, from engineering to the aesthetics.", ", a large and expensive book, was not published until 1485, after which it became a major reference for architects.", "However, the book was written \"not only for craftsmen but also for anyone interested in the noble arts\", as Alberti put it.", "Originally published in Latin, the first Italian edition came out in 1546.and the standard Italian edition by Cosimo Bartoli was published in 1550.Pope Nicholas V, to whom Alberti dedicated the whole work, dreamed of rebuilding the city of Rome, but he managed to realize only a fragment of his visionary plans.", "Through his book, Alberti opened up his theories and ideals of the Florentine Renaissance to architects, scholars, and others.Alberti wrote ''I Libri della famiglia''—which discussed education, marriage, household management, and money—in the Tuscan dialect.", "The work was not printed until 1843.Like Erasmus decades later, Alberti stressed the need for a reform in education.", "He noted that \"the care of very young children is women's work, for nurses or the mother\", and that at the earliest possible age children should be taught the alphabet.", "With great hopes, he gave the work to his family to read, but in his autobiography Alberti confesses that \"he could hardly avoid feeling rage, moreover, when he saw some of his relatives openly ridiculing both the whole work and the author's futile enterprise along it\".", "''Momus'', written between 1443 and 1450, was a notable comedy about the Olympian deities.", "It has been considered as a roman à clef—Jupiter has been identified in some sources as Pope Eugenius IV and Pope Nicholas V. Alberti borrowed many of its characters from Lucian, one of his favorite Greek writers.", "The name of its hero, Momus, refers to the Greek word for blame or criticism.", "After being expelled from heaven, Momus, the god of mockery, is eventually castrated.", "Jupiter and the other deities come down to earth also, but they return to heaven after Jupiter breaks his nose in a great storm." ], [ "Architectural works", "Alberti did not concern himself with engineering, and very few of his major projects were built .", "As a designer and a student of Vitruvius and of ancient Roman architecture, he studied column and lintel based architecture, from a visual rather than structural viewpoint.", "He correctly employed the Classical orders, unlike his contemporary, Brunelleschi, who used the Classical column and pilaster in a free interpretation.", "Alberti reflected on the social effects of architecture, and was attentive to the urban landscape.", "This is demonstrated by his inclusion, at the Rucellai Palace, of a continuous bench for seating at the level of the basement.", "Alberti anticipated the principle of street hierarchy, with wide main streets connected to secondary streets, and buildings of equal height.In Rome he was employed by Pope Nicholas V for the restoration of the Roman aqueduct of Acqua Vergine, which debouched into a simple basin designed by Alberti, which was later replaced by the Baroque Trevi Fountain.Some researchers suggested that the Villa Medici in Fiesole might have been designed by Alberti, rather than by Michelozzo.", "This hilltop residence commissioned by Giovanni de' Medici, Cosimo il Vecchio's second son, with its view over the city, is sometimes considered the first example of a Renaissance villa: it reflects the writing by Alberti about country residential buildings as \"villa suburbana\".", "The building later inspired numerous other similar projects buildings from the end of the fifteenth century.===Tempio Malatestiano, Rimini===The Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini (1447, 1453–60) is the rebuilding of a Gothic church.", "The façade, with its dynamic play of forms, was left incomplete.===Façade of Palazzo Rucellai===The design of the façade of the Palazzo Rucellai (1446–51) was one of several commissioned by the Rucellai family.", "The design overlays a grid of shallow pilasters and cornices in classical style onto rusticated masonry, and is surmounted by a heavy cornice.", "The inner courtyard has Corinthian columns.", "The palace introduced set the use of classical building elements in civic buildings in Florence, and became very influential.", "The work was executed by Bernardo Rosselino.===Santa Maria Novella===At Santa Maria Novella, Florence, between (1448–70) the upper façade was constructed to the design of Alberti.", "It was a challenging task, as the lower level already had three doorways and six Gothic niches containing tombs and employing the polychrome marble typical of Florentine churches, such as San Miniato al Monte and the Baptistery of Florence.", "The design also incorporates an ocular window that was already in place.", "Alberti introduced Classical features around the portico and spread the polychromy over the entire façade in a manner that includes Classical proportions and elements such as pilasters, cornices, and a pediment in the Classical style, ornamented with a sunburst in tesserae, rather than sculpture.", "The best known feature of this typically aisled church is the manner in which Alberti has solved the problem of visually bridging the different levels of the central nave and much lower side aisles.", "He employed two large scrolls, which were to become a standard feature of church façades in the later Renaissance, Baroque, and Classical Revival buildings.===Pienza===Piazza Pio II in Pienza, looking toward the Palazzo PiccolominiAlberti is considered to have been the consultant for the design of the Piazza Pio II, Pienza.", "The village, previously called Corsignano, was redesigned beginning around 1459.It was the birthplace of Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, Pope Pius II, in whose employ Alberti served.", "Pius II wanted to use the village as a retreat, but needed for it to reflect the dignity of his position.The piazza is a trapezoid shape defined by four buildings, with a focus on Pienza Cathedral and passages on either side opening onto a landscape view.", "The principal residence, ''Palazzo Piccolomini'', is on the western side.", "It has three stories, articulated by pilasters and entablature courses, with a twin-lighted cross window set within each bay.", "This structure is similar to Alberti's Palazzo Rucellai in Florence and other later palaces.", "Noteworthy is the internal court of the palazzo.", "The back of the palace, to the south, is defined by loggia on all three floors that overlook an enclosed Italian Renaissance garden with ''Giardino all'italiana'' era modifications, and spectacular views into the distant landscape of the Val d'Orcia and Pope Pius's beloved Mount Amiata beyond.", "Below this garden is a vaulted stable that had stalls for a hundred horses.", "The design, which radically transformed the center of the town, included a palace for the pope, a church, a town hall, and a building for the bishops who would accompany the Pope on his trips.", "Pienza is considered an early example of Renaissance urban planning.===Sant' Andrea, Mantua===The Basilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua was begun in 1471, the year before Alberti's death.", "It was brought to completion and is his most significant work employing the triumphal arch motif, both for its façade and interior, and influencing many works that were to follow.", "Alberti perceived the role of architect as designer.", "Unlike Brunelleschi, he had no interest in the construction, leaving the practicalities to builders and the oversight to others.===Other buildings===* San Sebastiano, Mantua, (begun 1458) the unfinished façade of which has promoted much speculation as to Alberti's intention * Sepolcro Rucellai in San Pancrazio, 1467)* The Tribune for Santissima Annunziata, Florence (1470, completed with alterations, 1477)" ], [ "Painting", "Giorgio Vasari, who argued that historical progress in art reached its peak in Michelangelo, emphasized Alberti's scholarly achievements, not his artistic talents: \"He spent his time finding out about the world and studying the proportions of antiquities; but above all, following his natural genius, he concentrated on writing rather than on applied work.\"", "In ''On Painting'', Alberti uses the expression \"We Painters\", but as a painter, or sculptor, he was a dilettante.", "\"In painting Alberti achieved nothing of any great importance or beauty\", wrote Vasari.", "\"The very few paintings of his that are extant are far from perfect, but this is not surprising since he devoted himself more to his studies than to draughtsmanship.\"", "Jacob Burckhardt portrayed Alberti in ''The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy'' as a truly universal genius.", "\"And Leonardo Da Vinci was to Alberti as the finisher to the beginner, as the master to the dilettante.", "Would only that Vasari's work were here supplemented by a description like that of Alberti!", "The colossal outlines of Leonardo's nature can never be more than dimly and distantly conceived.", "\"Alberti is said to appear in Mantegna's great frescoes in the Camera degli Sposi, as the older man dressed in dark red clothes, who whispers in the ear of Ludovico Gonzaga, the ruler of Mantua.", "In Alberti's self-portrait, a large plaquette, he is clothed as a Roman.", "To the left of his profile is a winged eye.", "On the reverse side is the question, ''Quid tum?''", "(what then), taken from Virgil's ''Eclogues'': \"So what, if Amyntas is dark?", "(''quid tum si fuscus Amyntas?'')", "Violets are black, and hyacinths are black.\"" ], [ "Contributions and cultural influence", "Detail of the façade of Tempio MalatestianoAlberti made a variety of contributions to several fields:* Alberti was the creator of a theory called \"historia\".", "In his treatise ''De pictura'' (1435) he explains the theory of the accumulation of people, animals, and buildings, which create harmony amongst each other, and \"hold the eye of the learned and unlearned spectator for a long while with a certain sense of pleasure and emotion\".", "''De pictura'' (\"On Painting\") contained the first scientific study of perspective.", "An Italian translation of ''De pictura'' (''Della pittura'') was published in 1436, one year after the original Latin version and addressed Filippo Brunelleschi in the preface.", "The Latin version had been dedicated to Alberti's humanist patron, Gianfrancesco Gonzaga of Mantua.", "He also wrote works on sculpture, ''De statua''.", "* Alberti used his artistic treatises to propound a new humanistic theory of art.", "He drew on his contacts with early Quattrocento artists such as Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Ghiberti to provide a practical handbook for the renaissance artist.", "* Alberti wrote an influential work on architecture, , which by the sixteenth century had been translated into Italian (by Cosimo Bartoli), French, Spanish, and English.", "An English translation was by Giacomo Leoni in the early eighteenth century.", "Newer translations are now available.", "* Whilst Alberti's treatises on painting and architecture have been hailed as the founding texts of a new form of art, breaking from the Gothic past, it is impossible to know the extent of their practical impact during his lifetime.", "His praise of the ''Calumny of Apelles'' led to several attempts to emulate it, including paintings by Botticelli and Signorelli.", "His stylistic ideals have been put into practice in the works of Mantegna, Piero della Francesca, and Fra Angelico.", "But how far Alberti was responsible for these innovations and how far he was simply articulating the trends of the artistic movement, with which his practical experience had made him familiar, is impossible to ascertain.", "* He was so a skilled composer of Latin verse: a comedy he wrote when twenty years old, entitled ''Philodoxius'', would later deceive the younger Aldus Manutius, who edited and published it as the genuine work of 'Lepidus Comicus'.The upper storey of Santa Maria NovellaOne of the giant scrolls at Santa Maria Novella* He has been credited with being the author, or alternatively, the designer of the woodcut illustrations, of the ''Hypnerotomachia Poliphili'', a strange fantasy novel.", "* Apart from his treatises on the arts, Alberti also wrote: ''Philodoxus'' (\"Lover of Glory\", 1424), ''De commodis litterarum atque incommodis'' (\"On the Advantages and Disadvantages of Literary Studies\", 1429), ''Intercoenales'' (\"Table Talk\", c. 1429), ''Della famiglia'' (\"On the Family\", begun 1432), ''Vita S. Potiti'' (\"Life of St. Potitus\", 1433), ''De iure'' (On Law, 1437), ''Theogenius'' (\"The Origin of the Gods\", c. 1440), ''Profugorium ab aerumna'' (\"Refuge from Mental Anguish\",), ''Momus'' (1450), and ''De Iciarchia'' (\"On the Prince\", 1468).", "These and other works were translated and printed in Venice by the humanist Cosimo Bartoli in 1586.", "* Alberti was an accomplished cryptographer by the standard of his day and invented the first polyalphabetic cipher, which is now known as the Alberti cipher, and machine-assisted encryption using his Cipher Disk.", "The polyalphabetic cipher was, at least in principle (for it was not properly used for several hundred years) the most significant advance in cryptography since classical times.", "Cryptography historian David Kahn called him the \"Father of Western Cryptography\", pointing to three significant advances in the field that can be attributed to Alberti: \"the earliest Western exposition of cryptanalysis, the invention of polyalphabetic substitution, and the invention of enciphered code\".", "* According to Alberti, in a short autobiography written c. 1438 in Latin and in the third person, (many but not all scholars consider this work to be an autobiography) he was capable of \"standing with his feet together, and springing over a man's head.\"", "The autobiography survives thanks to an eighteenth-century transcription by Antonio Muratori.", "Alberti also claimed that he \"excelled in all bodily exercises; could, with feet tied, leap over a standing man; could in the great cathedral, throw a coin far up to ring against the vault; amused himself by taming wild horses and climbing mountains\".", "Needless to say, many in the Renaissance promoted themselves in various ways and Alberti's eagerness to promote his skills should be understood, to some extent, within that framework.", "* Alberti claimed in his \"autobiography\" to be an accomplished musician and organist, but there is no hard evidence to support this claim.", "In fact, musical posers were not uncommon in his day (see the lyrics to the song ''Musica Son'', by Francesco Landini, for complaints to this effect.)", "He held the appointment of canon in the metropolitan church of Florence, and thus – perhaps – had the leisure to devote himself to this art, but this is only speculation.", "Vasari also agreed with this.", "* He was interested in the drawing of maps and worked with the astronomer, astrologer, and cartographer Paolo Toscanelli.", "* In the domain of Aesthetics Alberti is recognized for his definition of art as imitation of nature, exactly as a selection of its most beautiful parts: \"So let's take from nature what we are going to paint, and from nature we choose the most beautiful and worthy things\".", "* Borsi states that Alberti's writings on architecture continue to influence modern and contemporary architecture stating: \"The organicism and nature-worship of Wright, the neat classicism of van der Mies, the regulatory outlines and anthropomorphic, harmonic, modular systems of Le Corbusier, and Kahn's revival of the 'antique' are all elements that tempt one to trace Alberti's influence on modern architecture.\"" ], [ "Works in print", "A window of the Rucellai Palace* ''De Pictura'', 1435.", "''On Painting'', in English, ''De Pictura'', in Latin, ; ''Della Pittura'', in Italian (1804 1434).", "* ''Momus,'' Latin text and English translation, 2003 * ''De re aedificatoria'' (1452, Ten Books on Architecture).", "Alberti, Leon Battista.", "De re aedificatoria.", "On the art of building in ten books.", "(translated by Joseph Rykwert, Robert Tavernor and Neil Leach).", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": MIT Press, 1988.. .", "Latin, French and Italian editions and in English translation.", "* ''De Cifris'' A Treatise on Ciphers (1467), trans.", "A. Zaccagnini.", "Foreword by David Kahn, Galimberti, Torino 1997.", "* * \"Leon Battista Alberti.", "On Painting.", "A New Translation and Critical Edition\", Edited and Translated by Rocco Sinisgalli, Cambridge University Press, New York, May 2011, , ( books.google.de)* ''I libri della famiglia'', Italian edition* \"Dinner pieces\".", "A Translation of the ''Intercenales'' by David Marsh.", "Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, State University of New York, Binghamton 1987.", "* \"Descriptio urbis Romae.", "Leon Battista Alberti's Delineation of the city of Rome\".", "Peter Hicks, Arizona Board of Regents for Arizona State university 2007.", "* (LA) Leon Battista Alberti, De re aedificatoria, Argentorati, excudebat M. Iacobus Cammerlander Moguntinus, 1541.", "* (LA) Leon Battista Alberti, De re aedificatoria, Florentiae, accuratissime impressum opera magistri Nicolai Laurentii Alamani.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Opere volgari.", "1, Firenze, Tipografia Galileiana, 1843.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Opere volgari.", "2, Firenze, Tipografia Galileiana, 1844.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Opere volgari.", "4, Firenze, Tipografia Galileiana, 1847.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Opere volgari.", "5, Firenze, Tipografia Galileiana, 1849.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Opere, Florentiae, J. C. Sansoni, 1890.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Trattati d'arte, Bari, Laterza, 1973.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Ippolito e Leonora, Firenze, Bartolomeo de' Libri, prima del 1495.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Ecatonfilea, Stampata in Venesia, per Bernardino da Cremona, 1491.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Deifira, Padova, Lorenzo Canozio, 1471.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Teogenio, Milano, Leonard Pachel, circa 1492.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Libri della famiglia, Bari, G. Laterza, 1960.", "* Leon Battista Alberti, Rime e trattati morali, Bari, Laterza, 1966.", "* Franco Borsi, Leon Battista Alberti: Opera completa, Electa, Milano, 1973;" ], [ "In popular culture", "* Leon Battista Alberti is a major character in Roberto Rossellini's three-part television film ''The Age of the Medici'' (1973), with the third and final part, ''Leon Battista Alberti: Humanism'', centering on him, his works (such as Santa Maria Novella), and his thought.", "He is played by Italian actor Virginio Gazzolo.", "* Mentioned in the 1994 film ''Renaissance Man'' or '''''Army Intelligence''''' starring Danny DeVito.", "* Mentioned in the 2004 book ''The Rule of Four'' by Ian Caldwell and Dustin Thomason" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " Magda Saura, \"Building codes in the architectural treatise De re aedificatoria,\" ''Third International Congress on Construction History'', Cottbus, May 2009.", "* F. Canali e V. C. Galati, V. Galati, ''Leon Battista Alberti a Napoli e nei baronati del Regno aragonese.", "Cultura, Archeologia, Architettura e città.''", "Parte Prima, St''rStudi, Consulenze, Autopsie antiquarie e Giudizi tecnici (in Apulia, Campania, Latium, Lucania, Marsica, Picenum e Sicilia)'', in ''Memorabilia tra natura e geometria.", "Il Culto del Passato dalla Inventio alla Reinterpretazione,'' cura di F. Canali «Bollettino della Società di Studi Fiorentini», 30-31, 2021-2022, pp.", "426-483.", "* F. Canali, ''Leon Battista Alberti, Geografo utoptico per la tecnica dell'Architettura nell' Italia di Flavio Biondo.''", "in ''Memorabilia tra natura e geometria.", "Il Culto del Passato dalla Inventio alla Reinterpretazione,'' cura di F. Canali «Bollettino della Società di Studi Fiorentini», 30-31, 2021-2022, pp.", "314-425." ], [ "Further reading", "* Albertiana, Rivista della Société Intérnationale Leon Battista Alberti, Firenze, Olschki, 1998 sgg.", "* Clark, Kenneth.", "\"Leon Battista Alberti: a Renaissance Personality.\"", "''History Today'' (July 1951) 1#7 pp 11–18 online* Francesco Borsi, ''Leon Battista Alberti.", "Das Gesamtwerk''.", "Stuttgart 1982* Günther Fischer, ''Leon Battista Alberti.", "Sein Leben und seine Architekturtheorie''.", "Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft Darmstadt 2012* Fontana-Giusti, Korolija Gordana, \"The Cutting Surface: On Perspective as a Section, Its Relationship to Writing, and Its Role in Understanding Space\" ''AA Files'' No.", "40 (Winter 1999), pp.", "56–64 London: Architectural Association School of Architecture.", "* Fontana-Giusti, Gordana.", "\"Walling and the city: the effects of walls and walling within the city space\", ''The Journal of Architecture'' pp 309–45 Volume 16, Issue 3, London & New York: Routledge, 2011.", "* * Anthony Grafton, ''Leon Battista Alberti.", "Master Builder of the Italian Renaissance''.", "New York 2000* Mark Jarzombek, “The Structural Problematic of Leon Battista Alberti's De pictura”, Renaissance Studies 4/3 (September 1990): 273–285.", "* Michel Paoli, Leon Battista Alberti, Torino 2007* ''Les'' Livres de la famille'' d'Alberti, Sources, sens et influence'', sous la direction de Michel Paoli, avec la collaboration d'Elise Leclerc et Sophie Dutheillet de Lamothe, préface de Françoise Choay, Paris, Classiques Garnier, 2013.", "* Manfredo Tafuri, ''Interpreting the Renaissance: Princes, Cities, Architects'', trans.", "Daniel Sherer.", "New Haven 2006.", "* Robert Tavernor, On Alberti and the Art of Building.", "New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998..* Vasari, ''The Lives of the Artists'' Oxford University Press, 1998.", "* Wright, D.R.", "Edward, \"Alberti's De Pictura: Its Literary Structure and Purpose\", Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol.", "47, 1984 (1984), pp. 52–71.", "* Giovanni Ponte, Leon Battista Alberti: Umanista e scrittore, Tilgher, Genova, 1981;* Paolo Marolda, Crisi e conflitto in Leon Battista Alberti, Bonacci, Roma, 1988;* Roberto Cardini, Mosaici: Il nemico dell'Alberti, Bulzoni, Roma 1990;* Rosario Contarino, Leon Battista Alberti moralista, presentazione di Francesco Tateo, S. Sciascia, Caltanissetta 1991;* Pierluigi Panza, Leon Battista Alberti: Filosofia e teoria dell'arte, introduzione di Dino Formaggio, Guerini, Milano 1994;* Cecil Grayson, Studi su Leon Battista Alberti, a cura di Paola Claut, Olschki, Firenze 1998;* Stefano Borsi, Momus, o Del principe: Leon Battista Alberti, i papi, il giubileo, Polistampa, Firenze 1999;* Luca Boschetto, Leon Battista Alberti e Firenze: Biografia, storia, letteratura, Olschki, Firenze 2000;* Alberto G. Cassani, La fatica del costruire: Tempo e materia nel pensiero di Leon Battista Alberti, Unicopli, Milano 2000;* Elisabetta Di Stefano, L'altro sapere: Bello, arte, immagine in Leon Battista Alberti, Centro internazionale studi di estetica, Palermo 2000;* Rinaldo Rinaldi, Melancholia Christiana.", "Studi sulle fonti di Leon Battista Alberti, Firenze, Olschki, 2002;* Francesco Furlan, Studia albertiana: Lectures et lecteurs de L.B.", "Alberti, N. Aragno-J.", "Vrin, Torino-Parigi 2003;* Anthony Grafton, Leon Battista Alberti: Un genio universale, Laterza, Roma-Bari 2003;* D. Mazzini, S. Martini.", "Villa Medici a Fiesole.", "Leon Battista Alberti e il prototipo di villa rinascimentale, Centro Di, Firenze 2004;* Michel Paoli, Leon Battista Alberti 1404–1472, Paris, Editions de l'Imprimeur, 2004, .", "* Anna Siekiera, Bibliografia linguistica albertiana, Firenze, Edizioni Polistampa, 2004 (Edizione Nazionale delle Opere di Leon Battista Alberti, Serie «Strumenti», 2);* Francesco P. Fiore: La Roma di Leon Battista Alberti.", "Umanisti, architetti e artisti alla scoperta dell'antico nella città del Quattrocento, Skira, Milano 2005, ;* Leon Battista Alberti architetto, a cura di Giorgio Grassi e Luciano Patetta, testi di Giorgio Grassi et alii, Banca CR, Firenze 2005;* Stefano Borsi, Leon Battista Alberti e Napoli, Polistampa, Firenze 2006; * Gabriele Morolli, Leon Battista Alberti.", "Firenze e la Toscana, Maschietto Editore, Firenze, 2006.", "* F. Canali, \"Leon Battista Alberti \"Camaleonta\" e l'idea del Tempio Malatestiano dalla Storiografia al Restauro, in Il Tempio della Meraviglia, a cura di F. Canali, C. Muscolino, Firenze, 2007.", "* Alberti e la cultura del Quattrocento, Atti del Convegno internazionale di Studi, (Firenze, Palazzo Vecchio, Salone dei Dugento, 16-17-18 dicembre 2004), a cura di R. Cardini e M. Regoliosi, Firenze, Edizioni Polistampa, 2007.", "* F. Canali (ed.", "), «Bollettino della Società di Studi Fiorentini», 16–17, 2008.", "* Christoph Luitpold Frommel, Alberti e la porta trionfale di Castel Nuovo a Napoli, in «Annali di architettura» n° 20, Vicenza 2008.", "* Massimo Bulgarelli, Leon Battista Alberti, 1404-1472: Architettura e storia, Electa, Milano 2008;* Caterina Marrone, I segni dell'inganno.", "Semiotica della crittografia, Stampa Alternativa&Graffiti, Viterbo 2010;* S. Borsi, Leon Battista Alberti e Napoli, Firenze, 2011.", "* V. Galati, Il Torrione quattrocentesco di Bitonto dalla committenza di Giovanni Ventimiglia e Marino Curiale; dagli adeguamenti ai dettami del De Re aedificatoria di Leon Battista Alberti alle proposte di Francesco di Giorgio Martini (1450-1495), in Defensive Architecture of the Mediterranean XV to XVIII centuries, a cura di G. Verdiani, Firenze, 2016, vol.III.", "* S. Borsi, Leon Battista, Firenze, 2018." ], [ "External links", "* Albertian Bibliography on line* MS Typ 422.2.Alberti, Leon Battista, 1404–1472.Ex ludis rerum mathematicarum : manuscript, 14--.", "Houghton Library, Harvard University.", "* Palladio's Literary Predecessors * \"Learning from the City-States?", "Leon Battista Alberti and the London Riots\", Caspar Pearson, '' Berfrois'', September 26, 2011* Online resources for Alberti's buildings Alberti Photogrammetric Drawings S. Andrea, Mantua, Italy** Sta.", "Maria Novella, Florence, Italy* Alberti's works online ''De pictura''/''Della pittura'', original Latin and Italian texts ( English translation) ''Libri della famiglia – Libro 3 – Dignità del volgare'' on audio MP3 ''Momus'', (printed in Rome in 1520), full digital facsimile, CAMENA Project ''The Architecture of Leon Battista Alberti in Ten Books'' , (printed in London in 1755), full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library** Works of Alberti, book facsimiles via archive.org" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Little Nemo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Little Nemo''' is a fictional character created by American cartoonist Winsor McCay.", "He originated in an early comic strip by McCay, ''Dream of the Rarebit Fiend'', before receiving his own spin-off series, '''''Little Nemo in Slumberland'''''.", "The full-page weekly strip depicted Nemo having fantastic dreams that were interrupted by his awakening in the final panel.", "The strip is considered McCay's masterpiece for its experiments with the form of the comics page, its use of color and perspective, its timing and pacing, the size and shape of its panels, and its architectural and other details.", "''Little Nemo in Slumberland'' ran in the ''New York Herald'' from October 15, 1905, until July 23, 1911.The strip was renamed '''''In the Land of Wonderful Dreams''''' when McCay brought it to William Randolph Hearst's ''New York American'', where it ran from September 3, 1911, until July 26, 1914.When McCay returned to the ''Herald'' in 1924, he revived the strip, and it ran under its original title from August 3, 1924, until January 9, 1927, when McCay returned to Hearst." ], [ "Concept", "A weekly fantasy adventure, ''Little Nemo in Slumberland'' featured the young Nemo (\"No one\" in Latin) who dreamed himself into wondrous predicaments from which he awoke in bed in the last panel.", "The first episode begins with a command from King Morpheus of Slumberland to a minion to collect Nemo.", "Nemo was to be the playmate of Slumberland's Princess, but it took months of adventures before Nemo finally arrived; a green, cigar-chewing clown named Flip was determined to disturb Nemo's sleep with a top hat emblazoned with the words \"Wake Up\".", "Nemo and Flip eventually become companions, and are joined by an African Imp whom Flip finds in the Candy Islands.", "The group travels far and wide, from shanty towns to Mars, to Jack Frost's palace, to the bizarre architecture and distorted funhouse-mirror illusions of Befuddle Hall.Flip, Nemo and Impie breaking the fourth wall by breaking apart the panel's outlines and eating the letters of the title.The strip shows McCay's understanding of dream psychology, particularly of dream fears—falling, drowning, impalement.", "This dream world has its own moral code, perhaps difficult to understand.", "Breaking it has terrible consequences, as when Nemo ignores instructions not to touch Queen Crystalette, who inhabits a cave of glass.", "Overcome with his infatuation, he causes her and her followers to shatter, and awakens with \"the groans of the dying guardsmen still ringing in his ears\".Nemo and the Little Imp explore the city as giants, September 9, 1907.Although the strip began October 15, 1905, with Morpheus, ruler of Slumberland, making his first attempt to bring Little Nemo to his realm, Nemo did not get into Slumberland until March 4, 1906, and, due to Flip's interfering, did not get to see the Princess until July 8.His dream quest is always interrupted, either by his falling out of bed, or by his parents forcing him to wake up.On July 12, 1908, McCay made a major change of direction: Flip visits Nemo and tells him that he has had his uncle destroy Slumberland (it had been dissolved before, into day, but this time it appeared to be permanent).", "After this, Nemo's dreams take place in his home town, though Flip—and a curious-looking boy named the Professor—accompany him.", "These adventures range from the down-to-earth to Rarebit-fiend type fantasy; one very commonplace dream had the Professor pelting people with snowballs.", "The famous \"walking bed\" story was in this period.", "Slumberland continued to make sporadic appearances until it returned for good on December 26, 1909.Story-arcs included Befuddle Hall, a voyage to Mars (with a well-realized Martian civilization), and a trip around the world (including a tour of New York City)." ], [ "Style", "McCay experimented with the form of the comics page, its timing and pacing, the size and shape of its panels, perspective, and architectural and other detail.", "From the second installment, McCay had the panel sizes and layouts conform to the action in the strip: as a forest of mushrooms grew, so did the panels, and the panels shrank as the mushrooms collapsed on Nemo.", "In an early Thanksgiving episode, the focal action of a giant turkey gobbling Nemo's house receives an enormous circular panel in the center of the page.", "McCay also accommodated a sense of proportion with panel size and shape, showing elephants and dragons at a scale the reader could feel in proportion to the regular characters.", "McCay controlled narrative pacing through variation or repetition, as with equally-sized panels whose repeated layouts and minute differences in movement conveyed a feeling of buildup to some climactic action.McCay sized and placed panels to conform to the action they contained (November 25, 1905).In his familiar Art Nouveau-influenced style, McCay outlined his characters in heavy blacks.", "Slumberland's ornate architecture was reminiscent of the architecture designed by McKim, Mead & White for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, as well as Luna Park and Dreamland in Coney Island, and the Parisian Luxembourg Palace.McCay made imaginative use of color, sometimes changing the backgrounds' or characters' colors from panel to panel in a psychedelic imitation of a dream experience.", "The colors were enhanced by the careful attention and advanced Ben Day lithographic process employed by the ''Herald''s printing staff.", "McCay annotated the ''Nemo'' pages for the printers with the precise color schemes he wanted.For the first five months the pages were accompanied with captions beneath them, and at first the captions were numbered.", "In contrast to the high level of skill in the artwork, the dialogue in the speech balloons is crude, sometimes approaching illegibility, and \"disfigur otherwise flawless work\", according to critic R. C. Harvey.", "The level of effort and skill apparent in the title lettering highlights what seems to be the little regard for the dialogue balloons, their content, and their placement in the visual composition.McCay used ethnic stereotypes prominently in ''Little Nemo'', as in the ill-tempered Irishman Flip, and the nearly-mute African Impie." ], [ "Background", "Winsor McCay ( – 1934) had worked prolifically as a commercial artist and cartoonist in carnivals and dime museums before he began working for newspapers and magazines in 1898.In 1903, he joined the staff of the ''New York Herald'' family of newspapers, where he had success with comic strips such as ''Little Sammy Sneeze'' (1904–06).", "and ''Dream of the Rarebit Fiend'' (1904–11)Robert served as the model for Nemo.In 1905, McCay got \"an idea from the ''Rarebit Fiend'' to please the little folk\".", "That October, the full-page Sunday strip ''Little Nemo in Slumberland'' debuted in the ''Herald''.", "Considered McCay's masterpiece, its child protagonist, whose appearance was based on McCay's son Robert, had fabulous dreams that would be interrupted with his awakening in the last panel.", "McCay experimented with the form of the comics page, its timing and pacing, the size and shape of its panels, perspective, architectural and other detail." ], [ "Publication history", "''Little Nemo in Slumberland'' debuted on the last page of the Sunday comics section of ''The New York Herald'' newspaper, on October 15, 1905.The full-page, color comic strip ran until July 23, 1911.In spring 1911, McCay moved to William Randolph Hearst's ''New York American'' and took ''Little Nemo''s characters with him.", "The ''Herald'' held the strip's copyright, but McCay won a lawsuit that allowed him to continue using the characters.", "In the ''American'', the strip ran under the title ''In the Land of Wonderful Dreams''.", "The ''Herald'' was unsuccessful in finding another cartoonist to continue the original strip.McCay left Hearst in May 1924 and returned to the ''Herald Tribune''.", "He began ''Little Nemo in Slumberland'' afresh that August 3.The new strip displayed the virtuoso technique of the old, but the panels were laid out in an unvarying grid.", "Nemo took a more passive role in the stories, and there was no continuity.", "The strip came to an end in January 1927, as it was not popular with readers.", "Hearst executives had been trying to convince McCay to return to the ''American'', and succeeded in 1927.Due to the lack of the 1920s Nemo's success, the ''Herald Tribune'' signed over all copyrights to the strip to McCay for one dollar.In 1937, McCay's son Robert attempted to carry on his father's legacy by reviving ''Little Nemo''.", "Comic book packager Harry \"A\" Chesler's syndicate announced a Sunday and daily ''Nemo'' strip, credited to \"Winsor McCay, Jr.\" Robert also drew a comic-book version for Chesler called ''Nemo in Adventureland'' featuring grown-up versions of Nemo and the Princess.", "Neither project lasted long.", "In 1947, Robert and fabric salesman Irving Mendelsohn organized the McCay Feature Syndicate, Inc. to revive the original ''Nemo'' strip from McCay's original art, modified to fit the size of modern newspaper pages.", "This revival also did not last.In 1966, cartoonist Woody Gelman discovered the original artwork for many ''Little Nemo'' strips at a cartoon studio where McCay's son Bob had worked.", "In 1973, Gelman published a collection of ''Little Nemo'' strips in Italy.", "His collection of McCay originals is preserved at the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum at Ohio State University.In 2005, collector Peter Maresca self-published a volume of ''Nemo'' Sundays as ''Little Nemo in Slumberland: So Many Splendid Sundays!''", "via his Sunday Press Books.", "The volume was large enough to reproduce the pages at their original size, as they appeared in newspapers.", "Restoration work took Maresca between five and twenty hours per page.", "A second volume, ''Little Nemo in Slumberland: Many More Splendid Sundays!", "'', appeared in 2008." ], [ "Adaptations", "===Theatre===Master Gabriel as the star of the 1908 ''Little Nemo'' musicalAs early as 1905, several abortive attempts were made to put ''Little Nemo'' on stage.", "In summer 1907, Marcus Klaw and A. L. Erlanger announced they would put on an extravagant ''Little Nemo'' show for an unprecedented $100,000, with a score by Victor Herbert and lyrics by Harry B. Smith.", "It starred dwarf Gabriel Weigel as Nemo, Joseph Cawthorn as Dr.", "Pill, and Billy B.", "Van as Flip.", "Reviews were positive, and it played to sold-out houses in New York.", "It went on the road for two seasons.", "McCay brought his vaudeville act to each city where ''Little Nemo'' played.", "When a Keith circuit refused to let McCay perform in Boston without a new act, McCay switched to the William Morris circuit, with a $100-a-week raise.", "In several cities, McCay brought his son, who sat on a small throne dressed as Nemo as publicity.As part of an improvised story, Cawthorn introduced a mythical creature he called a \"Whiffenpoof\".", "The word stuck with the public, and became the name of a hit song and a singing group.", "One reviewer of the 1908 operetta gave a paragraph of praise to the comic hunting tales presented in a scene in which three hunters are trying to outdo each other with hunting stories about the \"montimanjack\", the \"peninsula\", and the \"whiffenpoof\".", "He calls it \"one of the funniest yarns ever spun\" and compares it favorably to Lewis Carroll's The Hunting of the Snark.", "One source indicates that the dialogue in fact began as an ad lib by actor Joseph Cawthorn, covering for some kind of backstage problem during a performance.", "The whiffenpoof is also referred in one of the Little Nemo comic strips published in 1909 (April 11).", "After being held down by nine policemen during a hysteria crisis, Nemo's father tells the doctor: \"Just keep those whiffenpoofs away.", "Will you?", "\".The strip for September 26 starts with a hunt for whiffenpoofs but instead the hunters find a \"montemaniac\" and a \"peninsula\".Despite the show's success, it failed to make back its investment due to its enormous expenses, and came to an end in December 1910.In mid-2012 Toronto-based theatre company Frolick performed an adaptation of the strip into ''Adventures in Slumberland'', a multimedia show featuring puppets large and small and a score that included as a refrain \"Wake Up Little Nemo\", set to the tune of The Everly Brothers' 1957 hit \"Wake Up Little Susie\".", "Talespinner Children's Theatre in Cleveland, OH produced a scaled-down, \"colorful and high-energy 45-minute\" adaptation in 2013, ''Adventures In Slumberland'' by David Hansen.In March 2017, a short, one-act adaptation of the \"Little Nemo\" adventures was staged at Fordham University in New York City.", "The play, simply entitled ''Little Nemo in Slumberland'', was written by Aladdin Lee Grant Rutledge Collar, and directed by student Peter McNally.", "The six person cast, as well as creative team, consisted of students and alums at the university.===Film===''Little Nemo'' (1911)McCay played an important role in the early history of animation.", "In 1911 he completed his first film, ''Winsor McCay, the Famous Cartoonist of the N.Y. Herald and His Moving Comics'' (also known as ''Little Nemo''), first in theatres and then as part of his vaudeville act.", "McCay made the 4,000 rice-paper drawings for the animated portion of the film.", "The animated portion took up about four minutes of the film's total length.", "Photography was done at the Vitagraph Studios under the supervision of animation pioneer James Stuart Blackton.", "During the live-action portion of the film, McCay bets his colleagues he can make his drawings move.", "He wins the bet by animating his ''Little Nemo'' characters, who shapeshift and transform.In 1984, Arnaud Sélignac produced and directed a film titled ''Nemo'', a.k.a.", "''Dream One'', starring Jason Connery, Harvey Keitel, and Carole Bouquet.", "It involves a little boy called Nemo, who wears pajamas and travels to a fantasy world, but otherwise the connection to McCay's strip is a loose one.", "The fantasy world is a dark and dismal beach, and Nemo encounters characters from other works of fiction rather than those from the original strip.", "Instead of Flip or the Princess, Nemo meets Zorro, Alice, and Jules Verne's Nautilus (which was led by Captain Nemo).A joint American-Japanese feature-length film ''Little Nemo: Adventures in Slumberland'' was released in Japan in 1989 and in the United States in August 1992 from Hemdale Film Corporation, with contributions by Ray Bradbury, Chris Columbus, and Moebius, and music by the Sherman Brothers.", "The story tells of a quest by Nemo and friends to rescue King Morpheus from the Nightmare King.", "The Princess is given a name, Camille, and Nemo has a pet flying squirrel named Icarus.", "It received mixed reviews from critics, where it earned $11.4 million on a $35 million budget and was a box-office bomb, but it sold well on home video and has since developed a cult following.", "A live-action film adaptation, ''Slumberland'', directed by Francis Lawrence, was released in 2022.It features a gender-swapped version of the title character played by Marlow Barkley.", "Jason Momoa stars as a radically altered version of Flip, who is described as a \"nine-foot tall creature that is half-man, half-beast, has shaggy fur and long curved tusks\".", "The plot centers on Nemo and Flip traveling to Slumberland in search of the former's father.===Opera===The Sarasota Opera commissioned composer Daron Hagen and librettist J. D. McClatchy to create an opera based on ''Little Nemo''.", "Two casts of children alternated performances when it debuted in November 2012.The dreamlike nonlinear story told of Nemo, the Princess, and their comrades trying to prevent the Emperor of Sol and the Guardian of Dawn from bringing daylight to Slumberland.", "Special effects and shifting backgrounds were produced with projections onto a scaffolding of boxes.", "The work was first performed on November 10 and 11, by members of the Sarasota Opera, Sarasota Youth Opera, Sarasota Prep Chorus, The Sailor Circus and students from Booker High school.===Other media===In 1990, Capcom produced a video game for the NES, titled ''Little Nemo: The Dream Master'' (known as ''Pajama Hero Nemo'' in Japan), a licensed game based on the 1989 film.", "The film would not see a US release until 1992, two years after the game's Japanese release, so the game is often thought to be a standalone adaptation of ''Little Nemo'', not related to the film.", "An arcade game called simply ''Nemo'' was also released in 1990.In 2021, a new game, titled ''Little Nemo and the Nightmare Fiends'' based on the original comic strip was launched on Kickstarter.", "It is developed by Chris Totten of Pie For Breakfast Studios and Benjamin Cole of PXLPLZ.", "Throughout the years, various pieces of Little Nemo merchandise have been produced.", "In 1941, Rand, McNally & Co. published a Little Nemo children's storybook.", "''Little Nemo in Slumberland in 3-D'' was released by Blackthorne Publishing in 1987; this reprinted Little Nemo issues with 3-D glasses.", "A set of 30 Little Nemo postcards was available through Stewart Tabori & Chang in 1996.In 1993, as promotion for the 1989 animated film, Hemdale produced a Collector's Set which includes a VHS movie, illustrated storybook, and cassette soundtrack.", "In 2001, Dark Horse Comics released a Little Nemo statue and tin lunchbox." ], [ "Cultural influences", "Little Nemo itself is influenced by children stories in general, and some French comic pages in particular.", "Since its publishing, ''Little Nemo'' has had an influence on other artists, including Peter Newell (''The Naps of Polly Sleepyhead''), Frank King (''Bobby Make-Believe''), Clare Briggs (''Danny Dreamer'') or George McManus (''Nibsy the Newsboy in Funny Fairyland'').", "Through the Paris edition of the New York Herald, his influence reached France and other European countries.In children's literature, Maurice Sendak said that this strip inspired his book ''In the Night Kitchen'', and William Joyce included several elements from Little Nemo in his children's book ''Santa Calls'', including appearances by Flip and the walking bed.", "Another tribute to Little Nemo is the comic, then made into a short film, ''Little Remo in Pinchmeland'', by Ellen Duthie and Daniela Martagón.The character and themes from the comic strip ''Little Nemo'' were used in a song \"Scenes from a Night's Dream\" written by Tony Banks and Phil Collins of the progressive rock group Genesis on their 1978 recording, ''...And Then There Were Three...''.A progressive rock group from Germany named Scara Brae also recorded a musical impression of the comic on their rare self-titled disc from 1981 (the track was actually recorded 2 years earlier).", "Their concept piece was revived on the second album by the Greek band Anger Department, titled ''The Strange Dreams of a Rarebit Fiend'', again after a McCay-comic.", "Their ''Little Nemo'' was chosen for a theatre play, which was suggested for the cultural program for the Olympic Games in 2004.In 1984, Italian comic artist Vittorio Giardino started producing a number of stories under the title ''Little Ego'', a parodic adaptation of ''Little Nemo'', in the shape of adult-oriented erotic comics.", "Brian Bolland's early comic strip ''Little Nympho in Slumberland'' employed a similar technique.The bar in ''A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors'' is called 'Little Nemo's'.The strip influenced Alan Moore, in ''Miracleman'' #4, when the Miracleman family end up in a palace called \"Sleepy Town\", which has imagery similar to Little Nemo's.", "In Moore (and J.H.", "Williams III)'s ''Promethea'', a more direct pastiche – \"Little Margie in Misty Magic Land\" – showed Moore's inspiration and debt to McCay's landmark 1905 strip.", "Little Nemo makes a visual cameo in Volume 4, issue #4 of Moore and Kevin O'Neill's ''League of Extraordinary Gentleman'', during the Shakespearean Theatre scene that includes many other cameos.The Sandman comics and graphic novel series occasionally references ''Little Nemo'' as well.", "Examples include ''The Sandman: The Doll's House'', where an abused child escapes into dreams styled after McCay's comics and using a similar \"wake-up\" mechanism, and ''The Sandman: Book of Dreams'' (pub.", "1996), which features George Alec Effinger's short \"Seven Nights in Slumberland\" (where Nemo interacts with Neil Gaiman's characters The Endless).In 1989, teen comic book Power Pack ran an issue (#47) which paid direct homage to one of McCay's Nemo storylines, featuring a castle that was drawn sideways and Katie Power re-enacting a classic Nemo panel with a sideways-drawn hallway that served as a bottomless pit with the line \"Don't fall in, y'hear?", "\"The video of the 1989 song for \"Runnin' Down a Dream\" by Tom Petty is directly inspired by ''Little Nemo in Slumberland'' by Winsor McCay, which features a drawing style reminiscent of McCay's and showing Petty and a character who resembles Flip travelling through Slumberland.The band Queensrÿche paid homage to Little Nemo in their 1990 video Silent Lucidity.In 1994–1995, French artist Moebius wrote the story to a sequel comic series, ''Little Nemo'', drawn by Bruno Marchand in two albums.", "In 2000–2002, Marchand continued the story with two additional albums.In 2006, electronic artist Daedelus used Little Nemo artwork for his album ''Denies the Day's Demise''.The comic strip ''Cul de Sac'' includes a strip-within-the-strip, ''Little Neuro'', a parody of Little Nemo.", "Neuro is a little boy who hardly ever leaves his bed.In 2009, the Pittsburgh ToonSeum established its NEMO Award, given to notable individuals \"for excellence in the cartoon arts\".", "Recipients to date include veteran comic-book artist Ron Frenz, editorial and comic-strip artist Dick Locher, cartoonist and comics historian Trina Robbins, and comics artist, editorial cartoonist and artists' rights advocate Jerry Robinson.On October 15, 2012, celebrating the 107th anniversary of the first ''Little Nemo'' story, Google displayed an interactive animated \"Google Doodle\" called \"Little Nemo in Google-land\" on its homepage.", "The doodle showed a typical Little Nemo adventure through a series of panels, each featuring a letter from the word \"Google\".", "The doodle also ends in the same way as the comic strips, with Nemo falling from his bed.Eric Shanower and Gabriel Rodriguez revived the characters in 2014 in an IDW comic book series entitled ''Little Nemo: Return to Slumberland''.", "That same year, Locust Moon Press released a new anthology and Taschen published the complete series (1905–1926).A comic strip ''Mutts'' has one of the strip's recurring characters, a naughty squirrel, \"bonking\" Nemo with an acorn, and wishing him \"sweet dreams\"." ], [ "Legacy", "Mural of a Little Nemo in Slumberland comic in downtown Cincinnati, OhioComics historian R. C. Harvey has called McCay \"the first original genius of the comic strip medium\".", "Harvey claims that McCay's contemporaries lacked the skill to continue with his innovations, so that they were left for future generations to rediscover and build upon.", "Cartoonist Robert Crumb called McCay a \"genius\" and one of his favorite cartoonists.", "Art Spiegelman's ''In the Shadow of No Towers'' (2004) appropriated some of McCay's imagery, and included a page of ''Little Nemo'' in its appendix.", "Federico Fellini read ''Little Nemo'' in the children's magazine ''Il corriere dei piccoli'', and the strip was a \"powerful influence\" on the filmmaker, according to Fellini biographer Peter Bondanella.McCay's original artwork has been poorly preserved.", "McCay insisted on having his originals returned to him, and a large collection survived him, but much of it was destroyed in a fire in the late 1930s.", "His wife was unsure how to handle the surviving pieces, so his son took on the responsibility and moved the collection into his own house.", "The family sold off some of the artwork when they were in need of cash.", "Responsibility for it passed to Mendelsohn, then later to daughter Marion.", "By the early twenty-first century, most of McCay's surviving artwork remained in family hands." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (on included DVD)* * * " ], [ "External links", " ''Little Nemo'' and other public-domain McCay strips for download at The Comic Strip Library.", "Archived from the original on September 5, 2015.", "* .", "* ''Little Nemo in Slumberland'' at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.", "Archived from the original on November 16, 2015." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leningrad (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leningrad''' is a former name of St. Petersburg, Russia.", "'''Leningrad''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "Leningrad Oblast, a federal subject of Russia, around Saint PetersburgMu'minobod, Tajikistan (former name)2046 Leningrad, an asteroid named after Leningrad" ], [ "Music", "Leningrad (band), Russian ska/punk band''Symphony No.", "7'' (Shostakovich) (Op.", "60), a symphony by Shostakovich, subtitled ''Leningrad''\"Leningrad\" (song), 1989 song by Billy Joel''Leningrad'', track 3 on ''The Storyman'', 2006 album by Chris de Burgh''Leningrad'', track 6 on the Leningrad Cowboys album ''Go Space''" ], [ "Ships", "Soviet helicopter carrier ''Leningrad'', 1968 naval vessel''Leningrad''-class destroyer, Soviet Navy destroyers in service 1936–1963" ], [ "Other", "Leningrad, a ZX Spectrum cloneLeningrad Military District, of the Russian Armed Forces* ''Leningrad: The Advance of Army Group North, Summer 1941'', a 1980 board wargame about the 1941 battle for the city" ], [ "See also", "List of places named after Vladimir LeninLeningradsky (disambiguation)**Petrograd (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lydia" ], [ "Introduction", "The gymnasium complex of Sardis, the capital of Lydia'''Lydia''' (Lydian: , ; ; ) was an Iron Age kingdom of western Asia Minor located generally east of ancient Ionia in the modern western Turkish provinces of Uşak, Manisa and inland Izmir.", "The ethnic group inhabiting this kingdom are known as the Lydians, and their language, known as Lydian, was a member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family.", "The capital of Lydia was Sardis.The Kingdom of Lydia existed from about 1200 BC to 546 BC.", "At its greatest extent, during the 7th century BC, it covered all of western Anatolia.", "In 546 BC, it became a province of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, known as the satrapy of Lydia or ''Sparda'' in Old Persian.", "In 133 BC, it became part of the Roman province of Asia.Lydian coins, made of silver, are among the oldest in existence, dated to around the 7th century BC." ], [ "Defining Lydia", "The temple of Artemis in Sardis.Sardis Synagogue.The endonym ''Sfard'' (the name the Lydians called themselves) survives in bilingual and trilingual stone-carved notices of the Achaemenid Empire: the satrapy of ''Sparda'' (Old Persian), ''Saparda'', Babylonian ''Sapardu'', Elamitic ''Išbarda'', Hebrew ''Səp̄āraḏ''.", "These in the Greek tradition are associated with Sardis, the capital city of King Gyges, constructed during the 7th century BC.", "Lydia is called ''Kisitan'' by Hayton of Corycus (in ''The Flower of the History of the East''), a name which was corrupted to ''Quesiton'' in ''The Travels of Sir John Mandeville''.The region of the Lydian kingdom was during the 15th–14th centuries BC part of the Arzawa kingdom.", "However, the Lydian language is usually not categorized as part of the Luwic subgroup, unlike the other nearby Anatolian languages Luwian, Carian, and Lycian.Portrait of Croesus, last King of Lydia, Attic red-figure amphora, painted ca.", "500–490 BC.Tripolis on the Meander is an ancient Lydian city in Turkey.Tripolis on the Meander is an ancient Lydian city in Turkey." ], [ "Geography", "Büyük Menderes River also known as Maeander is a river in Lydia.The boundaries of historical Lydia varied across the centuries.", "It was bounded first by Mysia, Caria, Phrygia and coastal Ionia.", "Later, the military power of Alyattes and Croesus expanded Lydia, which, with its capital at Sardis, controlled all Asia Minor west of the River Halys, except Lycia.", "After the Persian conquest the River Maeander was regarded as its southern boundary, and during imperial Roman times Lydia comprised the country between Mysia and Caria on the one side and Phrygia and the Aegean Sea on the other." ], [ "Language", "The Lydian language was an Indo-European language in the Anatolian language family, related to Luwian and Hittite.", "Due to its fragmentary attestation, the meanings of many words are unknown but much of the grammar has been determined.", "Similar to other Anatolian languages, it featured extensive use of prefixes and grammatical particles to chain clauses together.", "Lydian had also undergone extensive syncope, leading to numerous consonant clusters atypical of most Indo-European languages.", "Lydian finally became extinct during the 1st century BC." ], [ "History", "=== Early history: Maeonia and Lydia ===Lydia developed after the decline of the Hittite Empire in the 12th century BC.", "In Hittite times, the name for the region had been Arzawa.", "According to Greek source, the original name of the Lydian kingdom was ''Maionia'' (Μαιονία), or ''Maeonia'': Homer (''Iliad'' ii.", "865; v. 43, xi.", "431) refers to the inhabitants of Lydia as ''Maiones'' (Μαίονες).", "Homer describes their capital not as Sardis but as ''Hyde'' (''Iliad'' xx.", "385); Hyde may have been the name of the district in which Sardis was located.", "Later, Herodotus (''Histories'' i.", "7) adds that the \"Meiones\" were renamed Lydians after their king Lydus (Λυδός), son of Atys, during the mythical epoch that preceded the Heracleid dynasty.", "This etiological eponym served to account for the Greek ethnic name ''Lydoi'' (Λυδοί).", "The Hebrew term for Lydians, ''Lûḏîm'' (לודים), as found in the Book of Jeremiah (46.9), has been similarly considered, beginning with Flavius Josephus, to be derived from Lud son of Shem; however, Hippolytus of Rome (234 AD) offered an alternative opinion that the Lydians were descended from Ludim, son of Mizraim.", "During Biblical times, the Lydian warriors were famous archers.", "Some Maeones still existed during historical times in the upland interior along the River Hermus, where a town named Maeonia existed, according to Pliny the Elder (''Natural History'' book v:30) and Hierocles (author of Synecdemus).===Autochthonous dynasties===According to Herodotus, Lydia was ruled by three dynasties from the second millennium BC to 546 BC.", "The first two dynasties are legendary and the third is historical.", "Herodotus mentions three early Maeonian kings: Manes, his son Atys and his grandson Lydus.", "Lydus gave his name to the country and its people.", "One of his descendants was Iardanus, with whom Heracles was in service at one time.", "Heracles had an affair with one of Iardanus' slave-girls and their son Alcaeus was the first of the Lydian Heraclids.The Maeonians relinquished control to the Heracleidae and Herodotus says they ruled through 22 generations for a total of 505 years from c. 1192 BC.", "The first Heraclid king was Agron, the great-grandson of Alcaeus.", "He was succeeded by 19 Heraclid kings, names unknown, all succeeding father to son.", "In the 8th century BC, Meles became the 21st and penultimate Heraclid king and the last was his son Candaules (died c. 687 BC).====The Mermnad Empire====Gyges tablet, British Museum=====Gyges=====Available historical evidence suggests that Candaules was overthrown by a man named Gyges, of whose origins nothing is known except for the Greek historian Herodotus's claim that he was the son of a man named Dascylus.", "Gyges was helped in his coup against Candaules by a Carian prince from Mylasa named Arselis, suggesting that Gyges's Mermnad dynasty might have had good relations with Carian aristocrats thanks to which these latter would provide his rebellion with armed support against Candaules.", "Gyges's rise to power happened in the context of a period of turmoil following the invasion of the Cimmerians, a nomadic people from the Pontic steppe who had invaded Western Asia, who around 675 BCE destroyed the previous major power in Anatolia, the kingdom of Phrygia.Gyges took advantage of the power vacuum created by the Cimmerian invasions to consolidate his kingdom and make it a military power, he contacted the Neo-Assyrian court by sending diplomats to Nineveh to seek help against the Cimmerian invasions, and he attacked the Ionian Greek cities of Miletus, Smyrna, and Colophon.", "Gyges's extensive alliances with the Carian dynasts allowed him to recruit Carian and Ionian Greek soldiers to send overseas to assist the Egyptian king Psamtik I of the city of Sais, with whom he had established contacts around 662 BCE.", "With the help of these armed forces, Psamtik I united Egypt under his rule after eliminating the eleven other kinglets with whom he had been co-ruling Lower Egypt.In 644 BCE, Lydia faced a third attack by the Cimmerians, led by their king Lygdamis.", "This time, the Lydians were defeated, Sardis was sacked, and Gyges was killed.=====Ardys and Sadyattes=====Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys, who resumed diplomatic activity with Assyria and would also have to face the Cimmerians.", "Ardys attacked the Ionian Greek city of Miletus and succeeded in capturing the city of Priene, after which Priene would remain under direct rule of the Lydian kingdom until its end.Ardys's reign was short-lived, and in 637 BCE, that is in Ardys's seventh regnal year, the Thracian Treres tribe who had migrated across the Thracian Bosporus and invaded Anatolia, under their king Kobos, and in alliance with the Cimmerians and the Lycians, attacked Lydia.", "They defeated the Lydians again and for a second time sacked the Lydian capital of Sardis, except for its citadel.", "It is probable that Ardys was killed during this Cimmerian attack.Ardys was succeeded by his son, Sadyattes, who had an even more short-lived reign.", "Sadyattes died in 635 BCE, and it is possible that, like his grandfather Gyges and maybe his father Ardys as well, he died fighting the Cimmerians.=====Alyattes=====Amidst extreme turmoil, Sadyattes was succeeded in 635 BCE by his son Alyattes, who would transform Lydia into a powerful empire.Soon after Alyattes's ascension and early during his reign, with Assyrian approval and in alliance with the Lydians, the Scythians under their king Madyes entered Anatolia, expelled the Treres from Asia Minor, and defeated the Cimmerians so that they no longer constituted a threat again, following which the Scythians extended their domination to Central Anatolia until they were themselves expelled by the Medes from Western Asia in the 590s BCE.", "This final defeat of the Cimmerians was carried out by the joint forces of Madyes, whom Strabo credits with expelling the Treres and Cimmerians from Asia Minor, and of Alyattes, whom Herodotus of Halicarnassus and Polyaenus claim finally defeated the Cimmerians.Tomb of Alyattes.Alyattes turned towards Phrygia in the east, where extended Lydian rule eastwards to Phrygia.", "Alyattes continued his expansionist policy in the east, and of all the peoples to the west of the Halys River whom Herodotus claimed Alyattes's successor Croesus ruled over - the Lydians, Phrygians, Mysians, Mariandyni, Chalybes, Paphlagonians, Thyni and Bithyni Thracians, Carians, Ionians, Dorians, Aeolians, and Pamphylians - it is very likely that a number of these populations had already been conquered under Alyattes, and it is not impossible that the Lydians might have subjected Lycia, given that the Lycian coast would have been important for the Lydians because it was close to a trade route connecting the Aegean region, the Levant, and Cyprus.Bin Tepe royal funeral tumulus (tomb of Alyattes, father of Croesus), Lydia, 6th century BC.", "Croesus at the stake.", "Side A from an Attic red-figure amphora, ca.", "500–490 BCLydia's borders under the reign of CroesusAlyattes's eastern conquests brought the Lydian Empire in conflict in the 590s BCE with the Medes, and a war broke out between the Median and Lydian Empires in 590 BCE which was waged in eastern Anatolia lasted five years, until a solar eclipse occurred in 585 BCE during a battle (hence called the Battle of the Eclipse) opposing the Lydian and Median armies, which both sides interpreted as an omen to end the war.", "The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II and the king Syennesis of Cilicia acted as mediators in the ensuing peace treaty, which was sealed by the marriage of the Median king Cyaxares's son Astyages with Alyattes's daughter Aryenis, and the possible wedding of a daughter of Cyaxares with either Alyattes or with his son Croesus.=====Croesus=====Alyattes died shortly after the Battle of the Eclipse, in 585 BCE itself, following which Lydia faced a power struggle between his son Pantaleon, born from a Greek woman, and his other son Croesus, born from a Carian noblewoman, out of which the latter emerged successful.Croesus brought Caria under the direct control of the Lydian Empire, and he subjugated all of mainland Ionia, Aeolis, and Doris, but he abandoned his plans of annexing the Greek city-states on the islands of the Aegean Sea and he instead concluded treaties of friendship with them, which might have helped him participate in the lucrative trade the Aegean Greeks carried out with Egypt at Naucratis.", "According to Herodotus, Croesus ruled over all the peoples to the west of the Halys River, although the actual border of his kingdom was further to the east of the Halys, at an undetermined point in eastern Anatolia.Croesus continued the friendly relations with the Medes concluded between his father Alyattes and the Median king Cyaxares, and he continued these good relations with the Medes after he succeeded Alyattes and Astyages succeeded Cyaxares.", "And, under Croesus's rule, Lydia continued its good relations started by Gyges with the Saite Egyptian kingdom, then ruled by the pharaoh Amasis II.", "Croesus also established trade and diplomatic relations with the Neo-Babylonian Empire of Nabonidus, and he further increased his contacts with the Greeks on the European continent by establishing relations with the city-state of Sparta.In 550 BCE, Croesus's brother-in-law, the Median king Astyages, was overthrown by his own grandson, the Persian king Cyrus the Great, and Croesus responded by attacking Pteria, the capital of a Phrygian state vassal to the Lydians which might have attempted to declare its allegiance to the new Persian Empire of Cyrus.", "Cyrus retaliated by intervening in Cappadocia and defeated the Lydians at Pteria in a battle, and again at Thymbra before besieging and capturing the Lydian capital of Sardis, thus bringing an end to the rule of the Mermnad dynasty and to the Lydian Empire.", "Lydia would never regain its independence and would remain a part of various successive empires.Although the dates for the battles of Pteria and Thymbra and of end of the Lydian empire have been traditionally fixed to 547 BCE, more recent estimates suggest that Herodotus's account being unreliable chronologically concerning the fall of Lydia means that there are currently no ways of dating the end of the Lydian kingdom; theoretically, it may even have taken place after the fall of Babylon in 539 BC.===Persian Empire===Lydia, including Ionia, during the Achaemenid Empire.Xerxes I tomb, Lydian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCIn 547 BC, the Lydian king Croesus besieged and captured the Persian city of Pteria in Cappadocia and enslaved its inhabitants.", "The Persian king Cyrus The Great marched with his army against the Lydians.", "The Battle of Pteria resulted in a stalemate, forcing the Lydians to retreat to their capital city of Sardis.", "Some months later the Persian and Lydian kings met at the Battle of Thymbra.", "Cyrus won and captured the capital city of Sardis by 546 BC.", "Lydia became a province (satrapy) of the Persian Empire.=== Hellenistic Empire ===Lydia remained a satrapy after Persia's conquest by the Macedonian king Alexander III (the Great) of Macedon.", "When Alexander's empire ended after his death, Lydia was possessed by the major Asian diadoch dynasty, the Seleucids, and when it was unable to maintain its territory in Asia Minor, Lydia was acquired by the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum.", "Its last king avoided the spoils and ravage of a Roman war of conquest by leaving the realm by testament to the Roman Empire.=== Roman province of Asia ===Roman province of AsiaPhoto of a 15th-century map showing LydiaWhen the Romans entered the capital Sardis in 133 BC, Lydia, as the other western parts of the Attalid legacy, became part of the province of Asia, a very rich Roman province, worthy of a governor with the high rank of proconsul.", "The whole west of Asia Minor had Jewish colonies very early, and Christianity was also soon present there.", "Acts of the Apostles 16:14–15 mentions the baptism of a merchant woman called \"Lydia\" from Thyatira, known as Lydia of Thyatira, in what had once been the satrapy of Lydia.", "Christianity spread rapidly during the 3rd century AD, based on the nearby Exarchate of Ephesus.=== Roman province of Lydia ===Lydia circa 50 ADUnder the tetrarchy reform of Emperor Diocletian in 296 AD, Lydia was revived as the name of a separate Roman province, much smaller than the former satrapy, with its capital at Sardis.", "Together with the provinces of Caria, Hellespontus, Lycia, Pamphylia, Phrygia prima and Phrygia secunda, Pisidia (all in modern Turkey) and the Insulae (Ionian islands, mostly in modern Greece), it formed the diocese (under a ''vicarius'') of Asiana, which was part of the praetorian prefecture of Oriens, together with the dioceses Pontiana (most of the rest of Asia Minor), Oriens proper (mainly Syria), Aegyptus (Egypt) and Thraciae (on the Balkans, roughly Bulgaria).=== Byzantine (and Crusader) age ===Under the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (610–641), Lydia became part of Anatolikon, one of the original ''themata'', and later of Thrakesion.", "Although the Seljuk Turks conquered most of the rest of Anatolia, forming the Sultanate of Ikonion (Konya), Lydia remained part of the Byzantine Empire.", "While the Venetians occupied Constantinople and Greece as a result of the Fourth Crusade, Lydia continued as a part of the Byzantine rump state called the Nicene Empire based at Nicaea until 1261.=== Under Turkish rule ===Lydia was captured finally by Turkish ''beyliks'', which were all absorbed by the Ottoman state in 1390.The area became part of the Ottoman Aidin Vilayet (''province''), and is now in the modern republic of Turkey.=== Legacy ======= First coinage ====Early 6th century BC Lydian electrum coin (one-third stater denomination).According to Herodotus, the Lydians were the first people to use gold and silver coins and the first to establish retail shops in permanent locations.", "It is not known, however, whether Herodotus meant that the Lydians were the first to use coins of pure gold and pure silver or the first precious metal coins in general.", "Despite this ambiguity, this statement of Herodotus is one of the pieces of evidence most often cited on behalf of the argument that Lydians invented coinage, at least in the West, although the first coins (under Alyattes I, reigned c.591–c.560 BC) were neither gold nor silver but an alloy of the two called electrum.The dating of these first stamped coins is one of the most frequently debated topics of ancient numismatics, with dates ranging from 700 BC to 550 BC, but the most common opinion is that they were minted at or near the beginning of the reign of King Alyattes (sometimes referred to incorrectly as Alyattes II).", "The first coins were made of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver that occurs naturally but that was further debased by the Lydians with added silver and copper.The largest of these coins are commonly referred to as a 1/3 stater (''trite'') denomination, weighing around 4.7 grams, though no full staters of this type have ever been found, and the 1/3 stater probably should be referred to more correctly as a stater, after a type of a transversely held scale, the weights used in such a scale (from ancient Greek ίστημι=to stand), which also means \"standard.\"", "These coins were stamped with a lion's head adorned with what is likely a sunburst, which was the king's symbol.", "The most prolific mint for early electrum coins was Sardis which produced large quantities of the lion head thirds, sixths and twelfths along with lion paw fractions.", "To complement the largest denomination, fractions were made, including a ''hekte'' (sixth), ''hemihekte'' (twelfth), and so forth down to a 96th, with the 1/96 stater weighing only about 0.15 grams.", "There is disagreement, however, over whether the fractions below the twelfth are actually Lydian.Alyattes' son was Croesus (Reigned c.560–c.546 BC), who became associated with great wealth.", "Croesus is credited with issuing the ''Croeseid'', the first true gold coins with a standardised purity for general circulation, and the world's first bimetallic monetary system circa 550 BCE.It took some time before ancient coins were used for commerce and trade.", "Even the smallest-denomination electrum coins, perhaps worth about a day's subsistence, would have been too valuable for buying a loaf of bread.", "The first coins to be used for retailing on a large-scale basis were likely small silver fractions, Hemiobol, Ancient Greek coinage minted in Cyme (Aeolis) under Hermodike II then by the Ionian Greeks in the late sixth century BC.Sardis was renowned as a beautiful city.", "Around 550 BC, near the beginning of his reign, Croesus paid for the construction of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, which became one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world.", "Croesus was defeated in battle by Cyrus II of Persia in 546 BC, with the Lydian kingdom losing its autonomy and becoming a Persian satrapy.==== In Greek mythology ====For the Greeks, Tantalus was a primordial ruler of mythic Lydia, and Niobe his proud daughter; her husband Amphion associated Lydia with Thebes in Greece, and through Pelops the line of Tantalus was part of the founding myths of Mycenae's second dynasty.", "(In reference to the myth of Bellerophon, Karl Kerenyi remarked, in ''The Heroes of The Greeks'' 1959, p. 83.", "\"As Lykia was thus connected with Crete, and as the person of Pelops, the hero of Olympia, connected Lydia with the Peloponnesos, so Bellerophontes connected another Asian country, or rather two, Lykia and Karia, with the kingdom of Argos\".", ")The Pactolus river, from which Lydia obtained electrum, a combination of silver and gold.In Greek myth, Lydia had also adopted the double-axe symbol, that also appears in the Mycenaean civilization, the ''labrys''.", "Omphale, daughter of the river Iardanos, was a ruler of Lydia, whom Heracles was required to serve for a time.", "His adventures in Lydia are the adventures of a Greek hero in a peripheral and foreign land: during his stay, Heracles enslaved the Itones; killed Syleus, who forced passers-by to hoe his vineyard; slew the serpent of the river Sangarios (which appears in the heavens as the constellation Ophiucus) and captured the simian tricksters, the Cercopes.", "Accounts tell of at least one son of Heracles who was born to either Omphale or a slave-girl: Herodotus (''Histories'' i.", "7) says this was Alcaeus who began the line of Lydian Heracleidae which ended with the death of Candaules c. 687 BC.", "Diodorus Siculus (4.31.8) and Ovid (''Heroides'' 9.54) mentions a son called Lamos, while pseudo-Apollodorus (''Bibliotheke'' 2.7.8) gives the name Agelaus and Pausanias (2.21.3) names Tyrsenus as the son of Heracles by \"the Lydian woman\".", "All three heroic ancestors indicate a Lydian dynasty claiming Heracles as their ancestor.", "Herodotus (1.7) refers to a Heraclid dynasty of kings who ruled Lydia, yet were perhaps not descended from Omphale.", "He also mentions (1.94) the legend that the Etruscan civilization was founded by colonists from Lydia led by Tyrrhenus, brother of Lydus.", "Dionysius of Halicarnassus was skeptical of this story, indicating that the Etruscan language and customs were known to be totally dissimilar to those of the Lydians.", "In addition, the story of the \"Lydian\" origins of the Etruscans was not known to Xanthus of Lydia, an authority on the history of the Lydians.Later chronologists ignored Herodotus' statement that Agron was the first Heraclid to be a king, and included his immediate forefathers Alcaeus, Belus, and Ninus in their list of kings of Lydia.", "Strabo (5.2.2) has Atys, father of Lydus and Tyrrhenus, as a descendant of Heracles and Omphale but that contradicts virtually all other accounts which name Atys, Lydus, and Tyrrhenus among the pre-Heraclid kings and princes of Lydia.", "The gold deposits in the river Pactolus that were the source of the proverbial wealth of Croesus (Lydia's last king) were said to have been left there when the legendary king Midas of Phrygia washed away the \"Midas touch\" in its waters.In Euripides' tragedy ''The Bacchae'', Dionysus, while maintaining his human disguise, declares his country to be Lydia.==== Lydians, the Tyrrhenians and the Etruscans ====The relationship between the Etruscans of northern and central Italy and the Lydians has long been a subject of conjecture.", "The Greek historian Herodotus believed they came from Lydia, but Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a 1st-century BC historian, argued that the Etruscans were indigenous to Italy and unrelated to the Lydians.", "Dionysius pointed out that the 5th-century historian Xanthus of Lydia, who was regarded as an important source and authority for the history of Lydia, never linked the Etruscans to Lydia or mentioned Tyrrhenus as a Lydian ruler.In contemporary scholarship, Etruscologists overwhelmingly support an indigenous origin for the Etruscans, dismissing Herodotus' account as based on erroneous etymologies.", "Michael Grant argue that the Etruscans may have propagated this narrative to facilitate their trading in Asia Minor, when many cities in Asia Minor, and the Etruscans themselves, were at war with the Greeks.", "The French scholar Dominique Briquel contends that \"the story of an exodus from Lydia to Italy was a deliberate political fabrication created in the Hellenized milieu of the court at Sardis in the early 6th century BC.\"", "Ultimately, these Greek-authored accounts of the Etruscan origins are only the expression of the image that Etruscans' allies or adversaries wanted to divulge and should not be considered historical.Archaeological evidence does not support the idea of Lydian migration to Etruria.", "The Etruscan civilization's earliest phase, the Villanovan culture, emerged around 900 BC, which itself developed from the previous Proto-Villanovan culture of Italy in the late Bronze Age.", "This culture has no ties to Asia Minor or the Near East.", "Linguists have identified an Etruscan-like language in a set of inscriptions on Lemnos island, in the Aegean Sea.", "Since the Etruscan language was a Pre-Indo-European language and neither Indo-European or Semitic, Etruscan was not related to Lydian, which was a part of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European languages.", "Instead, Etruscan language is considered part of the pre-Indo-European Tyrrhenian language family, along with the Lemnian and Rhaetian language.A 2013 genetic study suggested that the maternal lineages of western Anatolians and modern Tuscans had been largely separate for 5,000 to 10,000 years, with Etruscan mtDNA closely resembling modern Tuscans and Neolithic Central European populations.", "This suggests Etruscans descended from the Villanovan culture, indicating their indigenous roots, and a link between Etruria, modern Tuscany, and Lydia dating back to the Neolithic period during the migration of Early European Farmers from Anatolia to Europe.", "A 2019 genetic study revealed that Etruscans (900–600 BC) and Latins (900–500 BC) from Latium vetus shared genetic similarities, with both groups having a mixture of two-thirds Copper Age ancestry and one-third Steppe-related ancestry.", "This study also suggested indigenous origins for the Etruscans, despite their pre-Indo-European language.A 2021 study confirmed these findings, showing that Etruscans and Latins in the Iron Age had similar genetic profiles and were part of the European cluster.", "The Etruscan DNA was completely absent a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean.", "Etruscans exhibited a blend of WHG, EEF, and Steppe ancestry, with 75% of males belonging to haplogroup R1b and the most common mitochondrial DNA haplogroup being H." ], [ "Culture and society", "===Religion======= Early Lydian religion ====The Lydians in early Antiquity adhered to a polytheistic religion whose pantheon was composed of native Lydian deities who were reflexes of earlier Aegean-Balkan ones, as well as Anatolian deities, the latter of whom held lesser roles.Unlike traditionally Anatolian pantheons but similarly to the Phrygian one, the Lydian pantheon was headed by the goddess Artimus (), who was a deity of wild nature, and was also the Lydian variant of an earlier Aegean-Balkan goddess whose other reflexes included the Greek Artemis and the Phrygian Artimis.", "Being the main goddess of the Lydians, Artimus had a similar role to the Phrygian Matar Kubeleya, and she possessed the features of the latter Mother goddess well as of a , and she was therefore represented using similar iconography as Matar Kubeleya.The consort of Artimus was the Moon-god Qaλiyañs (), who was the main masculine deity of the Lydian pantheon.", "The Lydians shared this cult of a masculine lunar deity with the Phrygians, who worshipped the Moon-god Mas.Lews () or Lefs () was the Lydian equivalent of the Greek god Zeus and the Phrygian god Tiws.", "Unlike the Anatolian storm-god Tarḫuntas, Lews held a less prominent role in the Lydian religion.The goddess Lamẽtrus () was, likewise, the Lydian reflex of an earlier Aegean-Balkan goddess whose Greek iteration was Dēmētēr.The frenzy god Pakiš () to whom was performed an orgiastic cult was also a Lydian variant of an older Aegean-Balkan god whose Greek reflex was Bakkhos.The goddess Kufaws () or Kuwaws (), who was an prominent Lydian deity possessing an important temple in Sardis, was the daughter of the Mother goddess Artimus, as is visible from her depiction side by side with Artimus in a daughter-mother pairing in a from Sardis, where the larger figure of Artimus holds a deer while the smaller figure of Kufaws holds a lion.", "Kufaws was a young goddess of divine frenzy, being thus the feminine counterpart of Pakiš.", "Similarly to the relation between the Lydian Artimus and the Greek Artemis, Kufaws was the Lydian reflex of an earlier goddess whose Phrygian variant was the Mother goddess Kubeleya.Anatolian deities in the Lydian pantheon included the god Sãntas (), who was the consort of Kufaws, but whose nature is still uncertain.", "While this god's name corresponds to that of the Luwian Šandas, he might instead have been more similar to that of the ancient Greek hero Hēraklēs, whom Greek sources recorded was worshipped in Lydia.Accompanying Sãntas were several lesser demon-like figures called the Mariwyas ().Another Anatolian deity present in the Lydian pantheon was the goddess Maλiš (), who corresponded to the Hittite goddess Maliya and the Greek goddess Athēna.==== Christianity ====Lydia later had numerous Christian communities and, after Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the 4th century, Lydia became one of the provinces of the diocese of Asia in the Patriarchate of Constantinople.", "The ecclesiastical province of Lydia had a metropolitan diocese at Sardis and suffragan dioceses for Philadelphia, Thyatira, Tripolis, Settae, Gordus, Tralles, Silandus, Maeonia, Apollonos Hierum, Mostene, Apollonias, Attalia, Hyrcania, Bage, Balandus, Hermocapella, Hierocaesarea, Acrassus, Dalda, Stratonicia, Cerasa, Gabala, Satala, Aureliopolis and Hellenopolis.", "Bishops from the various dioceses of Lydia were well represented at the Council of Nicaea in 325 and at the later ecumenical councils.====Episcopal sees====Church of St John, Philadelphia (Alaşehir)Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Lydia are listed in the ''Annuario Pontificio'' as titular sees:" ], [ "See also", "* Ancient regions of Anatolia* Digda* List of Kings of Lydia* List of satraps of Lydia* Ludim" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", " *** * * *" ], [ "Further reading", " Reid Goldsborough.", "\"World's First Coin\"." ], [ "External links", "* Livius.org: Lydia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Land's End" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Land's End''' ( or ''Pedn an Wlas'') is a headland and tourist and holiday complex in western Cornwall, England, United Kingdom, on the Penwith peninsula about west-south-west of Penzance at the western end of the A30 road.", "To the east of it is the English Channel, and to the west the Celtic Sea.Land's End is the most westerly point of mainland England.", "However, it is not the westernmost point on mainland Great Britain, as this title narrowly goes to Corrachadh Mòr in the Scottish Highlands." ], [ "Geography", "The actual Land's End, or Peal Point, is a modest headland compared with nearby headlands such as Pedn-men-dhu overlooking Sennen Cove and Pordenack, to the south.", "The present hotel and tourist complex is at Carn Kez, south of the actual Land's End.", "Land's End has a particular resonance because it is often used to suggest distance.", "Land's End to John o' Groats in Scotland is a distance of by road and this ''Land's End to John o' Groats'' distance is often used to define charitable events such as end-to-end walks and races in the UK.", "Land's End to the northernmost point of England is a distance of by road.The westernmost promontory at Land's End is known as Dr Syntax's Head.", "The character Dr Syntax was invented by the writer William Combe in his 1809 comic verse ''The Tour of Dr Syntax in Search of the Picturesque'', which satirised the work of seekers of the \"picturesque\" such as William Gilpin.", "A nearby promontory is called Dr Johnson's Head after Samuel Johnson, who referred to a hypothetical Cornish declaration of independence in his 1775 essay ''Taxation no Tyranny''.The area around Land's End has been designated part of an Important Plant Area, by the organisation Plantlife, for rare species of flora.Land's End is a popular venue for rock climbers.The Longships, a group of rocky islets are just over offshore, and together with the Seven Stones Reef and the Isles of Scilly which lie about southwest – are part of the mythical lost land of Lyonesse, referred to in Arthurian literature." ], [ "Geology", "The cliffs are made of granite, an igneous rock, which means they are resistant to weathering, and have steep cliff faces.", "There are two varieties of granite represented at Land's End.", "Adjacent to the hotel the granite is coarse-grained with large phenocrysts of orthoclase, sometimes more than in length.", "To the north, at the First and Last House, there is a finer-grained granite with fewer and smaller phenocrysts, and the different granites can be seen from a distance by the smoother weathering of the finer variety.", "The granite dates to 268–275 million years ago of the Permian period.", "The contact zone between the Land's End granite pluton and the altered \"country rocks\" is nearby and the Longships Lighthouse, offshore, is built on the country rock." ], [ "History", "In 1769, the antiquarian William Borlase wrote:Of this time we are to understand what Edward I. says (Sheringham.", "p.", "129.)", "that Britain, Wales, and Cornwall, were the portion of Belinus, elder son of Dunwallo, and that that part of the Island, afterwards called England, was divided in three shares, viz.", "Britain, which reached from the Tweed, Westward, as far as the river Ex; Wales inclosed by the rivers Severn, and Dee; and Cornwall from the river Ex to the Land's-End.Tourists have been visiting Land's End for over three hundred years.", "In 1649, an early visitor was the poet John Taylor, who was hoping to find subscribers for his new book ''Wanderings to see the Wonders of the West''.", "In 1878 people left Penzance by horse-drawn vehicles from outside the Queens and Union hotels and travelled via St Buryan and Treen, to see the Logan Rock.", "There was a short stop to look at Porthcurno and the Eastern Telegraph Company followed by refreshments at the First and Last Inn in Sennen.", "They then headed for Land's End, often on foot or horse, because of the uneven and muddy lanes.", "Over one hundred people could be at Land's End at any one time.", "At Carn Kez, the First and Last Inn owned a small house which looked after the horses while visitors roamed the cliffs.", "The house at Carn Kez developed into the present hotel.", "The earliest part of the house was damaged by the Luftwaffe when a plane returning from a raid on Cardiff jettisoned its remaining bombs.", "53 fisherman were injured or killed.", "In the build-up to D-Day American troops were billeted in the hotel leaving the building in a bad state.A 1946 map of Land's EndLand's End was owned by a Cornish family until 1982, when it was sold to David Goldstone.", "In 1987, Peter de Savary outbid the National Trust to purchase Land's End for almost £7 million from David Goldstone.", "He had two new buildings erected and much of the present theme park development was instigated by him.", "He sold both Land's End and John o' Groats to businessman Graham Ferguson Lacey in 1991.The current owners purchased Land's End in 1996 and formed a company named Heritage Great Britain PLC.", "Attractions at the theme park include children's playgrounds and recorded music.", "Twice a week in August, Land's End hosts 'Magic in the Skies', a night-time firework spectacular with music by British composer Christopher Bond and narrated by actress Miriam Margolyes.", "Within the complex is the Land's End Hotel.In May 2012, Land's End received worldwide publicity as the starting point of the 2012 Summer Olympics torch relay.===End to end===Land's End is either the start or finishing point of end to end journeys with John o' Groats in Scotland.", "One of the earliest was by Carlisle who left Land's End on 23 September 1879, went to John O'Groats House and arrived back at Land's End on 15 December; taking 72 days (exclusive of Sundays); covering .", "To prove his journey, he kept a log book which was stamped at any post office he passed.", "An early end to end on bicycle was completed by Messrs Blackwell and Harman of Canonbury Bicycle Club.", "Starting at Land's End they covered in thirteen days in July/August 1880.Nearly two years later the Hon I Keith-Falconer travelled from Land's End, in twelve days, 23 hours, on a bicycle." ], [ "Greeb", "On the south side of Carn Kez the land slopes away to a shallow valley containing a small stream and the former Greeb Farm.", "In 1879 a derrick was used for hauling seaweed from the beach 40 feet below for use as a soil improver." ], [ "Portrayal in literature, music and film", "On the 1980 album ''Gradually Going Tornado'' by British jazzrock band Bruford, a song written by keyboardist Dave Stewart lasting 10.20 is featured." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Land's End, Cornwall, England.jpg\|Cliffs at Land's EndFile:Lands-End-Village.jpg\|The tourist centre at Land's EndFile:Lands End Tourist Centre.jpg\|The tourist centre at Land's EndFile:Land´s End (Mai 1990).jpg\|The old refreshment houseFile:Lands-End.jpg\|The Longships Lighthouse off Land's EndFile:Land's End (looking south).jpg\|Looking south from Land's EndFile:Land's End (looking west).jpg\|Looking west from Land's EndFile:Land's End (looking north).jpg\|Looking north from Land's EndFile:Signpost at Land's End.JPG\|Signpost at Land's End" ], [ "See also", " Corrachadh Mòr, the most westerly point in Great Britain* Cape Finisterre* John o' Groats* Land's End Airport* Land's End to John o' Groats* Lizard Point, southernmost point of mainland England* Marshall Meadows Bay, northernmost point of England* Ness Point, easternmost point of England* Sennen, the nearest village" ], [ "External links", "* *" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Liber Memorialis" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Liber Memorialis''''' is an ancient book in Latin featuring an extremely concise summary—a kind of index—of universal history from earliest times to the reign of Trajan.", "It was written by Lucius Ampelius, who was possibly a tutor or schoolmaster." ], [ "Description", "The book is dedicated to a Macrinus, who may have been the emperor who reigned 217–218, but that name was not uncommon, and it seems more likely he was simply a young man with a thirst for universal knowledge, which the book was compiled to satisfy.The book's object and scope are indicated in its dedication:The ''Liber Memorialis'' seems to have been intended as a textbook to be learned by heart.", "This little work, in fifty chapters, gives a sketch of cosmography, geography, mythology (Chapters I-X), and history (Chapters X to end).", "The historical portion, dealing mainly with the republican period, is untrustworthy and the text in many places corrupt; the earlier chapters are more valuable, and contain some interesting information.Chapter VIII (''Miracula Mundi'') contains the following, the only reference by an ancient writer to the famous sculptures of the Pergamon Altar, which were discovered in 1871, excavated in 1878, and are now in Berlin:" ], [ "Date", "Nothing is known of the date at which the work was written; the times of Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, the beginning of the 3rd century have all been suggested.", "However, in Chapter V De Orbe Terrarum (The World), Ampelius refers to the \"Tigris and Euphrates in Parthia,\" which suggests that Ampelius wrote before the Sassanians overthrew the Parthians in 224." ], [ "Editions", "The first edition of the ''Liber Memorialis'' was published in 1638 by Claudius Salmasius (Saumaise) from the Dijon manuscript, now lost, together with the ''Epitome'' of Florus.", "An 1873 edition by Wölfflin was based on Salmasius's copy of the lost codex.", "The more recent editions are* Erwin Assmann's Teubner edition of 1935* Nicola Terzaghi's edition, published by Chiantore in Turin ca.", "1947 (preface dated 1943)* Marie-Pierre Arnaud-Lidet's 1993 edition for the Collection Budé (includes French translation)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Glaser, ''Rheinisches Museum,'' ii.", "(1843)Wölfflin, ''De L. Ampelii Libro Memoriali'' (1854)Zink, ''Eos,'' ii (1866) " ], [ "External links", "* ''Liber Memorialis'' (Wölfflin's Latin text) at LacusCurtius* ''Liber memoralis'' (Erwin Assmann's BT-edition) at Bibliotheca Augustana" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lancelot Andrewes" ], [ "Introduction", "Monument with effigy of Lancelot Andrewes in Southwark Cathedral'''Lancelot Andrewes''' (155525 September 1626) was an English bishop and scholar, who held high positions in the Church of England during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I.", "During the latter's reign, Andrewes served successively as Bishop of Chichester, of Ely, and of Winchester and oversaw the translation of the King James Version of the Bible (or Authorized Version).", "In the Church of England he is commemorated on 25 September with a lesser festival." ], [ "Early life, education and ordination", "Andrewes was born in 1555 near All Hallows, Barking, by the Tower of London, of an ancient Suffolk family later domiciled at Chichester Hall, at Rawreth in Essex; his father, Thomas, was master of Trinity House.", "Andrewes attended the Cooper's free school in Ratcliff in the parish of Stepney and then the Merchant Taylors' School under Richard Mulcaster.", "In 1571 he entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree, proceeding to a Master of Arts degree in 1578.His academic reputation spread so quickly that on the foundation in 1571 of Jesus College, Oxford he was named in the charter as one of the founding scholars \"without his privity\" (Isaacson, 1650); his connection with the college seems to have been purely notional, however.", "In 1576 he was elected fellow of Pembroke College; on 11 June 1580 he was ordained a priest by William Chaderton, Bishop of Chester, and in 1581 was incorporated Master of Arts (MA) at Oxford.", "As catechist at his college he read lectures on the Decalogue (published in 1630), which aroused great interest.Once a year he would spend a month with his parents and, during this vacation, he would find a master from whom he would learn a language of which he had no previous knowledge.", "In this way, after a few years, he acquired most of the modern languages of Europe.Andrewes was the elder brother of the scholar and cleric Roger Andrewes, who also served as a translator for the King James Version of the Bible." ], [ "During Elizabeth's reign", "In 1588, following a period as chaplain to Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon, Lord President of the Council in the North, he became vicar of St Giles, Cripplegate, in the City of London, where he delivered striking sermons on the temptation in the wilderness and the Lord's Prayer.", "In a sermon (during Easter week) on 10 April 1588, he stoutly vindicated the Reformed character of the Church of England against the claims of Roman Catholicism and adduced John Calvin as a new writer, with lavish praise and affection.Yet, Andrewes was certainly no Calvinist.", "It has been said that he developed a proto-Arminian soteriology while at Cambridge and that he maintained this non-Calvinist theology throughout his life.", "He made it a point to refuse to repeat the common Calvinist slogans of his time.", "During the first half of the seventeenth century, he claimed that Calvinism was incompatible with civil government, preaching, and ministry.", "Throughout his sermons, he unashamedly criticized Calvinist doctrine and practice.", "He has been referred to as an avant-garde conformist, which is understood as an implicitly proto-Arminian precursor to Laudianism and explicit English-Arminianism.", "He outright decried the translation and Calvinistic notes in the Geneva translation of the Bible.", "He taught that God condemned Cain for his own freely chosen sin and he denied that God unconditionally predestined any to salvation or that he unconditionally condemned anyone.", "He argued for soteriological synergism, using Lot's wife as a picture that one's salvation is not secure post-conversion apart from an ongoing and freely chosen cooperation with God's saving grace.", "John Overall and Andrewes were more sympathetic to the Remonstrants than the Calvinists at the time of the Synod of Dort.", "Andrewes, out of fear, denied his support for the Remonstrants when letters sent to him from that party were intercepted.", "He was not on friendly terms with the delegates to the synod and he made it clear that he did not support the results.", "He and the Remonstrants attempted to use the ecclesiological similarities between the Contra-Remonstrants and the Puritans to persuade James I not to involve himself in the Synod of Dort or to support the Remonstrant cause if he did.Through the influence of Francis Walsingham, Andrewes was appointed prebendary of St Pancras in St Paul's Cathedral, in 1589, and subsequently became master of his own college of Pembroke, as well as a chaplain to John Whitgift, Archbishop of Canterbury.", "From 1589 to 1609 he was prebendary of Southwell.", "On 4 March 1590, as a chaplain of Elizabeth I, he preached before her an outspoken sermon and, in October that year, gave his introductory lecture at St Paul's, undertaking to comment on the first four chapters of the Book of Genesis.", "These were later compiled as ''The Orphan Lectures'' (1657).Andrewes liked to move among the people, yet found time to join a society of antiquaries, of which Walter Raleigh, Philip Sidney, Burghley, Arundel, the Herberts, Saville, John Stow and William Camden were members.", "Elizabeth I had not advanced him further on account of his opposition to the alienation of ecclesiastical revenues.", "In 1598 he declined the bishoprics of Ely and Salisbury, because of the conditions attached.", "On 23 November 1600, he preached at Whitehall a controversial sermon on justification.", "In July 1601 he was appointed Dean of Westminster and gave much attention to the school there.When plague struck in 1603 he retreated to Chiswick to teach the boys of Westminster School, where he preached a plague sermon on 21 August arguing in favour of leaving London under such circumstances.", "His argumentation rested on the Old Testament's commands to avoid exposing oneself to contagion, to avoid contact with lepers, etc.", "Andrewes claimed that the plague was caused by \"inventions\" like \"new meats in diet\" and \"new fashions in apparel\" that had roused the wrath of God.", "He condemns changes in Christian tradition that \"our fathers never knew of\"." ], [ "During the reign of James I", "Portrait of Andrewes by Simon de Passe, engravingOn the accession of James I, Andrewes rose into great favour.", "He assisted at James's coronation, and in 1604 took part in the Hampton Court Conference.Andrewes' name is the first on the list of divines appointed to compile the ''Authorized Version'' of the Bible, which was commissioned in 1604 and published in 1611.He headed the \"First Westminster Company\" which took charge of the first books of the Old Testament (Genesis to 2 Kings).", "He acted, furthermore, as a sort of general editor for the project as well.On 31 October 1605 his election as Bishop of Chichester was confirmed, he was consecrated a bishop on 3 November, installed at Chichester Cathedral on 18 November and made Lord High Almoner (until 1619).", "Following the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot, Andrewes was asked to prepare a sermon to be presented to the king in 1606 (Sermons Preached upon the V of November, in Lancelot Andrewes, XCVI Sermons, 3rd.", "Edition (London,1635) pp.", "889, 890, 900–1008 ).", "In this sermon Andrewes justified the need to commemorate the deliverance and defined the nature of celebrations.", "This sermon became the foundation of celebrations which continue 400 years later.", "In 1609 he published ''Tortura Torti'', a learned work which grew out of the Gunpowder Plot controversy and was written in answer to Bellarmine's ''Matthaeus Tortus'', which attacked James I's book on the oath of allegiance.", "After moving to Ely (his election to that see was confirmed on 22 September), he again controverted Bellarmine in the ''Responsio ad Apologiam''.In 1617 he accompanied James I to Scotland with a view to persuading the Scots that Episcopacy was preferable to Presbyterianism.", "He was made dean of the Chapel Royal and translated (by the confirmation of his election to that see in February 1619) to Winchester, a diocese that he administered with great success.", "Following his death in 1626 in his Southwark palace, he was mourned alike by leaders in church and state, and buried beside the high altar at St Saviour's (now Southwark Cathedral, then in the Diocese of Winchester)." ], [ "Legacy", "Portrait of Andrewes by HollarMemorial in Winchester CathedralTwo generations later, Richard Crashaw caught up the universal sentiment, when in his lines \"Upon Bishop Andrewes' Picture before his Sermons\" he exclaims::: This reverend shadow cast that setting sun,:: Whose glorious course through our horizon run,:: Left the dim face of this dull hemisphere,:: All one great eye, all drown'd in one great teare.Andrewes was a friend of Hugo Grotius, and one of the foremost contemporary scholars, but is chiefly remembered for his style of preaching.", "As a churchman he was typically Anglican, equally removed from the Puritan and the Roman positions.", "A good summary of his position is found in his ''First Answer to Cardinal Perron'', who had challenged James I's use of the title \"Catholic\".", "His position in regard to the Eucharist is naturally more mature than that of the first reformers.As to the Real Presence we are agreed; our controversy is as to the mode of it.", "As to the mode we define nothing rashly, nor anxiously investigate, any more than in the Incarnation of Christ we ask how the human is united to the divine nature in One Person.", "There is a real change in the elements—we allow ''ut panis iam consecratus non-sit panis quem natura formavit; sed, quem benedictio consecravit, et consecrando etiam immutavit'' ie, \"that the bread once consecrated is not the bread which nature has formed, but that which the blessing has consecrated and, by consecrating it, has also changed\".", "(''Responsio'', p. 263).Adoration is permitted, and the use of the terms \"sacrifice\" and \"altar\" maintained as being consonant with scripture and antiquity.", "Christ is \"a sacrifice—so, to be slain; a propitiatory sacrifice—so, to be eaten.\"", "(''Sermons'', vol.", "ii.", "p. 296).By the same rules that the Passover was, by the same may ours be termed a sacrifice.", "In rigour of speech, neither of them; for to speak after the exact manner of divinity, there is but one only sacrifice, ''veri nominis'', that is Christ's death.", "And that sacrifice but once actually performed at His death, but ever before represented in figure, from the beginning; and ever since repeated in memory to the world's end.", "That only absolute, all else relative to it, representative of it, operative by it ...", "Hence it is that what names theirs carried, ours do the like, and the Fathers make no scruple at it—no more need we.", "(''Sermons,'' vol.", "ii.", "p. 300).Lancelot Andrewes memorial stained glass window in the cloister of Chester CathedralAndrewes preached regularly and submissively before James I and his court on the anniversaries of the Gowrie Conspiracy and the Gunpowder Plot.", "These sermons were used to promulgate the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings.His ''Life'' was written by Alexander Whyte (Edinburgh, 1896), M. Wood (New York, 1898), and Robert Lawrence Ottley (Boston, 1894).", "His services to his church have been summed up thus: (1) he has a keen sense of the proportion of the faith and maintains a clear distinction between what is fundamental, needing ecclesiastical commands, and subsidiary, needing only ecclesiastical guidance and suggestion; (2) as distinguished from the earlier protesting standpoint, e.g.", "of the Thirty-nine Articles, he emphasised a positive and constructive statement of the Anglican position.His best-known work is the ''Preces Privatae'' or ''Private Prayers'', edited by Alexander Whyte (1896), which has widespread appeal and has remained in print since renewed interest in Andrewes developed in the 19th century.", "The ''Preces Privatae'' were first published by R. Drake in 1648; an improved edition by F. E. Brightman appeared in 1903.John Rutter set some of those prayers to music.", "Andrewes's other works occupy eight volumes in the ''Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology'' (1841–1854).", "Ninety-six of his sermons were published in 1631 by command of Charles I, have been occasionally reprinted, and are considered among the most rhetorically developed and polished sermons of the late-sixteenth and early-seventeenth centuries.", "Because of these, Andrewes has been commemorated by literary greats including T. S. Eliot.Andrewes was considered, next to James Ussher, to be the most learned churchman of his day, and enjoyed a great reputation as an eloquent and impassioned preacher, but the stiffness and artificiality of his style render his sermons unsuited to modern taste.", "Nevertheless, there are passages of extraordinary beauty and profundity.", "His doctrine was High Church, and in his life he was humble, pious and charitable.", "He continues to influence religious thinkers to the present day, and was cited as an influence by T. S. Eliot, among others.", "Eliot borrowed, almost word for word and without his usual acknowledgement, a passage from Andrewes' 1622 Christmas Day sermon for the opening of his poem \"Journey of the Magi\".", "In his 1997 novel ''Timequake'', Kurt Vonnegut suggested that Andrewes was \"the greatest writer in the English language\", citing as proof the first few verses of the 23rd Psalm.", "His translation work has also led him to appear as a character in three plays dealing with the King James Bible, Howard Brenton's ''Anne Boleyn'' (2010), Jonathan Holmes' ''Into Thy Hands'' (2011) and David Edgar's ''Written on the Heart'' (2011).He has an academic cap named after him, known as the Bishop Andrewes cap, which is like a mortarboard but made of velvet, floppy and has a tump or tuff instead of a tassel.", "This was in fact the ancient version of the mortarboard before the top square was stiffened and the tump replaced by a tassel and button.", "This cap is still used by Cambridge DDs and at certain institutions as part of their academic dress." ], [ "Collected works", "Andrewes created a significant personal library.", "In his will, he bequeathed approximately 400 volumes to Pembroke where they remain.", "His collection included: Works of Lancelot Andrewes, 11 volumes (Oxford, 1841–1854),Lancelot Andrewes Collection, 7 volumes" ], [ "Styles and titles", "1555–: Lancelot Andrewes Esq.", "–1589: ''The Reverend'' Lancelot Andrewes1589–bef.", "1590: ''The Reverend'' Prebendary Lancelot Andrewesbef.", "1590–1594: ''The Reverend'' Prebendary Doctor Lancelot Andrewes1594–1601: ''The Reverend'' Canon Doctor Lancelot Andrewes1601–1605: ''The Very Reverend'' Doctor Lancelot Andrewes1605–1626: ''The Right Reverend'' Doctor Lancelot Andrewes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * Lancelot Andrewes on ''Project Canterbury''* ** * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lucius Tarquinius Priscus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lucius Tarquinius Priscus''' (), or '''Tarquin the Elder''', was the legendary fifth king of Rome and first of its Etruscan dynasty.", "He reigned for thirty-eight years.", "Tarquinius expanded Roman power through military conquest and grand architectural constructions.", "His wife was the prophetess Tanaquil.Not much is known about the early life of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus.", "According to Livy, Tarquin came from Etruria.", "Livy claims that his original Etruscan name was , but since lucumo (Etruscan ) is the Etruscan word for \"king\", there is reason to believe that Priscus' name and title have been confused in the official tradition.", "After inheriting his father's entire fortune, Lucius attempted to gain a political office.", "However, he was prohibited from obtaining political office in Tarquinii because of the ethnicity of his father, Demaratus, who came from the Greek city of Corinth.", "As a result, his wife Tanaquil advised him to relocate to Rome.", "Legend has it that on his arrival in Rome in a chariot, an eagle took his cap, flew away and then returned it back upon his head.", "Tanaquil, who was skilled in prophecy, interpreted this as an omen of his future greatness.", "In Rome, he attained respect through his courtesy.", "King Ancus Marcius noticed Tarquinius and, by his will, appointed Tarquinius guardian of his own sons." ], [ "King of Rome", "=== Rise to power ===Although Ancus Marcius was the grandson of Numa Pompilius, the second King of Rome, the principle of hereditary monarchy was not yet established at Rome; none of the first three kings had been succeeded by their sons, and each subsequent king had been acclaimed by the people.", "Upon the death of Marcius, Tarquin addressed the ''Comitia Curiata'' and convinced them that he should be elected king over Marcius' natural sons, who were still only youths, making him the first Roman king to ever actively succeed at lobbying for the throne.", "In one tradition, the sons were away on a hunting expedition at the time of their father's death, and were thus unable to affect the assembly's choice.=== Political reform ===According to Livy, Tarquin increased the number of the Senate to 300 by adding one hundred men from the leading minor families.", "Among these was the family of the Octavii, from whom the first emperor, Augustus, was descended.", "He did so with the hope that those added to the Senate would be grateful for their position and thus loyal to him, strengthening his rule as king.left=== Military conquest ===Lucius Tarquinius Priscus is accredited with expanding Rome's borders.", "He did so through conquest of the surrounding tribes.", "Those tribes were the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans.==== War with the Latins ====Tarquin's first war was waged against the Latins.", "Tarquinius took the Latin town of Apiolae by storm and took great booty from there back to Rome.", "According to the ''Fasti Triumphales'', this war must have occurred prior to 588 BC.", "The Latins claimed that peace treaties developed by Romulus and the other Roman kings no longer applied and as such, launched the first set of attacks.", "Seeing the opportunity to incorporate the Latins into Rome's ranks, Tarquin quickly responded by conquering multiple Latin cities.", "As a result, the Latins requested help from the Sabines and Etruscans.", "Choosing not to split up his military power, Tarquin chose to keep the attack on the Latins, leading to a Roman victory.==== War with the Sabines ====After conquering the Latins Tarquin began his assault on the Sabines.", "Having their basecamp at the corner of two rivers, the Sabines were able to move their troops quickly and efficiently.", "Using his military cunning Tarquin chose to launch a surprise attack on the base at night.", "He did this by setting a fleet of small boats aflame and then sending them down the river to set the Sabine camp on fire.", "While the Sabines' were focused on dousing the flames, Tarquin and his troops moved in to dismantle the camp.Later, his military ability was then tested by an attack from the Sabines.", "Tarquin doubled the numbers of equites to help the war effort.", "The Sabines were defeated after difficult street fighting in the city of Rome.", "In the peace negotiations that followed, Tarquin received the town of Collatia, and appointed his nephew, Arruns Tarquinius, better known as ''Egerius'', as commander of the garrison there.", "Tarquin returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph on September 13, 585 BC.Subsequently, the Latin cities of Corniculum, old Ficulea, Cameria, Crustumerium, Ameriola, Medullia, and Nomentum were subdued and became Roman.==== War with the Etruscans ====Tarquin also wished to seek peace with the Etruscans, but they refused.", "Since Tarquin had kept the captured Etruscan auxiliaries prisoners for meddling in the war with the Sabines, the five Etruscan cities who had taken part declared war on Rome.", "Seven other Etruscan cities joined forces with them.", "The Etruscans soon captured the Roman colony at Fidenae, which thereupon became the focal point of the war.", "After several bloody battles, Tarquin was once again victorious, and he subjugated the Etruscan cities who had taken part in the war.", "At the successful conclusion of each of his wars, Rome was enriched by Tarquin's plunder.=== Construction ===Tarquin the Elder consulting Attus Nevius the AugurTarquin is said to have built the Circus Maximus, the first and largest stadium at Rome, for chariot racing.", "The Circus Maximus started out as an underwhelming piece of land, but was built into a grand and beautiful stadium.", "Raised seating was erected privately by the senators and equites, and other areas were marked out for private citizens.", "There the king established a series of annual games; according to Livy, the first horses and boxers to participate were brought from Etruria.", "It received the name Circus Maximus as a way to set it apart from the other stadiums built at this time in a similar fashion.After a great flood, Tarquin drained the damp lowlands of Rome by constructing the Cloaca Maxima, Rome's great sewer.", "The arch was constructed in 578 BC and took inspiration from Etruscan structures of the earlier period.", "He also constructed a stone wall around the city, and began the construction of a temple in honour of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill.", "The latter is said to have been funded in part by the plunder seized from the Sabines.=== Shows of triumph ===Tarquinius was the first Roman ruler to ever celebrate a Roman triumph.", "According to Florus, Tarquin celebrated his triumphs in the Etruscan fashion, riding a golden chariot drawn by four horses, while wearing a gold-embroidered toga and the tunica palmata, a tunic upon which palm-leaves were embroidered.", "He also introduced other Etruscan insignia of civilian authority and military distinction: the sceptre of the king; the trabea, a purple garment that varied in form, but was perhaps most often used as a mantle; the fasces carried by the lictors; the curule chair; the toga praetexta, later worn by various magistrates and officials; the rings worn by senators; the paludamentum, a cloak associated with military command; and the phalera, a disc of metal worn on a soldier's breastplate during parades, or displayed on the standards of various military units.", "Strabo reports that Tarquin introduced Etruscan sacrificial and divinatory rites, as well as the tuba, a straight horn used chiefly for military purposes.", "As a result, most classical Roman symbols for war harken back to his time as king." ], [ "Death and succession", "Tarquin is said to have reigned for thirty-eight years.", "According to legend, the sons of his predecessor, Ancus Marcius, believed that the throne should have been theirs.", "They arranged the king's assassination, disguised as a riot, during which Tarquin received a fatal blow to the head by an ax.", "However, the queen, Tanaquil, gave out that the king was merely wounded, and took advantage of the confusion to establish Servius Tullius as regent; when the death of Tarquin was confirmed, Tullius became king, in place of Marcius' sons, or those of Tarquin.Tullius, said to have been the son of Servius Tullius, a prince of Corniculum who had fallen in battle against Tarquin, was brought to the palace as a child with his mother, Ocreisia.", "According to legend, Tanaquil discovered his potential for greatness by means of various omens, and therefore preferred him to her own sons.", "Tullius married Tarquinia, one of the daughters of Priscus, thus providing a vital link between the families.", "Tullius' own daughters were subsequently married to the king's sons (or, in some traditions, grandsons), Lucius and Arruns.Most ancient writers regarded Tarquin as the father of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last King of Rome, but some stated that the younger Tarquin was his grandson.", "As the younger Tarquin died about 496 BC, more than eighty years after Tarquinius Priscus, the chronology seems to support the latter tradition.", "An Etruscan legend related by the emperor Claudius equates Servius Tullius with ''Macstarna'' (apparently the Etruscan equivalent of the Latin ''magister''), a companion of the Etruscan heroes Aulus and Caelius Vibenna, who helped free the brothers from captivity, slaying their captors, including a Roman named Gnaeus Tarquinius.", "This episode is depicted in a fresco at the tomb of the Etruscan Saties family at Vulci, now known as the François Tomb.", "This tradition suggests that perhaps the sons of the elder Tarquin attempted to seize power, but were defeated by the regent, Servius Tullius, and his companions; Tullius would then have attempted to end the dynastic struggle by marrying his daughters to the grandsons of Tarquinius Priscus.", "However, this plan ultimately failed, as Tullius was himself assassinated at the instigation of his son-in-law, who succeeded him." ], [ "See also", "* Tarquinia gens" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Livy, ''Ab urbe condita'' 15px* Florus, ''Epitoma de Tito Livio bellorum omnium annorum DCC'' 15px* Eutropius, ''Breviarium historiae romanae'' 15px" ], [ "External links", "* Stemma Tarquiniorum, Tarquinius family tree" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lucius Tarquinius Superbus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lucius Tarquinius Superbus''' (died 495 BC) was the legendary seventh and final king of Rome, reigning 25 years until the popular uprising that led to the establishment of the Roman Republic.", "He is commonly known as '''Tarquin the Proud''', from his cognomen ''Superbus'' (Latin for \"proud, arrogant, lofty\").Ancient accounts of the regal period mingle history and legend.", "Tarquin was said to have been either the son or grandson of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, and to have gained the throne through the murders of both his wife and his elder brother, followed by the assassination of his predecessor, Servius Tullius.", "His reign has been described as a tyranny that justified the abolition of the monarchy." ], [ "Background", "The most ancient sources, such as that of Quintus Fabius Pictor, assert Tarquin was the son of Tarquinius Priscus, but modern historians believe that to be \"impossible\" under the traditional chronology, indicating either he was Priscus' grandson or that the traditional chronology itself is \"unsound\".His mother supposedly was Tanaquil.", "Tanaquil had engineered her husband's succession to the Roman kingdom on the death of Ancus Marcius.", "When the sons of Marcius subsequently arranged the elder Tarquin's assassination in 579 BC, Tanaquil placed Servius Tullius on the throne, in preference to her own sons or grandsons.According to an Etruscan tradition, the hero Macstarna, usually equated with Servius Tullius, defeated and killed a Roman named Gnaeus Tarquinius, and rescued the brothers Caelius and Aulus Vibenna from captivity.", "This may recollect an otherwise forgotten attempt by the sons of Tarquin the Elder to reclaim the throne.To forestall further dynastic strife, Servius married his daughters, known to history as Tullia Major and Tullia Minor, to Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the future king, and his brother Arruns.", "One of Tarquin's sisters, Tarquinia, married Marcus Junius Brutus, and was the mother of Lucius Junius Brutus, one of the men who would later lead the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom.The elder sister, Tullia Major, was of mild disposition, yet married the ambitious Tarquin.", "Her younger sister, Tullia Minor, was of fiercer temperament, but her husband Arruns was not.", "She came to despise him, and conspired with Tarquin to bring about the deaths of Tullia Major and Arruns.", "After the murder of their spouses, Tarquin and Tullia were married.", "They had three sons: Titus, Arruns, and Sextus, and a daughter, Tarquinia, who married Octavius Mamilius, the prince of Tusculum." ], [ "Overthrow of Servius Tullius", "Tullia encouraged her husband to advance his own position, ultimately persuading him to usurp her father, King Servius.", "Tarquin solicited the support of the patrician senators, especially those from houses that had been raised to senatorial rank under Tarquin the Elder.", "He bestowed presents upon them, and spread criticism of Servius the king.In time, Tarquin felt ready to seize the throne.", "He went to the senate house with a group of armed men, sat himself on the throne, and summoned the senators to attend upon him.", "He then spoke to the senators, denigrating Servius as a slave born of a slave; for failing to be elected by the senate and the people during an interregnum, as had been the tradition for the election of kings of Rome; for having become king through the machinations of a woman; for favouring the lower classes of Rome over the wealthy, and for taking the land of the upper classes for distribution to the poor; and for instituting the census so that the wealth of the upper classes might be exposed in order to excite popular envy.When word of this brazen deed reached Servius, he hurried to the curia to confront Tarquin, who levelled the same accusations against his father-in-law, and then in his youth and vigour carried the king outside and flung him down the steps of the senate house and into the street.", "The king's retainers fled, and as he made his way towards the palace, the aged Servius was set upon and murdered by Tarquin's assassins, perhaps on the advice of his own daughter.Tullia drove in her chariot to the senate house, where she was the first to hail her husband as king.", "But Tarquin bade her return home, concerned that the crowd might do her violence.", "As she drove toward the Urbian Hill, her driver stopped suddenly, horrified at the sight of the king's body lying in the street.", "But in a frenzy, Tullia herself seized the reins, and drove the wheels of her chariot over her father's corpse.", "The king's blood spattered against the chariot and stained Tullia's clothes, so that she brought a gruesome relic of the murder back to her house.", "The street where Tullia disgraced the dead king afterwards became known as the ''Vicus Sceleratus,'' the Street of Crime." ], [ "Reign", "Tarquinius Superbus makes himself King; from ''The Comic History of Rome'' by Gilbert Abbott à Beckett (c. 1850s)Tarquin commenced his reign by refusing to bury the dead Servius, and then putting to death several leading senators, whom he suspected of remaining loyal to Servius.", "By not replacing the slain senators, and not consulting the senate on matters of government, he diminished both the size and the authority of the senate.", "In another break with tradition, Tarquin judged capital crimes without the advice of counsellors, causing fear amongst those who might think to oppose him.", "He made a powerful ally when he betrothed his daughter to Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum, among the most eminent of the Latin chiefs.Early in his reign, Tarquin called a meeting of the Latin leaders to discuss the bonds between Rome and the Latin towns.", "The meeting was held at a grove sacred to the goddess Ferentina.", "At the meeting, Turnus Herdonius inveighed against Tarquin's arrogance, and warned his countrymen against trusting the Roman king.", "Tarquin then bribed Turnus' servant to store a large number of swords in his master's lodging.", "Tarquin called together the Latin leaders, and accused Turnus of plotting his assassination.", "The Latin leaders accompanied Tarquin to Turnus' lodging and, the swords then being discovered, the Latin's guilt was then speedily inferred.", "Turnus was condemned to be thrown into a pool of water in the grove with a wooden frame, or ''cratis'', placed over his head, into which stones were thrown, drowning him.", "The meeting of the Latin chiefs then continued, and Tarquin persuaded them to renew their treaty with Rome, becoming her allies rather than her enemies.", "It was agreed that the soldiers of the Latins would attend at the grove on an appointed day, and form a united military force with the Roman army.Next, Tarquin instigated a war against the Volsci, taking the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia.", "He celebrated a triumph, and with the spoils of this conquest, he commenced the erection of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, which Tarquin the Elder had vowed.", "He then engaged in a war with Gabii, one of the Latin cities that had rejected the treaty with Rome.", "Unable to take the city by force of arms, Tarquin resorted to another stratagem.", "His son, Sextus, pretending to be ill-treated by his father, and covered with the bloody marks of stripes, fled to Gabii.", "The infatuated inhabitants entrusted him with the command of their troops, and when he had obtained the unlimited confidence of the citizens, he sent a messenger to his father to inquire how he should deliver the city into his hands.", "The king, who was walking in his garden when the messenger arrived, made no reply but kept striking off the heads of the tallest poppies with his stick.", "Sextus took the hint, and put to death, or banished on false charges, all the leading men of Gabii, after which he had no difficulty in compelling the city to submit.Tarquin agreed upon a peace with the Aequi, and renewed the treaty of peace between Rome and the Etruscans.", "According to the Fasti Triumphales, he won a victory over the Sabines, and established Roman colonies at the towns of Signia and Circeii.At Rome, Tarquin levelled the top of the Tarpeian Rock, overlooking the Forum, and removed a number of ancient Sabine shrines to make way for the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill.", "He constructed tiers of seats in the circus, and ordered the excavation of Rome's great sewer, the ''cloaca maxima''.", "''Tarquinius Superbus'' by Lawrence Alma-Tadema, depicting the king receiving a laurel; the poppies in the foreground refer to the \"tall poppy\" allegoryAccording to one story, Tarquin was approached by the Cumaean Sibyl, who offered him nine books of prophecy at an exorbitant price.", "Tarquin abruptly refused, and the Sibyl proceeded to burn three of the nine.", "She then offered him the remaining books, but at the same price.", "He hesitated, but refused again.", "The Sibyl then burned three more books before offering him the three remaining books at the original price.", "At last, Tarquin accepted, in this way obtaining the Sibylline Books." ], [ "Overthrow and exile", "In 509 BC, having angered the Roman populace through the pace and burden of constant building, Tarquin embarked on a campaign against the Rutuli.", "At that time, the Rutuli were a very wealthy nation, and Tarquin was keen to obtain the spoils that would come with victory, in hopes of assuaging the ire of his subjects.", "Failing to take their capital of Ardea by storm, the king determined to take the city by siege instead.With little prospect of battle, the young noblemen in the king's army fell to drinking and boasting.", "When the subject turned to the virtue of their wives, Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus claimed to have the most dedicated of spouses.", "With his companions, they secretly visited each other's homes, and discovered all of the wives enjoying themselves, except for Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, who was engaged in domestic activities.", "Lucretia received the princes graciously, and together her beauty and virtue kindled the flame of desire in Collatinus' cousin, Sextus Tarquinius, the king's son.After a few days, Sextus returned to Collatia, where he implored Lucretia to give herself to him.", "When she refused, he threatened that if she did not yield herself to him, he would kill her, and claim that he had discovered her in the act of adultery with a slave, for which reason he had slain the unfaithful Lucretia, delivering the punishment as her husband's kinsman.To spare her husband the shame threatened by Sextus, Lucretia submitted to his desire.", "But when he had departed for the camp, Lucretia sent for her husband and father, revealing the whole matter, and accusing Sextus of raping her.", "Despite the pleas of her family, Lucretia stabbed herself to spare Collatinus any suspicion that she had betrayed him.", "Her grieving husband, together with his father-in-law, Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus, and his companions, Lucius Junius Brutus and Publius Valerius, swore an oath to expel the king and his family from Rome.As Tribune of the Celeres, Brutus was head of the king's personal bodyguard, and entitled to summon the Roman comitia.", "This he did, and by recounting the various grievances of the people, the king's abuses of power, and by inflaming public sentiment with the tale of the rape of Lucretia, Brutus persuaded the comitia to revoke the king's imperium and send him into exile.", "Tullia fled the city in fear of the mob, while Sextus Tarquinius, his deed revealed, fled to Gabii, where he hoped for the protection of the Roman garrison.", "However, his previous conduct there had made him many enemies, and he was soon assassinated.", "In place of the king, the ''comitia centuriata'' resolved to elect two consuls to hold power jointly.", "Lucretius, the prefect of the city, presided over the election of the first consuls, Brutus and Collatinus.When word of the uprising reached the king, Tarquin abandoned Ardea and sought support from his allies in Etruria.", "The cities of Veii and Tarquinii sent contingents to join the king's army, and he prepared to march upon Rome.", "Meanwhile, Brutus prepared a force to meet the returning army.", "In a surprising reversal, Brutus demanded that his colleague Collatinus resign the consulship and go into exile because he bore the hated name of Tarquinius.", "Stunned by this betrayal, Collatinus complied, and his father-in-law was chosen to succeed him.Meanwhile, the king sent ambassadors to the senate, ostensibly to request the return of his personal property, but in reality to subvert a number of Rome's leading men.", "When this plot was discovered, those found guilty were put to death by the consuls.", "Brutus was forced to condemn his two sons Titus and Tiberius to death because they had taken part in the conspiracy.", "Leaving Lucretius in charge of the city, Brutus departed to meet the king on the field of battle.", "At the Battle of Silva Arsia, the Romans won a hard-fought victory over the king and his Etruscan allies.", "Each side sustained painful losses; the consul Brutus and his cousin, Arruns Tarquinius, fell in battle against each other.After this failure, Tarquin turned to Lars Porsena, the king of Clusium.", "Porsena's march on Rome and the valiant defence of the Romans achieved legendary status, giving rise to the story of Horatius at the bridge, and the bravery of Gaius Mucius Scaevola.", "Accounts vary as to whether Porsena finally entered Rome, or was thwarted, but modern scholarship suggests that he was able to occupy the city briefly before withdrawing.", "Ultimately, his efforts were of no avail to the exiled Roman king.Tarquin's final attempt to regain the Roman kingdom came in 499 or 496 BC, when he persuaded his son-in-law, Octavius Mamilius, dictator of Tusculum, to march on Rome at the head of a Latin army.", "The Roman army was led by the dictator Albus Postumius Albus and his Master of the Horse, Titus Aebutius Elva, while the elderly king and his last remaining son, Titus Tarquinius, accompanied by a force of Roman exiles, fought alongside the Latins.", "Once more the battle was hard-fought and narrowly decided, with both sides suffering great losses.", "Mamilius was slain, the master of the horse grievously injured, and Titus Tarquinius barely escaped with his life.", "But in the end, the Latins abandoned the field, and Rome retained her independence.After the Latin defeat and the death of his son-in-law, Tarquin went to the court of Aristodemus at Cumae, where he died in 495." ], [ "Modern representations", "William Shakespeare describes the events leading to Tarquin's downfall in his long poem ''The Rape of Lucrece''.", "He also alludes to Tarquin in his plays, ''Titus Andronicus'', ''Julius Caesar'', ''Coriolanus'', ''Macbeth'', and ''Cymbeline''.In 1765, Patrick Henry gave a speech before the Virginia House of Burgesses in opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765.Toward the end of his speech, he inserted as a rhetorical flourish a comparison between King George III and various historical figures who were brought low by their enemies, including Charles I, Caesar, and, in some accounts, Tarquin.The cultural phenomenon known as \"tall poppy syndrome,\" in which persons of unusual merit are attacked or resented because of their achievements, derives its name from the episode in Livy in which Tarquin is said to have instructed his son Sextus to weaken the city of Gabii by destroying its leading men.", "The motif of using an unwitting messenger to deliver such a message through the metaphor of cutting the heads off the tallest poppies may have been borrowed from Herodotus, whose ''Histories'' contain a similar story involving ears of wheat instead of poppies.", "A passage concerning Livy's version of the story appears in Kierkegaard's ''Fear and Trembling''.Benjamin Britten employed the character in his 1946 chamber opera ''The Rape of Lucretia''.Tarquin also appears in the fourth book of ''The Trials of Apollo'' series by Rick Riordan.", "He is depicted as a zombie king who attacks the demigods for trying to rewrite the Sybilline Books.Tarquin Superbus is a character in Claire-Louis Bennet's novel ''Checkout-19''." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Modern sources ===* * * * * * === Ancient sources ===* Dionysius of Halicarnassus, ''Romaike Archaiologia'' (Roman Antiquities).", "* Titus Livius (Livy), ''History of Rome''.", "* Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder), ''Historia Naturalis'' (Natural History).", "* Maurus Servius Honoratus (Servius), ''Ad Virgilii Aeneidem Commentarii'' (Commentary on Vergil's Aeneid)." ], [ "External links", "* Britannica: Tarquin, King of Rome* Stemma Tarquiniorum" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Libertarian socialism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Libertarian socialism''' is an anti-authoritarian and anti-capitalist political current that emphasises self-governance and workers' self-management.", "It is contrasted from other forms of socialism by its rejection of state ownership and from other forms of libertarianism by its rejection of private property.", "Broadly defined, it includes schools of both anarchism and Marxism, as well as other tendencies that oppose the state and capitalism.With its roots in the Age of Enlightenment, libertarian socialism was first constituted as a tendency by the anti-authoritarian faction of the International Workingmen's Association (IWA), during their conflict with the Marxist faction.", "Libertarian socialism quickly spread throughout Europe and the Americas, reaching its height during the early stages of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and particularly during the Spanish Revolution of 1936.Its defeat during these revolutions led to its brief decline, before its principles were resurrected by the New Left and new social movements of the late 20th century.While its key principles of decentralisation, workers' control and mutual aid are generally shared across the many schools of libertarian socialism, differences have emerged over the questions of revolutionary spontaneity, reformism and whether to prioritise the abolition of the state or of capitalism." ], [ "Political principles", "Libertarian socialism strives for a free and equal society, aiming to transform work and everyday life.", "Broadly defined, libertarian socialism encapsulates any political ideology that favours workers' control of the means of production and the replacement of capitalism with a system of cooperative economics, decentralised planning, or common ownership.", "Libertarian socialists tend to see the working class as agents of social revolution, reject representative democracy and electoralism, and advocate for self-organisation and direct action as means to engage in class conflict.===Anti-authoritarianism===Libertarian socialism has a grassroots and direct democratic approach to socialism, rejecting parliamentarism and bureaucracy respectively.", "Libertarian socialists advocate the empowerment of individuals to control their own lives and encourage them to voluntarily cooperate with each other, rather than allow themselves to be controlled by a state.", "Libertarian socialists therefore uphold civil liberties such as freedom of choice, freedom of expression and freedom of thought.In contrast to authoritarian forms of socialism, libertarian socialism rejects state ownership and centralisation.", "Instead it upholds a decentralised model of self-governance, envisioning free association based on co-operative or participatory economics.", "Some libertarian socialists see such systems as complementary to statism, while others hold them to be an alternative to the state.Libertarian socialists tend to reject the view that political institutions such as the state represent an inherently good, or even neutral, power.", "Some libertarian socialists, such as Peter Kropotkin, consider the state to be an inherent instrument of landlordism and capitalism, therefore opposing the state with equal intensity as they oppose capitalism.===Anti-capitalism===Libertarian socialism views corporate power as an institutional problem, rather than as a result of the influence of certain immoral individuals.", "It thus opposes capitalism, which it sees as an economic system that upholds greed, the exploitation of labour and coercion, and calls for its overthrow in a social revolution.Libertarian socialists reject private property, as they consider capitalist property relations to be incompatible with freedom.", "Instead, libertarian socialism upholds individual self-ownership, as well as the collective ownership of the means of production.", "In the place of capitalism, libertarian socialists favour an economic system based on workers' control of production, advocating for a system of cooperative economics, decentralised planning, or common ownership.", "They also advocate for workers' self-management, as they consider workers able to cooperate productively without supervisors, whether appointed by employers or by the state.They also tend to see free trade as inevitably resulting in the redistribution of income and wealth from workers to their corporate employers.", "They advocate for the elimination of social and economic inequality through the coercive expropriation of property from the wealthy." ], [ "History", "The roots of libertarian socialism extend back to the classical radicalism of the early modern period, claiming the English Levellers and the French Encyclopédistes as their intellectual forerunners, and admiring figures of the Age of Enlightenment such as Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine and Adam Smith.", "According to Mikhail Bakunin and Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, while authoritarian socialism had its origins in Germany, libertarian socialism was born in France.", "The modern foundations of libertarian socialism lay in the utopian socialism expounded by Charles Fourier, Robert Owen and Henri de Saint-Simon, who envisioned a democratic socialism guided by communitarianism, moralism and feminism.===Emergence===Mikhail Bakunin, leader of the libertarian socialist faction of the International Workingmen's AssociationLibertarian socialism first emerged from the anti-authoritarian faction of the International Workingmen's Association (IWA), after it was expelled from the organisation by the Marxist faction at the Hague Congress of 1872.The libertarian socialist Mikhail Bakunin had rejected Karl Marx's calls for a \"dictatorship of the proletariat\", as he predicted it would only create a new ruling class, composed of a privileged minority, which would use the state to oppress the working classes.", "He concluded that: \"no dictatorship can have any other aim than to perpetuate itself, and it can only give rise to and instill slavery in the people that tolerates it.\"", "Marxists responded to this by insisting on the eventual \"withering away of the state\", in which society would transition from dictatorship to anarchy, in an apparent attempt to synthesise authoritarian and libertarian forms of socialism.This put libertarian socialists into direct competition with social democrats and communists for influence over left-wing politics, in a contest which lasted for over fifty years.", "Libertarian socialism proved attractive to British writers such as Edward Carpenter, Oscar Wilde, and William Morris, the latter of whom developed a kind of libertarian socialism based in a strong critique of civilization, which he aimed to overthrow and replace with what he called a \"beautiful society\".", "Morris drove the development of impossibilism, which became increasingly concerned with the bureaucratisation and moderation of the socialist movement, leading to the establishment of the Socialist Party of Great Britain.By the early 20th century, libertarian socialists had gained a leading influence over the left-wing in the Netherlands, France and Italy and went on to play major roles in the Mexican and Russian Revolutions.=== Russian Revolution ===Russian anarchist militiamen marching in formation during the 1917 RevolutionRussian libertarian socialists, including anarchists, populists and left socialist-revolutionaries, led the opposition to the Tsarist autocracy throughout the late-19th century.", "They created a network of both clandestine and legal organisations throughout Russia, with the aim of overthrowing the Russian nobility and bringing land under the common ownership of the mir.", "Their agitation for land reform in the Russian countryside culminated with the establishment of rural soviets during the 1905 Revolution.Anarchists also organised among the urban proletariat, forming clandestine factory committees that proved more attractive to revolution-minded workers than the more reformist trade unions favoured by the Bolsheviks.", "During the 1917 Revolution, in which libertarian socialists played a leading role, the Bolsheviks changed tack and adopted elements of the libertarian socialist programme in their appeals to the workers.", "But by 1919, the new Bolshevik government had come to view the libertarian socialists as a threat to their power and moved to eliminate their influence.", "Libertarian socialist organisations were banned and many of their members were arrested, deported to Siberia or executed by the Cheka.The Revolutions of 1917–1923 ended in defeat for the libertarian socialists, with either the social democrats, the Bolsheviks or nationalists rising to power.", "Libertarian socialists responded by reevaluating their positions, emphasising mass organisation over intellectual vanguardism and revolutionary spontaneity over substitutionism.", "They also came to conceive the \"dictatorship of the proletariat\" as a form of class power, rather than as the dictatorship of a political party.", "Many Marxists of the period were attracted to this position, including Rosa Luxemburg in Germany, Antonie Pannekoek in the Netherlands, Sylvia Pankhurst in Britain, György Lukács in Hungary and Antonio Gramsci in Italy.=== Spanish Revolution ===Spanish anarchist militiawomen during the 1936 RevolutionLibertarian socialism reached its apex of popularity with the Spanish Revolution of 1936, during which libertarian socialists led \"the largest and most successful revolution against capitalism to ever take place in any industrial economy\".In Spain, traditional forms of self-management and common ownership dated back to the 15th century.", "The Levante, where collective self-management of irrigation was commonplace, became the hotbed of anarchist collectivisation.", "Building on this traditional collectivism, from 1876, the Spanish libertarian socialist movement grew through sustained agitation and the establishment of alternative institutions that culminated in the Spanish Revolution.", "During this period, a series of workers' congresses, first convoked by the Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA, debated and refined proposals for the construction of a libertarian socialist society.", "Over several decades, resolutions from these congresses formed the basis of a specific program on a range of issues, from the structure of communes and the post-revolutionary economy to libertarian cultural and artistic initiatives.", "These proposals were published in the pages of widely distributed libertarian socialist periodicals, such as ''Solidaridad Obrera'' and ''Tierra y Libertad'', which each circulated tens of thousands of copies.", "By the outbreak of the revolution, the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) enjoyed widespread popularity, counting 1.5 million members within its ranks.During the revolution, the means of production were brought under workers' control and worker cooperatives formed the basis for the new economy.", "According to Gaston Leval, the CNT established an agrarian federation in the Levante that encompassed 78% of Spain's most arable land.", "The regional federation was populated by 1,650,000 people, 40% of whom lived on the region's 900 agrarian collectives, which were self-organised by peasant unions.Although industrial and agricultural production was at its highest in the anarchist-controlled areas of the Spanish Republic, and the anarchist militias displayed the strongest military discipline, liberals and communists alike blamed the \"sectarian\" libertarian socialists for the defeat of the Republic in the Spanish Civil War.", "These charges have been disputed by contemporary libertarian socialists, such as Robin Hahnel and Noam Chomsky, who have accused such claims of lacking substantial evidence.=== Decline ===Following the defeat of the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, libertarian socialism fell into decline.", "Left-wing politics throughout the world came to be dominated either by social democracy or Marxism-Leninism, which attained power in a number of countries and thus had the means to support their ideological allies.", "In contrast, libertarian socialists were not able to gain influence within the labour movement.", "At a time when reformist trade unions were consistently winning concessions, the libertarian socialists' anti-reformist message gained little traction.", "Their platform of workers' self-management also failed to appeal to industrial workers, who were increasingly falling in line under scientific management.", "Until the 1960s, libertarian socialists were limited mostly to making critiques of authoritarian socialism and capitalism, although these arguments were largely overshadowed by those from neoconservatives and Marxists respectively.=== New Left ===Noam Chomsky, the most prominent advocate of libertarian socialism in the New LeftLibertarian socialist themes received a revival during the 1960s, when it was reconstituted as part of the nascent New Left.", "This revival occurred largely unconsciously, as new leftists were often unaware of their libertarian socialist predecessors.", "The concepts of grassroots democracy, workers' control, solidarity and autonomy were thus reinvented by the new generation.", "They also picked up the principles of decentralisation, participatory democracy and mutual aid.", "These libertarian socialist themes drove the growth of the New Left, which by this point was disillusioned by the mainstream social democratic and Marxist-Leninist political groupings, due to the capitalistic tendencies of the former and the rigid authoritarianism of the latter.Sociologist C. Wright Mills, who displayed strong libertarian socialist tendencies in his appeals to the New Left, reformulated Marxism for the modern age in his work on ''The Power Elite''.", "Wilhelm Reich's Freudo-Marxist theses on the authoritarian personality were also rediscovered by the New Left, who developed his programme for individual self-governance into a libertarian system of education used by the Summerhill School.", "Drawing on the Freudo-Marxist conception of civilisation as \"organised domination\", Herbert Marcuse developed a critique of alienation in modern Western societies, concluding that creativity and political dissent had been undermined by social repression.", "Meanwhile, Lewis Mumford published denunciations of the military-industrial complex and Paul Goodman advocated for decentralisation.", "In the process, the new generation of Marxists gravitated towards libertarian tendencies, sometimes closely resembling anarchism.", "Following on from Marcuse, Daniel Cohn-Bendit, E. P. Thompson, Raymond Williams and Stuart Hall all adopted forms of \"libertarian Marxism\", opposed to the bureaucracy and parliamentarism of statist tendencies.A specific and explicit libertarian socialist tendency also began to emerge.", "While some more libertarian Marxists adopted the term in order to distinguish themselves from authoritarian socialists, anarchists began calling themselves \"libertarian socialist\" in order to avoid the negative connotations associated with anarchism.", "The libertarian socialist Daniel Guérin specifically attempted to synthesise anarchism and Marxism into a single tendency, which inspired the growth of the French libertarian communist movement.", "For a time, even the American anarcho-capitalist theorist Murray Rothbard attempted to make common cause with libertarian socialists, but later shifted away from socialism and towards right-wing populism.Many libertarian socialists of this period were particularly influenced by the analysis of Cornelius Castoriadis and his group Socialisme ou Barbarie.", "This new generation included the non-vanguardist Marxist organisation Facing Reality, the British libertarian socialist group Solidarity, and the Australian councilists of the Self-Management Group.", "Some of this new generation of libertarian socialists also joined the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), swelling the old union's numbers, organising agricultural workers and launching a new journal, ''The Rebel Worker''.", "This libertarian socialist milieu, with their criticisms of democratic centralism and trade unionism, and their advocacy of workers' self-management and council democracy, went on to inspire the French situationists and Italian autonomists.Of the figures in the New Left, the American linguist Noam Chomsky became the most prominent spokesperson for libertarian socialism.", "Inspired by the humanism of Bertrand Russell, the individualism of Wilhelm von Humboldt and the syndicalism of Rudolf Rocker, Chomsky championed a libertarian socialism that upheld individual liberty and self-ownership.", "Chomsky has been outspoken advocate of anti-authoritarianism, opposing limits on individual freedoms by the state.", "He has also focused much of his libertarian socialist critique on mass media in the United States, due to its role in the military-industrial complex.While most sections of the New Left expressed a form of libertarian socialism, others were instead being inspired by the Cuban and Chinese Communist Revolutions to embrace forms of authoritarian socialism such as Maoism–Third Worldism.", "As such, the New Left failed to form a coherent ideological program or establish lasting support to carry forward the momentum of the late 1960s, resulting in many dropping out of activism altogether.===New social movements===A minority from the New Left continued their radical activism within the new social movements of the 1970s and 1980s, becoming involved in second-wave feminism, the gay liberation movement, environmental movement and eventually the anti-globalization movement.", "According to Robin Hahnel, new social movements continued the New Left's tendency of failing to develop a \"comprehensive libertarian socialist theory and practice\".", "Libertarian socialist activism became focused on achieving practical reforms and theoretical developments centred around common \"core values\" such as economic democracy, economic justice and sustainable development, without building a coherent critique of capitalism.", "During this period, alternative models to capitalism proposed by libertarian socialists were often incoherent and reformist campaigns subsumed their commitment to anti-capitalism.", "Many libertarian socialists abandoned \"big picture politics\" in favour of single-issue campaigns, resulting in the compartmentalisation of these movements.These movements were somewhat successful in achieving their goals: the movement for gay and women's rights changed societal outlook on gender oppression; the anti-racist movement proved it necessary to tackle the social aspects of racialisation; the anti-imperialist movement reconceived of anti-imperialism outside of economic terms; and the environmentalist movement launched a wave of ecological defense and restoration.", "Together they broke from the class reductionism prevalent in traditional forms of libertarian socialism, proving intersectional oppressions other than class also demanded attention.", "Through the new social movements, libertarian socialism developed an awareness of different aspects of oppression, beyond class analysis.===Contemporary era===Libertarian socialism again received a revival of interest in the wake of the fall of communism and concurrent rise of neoliberalism.", "It proved particularly attractive to people from the former Eastern Bloc, who saw it as an alternative both to western capitalism and Marxism-Leninism.", "Since the end of the Cold War, there have been two major experiments in libertarian socialism: the Zapatista uprising in Mexico and the Rojava Revolution in Syria.In reaction against the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the privatisation of indigenous lands by the Mexican state, in 1994, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) rose up against the government, enabling the formation of a self-governing autonomous territory in the Mexican state of Chiapas.", "The Zapatistas have roundly rejected political sectarianism and ideological doctrine, including the state socialist model of seizing state power, with spokesman Subcomandante Marcos famously declaring \"I shit on all the revolutionary vanguards of this planet.\"", "As such, they have commonly been characterised as libertarian socialist, or inspired by libertarian socialism.", "They have in turn become a source of inspiration for libertarian socialists, including the autonomist Marxists Harry Cleaver and John Holloway, as well as some anarchists.In 2012, inspired by the Arab Spring and armed conflict with the Syrian government, the Rojava Revolution established the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES; or \"Rojava\") to put \"libertarian socialist ideas ... into practice\", and whose cantons present themselves as a \"libertarian socialist alternative to the colonially established state boundaries in the Middle East.\"", "Various sources have drawn parallels between the Rojava Revolution and the Zapatista uprising of 1994 or the Spanish Revolution of 1936." ], [ "Notable tendencies", "Libertarian socialism encompasses both the libertarian wing of socialism and the socialist wing of libertarianism, including many different schools of thought under its banner.", "The most commonly cited tendencies of libertarian socialism are anarchist communism, anarcho-syndicalism and council communism.", "Other Marxist strands of libertarian socialism include Western Marxism, Bordigism and impossibilism.", "Additionally, utopian socialism, guild socialism, socialist feminism and social ecology, as well as various strands of the New Left, new social movements and contemporary anarchism, have been listed among the other wings of libertarian socialism.=== Anarchist ===Principally this regards the currents of classical anarchism, developed in the 19th century, in their commitments to autonomy and freedom, decentralization, opposing hierarchy, and opposing the vanguardism of authoritarian socialism.Anarcho-syndicalist Gaston Leval explained: \"We therefore foresee a Society in which all activities will be coordinated, a structure that has, at the same time, sufficient flexibility to permit the greatest possible autonomy for social life, or for the life of each enterprise, and enough cohesiveness to prevent all disorder.", "...", "In a well-organised society, all of these things must be systematically accomplished by means of parallel federations, vertically united at the highest levels, constituting one vast organism in which all economic functions will be performed in solidarity with all others and that will permanently preserve the necessary cohesion\".=== Marxist ===A broad scope of economic and political philosophies that draw on the anti-authoritarian aspects of Marxism have been described as \"Libertarian Marxism\", a tendency which emphasises autonomy, federalism and direct democracy.", "Wayne Price identified it most closely with the tendency of autonomist Marxism and identified libertarian characteristics within council communism, the Johnson–Forest Tendency, the Socialisme ou Barbarie group and the Situationist International, contrasting them with orthodox Marxism, social democracy, and Marxism–Leninism.", "Michael Löwy and Olivier Besancenot have identified Rosa Luxemburg, Walter Benjamin, André Breton and Daniel Guérin as prominent figures of libertarian Marxism.===Democratic socialism===A onetime cabinet minister in the United Kingdom, Labour Party politician Peter Hain, has written in support of libertarian socialism.", "Hain identifies an axis involving a \"bottom-up vision of socialism, with anarchists at the revolutionary end and democratic socialists such as himself at its reformist end\" as opposed to the axis of state socialism with Marxist–Leninists at the revolutionary end and social democrats at the reformist end.", "In addition to Hain, Robin Cook, who was a contemporary mainstream Labour politician in the late 20th and early 21st century, has been described as a libertarian socialist as well.", "The Democratic Socialists of America, the largest socialist organization in the United States, has a Libertarian Socialist Caucus." ], [ "Debates", "===Reasons for decline===American economist Robin Hahnel claimed that libertarian socialists \"were by far the worst underachievers among 20th century anticapitalists.\"", "He contrasted libertarian socialist failings with those of social democracy, arguing that while the latter had abandoned their principles of economic democracy and justice in favour of reformism, the former had proved incapable of sustaining anti-capitalist uprisings and largely ignored the importance of political and economic reform.", "Hahnel consequently suggested that, in the 21st century, libertarian socialists should work together with other anti-capitalist social movements, organize for reform without abandoning anti-capitalist principles and strive to build grassroots institutions of self-management, even if those projects are \"imperfect\".===Priorities===While most libertarian socialists consider it necessary to combat both economic and political power in tandem, regarding each as fundamental to the survival of the other, some consider it a priority to combat one or the other first.", "Some, such as Mikhail Bakunin and Alexander Berkman, considered capitalism to rely on the support and protection of the state.", "They thus concluded that if the state were to be abolished, capitalism would naturally dissolve in its wake.", "But others, including Noam Chomsky, believe that the state is only inherently oppressive because of its control by a plutocratic class and that \"society is governed by those who own it\".", "Chomsky holds that government, while not benign, can at least be held accountable, while corporate power is neither benign nor accountable.", "Though he holds the abolition of the state to be desirable, Chomsky considers the abolition of capitalism to be of greater urgency." ], [ "See also", "* ''Freiwirtschaft'' (\"free economy\"), idea based on the \"natural economic order\"* Sociocracy, governance system using consent, rather than majority voting* Libertarianism, a political philosophy that upholds liberty as a core principle" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Livy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Titus Livius''' (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as '''Livy''' ( ), was a Roman historian.", "He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in 753 BC through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own lifetime.", "He was on good terms with members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and was a friend of Augustus, whose young grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius, he encouraged to take up the writing of history." ], [ "Life", "Livy was born in Patavium in northern Italy, now modern Padua, probably in 59 BC.", "At the time of his birth, his home city of Patavium was the second wealthiest on the Italian peninsula, and the largest in the province of Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy).", "Cisalpine Gaul was merged in Italy proper during his lifetime and its inhabitants were given Roman citizenship by Julius Caesar.", "In his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and the city was well known for its conservative values in morality and politics.", "\"He was by nature a recluse, mild in temperament and averse to violence; the restorative peace of his time gave him the opportunity to turn all his imaginative passion to the legendary and historical past of the country he loved.", "\"Livy's teenage years were during the 40s BC, a period of civil wars throughout the Roman world.", "The governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time, Asinius Pollio, tried to sway Patavium into supporting Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), the leader of one of the warring factions during Caesar's Civil War (49-45 BCE).", "The wealthy citizens of Patavium refused to contribute money and arms to Asinius Pollio, and went into hiding.", "Pollio then attempted to bribe the slaves of those wealthy citizens to expose the whereabouts of their masters; his bribery did not work, and the citizens instead pledged their allegiance to the Senate.", "It is therefore likely that the Roman civil wars prevented Livy from pursuing a higher education in Rome or going on a tour of Greece, which was common for adolescent males of the nobility at the time.", "Many years later, Asinius Pollio derisively commented on Livy's \"patavinity\", saying that Livy's Latin showed certain \"provincialisms\" frowned on at Rome.", "Pollio's dig may have been the result of bad feelings he harboured toward the city of Patavium from his experiences there during the civil wars.Livy probably went to Rome in the 30s BC, and it is likely that he spent a large amount of time in the city after this, although it may not have been his primary home.", "During his time in Rome, he was never a senator nor held a government position.", "His writings contain elementary mistakes on military matters, indicating that he probably never served in the Roman army.", "However, he was educated in philosophy and rhetoric.", "It seems that Livy had the financial resources and means to live an independent life, though the origin of that wealth is unknown.", "He devoted a large part of his life to his writings, which he was able to do because of his financial freedom.Livy was known to give recitations to small audiences, but he was not heard of to engage in declamation, then a common pastime.", "He was familiar with the emperor Augustus and the imperial family.", "Augustus was considered by later Romans to have been the greatest Roman emperor, benefiting Livy's reputation long after his death.", "Suetonius described how Livy encouraged the future emperor Claudius, who was born in 10 BC, to write historiographical works during his childhood.Livy's most famous work was his history of Rome.", "In it he narrates a complete history of the city of Rome, from its foundation to the death of Augustus.", "Because he was writing under the reign of Augustus, Livy's history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome.", "He wrote his history with embellished accounts of Roman heroism in order to promote the new type of government implemented by Augustus when he became emperor.", "In Livy's preface to his history, he said that he did not care whether his personal fame remained in darkness, as long as his work helped to \"preserve the memory of the deeds of the world’s preeminent nation.\"", "Because Livy was mostly writing about events that had occurred hundreds of years earlier, the historical value of his work was questionable, although many Romans came to believe his account to be true.Livy was married and had at least one daughter and one son.", "He also produced other works, including an essay in the form of a letter to his son, and numerous dialogues, most likely modelled on similar works by Cicero.", "One of his sons wrote a book on geography and a daughter married Lucius Magius, a rhetorician.Titus Livius died at his home city of Patavium in AD 17.The tombstone of Livy and his wife might have been found in Padua." ], [ "Works", "''Ab Urbe condita'' (1715)Livy's only surviving work is commonly known as ''History of Rome'' (or ).", "Together with Polybius it is considered one of the main accounts of the Second Punic War.", "When he began this work he was already past his youth, probably 33; presumably, events in his life prior to that time had led to his intense activity as a historian.", "He continued working on it until he left Rome for Padua in his old age, probably in the reign of Tiberius after the death of Augustus.", "Seneca the Younger says he was an orator and philosopher and had written some historical treatises in those fields.", "''History of Rome'' also served as the driving force behind the \"northern theory\" regarding the Etruscans' origins.", "This is because in the book Livy states, \"The Greeks also call them the 'Tyrrhene' and the 'Adriatic ...", "The Alpine tribes are undoubtedly of the same kind, especially the Raetii, who had through the nature of their country become so uncivilized that they retained no trace of their original condition except their language, and even this was not free from corruption\".", "Thus, many scholars, like Karl Otfried Müller, utilized this statement as evidence that the Etruscans or the Tyrrhenians migrated from the north and were descendants of an Alpine tribe known as the Raeti." ], [ "Reception", "===Imperial era===Livy's ''History of Rome'' was in high demand from the time it was published and remained so during the early years of the empire.", "Pliny the Younger reported that Livy's celebrity was so widespread, a man from Cádiz travelled to Rome and back for the sole purpose of meeting him.", "Livy's work was a source for the later works of Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, Eutropius, Festus, Florus, Granius Licinianus and Orosius.", "Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his ''De Prodigiis'', an account of supernatural events in Rome from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius.Livy wrote during the reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and consuls claiming to be defending the Roman Republic, such as Pompey.", "Patavium had been pro-Pompey.", "To clarify his status, the victor of the civil war, Octavian Caesar, had wanted to take the title ''Romulus'' (the first king of Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of ''Augustus''.", "Rather than abolishing the republic, he adapted it and its institutions to imperial rule.The historian Tacitus, writing about a century after Livy's time, described the Emperor Augustus as his friend.", "Describing the trial of Cremutius Cordus, Tacitus represents him as defending himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows:Livy's reasons for returning to Padua after the death of Augustus (if he did) are unclear, but the circumstances of Tiberius' reign certainly allow for speculation.===Later===Andrea Briosco ( 1567)During the Middle Ages, due to the length of the work, the literate class was already reading summaries rather than the work itself, which was tedious to copy, expensive, and required a lot of storage space.", "It must have been during this period, if not before, that manuscripts began to be lost without replacement.", "The Renaissance was a time of intense revival; the population discovered that Livy's work was being lost and large amounts of money changed hands in the rush to collect Livian manuscripts.", "The poet Beccadelli sold a country home for funding to purchase one manuscript copied by Poggio.", "Petrarch and Pope Nicholas V launched a search for the now missing books.", "Laurentius Valla published an amended text initiating the field of Livy scholarship.", "Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli's work on republics, the ''Discourses on Livy'', is presented as a commentary on the ''History of Rome''.", "Respect for Livy rose to lofty heights.", "Walter Scott reports in ''Waverley'' (1814) as an historical fact that a Scotsman involved in the first Jacobite uprising of 1715 was recaptured (and executed) because, having escaped, he yet lingered near the place of his captivity in \"the hope of recovering his favourite ''Titus Livius''\"." ], [ "Dates", "The authority supplying information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is Eusebius of Caesarea, a bishop of the early Christian Church.", "One of his works was a summary of world history in ancient Greek, termed the ''Chronikon,'' dating from the early 4th century AD.", "This work was lost except for fragments (mainly excerpts), but not before it had been translated in whole and in part by various authors such as St. Jerome.", "The entire work survives in two separate manuscripts, Armenian and Greek (Christesen and Martirosova-Torlone 2006).", "St. Jerome wrote in Latin.", "Fragments in Syriac exist.Eusebius' work consists of two books: the ''Chronographia'', a summary of history in annalist form, and the ''Chronikoi Kanones'', tables of years and events.", "St. Jerome translated the tables into Latin as the ''Chronicon'', probably adding some information of his own from unknown sources.", "Livy's dates appear in ''Jerome's Chronicon.", "''The main problem with the information given in the manuscripts is that, between them, they often give different dates for the same events or different events, do not include the same material entirely, and reformat what they do include.", "A date may be in ''Ab Urbe Condita'' or in Olympiads or in some other form, such as age.", "These variations may have occurred through scribal error or scribal license.", "Some material has been inserted under the aegis of Eusebius.The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on Livy seldom care to linger.", "As a result, standard information in a standard rendition is used, which gives the impression of a standard set of dates for Livy.", "There are no such dates.", "A typical presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1 respectively.", "All sources use the same first Olympiad, 776/775–773/772 BC by the modern calendar.", "By a complex formula (made so by the 0 reference point not falling on the border of an Olympiad), these codes correspond to 59 BC for the birth, 17 AD for the death.", "In another manuscript the birth is in 180.4, or 57 BC." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * ." ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * Mineo, Bernard (editor) (2015).", "''A Companion to Livy'', Chichester, John Wiley & Sons.", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " Works by Livy at Perseus Digital Library* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Labour Day" ], [ "Introduction", "Countries and dependencies coloured by observance of International Workers' Day or a different variant of May Day or Labour Day:'''Labour Day''' is an annual holiday to celebrate the achievements of workers.", "Labour Day has its origins in the labour union movement, specifically the eight-hour day movement, which advocated eight hours for work, eight hours for recreation, and eight hours for rest.For most countries, Labour Day is synonymous with, or linked with, International Workers' Day, which occurs on 1 May.", "For other countries, Labour Day is celebrated on a different date, often one with special significance for the labour movement in that country.", "Labour Day is a public holiday in many countries." ], [ "International Workers' Day", "For most countries, \"Labour Day\" is synonymous with, or linked with, International Workers' Day, which occurs on 1 May.", "Some countries vary the actual date of their celebrations so that the holiday occurs on a Monday close to 1 May.Some countries have a holiday at or around this date, but it is not a 'Labour Day' celebration." ], [ "Other dates", "===Australia===A May Day parade in Brisbane in 2017Labour Day in Australia is a public holiday on dates which vary between states and territories.", "In some states the date commemorates the Eight Hours Day march (see below).", "It is the first Monday in October in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and South Australia.", "In Victoria and Tasmania, it is the second Monday in March (though the latter calls it Eight Hours Day).", "In Western Australia, Labour Day is the first Monday in March.", "In Queensland and the Northern Territory, Labour Day occurs on the first Monday in May (though the latter calls it May Day).", "It is on the fourth Monday of March in the territory of Christmas Island.The first march for an eight-hour day by the labour movement occurred in Melbourne on 21 April 1856.On this day, stonemasons and building workers on building sites around Melbourne stopped work and marched from the University of Melbourne to Parliament House to achieve an eight-hour day.", "Their direct action protest was a success, and they are noted as being among the first organized workers in the world to achieve an 8-hour day, with no loss of pay.=== Bangladesh ===Bangladesh Garment Sramik Sanghati, an organization working for the welfare of garment workers, has requested that 24 April be declared Labour Safety Day in Bangladesh, in memory of the victims of the Rana Plaza building collapse.", "However, Bangladesh does observe May Day on 1 May.===Bahamas===Labour Day is a national holiday in the Bahamas, celebrated on the first Friday in June in order to create a long weekend for workers.", "The traditional date of Labour Day in the Bahamas, however, is 7 June, in commemoration of a significant workers' strike that began on that day in 1942.Labour Day is meant to honour and celebrate workers and the importance of their contributions to the nation and society.", "In the capital city, Nassau, thousands of people come to watch a parade through the streets, which begins at mid-morning.", "Bands in colourful uniforms, traditional African Junkanoo performers, and members of various labour unions and political parties are all part of the procession, which ends up at the Southern Recreation Grounds, where government officials make speeches for the occasion.", "For many residents and visitors to the Bahamas, the afternoon of Labour Day is a time to relax at home or perhaps visit the beach.===Canada===A Labour Day parade in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in the early 1900sLabour Day (French: ''Fête du Travail'') has been marked as a statutory public holiday in Canada on the first Monday in September since 1894.Its origins can be traced back to numerous local demonstrations and celebrations in earlier decades.", "Such events assumed political significance when a labour demonstration in Toronto in April 1872, in support of striking printers, led directly to the enactment of the Trade Union Act, a law that confirmed the legality of unions.", "On 22 July 1882, a labour celebration in Toronto attracted the attention of American labour leader Peter J. McGuire, who organized a similar parade in New York City on 5 September that year.", "Unions associated with the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor in both Canada and the United States subsequently promoted parades and festivals on the first Monday in September.", "In Canada, local celebrations took place in Hamilton, Oshawa, Montreal, St Catharines, Halifax, Ottawa, Vancouver and London during these years.", "Montreal declared a civic holiday in 1889.In Nova Scotia, coal miners had been holding picnics and parades since 1880 to celebrate the anniversary of their union, the Provincial Workmen's Association, first organized in 1879.In addition, in 1889, the Royal Commission on the Relations of Labour and Capital in Canada recommended recognition of an official \"labour day\" by the federal government.", "In March and April 1894, unions lobbied Parliament to recognize Labour Day as a public holiday.", "Legislation was introduced in May by Prime Minister Sir John Thompson and received royal assent in July 1894.===China===1 May is a statutory holiday in the People's Republic of China.", "It was a three-day holiday until 2008, but was only one day after 2008.However, the actual time off is often longer than the time off in the regulations, and the extra time off is usually supplemented by another two weekends, but since the extra time is not under an official holiday, the extra days must be \"made up\" by working on the preceding or following weekend.", "For example, in 2013, 1 May fell on Wednesday.", "Most workplaces, including all government offices, took Monday 29 April, Tuesday 30 April, and Wednesday 1 May off.", "As the first two days were not statutory holidays, they had to be \"made up\" by working the preceding weekend (27 and 28 April).===Hong Kong S.A.R.===In Hong Kong, 1 May is known as Labour Day and has been considered a public holiday since 1999.===India===The first labour day was celebrated in India on May 1, 1923, in Chennai.", "The first May Day celebrations were organized by the Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan.", "Labour day has been considered a public holiday in India.===Jamaica===Before 1961, 24 May was celebrated in Jamaica as Empire Day in honour of the birthday of Queen Victoria and her emancipation of slaves in Jamaica.", "As its name suggests, the day was used to celebrate the British Empire, complete with flag-raising ceremonies and the singing of patriotic songs.", "In 1961, Jamaican Chief Minister Norman Washington Manley proposed the replacement of Empire Day with Labour Day, a celebration in commemoration of 23 May 1938, when Alexander Bustamante led a labour rebellion leading to Jamaican independence.In 1972, Jamaican Prime Minister Michael Manley promoted Labour Day as a showcase for the importance of labour to the development of Jamaica, and a day of voluntary community participation to beneficial projects.", "Since then, Labour Day has been not only a public holiday, but also a day of mass community involvement around the country.===Japan===In Japan, Labour Day is officially conflated with Thanksgiving on 23 November, as Labor Thanksgiving Day.=== Kazakhstan ===Labour Day in Kazakhstan is celebrated on the last Sunday in September.", "The holiday was officially established in late 2013.In 1995, the government of Kazakhstan replaced International Workers' Day with Kazakhstan People's Unity Day.", "Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev also instituted a special medal that is awarded to veterans of labour on the occasion of the holiday.", "Labour Day it is widely celebrated across the country with official speeches, award ceremonies, cultural events, etc.", "It is a non-working holiday for most citizens of Kazakhstan because it always falls on a weekend.===Macau S.A.R.===In Macau, 1 May is a public holiday and is officially known as Dia do Trabalhador (Portuguese for \"Workers' Day\").===New Zealand===In New Zealand, Labour Day () is a public holiday held on the fourth Monday in October.", "Its origins are traced back to the eight-hour working day movement that arose in the newly founded Wellington colony in 1840, primarily because of carpenter Samuel Parnell's refusal to work more than eight hours a day.", "That year, Parnell reportedly told a prospective employer: \"There are twenty-four hours per day given us; eight of these should be for work, eight for sleep, and the remaining eight for recreation\".The first Labour Day in New Zealand was celebrated on October 28, 1890, which marked the first anniversary of the Maritime Council, an organization of transport and mining unions.", "Several thousand trade union members and supporters attended parades in the main city centres.", "Government employees were given the day off to attend, and many businesses closed for at least part of the day.", "Initially, the day was variously called Labour Day or Labour Demonstration Day.In 1899, the government legislated that the day be a public holiday through the Labour Day Act of 1899.The day was set as the second Wednesday in October and first celebrated the following year, in 1900.In 1910 the holiday was moved to the fourth Monday in October.=== Pakistan ===In Pakistan, 1 May is Labour Day and it is a public holiday all over the nation.", "Some private companies still do not apply this rule and operate as usual if it is not on Saturday and Sunday.===Poland===Poland celebrates Labour Day on 1 May.", "Since 3 May is the Constitution Day, also a public holiday, they are often combined to generate the \"May long weekend\".===Taiwan===1 May is known as Labour Day in Taiwan, an official holiday, though not everybody gets a day off.", "Students and teachers do not have this day off.===Trinidad and Tobago===In Trinidad and Tobago, Labour Day is celebrated every 19 June.", "This holiday was proposed in 1973 to be commemorated on the anniversary of the 1937 Butler labour riots.===United States===First US Labor Day Parade, 5 September 1882 in New York CityIn the United States, Labor Day is a federal holiday observed on the first Monday of September.", "It is customarily viewed as the end of the summer vacation season.", "Many schools open for the year on the day after Labor Day." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** ToadShow Labour Day photographs, State Library of Queensland.", "Collection of photographs showing Labour Day events in Brisbane, Ipswich, Gold Coast and Barcaldine between 1998 and 2012." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Bodyline" ], [ "Introduction", "Bill Woodfull evades a bodyline ball'''Bodyline''', also known as '''fast leg theory bowling''', was a cricketing tactic devised by the English cricket team for their 1932–33 Ashes tour of Australia.", "It was designed to combat the extraordinary batting skill of Australia's leading batsman, Don Bradman.", "A bodyline delivery was one in which the cricket ball was bowled at pace, aimed at the body of the batsman in the expectation that when he defended himself with his bat, a resulting deflection could be caught by one of several fielders deliberately placed nearby on the leg side.At the time, no helmets or other upper body protective gear was worn, and critics of the tactic considered it intimidating, and physically threatening in a game that was traditionally supposed to uphold conventions of sportsmanship.", "The England team's use of the tactic was perceived by some, both in Australia and England, as overly aggressive or even unfair, and caused a controversy that rose to such a level that it threatened diplomatic relations between the two countries before the situation was calmed.Although no serious injuries arose from any short-pitched deliveries while a leg theory field was actually set, the tactic led to considerable ill feeling between the two teams, particularly when Australian batsmen were struck, inflaming spectators.After the introduction of helmets, short-pitched fast bowling, sometimes exceeding , continues to be permitted in cricket, even when aimed at the batsman, and is considered to be a legitimate bowling tactic when used sparingly.Over time, several of the Laws of Cricket were changed to render the bodyline tactic less effective—and increase player safety—such as concussion breaks and inspections." ], [ "Definition and etymology", "Bodyline is a tactic devised for and primarily used in the Ashes series between England and Australia in 1932–33.The tactic involved bowling at the leg stump or just outside it, but pitching the ball short so that, on bouncing, it reared up threateningly at the body of a batsman standing in an orthodox batting position.", "A ring of fielders ranged on the leg side would catch any defensive deflection from the bat.", "The batsman's options were to evade the ball through ducking or moving aside, allow the ball to strike his body, or attempt to play the ball with his bat.", "The last course carried additional risks, as defensive shots brought few runs and could carry far enough to be caught by fielders on the leg side, and pull and hook shots could be caught near the boundary of the field where two men were usually placed for such a shot.Bodyline bowling is intended to be intimidatory, and it was primarily designed as an attempt to curb the unusually prolific scoring of Donald Bradman, although other Australian batsmen such as Bill Woodfull, Bill Ponsford, and Alan Kippax were also targeted.Several terms were used to describe this style of bowling before the name 'bodyline' was used.", "Among the first to use it was the writer and former Australian Test cricketer Jack Worrall in the match between the English team and an Australian XI.", "When 'bodyline' was first used in full, he referred to \"half-pitched slingers on the body line\" and first used it in print after the first Test.", "Other writers used a similar phrase around this time, but the first use of 'bodyline' in print seems to have been by the journalist Hugh Buggy in the Melbourne ''Herald'', in his report on the first day's play of the first Test." ], [ "Genesis", "===Leg theory bowling===In the 19th century, most cricketers considered it unsportsmanlike to bowl the ball at the leg stump or for batsmen to hit on the leg side.", "But by the early years of the 20th century, some bowlers, usually slow or medium-paced, used leg theory as a tactic; the ball was aimed outside the line of leg stump and the fielders placed on that side of the field, the object being to test the batsman's patience and force a rash stroke.", "Two English left-arm bowlers, George Hirst in 1903–04 and Frank Foster in 1911–12, bowled leg theory to packed leg side fields in Test matches in Australia; Warwick Armstrong also used it regularly for Australia.", "In the years immediately before the First World War, several bowlers used leg theory in English county cricket.When cricket resumed after the war, few bowlers maintained the tactic, which was unpopular with spectators owing to its negativity.", "Fred Root, the Worcestershire bowler, used it regularly and with considerable success in county cricket.", "Root later defended the use of leg theory—and bodyline—observing that when bowlers bowled outside off stump, the batsmen always had the option to let the ball pass them without playing a shot, so they could scarcely complain.Some fast bowlers experimented with leg theory prior to 1932, sometimes accompanying the tactic with short-pitched bowling.", "In 1925, Australian Jack Scott first bowled a form of what would later have been called bodyline in a state match for New South Wales; his captain Herbie Collins disliked it and would not let him use it again.", "Other Australian captains were less particular, including Vic Richardson, who asked the South Australian bowler Lance Gun to use it in 1925, and later let Scott use it when he moved to South Australia.", "Scott repeated the tactics against the MCC in 1928–29.In 1927, in a Test trial match, \"Nobby\" Clark bowled short to a leg-trap (a cluster of fielders placed close on the leg side).", "He was representing England in a side captained by Douglas Jardine.", "In 1928–29, Harry Alexander bowled fast leg theory at an England team, and Harold Larwood briefly used a similar tactic on that same tour in two Test matches.", "Freddie Calthorpe, the England captain, criticised Learie Constantine's use of short-pitched bowling to a leg side field in a Test match in 1930; one such ball struck Andy Sandham, but Constantine only reverted to more conventional tactics after a complaint from the England team.===Donald Bradman===Don Bradman in 1930The Australian cricket team toured England in 1930.Australia won the five-Test series 2–1, and Donald Bradman scored 974 runs at a batting average of 139.14, an aggregate record that still stands to this day.", "By the time of the next Ashes series of 1932–33, Bradman's average hovered around 100, approximately twice that of all other world-class batsmen.", "The English cricket authorities felt that specific tactics would be required to curtail Bradman from being even more successful on his own Australian pitches; some believed that Bradman was at his most vulnerable against leg-spin bowling as Walter Robins and Ian Peebles had supposedly caused him problems; consequently two leg-spinners were included in the English touring party of 1932–33.Gradually, the idea developed that Bradman was possibly vulnerable to pace bowling.", "In the final Test of the 1930 Ashes series, while he was batting, the pitch became briefly difficult following rain.", "Bradman was observed to be uncomfortable facing deliveries which bounced higher than usual at a faster pace, being seen to consistently step back out of the line of the ball.", "Former England player and Surrey captain Percy Fender was one who noticed this, and the incident was much discussed by cricketers.", "Given that Bradman scored 232, it was not initially thought that a way to curb his prodigious scoring had been found.", "When Douglas Jardine later saw film footage of the Oval incident and noticed Bradman's discomfort, according to his daughter he shouted, \"I've got it!", "He's yellow!\"", "The theory of Bradman's vulnerability developed further when Fender received correspondence from Australia in 1932, describing how Australian batsmen were increasingly moving across the stumps towards the off side to play the ball on the on side.", "Fender showed these letters to his Surrey team-mate Jardine when it became clear that Jardine was to captain the English team in Australia during the 1932–33 tour, and he also discussed Bradman's discomfort at the Oval.", "It was also known in England that Bradman was dismissed for a four-ball duck by fast bowler Eddie Gilbert, and had looked very uncomfortable.", "Bradman had also appeared uncomfortable against the pace of Sandy Bell in his innings of 299 not out at the Adelaide Oval in South Africa's tour of Australia earlier in 1932, when the desperate bowler decided to bowl short to him, and fellow South African Herbie Taylor, according to Jack Fingleton, may have mentioned this to English cricketers in 1932.Fender felt Bradman might be vulnerable to fast, short-pitched deliveries on the line of leg stump.", "Jardine felt that Bradman was nervous about standing his ground against intimidatory bowling, citing instances in 1930 when he shuffled about, contrary to orthodox batting technique.===Douglas Jardine=== alt=A head shot of a man.Jardine's first experience against Australia came when he scored an unbeaten 96 to secure a draw against the 1921 Australian touring side for Oxford University.", "The tourists were criticised in the press for not allowing Jardine to reach his hundred, but had tried to help him with some easy bowling.", "There has been speculation that this incident helped develop Jardine's antipathy towards Australians, although Jardine's biographer Christopher Douglas denies this.", "Jardine's attitude towards Australia hardened after he toured the country in 1928–29.When he scored three consecutive hundreds in the early games, he was frequently jeered by the crowd for slow play; the Australian spectators took an increasing dislike to him, mainly for his superior attitude and bearing, his awkward fielding, and particularly his choice of headwear—a Harlequin cap that was given to successful Oxford cricketers.", "Although Jardine may simply have worn the cap out of superstition, it conveyed a negative impression to the spectators; his general demeanour drew one comment of \"Where's the butler to carry the bat for you?\"", "By this stage Jardine had developed an intense dislike for Australian crowds.", "During his third century at the start of the tour, during a period of abuse from the spectators, he observed to Hunter Hendry that \"All Australians are uneducated, and an unruly mob\".", "After the innings, when teammate Patsy Hendren remarked that the Australian crowds did not like Jardine, he replied \"It's fucking mutual\".", "During the tour, Jardine fielded next to the crowd on the boundary.", "There, he was roundly abused and mocked for his awkward fielding, particularly when chasing the ball.", "On one occasion, he spat towards the crowd while fielding on the boundary as he changed position for the final time.Jardine was appointed captain of England for the 1931 season, replacing Percy Chapman who had led the team in 1930.He defeated New Zealand in his first series, but opinion was divided as to how effective he had been.", "The following season, he led England again and was appointed to lead the team to tour Australia for the 1932–33 Ashes series.", "A meeting was arranged between Jardine, Nottinghamshire captain Arthur Carr and his two fast bowlers Harold Larwood and Bill Voce at London's Piccadilly Hotel to discuss a plan to combat Bradman.", "Jardine asked Larwood and Voce if they could bowl on leg stump and make the ball rise into the body of the batsman.", "The bowlers agreed they could, and that it might prove effective.", "Jardine also visited Frank Foster to discuss his field-placing in Australia in 1911–12.Larwood and Voce practised the plan over the remainder of the 1932 season with varying but increasing success and several injuries to batsmen.", "Ken Farnes experimented with short-pitched, leg-theory bowling but was not selected for the tour.", "Bill Bowes also used short-pitched bowling, notably against Jack Hobbs." ], [ "Ashes series of 1932–33", "The England team that toured Australia in 1932–33.Back row: George Duckworth, Tommy Mitchell, Nawab of Pataudi, Maurice Leyland, Harold Larwood, Eddie Paynter, W. Ferguson (scorer).", "Middle row: Pelham Warner (co-manager), Les Ames, Hedley Verity, Bill Voce, Bill Bowes, Freddie Brown, Maurice Tate, R. C. N. Palairet (co-manager).", "Front row: Herbert Sutcliffe, Bob Wyatt, Douglas Jardine, Gubby Allen, Wally Hammond===Early development on tour===The England team which toured Australia in 1932–33 contained four fast bowlers and a few medium pacers; such a heavy concentration on pace was unusual at the time, and drew comment from the Australian press and players, including Bradman.", "On the journey, Jardine instructed his team on how to approach the tour and discussed tactics with several players, including Larwood; at this stage, he seems to have settled on leg theory, if not full bodyline, as his main tactic.", "Some players later reported that he told them to hate the Australians in order to defeat them, while instructing them to refer to Bradman as \"the little bastard.\"", "Upon arrival, Jardine quickly alienated the press and crowds through his manner and approach.In the early matches, although there were instances of the English bowlers pitching the ball short and causing problems with their pace, full bodyline tactics were not used.", "There had been little unusual about the English bowling except the number of fast bowlers.", "Larwood and Voce were given a light workload in the early matches by Jardine.", "The English tactics changed in a game against an Australian XI team at Melbourne in mid-November, when full bodyline tactics were deployed for the first time.", "Jardine had left himself out of the English side, which was led instead by Bob Wyatt who later wrote that the team experimented with a diluted form of bodyline bowling.", "He reported to Jardine that Bradman, who was playing for the opposition, seemed uncomfortable against the bowling tactics of Larwood, Voce and Bowes.", "The crowd, press and Australian players were shocked by what they experienced and believed that the bowlers were targeting the batsmen's heads.", "Bradman adopted unorthodox tactics—ducking, weaving and moving around the crease—which did not meet with universal approval from Australians and he scored just 36 and 13 in the match.The tactic continued to be used in the next game by Voce (Larwood and Bowes did not play in this game), against New South Wales, for whom Jack Fingleton made a century and received several blows in the process.", "Bradman again failed twice, and had scored just 103 runs in six innings against the touring team; many Australian fans were now worried by Bradman's form.", "Meanwhile, Jardine wrote to tell Fender that his information about the Australian batting technique was correct and that it meant he was having to move more and more fielders onto the leg side: \"if this goes on I shall have to move the whole bloody lot to the leg side.", "\"The Australian press were shocked and criticised the hostility of Larwood in particular.", "Some former Australian players joined the criticism, saying the tactics were ethically wrong.", "But at this stage, not everyone was opposed, and the Australian Board of Control believed the English team had bowled fairly.", "On the other hand, Jardine increasingly came into disagreement with tour manager Warner over bodyline as the tour progressed.", "Warner hated bodyline but would not speak out against it.", "He was accused of hypocrisy for not taking a stand on either side, particularly after expressing sentiments at the start of the tour that cricket \"has become a synonym for all that is true and honest.", "To say 'that is not cricket' implies something underhand, something not in keeping with the best ideals ... all who love it as players, as officials or spectators must be careful lest anything they do should do it harm.", "\"===First two Test matches=== alt=Photograph shows telegrams describing the events of the first day of the second test.Bradman missed the first Test at Sydney, worn out by constant cricket and the ongoing argument with the Board of Control.", "Jardine later wrote that the real reason was that the batsman had suffered a nervous breakdown.", "The English bowlers used bodyline intermittently in the first match, to the crowd's vocal displeasure, and the Australians lost the game by ten wickets.", "Larwood was particularly successful, returning match figures of ten wickets for 124 runs.", "One of the English bowlers, Gubby Allen, refused to bowl with fielders on the leg side, clashing with Jardine over these tactics.", "The only Australian batsman to make an impact was Stan McCabe, who hooked and pulled everything aimed at his upper body, to score 187 not out in four hours from 233 deliveries.", "Behind the scenes, administrators began to express concerns to each other.", "Yet the English tactics still did not earn universal disapproval; former Australian captain Monty Noble praised the English bowling.Meanwhile, Woodfull was being encouraged to retaliate to the short-pitched English attack, not least by members of his own side such as Vic Richardson, or to include pace bowlers such as Eddie Gilbert or Laurie Nash to match the aggression of the opposition.", "But Woodfull refused to consider doing so.", "He had to wait until minutes before the game before he was confirmed as captain by the selectors.For the second Test, Bradman returned to the team after his newspaper employers released him from his contract.", "England continued to use bodyline and Bradman was dismissed by his first ball in the first innings.", "In the second innings, against the full bodyline attack, he scored an unbeaten century which helped Australia to win the match and level the series at one match each.", "Critics began to believe bodyline was not quite the threat that had been perceived and Bradman's reputation, which had suffered slightly with his earlier failures, was restored.", "However, the pitch was slightly slower than others in the series, and Larwood was suffering from problems with his boots which reduced his effectiveness.===Third Test match===The controversy reached its peak during the Third Test at Adelaide.", "On the second day, a Saturday, before a crowd of 50,962 spectators, Australia bowled out England who had batted through the first day.", "In the third over of the Australian innings, Larwood bowled to Woodfull.", "The fifth ball narrowly missed Woodfull's head and the final ball, delivered short on the line of middle stump, struck Woodfull over the heart.", "The batsman dropped his bat and staggered away holding his chest, bent over in pain.", "The England players surrounded Woodfull to offer sympathy but the crowd began to protest noisily.", "Jardine called to Larwood: \"Well bowled, Harold!\"", "Although the comment was aimed at unnerving Bradman, who was also batting at the time, Woodfull was appalled.", "Play resumed after a brief delay, once it was certain the Australian captain was fit to carry on and, since Larwood's over had ended, Woodfull did not have to face the bowling of Allen in the next over.", "However, when Larwood was ready to bowl at Woodfull again, play was halted once more when the fielders were moved into bodyline positions, causing the crowd to protest and call abuse at the England team.", "Subsequently, Jardine claimed that Larwood requested a field change, Larwood said that Jardine had done so.", "Many commentators condemned the alteration of the field as unsporting, and the angry spectators became extremely volatile.", "Jardine, although writing that Woodfull could have retired hurt if he was unfit, later expressed his regret at making the field change at that moment.", "The fury of the crowd was such that a riot might have occurred had another incident taken place and several writers suggested that the anger of the spectators was the culmination of feelings built up over the two months that bodyline had developed.During the over, another rising Larwood delivery knocked the bat out of Woodfull's hands.", "He batted for 89 minutes, being hit a few more times before Allen bowled him for 22.Later in the day, Pelham Warner, one of the England managers, visited the Australian dressing room.", "He expressed sympathy to Woodfull but was surprised by the Australian's response.", "According to Warner, Woodfull replied, \"I don't want to see you, Mr Warner.", "There are two teams out there.", "One is trying to play cricket and the other is not.\"", "Fingleton wrote that Woodfull had added, \"This game is too good to be spoilt.", "It is time some people got out of it.\"", "Woodfull was usually dignified and quietly spoken, making his reaction surprising to Warner and others present.", "Warner was so shaken that he was found in tears later that day in his hotel room.There was no play on the following day, Sunday being a rest day, but on Monday morning, the exchange between Warner and Woodfull was reported in several Australian newspapers.", "The players and officials were horrified that a sensitive private exchange had been reported to the press.", "Leaks to the press were practically unknown in 1933.David Frith notes that discretion and respect were highly prized and such a leak was \"regarded as a moral offence of the first order.\"", "Woodfull made it clear that he severely disapproved of the leak, and later wrote that he \"always expected cricketers to do the right thing by their team-mates.\"", "As the only full-time journalist in the Australian team, suspicion immediately fell on Fingleton, although as soon as the story was published, he told Woodfull he was not responsible.", "Warner offered Larwood a reward of one pound if he could dismiss Fingleton in the second innings; Larwood obliged by bowling him for a duck.", "Fingleton later claimed that Sydney Sun reporter Claude Corbett had received the information from Bradman; for the rest of their lives, Fingleton and Bradman made claim and counter-claim that the other man was responsible for the leak.Bert Oldfield staggers away with his skull fractured.The following day, as Australia faced a large deficit on the first innings, Bert Oldfield played a long innings in support of Bill Ponsford, who scored 85.In the course of the innings, the English bowlers used bodyline against him, and he faced several short-pitched deliveries but took several fours from Larwood to move to 41.Having just conceded a four, Larwood bowled fractionally shorter and slightly slower.", "Oldfield attempted to hook but lost sight of the ball and edged it onto his temple; the ball fractured his skull.", "Oldfield staggered away and fell to his knees and play stopped as Woodfull came onto the pitch and the angry crowd jeered and shouted, once more reaching the point where a riot seemed likely.", "Several English players thought about arming themselves with stumps should the crowd come onto the field.", "The ball which injured Oldfield was bowled to a conventional, non-bodyline field; Larwood immediately apologised but Oldfield said that it was his own fault before he was helped back to the dressing room and play continued.", "Jardine later secretly sent a telegram of sympathy to Oldfield's wife and arranged for presents to be given to his young daughters.===The cable exchange===At the end of the fourth day's play of the third Test match, the Australian Board of Control sent a cable to the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), cricket's ruling body and the club that selected the England team, in London:Not all Australians, including the press and players, believed that the cable should have been sent, particularly immediately following a heavy defeat.", "The suggestion of unsportsmanlike behaviour was deeply resented by the MCC, and was one of the worst accusations that could have been levelled at the team at the time.", "Additionally, members of the MCC believed that the Australians had over-reacted to the English bowling.", "The MCC took some time to draft a reply:At this point, the remainder of the series was under threat.", "Jardine was shaken by the events and by the hostile reactions to his team.", "Stories appeared in the press, possibly leaked by the disenchanted Nawab of Pataudi, about fights and arguments between the England players.", "Jardine offered to stop using bodyline if the team did not support him, but after a private meeting (not attended by Jardine or either of the team managers) the players released a statement fully supporting the captain and his tactics.", "Even so, Jardine would not have played in the fourth Test without the withdrawal of the \"unsportsmanlike\" accusation.The Australian Board met to draft a reply cable, which was sent on 30 January, indicating that they wished the series to continue and offering to postpone consideration of the fairness of bodyline bowling until after the series.", "The MCC's reply, on 2 February, suggested that continuing the series would be impossible unless the accusation of unsporting behaviour was withdrawn.The situation escalated into a diplomatic incident.", "Figures high up in both the British and Australian government saw bodyline as potentially fracturing an international relationship that needed to remain strong.", "The Governor of South Australia, Alexander Hore-Ruthven, who was in England at the time, expressed his concern to British Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs James Henry Thomas that this would cause a significant impact on trade between the nations.", "The standoff was settled when the Australian prime minister, Joseph Lyons, met with members of the Australian Board and outlined to them the severe economic hardships that could be caused in Australia if the British public boycotted Australian trade.", "Following considerable discussion and debate in the English and Australian press, the Australian Board sent a cable to the MCC which, while maintaining its opposition to bodyline bowling, stated \"We do not regard the sportsmanship of your team as being in question\".", "Even so, correspondence between the Australian Board and the MCC continued for almost a year.===The end of the series===Voce missed the fourth Test of the series, being replaced by a leg spinner, Tommy Mitchell.", "Larwood continued to use bodyline, but he was the only bowler in the team using the tactic; even so, he used it less frequently than usual and seemed less effective in high temperatures and humidity.", "England won the game by eight wickets, thanks in part to an innings of 83 by Eddie Paynter who had been admitted to hospital with tonsillitis but left in order to bat when England were struggling in their innings.", "Voce returned for the final Test, but neither he nor Allen were fully fit, and despite the use of bodyline tactics, Australia scored 435 at a rapid pace, aided by several dropped catches.", "Australia included a fast bowler for this final game, Harry Alexander who bowled some short deliveries but was not allowed to use many fielders on the leg side by his captain, Woodfull.", "England built a lead of 19 but their tactics in Australia's second innings were disrupted when Larwood left the field with an injured foot; Hedley Verity, a spinner, claimed five wickets to bowl Australia out; England won by eight wickets and won the series by four Tests to one." ], [ "In England", "Bodyline continued to be bowled occasionally in the 1933 English season—most notably by Nottinghamshire, who had Carr, Voce and Larwood in their team.", "Jardine himself had to face bodyline bowling in a Test match.", "The West Indian cricket team toured England in 1933, and, in the second Test at Old Trafford, Jackie Grant, their captain, decided to try bodyline.", "He had a couple of fast bowlers, Manny Martindale and Learie Constantine.", "Facing bodyline tactics for the first time, England first suffered, falling to 134 for 4, with Wally Hammond being hit on the chin, though he recovered to continue his innings.", "Then Jardine himself faced Martindale and Constantine.", "Jardine never flinched.", "With Les Ames finding himself in difficulties, Jardine said, \"You get yourself down this end, Les.", "I'll take care of this bloody nonsense.\"", "He played right back to the bouncers, standing on tiptoe, and played them with a dead bat, sometimes playing the ball one handed for more control.", "While the Old Trafford pitch was not as suited to bodyline as the hard Australian wickets, Martindale did take 5 for 73, but Constantine only took 1 for 55.Jardine himself made 127, his only Test century.", "In the West Indian second innings, Clark bowled bodyline back to the West Indians, taking 2 for 64.The match in the end was drawn but played a large part in turning English opinion against bodyline.", "''The Times'' used the word bodyline, without using inverted commas or using the qualification ''so-called'', for the first time.", "''Wisden'' also said that \"most of those watching it for the first time must have come to the conclusion that, while strictly within the law, it was not nice.", "\"In 1934, Bill Woodfull led Australia back to England on a tour that had been under a cloud after the tempestuous cricket diplomacy of the previous bodyline series.", "Jardine had retired from International cricket in early 1934 after captaining a fraught tour of India and under England's new captain, Bob Wyatt, agreements were put in place so that bodyline would not be used.", "However, there were occasions when the Australians felt that their hosts had crossed the mark with tactics resembling bodyline.In a match between the Australians and Nottinghamshire, Voce, one of the bodyline practitioners of 1932–33, employed the strategy with the wicket-keeper standing to the leg side and took 8/66.In the second innings, Voce repeated the tactic late in the day, in fading light against Woodfull and Bill Brown.", "Of his 12 balls, 11 were no lower than head height.", "Woodfull told the Nottinghamshire administrators that, if Voce's leg-side bowling was repeated, his men would leave the field and return to London.", "He further said that Australia would not return to the country in the future.", "The following day, Voce was absent, ostensibly due to a leg injury.", "Already angered by the absence of Larwood, the Nottinghamshire faithful heckled the Australians all day.", "Australia had previously and privately complained that some pacemen had strayed past the agreement in the Tests." ], [ "Changes to the laws of cricket", "As a direct consequence of the 1932–33 tour, the MCC introduced a new rule to the Laws of Cricket for the 1935 English cricket season.", "Originally, the MCC hoped that captains would ensure that the game was played in the correct spirit, and passed a resolution that bodyline bowling would breach this spirit.", "When this proved to be insufficient, the MCC passed a law that \"direct attack\" bowling was unfair and became the responsibility of the umpires to identify and stop.", "In 1957, the laws were altered to prevent more than two fielders standing behind square on the leg side; the intention was to prevent negative bowling tactics whereby off spinners and slow inswing bowlers aimed at the leg stump of batsmen with fielders concentrated on the leg side.", "However, an indirect effect was to make bodyline fields impossible to implement.Later law changes, under the heading of \"Intimidatory Short Pitched Bowling\", also restricted the number of \"bouncers\" which might be bowled in an over.", "Nevertheless, the tactic of intimidating the batsman is still used to an extent that would have been shocking in 1933, although it is less dangerous now because today's players wear helmets and generally far more protective gear.", "The West Indies teams of the 1980s, who regularly fielded a bowling attack comprising some of the best fast bowlers in cricket history, were perhaps the most feared exponents." ], [ "Reaction", "The English players and management were consistent in referring to their tactic as ''fast leg theory'', considering it to be a variant of the established and unobjectionable leg theory tactic.", "The inflammatory term \"bodyline\" was coined and perpetuated by the Australian press (see above).", "English writers used the term ''fast leg theory''.", "The terminology reflected differences in understanding, as neither the English public nor the Board of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC)—the governing body of English cricket—could understand why the Australians were complaining about what they perceived as a commonly used tactic.", "Some concluded that the Australian cricket authorities and public were sore losers.", "Of the four fast bowlers in the tour party, Gubby Allen was a voice of dissent in the English camp, refusing to bowl short on the leg side, and writing several letters home to England critical of Jardine, although he did not express this in public in Australia.", "A number of other players, while maintaining a united front in public, also deplored bodyline in private.", "The amateurs Bob Wyatt (the vice-captain), Freddie Brown and the Nawab of Pataudi opposed it, as did Wally Hammond and Les Ames among the professionals.During the season, Woodfull's physical courage, stoic and dignified leadership won him many admirers.", "He flatly refused to employ retaliatory tactics and did not publicly complain even though he and his men were repeatedly hit.Jardine however insisted his tactic was not designed to cause injury and that he was leading his team in a sportsmanlike and gentlemanly manner, arguing that it was up to the Australian batsmen to play their way out of trouble.It was subsequently revealed that several of the players had private reservations, but they did not express them publicly at the time." ], [ "Legacy", "Following the 1932–33 series, several authors, including many of the players involved, released books expressing various points of view about bodyline.", "Many argued that it was a scourge on cricket and must be stamped out, while some did not see what all the fuss was about.", "The series has been described as the most controversial period in Australian cricket history, and it was voted the most important Australian moment by a panel of Australian cricket identities.", "The MCC asked Harold Larwood to sign an apology to them for his bowling in Australia, making his selection for England again conditional upon it.", "Larwood was furious at the notion, pointing out that he had been following orders from his captain, and that was where any blame should lie.", "Larwood refused, never played for England again, and became vilified in his own country.", "Douglas Jardine always defended his tactics and in the book he wrote about the tour, ''In Quest of the Ashes'', described allegations that the England bowlers directed their attack with the intention of causing physical harm as stupid and patently untruthful.", "The immediate effect of the law change which banned bodyline in 1935 was to make commentators and spectators sensitive to the use of short-pitched bowling; bouncers became exceedingly rare and bowlers who delivered them were practically ostracised.", "This attitude ended after the Second World War, and among the first teams to make extensive use of short-pitched bowling was the Australian team captained by Bradman between 1946 and 1948.Other teams soon followed.Outside the sport, there were significant consequences for Anglo-Australian relations, which remained strained until the outbreak of World War II made cooperation paramount.", "Business between the two countries was adversely affected as citizens of each country avoided goods manufactured in the other.", "Australian commerce also suffered in British colonies in Asia: the ''North China Daily News'' published a pro-bodyline editorial, denouncing Australians as sore losers.", "An Australian journalist reported that several business deals in Hong Kong and Shanghai were lost by Australians because of local reactions.", "English immigrants in Australia found themselves shunned and persecuted by locals, and Australian visitors to England were treated similarly.", "In 1934–35 a statue of Prince Albert in Sydney was vandalised, with an ear being knocked off and the word \"BODYLINE\" painted on it.", "Both before and after World War II, numerous satirical cartoons and comedy skits were written, mostly in Australia, based on events of the bodyline tour.", "Generally, they poked fun at the English.In 1984, Australia's Network Ten produced a television mini-series titled ''Bodyline'', dramatising the events of the 1932–33 English tour of Australia.", "It starred Gary Sweet as Don Bradman, Hugo Weaving as Douglas Jardine, Jim Holt as Harold Larwood, Rhys McConnochie as Pelham Warner, and Frank Thring as Jardine's mentor Lord Harris.", "The series took some liberties with historical accuracy for the sake of drama, including a depiction of angry Australian fans burning a British flag at the Adelaide Oval, an event which was never documented.", "Larwood, having emigrated to Australia in 1950, was largely welcomed with open arms, although received several threatening and obscene phone calls after the series aired.", "The series was widely and strongly attacked by the surviving players for its inaccuracy and sensationalism.To this day, the bodyline tour remains one of the most significant events in the history of cricket, and it is still strong in the consciousness of many cricket followers.", "In a poll of cricket journalists, commentators, and players in 2004, the bodyline tour was ranked the most important event in cricket history." ], [ "Notes and references", "===Notes======References===" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * (Book Club edition.", "First published London, 1975.Allen & Unwin.", ")* * * * * * * * * ''Bodyline'' IMDB entry.. Retrieved 30 November 2006.", "" ], [ "External links", " Footage of the 1933 Ashes test where bodyline bowling is used* The Bodyline Series Original reports from The Times* Bodyline Series – State Library of NSW" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Laws of infernal dynamics" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''laws of infernal dynamics''' are an adage about the cursedness of the universe.", "Attributed to Science fiction author David Gerrold, the laws are as follows:#An object in motion will be moving in the wrong direction.#An object at rest will be in the wrong place.#The energy required to move an object in the correct direction, or put it in the right place, will be more than you wish to expend but not so much as to make the task impossible.The laws are a parody on the first and second of Newton's laws of motion in the spirit of Murphy's law.", "Newton's first law of motion has here been split into two parts, the first two laws.", "Newton's third law of motion is left unparodied, though a separate adage states that \"for every action, there is an equal and opposite criticism.\"" ], [ "References", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Louise Erdrich" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Karen Louise Erdrich''' ( ; born June 7, 1954) is an American author of novels, poetry, and children's books featuring Native American characters and settings.", "She is an enrolled member of the Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians, a federally recognized tribe of Ojibwe people.Erdrich is widely acclaimed as one of the most significant writers of the second wave of the Native American Renaissance.", "She has written 28 books in all, including fiction, non-fiction, poetry, and children's books.", "In 2009, her novel ''The Plague of Doves'' was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and received an Anisfield-Wolf Book Award.", "In November 2012, she received the National Book Award for Fiction for her novel ''The Round House''.", "She is a 2013 recipient of the Alex Awards.", "She was awarded the Library of Congress Prize for American Fiction at the National Book Festival in September 2015.In 2021, she was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for her novel ''The Night Watchman''.She was married to author Michael Dorris and the two collaborated on a number of works.", "The couple separated in 1995.She is also the owner of Birchbark Books, a small independent bookstore in Minneapolis that focuses on Native American literature and the Native community in the Twin Cities." ], [ "Personal life", "Erdrich was born on June 7, 1954, in Little Falls, Minnesota.", "She was the oldest of seven children born to Ralph Erdrich, a German-American, and Rita (née Gourneau), a Chippewa woman (of half Ojibwe and half French blood).", "Both parents taught at a boarding school in Wahpeton, North Dakota, set up by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.", "Erdrich's maternal grandfather, Patrick Gourneau, served as tribal chairman for the federally recognized tribe of Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians for many years.", "Though not raised in a reservation, she often visited relatives there.", "She was raised \"with all the accepted truths\" of Catholicism.While Erdrich was a child, her father paid her a nickel for every story she wrote.", "Her sister Heidi became a poet and also lives in Minnesota; she publishes under the name Heid E. Erdrich.", "Another sister, Lise Erdrich, has written children's books and collections of fiction and essays.Erdrich attended Dartmouth College from 1972 to 1976.She was a part of the first class of women admitted to the college and earned a B.A.", "in English.", "During her first year, Erdrich met Michael Dorris, an anthropologist, writer, and then-director of the new Native American Studies program.", "While attending Dorris' class, she began to look into her own ancestry, which inspired her to draw from it for her literary work, such as poems, short stories, and novels.", "During that time, she worked as a lifeguard, waitress, researcher for films, and as an editor for the Boston Indian Council newspaper ''The Circle.", "''In 1978, Erdrich enrolled in a Master of Arts program at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland.", "She earned the Master of Arts in the Writing Seminars in 1979.Erdrich later published some of the poems and stories she wrote while in the M.A.", "program.", "She returned to Dartmouth as a writer-in-residence.After graduating from Dartmouth, Erdrich remained in contact with Michael Dorris.", "He attended one of her poetry readings, became impressed with her work, and developed an interest in working with her.", "Although Erdrich and Dorris were on two different sides of the world, Erdrich in Boston and Dorris in New Zealand for field research, the two began to collaborate on short stories.The pair's literary partnership led them to a romantic relationship.", "They married in 1981, and raised three children whom Dorris had adopted as a single parent (Reynold Abel, Madeline, and Sava) and three biological children together (Persia, Pallas, and Aza Marion).", "Reynold Abel suffered from fetal alcohol syndrome and in 1991, at age 23, he was killed when he was hit by a car.", "In 1995, their son Sava accused Dorris of committing child abuse; in 1997, after Dorris' death, his adopted daughter Madeline claimed that Dorris had sexually abused her and Erdrich had neglected to stop the abuse.Dorris and Erdrich separated in 1995, and Dorris died by suicide in 1997.In his will, he omitted Erdrich and his adopted children Sava and Madeline.In 2001, at age 47, Erdrich gave birth to a daughter, Azure, fathered by a Native American man Erdrich declines to identify publicly.", "She discusses her pregnancy with Azure, and Azure's father, in her 2003 non-fiction book, ''Books and Islands in Ojibwe Country''.", "She uses the name \"Tobasonakwut\" to refer to him.", "He is described as a traditional healer and teacher, who is eighteen years Erdrich's senior and a married man.", "In a number of publications, Tobasonakwut Kinew, who died in 2012, is referred to as Erdrich's partner and the father of Azure.When asked in an interview if writing is a lonely life for her, Erdrich replied, \"Strangely, I think it is.", "I am surrounded by an abundance of family and friends and yet I am alone with the writing.", "And that is perfect.\"", "Erdrich lives in Minneapolis." ], [ "Work", "In 1979 she wrote \"The World's Greatest Fisherman\", a short story about June Kashpaw, a divorced Ojibwe woman whose death by hypothermia brought her relatives home to a fictional North Dakota reservation for her funeral.", "She wrote this while \"barricaded in the kitchen.\"", "At her husband's urging, she submitted it to the Nelson Algren Short Fiction competition in 1982, for which it won the $5,000 prize, and eventually it became the first chapter of her debut novel, ''Love Medicine'', published by Holt, Rinehart, and Winston in 1984.", "\"When I found out about the prize I was living on a farm in New Hampshire near the college I'd attended,\" Erdrich told an interviewer.", "\"I was nearly broke and driving a car with bald tires.", "My mother knitted my sweaters, and all else I bought at thrift stores ...", "The recognition dazzled me.", "Later, I became friends with Studs Terkel and Kay Boyle, the judges, toward whom I carry a lifelong gratitude.", "This prize made an immense difference in my life.", "\"''Love Medicine'' won the 1984 National Book Critics Circle Award.", "It is the only debut novel ever to receive that honor.", "Erdrich later turned ''Love Medicine'' into a tetralogy that includes ''The Beet Queen'' (1986), ''Tracks'' (1988), and ''The Bingo Palace'' (1994).", "It has also been featured on the National Advanced Placement Test for Literature.In the early years of their marriage, Erdrich and Michael Dorris often collaborated on their work, saying they plotted the books together, \"talk about them before any writing is done, and then we share almost every day, whatever it is we've written\" but \"the person whose name is on the books is the one who's done most of the primary writing.\"", "They got started with \"domestic, romantic stuff\" published under the shared pen name of \"Milou North\" (Michael + Louise + where they live).During the publication of ''Love Medicine'', Erdrich produced her first collection of poems, ''Jacklight'' (1984), which highlights the struggles between Native and non-Native cultures, as well as celebrating family, ties of kinship, autobiographical meditations, monologues, and love poetry.", "She incorporates elements of Ojibwe myths and legends.", "Erdrich continues to write poems, which have been included in her collections.Erdrich is best known as a novelist, and has published a dozen award-winning and best-selling novels.", "She followed ''Love Medicine'' with ''The Beet Queen'' (1986), which continued her technique of using multiple narrators and expanded the fictional reservation universe of ''Love Medicine'' to include the nearby town of Argus, North Dakota.", "The action of the novel takes place mostly before World War II.", "Leslie Marmon Silko accused Erdrich's ''The Beet Queen'' of being more concerned with postmodern technique than with the political struggles of Native peoples.", "''Tracks'' (1988) goes back to the early 20th century at the formation of the reservation.", "It introduces the trickster figure of Nanapush, who owes a clear debt to Ojibwe figure Nanabozho.", "There are many studies of the trickster figure in Erdrich's novels.", "''Tracks'' shows early clashes between traditional ways and the Roman Catholic Church.", "''The Bingo Palace'' (1994), set in the 1980s, describes the effects of a casino and a factory on the reservation community.", "''Tales of Burning Love'' (1997) finishes the story of Sister Leopolda, a recurring character from all the previous books, and introduces a new set of European-American people into the reservation universe.", "''The Antelope Wife'' (1998), Erdrich's first novel after her divorce from Dorris, was the first of her novels to be set outside the continuity of the previous books.", "Erdrich heavily revised the book in 2009 and published the revision as ''The Antelope Woman'' in 2016.She subsequently returned to the reservation and nearby towns.", "She has published five novels since 1998 dealing with events in that fictional area.", "Among these are ''The Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse'' (2001) and ''The Master Butchers Singing Club'' (2003).", "Both novels have geographic and character connections with ''The Beet Queen''.", "In 2009, Erdrich was a Pulitzer Prize finalist for ''The Plague of Doves'' and a National Book Award finalist for ''The Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse''.", "''The Plague of Doves'' focuses on the historical lynching of four Native people wrongly accused of murdering a White family, and the effect of this injustice on the following generations.", "Her Pulitzer Prize–winning novel ''The Night Watchman'' (2020) concerns a campaign to defeat the 'termination bill' (introduced by Senator Arthur Vivian Watkins), and Erdrich acknowledged her sources and its inspiration being her maternal grandfather's life.", "Her most recent novel, ''The Sentence'', tells the fictional story of a haunting at Erdrich's Minneapolis bookstore, set against the backdrop of the COVID-19 pandemic, George Floyd's murder, and the resulting protests.She also writes for younger audiences; she has a children's picture book ''Grandmother's Pigeon,'' and her children's book ''The Birchbark House'', was a National Book Award finalist.", "She continued the series with ''The Game of Silence'', winner of the Scott O'Dell Award for Historical Fiction; and ''The Porcupine Year''.===Nonfiction and teaching===In addition to fiction and poetry, Erdrich has published nonfiction.", "''The Blue Jay's Dance'' (1995) is about her pregnancy and the birth of her third child.", "''Books and Islands in Ojibwe Country'' (2003) traces her travels in northern Minnesota and Ontario's lakes following the birth of her youngest daughter.===Influence and style===Her heritage from both parents is influential in her life and prominent in her work.", "Although many of Erdrich's works explore her Native American heritage, her novel ''The Master Butchers Singing Club'' (2003) featured the European, specifically German, side of her ancestry.", "The novel includes stories of a World War I veteran of the German Army and is set in a small North Dakota town.", "The novel was a finalist for the National Book Award.", "Erdrich's interwoven series of novels have drawn comparisons with William Faulkner's Yoknapatawpha novels.", "Like Faulkner's, Erdrich's successive novels created multiple narratives in the same fictional area and combined the tapestry of local history with current themes and modern consciousness." ], [ "Birchbark Books", "Erdrich's bookstore hosts literary readings and other events.", "Her new works are read here, and events celebrate the works and careers of other writers as well, particularly local Native writers.", "Erdrich and her staff consider Birchbark Books to be a \"teaching bookstore\".", "In addition to books, the store sells Native art and traditional medicines, and Native American jewelry.", "Wiigwaas Press, a small nonprofit publisher founded by Erdrich and her sister, is affiliated with the store." ], [ "Awards", "1975 American Academy of Poets Prize1980 MacDowell Fellowship1983 Pushcart Prize in Poetry1984 National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction, for ''Love Medicine''1984 Sue Kaufman Prize for Best First Novel, for ''Love Medicine''1984 Virginia McCormick Scully Literary Award for Best Book of 1984 dealing with Indians or Chicanos1985 ''Los Angeles Times'' Book Prize1985 Guggenheim Fellowship in Creative Arts1987 O. Henry Award, for the short story \"Fleur\" (published in ''Esquire'', August 1986)1999 World Fantasy Award, for ''The Antelope Wife''2000 Lifetime Achievement Award from the Native Writers' Circle of the Americas2005 Associate Poet Laureate of North Dakota2006 Scott O'Dell Award for Historical Fiction, for the children's book \"The Game of Silence\"2007 Honorary Doctorate from the University of North Dakota; refused by Erdrich because of her opposition to the university's North Dakota Fighting Sioux mascot2009 Honorary Doctorate (Doctor of Letters) from Dartmouth College2009 Kenyon Review Award for Literary Achievement2009 Anisfield-Wolf Book Award, for Plague of Doves2012 National Book Award for Fiction for ''The Round House''2013 Rough Rider Award2013 Scott O'Dell Award for Historical Fiction for ''Chickadee''2014 Dayton Literary Peace Prize, Richard C. Holbrooke Distinguished Achievement Award2014 PEN/Saul Bellow Award for Achievement in American Fiction2015 Library of Congress Prize for American Fiction2016 National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction, for ''LaRose''2021 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, for ''The Night Watchman''2022 Berresford Prize for significant contributions to the advancement and care of artists in society2023 Prix Femina étranger for ''The Sentence'' (its French translation ''La Sentence'')" ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "See also", "List of writers from peoples indigenous to the AmericasJoy HarjoTerese Marie Mailhot" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Western American Literature Journal: Louise Erdrich* * * 35 catalog records* Female Native Authors For Your Reading List" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Latin literature" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Latin literature''' includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in the Latin language.", "The beginning of formal Latin literature dates to 240 BC, when the first stage play in Latin was performed in Rome.", "Latin literature would flourish for the next six centuries.", "The classical era of Latin literature can be roughly divided into the following periods: Early Latin literature, The Golden Age, The Imperial Period and Late Antiquity.Latin was the language of the ancient Romans as well as being the ''lingua franca'' of Western and Central Europe throughout the Middle Ages.", "Latin literature is the work of Roman authors, such as Cicero, Virgil, Ovid and Horace, but also includes the work of European writers after the fall of the Empire; from religious writers like Aquinas (1225–1274), to secular writers like Francis Bacon (1561–1626), Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), and Isaac Newton (1642–1727)." ], [ "History", "=== Early Latin literature ===Although literature in Latin followed a continual development over several centuries, the beginnings of formal Latin literature started with the regular performance of comedies and tragedies in Rome in 240 BC, one year after the conclusion of the First Punic War.", "These initial comedies and tragedies were adapted from Greek drama by Livius Andronicus, a Greek prisoner of war who had been brought to Rome as a slave in 272 BC.", "Andronicus translated Homer's ''Odyssey'' into Latin using a traditional Latin verse form called Saturnian meter.", "In 235 BC, Gnaeus Naevius, a Roman citizen, continued this tradition of producing dramas that were reworkings of Greek originals, or ''fabula palliata'', and he expanded on this by producing a new type of drama, ''fabula praetexta'', or tragedies based on Roman myths and history, starting in 222 BC.", "Later in life, Naevius composed an epic poem in Saturnian Meter on the first Punic War, in which he had fought.Other epic poets followed Naevius.", "Quintus Ennius wrote an historical epic, the ''Annals'' (soon after 200 BC), describing Roman history from the founding of Rome to his own time.", "He adopted Greek dactylic hexameter, which became the standard verse form for Roman epics.", "He became famous for his tragic dramas.", "In this field, his most distinguished successors were Marcus Pacuvius and Lucius Accius.", "These three writers rarely used episodes from Roman history.", "Instead, they wrote Latin versions of tragic themes that the Greeks had already handled.", "But even when they copied the Greeks, their translations were not straightforward replicas.", "Only fragments of their plays have survived.Cato the ElderConsiderably more is known about early Latin comedy, as 26 Early Latin comedies are extant – 20 of which were written by Plautus ; the remaining six were written by Terence.", "These men modeled their comedies on Greek plays known as New Comedy.", "But they treated the plots and wording of the originals freely.", "Plautus scattered songs through his plays and increased the humor with puns and wisecracks, plus comic actions by the actors.", "Terence's plays were more polite in tone, dealing with domestic situations.", "His works provided the chief inspiration for French and English comedies of the 17th century AD, and even for modern American comedy.The prose of the period is best known through ''On Agriculture'' (160 BC) by Cato the Elder.", "Cato wrote the first Latin history of Rome and of other Italian cities.", "He was the first Roman statesman to put his political speeches in writing as a means of influencing public opinion.Early Latin literature ended with Gaius Lucilius, who created a new kind of poetry in his 30 books of ''Satires'' (2nd century BC).", "He wrote in an easy, conversational tone about books, food, friends, and current events.=== The Golden Age ===Traditionally, the height of Latin literature has been assigned to the period from 81 BC to AD 17, although recent scholarship has questioned the assumptions that privileged the works of this period over both earlier and later works.", "This period is usually said to have begun with the first known speech of Cicero and ended with the death of Ovid.==== The age of Cicero ====CiceroCicero has traditionally been considered the master of Latin prose.", "The writing he produced from about 80 BC until his death in 43 BC exceeds that of any Latin author whose work survives in terms of quantity and variety of genre and subject matter, as well as possessing unsurpassed stylistic excellence.", "Cicero's many works can be divided into four groups: (1) letters, (2) rhetorical treatises, (3) philosophical works, and (4) orations.", "His letters provide detailed information about an important period in Roman history and offer a vivid picture of the public and private life among the Roman governing class.", "Cicero's works on oratory are our most valuable Latin sources for ancient theories on education and rhetoric.", "His philosophical works were the basis of moral philosophy during the Middle Ages.", "His speeches inspired many European political leaders and the founders of the United States.Roman oratorJulius Caesar and Sallust were outstanding historical writers of Cicero's time.", "Caesar wrote commentaries on the Gallic and civil wars in a straightforward style to justify his actions as a general.", "He wrote descriptions of people and their motives.The birth of lyric poetry in Latin occurred during the same period.", "The lyrics of Catullus, whom the writer Aulus Gellius called \"the most elegant of poets,\" are noted for their emotional intensity.", "Contemporary with Catullus, Lucretius expounded the Epicurean philosophy in a long poem, ''De rerum natura''.One of the most learned writers of the period was Marcus Terentius Varro.", "Called \"the most learned of the Romans\" by Quintillian, he wrote about a remarkable variety of subjects, from religion to poetry.", "But only his writings on agriculture and the Latin language are extant in their complete form.==== The Augustan Age ====VirgilThe emperor Augustus took a personal interest in the literary works produced during his years of power from 27 BC to AD 14.This period is sometimes called the Augustan Age of Latin Literature.", "Virgil published his pastoral ''Eclogues'', the ''Georgics'', and the ''Aeneid'', an epic poem describing the events that led to the creation of Rome.", "Virgil told how the Trojan hero Aeneas became the ancestor of the Roman people.", "Virgil provided divine justification for Roman rule over the world.", "Although Virgil died before he could put the finishing touches on his poem, it was soon regarded as the greatest work of Latin literature.Virgil's friend Horace wrote ''Epodes'', ''Odes'', ''Satires'', and ''Epistles''.", "The perfection of the ''Odes'' in content, form, and style has charmed readers for hundreds of years.", "The ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' discuss ethical and literary problems in an urbane, witty manner.", "Horace's ''Art of Poetry'', probably published as a separate work, greatly influenced later poetic theories.", "It stated the basic rules of classical writing as the Romans understood and used them.", "After Virgil died, Horace was Rome's leading poet.The Latin elegy reached its highest development in the works of Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid.", "Most of this poetry is concerned with love.", "Ovid wrote the ''Fasti'', which describes Roman festivals and their legendary origins.", "Ovid's greatest work, the ''Metamorphoses'' weaves various myths into a fast-paced, fascinating story.", "Ovid was a witty writer who excelled in creating lively and passionate characters.", "The ''Metamorphoses'' was the best-known source of Greek and Roman mythology throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.", "It inspired many poets, painters, and composers.In prose, Livy produced a history of the Roman people in 142 books.", "Only 35 survived, but they are a major source of information on Rome.=== The Imperial Period ===From the death of Augustus in AD 14 until about 200, Roman authors emphasized style and tried new and startling ways of expression.", "During the reign of Nero from 54 to 68, the Stoic philosopher Seneca wrote a number of dialogues and letters on such moral themes as mercy and generosity.", "In his ''Natural Questions'', Seneca analyzed earthquakes, floods, and storms.", "Seneca's tragedies greatly influenced the growth of tragic drama in Europe.", "His nephew Lucan wrote the ''Pharsalia'' (about 60), an epic poem describing the civil war between Caesar and Pompey.", "The ''Satyricon'' (about 60) by Petronius was the first picaresque Latin novel.", "Only fragments of the complete work survive.", "It describes the adventures of various low-class characters in absurd, extravagant, and dangerous situations, often in the world of petty crime.Epic poems included the ''Argonautica'' of Gaius Valerius Flaccus, following the story of Jason and the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece, the ''Thebaid'' of Statius, following the conflict of Oedipus's sons and the Seven Against Thebes, and the ''Punica'' of Silius Italicus, following the Second Punic War and the invasions of Hannibal into Italy.", "At the hands of Martial, the epigram achieved the stinging quality still associated with it.", "Juvenal satirized vice.The historian Tacitus painted an unforgettably dark picture of the early empire in his ''Histories'' and ''Annals'', both written in the early 2nd century.", "His contemporary Suetonius wrote biographies of the 12 Roman rulers from Julius Caesar through Domitian.", "The letters of Pliny the Younger described Roman life of the period.", "Quintilian composed the most complete work on ancient education that we possess.", "Important works from the 2nd century include the ''Attic Nights'' of Aulus Gellius, a collection of anecdotes and reports of literary discussions among his friends; and the letters of the orator Marcus Cornelius Fronto to Marcus Aurelius.", "The most famous work of the period was ''Metamorphoses'', also called ''The Golden Ass'', by Apuleius.", "This novel concerns a young man who is accidentally changed into a donkey.", "The story is filled with tales of love and witchcraft.=== Latin in the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Early Modernity ===Pagan Latin literature showed a final burst of vitality from the late 3rd century till the 5th centuries.", "Ammianus Marcellinus in history, Quintus Aurelius Symmachus in oratory, and Ausonius and Rutilius Claudius Namatianus in poetry.", "The ''Mosella'' by Ausonius demonstrated a modernism of feeling that indicates the end of classical literature as such.At the same time, other men laid the foundations of Christian Latin literature during the 4th century and 5th century.", "They included the church fathers Augustine of Hippo, Jerome, and Ambrose, and the first great Christian poet, Prudentius.During the Renaissance there was a return to the Latin of classical times, called for this reason Neo-Latin.", "This purified language continued to be used as the ''lingua franca'' among the learned throughout Europe, with the great works of Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Baruch Spinoza all being composed in Latin.", "Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works of Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac Newton (d. 1727), and Latin remains a necessary skill for modern readers of great early modern works of linguistics, literature, and philosophy.Several of the leading English poets wrote in Latin as well as English.", "Milton's 1645 Poems are one example, but there were also Thomas Campion, George Herbert and Milton's colleague Andrew Marvell.", "Some indeed wrote chiefly in Latin and were valued for the elegance and Classicism of their style.", "Examples of these were Anthony Alsop and Vincent Bourne, who were noted for the ingenious way that they adapted their verse to describing details of life in the 18th century while never departing from the purity of Latin diction.", "One of the last to be noted for the quality of his Latin verse well into the 19th century was Walter Savage Landor." ], [ "Characteristics", "Much Latin writing reflects the Romans' interest in rhetoric, the art of speaking and persuading.", "Public speaking had great importance for educated Romans because most of them wanted successful political careers.", "When Rome was a republic, effective speaking often determined who would be elected or what bills would pass.", "After Rome became an empire, the ability to impress and persuade people by the spoken word lost much of its importance.", "But training in rhetoric continued to flourish and to affect styles of writing.", "A large part of rhetoric consists of the ability to present a familiar idea in a striking new manner that attracts attention.", "Latin authors became masters of this art of variety.=== Language and form ===Latin is a highly inflected language, with many grammatical forms for various words.", "As a result, it can be used with a pithiness and brevity unknown in English.", "It lends itself to elaboration, because its tight syntax holds even the longest and most complex sentence together as a logical unit.", "Latin can be used with conciseness, as in the works of Sallust and Tacitus.", "Or it can have wide, sweeping phrases, as in the works of Livy and the speeches of Cicero.Latin lacks poetic vocabulary that marks the Greek poetry.", "Some earlier Latin poets tried to make up for this deficiency by creating new compound words, as the Greeks had done.", "But Roman writers seldom invented words.", "Except in epic poetry, they tended to use a familiar vocabulary, giving it poetic value by combinations of words and by rich sound effects.", "Rome's leading poets had great technical skill in the choice and arrangement of language.", "They had an intimate knowledge of the Greek poets, whose themes appear in almost all Roman literature." ], [ "See also", "* Medieval Latin* Renaissance Latin* Neo-Latin* Contemporary Latin* Prosody (Latin)* Clausula (rhetoric)* Alliteration (Latin)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Elaine Fantham, PhD, Giger Professor of Latin Emerita, Department of Classics, Princeton University.", "* Fantham, Elaine.", "\"Latin literature.\"", "''World Book Advanced.''", "World Book, 2011.Web.", "18 October 2011." ], [ "External links", "* * Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum.", "* The Latin Library.", "* Bibilotheca Augustana.", "(archived 13 December 2011)* Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography.", "(archived 4 December 2012)* Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leonard Bloomfield" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leonard Bloomfield''' (April 1, 1887 – April 18, 1949) was an American linguist who led the development of structural linguistics in the United States during the 1930s and the 1940s.", "He is considered to be the father of American distributionalism.", "His influential textbook ''Language'', published in 1933, presented a comprehensive description of American structural linguistics.", "He made significant contributions to Indo-European historical linguistics, the description of Austronesian languages, and description of languages of the Algonquian family.Bloomfield's approach to linguistics was characterized by its emphasis on the scientific basis of linguistics and emphasis on formal procedures for the analysis of linguistic data.", "The influence of Bloomfieldian structural linguistics declined in the late 1950s and 1960s as the theory of generative grammar developed by Noam Chomsky came to predominate." ], [ "Early life and education", "Bloomfield was born in Chicago, Illinois, on April 1, 1887, to Jewish parents (Sigmund Bloomfield and Carola Buber Bloomfield).", "His father immigrated to the United States as a child in 1868; the original family name ''Blumenfeld'' was changed to Bloomfield after their arrival.", "In 1896 his family moved to Elkhart Lake, Wisconsin, where he attended elementary school, but returned to Chicago for secondary school.", "His uncle Maurice Bloomfield was a prominent linguist at Johns Hopkins University, and his aunt Fannie Bloomfield Zeisler was a well-known concert pianist.Bloomfield attended Harvard College from 1903 to 1906, graduating with the A.B.", "degree.", "He subsequently began graduate work at the University of Wisconsin, taking courses in German and Germanic philology, in addition to courses in other Indo-European languages.", "A meeting with Indo-Europeanist Eduard Prokosch, a faculty member at the University of Wisconsin, convinced Bloomfield to pursue a career in linguistics.", "In 1908 Bloomfield moved to the University of Chicago, where he took courses in German and Indo-European philology with Frances A.", "Wood and Carl Darling Buck.", "His doctoral dissertation in Germanic historical linguistics, ''A semasiologic differentiation in Germanic secondary ablaut'', was supervised by Wood, and he graduated in 1909.He undertook further studies at the University of Leipzig and the University of Göttingen in 1913 and 1914 with leading Indo-Europeanists August Leskien, Karl Brugmann, as well as Hermann Oldenberg, a specialist in Vedic Sanskrit.", "Bloomfield also studied at Göttingen with Sanskrit specialist Jacob Wackernagel, and considered both Wackernagel and the Sanskrit grammatical tradition of rigorous grammatical analysis associated with Pāṇini as important influences on both his historical and descriptive work.", "Further training in Europe was a condition for promotion at the University of Illinois from Instructor to the rank of assistant professor." ], [ "Career", "Bloomfield was instructor in German at the University of Cincinnati, 1909–1910; Instructor in German at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 1910–1913; Assistant Professor of Comparative Philology and German, also University of Illinois, 1913–1921; Professor of German and Linguistics at the Ohio State University, 1921–1927; Professor of Germanic Philology at the University of Chicago, 1927–1940; Sterling Professor of Linguistics at Yale University, 1940–1949.During the summer of 1925 Bloomfield worked as Assistant Ethnologist with the Geological Survey of Canada in the Canadian Department of Mines, undertaking linguistic field work on Plains Cree; this position was arranged by Edward Sapir, who was then Chief of the Division of Anthropology, Victoria Museum, Geological Survey of Canada, Canadian Department of Mines.", "In May 1946, he suffered a debilitating stroke, which ended his career.Bloomfield was one of the founding members of the Linguistic Society of America.", "In 1924, along with George M. Bolling (Ohio State University) and Edgar Sturtevant (Yale University) he formed a committee to organize the creation of the Society, and drafted the call for the Society's foundation.", "He contributed the lead article to the inaugural issue of the Society's journal ''Language'', and was President of the Society in 1935.He taught in the Society's summer Linguistic Institute in 1938–1941, with the 1938–1940 Institutes being held in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and the 1941 Institute in Chapel Hill, North Carolina.", "Bloomfield was also a member of the American Philosophical Society." ], [ "Indo-European linguistics", "Bloomfield's earliest work was in historical Germanic studies, beginning with his dissertation, and continuing with a number of papers on Indo-European and Germanic phonology and morphology.", "His post-doctoral studies in Germany further strengthened his expertise in the Neogrammarian tradition, which still dominated Indo-European historical studies.", "Bloomfield throughout his career, but particularly during his early career, emphasized the Neogrammarian principle of regular sound change as a foundational concept in historical linguistics.Bloomfield's work in Indo-European beyond his dissertation was limited to an article on palatal consonants in Sanskrit and one article on the Sanskrit grammatical tradition associated with Pāṇini, in addition to a number of book reviews.", "Bloomfield made extensive use of Indo-European materials to explain historical and comparative principles in both of his textbooks, ''An introduction to language'' (1914), and his seminal ''Language'' (1933).", "In his textbooks he selected Indo-European examples that supported the key Neogrammarian hypothesis of the regularity of sound change, and emphasized a sequence of steps essential to success in comparative work: (a) appropriate data in the form of texts which must be studied intensively and analysed; (b) application of the comparative method; (c) reconstruction of proto-forms.", "He further emphasized the importance of dialect studies where appropriate, and noted the significance of sociological factors such as prestige, and the impact of meaning.", "In addition to regular linguistic change, Bloomfield also allowed for borrowing and analogy.It is argued that Bloomfield's Indo-European work had two broad implications: \"He stated clearly the theoretical bases for Indo-European linguistics\" and \"he established the study of Indo-European languages firmly within general linguistics.", "\"===Sanskrit studies===As part of his training with leading Indo-Europeanists in Germany in 1913 and 1914 Bloomfield studied the Sanskrit grammatical tradition originating with Pāṇini, who lived in northwestern India during the fifth or fourth century BC.", "Pāṇini's grammar is characterized by its extreme thoroughness and explicitness in accounting for Sanskrit linguistic forms, and by its complex context-sensitive, rule-based generative structure.", "Bloomfield noted that \"Pāṇini gives the formation of every inflected, compounded, or derived word, with an exact statement of the sound-variations (including accent) and of the meaning\".", "In a letter to Algonquianist Truman Michelson, Bloomfield noted \"My models are Pāṇini and the kind of work done in Indo-European by my teacher, Professor Wackernagel of Basle.", "\"Pāṇini's systematic approach to analysis includes components for: (a) forming grammatical rules, (b) an inventory of sounds, (c) a list of verbal roots organized into sublists, and (d) a list of classes of morphs.", "Bloomfield's approach to key linguistic ideas in his textbook ''Language'' reflect the influence of Pāṇini in his treatment of basic concepts such as ''linguistic form'', ''free form'', and others.", "Similarly, Pāṇini is the source for Bloomfield's use of the terms ''exocentric'' and ''endocentric'' used to describe compound words.", "Concepts from Pāṇini are found in ''Eastern Ojibwa'', published posthumously in 1958, in particular his use of the concept of a morphological zero, a morpheme that has no overt realization.", "Pāṇini's influence is also present in Bloomfield's approach to determining parts of speech (Bloomfield uses the term \"form-classes\") in both ''Eastern Ojibwa'' and in the later ''Menomini language'', published posthumously in 1962." ], [ "Austronesian linguistics", "While at the University of Illinois Bloomfield undertook research on Tagalog, an Austronesian language spoken in the Philippines.", "He carried out linguistic field work with Alfredo Viola Santiago, who was an engineering student at the university from 1914 to 1917.The results were published as ''Tagalog texts with grammatical analysis'', which includes a series of texts dictated by Santiago in addition to an extensive grammatical description and analysis of every word in the texts.", "Bloomfield's work on Tagalog, from the beginning of field research to publication, took no more than two years.", "His study of Tagalog has been described as \"the best treatment of any Austronesian language ...", "The result is a description of Tagalog which has never been surpassed for completeness, accuracy, and wealth of exemplification.", "\"Bloomfield's only other publication on an Austronesian language was an article on the syntax of Ilocano, based upon research undertaken with a native speaker of Ilocano who was a student at Yale University.", "This article has been described as a \"tour de force, for it covers in less than seven pages the entire taxonomic syntax of Ilocano\"." ], [ "Algonquian linguistics", "Bloomfield's work on Algonquian languages had both descriptive and comparative components.", "He published extensively on four Algonquian languages: Fox, Cree, Menominee, and Ojibwe, publishing grammars, lexicons, and text collections.", "Bloomfield used the materials collected in his descriptive work to undertake comparative studies leading to the reconstruction of Proto-Algonquian, with an early study reconstructing the sound system of Proto-Algonquian, and a subsequent more extensive paper refining his phonological analysis and adding extensive historical information on general features of Algonquian grammar.Bloomfield undertook field research on Cree, Menominee, and Ojibwe, and analysed the material in previously published Fox text collections.", "His first Algonquian research, beginning around 1919, involved study of text collections in the Fox language that had been published by William Jones and Truman Michelson.", "Working through the texts in these collections, Bloomfield excerpted grammatical information to create a grammatical sketch of Fox.", "A lexicon of Fox based on his excerpted material was published posthumously.Bloomfield undertook field research on Menominee in the summers of 1920 and 1921, with further brief field research in September 1939 and intermittent visits from Menominee speakers in Chicago in the late 1930s, in addition to correspondence with speakers during the same period.", "Material collected by Morris Swadesh in 1937 and 1938, often in response to specific queries from Bloomfield, supplemented his information.", "Significant publications include a collection of texts, a grammar and a lexicon (both published posthumously), in addition to a theoretically significant article on Menomini phonological alternations.Bloomfield undertook field research in 1925 among Plains Cree speakers in Saskatchewan at the Sweet Grass reserve, and also at the Star Blanket reserve, resulting in two volumes of texts and a posthumous lexicon.", "He also undertook brief field work on Swampy Cree at The Pas, Manitoba.", "Bloomfield's work on Swampy Cree provided data to support the predictive power of the hypothesis of exceptionless phonological change.Bloomfield's initial research on Ojibwe was through study of texts collected by William Jones, in addition to nineteenth century grammars and dictionaries.", "During the 1938 Linguistic Society of America Linguistic Institute held at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, he taught a field methods class with Andrew Medler, a speaker of the Ottawa dialect who was born in Saginaw, Michigan, but spent most of his life on Walpole Island, Ontario.", "The resulting grammatical description, transcribed sentences, texts, and lexicon were published posthumously in a single volume.", "In 1941 Bloomfield worked with Ottawa dialect speaker Angeline Williams at the 1941 Linguistic Institute held at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, resulting in a posthumously published volume of texts." ], [ "Selected publications", "Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1909/1910.", "\"A semasiological differentiation in Germanic secondary ablaut\".", "''Modern Philology'' 7:245–288; 345–382.", "* Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1914.", "''Introduction to the Study of Language''.", "New York: Henry Holt.", "Reprinted 1983, John Benjamins.", "Retrieved April 19, 2009..* * Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1917.", "''Tagalog texts with grammatical analysis''.", "University of Illinois studies in language and literature, 3.2-4.Urbana, Illinois.", "*Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1925–1927.", "\"Notes on the Fox language.\"", "''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 3:219-232; 4: 181-219 (reprinted in: Martin Joos, ed., ''Readings in Linguistics I'', Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press 1957, 26–31).", "* * Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1928.", "''Menomini texts.''", "Publications of the American Ethnological Society 12.New York: G. E. Stechert, Agents.", "reprinted 1974.New York: AMS Press * Bloomfield, Leondard.", "1929.Review of Bruno Liebich, 1928, ''Konkordanz Pāṇini-Candra'', Breslau: M. & H. Marcus.", "''Language'' 5:267–276.Reprinted in Hockett, Charles.", "1970, pp. 219–226.", "Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1930.", "''Sacred stories of the Sweet Grass Cree''.", "National Museum of Canada Bulletin, 60 (Anthropological Series 11).", "Ottawa.", "reprinted 1993, Saskatoon, SK: Fifth House.", "Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1933.''Language''.", "New York: Henry Holt.", ", Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1934.", "''Plains Cree texts''.", "American Ethnological Society Publications 16.New York.", "reprinted 1974, New York: AMS Press Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1935.", "\"Linguistic aspects of science\".", "''Philosophy of Science'' 2/4:499–517.", "Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1939.", "\"Menomini morphophonemics\".", "''Etudes phonologiques dédiées à la mémoire de M. le prince N.S.", "Trubetzkoy'', 105–115.Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague 8.Prague.", " Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1939a.", "''Linguistic aspects of science''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "** Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1942a.", "''Outline guide for the practical study of foreign languages.''", "Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.", "Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1946.\"Algonquian.\"", "Harry Hoijer et al., eds., ''Linguistic structures of native America'', pp.", "85–129.Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology 6.New York: Wenner-Gren Foundation.", "Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1958.", "''Eastern Ojibwa.''", "Ed.", "Charles F. Hockett.", "Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.", "Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1962.", "''The Menomini language.''", "Ed.", "Charles F. Hockett.", "New Haven: Yale University Press.", "Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1975.", "''Menomini lexicon.''", "Ed.", "Charles F. Hockett.", "Milwaukee Public Museum Publications in Anthropology and History.", "Milwaukee: Milwaukee Public Museum.", "Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1984.", "''Cree-English lexicon.''", "Ed.", "Charles F. Hockett.", "New Haven: Human Relations Area Files.", "Bloomfield, Leonard.", "1984b.", "''Fox-English lexicon.''", "Ed.", "Charles F. Hockett.", "New Haven: Human Relations Area Files." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "**Despres, Leon M. 1987.“My recollections of Leonard Bloomfield.” Robert A.", "Hall, Jr., ed., ''Leonard Bloomfield: Essays on his life and work'', pp.", "3–14.Philadelphia: John Benjamins.", "Fought, John G. 1999a.", "''Leonard Bloomfield: Biographical Sketches''.", "Taylor & Francis.", "Fought, John G. 1999b.", "\"Leonard Bloomfield's linguistic legacy: Later uses of some technical features\".", "''Historiographica linguistica'' 26/3: 313–332.", "Goddard, Ives.", "1987.", "\"Leonard Bloomfield's descriptive and comparative studies of Algonquian\".", "Robert A.", "Hall, Jr., ed., ''Leonard Bloomfield: Essays on his life and work'', pp.", "179–217.Philadelphia: John Benjamins.", "Hall, Robert A. Jr.", "1987.", "''Leonard Bloomfield: Essays on his life and work''.", "Amsterdam: Benjamins.", "Hall, Robert A.", "1987.", "\"Bloomfield and semantics\".", "Robert A.", "Hall, Jr., ed., ''Leonard Bloomfield: Essays on his life and work'', pp.", "155–160.Philadelphia: John Benjamins.", "Hall, Robert A. Jr.", "1990.", "''A life for language: A biographical memoir of Leonard Bloomfield.''", "Philadelphia: John Benjamins.", "Hockett, Charles F., ed., 1970.", "''A Leonard Bloomfield Anthology.''", "Bloomington: Indiana University Press.", "Harris, Randy Allen.", "1995.", "''The Linguistics Wars''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "Hockett, Charles F. 1987.“Letters from Bloomfield to Michelson and Sapir.” Robert A.", "Hall, Jr., ed., ''Leonard Bloomfield: Essays on his life and work'', pp.", "39–60.Philadelphia: John Benjamins.", "Hockett, Charles F.", "1999.", "\"Leonard Bloomfield: After fifty years.\"", "''Historiographica linguistica'' 26/3: 295–311.", "Hoenigswald, Henry M. 1987.“Bloomfield and historical linguistics.” Robert A.", "Hall, Jr., ed., ''Leonard Bloomfield: Essays on his life and work, '' pp.", "73–88.Philadelphia: John Benjamins.", "Jones, William.", "1907.", "\"Fox texts\".", "American Ethnological Society Publications 1.Leiden.", "reprinted 1974, New York: AMS PressJones, William.", "1911.", "\"Algonquian (Fox)\".", "edited posthumously by Truman Michelson Franz Boas, ed., ''Handbook of American Indian languages'', Part I, pp.", "735–873.Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 40.Washington: Smithsonian Institution.", "Jones, William.", "1917.", "''Ojibwa texts.", "Volume 1.''", "Ed.", "Truman Michelson.", "Leiden: American Ethnological Society Publications 7.1 (Vol.", "1).", "Jones, William.", "1919.", "''Ojibwa texts.", "Volume 2.''", "Ed.", "Truman Michelson.", "New York: G.", "Stechert.", "Lehmann, Winfred P.", "1987.", "\"Bloomfield as an Indo-Europeanist\".", "Robert A.", "Hall, Jr., ed., ''Leonard Bloomfield: Essays on his life and work'', pp.", "163–172.Philadelphia: John Benjamins.", "Manaster Ramer, Alexis.", "1992–1993.", "\"Ever since Bloomfield\".", "in: ''Proceedings of the international congress of linguists'' 15/1: 308–310.", "Michelson, Truman.", "1921.", "\"The Owl sacred pack of the Fox Indians\".", "''Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 72''.", "Washington: Smithsonian Institution.", "Michelson, Truman.", "1925.", "\"Accompanying papers\".", "''Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report'' 40: 21–658.Washington: Smithsonian Institution.", "Nichols, John D. and Leonard Bloomfield, eds.", "1991.", "''The dog's children.", "Anishinaabe texts told by Angeline Williams''.", "Winnipeg: Publications of the Algonquian Text Society, University of Manitoba.", "Robins, R. H. \"Leonard Bloomfield: The man and the man of science\".", "''Transactions of the Philological Society 86: 63–87.", "Rogers, David E.", "1987.", "\"The influence of Pāṇini on Leonard Bloomfield\".", "Robert A.", "Hall, Jr., ed., ''Leonard Bloomfield: Essays on his life and work'', pp.", "89–138.Philadelphia: John Benjamins.", "Sayers, Frances Clarke.", "1987.", "\"The small mythologies of Leonard Bloomfield\".", "Robert A.", "Hall, Jr., ed., ''Leonard Bloomfield: Essays on his life and work'', pp.", "16–21.Philadelphia: John Benjamins.", "Wolff, John U.", "1987.", "\"Bloomfield as an Austronesianist\".", "Robert A.", "Hall, Jr., ed., ''Leonard Bloomfield: Essays on his life and work'', pp.", "173–178.Philadelphia: John Benjamins." ], [ "External links", " A biography ( archived version)* A bibliographic list about Bloomfield's reputation as a teacher in Linguist List website.", "* Leonard Bloomfield \"Linguistics and Mathematics\" (Marcus Tomalin) ( archived version)* Finding Aid to the Papers of Leonard Bloomfield, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution ( archived version)* Leonard Bloomfield Book Award, Linguistic Society of America* Guide to the Leonard Bloomfield Papers 1935-1943 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leather" ], [ "Introduction", "A variety of leather products and leather-working tools'''Leather''' is a strong, flexible and durable material obtained from the tanning, or chemical treatment, of animal skins and hides to prevent decay.", "The most common leathers come from cattle, sheep, goats, equine animals, buffalo, pigs and hogs, and aquatic animals such as seals and alligators.Leather can be used to make a variety of items, including clothing, footwear, handbags, furniture, tools and sports equipment, and lasts for decades.", "Leather making has been practiced for more than 7,000 years and the leading producers of leather today are China and India.Critics of tanneries claim that they engage in unsustainable practices that pose health hazards to the people and the environment near them." ], [ "Production processes", "Drying of leather in East TimorAncient leather tanning in Fes, MoroccoTanned leather in MarrakechLeon, Mexico.The leather manufacturing process is divided into three fundamental subprocesses: preparatory stages, tanning, and crusting.", "A further subprocess, finishing, can be added into the leather process sequence, but not all leathers receive finishing.The preparatory stages are when the hide is prepared for tanning.", "Preparatory stages may include soaking, hair removal, liming, deliming, bating, bleaching, and pickling.Tanning is a process that stabilizes the proteins, particularly collagen, of the raw hide to increase the thermal, chemical and microbiological stability of the hides and skins, making it suitable for a wide variety of end applications.", "The principal difference between raw and tanned hides is that raw hides dry out to form a hard, inflexible material that, when rewetted, will putrefy, while tanned material dries to a flexible form that does not become putrid when rewetted.Many tanning methods and materials exist.", "The typical process sees tanners load the hides into a drum and immerse them in a tank that contains the tanning \"liquor\".", "The hides soak while the drum slowly rotates about its axis, and the tanning liquor slowly penetrates through the full thickness of the hide.", "Once the process achieves even penetration, workers slowly raise the liquor's pH in a process called basification, which fixes the tanning material to the leather.", "The more tanning material fixed, the higher the leather's hydrothermal stability and shrinkage temperature resistance.Crusting is a process that thins and lubricates leather.", "It often includes a coloring operation.", "Chemicals added during crusting must be fixed in place.", "Crusting culminates with a drying and softening operation, and may include splitting, shaving, dyeing, whitening or other methods.For some leathers, tanners apply a surface coating, called \"finishing\".", "Finishing operations can include oiling, brushing, buffing, coating, polishing, embossing, glazing, or tumbling, among others.Leather can be oiled to improve its water resistance.", "This currying process after tanning supplements the natural oils remaining in the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water.", "Frequent oiling of leather, with mink oil, neatsfoot oil, or a similar material keeps it supple and improves its lifespan dramatically.===Tanning methods===Tanning processes largely differ in which chemicals are used in the tanning liquor.", "Some common types include:* '''''' is tanned using tannins extracted from vegetable matter, such as tree bark prepared in bark mills.", "It is the oldest known method.", "It is supple and light brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of materials and the color of the skin.", "The color tan derives its name from the appearance of undyed vegetable-tanned leather.", "Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water; it tends to discolor, and if left to soak and then dry, it shrinks and becomes harder, a feature of vegetable-tanned leather that is exploited in traditional shoemaking.", "In hot water, it shrinks drastically and partly congeals, becoming rigid and eventually brittle.", "Boiled leather is an example of this, where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in boiling water, or in wax or similar substances.", "Historically, it was occasionally used as armor after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding.", "* '''Chrome-tanned leather''' is tanned using chromium sulfate and other chromium salts.", "It is also known as \"wet blue\" for the pale blue color of the undyed leather.", "The chrome tanning method usually takes approximately one day to complete, making it best suited for large-scale industrial use.", "This is the most common method in modern use.", "It is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned.", "However, there are environmental concerns with this tanning method, as chromium is a heavy metal; while the trivalent chromium used for tanning is harmless, other byproducts can contain toxic variants.", "The method was developed in the latter half of the 19th century as tanneries wanted to find ways to speed up the process and to make leather more waterproof.", "* '''Aldehyde-tanned leather''' is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds.", "It is referred to as \"wet white\" due to its pale cream color.", "It is the main type of \"chrome-free\" leather, often seen in shoes for infants and automobiles.", "Formaldehyde has been used for tanning in the past; it is being phased out due to danger to workers and sensitivity of many people to formaldehyde.", "Chamois leather is a form of aldehyde-tanned leather that is porous and highly water-absorbent.", "Chamois leather is made using oil (traditionally cod oil) that oxidizes to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather.", "* '''Brain tanned leathers''' are made by a labor-intensive process that uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains such as deer, cattle, and buffalo.", "An example of this kind is buckskin.", "Leather products made in this manner are known for their exceptional softness and washability.", "* '''Alum leather''' is transformed using aluminium salts mixed with a variety of binders and protein sources, such as flour and egg yolk.", "Alum leather is not actually tanned; rather the process is called \"tawing\", and the resulting material reverts to rawhide if soaked in water long enough to remove the alum salts." ], [ "Grades", "In general, leather is produced in the following grades:* '''Top-grain leather''' includes the outer layer of the hide, known as the grain, which features finer, more densely packed fibers, resulting in strength and durability.", "Depending on thickness, it may also contain some of the more fibrous under layer, known as the corium.", "Types of top-grain leather include:'''Full-grain leather''' contains the entire grain layer, without any removal of the surface.", "Rather than wearing out, it develops a patina during its useful lifetime.", "It is usually considered the highest quality leather.", "Furniture and footwear are often made from full-grain leather.", "Full-grain leather is typically finished with a soluble aniline dye.", "Russia leather is a form of full-grain leather.", " '''Corrected grain leather''' has the surface subjected to finishing treatments to create a more uniform appearance.", "This usually involves buffing or sanding away flaws in the grain, then dyeing and embossing the surface.", "** '''Nubuck''' is top-grain leather that has been sanded or buffed on the grain side to give a slight nap of short protein fibers, producing a velvet-like surface.", "* '''Split leather''' is created from the corium left once the top-grain has been separated from the hide, known as the drop split.", "In thicker hides, the drop split can be further split into a middle split and a flesh split.", "'''Bicast leather''' is split leather that is coated with a layer of polyurethane or vinyl with an embossed texture.", "This gives it the appearance of a grain.", "It is slightly stiffer than top-grain leather but has a more consistent texture.", " '''Patent leather''' is leather that has been given a high-gloss finish by the addition of a coating.", "Dating to the late 1700s, it became widely popular after inventor Seth Boyden developed the first mass-production process, using a linseed-oil-based lacquer, in 1818.Modern versions are usually a form of bicast leather.", "*'''Suede''' is made from the underside of a split to create a soft, napped finish.", "It is often made from younger or smaller animals, as the skins of adults often result in a coarse, shaggy nap.", " '''Bonded leather''', also called ''reconstituted leather'', is a material that uses leather scraps that are shredded and bonded together with polyurethane or latex onto a fiber mesh.", "The amount of leather fibers in the mix varies from 10% to 90%, affecting the properties of the product.The \"genuine leather\" does not describe a specific grade.", "The term often indicates split leather that has been extensively processed, and some sources describe it as synonymous with bicast leather, or made from multiple splits glued together and coated.", "In some countries, when it is the description on a product label the term means nothing more than \"contains leather\"; depending on jurisdiction, regulations limit the term's use in product labelling." ], [ "From other animals", "Phone cases in ostrich leatherToday, most leather is made of cattle hides, which constitute about 65% of all leather produced.", "Other animals that are used include sheep (about 13%), goats (about 11%), and pigs (about 10%).", "Obtaining accurate figures from around the world is difficult, especially for areas where the skin may be eaten.", "Other animals mentioned below only constitute a fraction of a percent of total leather production.Horse hides are used to make particularly durable leathers.", "Shell cordovan is a horse leather made not from the outer skin but from an under layer, found only in equine species, called the shell.", "It is prized for its mirror-like finish and anti-creasing properties.Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather in more expensive apparel.", "Deerskin is widely used in work gloves and indoor shoes.Reptilian skins, such as alligator, crocodile, and snake, are noted for their distinct patterns that reflect the scales of their species.", "This has led to hunting and farming of these species in part for their skins.", "The Argentine black and white tegu is one of the most exploited reptile species in the world in the leather trade.", "However, it is not endangered and while monitored, trade is legal in most South American countries.Kangaroo leather is used to make items that must be strong and flexible.", "It is the material most commonly used in bullwhips.", "Some motorcyclists favor kangaroo leather for motorcycle leathers because of its light weight and abrasion resistance.", "Kangaroo leather is also used for falconry jesses, soccer footwear, (e.g.", "Adidas Copa Mundial) and boxing speed bags.Although originally raised for their feathers in the 19th century, ostriches are now more popular for both meat and leather.", "Ostrich leather has a characteristic \"goose bump\" look because of the large follicles where the feathers grew.", "Different processes produce different finishes for many applications, including upholstery, footwear, automotive products, accessories, and clothing.In Thailand, stingray leather is used in wallets and belts.", "Stingray leather is tough and durable.", "The leather is often dyed black and covered with tiny round bumps in the natural pattern of the back ridge of an animal.", "These bumps are then usually dyed white to highlight the decoration.", "Stingray rawhide is also used as grips on Chinese swords, Scottish basket hilted swords, and Japanese katanas.", "Stingray leather is also used for high abrasion areas in motorcycle racing leathers (especially in gloves, where its high abrasion resistance helps prevent wear through in the event of an accident).For a given thickness, fish leather is typically much stronger due to its criss-crossed fibers." ], [ "Environmental impact", "Leather produces some environmental impact, most notably due to:* The carbon footprint of cattle rearing (see environmental impact of meat production)* Use of chemicals in the tanning process (e.g., chromium, phthalate esters, nonyl phenol ethoxylate soaps, pentachlorophenol and solvents)* Air pollution due to the transformation process (hydrogen sulfide is formed during mixing with acids and ammonia liberated during deliming, solvent vapors)===Carbon footprint===Estimates of the carbon footprint of bovine leather range from 65 to 150 kg of CO2 equivalent per square meter of production.===Water footprint===One ton of hide or skin generally produces 20 to 80 m3 of waste water, including chromium levels of 100–400 mg/L, sulfide levels of200–800 mg/L, high levels of fat and other solid wastes, and notable pathogen contamination.", "Producers often add pesticides to protect hides during transport.", "With solid wastes representing up to 70% of the wet weight of the original hides, the tanning process represents a considerable strain on water treatment installations.===Disposal===Leather biodegrades slowly—taking 25 to 40 years to decompose.", "However, vinyl and petrochemical-derived materials take 500 or more years to decompose.===Chemical waste disposal===jooti, Jaipur, IndiaTanning is especially polluting in countries where environmental regulations are lax, such as in India, the world's third-largest producer and exporter of leather.", "To give an example of an efficient pollution prevention system, chromium loads per produced tonne are generally abated from 8 kg to 1.5 kg.", "VOC emissions are typically reduced from 30 kg/t to 2 kg/t in a properly managed facility.", "A review of the total pollution load decrease achievable according to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization posts precise data on the abatement achievable through industrially proven low-waste advanced methods, while noting, \"even though the chrome pollution load can be decreased by 94% on introducing advanced technologies, the minimum residual load 0.15 kg/t raw hide can still cause difficulties when using landfills and composting sludge from wastewater treatment on account of the regulations currently in force in some countries.", "\"In Kanpur, the self-proclaimed \"Leather City of World\"—with 10,000 tanneries as of 2011 and a city of three million on the banks of the Ganges—pollution levels were so high, that despite an industry crisis, the pollution control board decided to shut down 49 high-polluting tanneries out of 404 in July 2009.In 2003 for instance, the main tanneries' effluent disposal unit was dumping 22 tonnes of chromium-laden solid waste per day in the open.In the Hazaribagh neighborhood of Dhaka in Bangladesh, chemicals from tanneries end up in Dhaka's main river.", "Besides the environmental damage, the health of both local factory workers and the end consumer is also negatively affected.", "After approximately 15 years of ignoring high court rulings, the government shut down more than 100 tanneries the weekend of 8 April 2017 in the neighborhood.The higher cost associated with the treatment of effluents than to untreated effluent discharging leads to illegal dumping to save on costs.", "For instance, in Croatia in 2001, proper pollution abatement cost US$70–100 per ton of raw hides processed against $43/t for irresponsible behavior.", "In November 2009, one of Uganda's main leather making companies was caught directly dumping waste water into a wetland adjacent to Lake Victoria." ], [ "Role of enzymes", "Enzymes like proteases, lipases, and amylases have an important role in the soaking, dehairing, degreasing, and bating operations of leather manufacturing.", "Proteases are the most commonly used enzymes in leather production.", "The enzyme must not damage or dissolve collagen or keratin, but should hydrolyze casein, elastin, albumin, globulin-like proteins, and nonstructural proteins that are not essential for leather making.", "This process is called bating.Lipases are used in the degreasing operation to hydrolyze fat particles embedded in the skin.Amylases are used to soften skin, to bring out the grain, and to impart strength and flexibility to the skin.", "These enzymes are rarely used." ], [ "Preservation and conditioning", "The natural fibers of leather break down with the passage of time.", "Acidic leathers are particularly vulnerable to red rot, which causes powdering of the surface and a change in consistency.", "Damage from red rot is aggravated by high temperatures and relative humidities.", "Although it is chemically irreversible, treatments can add handling strength and prevent disintegration of red rotted leather.Exposure to long periods of low relative humidities (below 40%) can cause leather to become desiccated, irreversibly changing the fibrous structure of the leather.", "Chemical damage can also occur from exposure to environmental factors, including ultraviolet light, ozone, acid from sulfurous and nitrous pollutants in the air, or through a chemical action following any treatment with tallow or oil compounds.", "Both oxidation and chemical damage occur faster at higher temperatures.There are few methods to maintain and clean leather goods properly such as using damp cloth and avoid using a wet cloth or soaking the leather in water.", "Various treatments are available such as conditioners.", "Saddle soap is used for cleaning, conditioning, and softening leather.", "Leather shoes are widely conditioned with shoe polish." ], [ "In modern culture", "Elize Ryd wearing a leather jacketDue to its excellent resistance to abrasion and wind, leather found a use in rugged occupations.", "The enduring image of a cowboy in leather chaps gave way to the leather-jacketed and leather-helmeted aviator.", "When motorcycles were invented, some riders took to wearing heavy leather jackets to protect from road rash and wind blast; some also wear chaps or full leather pants to protect the lower body.Leather's flexibility allows it to be formed and shaped into balls and protective gear.", "Subsequently, many sports use equipment made with leather, such as baseball gloves and the ball used in cricket and gridiron football.Leather fetishism is the name popularly used to describe a fetishistic attraction to people wearing leather, or in certain cases, to the garments themselves.Many rock groups (particularly heavy metal and punk groups in the 1970s and 80s) are well known for wearing leather clothing.", "Extreme metal bands (especially black metal bands) and Goth rock groups have extensive black leather clothing.", "Leather has become less common in the punk community over the last three decades, as there is opposition to the use of leather from punks who support animal rights.Many cars and trucks come with optional or standard leather or \"leather faced\" seating." ], [ "Religious sensitivities", "In countries with significant populations of individuals observing religions which place restrictions on material choices, vendors typically clarify the source of leather in their products.", "Such labeling helps facilitate religious observance, so, for example, a Muslim will not accidentally purchase pigskin or a Hindu can avoid cattleskin.", "Such taboos increase the demand for religiously neutral leathers such as ostrich and deer.Judaism forbids the comfort of wearing leather shoes on Yom Kippur, Tisha B'Av, and during mourning.", "Also, see Leather in Judaism, Teffilin and Torah Scroll.Jainism prohibits the use of leather, since it is obtained by killing animals." ], [ "Alternatives", "Many forms of artificial leather have been developed, usually involving polyurethane or vinyl coatings applied to a cloth backing.", "Many names and brands for such artificial leathers exist, including \"pleather\", a portmanteau of \"plastic leather\", and the brand name Naugahyde.Another alternative is cultured leather which is lab-grown using cell-culture methods, mushroom-based materials and gelatin-based textile made by upcycling meat industry waste.", "Leather made of fungi or mushroom-based materials are completely biodegradable." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * (includes several diagrams)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Long Parliament" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Long Parliament''' was an English Parliament which lasted from 1640 until 1660.It followed the fiasco of the Short Parliament, which had convened for only three weeks during the spring of 1640 after an 11-year parliamentary absence.", "In September 1640, King Charles I issued writs summoning a parliament to convene on 3 November 1640.He intended it to pass financial bills, a step made necessary by the costs of the Bishops' Wars against Scotland.", "The Long Parliament received its name from the fact that, by Act of Parliament, it stipulated it could be dissolved only with agreement of the members; and those members did not agree to its dissolution until 16 March 1660, after the English Civil War and near the close of the Interregnum.The parliament sat from 1640 until 1648, when it was purged by the New Model Army.", "After this point, the remaining members of the House of Commons became known as the Rump Parliament; Oliver Cromwell disbanded the Rump in April 1653, replacing it with a succession of nominated and elected parliaments.In the chaos following the death of Cromwell in September 1658, the Rump was reinstalled in May 1659, and in February 1660 General George Monck allowed the members barred in 1648 to retake their seats, so that they could pass the necessary legislation to allow the Restoration and dissolve the Long Parliament.", "This cleared the way for a new parliament to be elected, which was known as the Convention Parliament.", "Some key members of the Long Parliament, such as Sir Henry Vane the Younger and General Edmond Ludlow, were barred from the final acts of the Long Parliament.", "They claimed the parliament was not legally dissolved, its final votes a procedural irregularity (words used contemporaneously were \"device\" and \"conspiracy\") by General George Monck to ensure the restoration of King Charles II of England.", "On the restoration the general was rewarded with a dukedom.The Long Parliament later became a key moment in Whig histories of the seventeenth century.", "American Whig historian Charles Wentworth Upham believed the Long Parliament comprised \"a set of the greatest geniuses for government that the world ever saw embarked together in one common cause\" and whose actions produced an effect which, at the time, made their country the wonder and admiration of the world, and is still felt and exhibited far beyond the borders of that country, in the progress of reform, and the advancement of popular liberty.", "He believed its republican principles made it a precursor to the American Revolutionary War." ], [ "Execution of Strafford", "Charles signed a bill agreeing that the present Parliament should not be dissolved without its own consent.Charles found himself unable to fund the Bishops' Wars without taxes; in April 1640, Parliament was recalled for the first time in eleven years, but when it refused to vote taxes without concessions, he dissolved it after only three weeks.", "The humiliating terms imposed by the Scots Covenanters after a second defeat forced him to hold fresh elections in November, which produced a large majority for the opposition, led by John Pym.Parliament was almost immediately presented with a series of \"Root and Branch petitions\".", "These demanded the expulsion of bishops from the Church of England, reflecting widespread concern at the growth of \"Catholic practices\" within the church.", "Charles' willingness to make war on the Protestant Scots, but not to assist his exiled nephew Charles Louis, led to fears he was about to sign an alliance with Spain, a view shared by the experienced Venetian and French ambassadors.This meant ending arbitrary rule was important not just for England, but the Protestant cause in general.", "Since direct attacks on the monarch were considered unacceptable, the usual route was to prosecute his \"evil counsellors\".", "Doing so showed even if the king was above the law, his subordinates were not, and he could not protect them; the intention was to make others think twice about their actions.", "Further, they started to create a series of committees and sub-committees starting with the Grand Committee for Religion appointed on 6 November 1640.Their main target was the Earl of Strafford, former Lord Deputy of Ireland; aware of this, he urged Charles to use military force to seize the Tower of London, and arrest any MP or peer guilty of \"treasonable correspondence with the Scots\".", "While Charles hesitated, Pym struck first; on 11 November Strafford was impeached, arrested, and sent to the Tower.", "Other targets, including John Finch, fled abroad; Archbishop William Laud was impeached in December 1640, and joined Strafford in the Tower.At his trial in March 1641, Strafford was indicted on 28 counts of \"arbitrary and tyrannical government\".", "Even if these charges were proved, it was not clear they constituted a crime against the king, the legal definition of treason.", "If he went free, his opponents would replace him in the Tower, and so Pym immediately moved a bill of attainder, asserting Strafford's guilt and ordering his execution.Although Charles announced he would not sign the attainder, on 21 April 204 MPs voted in favour, 59 against, while 250 abstained.", "On 1 May, rumours of a military plot to release Strafford from the Tower led to widespread demonstrations in London, and on 7th, the Lords voted for execution by 51 to 9.Claiming to fear for his family's safety, Charles signed the death warrant on 10 May, and Strafford was beheaded two days later." ], [ "Committees established by the Long Parliament", "On 5 November 1640 parliament created several committees to parcel out the work they intended to address.", "The first committee was the Committee for Privileges and Elections under the leadership of John Maynard, MP for Totnes.", "On the next day, 6 November, parliament established the Grand Committee for Religion." ], [ "The Grand Remonstrance", "Viscount Falkland; killed at Newbury in 1643, typical of those moderates who supported reforms, but opposed the Grand Remonstrance and became RoyalistsThis seemed to provide a basis for a programme of constitutional reforms, and Parliament voted Charles an immediate grant of £400,000.The Triennial Acts required Parliament meet at least every three years, and if the King failed to issue proper summons, the members could assemble on their own.", "Levying taxes without consent of Parliament was declared unlawful, including Ship money and forced loans, while the Star Chamber and High Commission courts abolished.These reforms were supported by many who later became Royalists, including Edward Hyde, Viscount Falkland, and Sir John Strangways.", "Where they differed from Pym and his supporters was their refusal to accept Charles would not keep his commitments, despite evidence to the contrary.", "He reneged on those made in the 1628 Petition of Right, and agreed terms with the Scots in 1639, while preparing another attack.", "Both he and Henrietta Maria openly told foreign ambassadors any concessions were temporary, and would be retrieved by force if needed.In this period, 'true religion' and 'good government' were seen as one and the same.", "Although the vast majority believed a 'well-ordered' monarchy was a divinely mandated requirement, they disagreed on what 'well-ordered' meant, and who held ultimate authority in clerical affairs.", "Royalists generally supported a Church of England governed by bishops, appointed by, and answerable to, the king; most Parliamentarians were Puritans, who believed he was answerable to the leaders of the church, appointed by their congregations.However, Puritan meant anyone who wanted to reform, or 'purify', the Church of England, and contained many different opinions.", "Some simply objected to Laud's reforms; Presbyterians like Pym wanted to reform the Church of England, along the same lines as the Church of Scotland.", "Independents believed any state church was wrong, while many were also political radicals like the Levellers.", "Presbyterians in England and Scotland gradually came to see them as more dangerous than the Royalists; an alliance between these three groups eventually led to the Second English Civil War in 1648.While it is not clear there was a majority for removing bishops from the Church, their presence in the House of Lords became increasingly resented due to their role in blocking many of these reforms.", "Tensions came to a head in October 1641 with the outbreak of the Irish Rebellion; both Charles and Parliament supported raising troops to suppress it, but neither trusted the other with their control.On 22 November, the Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance by 159 votes to 148, and presented it to Charles on 1 December.", "The first half listed over 150 perceived 'misdeeds', the second proposed solutions, including church reform and Parliamentary control over the appointment of royal ministers.", "In the Militia Ordinance, Parliament asserted control over appointment of army and navy commanders; Charles rejected the Grand Remonstrance and refused to assent to the Militia Ordinance.", "It was at this point moderates like Hyde decided Pym and his supporters had gone too far, and switched sides." ], [ "First English Civil War", "King Charles' attempt to arrest the Five Members of the CommonsIncreasing unrest in London culminated in 23 to 29 December 1641 with widespread riots in Westminster, while the hostility of the crowd meant the bishops stopped attending the Lords.", "On 30 December, Charles induced John Williams, Archbishop of York and eleven other bishops, to sign a complaint, disputing the legality of any laws passed by the Lords during their exclusion.", "This was viewed by the Commons as inviting the king to dissolve Parliament; all twelve were arrested.On 3 January 1642, Charles ordered his Attorney-general to bring charges of treason against Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester, and Five Members of the Commons; Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, Arthur Haselrig, and William Strode.", "This confirmed fears he intended to use force to shut down Parliament.", "The members were pre-warned, and evaded arrest.Soon after, Charles left London, accompanied by many Royalist MPs, and members of the Lords, a major tactical mistake.", "By doing so, he abandoned the largest arsenal in England and the commercial power of the City of London and guaranteed his opponents majorities in both houses.", "In February, Parliament passed the Clergy Act, excluding bishops from the Lords; Charles approved it, since he had already decided to retrieve all such concessions by assembling an army.In March 1642, Parliament decreed its own Parliamentary Ordinances were valid laws, even without royal assent.", "The Militia Ordinance gave them control of the local militia, or Trained Bands; those in London were the most strategically critical, because they could protect Parliament from armed intervention by any soldiers which Charles had near the capital.", "Charles declared Parliament in rebellion and began raising an army, by issuing a competing Commission of Array.At the end of 1642, he set up his court at Oxford, where the Royalist MPs formed the Oxford Parliament.", "In 1645 Parliament reaffirmed its determination to fight the war to a finish.", "It passed the Self-denying Ordinance, by which all members of either House of Parliament resigned any military commands, and formed the New Model Army under the command of Fairfax and Cromwell.", "The New Model Army soon destroyed Charles' armies, and by early 1646, he was on the verge of defeat.Charles left Oxford in disguise on 27 April; on 6 May, Parliament received a letter from David Leslie, commander of Scottish forces besieging Newark, announcing that he had the king in custody.", "Charles ordered the Royalist governor, Lord Belasyse, to surrender Newark, and the Scots withdrew to Newcastle, taking the king with them.", "This marked the end of the First English Civil War." ], [ "Second English Civil War", "Many Parliamentarians had assumed military defeat would force Charles to compromise, which proved a fundamental misunderstanding of his character.", "When Prince Rupert suggested in August 1645 the war was lost, Charles responded he was correct from a military viewpoint, but 'God will not suffer rebels and traitors to prosper'.", "This deeply-held conviction meant he refused any substantial concessions.", "Aware of divisions among his opponents, he used his position as king of both Scotland and England to deepen them, assuming that he was essential to any government; while this was true in 1646, by 1648 key actors believed it was pointless to negotiate with someone who could not be trusted to keep any agreement.Unlike in England, where Presbyterians were a minority, the Bishops' Wars resulted in a Covenanter, or Presbyterian government, and Presbyterian kirk, or Church of Scotland.", "The Scots wanted to preserve these achievements; the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant was driven by their concern at the implications for this settlement if Charles defeated Parliament.", "By 1646, they viewed Charles as a lesser threat than the Independents, who opposed their demand for a unified, Presbyterian church of England and Scotland; Cromwell claimed he would fight rather than agree to it.In July, the Scots and English commissioners presented Charles with the Newcastle Propositions, which he rejected.", "His refusal to negotiate created a dilemma for the Covenanters.", "Even if Charles agreed to a Presbyterian union, there was no guarantee it would be approved by Parliament.", "Keeping him was too dangerous; as subsequent events proved, whether Royalist or Covenanter, many Scots supported his retention.", "In February 1647, they agreed to a financial settlement, handed Charles over to Parliament, and retreated into Scotland.", "Carisbrooke Castle, on the Isle of Wight, where Charles was held in December 1648In England, Parliament was struggling with the economic cost of the war, a poor 1646 harvest, and a recurrence of the plague.", "The Presbyterian faction had the support of the London Trained Bands, the Army of the Western Association, leaders like Rowland Laugharne in Wales, and parts of the Royal Navy.", "By March 1647, the New Model was owed more than £3 million in unpaid wages; Parliament ordered it to Ireland, stating that only those who agreed would be paid.", "When their representatives demanded full payment for all in advance, it was disbanded.The New Model refused to be disbanded; in early June, Charles was removed from his Parliamentary guards, and taken to Thriplow, where he was presented with the Army Council's terms.", "Though they were more lenient than the Newcastle Propositions, Charles rejected them; on 26 July, pro-Presbyterian rioters burst into Parliament, demanding he be invited to London.", "In early August, Fairfax and the New Model Army took control of the city, while on 20 August Cromwell went to Parliament with a military escort, and forced the passing of the Null and Void Ordinance annulling all Parliamentary proceedings since 26 July, leading to the withdrawal of most of the Presbyterian MPs and presaging Pride's Purge the following year.", "The Putney Debates attempted to address radicals' objectives, but the return of royalist threats in November led to Fairfax demanding a declaration of loyalty; this re-established command authority over the rank and file, completed at Corkbush.In late November, the king escaped from his guards, and made his way to Carisbrooke Castle.", "In April 1648, the Engagers became a majority in the Scottish Parliament; in return for restoring him to the English throne, Charles agreed to impose Presbyterianism in England for three years, and suppress the Independents.", "His refusal to take the Covenant himself split the Scots; the Kirk Party did not trust Charles, objected to an alliance with English and Scots Royalists, and denounced the Engagement as 'sinful.", "'After two years of constant negotiation, and refusal to compromise, Charles finally had the pieces in place for a rising by Royalists, supported by some English Presbyterians, and Scots Covenanters.", "However, lack of co-ordination meant the Second English Civil War was quickly suppressed." ], [ "Rump Parliament (6 December 1648 – 20 April 1653)", "Oliver Cromwell dissolving the Long Parliament.Divisions emerged between various factions, culminating in Pride's Purge on 7 December 1648, when, under the orders of Oliver Cromwell's son-in-law Henry Ireton, Colonel Pride physically barred and arrested 41 of the members of Parliament.", "Many of the excluded members were Presbyterians.", "Henry Vane the Younger removed himself from Parliament in protest of this unlawful action by Ireton.", "He was not party to the execution of Charles I, although Cromwell was.", "In the wake of the ejections, the remnant, the ''Rump Parliament'', arranged for the trial and execution of Charles I on 30 January 1649.It was also responsible for the setting up of the Commonwealth of England in 1649.Henry Vane the Younger was persuaded to rejoin Parliament on 17 February 1649 and a Council of state was installed, into whose hands the executive government of the nation was committed.", "Sir Henry Vane was appointed a member of the Council.", "Cromwell used great pains to induce Vane to accept the appointment, and after many consultations, he so far prevailed in satisfying Vane of the purity of his principles in reference to the Commonwealth, as to overcome his reluctance again to enter the public service.", "Sir Henry Vane was for some time President of the Council, and, as Treasurer and Commissioner for the Navy, he had almost the exclusive direction of that branch of public service.Cromwell \"well knew that while the Long Parliament, that noble company, who had fought the great battle of liberty from the beginning, remained in session, and such men as Vane were enabled to mingle in its deliberations, it would be utterly useless for him to think of executing his purposes\" (to set up a Protectorate or Dictatorship).", "Henry Vane was working on a Reform Bill.", "Cromwell knew \"that if the Reform Bill should be suffered to pass, and a House of Commons be convened, freely elected on popular principles, and constituting a full and fair and equal representation, it would be impossible ever after to overthrow the liberties of the people, or break down the government of the country\".", "According to General Edmund Ludlow (an unapologetic supporter of the Good Old Cause who lived in exile after the Restoration), this reform bill provided for an equal representation of the people, disfranchised several boroughs which had ceased to have a population in proportion to representation, fixed the number of the House at four hundred\".", "It would have \"secured to England and to the rest of the world the blessings of republican institutions, two centuries earlier than can now be expected\".", "\"Harrison, who was in Cromwell's confidence on this occasion, rose to debate the motion, merely in order to gain time.", "Word was carried to Cromwell, that the House were on the point of putting the final motion; and Colonel Ingoldby hastened to Whitehall to tell him, that, if he intended to do anything decisive, he had no time to lose\".", "Once the troops were in place Cromwell entered the assembly.", "He was dressed in a suit of plain black; with grey worsted stockings.", "He took his seat; and appeared to be listening to the debate.", "As the Speaker was about to rise to put the question, Cromwell whispered to Harrison, \"Now is the time; I must do it\".", "As he rose, his countenance became flushed and blacked by the terrific passions which the crisis awakened.", "With the most reckless violence of manner and language, he abused the character of the House; and, after the first burst of his denunciations had passed, suddenly changing his tone, he exclaimed, \"You think, perhaps, this is not parliamentary language; I know it; nor are you to expect such from me\".", "He then advanced out into the middle of the hall, and walked to and fro, like a man beside himself.", "In a few moments he stamped upon the floor, the doors flew open and a file of musketeers entered.", "As they advanced, Cromwell exclaimed, looking over the House, \"You are no Parliament; I say you are no Parliament; begone, and give place to honester men\".", "\"While this extraordinary scene was transacting, the members, hardly believing their own ears and eyes, sat in mute amazement, horror, and pity of the maniac traitor who was storming and raving before them.", "At length Vane rose to remonstrate, and call him to his senses; but Cromwell, instead of listening to him, drowned his voice, repeating with great vehemence, and as though with the desperate excitement of the moment, \"Sir Harry Vane!", "Sir Harry Vane!", "Good Lord deliver me from Sir Harry Vane!\"", "He then seized the records, snatched the bill from the hands of the clerk, drove the members out at the point of the bayonet, locked the doors, put the key in his pocket, and returned to Whitehall.Oliver Cromwell forcibly disbanded the Rump in 1653 when it seemed to be planning to perpetuate itself rather than call new elections as had been agreed.", "It was followed by Barebone's Parliament and then the First, Second and Third Protectorate Parliaments." ], [ "Recall of the Rump (7 May 1659 – 20 February 1660)", "After Richard Cromwell, who had succeeded his father Oliver as Lord Protector in 1658, was effectively deposed by an officers' coup in April 1659, the officers re-summoned the Rump Parliament to sit.", "It convened on 7 May 1659, but after five months in power it again clashed with the army (led by John Lambert) and was again forcibly dissolved on 13 October 1659.Once again, Sir Henry Vane was the leading catalyst for the republican cause in opposition to force by the military.The persons connected with the administration as it existed at the death of Oliver were, of course, interested in keeping things as they were.", "Also, it was necessary for someone to assume the reins of government until the public will could be ascertained and brought into exercise.", "Henry Vane was elected to Parliament at Kingston upon Hull, but the certificate was given to another.", "Vane proceeded to Bristol, entered the canvass, and received the majority.", "Again the certificate was given to another.", "Finally Vane proceeded to Whitechurch in Hampshire and was elected a third time and was this time seated in Parliament.", "Vane managed the debates on behalf of the House of Commons.", "One of Vane's speeches effectively ended Richard Cromwell's career:This speech swept everything before it.", "The Rump Parliament which Oliver Cromwell had dispersed in 1653 was once more summoned to assemble, by a declaration from the Council of Officers dated on 6 May 1659.Edmond Ludlow made several attempts to reconcile the army and parliament in this time period but was ultimately unsuccessful.", "Parliament ordered the regiments of Colonel Morley and Colonel Moss to march to Westminster for their security, and sent for the rest of the troops that were about London to draw down to them also with all speed.In October 1659, Colonel Lambert and various subordinate members of the army, acting in the military interest, resisted Colonel Morley and others who were defending the rump Parliament.", "Colonel Lambert, Major Grimes, and Colonel Sydenham eventually gained their points, and placed guards both by land and water, to hinder the members of Parliament from approaching the House.", "Colonel Lambert subsequently acquitted himself to Henry Vane the Younger, Edmond Ludlow and the \"Committee on Safety,\" an instrument of the Wallingford House party acting under their misdirection.Nevertheless, Parliament was closed once again by military force until such time that the army and leaders of Parliament could effect a resolution.", "Rule then passed to an unelected ''Committee of Safety'', including Lambert and Vane; pending a resolution or compromise with the Army.During these disorders, the Council of State still assembled at the usual place, and:The Council of Officers at first attempted to come to some agreement with the leaders of Parliament.", "On 15 October 1659, the Council of Officers appointed ten persons to \"consider of fit ways and means to carry on the affairs and government of the Commonwealth\".", "On 26 October 1659 the Council of Officers appointed a new Committee of Safety of twenty-three members.On 1 November 1659, the Committee of Safety nominated a committee \"to consider of and prepare a form of government to be settled over the three nations in the way of a free state and Commonwealth, and afterwards to present it to the Committee of Safety for their further considerations\".The designs of General Fleetwood of the army and the Wallingford House party were now suspected as being in a possible alliance with Charles II.", "According to Edmond Ludlow: Edmond Ludlow warned both the Army and key members of Parliament that unless a compromise could be made it would \"render all the blood and treasure that had been spent in asserting our liberties of no use to us, but also force us under such a yoke of servitude, that neither we nor our posterity should be able to bear\".Starting on 17 December 1659, Henry Vane representing the Parliament, Major Saloway and Colonel Salmon with powers from the officers of the army to treat with the fleet, and Vice-Admiral Lawson met in negotiating a compromise.", "The navy was very adverse to any proposal of terms to be made with the Parliament before Parliament's readmission, insisting upon the absolute submission of the army to the authority of Parliament.", "A plan was then put in place declaring a resolution to join with the Generals at Portsmouth, Colonel Monck, and Vice-Admiral Lawson, but it was still unknown to the republican party that Colonel Monck was in league with King Charles II.Colonel Monck, though a hero to the restoration of King Charles II, was also treacherously disloyal to the Long Parliament, to his oath to the present Parliament, and to the Good Old Cause.", "Ludlow stated in early January 1660 when in conversation with several key officers of the army:This statement may be verified by the many executions of key Parliament members and Generals after the restoration of King Charles II.", "Therefore, the restoration of King Charles II could not be an act of the Long Parliament acting freely under its own authority, but only under the influence of the sword by Colonel Monck, who traded his loyalties for the present Long Parliament, in preference to a reformed Long Parliament and to the restoration of King Charles II.General George Monck, who had been Cromwell's viceroy in Scotland, feared that the military stood to lose power and secretly shifted his loyalty to the Crown.", "As he began to march south, Lambert, who had ridden out to face him, lost support in London.", "However, the Navy declared for Parliament, and on 26 December 1659 the Rump was restored to power.On 9 January 1660, Monck arrived in London and his plans were communicated.", "Whereupon Henry Vane the Younger was discharged from being a member of the Long Parliament; and Major Saloway was reproved for his role and committed to the Tower during the pleasure of the house.", "Lieutenant-General Fleetwood, Col. Sydenham, Lord Commissioner Whitlock, Cornelius Holland, and Mr. Strickland were required to clear themselves touching their deportment in that affair.", "High treason was also declared against Miles Corbet, Cor.", "John Jones, Col. Thomlinson, and Edmond Ludlow on 19 January 1660.1,500 other officers were removed from their command and \"scarce one of ten of the old officers of the army were continued\".", "Any known Anabaptists in the army were specifically discharged.", "So tame had Parliament become, that though it was most visible that Monck's letters and Arthur Haslerig's instructions were designed for the dissolution of the Long Parliament, they were obeyed by the remainder of the members and all these designs were to be put into execution.", "Though named by Parliament for treason, Miles Corbet and Edmond Ludlow were for a while were permitted to continue to sit with Parliament, and for a time the charges against these men were dropped." ], [ "Restoration and dissolution of the Long Parliament (21 February – 16 March 1660)", "After his initial show of deference to the Rump, Monck quickly found them unwilling to continue in cooperation with his plan for an election of a new parliament (the Rump Parliament believed Monck was accountable to them and had its own plan for free elections); so on 21 February 1660 he forcibly reinstated the members 'secluded' by Pride's purge in 1648, so that they could prepare legislation for the Convention Parliament.", "Some of the Rump Parliament were opposed and refused to sit with the Secluded Members.On 27 February 1660, \"the new Council of State being informed of some designs against the usurped power, issued out warrants for apprehending divers officers of the army; and having some jealousy of others that were members of Parliament, they procured an order of their House to authorize them to seize any member who had not sat since the coming in of the Secluded Members, if there should be occasion.When the house was ready to pass the act for dissolution, Crew who had been as forward as any man in beginning and carrying on the war against the last King, moved, that before they dissolved themselves, they would bear their witness against the horrid murder, as he called it, of the King.", "According to Ludlow: Having called for elections for a new Parliament to meet on 25 April, the Long Parliament was dissolved on 16 March 1660.Finally, on 22 April 1660, \"Major-General Lambert's party was dispersed\" and General Lambert taken prisoner by Colonel Ingoldsby." ], [ "Aftereffects: royalist and republican theories", "\"Hitherto Monk had continued to make solemn protestations of his affection and fidelity to the Commonwealth interest, against a King and House of Lords; but the new militia being settled, and a Convention, calling themselves a Parliament and fit for his purpose, being met at Westminster, he sent to such lords as had sat with the Parliament till 1648, to return to the place where they used to sit, which they did, upon assurance from him, that no others should be permitted to sit with them; which promise he also broke, and let in not only such as had deserted to Oxford, but the late created lords.", "And Charles Stuart, eldest son of the late King, being informed of these transactions, left the Spanish territories where he then resided, and by the advice of Monk went to Breda, a town belonging to the States of Holland: from when he sent his letters and a declaration to the two House by Sir John Greenvil; whereupon the nominal House of Commons, though called by a Commonwealth writ in the name of the Keepers of the Liberties of England, passed a vote on about April 25, 1660, 'That the government of the nation should be by a King, Lords and Commons, and that Charles Stuart should be proclaimed King of England'\".", "\"The Lord Mayor, Sheriffs and Aldermen of the City, treated their King with a collation under a tent, placed in St. George's Fields; and five or six hundred citizens cloathed in coats of black velvet, and (not improperly) wearing chains about their necks, by an order of the Common Council, attended on the triumph of that day; ... and those who had been so often defeated in the field, and had contributed nothing either of bravery or policy to this change, in ordering the souldiery to ride with swords drawn through the city of London to White Hall, the Duke of York and Monk leading the way; and intimating (as was supposed) a resolution to maintain that by force which had been obtained by fraud\".Initially seven, and later 'twenty persons were put to death for life and estate.'", "These included: Chief Justice Coke, who had been Solicitor to the High Court of Justice, Major-General Harrison, Col. John Jones (also a member of the High Court of Justice), Mr. Thomas Scot, Sir.", "Henry Vane, Sir.", "Arthur Haslerig, Sir.", "Henry Mildmay, Mr. Robert Wallop, the Lord Mounson, Sir.", "James Harrington, Mr. James Challoner, Mr. John Phelps, Mr. John Carew, Mr. Hugh Peters, Mr. Gregory Clement, Colonel Adrian Scroop, Col. Francis Hacker, Col. Daniel Axtel.", "Among those who appeared the most basely subservient to these 'exorbitancies' of the Court, 'Mr.", "William Prynn was singularly remarkable' and attempted to add to these all who 'abjured the family of the Stuarts' previously, though this motion failed.", "\"John Finch who had been accused of high treason twenty years before, by a full Parliament, and who by flying from their justice had saved his life, was appointed to judge some of those who should have been his judges; and Sir.", "Orlando Bridgman, who upon his submission to Cromwell had been permitted to practice the law in a private manner, and under that colour had served both as spy and agent for his master, was entrusted with the principal management of this tragic scene; and in his charge to the Grand Jury, had the assurance to tell them 'That no authority, no single person, or community of men; not the people collectively or representatively, had any coercive power over the King of England'\".In framing the Act of Indemnity and Oblivion, the House of Commons were unwilling to except Sir Henry Vane, Sir.", "Arthur Haslerig, and Major-General Lambert as they had no immediate hand in the death of the King, and there was as much reason to except them as most of the members of Parliament from its benefits.", "In Henry Vane's case the House of Lords were desirous of having him specifically excepted, so as to leave him at the mercy of the government and thus restrain him from the exercise of his great talents in promoting his favourite republican principles at any time during the remainder of his life.", "At a conference between the two Houses, it was concluded that the Commons should consent to except him from the act of indemnity, the Lords agreeing, on their part, to concur with the other House in petitioning the King, in case of the condemnation of Vane, not to carry the sentence into execution.", "General Edmond Ludlow, still loyal to the Rump Parliament was also excepted.According to contemporary royalist legal theory, the Long Parliament was regarded as having been automatically dissolved from the moment of Charles I's execution on 30 January 1649.This view was confirmed by a court ruling during the treason trial of Henry Vane the Younger – a ruling that Henry Vane himself had concurred with in opposition to Oliver Cromwell years earlier.The trial given to Vane as to his own person, and defence of his own part played for the Long Parliament was a foregone conclusion.", "It was not a fair trial as both his defence, and deportment at the time of defence bears out.", "He was not given legal counsel (other than the judges that sat at his trial); and was left to conduct his own defence after years in prison.", "Sir Henry Vane maintained the following at his trial:# Whether the collective body of the Parliament can be impeached of high treason?# Whether any person, acting by authority of Parliament, can (so long as he acting by that authority) commit treason?# Whether matters, acted by that authority, can be called in question in an inferior court?# Whether a king ''de jure'', and out of possession, can have treason committed against him?King Charles II did not keep the promise made to the house but executed the sentence of death on Sir Henry Vane the Younger.", "The solicitor, openly declared in his speech afterwards \"that he (Henry Vane) must be made a public sacrifice\".", "One of his judges stated: \"We knew not how to answer him, but we know what to do with him\".Edmond Ludlow one of the members of Parliament excepted by the act of indemnity, fled to Switzerland after the restoration of King Charles II, where he wrote his memoirs of these events.The Long Parliament began with the execution of Lord Stafford, and effectively ended with the execution of Henry Vane the Younger.The republican theory is that the goal and aim of the Long Parliament was to institute a constitutional, balanced, and equally representative form of government along similar lines as were later accomplished in America by the American Revolution.", "It is clear from the writings of both Ludlow, Vane, and historians of the early American period such as Upham, that this is what they were striving for and why they were excepted from the acts of indemnity.", "The republican theory also suggests that the Long Parliament would have been successful in these necessary reforms except through the forceful intervention of Oliver Cromwell (and others) in removing the loyalists party, the unlawful execution of King Charles I, later dissolving the Rump Parliament; and finally the forceful dissolution of the reconvened Rump Parliament by Monck when less than a fourth of the required members were present.", "It is believed that in many ways this struggle was but a precursor to the American Revolution." ], [ "Notable members of the Long Parliament", "Sir Arthur HaselrigSir Benjamin RudyerdCarew RaleighDenzil Holles, 1st Baron HollesEdmond LudlowEdward Hyde, 1st Earl of ClarendonSir Francis Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of TrowbridgeGeorge Digby, 2nd Earl of BristolSir Henry Vane the ElderSir Henry Vane the YoungerJames TempleSir John CoolepeperJohn HampdenJohn PymLucius Cary, 2nd Viscount FalklandSir Nicholas CrispNicholas SlanningOliver CromwellOliver St JohnSir Robert HarleySamuel VassallSimonds D'EwesMajor-General HarrisonWilliam LenthallWilliam Russell, 1st Duke of BedfordWilliam Strode" ], [ "Timeline", "* Archbishop William Laud impeached December 1640, imprisoned 26 February 1641* ''Triennial Act'', passed 15 February 1641* Act against Dissolving the Long Parliament without its own Consent 11 May 1641* Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford executed 12 May 1641* Abolition of the Star Chamber 5 July 1641* ''Ship Money'' declared illegal 7 August 1641* Grand Remonstrance 22 November 1641* ''Militia Bill'' December 1641* The King's answer to the petition accompanying the ''Grand Remonstrance'' 23 December 1641* The King's attempt to seize the Five Members 4 January 1642* The King and Royal Family leave Whitehall for Hampton Court.", "January 1642* The King leaves Hampton Court for the North 2 March 1642 \t* ''Militia Ordinance'' agreed by Lords and Commons 5 March 1642* Parliament decreed that ''Parliamentary Ordinances'' were valid without royal assent following the King's refusal to assent to the Militia Ordinance 15 March 1642* Adventurers' Act to raise money to suppress the Irish Rebellion of 1641 19 March 1642* The Solemn League and Covenant 25 September 1643* Ordinance appointing the First Committee of both Kingdoms 16 February 1644* The Self-denying Ordinance 4 April 1645* Parliament accepts the King's terms 1 December 1648* Pride's Purge (Start of the Rump Parliament) 7 December 1648Execution of Charles I 30 January 1649 Excluded members of the Long Parliament reinstated by George Monck 21 February 1660* Having called for elections for a Parliament to meet on 25 April, the Long Parliament dissolved itself on 16 March 1660" ], [ "See also", "List of MPs elected to the English parliament in 1640 (November)List of MPs in the English parliament in 1645 and afterList of parliaments of England" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * " ], [ "Further reading", " British Civil Wars: The Long Parliament* British Civil Wars: 1641 Time Line* British Civil Wars: 1642 Time Line* Full text of The Triennial Act.", "15 February 1641* Full text of the Act against Dissolving the Long Parliament without its own Consent 11 May 1641* Full text of the act Abolishing the Star Chamber 5 July 1641* Full text of the Act Declaring the Illegality of Ship-money 7 August 1641* Full Text of the Grand Remonstrance, with the Petition accompanying it.", "22 November 1641* Full text of the King's Answer to the Petition Accompanying the Grand Remonstrance 23 December 1641* Full text of The Solemn League and Covenant 25 September 1643* Full text of the Ordinance appointing the First Committee of both Kingdoms 16 February 1644* Full text of the Self-denying Ordinance 4 April 1645* List of members and their allegiance in the Civil War* The Tryal of Thomas Earl of Stafford, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland by the Commons then Assembled in Parliament in the name of themselves and of all the Commons in England, 1640, John Rushworth." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lubricant" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''lubricant''' (sometimes shortened to '''lube''') is a substance that helps to reduce friction between surfaces in mutual contact, which ultimately reduces the heat generated when the surfaces move.", "It may also have the function of transmitting forces, transporting foreign particles, or heating or cooling the surfaces.", "The property of reducing friction is known as lubricity.In addition to industrial applications, lubricants are used for many other purposes.", "Other uses include cooking (oils and fats in use in frying pans and baking to prevent food sticking), to reduce rusting and friction in machinery, bioapplications on humans (e.g., lubricants for artificial joints), ultrasound examination, medical examination, and sexual intercourse.", "It is mainly used to reduce friction and to contribute to a better, more efficient functioning of a mechanism." ], [ "History", "Lubricants have been in some use for thousands of years.", "Calcium soaps have been identified on the axles of chariots dated to 1400 BC.", "Building stones were slid on oil-impregnated lumber in the time of the pyramids.", "In the Roman era, lubricants were based on olive oil and rapeseed oil, as well as animal fats.", "The growth of lubrication accelerated in the Industrial Revolution with the accompanying use of metal-based machinery.", "Relying initially on natural oils, needs for such machinery shifted toward petroleum-based materials early in the 1900s.", "A breakthrough came with the development of vacuum distillation of petroleum, as described by the Vacuum Oil Company.", "This technology allowed the purification of very nonvolatile substances, which are common in many lubricants." ], [ "Properties", "A good lubricant generally possesses the following characteristics:* A high boiling point and low freezing point (in order to stay liquid within a wide range of temperature)* A high viscosity index* Thermal stability* Hydraulic stability* Demulsibility* Corrosion prevention* A high resistance to oxidation* Pour Point (the minimum temperature at which oil will flow under prescribed test conditions)=== Formulation ===Typically lubricants contain 90% base oil (most often petroleum fractions, called mineral oils) and less than 10% additives.", "Vegetable oils or synthetic liquids such as hydrogenated polyolefins, esters, silicones, fluorocarbons and many others are sometimes used as base oils.", "Additives deliver reduced friction and wear, increased viscosity, improved viscosity index, resistance to corrosion and oxidation, aging or contamination, etc.Non-liquid lubricants include powders (dry graphite, PTFE, molybdenum disulphide, tungsten disulphide, etc.", "), PTFE tape used in plumbing, air cushion and others.", "Dry lubricants such as graphite, molybdenum disulphide and tungsten disulphide also offer lubrication at temperatures (up to 350 °C) higher than liquid and oil-based lubricants are able to operate.", "Limited interest has been shown in low friction properties of compacted oxide glaze layers formed at several hundred degrees Celsius in metallic sliding systems, however, practical use is still many years away due to their physically unstable nature.=== Additives ===A large number of additives are used to impart performance characteristics to the lubricants.", "Modern automotive lubricants contain as many as ten additives, comprising up to 20% of the lubricant, the main families of additives are:* Pour point depressants are compounds that prevent crystallization of waxes.", "Long chain alkylbenzenes adhere to small crystallites of wax, preventing crystal growth.", "* Anti-foaming agents are typically silicone compounds which increase surface tension in order to discourage foam formation.", "* Viscosity index improvers (VIIs) are compounds that allow lubricants to remain viscous at higher temperatures.", "Typical VIIs are polyacrylates and butadiene.", "* Antioxidants suppress the rate of oxidative degradation of the hydrocarbon molecules within the lubricant.", "At low temperatures, free radical inhibitors such as hindered phenols are used, e.g.", "butylated hydroxytoluene.", "At temperatures >90 °C, where the metals catalyze the oxidation process, dithiophosphates are more useful.", "In the latter application the additives are called metal deactivators.", "* Detergents ensure the cleanliness of engine components by preventing the formation of deposits on contact surfaces at high temperatures.", "* Corrosion inhibitors (rust inhibitors) are usually alkaline materials, such as alkylsulfonate salts, that absorb acids that would corrode metal parts.", "* Anti-wear additives form protective 'tribofilms' on metal parts, suppressing wear.", "They come in two classes depending on the strength with which they bind to the surface.", "Popular examples include phosphate esters and zinc dithiophosphates.", "* Extreme pressure (anti-scuffing) additives form protective films on sliding metal parts.", "These agents are often sulfur compounds, such as dithiophosphates.", "* Friction modifiers reduce friction and wear, particularly in the boundary lubrication regime where surfaces come into direct contact.", "In 1999, an estimated 37,300,000 tons of lubricants were consumed worldwide.", "Automotive applications dominate, including electric vehicles but other industrial, marine, and metal working applications are also big consumers of lubricants.", "Although air and other gas-based lubricants are known (e.g., in fluid bearings), liquid lubricants dominate the market, followed by solid lubricants.Lubricants are generally composed of a majority of base oil plus a variety of additives to impart desirable characteristics.", "Although generally lubricants are based on one type of base oil, mixtures of the base oils also are used to meet performance requirements.=== Mineral oil ===The term \"mineral oil\" is used to refer to lubricating base oils derived from crude oil.", "The American Petroleum Institute (API) designates several types of lubricant base oil:* Group I – Saturates 0.03%, and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) viscosity index (VI) of 80 to 120: Manufactured by solvent extraction, solvent or catalytic dewaxing, and hydro-finishing processes.", "Common Group I base oil are 150SN (solvent neutral), 500SN, and 150BS (brightstock)* Group II – Saturates > 90% and sulfur 90%, sulfur < 0.03%, and SAE viscosity index over 120: Manufactured by special processes such as isohydromerization.", "Can be manufactured from base oil or slax wax from dewaxing process.", "* Group IV – Polyalphaolefins (PAO)* Group V – All others not included above, such as naphthenics, polyalkylene glycols (PAG), and polyesters.The lubricant industry commonly extends this group terminology to include:* Group I+ with a viscosity index of 103–108* Group II+ with a viscosity index of 113–119* Group III+ with a viscosity index of at least 140Can also be classified into three categories depending on the prevailing compositions:* Paraffinic* Naphthenic* Aromatic=== Synthetic oils ===Petroleum-derived lubricant can also be produced using synthetic hydrocarbons (derived ultimately from petroleum), \"synthetic oils\".These include:* Polyalpha-olefin (PAO)* Synthetic esters* Polyalkylene glycols (PAG)* Phosphate esters* Perfluoropolyether (PFPE)* Alkylated naphthalenes (AN)* Silicate esters* Ionic fluids* Multiply alkylated cyclopentanes (MAC)=== Solid lubricants ==='''PTFE:''' polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is typically used as a coating layer on, for example, cooking utensils to provide a non-stick surface.", "Its usable temperature range up to 350 °C and chemical inertness make it a useful additive in special greases, where it can function both as a thickener and a lubricant.", "Under extreme pressures, PTFE powder or solids is of little value as it is soft and flows away from the area of contact.", "Ceramic or metal or alloy lubricants must be used then.", "'''Inorganic solids:''' Graphite, hexagonal boron nitride, molybdenum disulfide and tungsten disulfide are examples of solid lubricants.", "Some retain their lubricity to very high temperatures.", "The use of some such materials is sometimes restricted by their poor resistance to oxidation (e.g., molybdenum disulfide degrades above 350 °C in air, but 1100 °C in reducing environments.", "'''Metal/alloy:''' Metal alloys, composites and pure metals can be used as grease additives or the sole constituents of sliding surfaces and bearings.", "Cadmium and gold are used for plating surfaces which gives them good corrosion resistance and sliding properties, Lead, tin, zinc alloys and various bronze alloys are used as sliding bearings, or their powder can be used to lubricate sliding surfaces alone.=== Aqueous lubrication ===Aqueous lubrication is of interest in a number of technological applications.", "Strongly hydrated brush polymers such as PEG can serve as lubricants at liquid solid interfaces.", "By continuous rapid exchange of bound water with other free water molecules, these polymer films keep the surfaces separated while maintaining a high fluidity at the brush–brush interface at high compressions, thus leading to a very low coefficient of friction.=== Biolubricant ===Biolubricants are derived from vegetable oils and other renewable sources.", "They usually are triglyceride esters (fats obtained from plants and animals).", "For lubricant base oil use, the vegetable derived materials are preferred.", "Common ones include high oleic canola oil, castor oil, palm oil, sunflower seed oil and rapeseed oil from vegetable, and tall oil from tree sources.", "Many vegetable oils are often hydrolyzed to yield the acids which are subsequently combined selectively to form specialist synthetic esters.", "Other naturally derived lubricants include lanolin (wool grease, a natural water repellent).Whale oil was a historically important lubricant, with some uses up to the latter part of the 20th century as a friction modifier additive for automatic transmission fluid.In 2008, the biolubricant market was around 1% of UK lubricant sales in a total lubricant market of 840,000 tonnes/year., researchers at Australia's CSIRO have been studying safflower oil as an engine lubricant, finding superior performance and lower emissions than petroleum-based lubricants in applications such as engine-driven lawn mowers, chainsaws and other agricultural equipment.", "Grain-growers trialling the product have welcomed the innovation, with one describing it as needing very little refining, biodegradable, a bioenergy and biofuel.", "The scientists have reengineered the plant using gene silencing, creating a variety that produces up to 93% of oil, the highest currently available from any plant.", "Researchers at Montana State University’s Advanced Fuel Centre in the US studying the oil’s performance in a large diesel engine, comparing it with conventional oil, have described the results as a \"game-changer\"." ], [ "Functions of lubricants", "One of the largest applications for lubricants, in the form of motor oil, is protecting the internal combustion engines in motor vehicles and powered equipment.=== Lubricant vs. anti-tack coating ==='''Anti-tack or anti-stick coatings''' are designed to reduce the adhesive condition (stickiness) of a given material.", "The rubber, hose, and wire and cable industries are the largest consumers of anti-tack products but virtually every industry uses some form of anti-sticking agent.", "Anti-sticking agents differ from ''lubricants'' in that they are designed to reduce the inherently adhesive qualities of a given compound while lubricants are designed to reduce friction between any two surfaces.=== Keep moving parts apart ===Lubricants are typically used to separate moving parts in a system.", "This separation has the benefit of reducing friction, wear and surface fatigue, together with reduced heat generation, operating noise and vibrations.", "Lubricants achieve this in several ways.", "The most common is by forming a physical barrier i.e., a thin layer of lubricant separates the moving parts.", "This is analogous to hydroplaning, the loss of friction observed when a car tire is separated from the road surface by moving through standing water.", "This is termed hydrodynamic lubrication.", "In cases of high surface pressures or temperatures, the fluid film is much thinner and some of the forces are transmitted between the surfaces through the lubricant.=== Reduce friction ===Typically the lubricant-to-surface friction is much less than surface-to-surface friction in a system without any lubrication.", "Thus use of a lubricant reduces the overall system friction.", "Reduced friction has the benefit of reducing heat generation and reduced formation of wear particles as well as improved efficiency.", "Lubricants may contain polar additives known as friction modifiers that chemically bind to metal surfaces to reduce surface friction even when there is insufficient bulk lubricant present for hydrodynamic lubrication, e.g.", "protecting the valve train in a car engine at startup.", "The base oil itself might also be polar in nature and as a result inherently able to bind to metal surfaces, as with polyolester oils.=== Transfer heat ===Both gas and liquid lubricants can transfer heat.", "However, liquid lubricants are much more effective on account of their high specific heat capacity.", "Typically the liquid lubricant is constantly circulated to and from a cooler part of the system, although lubricants may be used to warm as well as to cool when a regulated temperature is required.", "This circulating flow also determines the amount of heat that is carried away in any given unit of time.", "High flow systems can carry away a lot of heat and have the additional benefit of reducing the thermal stress on the lubricant.", "Thus lower cost liquid lubricants may be used.", "The primary drawback is that high flows typically require larger sumps and bigger cooling units.", "A secondary drawback is that a high flow system that relies on the flow rate to protect the lubricant from thermal stress is susceptible to catastrophic failure during sudden system shut downs.", "An automotive oil-cooled turbocharger is a typical example.", "Turbochargers get red hot during operation and the oil that is cooling them only survives as its residence time in the system is very short (i.e.", "high flow rate).", "If the system is shut down suddenly (pulling into a service area after a high-speed drive and stopping the engine) the oil that is in the turbo charger immediately oxidizes and will clog the oil ways with deposits.", "Over time these deposits can completely block the oil ways, reducing the cooling with the result that the turbo charger experiences total failure, typically with seized bearings.", "Non-flowing lubricants such as greases and pastes are not effective at heat transfer although they do contribute by reducing the generation of heat in the first place.=== Carry away contaminants and debris ===Lubricant circulation systems have the benefit of carrying away internally generated debris and external contaminants that get introduced into the system to a filter where they can be removed.", "Lubricants for machines that regularly generate debris or contaminants such as automotive engines typically contain detergent and dispersant additives to assist in debris and contaminant transport to the filter and removal.", "Over time the filter will get clogged and require cleaning or replacement, hence the recommendation to change a car's oil filter at the same time as changing the oil.", "In closed systems such as gear boxes the filter may be supplemented by a magnet to attract any iron fines that get created.It is apparent that in a circulatory system the oil will only be as clean as the filter can make it, thus it is unfortunate that there are no industry standards by which consumers can readily assess the filtering ability of various automotive filters.", "Poor automotive filters significantly reduce the life of the machine (engine) as well as make the system inefficient.=== Transmit power ===Lubricants known as hydraulic fluid are used as the working fluid in hydrostatic power transmission.", "Hydraulic fluids comprise a large portion of all lubricants produced in the world.", "The automatic transmission's torque converter is another important application for power transmission with lubricants.=== Protect against wear ===Lubricants prevent wear by reducing friction between two parts.", "Lubricants may also contain anti-wear or extreme pressure additives to boost their performance against wear and fatigue.=== Prevent corrosion and rusting ===Many lubricants are formulated with additives that form chemical bonds with surfaces or that exclude moisture, to prevent corrosion and rust.", "It reduces corrosion between two metallic surfaces and avoids contact between these surfaces to avoid immersed corrosion.=== Seal for gases ===Lubricants will occupy the clearance between moving parts through the capillary force, thus sealing the clearance.", "This effect can be used to seal pistons and shafts." ], [ "Fluid types", "* Automotive Motor oils* Petrol (Gasolines) engine oils* Diesel engine oils Automatic transmission fluid Gearbox fluids Brake fluids Hydraulic fluids Air conditioning compressor oils* Tractor (one lubricant for all systems) Universal Tractor Transmission Oil – UTTO Super Tractor Oil Universal – STOU – includes engine* Other motors** 2-stroke engine oils* Industrial Hydraulic oils Air compressor oils Food Grade lubricants Gas Compressor oils Gear oils Bearing and circulating system oils Refrigerator compressor oils Steam and gas turbine oils* Aviation Gas turbine engine oils Piston engine oils* Marine Crosshead cylinder oils Crosshead Crankcase oils Trunk piston engine oils Stern tube lubricants" ], [ "\"Glaze\" formation (high-temperature wear)", "A further phenomenon that has undergone investigation in relation to high-temperature wear prevention and lubrication is that of a compacted oxide layer glaze formation.", "Such glazes are generated by sintering a compacted oxide layer.", "Such glazes are crystalline, in contrast to the amorphous glazes seen in pottery.", "The required high temperatures arise from metallic surfaces sliding against each other (or a metallic surface against a ceramic surface).", "Due to the elimination of metallic contact and adhesion by the generation of oxide, friction and wear is reduced.", "Effectively, such a surface is self-lubricating.As the \"glaze\" is already an oxide, it can survive to very high temperatures in air or oxidising environments.", "However, it is disadvantaged by it being necessary for the base metal (or ceramic) having to undergo some wear first to generate sufficient oxide debris." ], [ "Disposal and environmental impact", "It is estimated that about 50% of all lubricants are released into the environment.", "Common disposal methods include recycling, burning, landfill and discharge into water, though typically disposal in landfill and discharge into water are strictly regulated in most countries, as even small amount of lubricant can contaminate a large amount of water.", "Most regulations permit a threshold level of lubricant that may be present in waste streams and companies spend hundreds of millions of dollars annually in treating their waste waters to get to acceptable levels.Burning the lubricant as fuel, typically to generate electricity, is also governed by regulations mainly on account of the relatively high level of additives present.", "Burning generates both airborne pollutants and ash rich in toxic materials, mainly heavy metal compounds.", "Thus lubricant burning takes place in specialized facilities that have incorporated special scrubbers to remove airborne pollutants and have access to landfill sites with permits to handle the toxic ash.Unfortunately, most lubricant that ends up directly in the environment is due to the general public discharging it onto the ground, into drains, and directly into landfills as trash.", "Other direct contamination sources include runoff from roadways, accidental spillages, natural or man-made disasters, and pipeline leakages.Improvement in filtration technologies and processes has now made recycling a viable option (with the rising price of base stock and crude oil).", "Typically various filtration systems remove particulates, additives, and oxidation products and recover the base oil.", "The oil may get refined during the process.", "This base oil is then treated much the same as virgin base oil however there is considerable reluctance to use recycled oils as they are generally considered inferior.", "Basestock fractionally vacuum distilled from used lubricants has superior properties to all-natural oils, but cost-effectiveness depends on many factors.", "Used lubricant may also be used as refinery feedstock to become part of crude oil.", "Again, there is considerable reluctance to this use as the additives, soot, and wear metals will seriously poison/deactivate the critical catalysts in the process.", "Cost prohibits carrying out both filtration (soot, additives removal) and re-refining (distilling, isomerization, hydrocrack, etc.)", "however the primary hindrance to recycling still remains the collection of fluids as refineries need continuous supply in amounts measured in cisterns, rail tanks.Occasionally, unused lubricant requires disposal.", "The best course of action in such situations is to return it to the manufacturer where it can be processed as a part of fresh batches.", "''Environment:'' Lubricants both fresh and used can cause considerable damage to the environment mainly due to their high potential of serious water pollution.", "Further, the additives typically contained in lubricant can be toxic to flora and fauna.", "In used fluids, the oxidation products can be toxic as well.", "Lubricant persistence in the environment largely depends upon the base fluid, however if very toxic additives are used they may negatively affect the persistence.", "Lanolin lubricants are non-toxic making them the environmental alternative which is safe for both users and the environment." ], [ "Societies and industry bodies", "* American Petroleum Institute (API)* Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE)* National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI)* Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)* Independent Lubricant Manufacturer Association (ILMA)* European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA)* Japanese Automotive Standards Organization (JASO)* Petroleum Packaging Council (PPC)" ], [ "Major publications", "* Peer reviewed ''ASME Journal of Tribology'' ''Tribology International'' ''Tribology Transactions'' ''Journal of Synthetic Lubricants'' ''Tribology Letters'' ''Lubrication Science''* Trade periodicals ''Tribology and Lubrication Technology'' ''Fuels & Lubes International'' ''Oiltrends'' ''Lubes n' Greases'' ''Compoundings'' ''Chemical Market Review'' ''Machinery lubrication''" ], [ "See also", " * * " ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Sources === API 1509, Engine Oil Licensing and Certification System, 15th Edition, 2002.Appendix E, API Base Oil Interchangeability Guidelines for Passenger Car Motor Oils and Diesel Engine Oils (revised)* Boughton and Horvath, 2003, Environmental Assessment of Used Oil Management Methods, Environmental Science and Technology, V38* I.A.", "Inman.", "''Compacted Oxide Layer Formation under Conditions of Limited Debris Retention at the Wear Interface during High Temperature Sliding Wear of Superalloys'', Ph.D. Thesis (2003), Northumbria University * Mercedes-Benz oil recommendations, extracted from factory manuals and personal research* Measuring reserve alkalinity and evaluation of wear dependence* Testing used oil quality, list of possible measurements" ], [ "External links", " SAE-ISO-AGMA viscosity conversion chart* Chart of API Gravity and Specific gravity" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lise Meitner" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lise Meitner''' ( , ; born Elise Meitner, 7 November 1878 – 27 October 1968) was an Austrian-Swedish physicist who was one of those responsible for the discovery of the element protactinium and nuclear fission.", "While working on radioactivity at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Chemistry in Berlin, she discovered the radioactive isotope protactinium-231 in 1917.In 1938, Meitner and her nephew, the physicist Otto Robert Frisch, discovered nuclear fission.", "She was praised by Albert Einstein as the \"German Marie Curie\".Completing her doctoral research in 1905, Meitner became the second woman from the University of Vienna to earn a doctorate in physics.", "She spent most of her scientific career in Berlin, Germany, where she was a physics professor and a department head at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute; she was the first woman to become a full professor of physics in Germany.", "She lost these positions in the 1930s because of the anti-Jewish Nuremberg Laws of Nazi Germany, and in 1938 she fled to Sweden, where she lived for many years, ultimately becoming a Swedish citizen.In mid-1938, Meitner with chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute found that bombarding thorium with neutrons produced different isotopes.", "Hahn and Strassmann later in the year showed that isotopes of barium could be formed by bombardment of uranium.", "In late December, Meitner and Frisch worked out the physics of such a splitting process.", "In their report in February issue of ''Nature'' in 1939, they gave it the name \"fission\".", "This principle led to the development of the first atomic bomb during World War II, and subsequently other nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors.Meitner did not share the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for nuclear fission, which was awarded exclusively to her long-time collaborator Otto Hahn.", "Several scientists and journalists have called her exclusion \"unjust\".", "According to the Nobel Prize archive, she was nominated 19 times for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry between 1924 and 1948, and 30 times for the Nobel Prize in Physics between 1937 and 1967.Despite not having been awarded the Nobel Prize, Meitner was invited to attend the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting in 1962.She received many other honours, including the naming of chemical element 109 meitnerium in 1997 after her death." ], [ "Early years", "Meitner was born '''Elise Meitner''' on 7 November 1878 into a Jewish upper-middle-class family at the family home in 27 Kaiser Josefstraße in the Leopoldstadt district of Vienna, the third of eight children of chess master Philipp Meitner and his wife Hedwig.", "The birth register of Vienna's Jewish community lists her as being born on 17 November 1878, but all other documents list her date of birth as 7 November, which is what she used.", "Her father was one of the first Jewish lawyers admitted to practice in Austria.", "She had two older siblings, Gisela and Auguste (Gusti), and four younger: Moriz (Fritz), Carola (Lola), Frida and Walter; all ultimately pursued an advanced education.", "Her father was a confirmed freethinker, and she was brought up as such.", "As an adult, she converted to Christianity, following Lutheranism, and was baptised in 1908; her sisters Gisela and Lola converted to Catholic Christianity that same year.", "She also adopted a shortened name \"Lise\"." ], [ "Education", "Meitner in 1906Meitner's earliest research began at age eight, when she kept a notebook of her records underneath her pillow.", "She was particularly drawn to mathematics and science, and first studied colours of an oil slick, thin films, and reflected light.", "Women were not allowed to attend public institutions of higher education in Vienna until 1897, and she completed her final year of school in 1892.Her education included bookkeeping, arithmetic, history, geography, science, French and gymnastics.The only career available to women was teaching, so she trained as a French teacher.", "Her sister Gisela passed the ''Matura'', and entered medical school in 1900.In 1899, Meitner began taking private lessons with two other young women, cramming the missing eight years of secondary education into just two.", "Physics was taught by Arthur Szarvasy.", "In July 1901, the girls sat an external examination at the Akademisches Gymnasium.", "Only four out of fourteen girls passed, including Meitner and Henriette Boltzmann, the daughter of physicist Ludwig Boltzmann.Meitner entered the University of Vienna in October 1901.She was particularly inspired by Boltzmann, and was said to often speak with contagious enthusiasm of his lectures.", "Her dissertation was supervised by Franz Exner and his assistant Hans Benndorf.", "Her thesis, titled (\"Examination of a Maxwell Formula\"), was submitted on 20 November 1905 and approved on 28 November.", "She was examined orally by Exner and Boltzmann on 19 December, and her doctorate was awarded on 1 February 1906.She became the second woman to earn a doctoral degree in physics at the University of Vienna, after Olga Steindler who had received her degree in 1903; the third was Selma Freud, who worked in the same laboratory as Meitner, and received her doctorate later in 1906.Meitner's thesis was published as (\"Thermal Conduction in Inhomogeneous Bodies\") on 22 February 1906.Paul Ehrenfest asked her to investigate an article on optics by Lord Rayleigh that detailed an experiment that produced results that Rayleigh had been unable to explain.", "She was not only able to explain what was going on; she went further and made predictions based on her explanation, and then verified them experimentally, demonstrating her ability to carry out independent and unsupervised research.While engaged in this research, Meitner was introduced by Stefan Meyer to radioactivity, then a very new field of study.", "She started with alpha particles.", "In her experiments with collimators and metal foil, she found that scattering in a beam of alpha particles increased with the atomic mass of the metal atoms.", "Later on, this led Ernest Rutherford to predict the nuclear atom.", "She submitted her findings to the ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'' on 29 June 1907." ], [ "Friedrich Wilhelm University", "Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn in 1912Encouraged and backed by her father's financial support, Meitner went to the Friedrich Wilhelm University, where the renowned physicist Max Planck taught.", "Planck invited her to his home, and allowed her to attend his lectures, which was an unusual gesture by Planck, who was on the record as opposing the admission of women to universities in general, but he was willing to admit that there was the occasional exception; apparently he recognised Meitner as one of the exceptions.", "She became friends with Planck's twin daughters Emma and Grete, who shared her love of music.Attending Planck's lectures did not take up all her time, and Meitner approached Heinrich Rubens, the head of the experimental physics institute, about doing some research.", "Rubens said that he would be happy for her to work in his laboratory.", "He also added that Otto Hahn at the chemistry institute was looking for a physicist to collaborate with.", "A few minutes later she was introduced to Hahn.", "He had studied radioactive substances under Sir William Ramsay, and in Montreal under Rutherford, and was already credited with the discovery of what were then thought to be several new radioactive elements.", "(In fact, they were isotopes of known elements, but the concept of an isotope, along with the term, was only propounded by Frederick Soddy in 1913.)", "Hahn was the same age as Meitner, and she noted his informal and approachable manner.", "In Canada there had been no requirement to be circumspect when addressing the egalitarian New Zealander Rutherford, but many people in Germany found his manner off-putting, and characterised him as an \"Anglicised Berliner\".", "In Montreal, Hahn had become accustomed to collaboration with physicists, including at least one woman, Harriet Brooks.Meitner and Hahn in their laboratory, in 1913.When a colleague she did not recognise said that they had met before, Meitner replied: \"You probably mistake me for Professor Hahn.", "\"The head of the chemistry institute, Emil Fischer, placed a former woodworking shop (''Holzwerkstatt'') at Hahn's disposal in the basement to use as a laboratory.", "Hahn equipped it with electroscopes to measure alpha and beta particles and gamma rays.", "It was not possible to conduct research in the wood shop, but Alfred Stock, the head of the inorganic chemistry department, let Hahn use a space in one of his two private laboratories.", "Like Meitner, Hahn was unpaid, and lived off an allowance from his father, although somewhat larger than hers.", "He completed his habilitation in the spring of 1907, and became a ''Privatdozent''.", "Most of the organic chemists at the chemistry institute did not regard Hahn's work—detecting minute traces of isotopes too small to see, weigh or smell through their radioactivity—as real chemistry.", "One department head remarked that \"it is incredible what one gets to be a ''Privatdozent'' these days!", "\"The arrangement was difficult for Meitner at first.", "Women were not yet admitted to universities in Prussia.", "Meitner was allowed to work in the wood shop, which had its own external entrance, but she could not set foot in the rest of the institute, including Hahn's laboratory space upstairs.", "If she wanted to go to the toilet, she had to use one at the restaurant down the street.", "The following year, women were admitted to Prussian universities, and Fischer lifted the restrictions, and had women's toilets installed in the building.", "Not all the chemists were happy about this.", "The Institute of Physics was more accepting, and she became friends with the physicists there, including , James Franck, Gustav Hertz, Robert Pohl, Max Planck, and Wilhelm Westphal.During the first years Meitner worked together with Hahn they co-authored three papers in 1908, and six more in 1909.She also, together with Hahn, discovered and developed a physical separation method known as radioactive recoil, in which a daughter nucleus is forcefully ejected from its matrix as it recoils at the moment of decay.", "While Hahn was more concerned with discovering new elements (now known to be isotopes), Meitner was more concerned with understanding their radiations.", "She observed that radioactive recoil could be a new way of detecting radioactive substances.", "They set up some tests and soon discovered two more new isotopes.Meitner was particularly interested in beta radiation.", "By this time, they were known to be electrons.", "Alpha particles were emitted with characteristic energy, and she expected that this would be true of beta particles too.", "Hahn and Meitner carefully measured the absorption of beta particles by aluminium, but the results were puzzling.", "In 1914, James Chadwick found that electrons emitted from the atomic nucleus formed a continuous spectrum, but Meitner found this hard to believe, as it seemed to contradict quantum physics." ], [ "Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry", "Physicists and chemists in Berlin in 1920.Front row, left to right: Hertha Sponer, Albert Einstein, Ingrid Franck, James Franck, Lise Meitner, Fritz Haber, and Otto Hahn.", "Back row, left to right: Walter Grotrian, Wilhelm Westphal, , and Gustav Hertz In 1912, Hahn and Meitner moved to the newly founded Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (KWI) for Chemistry.", "Hahn accepted an offer from Fischer to become a junior assistant in charge of its radiochemistry section, the first laboratory of its kind in Germany.", "The job came with the title of \"professor\" and a salary of 5,000 marks per annum.", "Meitner worked without salary as a \"guest\" in Hahn's section.", "Later that year, perhaps fearing that Meitner was in financial difficulties and might return to Vienna, since her father had died in 1910, Planck appointed her his assistant at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in the Friedrich Wilhelm University.", "As such, she marked his students' papers.", "It was her first paid position.", "Assistant was the lowest rung on the academic ladder, and Meitner was the first female scientific assistant in Prussia.Proud officials presented Meitner to Kaiser Wilhelm II at the official opening of the KWI for Chemistry on 23 October 1912.The following year she became a ''Mitglied'' (associate), the same rank as Hahn (although her salary was still less), and the radioactivity section became the Hahn-Meitner Laboratory.", "Meitner celebrated with a dinner party at the Hotel Adlon.", "Hahn and Meitner's salaries would soon be dwarfed by royalties from mesothorium (\"middle thorium\", radium-228 also called \"German radium\") produced for medical purposes, for which Hahn received 66,000 marks in 1914, of which he gave ten per cent to Meitner.", "In 1914, Meitner received an attractive offer of an academic position in Prague.", "Planck made it clear to Fischer that he didn't want Meitner to leave, and Fischer arranged for her salary to be doubled to 3,000 marks.The move to new accommodation was fortuitous, as the wood shop had become thoroughly contaminated by radioactive liquids that had been spilt, and radioactive gases that had vented and then decayed and settled as radioactive dust, making sensitive measurements impossible.", "To ensure that their clean new laboratories stayed that way, Hahn and Meitner instituted strict procedures.", "Chemical and physical measurements were conducted in different rooms, people handling radioactive substances had to follow protocols that included not shaking hands, and rolls of toilet paper were hung next to every telephone and door handle.", "Strongly radioactive substances were stored in the old wood shop, and later in a purpose-built radium house on the institute grounds." ], [ "World War I and the discovery of protactinium", "In July 1914—shortly before the outbreak of World War I in August—Hahn was called to active duty with the army in a ''Landwehr'' regiment.", "Meitner undertook X-ray technician training, and a course on anatomy at the city hospital in Lichterfelde.", "Meanwhile, she completed both the work on the beta ray spectrum that she had begun before the war with Hahn and Baeyer, and her own study of the uranium decay chain.", "In July 1915, she returned to Vienna, where she joined the Austrian Army as an X-ray nurse-technician.", "Her unit was soon deployed to the Eastern front in Poland, and she also served on the Italian front for a while before being discharged in September 1916.Former Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry building in Berlin.", "Badly damaged by bombing during World War II, it was restored and became part of the Free University of Berlin in 1948.It was renamed the Otto Hahn Building in 1956, and the Hahn-Meitner Building in 2010.Meitner returned to the KWI for Chemistry and her research in October.", "In January 1917, she was appointed the head of her own physics section.", "The Hahn-Meitner Laboratory was divided into separate Hahn and Meitner Laboratories, and her pay was increased to 4,000 marks.", "Hahn returned to Berlin on leave, and they discussed another loose end from their pre-war work: the search for the mother isotope of actinium.", "According to the radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy, this had to be an isotope of the undiscovered element 91 on the periodic table that lay between thorium and uranium.", "Kasimir Fajans and Oswald Helmuth Göhring discovered this element in 1913, and named it ''brevium'' after its short half-life.", "However, the isotope they had found was a beta emitter, and therefore could not be the mother isotope of actinium.", "This had to be another isotope of the same element.In 1914 Hahn and Meitner had developed a new technique for separating the tantalum group from pitchblende, which they hoped would speed the isolation of the new isotope.", "When Meitner resumed work in 1917, though, not only Hahn but most of the students, laboratory assistants and technicians had been called up, so Meitner had to do everything herself.", "In February, Meitner extracted 2 grams of silicon dioxide () from 21 grams of pitchblende.", "She set 1.5 grams aside and added a tantalum pentafluoride () carrier to the other 0.5 grams, which she dissolved in hydrogen fluoride ().", "She then boiled it in concentrated sulfuric acid (), precipitated what was believed to be element 91, and verified that it was an alpha emitter.", "Hahn came home on leave in April, and together they devised a series of indicator tests to eliminate other known alpha emitters.", "The only known ones with similar chemical behaviour were lead-210 (which decays to alpha emitter polonium-210) and thorium-230.For this more pitchblende was required.", "Meitner went to Vienna, where she met with Stefan Meyer.", "The export of uranium from Austria was forbidden due to wartime restrictions, but Meyer was able to offer her a kilogram of uranium residue, pitchblende from which the uranium had been removed, which was actually better for her purpose.", "The indicator tests showed that the alpha activity was not due to these substances.", "All that now remained was to find evidence of actinium.", "For this more pitchblende was required, and this time Meyer was unable to assist, as the export was now prohibited.", "Meitner managed to obtain 100 g of \"double residue\"—pitchblende without uranium or radium—from Friedrich Oskar Giesel and began tests with 43 grams of it, but its composition was different, and at first her tests did not work.", "With Giesel's help, she was able to produce a pure product that was strongly radioactive.", "By December 1917 she was able to isolate both the mother isotope and its actinium daughter product.", "She submitted their findings for publication in March 1918.Although Fajans and Göhring had been the first to discover the element, custom required that an element was represented by its longest-lived and most abundant isotope, and brevium did not seem appropriate.", "Fajans agreed to Meitner naming the element \"protoactinium\" (subsequently shortened to protactinium), and assigning it the chemical symbol Pa.", "In June 1918, Soddy and John Cranston announced that they had independently extracted a sample of the isotope, but unlike Meitner they were unable to describe its characteristics.", "They acknowledged Meitner's priority, and agreed to the name.", "The connection to uranium remained a mystery, as neither of the known isotopes of uranium decayed into protactinium.", "It remained unsolved until the mother isotope, uranium-235, was discovered in 1929." ], [ "Beta radiation", "In 1921, Meitner accepted an invitation from Manne Siegbahn to come to Sweden and give a series of lectures on radioactivity as a visiting professor at Lund University.", "She found that very little research had been done on radioactivity in Sweden, but she was eager to learn about X-ray spectroscopy, which was Siegbahn's specialty.", "At his laboratory, she met a Dutch doctoral candidate, Dirk Coster, who was studying X-ray spectroscopy, and his wife Miep, who was working on her doctorate in Indonesian language and culture.", "Armed with her newly acquired knowledge of X-ray spectroscopy, Meitner took a fresh look at the beta-ray spectra when she returned to Berlin.", "It was known that some beta emission was primary, with electrons being ejected directly from the nucleus, and some was secondary, in which alpha particles from the nucleus knocked electrons out of orbit.", "Meitner was sceptical of Chadwick's claim that the spectral lines were entirely due to secondary electrons, while the primary ones formed a continuous spectrum.", "Using techniques developed by Jean Danysz, she examined the spectra of lead-210, radium-226 and thorium-238.Meitner discovered the cause of the emission of electrons from surfaces of atoms with \"signature\" energies, now known as the Auger effect.", "The effect is named for Pierre Victor Auger, who independently discovered it in 1923.At a conference in 1937, Meitner shares the front row with (left to right) Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Otto Stern and Rudolf Ladenburg; Hilde Levi is the only other woman in the room.Women were granted the right of habilitation in Prussia in 1920, and in 1922 Meitner was granted her habilitation and became a ''Privatdozentin''.", "She was the first woman to receive her habilitation in physics in Prussia, and only the second in Germany after Hedwig Kohn.", "Since Meitner had already published over 40 papers, she was not required to submit a thesis, but Max von Laue recommended that the requirement for an inaugural lecture not be waived, since he was interested in what she had to say.", "She therefore gave an inaugural lecture on \"Problems of Cosmic Physics\".", "From 1923 to 1933, she taught a colloquium or tutorial at Friedrich Wilhelm University each semester, and supervised doctoral students at the KWI for Chemistry.", "These included Arnold Flammersfeld, Kan-Chang Wang and Nikolaus Riehl.", "In 1926, she became an ''außerordentlicher Professor'' (extraordinary professor), the first woman university physics professor in Germany.", "Her physics section became larger, and she acquired a permanent assistant.", "Scientists from Germany and around the world came to the KWI for Chemistry to conduct research under her supervision.", "In 1930, Meitner taught a seminar on \"Questions of Atomic Physics and Atomic Chemistry\" with Leó Szilárd.Meitner had a Wilson cloud chamber constructed at the KWI for Chemistry, the first one in Berlin, and with her student Kurt Freitag studied the tracks of alpha particles that did not collide with a nucleus.", "With her assistant Kurt Philipp she later used it to take the first images of positron traces from gamma radiation.", "She proved Chadwick's assertion that the discrete spectral lines were entirely the result of secondary electrons, and the continuous spectra were therefore indeed entirely caused by the primary ones.", "In 1927, Charles Drummond Ellis and William Alfred Wooster measured the energy of the continuous spectrum produced by the beta decay of bismuth-210 at 0.34 MeV where the energy of each disintegration was 0.35 MeV.", "Thus, the spectrum accounted for nearly all of the energy.", "Meitner was so stunned by this result that she repeated the experiment with Wilhelm Orthmann using an improved method, and verified Ellis and Wooster's results.", "It appeared that the law of conservation of energy did not hold for beta decay, something Meitner regarded as unacceptable.", "In 1930, Wolfgang Pauli wrote an open letter to Meitner and Hans Geiger in which he proposed that the continuous spectrum was caused by the emission of a second particle during beta decay, one that had no electric charge and little or no rest mass.", "The idea was taken up by Enrico Fermi in his 1934 theory of beta decay, and he gave the name \"neutrino\" to the hypothetical neutral particle.", "At the time there was scant hope of detecting neutrinos, but in 1956 Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines did just that." ], [ "Nazi Germany", "Adolf Hitler was sworn in as the Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, as his Nazi Party (NSDAP) was now the largest party in the ''Reichstag (Weimar Republic)''.", "The 7 April 1933 Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service removed Jews from the civil service, which included academia.", "Meitner never tried to conceal her Jewish descent, but initially was exempt from its impact on multiple grounds: she had been employed before 1914, had served in the military during the World War, was an Austrian rather than a German citizen, and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute was a government-industry partnership.", "However, she was dismissed from her adjunct professorship on 6 September on the grounds that her World War I service was not at the front, and she had not completed her habilitation until 1922.This had no effect on her salary or work at the KWI for Chemistry.", "Carl Bosch, the director of IG Farben, a major sponsor of the KWI for Chemistry, assured Meitner that her position there was safe.", "Although Hahn and Meitner remained in charge, their assistants, Otto Erbacher and Kurt Philipp respectively, who were both NSDAP members, were given increasing influence over the day-to-day running of the institute.Others were not so fortunate; her nephew Otto Frisch was dismissed from his post in the Institute for Physical Chemistry at the University of Hamburg, as was Otto Stern, the director of the institute.", "Stern found Frisch a position with Patrick Blackett at Birkbeck College in England, and he later worked at the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen from 1934 to 1939.Fritz Strassman had come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry to study under Hahn to improve his employment prospects.", "He declined a lucrative offer of employment because it required political training and Nazi Party membership, and resigned from the Society of German Chemists when it became part of the Nazi German Labour Front rather than become a member of a Nazi-controlled organisation.", "As a result, he could neither work in the chemical industry nor receive his habilitation.", "Meitner persuaded Hahn to hire him as an assistant.", "Soon he would be credited as a third collaborator on the papers they produced, and would sometimes even be listed first.", "Between 1933 and 1935, Meitner published exclusively in ''Naturwissenschaften'', as its editor Arnold Berliner was Jewish, and continued to accept submissions from Jewish scientists.", "This generated a boycott of the publication, and in August 1935 publisher Springer-Verlag fired Berliner." ], [ "Transmutation", "After Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, Irène Curie and Frédéric Joliot irradiated aluminium foil with alpha particles, and found that this results in a short-lived radioactive isotope of phosphorus.", "They noted that positron emission continued after the neutron emissions ceased.", "Not only had they discovered a new form of radioactive decay, they had transmuted an element into a hitherto unknown radioactive isotope of another, thereby inducing radioactivity where there had been none before.", "Radiochemistry was now no longer confined to certain heavy elements, but extended to the entire periodic table.", "Chadwick noted that being electrically neutral, neutrons could penetrate the atomic nucleus more easily than protons or alpha particles.", "Enrico Fermi and his colleagues in Rome picked up on this idea, and began irradiating elements with neutrons.The radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy said that beta decay causes isotopes to move one element up on the periodic table, and alpha decay causes them to move two down.", "When Fermi's group bombarded uranium atoms with neutrons, they found a complex mix of half lives.", "Fermi therefore concluded that the new elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (known as transuranium elements) had been created.", "Meitner and Hahn had not collaborated for many years, but Meitner was eager to investigate Fermi's results.", "Hahn, initially, was not, but he changed his mind when Aristid von Grosse suggested that what Fermi had found was an isotope of protactinium.", "\"The only question\", Hahn later wrote, \"seemed to be whether Fermi had found isotopes of transuranium elements, or isotopes of the next-lower element, protactinium.", "At that time Lise Meitner and I decided to repeat Fermi's experiments in order to find out whether the 13-minute isotope was a protactinium isotope or not.", "It was a logical decision, having been the discoverers of protactinium.", "\"Between 1934 and 1938, Hahn, Meitner, and Strassmann found a great number of radioactive transmutation products, all of which they regarded as transuranic.", "At that time, the existence of actinides was not yet established, and uranium was wrongly believed to be a group 6 element similar to tungsten.", "It followed that the first transuranic elements would be similar to group 7 to 10 elements, i.e.", "rhenium and platinoids.", "They established the presence of multiple isotopes of at least four such elements, and (mistakenly) identified them as elements with atomic numbers 93 through 96.They were the first scientists to measure the 23-minute half life of the synthetic radioisotope uranium-239 and to establish chemically that it was an isotope of uranium, but with their weak neutron sources they were unable to continue this work to its logical conclusion and identify the real element 93.They identified ten different half lives, with varying degrees of certainty.", "To account for them, Meitner had to hypothesise a new class of reaction and the alpha decay of uranium, neither of which had ever been reported before, and for which physical evidence was lacking.", "Hahn and Strassmann refined their chemical procedures, while Meitner devised new experiments to shine more light on the reaction processes.In May 1937, Hahn and Meitner issued parallel reports, one in ''Zeitschrift für Physik'' with Meitner as the first author, and one in ''Chemische Berichte'' with Hahn as the first author.", "Hahn concluded his by stating emphatically: ''Vor allem steht ihre chemische Verschiedenheit von allen bisher bekannten Elementen außerhalb jeder Diskussion'' (\"Above all, their chemical distinction from all previously known elements needs no further discussion\"); Meitner was increasingly uncertain.", "She considered the possibility that the reactions were from different isotopes of uranium; three were known: uranium-238, uranium-235 and uranium-234.However, when she calculated the neutron cross section, it was too large to be anything other than the most abundant isotope, uranium-238, and concluded that it must be another case of the nuclear isomerism that Hahn had discovered in protactinium years before.", "She therefore ended her report on a very different note to Hahn, reporting that: \"The process must be neutron capture by uranium-238, which leads to three isomeric nuclei of uranium-239.This result is very difficult to reconcile with current concepts of the nucleus.\"" ], [ "Escape from Germany", "With the ''Anschluss'', Germany's unification with Austria on 12 March 1938, Meitner lost her Austrian citizenship.", "Niels Bohr extended an offer to lecture in Copenhagen, and Paul Scherrer invited her to attend a congress in Switzerland, with all expenses paid.", "Carl Bosch still said that she could remain at the KWI for Chemistry, but by May she was aware that the Reich Ministry of Science, Education and Culture was looking into her case.", "On 9 May, she decided to accept Bohr's invitation to go to Copenhagen, where Frisch worked, but when she went to the Danish consulate to get a travel visa, she was told that Denmark no longer recognised her Austrian passport as valid.", "She could not leave for Denmark, Switzerland or any other country.Bohr came to Berlin in June, and was gravely concerned.", "When he returned to Copenhagen, he began looking for a position for Meitner in Scandinavia.", "He also asked Hans Kramers to see if anything was available in the Netherlands.", "Kramers contacted Coster, who in turn notified Adriaan Fokker.", "Coster and Fokker attempted to secure a position for Meitner at the University of Groningen.", "They found that the Rockefeller Foundation would not support refugee scientists, and that the International Federation of University Women had been flooded with applications for support from Austria.", "On 27 June, Meitner received an offer of a one-year position at Manne Siegbahn's new in Stockholm, then under construction, which would be devoted to nuclear physics, and she decided to accept it.", "But on 4 July she learned that academics would no longer be granted permission to travel abroad.Meitner lived at this address for most of her years while in Sweden.Through Bohr in Copenhagen, Peter Debye communicated with Coster and Fokker, and they approached the Netherlands Ministry of Education with an appeal to allow Meitner to come to the Netherlands.", "As foreigners were not allowed to work for pay, an appointment as a non-salaried ''privaat-docente'' was required.", "Wander Johannes de Haas and Anton Eduard van Arkel arranged for one at Leiden University.", "Coster also spoke to the head of the border guards, who assured him that Meitner would be admitted.", "A friend of Coster, E. H. Ebels, was a local politician from the border area, and he spoke directly to the guards on the border.On 11 July, Coster arrived in Berlin, where he stayed with Debye.", "The following morning, Meitner arrived early at the KWI for Chemistry, and Hahn briefed her on the plan.", "To avoid suspicion, she maintained her usual routine, remaining at the institute until 20:00 correcting one of the associate's papers for publication.", "Hahn and Paul Rosbaud helped her pack two small suitcases, carrying only summer clothes.", "Hahn gave her a diamond ring he had inherited from his mother in case of emergency; she took only 10 marks in her purse.", "She then spent the night at Hahn's house.", "The next morning Meitner met Coster at the train station, where they pretended to have met each other by chance.", "They travelled on a lightly used line to Bad Nieuweschans railway station on the border, which they crossed without incident; the German border guards may have thought that ''Frau Professor'' was the wife of a professor.", "A telegram from Pauli informed Coster that he was now \"as famous for the abduction of Lise Meitner as for the discovery of hafnium\".Meitner learned on 26 July that Sweden had granted her permission to enter on her Austrian passport, and two days later she flew to Copenhagen, where she was greeted by Frisch, and stayed with Niels and Margrethe Bohr at their holiday house in Tisvilde.", "On 1 August she took the train to Stockholm, where she was met at Göteborg station by Eva von Bahr.", "They took a train, and then a steamer to von Bahr's home in Kungälv, where she stayed until September.", "Hahn told everyone at the KWI for Chemistry that Meitner had gone to Vienna to visit her relatives, and a few days later the institute had closed for the summer vacation.", "On 23 August, she wrote to Bosch requesting retirement.", "He tried to ship her belongings to Sweden, but the Reich Ministry of Education insisted they remain in Germany.Meitner was also concerned about her family back in Austria.", "One of her first actions in Sweden was to apply for a Swedish immigration permit for Gusti and her husband Justinian (Jutz) Frisch.", "Hahn selected Josef Mattauch to replace her as head of the physics section, and went to Vienna to offer him the job.", "While there he dined with Meitner's sisters Gusti and Gisela and their husbands Jutz Frisch and Karl Lion on 9 November.", "The next day Gusti informed him that Jutz Frisch had been arrested.", "That day, Meitner arrived in Copenhagen; arranging a travel visa had been difficult with her invalid Austrian passport.", "Hahn joined her in Copenhagen on 13 November, and had discussions about the uranium research with Meitner, Bohr and Otto Robert Frisch.", "The physicists, particularly Meitner, told him that the results of the experiments, particularly the supposed discovery of isomers of radium, could not be correct, and the experiments would have to be re-done." ], [ "Nuclear fission", "This was touted for many years as the table and experimental apparatus with which Otto Hahn discovered nuclear fission in 1938.The table and instruments are representative of the ones used, but not necessarily the originals, and would not have been together on the one table in the same room.", "Pressure from historians, scientists and feminists caused the museum to alter the display in 1988 to acknowledge the role of Meitner, Frisch and Strassmann.Hahn and Strassmann isolated the three radium isotopes (verified by their half-lives) and used fractional crystallisation to separate it from its barium carrier by adding barium bromide crystals in four steps.", "Since radium precipitates preferentially in a solution of barium bromide, at each step the fraction drawn off would contain less radium than the one before.", "However, they found no difference between each of the fractions.", "In case their process was faulty in some way, they verified it with known isotopes of radium; the process was fine.", "On 19 December, Hahn wrote to Meitner, informing her that the radium isotopes behaved chemically like barium.", "Anxious to finish up before the Christmas break, Hahn and Strassmann submitted their findings to ''Naturwissenschaften'' on 22 December without waiting for Meitner to reply.", "Hahn concluded the paper with: \"As chemists... we should substitute the symbols Ba, La, Ce for Ra, Ac, Th.", "As 'nuclear chemists' fairly close to physics we cannot yet bring ourselves to take this step which contradicts all previous experience in physics.", "\"Frisch normally celebrated Christmas with Meitner in Berlin, but in 1938 she accepted an invitation from Eva von Bahr to spend it with her family at Kungälv, and Meitner asked Frisch to join her there.", "Meitner received the letter from Hahn describing his chemical proof that some of the product of the bombardment of uranium with neutrons was barium.", "Barium had an atomic mass 40% less than uranium, and no previously known methods of radioactive decay could account for such a large difference in the mass of the nucleus.", "Nonetheless, she had immediately written back to Hahn to say: \"At the moment the assumption of such a thoroughgoing breakup seems very difficult to me, but in nuclear physics we have experienced so many surprises, that one cannot unconditionally say: 'It is impossible.", "'\"According to Frisch:Exhibition to mark the 75th anniversary of the discovery of nuclear fission, at the Vienna International Centre in 2013.The table (on loan from the Deutsches Museum Munich) is now described as a replica and images of Meitner and Strassmann are prominently displayed.Meitner and Frisch had correctly interpreted Hahn's results to mean that the nucleus of uranium had split roughly in half.", "The first two reactions that the Berlin group had observed were light elements created by the breakup of uranium nuclei; the third, the 23-minute one, was a decay into the real element 93.On returning to Copenhagen, Frisch informed Bohr, who slapped his forehead and exclaimed \"What idiots we have been!\"", "Bohr promised not to say anything until they had a paper ready for publication.", "To speed the process, they decided to submit a one-page note to ''Nature''.", "At this point, the only evidence that they had was the barium.", "Logically, if barium was formed, the other element must be krypton, although Hahn mistakenly believed that the atomic masses had to add up to 239 rather than the atomic numbers adding up to 92, and thought it was masurium (technetium), and so did not check for it:: + n → + + some nOver a series of long-distance phone calls, Meitner and Frisch came up with a simple experiment to bolster their claim: to measure the recoil of the fission fragments, using a Geiger counter with the threshold set above that of the alpha particles.", "Frisch conducted the experiment on 13 January, and found the pulses caused by the reaction just as they had predicted.", "He decided he needed a name for the newly discovered nuclear process.", "He spoke to William A. Arnold, an American biologist working with de Hevesy, and asked him what biologists called the process by which living cells divided into two cells.", "Arnold told him that biologists called it fission.", "Frisch then applied that name to the nuclear process in his paper.", "Frisch mailed both papers to ''Nature'' on 16 January; the jointly-authored note appeared in print on 11 February and Frisch's paper on recoil on 18 February.These three reports, the first Hahn-Strassmann publications of 6 January and 10 February 1939, and the Frisch-Meitner publication of 11 February 1939, had electrifying effects on the scientific community.", "In 1940 Frisch and Rudolf Peierls produced the Frisch–Peierls memorandum, which established that an atomic explosion could be generated." ], [ "Nobel Prize for nuclear fission", "Despite the many honours that Meitner received in her lifetime, she did not receive the Nobel Prize while it was awarded to Otto Hahn for the discovery of nuclear fission.", "She was nominated 49 times for Physics and Chemistry Nobel Prizes but never won.", "On 15 November 1945, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences announced that Hahn had been awarded the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for \"his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei\".", "Meitner was the one who told Hahn and Strassman to test their radium in more detail, and it was she who told Hahn that it was possible for the nucleus of uranium to disintegrate.", "Without these contributions of Meitner, Hahn would not have found that the uranium nucleus can split in half.In 1945 the Nobel Committee for Chemistry in Sweden that selected the Nobel Prize in Chemistry decided to award that prize solely to Hahn: Hahn only found out from a newspaper while interned in Farm Hall Cambridgeshire England.", "In the 1990s, the long-sealed records of the Nobel Committee's proceedings became public, and the comprehensive biography of Meitner published in 1996 by Ruth Lewin Sime took advantage of this unsealing to reconsider Meitner's exclusion.", "In a 1997 article in the American Physical Society journal ''Physics Today'', Sime and her colleagues Elisabeth Crawford and Mark Walker wrote: The five-member physics committee included Manne Siegbahn, his former student Erik Hulthén, the professor of experimental physics at Uppsala University, and Axel Lindh, who eventually succeeded Hulthén.", "All three were part of the Siegbahn school of x-ray spectroscopy.", "The poor relationship between Siegbahn and Meitner was a factor here, as was the bias towards experimental rather than theoretical physics.", "In his report on the work of Meitner and Frisch, Hulthén relied on pre-war papers.", "He did not think that their work was groundbreaking, and argued that the prize for physics was given for experimental rather than theoretical work, which had not been the case for many years.At the time Meitner herself wrote in a letter, \"Surely Hahn fully deserved the Nobel Prize for chemistry.", "There is really no doubt about it.", "But I believe that Frisch and I contributed something not insignificant to the clarification of the process of uranium fission—how it originates and that it produces so much energy and that was something very remote to Hahn.\"", "Hahn's receipt of a Nobel Prize was long expected.", "Both he and Meitner had been nominated for both the chemistry and the physics prizes several times even before the discovery of nuclear fission.", "According to the Nobel Prize archive, she was nominated 19 times for Nobel Prize in Chemistry between 1924 and 1948, and 30 times for Nobel Prize in Physics between 1937 and 1967.Her nominators included Arthur Compton, Dirk Coster, Kasimir Fajans, James Franck, Otto Hahn, Oscar Klein, Niels Bohr, Max Planck and Max Born.", "Despite not having been awarded the Nobel Prize, Meitner was invited to attend the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting in 1962.Max Perutz, the 1962 Nobel prizewinner in chemistry, reached a similar conclusion: \"Having been locked up in the Nobel Committee's files these fifty years, the documents leading to this unjust award now reveal that the protracted deliberations by the Nobel jury were hampered by lack of appreciation both of the joint work that had preceded the discovery and of Meitner's written and verbal contributions after her flight from Berlin.\"" ], [ "Later life", "Meitner with actress Katharine Cornell and physicist Arthur Compton on 6 June 1946Meitner found that Siegbahn did not want her.", "At the time the offer to come to Sweden had been extended, he had said that he had no money, and could only offer Meitner a place to work.", "Eva von Bahr had then written to Carl Wilhelm Oseen, who had provided money from the Nobel Foundation.", "This left her with laboratory space, but now she had to perform herself work that for the previous twenty years she had been able to delegate to her laboratory technicians.", "Ruth Lewin Sime wrote that:On 14 January 1939, Meitner learned that her brother-in-law Jutz had been released from Dachau and he and her sister Gusti were permitted to emigrate to Sweden.", "Jutz's boss, Gottfried Bermann had escaped to Sweden, and offered Jutz his old job back at the publishing firm if he was able to come.", "Niels Bohr interceded with a Swedish official, Justitieråd Alexandersson, who said that Jutz would receive a labour permit on arrival in Sweden.", "He worked there until he was pensioned off in 1948, and then moved to Cambridge to join Otto Robert Frisch.", "Her sister Gisela and brother-in-law Karl Lion moved to England, Meitner also considered moving to Britain.", "She visited Cambridge in July 1939, and accepted an offer from William Lawrence Bragg and John Cockcroft of a position at the Cavendish Laboratory on a three-year contract with Girton College, Cambridge, but the Second World War broke out in September 1939 before she could make the move.In Sweden, Meitner continued her research as best she could.", "She measured the neutron cross sections of thorium, lead and uranium using dysprosium as a neutron detector, an assay technique pioneered by George de Hevesy and Hilde Levi.", "She was able to arrange for Hedwig Kohn, who faced deportation to Poland, to come to Sweden, and eventually to emigrate to the United States, travelling via the Soviet Union.", "She was unsuccessful in bringing Stefen Meyer out, but he managed to survive the war.", "She declined an offer to join Frisch on the British mission to the Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos Laboratory, declaring \"I will have nothing to do with a bomb!\"", "She later said that the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had come as a surprise to her, and that she was \"sorry that the bomb had to be invented\".", "After the war, Meitner acknowledged her own moral failing in staying in Germany from 1933 to 1938.She wrote: \"It was not only stupid but very wrong that I did not leave at once.\"", "She not only regretted her inaction during this period, she was also bitterly critical of Hahn, Max von Laue, Werner Heisenberg, and other German scientists.", "In a June 1945 letter addressed to Hahn, but that he never received, she wrote:In the aftermath of the bombing of Hiroshima, Meitner found that she had become a celebrity.", "She had a radio interview with Eleanor Roosevelt, and a few days later another one with a radio station in New York, during which she heard her sister Frida's voice for the first time in years.", "\"I am of Jewish descent\", she told Frida, \"I am not Jewish by belief, know nothing of the history of Judaism, and do not feel closer to Jews than to other people.\"", "On 25 January 1946, Meitner arrived in New York, where she was greeted by her sisters Lola and Frida, and by Frisch, who had made the two-day train trip from Los Alamos.", "Lola's husband Rudolf Allers arranged a visiting professorship for Meitner at the Catholic University of America.", "Meitner lectured at Princeton University, Harvard University and Columbia University, and discussed physics with Albert Einstein, Hermann Weyl, Tsung-Dao Lee, Yang Chen-Ning and Isidor Isaac Rabi.", "She went down to Durham, North Carolina and saw Hertha Sponer and Hedwig Kohn, and spent an evening in Washington, DC, with James Chadwick, who was now the head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project.", "She also met the project's director, Major General Leslie Groves.", "She spoke at Smith College, and went to Chicago, where she met Enrico Fermi, Edward Teller, Victor Weisskopf and Leo Szilard.", "On 8 July, Meitner boarded the for England, where she met with Erwin Schrödinger, Wolfgang Pauli and Max Born.", "There were belated celebrations for the 300th birthday of Isaac Newton, but the only German invited to attend was Max Planck.Meitner with students on the steps of the chemistry building at Bryn Mawr College in April 1959For her friends in Sweden, Siegbahn's obstruction of Meitner's Nobel Prize was the final straw, and they resolved to get her a better position.", "In 1947, Meitner moved to the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm, where established a new facility for atomic research.", "There had been scant nuclear physics research in Sweden, which was blamed on Siegbahn's lack of support for Meitner's work, and now such knowledge seemed vital for Sweden's future.", "At the KTH, Meitner had three rooms, two assistants, and access to technicians, with the amiable Sigvard Eklund occupying the room next door.", "The intention was that Meitner would have the salary and title of a \"research professor\"—one without teaching duties.The professorship fell through when the Minister for Education, Tage Erlander, unexpectedly became the Prime Minister of Sweden, but Borelius and Klein ensured that she had the salary of a professor, if not the title.", "In 1949, she became a Swedish citizen, but without surrendering her Austrian citizenship thanks to a special act passed by the Riksdag.", "Plans were approved for R1, Sweden's first nuclear reactor in 1947, with Eklund as the project director, and Meitner worked with him on its design and construction.", "In her last scientific papers in 1950 and 1951, she applied magic numbers to nuclear fission.", "She retired in 1960 and moved to the UK where most of her relatives were, although she continued working part-time and giving lectures.In the 1950s and 1960s, Meitner enjoyed visiting Germany and staying with Hahn and his family for several days on different occasions.", "Hahn wrote in his memoirs that he and Meitner had remained lifelong close friends.", "Even though their friendship was full of trials, arguably more so experienced by Meitner, she \"never voiced anything but deep affection for Hahn\".", "On occasions such as their 70th, 75th, 80th and 85th birthdays, they addressed recollections in each other's honour.", "Hahn emphasised Meitner's intellectual productivity, and work such as her research on the nuclear shell model, always passing over the reasons for her move to Sweden as quickly as possible.", "She emphasised Hahn's personal qualities, his charm and musical ability.Meitner's grave in Bramley, HampshireA strenuous trip to the United States in 1964 led to Meitner's having a heart attack, from which she spent several months recovering.", "Her physical and mental condition weakened by atherosclerosis.", "After breaking her hip in a fall and suffering several small strokes in 1967, Meitner made a partial recovery, but eventually was weakened to the point where she moved into a Cambridge nursing home.", "Meitner died in her sleep on 27 October 1968 at the age of 89.Meitner was not informed of the deaths of Otto Hahn on 28 July 1968 or his wife Edith on 14 August, as her family believed it would be too much for someone so frail.", "As was her wish, she was buried in the village of Bramley in Hampshire, at St James parish church, close to her younger brother Walter, who had died in 1964.Her nephew Frisch composed the inscription on her headstone.", "It reads:" ], [ "Awards and honours", "Statue of Meitner by at Humboldt University of Berlin Meitner was praised by Albert Einstein as the \"German Marie Curie\".", "On her visit to the US in 1946, she received the honour \"Woman of the Year\" from the National Press Club and had dinner with the President of the United States, Harry S. Truman, at the Women's National Press Club.", "She received the Leibniz Medal from the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1924, the Lieben Prize from the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1925, the Ellen Richards Prize in 1928, the City of Vienna Prize for science in 1947, Max Planck Medal of the German Physical Society jointly with Hahn in 1949, the inaugural Otto Hahn Prize of the German Chemical Society in 1954, the Wilhelm Exner Medal in 1960, and in 1967, the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art.", "The President of Germany, Theodor Heuss, awarded her the highest German order for scientists, the peace class of the Pour le Mérite in 1957, the same year as Hahn.", "Meitner became a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1945, and a full member in 1951, permitting her to participate in the Nobel Prize process.", "Four years later she was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society.", "She was also elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1960.She received honorary doctorates from Adelphi College, the University of Rochester, Rutgers University and Smith College in the United States, the Free University of Berlin in Germany, and the University of Stockholm in Sweden.In September 1966 the United States Atomic Energy Commission jointly awarded the Enrico Fermi Award to Hahn, Strassmann and Meitner for their discovery of fission.", "The ceremony was held in the Hofburg palace in Vienna.", "It was the first time that this prize had been awarded to non-Americans, and the first time it was presented to a woman.", "Meitner's diploma bore the words: \"For pioneering research in the naturally occurring radioactivities and extensive experimental studies leading to the discovery of fission\".", "Hahn's diploma was slightly different: \"For pioneering research in the naturally occurring radioactivities and extensive experimental studies culminating in the discovery of fission.\"", "Hahn and Strassmann were present, but Meitner was too ill to attend, so Frisch accepted the award on her behalf.", "Glenn Seaborg, the discoverer of plutonium, presented it to her in the home of Max Perutz in Cambridge on 23 October 1966.Bust of Meitner by Thomas Baumann at the University of ViennaAfter her death in 1968, Meitner received many naming honours.", "In 1997, the element 109 was named meitnerium.", "She is the first and so far the only non-mythological woman thus exclusively honoured (since curium was named after both Marie and Pierre Curie).", "Additional naming honours are the Hahn–Meitner-Institut in Berlin, craters on the Moon and Venus, and the main-belt asteroid 6999 Meitner.", "In 2000, the European Physical Society established the biannual \"Lise Meitner Prize\" for excellent research in nuclear science.", "In 2006 the \"Gothenburg Lise Meitner Award\" was established by the University of Gothenburg and Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden; it is awarded annually to a scientist who has made a breakthrough in physics.", "In October 2010, the building at the Free University of Berlin that had once housed the KWI for Chemistry, and was known as the Otto Hahn Building since 1956, was renamed the Hahn-Meitner Building, and in July 2014 a statue of Meitner was unveiled in the garden of the Humboldt University of Berlin next to similar statues of Hermann von Helmholtz and Max Planck.Schools and streets were named after her in many cities in Austria and Germany, and a short residential street in Bramley, her resting place, is named Meitner Close.", "Since 2008 the Austrian Physical Society together with the German Physical Society have organized the Lise Meitner Lectures, a series of annual public talks given by distinguished female physicists, and since 2015 the AlbaNova University Centre in Stockholm has an annual Lise Meitner Distinguished Lecture.", "In 2016, the Institute of Physics in the UK established the Meitner Medal for public engagement within physics.", "In 2017, the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy in the United States named a major nuclear energy research program after her.", "On 6 November 2020, a satellite named after her (ÑuSat 16 or \"Lise\", COSPAR 2020-079H) was launched into space.", "The International Atomic Energy Agency named its library in her honour and established a programme to \"provide early- and mid‑career women professionals with opportunities to participate in a multiweek visiting professional programme and advance their technical and soft skills\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * Contemporaneous review of Ruth Lewin Sime's biography of Meitner.", "* Hedqvist, Hedvig, ** * * * * Sime's article is the 24th publication in the series ''History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute under National Socialism''." ], [ "External links", "* Catalogue of the Lise Meitner papers at the Churchill Archives Centre* \"Lise Meitner\", \"Contributions of 20th-Century Women to Physics\" (CWP), University of California, Los Angeles* Wired.com: \"February 11, 1939: Lise Meitner, 'Our Madame Curie'\"* \"Lise Meitner\", B. Weintraub, Chemistry in Israel, no.", "21, May 2006, p.", "35.", "* Meitner, Lise at biografiA Encyclopedia of Austrian Women * Elise Meitner: Co-discoverer of Nuclear Fission" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Llama" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''llama''' (; or ˈʝama) ('''''Lama glama''''') is a domesticated South American camelid, widely used as a meat and pack animal by Andean cultures since the pre-Columbian era.Llamas are social animals and live with others as a herd.", "Their wool is soft and contains only a small amount of lanolin.", "Llamas can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions.", "When using a pack, they can carry about 25 to 30% of their body weight for 8 to 13 km (5–8 miles).", "The name ''llama'' (in the past also spelled \"lama\" or \"glama\") was adopted by European settlers from native Peruvians.The ancestors of llamas are thought to have originated from the Great Plains of North America about 40 million years ago, and subsequently migrated to South America about three million years ago during the Great American Interchange.", "By the end of the last ice age (10,000–12,000 years ago), camelids were extinct in North America.", "As of 2007, there were over seven million llamas and alpacas in South America and over 158,000 llamas and 100,000 alpacas, descended from progenitors imported late in the 20th century, in the United States and Canada.In Aymara mythology, llamas are important beings.", "The Heavenly Llama is said to drink water from the ocean and urinates as it rains.", "According to Aymara eschatology, llamas will return to the water springs and ponds where they come from at the end of time." ], [ "Classification", "Quechua girl with a llama in Cusco, PeruLamoids, or llamas (as they are more generally known as a group), consist of the vicuña (''Vicugna vicugna'', prev.", "''Lama vicugna''), guanaco (''Lama guanicoe''), Suri alpaca, and Huacaya alpaca (''Vicugna pacos'', prev.", "''Lama guanicoe pacos''), and the domestic llama (''Lama glama'').", "Guanacos and vicuñas live in the wild, while llamas and alpacas exist only as domesticated animals.", "Although early writers compared llamas to sheep, their similarity to the camel was soon recognized.", "They were included in the genus ''Camelus'' along with alpaca in the ''Systema Naturae'' (1758) of Carl Linnaeus.", "They were, however, separated by Georges Cuvier in 1800 under the name of ''lama'' along with the guanaco.", "DNA analysis has confirmed that the guanaco is the wild ancestor of the llama, while the vicuña is the wild ancestor of the alpaca; the latter two were placed in the genus ''Vicugna''.The genera ''Lama'' and ''Vicugna'' are, with the two species of true camels, the sole existing representatives of a very distinct section of the Artiodactyla or even-toed ungulates, called Tylopoda, or \"bump-footed\", from the peculiar bumps on the soles of their feet.", "The Tylopoda consist of a single family, the Camelidae, and shares the order Artiodactyla with the Suina (pigs), the Tragulina (chevrotains), the Pecora (ruminants), and the Whippomorpha (hippos and cetaceans, which belong to Artiodactyla from a cladistic, if not traditional, standpoint).", "The Tylopoda have more or less affinity to each of the sister taxa, standing in some respects in a middle position between them, sharing some characteristics from each, but in others showing special modifications not found in any of the other taxa.A domestic llamaThe 19th-century discoveries of a vast and previously unexpected extinct Paleogene fauna of North America, as interpreted by paleontologists Joseph Leidy, Edward Drinker Cope, and Othniel Charles Marsh, aided understanding of the early history of this family.", "Llamas were not always confined to South America; abundant llama-like remains were found in Pleistocene deposits in the Rocky Mountains and in Central America.", "Some of the fossil llamas were much larger than current forms.", "Some species remained in North America during the last ice ages.", "North American llamas are categorized as a single extinct genus, ''Hemiauchenia''.", "Llama-like animals would have been a common sight 25,000 years ago, in modern-day California, Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Missouri, and Florida.The camelid lineage has a good fossil record.", "Camel-like animals have been traced from the thoroughly differentiated, modern species back through early Miocene forms.", "Their characteristics became more general, and they lost those that distinguished them as camelids; hence, they were classified as ancestral artiodactyls.", "No fossils of these earlier forms have been found in the Old World, indicating that North America was the original home of camelids, and that the ancestors of Old World camels crossed over via the Bering Land Bridge from North America.", "The formation of the Isthmus of Panama three million years ago allowed camelids to spread to South America as part of the Great American Interchange, where they evolved further.", "Meanwhile, North American camelids died out at the end of the Pleistocene." ], [ "Characteristics", "Skeleton of a llamaA full-grown llama can reach a height of at the top of the head, and can weigh between .", "At maturity, males can weigh 94.74 kg, while females can weigh 102.27 kg.", "At birth, a baby llama (called a ''cria'') can weigh between .", "Llamas typically live for 15 to 25 years, with some individuals surviving 30 years or more.The following characteristics apply especially to llamas.", "Dentition of adults: incisors canines , premolars , molars ; total 32.In the upper jaw, a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform incisor near the hinder edge of the premaxilla is followed in the male at least by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved true canine in the anterior part of the maxilla.", "The isolated canine-like premolar that follows in the camels is not present.", "The teeth of the molar series, which are in contact with each other, consist of two very small premolars (the first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars, constructed generally like those of ''Camelus''.", "In the lower jaw, the three incisors are long, spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones are the smallest.", "Next to these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval by an isolated minute and often deciduous simple conical premolar; then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which differ from those of ''Camelus'' in having a small accessory column at the anterior outer edge.Names of llama body parts: '''1''' ears – '''2''' poll – '''3''' withers – '''4''' back – '''5''' hip – '''6''' croup – '''7''' base of tail – '''8''' tail – '''9''' buttock – '''10''' hock – '''11''' metatarsal gland – '''12''' heel – '''13''' cannon bone – '''14''' gaskin – '''15''' stifle joint – '''16''' flank – '''17''' barrel – '''18''' elbow – '''19''' pastern – '''20''' fetlock – '''21''' Knee – '''22''' Chest – '''23''' point of shoulder – '''24''' shoulder – '''25''' throat – '''26''' cheek or jowl – '''27''' muzzleThe skull generally resembles that of ''Camelus'', the larger brain-cavity and orbits, and less-developed cranial ridges being due to its smaller size.", "The nasal bones are shorter and broader, and are joined by the premaxilla.Vertebrae:* cervical 7,* dorsal 12,* lumbar 7,* sacral 4,* caudal 15 to 20.The ears are rather long and slightly curved inward, characteristically known as \"banana\" shaped.", "There is no dorsal hump.", "The feet are narrow, the toes being more separated than in the camels, each having a distinct plantar pad.", "The tail is short, and fibre is long, woolly and soft.In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general appearance and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so whether they should be considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists.The question is complicated by the circumstance of the great majority of individuals that have come under observation being either in a completely or partially domesticated state.", "Many are also descended from ancestors that have previously been domesticated, a state that tends to produce a certain amount of variation from the original type.", "The four forms commonly distinguished by the inhabitants of South America are recognized as distinct species, though with difficulties in defining their distinctive characteristics.These are:* the llama, ''Lama glama'' (Linnaeus);* the alpaca, ''Vicugna pacos'' (Linnaeus);* the guanaco (from the Quechua ''huanaco''), ''Lama guanicoe'' (Müller); and* the vicuña, ''Vicugna vicugna'' (Molina)The llama and alpaca are only known in the domestic state, and are variable in size and of many colors, being often white, brown, or piebald.", "Some are grey or black.", "The guanaco and vicuña are wild.", "The guanaco is endangered; it has a nearly uniform light-brown color, passing into white below.The guanaco and vicuña certainly differ from each other: The vicuña is smaller, more slender in its proportions, and has a shorter head than the guanaco.The vicuña lives in herds on the bleak and elevated parts of the mountain range bordering the region of perpetual snow, amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in various suitable localities throughout Peru, in the southern part of Ecuador, and as far south as the middle of Bolivia.", "Its manners very much resemble those of the chamois of the European Alps; it is as vigilant, wild, and timid.Vicuña fiber is extremely delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of weaving, but the quantity that each animal produces is small.Alpacas are primarily descended from wild vicuña ancestors, while domesticated llamas are descended primarily from wild guanaco ancestors, although a considerable amount of hybridization between the two species has occurred.Differential characteristics between llamas and alpacas include the llama's larger size, longer head, and curved ears.", "Alpaca fiber is generally more expensive, but not always more valuable.", "Alpacas tend to have a more consistent color throughout the body.", "The most apparent visual difference between llamas and camels is that camels have a hump or humps and llamas do not.Llamas are not ruminants, pseudo-ruminants, or modified ruminants.", "They do have a complex three-compartment stomach that allows them to digest lower quality, high cellulose foods.", "The stomach compartments allow for fermentation of tough food stuffs, followed by regurgitation and re-chewing.", "Ruminants (cows, sheep, goats) have ''four'' compartments, whereas llamas have only three stomach compartments: the rumen, omasum, and abomasum.In addition, the llama (and other camelids) have an extremely long and complex large intestine (colon).", "The large intestine's role in digestion is to reabsorb water, vitamins and electrolytes from food waste that is passing through it.", "The length of the llama's colon allows it to survive on much less water than other animals.", "This is a major advantage in arid climates where they live." ], [ "Reproduction", "Dam and her cria at Laguna Colorada, Reserva Nacional de Fauna Andina Eduardo Avaroa, BoliviaLlamas have an unusual reproductive cycle for a large animal.", "Female llamas are induced ovulators.", "Through the act of mating, the female releases an egg and is often fertilized on the first attempt.", "Female llamas do not go into estrus (\"heat\").Like humans, llama males and females mature sexually at different rates.", "Females reach puberty at about 12 months old; males do not become sexually mature until around three years of age.=== Mating ===Llamas mate in a kush (lying down) position, similar to big cats and canines, which is fairly unusual in a large animal.", "They mate for an extended time (20–45 minutes), also unusual in a large animal.=== Gestation ===The gestation period of a llama is 11.5 months (350 days).", "Dams (female llamas) do not lick off their babies, as they have an attached tongue that does not reach outside of the mouth more than .", "Rather, they will nuzzle and hum to their newborns.=== Crias ===A cria (from Spanish for \"baby\") is the name for a baby llama, alpaca, vicuña, or guanaco.", "Crias are typically born with all the females of the herd gathering around, in an attempt to protect against the male llamas and potential predators.", "Llamas give birth standing.", "Birth is usually quick and problem-free, over in less than 30 minutes.", "Most births take place between 8 am and noon, during the warmer daylight hours.", "This may increase cria survival by reducing fatalities due to hypothermia during cold Andean nights.", "This birthing pattern is speculated to be a continuation of the birthing patterns observed in the wild.", "Crias are up and standing, walking and attempting to suckle within the first hour after birth.", "Crias are partially fed with llama milk that is lower in fat and salt and higher in phosphorus and calcium than cow or goat milk.", "A female llama will only produce about of milk at a time when she gives milk, so the cria must suckle frequently to receive the nutrients it requires.=== Breeding methods ===In '''harem mating''', the male is left with females most of the year.For '''field mating''', a female is turned out into a field with a male llama and left there for some period of time.", "This is the easiest method in terms of labor, but the least useful in terms of prediction of a likely birth date.", "An ultrasound test can be performed, and together with the exposure dates, a better idea of when the cria is expected can be determined.", "'''Hand mating''' is the most efficient method, but requires the most work on the part of the human involved.", "A male and female llama are put into the same pen and mating is monitored.", "They are then separated and re-mated every other day until one or the other refuses the mating.", "Usually, one can get in two matings using this method, though some stud males routinely refuse to mate a female more than once.", "The separation presumably helps to keep the sperm count high for each mating and also helps to keep the condition of the female llama's reproductive tract more sound.", "If the mating is not successful within two to three weeks, the female is mated again." ], [ "Nutrition", "A black llamaOptions for feeding llamas are quite wide; a wide variety of commercial and farm-based feeds are available.", "The major determining factors include feed cost, availability, nutrient balance and energy density required.", "Young, actively growing llamas require a greater concentration of nutrients than mature animals because of their smaller digestive tract capacities.+ Estimated daily requirements of bromegrass hay, alfalfa hay and corn silage on an as-fed and 100% dry matter basis for llamas from 22 to 550 pounds.", "Body weight (lb) Bromegrass Alfalfa Corn silage (as fed) (dry matter) (as fed) (dry matter) (as fed) (dry matter) 22 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.4 44 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.8 2.6 0.7 88 2.1 1.9 1.5 1.3 4.3 1.2 110 2.6 2.3 1.7 1.6 5.2 1.4 165 3.4 3.1 2.3 2.1 6.9 1.9 275 5.0 4.5 3.4 3.1 10.1 2.8 385 6.4 5.7 4.3 3.9 12.9 3.6 495 7.8 7.0 5.3 4.8 15.8 4.4 550 8.5 7.6 5.7 5.2 17.0 4.8" ], [ "Behavior", "A pack llama in the Rocky Mountain National ParkLlamas that are well-socialized and trained to halter and lead after weaning are very friendly and pleasant to be around.", "They are extremely curious and most will approach people easily.", "However, llamas that are bottle-fed or over-socialized and over-handled as youth will become extremely difficult to handle when mature, when they will begin to treat humans as they treat each other, which is characterized by bouts of spitting, kicking and neck wrestling.Llamas are now utilized as certified therapy animals in nursing homes and hospitals.", "Rojo the Llama, located in the Pacific Northwest was certified in 2008.The Mayo Clinic says animal-assisted therapy can reduce pain, depression, anxiety, and fatigue.", "This type of therapy is growing in popularity, and there are several organizations throughout the United States that participate.When correctly reared, llamas spitting at a human is a rare thing.", "Llamas are very social herd animals, however, and do sometimes spit at each other as a way of disciplining lower-ranked llamas in the herd.", "A llama's social rank in a herd is never static.", "They can always move up or down in the social ladder by picking small fights.", "This is usually done between males to see which will become dominant.", "Their fights are visually dramatic, with spitting, ramming each other with their chests, neck wrestling and kicking, mainly to knock the other off balance.", "The females are usually only seen spitting as a means of controlling other herd members.", "One may determine how agitated the llama is by the materials in the spit.", "The more irritated the llama is, the further back into each of the three stomach compartments it will try to draw materials from for its spit.While the social structure might always be changing, they live as a family and they do take care of each other.", "If one notices a strange noise or feels threatened, an alarm call - a loud, shrill sound which rhythmically rises and falls - is sent out and all others become alert.", "They will often hum to each other as a form of communication.The sound of the llama making groaning noises or going \"mwa\" (/mwaʰ/) is often a sign of fear or anger.", "Unhappy or agitated llamas will lay their ears back, while ears being perked upwards is a sign of happiness or curiosity.An \"orgle\" is the mating sound of a llama or alpaca, made by the sexually aroused male.", "The sound is reminiscent of gargling, but with a more forceful, buzzing edge.", "Males begin the sound when they become aroused and continue throughout copulation.=== Guard behavior ===Llama guarding sheep on the South Downs in West SussexUsing llamas as livestock guards in North America began in the early 1980s, and some sheep producers have used llamas successfully since then.", "Some would even use them to guard their smaller cousins, the alpaca.", "They are used most commonly in the western regions of the United States, where larger predators, such as coyotes and feral dogs, are prevalent.", "Typically, a single gelding (castrated male) is used.Research suggests the use of multiple guard llamas is not as effective as one.", "Multiple males tend to bond with one another, rather than with the livestock, and may ignore the flock.", "A gelded male of two years of age bonds closely with its new charges and is instinctively very effective in preventing predation.", "Some llamas appear to bond more quickly to sheep or goats if they are introduced just prior to lambing.", "Many sheep and goat producers indicate a special bond quickly develops between lambs and their guard llama and the llama is particularly protective of the lambs.Using llamas as guards has reduced the losses to predators for many producers.", "The value of the livestock saved each year more than exceeds the purchase cost and annual maintenance of a llama.", "Although not every llama is suited to the job, most are a viable, nonlethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no training and little care." ], [ "Fiber", "Llamas have a fine undercoat, which can be used for handicrafts and garments.", "The coarser outer guard hair is used for rugs, wall-hangings and lead ropes.", "The fiber comes in many different colors ranging from white or grey to reddish-brown, brown, dark brown and black.Handspun llama yarn from Patagonia+ Average diameter of some of the finest, natural fibers Animal Fiber diameter (micrometres) Vicuña 6–10 Alpaca (Suri) 10–15 Muskox (Qiviut) 11–13 Merino sheep 12–20 Angora rabbit (Angora wool) 13 Cashmere goat (Cashmere wool) 15–19 Yak (Yak fiber) 15–19 Camel (Camel hair) 16–25 Guanaco 16–18 Llama (Tapada) 20–30 Chinchilla 21 Angora goat (Mohair) 25–45 Huacaya alpaca 27.7 Llama (Ccara) 30–40" ], [ "Medical uses", "Doctors and researches have determined that llamas possess antibodies that are well suited to treat certain diseases.", "Scientists have been studying the way llamas might contribute to the fight against coronaviruses, including MERS and SARS-CoV-2 (which causes COVID-19)." ], [ "History of domestication", "Another Moche sculpture, dated to 100–300 AD (Early Intermediate Period) from the Lombards MuseumThis sculpture, originating from the Chancay Valley and adjacent Chillón Drainage region (Late Intermediate Period), captures the llama's natural inquisitiveness.", "The Walters Art Museum.=== Pre-Incan cultures ===Scholar Alex Chepstow-Lusty has argued that the switch from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to widespread agriculture was only possible because of the use of llama dung as fertilizer.The Moche people frequently placed llamas and llama parts in the burials of important people, as offerings or provisions for the afterlife.", "The Moche of pre-Columbian Peru depicted llamas quite realistically in their ceramics.=== Inca Empire ===In the Inca Empire, llamas were the only beasts of burden, and many of the people dominated by the Inca had long traditions of llama herding.", "For the Inca nobility, the llama was of symbolic significance, and llama figures were often buried with the dead.In South America, llamas are still used as beasts of burden, as well as for the production of fiber and meat.The Inca deity Urcuchillay was depicted in the form of a multicolored llama.Carl Troll has argued that the large numbers of llamas found in the southern Peruvian highlands were an important factor in the rise of the Inca Empire.", "It is worth considering the maximum extent of the Inca Empire roughly coincided with the greatest distribution of alpacas and llamas in Pre-Hispanic America.", "The link between the Andean biomes of puna and páramo, llama pastoralism and the Inca state is a matter of research.=== Spanish Empire ===The first image of llamas in Europe, 1553One of the main uses for llamas at the time of the Spanish conquest was to bring down ore from the mines in the mountains.", "Gregory de Bolivar estimated that in his day, as many as 300,000 were employed in the transport of produce from the Potosí mines alone, but since the introduction of horses, mules, and donkeys, the importance of the llama as a beast of burden has greatly diminished.According to Juan Ignacio Molina, the Dutch captain Joris van Spilbergen observed the use of hueques (possibly a llama type) by native Mapuches of Mocha Island as plow animals in 1614.In Chile hueque populations declined towards extinction in the 16th and 17th century being replaced by European livestock.", "The causes of its extinction are not clear but it is known that the introduction of sheep caused some competition among both domestic species.", "Anecdotal evidence of the mid-17th century show that both species coexisted but suggests that there were many more sheep than hueques.", "The decline of hueques reached a point in the late 18th century when only the Mapuche from Mariquina and Huequén next to Angol raised the animal.=== United States ===Llamas were first imported into the US in the late 1800s as zoo exhibits.", "Restrictions on importation of livestock from South America due to hoof and mouth disease, combined with lack of commercial interest, resulted in the number of llamas staying low until the late 20th century.", "In the 1970s, interest in llamas as livestock began to grow, and the number of llamas increased as farmers bred and produced an increasing number of animals.", "Both the price and number of llamas in the US climbed rapidly in the 1980s and 1990s.", "With little market for llama fiber or meat in the US, and the value of guard llamas limited, the primary value in llamas was in breeding more animals, a classic sign of a speculative bubble in agriculture.", "By 2002, there were almost 145,000 llamas in the US according to the US Department of Agriculture, and animals sold for as much as $220,000.However, the lack of any end market for the animals resulted in a crash in both llama prices and the number of llamas; the Great Recession further dried up investment capital, and the number of llamas in the US began to decline as fewer animals were bred and older animals died of old age.", "By 2017, the number of llamas in the US had dropped below 40,000.A similar speculative bubble was experienced with the closely related alpaca, which burst shortly after the llama bubble." ], [ "Culture", "Being an important animal and long standing cultural icon in South America, Llamas gained in recent history cultural prominence in Western culture.For example, the videogame company Maxis have used Llamas extensively as elements in their games, particularly in the widely popular game series The Sims, Llamas being the national symbol of the country the broader series of Sim games are set in.", "The online video game Fortnite uses piñata llamas as loot containers, which contain various in-game resources.", "Also the programming language Perl with its so-called Llama book has been associated with Llamas." ], [ "See also", "* Alpaca* Cama, a hybrid between a llama and a camel* Grass Mud Horse, a parody originating from Mainland China in 2009 that features the alpaca and llama* Guanaco* Guard llama, llamas used as livestock guardians* Lamoid* Llama hiking* Llamanaco* ''The Emperor's New Groove,'' a 2000 animated Disney film where an Incan emperor gets turned into a llama." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "** * Llamas Close Up – slideshow by ''Life magazine''*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "L cut" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''L cut''' is a variant of a split edit film editing technique in which the audio from preceding scene overlaps the picture from the following scene, so that the audio cuts after the picture, and continues playing over the beginning of the next scene.The name of the cut refers to the shape of audio and video pieces of the second of two scenes cut together when it was done on analog film.", "This creates a shape similar to the letter \"L\" on the timeline, with the main body representing the video from the previous clip and the foot of the \"L\" representing the continuing audio.", "This technique has been applied since sound film first appeared." ], [ "See also", "* J cut* Jump cut* Match cut* Split edit" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lexicon" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''lexicon''' (plural: '''lexicons''', rarely '''lexica''') is the vocabulary of a language or branch of knowledge (such as nautical or medical).", "In linguistics, a lexicon is a language's inventory of lexemes.", "The word ''lexicon'' derives from Greek word (), neuter of () meaning 'of or for words'.Linguistic theories generally regard human languages as consisting of two parts: a lexicon, essentially a catalogue of a language's words (its wordstock); and a grammar, a system of rules which allow for the combination of those words into meaningful sentences.", "The lexicon is also thought to include bound morphemes, which cannot stand alone as words (such as most affixes).", "In some analyses, compound words and certain classes of idiomatic expressions, collocations and other phrases are also considered to be part of the lexicon.", "Dictionaries are lists of the lexicon, in alphabetical order, of a given language; usually, however, bound morphemes are not included." ], [ "Size and organization", "Items in the lexicon are called lexemes, lexical items, or word forms.", "Lexemes are not atomic elements but contain both phonological and morphological components.", "When describing the lexicon, a reductionist approach is used, trying to remain general while using a minimal description.", "To describe the size of a lexicon, lexemes are grouped into lemmas.", "A lemma is a group of lexemes generated by inflectional morphology.", "Lemmas are represented in dictionaries by headwords that list the citation forms and any irregular forms, since these must be learned to use the words correctly.", "Lexemes derived from a word by derivational morphology are considered new lemmas.", "The lexicon is also organized according to open and closed categories.", "Closed categories, such as determiners or pronouns, are rarely given new lexemes; their function is primarily syntactic.", "Open categories, such as nouns and verbs, have highly active generation mechanisms and their lexemes are more semantic in nature." ], [ "Lexicalization and other mechanisms in the lexicon", "A central role of the lexicon is the documenting of established ''lexical norms and conventions''.", "Lexicalization is the process by which new words, having gained widespread usage, enter the lexicon.", "Since lexicalization may modify lexemes phonologically and morphologically, it is possible that a single etymological source may be inserted into a single lexicon in two or more forms.", "These pairs, called a doublet, are often close semantically.", "Two examples are ''aptitude'' versus ''attitude'' and ''employ'' versus ''imply''.The mechanisms, not mutually exclusive, are:* Innovation, the planned creation of new roots (often on a large-scale), such as ''slang'', ''branding''.", "* Borrowing of foreign words.", "* Compounding (composition), the combination of lexemes to make a single word.", "* Abbreviation of compounds.", "* Acronyms, the reduction of compounds to their initial letters, such as NASA and laser (from \"LASER\").", "* Inflection, a morphology change with a category, such as a number or tense.", "* Derivation, a morphological change resulting in a change of category.", "* Agglutination, the compounding of morphemes into a single word.===Neologisms (new words)===Neologisms are new lexeme candidates which, if they gain wide usage over time, become part of a language's lexicon.", "Neologisms are often introduced by children who produce erroneous forms by mistake.", "Other common sources are slang and advertising.===Neologisms that maintain the sound of their external source===There are two types of borrowings (neologisms based on external sources) that retain the sound of the source language material:* Borrowing using the source language lexical item as the basic material for the neologization: guestwords, foreignisms and loanwords* Borrowing using a target language lexical items as the basic material for the neologization: phono-semantic matching, semanticized phonetic matching and phonetic matching.====Guestwords, foreignisms and loanwords====The following are examples of external lexical expansion using the source language lexical item as the basic material for the neologization, listed in decreasing order of phonetic resemblance to the original lexical item (in the source language):* Guestword (in German: ''Gastwort''): unassimilated borrowing.", "* Foreignism (in German: ''Fremdwort''): foreign word, e.g.", "phonetic adaptation.", "* Loanword (in German: ''Lehnwort''): totally assimilated borrowing, e.g.", "morphemic adaptation.====Phono-semantic matches, semanticized phonetic matches and phonetic matches====The following are examples of simultaneous external and internal lexical expansion using target language lexical items as the basic material for the neologization but still resembling the sound of the lexical item in the source language:* Phono-semantic matching (PSM): the target language material is originally similar to the source language lexical item both phonetically and semantically.", "* Semanticized phonetic matching (SPM): the target language material is originally similar to the source language lexical item phonetically, and only in a loose way semantically.", "* Phonetic matching (PM): the target language material is originally similar to the source language lexical item phonetically but not semantically.===Role of morphology===Another mechanism involves generative devices that combine morphemes according to a language's rules.", "For example, the suffix \"-able\" is usually only added to transitive verbs, as in \"readable\" but not \"cryable\".===Compounding===A compound word is a lexeme composed of several established lexemes, whose semantics is not the sum of that of their constituents.", "They can be interpreted through analogy, common sense and, most commonly, context.", "Compound words can have simple or complex morphological structures.", "Usually, only the head requires inflection for agreement.", "Compounding may result in lexemes of unwieldy proportion.", "This is compensated by mechanisms that reduce the length of words.", "A similar phenomenon has been recently shown to feature in social media also where hashtags compound to form longer-sized hashtags that are at times more popular than the individual constituent hashtags forming the compound.", "Compounding is the most common of word formation strategies cross-linguistically." ], [ "Diachronic mechanisms", "Comparative historical linguistics studies the evolution of languages and takes a diachronic view of the lexicon.", "The evolution of lexicons in different languages occurs through a parallel mechanism.", "Over time historical forces work to shape the lexicon, making it simpler to acquire and often creating an illusion of great regularity in language.", "* Phonological assimilation, the modification of loanwords to fit a new language's sound structure more effectively.", "If, however, a loanword sounds too \"foreign\", inflection or derivation rules may not be able to transform it.", "* Analogy, where new words undergo inflection and derivation analogous to that of words with a similar sound structure.", "* Emphasis, the modification of words' stress or accent.", "* Metaphor, a form of semantic extension." ], [ "Second-language lexicon", "The term \"lexicon\" is generally used in the context of a single language.", "Therefore, multi-lingual speakers are generally thought to have multiple lexicons.", "Speakers of language variants (Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese, for example) may be considered to possess a single lexicon.", "Thus a ''cash dispenser'' (British English) as well as an automatic teller machine or ATM in American English would be understood by both American and British speakers, despite each group using different dialects.When linguists study a lexicon, they consider such things as what constitutes a word; the word/concept relationship; lexical access and lexical access failure; how a word's phonology, syntax, and meaning intersect; the morphology-word relationship; vocabulary structure within a given language; language use (pragmatics); language acquisition; the history and evolution of words (etymology); and the relationships between words, often studied within philosophy of language.Various models of how lexicons are organized and how words are retrieved have been proposed in psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics and computational linguistics." ], [ "See also", "* Glossary* Grammaticalization* Lexical Markup Framework* Lexicography" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Aitchison, Jean.", "''Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon.''", "Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leonardo da Vinci" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci''' (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect.", "While his fame initially rested on his achievements as a painter, he has also become known for his notebooks, in which he made drawings and notes on a variety of subjects, including anatomy, astronomy, botany, cartography, painting, and paleontology.", "Leonardo is widely regarded to have been a genius who epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal, and his collective works comprise a contribution to later generations of artists matched only by that of his younger contemporary Michelangelo.Born out of wedlock to a successful notary and a lower-class woman in, or near, Vinci, he was educated in Florence by the Italian painter and sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio.", "He began his career in the city, but then spent much time in the service of Ludovico Sforza in Milan.", "Later, he worked in Florence and Milan again, as well as briefly in Rome, all while attracting a large following of imitators and students.", "Upon the invitation of Francis I, he spent his last three years in France, where he died in 1519.Since his death, there has not been a time where his achievements, diverse interests, personal life, and empirical thinking have failed to incite interest and admiration, making him a frequent namesake and subject in culture.Leonardo is identified as one of the greatest painters in the history of art and is often credited as the founder of the High Renaissance.", "Despite having many lost works and fewer than 25 attributed major works including numerous unfinished works he created some of the most influential paintings in Western art.", "His magnum opus, the ''Mona Lisa'', is his best known work and often regarded as the world's most famous painting.", "''The Last Supper'' is the most reproduced religious painting of all time and his ''Vitruvian Man'' drawing is also regarded as a cultural icon.", "In 2017, ''Salvator Mundi'', attributed in whole or part to Leonardo, was sold at auction for , setting a new record for the most expensive painting ever sold at public auction.Revered for his technological ingenuity, he conceptualized flying machines, a type of armored fighting vehicle, concentrated solar power, a ratio machine that could be used in an adding machine, and the double hull.", "Relatively few of his designs were constructed or were even feasible during his lifetime, as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance.", "Some of his smaller inventions, however, entered the world of manufacturing unheralded, such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire.", "He made substantial discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering, hydrodynamics, geology, optics, and tribology, but he did not publish his findings and they had little to no direct influence on subsequent science." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life (1452–1472) ======= Birth and background ==== Leonardo Da Vinci's baptism record Leonardo da Vinci, properly named Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (\"Leonardo, son of ser Piero from Vinci\"), was born on 15 April 1452 in, or close to, the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, 20 miles from Florence.", "He was born out of wedlock to Piero da Vinci (Ser Piero da Vinci d'Antonio di ser Piero di ser Guido; 1426–1504), a Florentine legal notary, and Caterina di Meo Lippi (), from the lower class.", "It remains uncertain where Leonardo was born; the traditional account, from a local oral tradition recorded by the historian Emanuele Repetti, is that he was born in Anchiano, a country hamlet that would have offered sufficient privacy for the illegitimate birth, though it is still possible he was born in a house in Florence that Ser Piero almost certainly had.", "Leonardo's parents both married separately the year after his birth.", "Caterina who later appears in Leonardo's notes as only \"Caterina\" or \"Catelina\" is usually identified as the Caterina Buti del Vacca, who married the local artisan Antonio di Piero Buti del Vacca, nicknamed .", "Ser Piero married Albiera Amadori having been betrothed to her the previous year and after her death in 1464, went on to have three subsequent marriages.", "From all the marriages, Leonardo eventually had 16 half-siblings (of whom 11 survived infancy) who were much younger than he (the last was born when Leonardo was 46 years old) and with whom he had very little contact.The possible birthplace and childhood home of Leonardo in Anchiano, Vinci, Italy\|alt=Photo of a building of rough stone with small windows, surrounded by olive treesVery little is known about Leonardo's childhood and much is shrouded in myth, partially because of his biography in the frequently apocryphal ''Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects'' (1550) by 16th-century art historian Giorgio Vasari.", "Tax records indicate that by at least 1457 he lived in the household of his paternal grandfather, Antonio da Vinci, but it is possible that he spent the years before then in the care of his mother in Vinci, either Anchiano or Campo Zeppi in the parish of San Pantaleone.", "He is thought to have been close to his uncle, Francesco da Vinci, but his father was probably in Florence most of the time.", "Ser Piero, who was the descendant of a long line of notaries, established an official residence in Florence by at least 1469 and had a successful career.", "Despite his family history, Leonardo only received a basic and informal education in (vernacular) writing, reading, and mathematics; possibly because his artistic talents were recognised early, so his family decided to focus their attention there.Later in life, Leonardo recorded his earliest memory, now in the Codex Atlanticus.", "While writing on the flight of birds, he recalled as an infant when a kite came to his cradle and opened his mouth with its tail; commentators still debate whether the anecdote was an actual memory or a fantasy.==== Verrocchio's workshop ====The Baptism of Christ'' (1472–1475) by Verrocchio and Leonardo, Uffizi Gallery\|alt=Painting showing Jesus, naked except for a loin-cloth, standing in a shallow stream in a rocky landscape, while to the right, John the Baptist, identifiable by the cross that he carries, tips water over Jesus' head.", "Two angels kneel at the left.", "Above Jesus are the hands of God, and a dove descending\|230x230pxIn the mid-1460s, Leonardo's family moved to Florence, which at the time was the centre of Christian Humanist thought and culture.", "Around the age of 14, he became a ''garzone'' (studio boy) in the workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio, who was the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his time.", "This was about the time of the death of Verrocchio's master, the great sculptor Donatello.", "Leonardo became an apprentice by the age of 17 and remained in training for seven years.", "Other famous painters apprenticed in the workshop or associated with it include Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli, and Lorenzo di Credi.", "Leonardo was exposed to both theoretical training and a wide range of technical skills, including drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics, and woodwork, as well as the artistic skills of drawing, painting, sculpting, and modelling.Leonardo was a contemporary of Botticelli, Ghirlandaio and Perugino, who were all slightly older than he was.", "He would have met them at the workshop of Verrocchio or at the Platonic Academy of the Medici.", "Florence was ornamented by the works of artists such as Donatello's contemporaries Masaccio, whose figurative frescoes were imbued with realism and emotion, and Ghiberti, whose ''Gates of Paradise'', gleaming with gold leaf, displayed the art of combining complex figure compositions with detailed architectural backgrounds.", "Piero della Francesca had made a detailed study of perspective, and was the first painter to make a scientific study of light.", "These studies and Leon Battista Alberti's treatise ''De pictura'' were to have a profound effect on younger artists and in particular on Leonardo's own observations and artworks.Much of the painting in Verrocchio's workshop was done by his assistants.", "According to Vasari, Leonardo collaborated with Verrocchio on his ''The Baptism of Christ'' (), painting the young angel holding Jesus's robe with skill so far superior to his master's that Verrocchio purportedly put down his brush and never painted again (the latter claim probably being apocryphal).", "The new technique of oil paint was applied to areas of the mostly tempera work, including the landscape, the rocks seen through the brown mountain stream, and much of Jesus's figure, indicating Leonardo's hand.", "Additionally, Leonardo may have been a model for two works by Verrocchio: the bronze statue of ''David'' in the Bargello and the archangel Raphael in ''Tobias and the Angel''.Vasari tells a story of Leonardo as a very young man: a local peasant made himself a round buckler shield and requested that Ser Piero have it painted for him.", "Leonardo, inspired by the story of Medusa, responded with a painting of a monster spitting fire that was so terrifying that his father bought a different shield to give to the peasant and sold Leonardo's to a Florentine art dealer for 100 ducats, who in turn sold it to the Duke of Milan.=== First Florentine period (1472–c.", "1482) ===''Adoration of the Magi'' , Uffizi, FlorenceBy 1472, at the age of 20, Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of Saint Luke, the guild of artists and doctors of medicine, but even after his father set him up in his own workshop, his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to collaborate and live with him.", "Leonardo's earliest known dated work is a 1473 pen-and-ink drawing of the Arno valley (see below).", "According to Vasari, the young Leonardo was the first to suggest making the Arno river a navigable channel between Florence and Pisa.In January 1478, Leonardo received an independent commission to paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of Saint Bernard in the Palazzo Vecchio, an indication of his independence from Verrocchio's studio.", "An anonymous early biographer, known as Anonimo Gaddiano, claims that in 1480 Leonardo was living with the Medici and often worked in the garden of the Piazza San Marco, Florence, where a Neoplatonic academy of artists, poets and philosophers organized by the Medici met.", "In March 1481, he received a commission from the monks of San Donato in Scopeto for ''The Adoration of the Magi''.", "Neither of these initial commissions were completed, being abandoned when Leonardo went to offer his services to Duke of Milan Ludovico Sforza.", "Leonardo wrote Sforza a letter which described the diverse things that he could achieve in the fields of engineering and weapon design, and mentioned that he could paint.", "He brought with him a silver string instrument either a lute or lyre in the form of a horse's head.With Alberti, Leonardo visited the home of the Medici and through them came to know the older Humanist philosophers of whom Marsiglio Ficino, proponent of Neoplatonism; Cristoforo Landino, writer of commentaries on Classical writings, and John Argyropoulos, teacher of Greek and translator of Aristotle were the foremost.", "Also associated with the Platonic Academy of the Medici was Leonardo's contemporary, the brilliant young poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola.", "In 1482, Leonardo was sent as an ambassador by Lorenzo de' Medici to Ludovico il Moro, who ruled Milan between 1479 and 1499.File:Leonardo da Vinci Madonna of the Carnation.jpg\|''Madonna of the Carnation'', , Alte Pinakothek, MunichFile:Paisagem do Arno - Leonardo da Vinci.jpg\|''Landscape of the Arno Valley'' (1473)File:Leonardo da Vinci - Ginevra de' Benci - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Ginevra de' Benci'', , National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:Madonna benois 01.jpg\|''Benois Madonna'', , Hermitage, Saint PetersburgFile:Leonardo da Vinci - Hanging of Bernardo Baroncelli 1479.jpg\|Sketch of the hanging of Bernardo Bandini Baroncelli, 1479=== First Milanese period (c. 1482–1499) ===''Virgin of the Rocks'', , Louvre versionLeonardo worked in Milan from 1482 until 1499.He was commissioned to paint the ''Virgin of the Rocks'' for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception and ''The Last Supper'' for the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie.", "In the spring of 1485, Leonardo travelled to Hungary (on behalf of Sforza) to meet king Matthias Corvinus, and was commissioned by him to paint a Madonna.", "In 1490 he was called as a consultant, together with Francesco di Giorgio Martini, for the building site of the cathedral of Pavia and was struck by the equestrian statue of Regisole, of which he left a sketch.", "Leonardo was employed on many other projects for Sforza, such as preparation of floats and pageants for special occasions; a drawing of, and wooden model for, a competition to design the cupola for Milan Cathedral; and a model for a huge equestrian monument to Ludovico's predecessor Francesco Sforza.", "This would have surpassed in size the only two large equestrian statues of the Renaissance, Donatello's ''Gattamelata'' in Padua and Verrocchio's ''Bartolomeo Colleoni'' in Venice, and became known as the ''Gran Cavallo''.", "Leonardo completed a model for the horse and made detailed plans for its casting, but in November 1494, Ludovico gave the metal to his brother-in-law to be used for a cannon to defend the city from Charles VIII of France.Contemporary correspondence records that Leonardo and his assistants were commissioned by the Duke of Milan to paint the Sala delle Asse in the Sforza Castle, 1498.The project became a trompe-l'œil decoration that made the great hall appear to be a pergola created by the interwoven limbs of sixteen mulberry trees, whose canopy included an intricate labyrinth of leaves and knots on the ceiling.File:Leonardo da vinci, Head of a girl 01.jpg\|''Head of a Woman'', , Royal Library of TurinFile:Leonardo da Vinci - Portrait of a Musician - Pinacoteca Ambrosiana.jpg\|''Portrait of a Musician'', , Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, MilanFile:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour (cropped).jpg\|The ''Vitruvian Man'' () Accademia, VeniceFile:Study of horse.jpg\|Leonardo's horse in silverpoint, File:Leonardo da Vinci (attrib)- la Belle Ferroniere.jpg\|, File:Sala-Asse-18-02-2014-32.jpg\|Detail of 1902 restoration, trompe-l'œil painting (1498)=== Second Florentine period (1500–1508) ===''The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne and Saint John the Baptist'', , National Gallery, LondonWhen Ludovico Sforza was overthrown by France in 1500, Leonardo fled Milan for Venice, accompanied by his assistant Salaì and friend, the mathematician Luca Pacioli.", "In Venice, Leonardo was employed as a military architect and engineer, devising methods to defend the city from naval attack.", "On his return to Florence in 1500, he and his household were guests of the Servite monks at the monastery of Santissima Annunziata and were provided with a workshop where, according to Vasari, Leonardo created the cartoon of ''The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne and Saint John the Baptist'', a work that won such admiration that \"men and women, young and old\" flocked to see it \"as if they were going to a solemn festival.", "\"In Cesena in 1502, Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, acting as a military architect and engineer and travelling throughout Italy with his patron.", "Leonardo created a map of Cesare Borgia's stronghold, a town plan of Imola in order to win his patronage.", "Upon seeing it, Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect.", "Later in the year, Leonardo produced another map for his patron, one of Chiana Valley, Tuscany, so as to give his patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic position.", "He created this map in conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam from the sea to Florence, in order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during all seasons.Leonardo had left Borgia's service and returned to Florence by early 1503, where he rejoined the Guild of Saint Luke on 18 October of that year.", "By this same month, Leonardo had begun working on a portrait of Lisa del Giocondo, the model for the ''Mona Lisa'', which he would continue working on until his twilight years.", "In January 1504, he was part of a committee formed to recommend where Michelangelo's statue of ''David'' should be placed.", "He then spent two years in Florence designing and painting a mural of ''The Battle of Anghiari'' for the Signoria, with Michelangelo designing its companion piece, ''The Battle of Cascina''.In 1506, Leonardo was summoned to Milan by Charles II d'Amboise, the acting French governor of the city.", "There, Leonardo took on another pupil, Count Francesco Melzi, the son of a Lombard aristocrat, who is considered to have been his favourite student.", "The Council of Florence wished Leonardo to return promptly to finish ''The Battle of Anghiari'', but he was given leave at the behest of Louis XII, who considered commissioning the artist to make some portraits.", "Leonardo may have commenced a project for an equestrian figure of d'Amboise; a wax model survives and, if genuine, is the only extant example of Leonardo's sculpture.", "Leonardo was otherwise free to pursue his scientific interests.", "Many of Leonardo's most prominent pupils either knew or worked with him in Milan, including Bernardino Luini, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio, and Marco d'Oggiono.", "In 1507, Leonardo was in Florence sorting out a dispute with his brothers over the estate of his father, who had died in 1504.File:Leonardo da Vinci - Virgin and Child with St Anne C2RMF retouched.jpg\|''The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne'', , Louvre, ParisFile:Leonardo da Vinci - Plan of Imola - Google Art Project.jpg\|Leonardo's map of Imola, created for Cesare Borgia, 1502File:Leonardo da Vinci - Study of Two Warriors' Heads for the Battle of Anghiari - Google Art Project.jpg\|Study for ''The Battle of Anghiari'' (now lost), , Museum of Fine Arts, BudapestFile:Leonardo da vinci - La scapigliata.jpg\|''La Scapigliata'', (unfinished), Galleria Nazionale di Parma, ParmaFile:Study for the Kneeling Leda.jpg\|Study for ''Leda and the Swan'' (now lost), , Chatsworth House, England=== Second Milanese period (1508–1513) ===By 1508, Leonardo was back in Milan, living in his own house in Porta Orientale in the parish of Santa Babila.In 1512, Leonardo was working on plans for an equestrian monument for Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, but this was prevented by an invasion of a confederation of Swiss, Spanish and Venetian forces, which drove the French from Milan.", "Leonardo stayed in the city, spending several months in 1513 at the Medici's Vaprio d'Adda villa.=== Rome and France (1513–1519) ===An apocalyptic deluge drawn in black chalk by Leonardo near the end of his life (part of a series of 10, paired with written description in his notebooks)In March 1513, Lorenzo de' Medici's son Giovanni assumed the papacy (as Leo X); Leonardo went to Rome that September, where he was received by the pope's brother Giuliano.", "From September 1513 to 1516, Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere Courtyard in the Apostolic Palace, where Michelangelo and Raphael were both active.", "Leonardo was given an allowance of 33 ducats a month, and according to Vasari, decorated a lizard with scales dipped in quicksilver.", "The pope gave him a painting commission of unknown subject matter, but cancelled it when the artist set about developing a new kind of varnish.", "Leonardo became ill, in what may have been the first of multiple strokes leading to his death.", "He practiced botany in the Gardens of Vatican City, and was commissioned to make plans for the pope's proposed draining of the Pontine Marshes.", "He also dissected cadavers, making notes for a treatise on vocal cords; these he gave to an official in hopes of regaining the pope's favor, but was unsuccessful.In October 1515, King Francis I of France recaptured Milan.", "Leonardo was present at the 19 December meeting of Francis I and Leo X, which took place in Bologna.", "In 1516, Leonardo entered Francis' service, being given the use of the manor house Clos Lucé, near the king's residence at the royal Château d'Amboise.", "Being frequently visited by Francis, he drew plans for an immense castle town the king intended to erect at Romorantin, and made a mechanical lion, which during a pageant walked toward the king and upon being struck by a wand opened its chest to reveal a cluster of lilies.", "Leonardo was accompanied during this time by his friend and apprentice Francesco Melzi, and supported by a pension totalling 10,000 scudi.", "At some point, Melzi drew a portrait of Leonardo; the only others known from his lifetime were a sketch by an unknown assistant on the back of one of Leonardo's studies () and a drawing by Giovanni Ambrogio Figino depicting an elderly Leonardo with his right arm wrapped in clothing.", "The latter, in addition to the record of an October 1517 visit by Louis d'Aragon, confirms an account of Leonardo's right hand being paralytic when he was 65, which may indicate why he left works such as the ''Mona Lisa'' unfinished.", "He continued to work at some capacity until eventually becoming ill and bedridden for several months.==== Death ====Leonardo died at Clos Lucé on 2 May 1519 at the age of 67, possibly of a stroke.", "Francis I had become a close friend.", "Vasari describes Leonardo as lamenting on his deathbed, full of repentance, that \"he had offended against God and men by failing to practice his art as he should have done.\"", "Vasari states that in his last days, Leonardo sent for a priest to make his confession and to receive the Holy Sacrament.", "Vasari also records that the king held Leonardo's head in his arms as he died, although this story may be legend rather than fact.", "In accordance with his will, sixty beggars carrying tapers followed Leonardo's casket.", "Melzi was the principal heir and executor, receiving, as well as money, Leonardo's paintings, tools, library and personal effects.", "Leonardo's other long-time pupil and companion, Salaì, and his servant Baptista de Vilanis, each received half of Leonardo's vineyards.", "His brothers received land, and his serving woman received a fur-lined cloak.", "On 12 August 1519, Leonardo's remains were interred in the Collegiate Church of Saint Florentin at the Château d'Amboise.", "Some 20 years after Leonardo's death, Francis was reported by the goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini as saying: \"There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great philosopher.", "\"Drawing of the Château d'Amboise () attributed to Francesco MelziSalaì, or Il Salaino (\"The Little Unclean One\", i.e., the devil), entered Leonardo's household in 1490 as an assistant.", "After only a year, Leonardo made a list of his misdemeanours, calling him \"a thief, a liar, stubborn, and a glutton,\" after he had made off with money and valuables on at least five occasions and spent a fortune on clothes.", "Nevertheless, Leonardo treated him with great indulgence, and he remained in Leonardo's household for the next thirty years.", "Salaì executed a number of paintings under the name of Andrea Salaì, but although Vasari claims that Leonardo \"taught him many things about painting,\" his work is generally considered to be of less artistic merit than others among Leonardo's pupils, such as Marco d'Oggiono and Boltraffio.At the time of his death in 1524, Salaì owned a painting referred to as ''Joconda'' in a posthumous inventory of his belongings; it was assessed at 505 lire, an exceptionally high valuation for a small panel portrait." ], [ "Personal life", "Saint John the Baptist'' , Louvre.", "Leonardo is thought to have used Salaì as the model.Despite the thousands of pages Leonardo left in notebooks and manuscripts, he scarcely made reference to his personal life.Within Leonardo's lifetime, his extraordinary powers of invention, his \"great physical beauty\" and \"infinite grace,\" as described by Vasari, as well as all other aspects of his life, attracted the curiosity of others.", "One such aspect was his love for animals, likely including vegetarianism and according to Vasari, a habit of purchasing caged birds and releasing them.Leonardo had many friends who are now notable either in their fields or for their historical significance, including mathematician Luca Pacioli, with whom he collaborated on the book ''Divina proportione'' in the 1490s.", "Leonardo appears to have had no close relationships with women except for his friendship with Cecilia Gallerani and the two Este sisters, Beatrice and Isabella.", "While on a journey that took him through Mantua, he drew a portrait of Isabella that appears to have been used to create a painted portrait, now lost.Beyond friendship, Leonardo kept his private life secret.", "His sexuality has been the subject of satire, analysis, and speculation.", "This trend began in the mid-16th century and was revived in the 19th and 20th centuries, most notably by Sigmund Freud in his ''Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood''.", "Leonardo's most intimate relationships were perhaps with his pupils Salaì and Melzi.", "Melzi, writing to inform Leonardo's brothers of his death, described Leonardo's feelings for his pupils as both loving and passionate.", "It has been claimed since the 16th century that these relationships were of a sexual or erotic nature.", "Walter Isaacson in his biography of Leonardo makes explicit his opinion that the relations with Salaì were intimate and homosexual.Earlier in Leonardo's life, court records of 1476, when he was aged twenty-four, show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy in an incident involving a known male prostitute.", "The charges were dismissed for lack of evidence, and there is speculation that since one of the accused, Lionardo de Tornabuoni, was related to Lorenzo de' Medici, the family exerted its influence to secure the dismissal.", "Since that date much has been written about his presumed homosexuality and its role in his art, particularly in the androgyny and eroticism manifested in ''Saint John the Baptist'' and ''Bacchus'' and more explicitly in a number of erotic drawings." ], [ "Paintings", "Despite the recent awareness and admiration of Leonardo as a scientist and inventor, for the better part of four hundred years his fame rested on his achievements as a painter.", "A handful of works that are either authenticated or attributed to him have been regarded as among the great masterpieces.", "These paintings are famous for a variety of qualities that have been much imitated by students and discussed at great length by connoisseurs and critics.", "By the 1490s Leonardo had already been described as a \"Divine\" painter.Among the qualities that make Leonardo's work unique are his innovative techniques for laying on the paint; his detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, botany and geology; his interest in physiognomy and the way humans register emotion in expression and gesture; his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition; and his use of subtle gradation of tone.", "All these qualities come together in his most famous painted works, the ''Mona Lisa'', the ''Last Supper'', and the ''Virgin of the Rocks''.=== Early works ===Annunciation'' , Uffizi, is thought to be Leonardo's earliest extant and complete major work.Leonardo first gained attention for his work on the ''Baptism of Christ'', painted in conjunction with Verrocchio.", "Two other paintings appear to date from his time at Verrocchio's workshop, both of which are Annunciations.", "One is small, long and high.", "It is a \"predella\" to go at the base of a larger composition, a painting by Lorenzo di Credi from which it has become separated.", "The other is a much larger work, long.", "In both Annunciations, Leonardo used a formal arrangement, like two well-known pictures by Fra Angelico of the same subject, of the Virgin Mary sitting or kneeling to the right of the picture, approached from the left by an angel in profile, with a rich flowing garment, raised wings and bearing a lily.", "Although previously attributed to Ghirlandaio, the larger work is now generally attributed to Leonardo.In the smaller painting, Mary averts her eyes and folds her hands in a gesture that symbolised submission to God's will.", "Mary is not submissive, however, in the larger piece.", "The girl, interrupted in her reading by this unexpected messenger, puts a finger in her bible to mark the place and raises her hand in a formal gesture of greeting or surprise.", "This calm young woman appears to accept her role as the Mother of God, not with resignation but with confidence.", "In this painting, the young Leonardo presents the humanist face of the Virgin Mary, recognising humanity's role in God's incarnation.=== Paintings of the 1480s ===Saint Jerome in the Wilderness'' (unfinished) , VaticanIn the 1480s, Leonardo received two very important commissions and commenced another work that was of ground-breaking importance in terms of composition.", "Two of the three were never finished, and the third took so long that it was subject to lengthy negotiations over completion and payment.One of these paintings was ''Saint Jerome in the Wilderness'', which Bortolon associates with a difficult period of Leonardo's life, as evidenced in his diary: \"I thought I was learning to live; I was only learning to die.\"", "Although the painting is barely begun, the composition can be seen and is very unusual.", "Jerome, as a penitent, occupies the middle of the picture, set on a slight diagonal and viewed somewhat from above.", "His kneeling form takes on a trapezoid shape, with one arm stretched to the outer edge of the painting and his gaze looking in the opposite direction.", "J. Wasserman points out the link between this painting and Leonardo's anatomical studies.", "Across the foreground sprawls his symbol, a great lion whose body and tail make a double spiral across the base of the picture space.", "The other remarkable feature is the sketchy landscape of craggy rocks against which the figure is silhouetted.The daring display of figure composition, the landscape elements and personal drama also appear in the great unfinished masterpiece, the ''Adoration of the Magi'', a commission from the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto.", "It is a complex composition, of about Leonardo did numerous drawings and preparatory studies, including a detailed one in linear perspective of the ruined classical architecture that forms part of the background.", "In 1482 Leonardo went to Milan at the behest of Lorenzo de' Medici in order to win favour with Ludovico il Moro, and the painting was abandoned.", "''Lady with an Ermine'', , Czartoryski Museum, Kraków, PolandThe third important work of this period is the ''Virgin of the Rocks'', commissioned in Milan for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception.", "The painting, to be done with the assistance of the de Predis brothers, was to fill a large complex altarpiece.", "Leonardo chose to paint an apocryphal moment of the infancy of Christ when the infant John the Baptist, in protection of an angel, met the Holy Family on the road to Egypt.", "The painting demonstrates an eerie beauty as the graceful figures kneel in adoration around the infant Christ in a wild landscape of tumbling rock and whirling water.", "While the painting is quite large, about , it is not nearly as complex as the painting ordered by the monks of San Donato, having only four figures rather than about fifty and a rocky landscape rather than architectural details.", "The painting was eventually finished; in fact, two versions of the painting were finished: one remained at the chapel of the Confraternity, while Leonardo took the other to France.", "The Brothers did not get their painting, however, nor the de Predis their payment, until the next century.Leonardo's most remarkable portrait of this period is the ''Lady with an Ermine'', presumed to be Cecilia Gallerani (), lover of Ludovico Sforza.", "The painting is characterised by the pose of the figure with the head turned at a very different angle to the torso, unusual at a date when many portraits were still rigidly in profile.", "The ermine plainly carries symbolic meaning, relating either to the sitter, or to Ludovico who belonged to the prestigious Order of the Ermine.=== Paintings of the 1490s ===The Last Supper'', Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan ()Leonardo's most famous painting of the 1490s is ''The Last Supper'', commissioned for the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan.", "It represents the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his capture and death, and shows the moment when Jesus has just said \"one of you will betray me\", and the consternation that this statement caused.The writer Matteo Bandello observed Leonardo at work and wrote that some days he would paint from dawn till dusk without stopping to eat and then not paint for three or four days at a time.", "This was beyond the comprehension of the prior of the convent, who hounded him until Leonardo asked Ludovico to intervene.", "Vasari describes how Leonardo, troubled over his ability to adequately depict the faces of Christ and the traitor Judas, told the duke that he might be obliged to use the prior as his model.The painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design and characterization, but it deteriorated rapidly, so that within a hundred years it was described by one viewer as \"completely ruined.\"", "Leonardo, instead of using the reliable technique of fresco, had used tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso, resulting in a surface subject to mould and to flaking.", "Despite this, the painting remains one of the most reproduced works of art; countless copies have been made in various mediums.Toward the end of this period, in 1498 Leonardo's trompe-l'œil decoration of the Sala delle Asse was painted for the Duke of Milan in the Castello Sforzesco.=== Paintings of the 1500s ===In 1505, Leonardo was commissioned to paint ''The Battle of Anghiari'' in the Salone dei Cinquecento (Hall of the Five Hundred) in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence.", "Leonardo devised a dynamic composition depicting four men riding raging war horses engaged in a battle for possession of a standard, at the Battle of Anghiari in 1440.Michelangelo was assigned the opposite wall to depict the Battle of Cascina.", "Leonardo's painting deteriorated rapidly and is now known from a copy by Rubens.", "''Mona Lisa'' or ''La Gioconda'' , Louvre, ParisAmong the works created by Leonardo in the 16th century is the small portrait known as the ''Mona Lisa'' or ''La Gioconda'', the laughing one.", "In the present era, it is arguably the most famous painting in the world.", "Its fame rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman's face, its mysterious quality perhaps due to the subtly shadowed corners of the mouth and eyes such that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined.", "The shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called \"sfumato\", or Leonardo's smoke.", "Vasari wrote that the smile was \"so pleasing that it seems more divine than human, and it was considered a wondrous thing that it was as lively as the smile of the living original.", "\"Other characteristics of the painting are the unadorned dress, in which the eyes and hands have no competition from other details; the dramatic landscape background, in which the world seems to be in a state of flux; the subdued colouring; and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique, employing oils laid on much like tempera, and blended on the surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable.", "Vasari expressed that the painting's quality would make even \"the most confident master ... despair and lose heart.\"", "The perfect state of preservation and the fact that there is no sign of repair or overpainting is rare in a panel painting of this date.In the painting ''Virgin and Child with Saint Anne'', the composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape, which Wasserman describes as \"breathtakingly beautiful\" and harkens back to the ''Saint Jerome'' with the figure set at an oblique angle.", "What makes this painting unusual is that there are two obliquely set figures superimposed.", "Mary is seated on the knee of her mother, Saint Anne.", "She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice.", "This painting, which was copied many times, influenced Michelangelo, Raphael, and Andrea del Sarto, and through them Pontormo and Correggio.", "The trends in composition were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese." ], [ "Drawings", "self-portrait of Leonardo () at the Royal Library of Turin, ItalyLeonardo was a prolific draughtsman, keeping journals full of small sketches and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that took his attention.", "As well as the journals there exist many studies for paintings, some of which can be identified as preparatory to particular works such as ''The Adoration of the Magi'', ''The Virgin of the Rocks'' and ''The Last Supper''.", "His earliest dated drawing is a ''Landscape of the Arno Valley'', 1473, which shows the river, the mountains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail.Among his famous drawings are the ''Vitruvian Man'', a study of the proportions of the human body; the ''Head of an Angel'', for ''The Virgin of the Rocks'' in the Louvre; a botanical study of ''Star of Bethlehem''; and a large drawing (160×100 cm) in black chalk on coloured paper of ''The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne and Saint John the Baptist'' in the National Gallery, London.", "This drawing employs the subtle ''sfumato'' technique of shading, in the manner of the ''Mona Lisa''.", "It is thought that Leonardo never made a painting from it, the closest similarity being to ''The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne'' in the Louvre.", "''Antique warrior in profile'', .", "British Museum, LondonOther drawings of interest include numerous studies generally referred to as \"caricatures\" because, although exaggerated, they appear to be based upon observation of live models.", "Vasari relates that Leonardo would look for interesting faces in public to use as models for some of his work.", "There are numerous studies of beautiful young men, often associated with Salaì, with the rare and much admired facial feature, the so-called \"Grecian profile\".", "These faces are often contrasted with that of a warrior.", "Salaì is often depicted in fancy-dress costume.", "Leonardo is known to have designed sets for pageants with which these may be associated.", "Other, often meticulous, drawings show studies of drapery.", "A marked development in Leonardo's ability to draw drapery occurred in his early works.", "Another often-reproduced drawing is a macabre sketch that was done by Leonardo in Florence in 1479 showing the body of Bernardo Baroncelli, hanged in connection with the murder of Giuliano, brother of Lorenzo de' Medici, in the Pazzi conspiracy.", "In his notes, Leonardo recorded the colours of the robes that Baroncelli was wearing when he died.Like the two contemporary architects Donato Bramante (who designed the Belvedere Courtyard) and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder, Leonardo experimented with designs for centrally planned churches, a number of which appear in his journals, as both plans and views, although none was ever realised." ], [ "Journals and notes", "Renaissance humanism recognised no mutually exclusive polarities between the sciences and the arts, and Leonardo's studies in science and engineering are sometimes considered as impressive and innovative as his artistic work.", "These studies were recorded in 13,000 pages of notes and drawings, which fuse art and natural philosophy (the forerunner of modern science).", "They were made and maintained daily throughout Leonardo's life and travels, as he made continual observations of the world around him.", "Leonardo's notes and drawings display an enormous range of interests and preoccupations, some as mundane as lists of groceries and people who owed him money and some as intriguing as designs for wings and shoes for walking on water.", "There are compositions for paintings, studies of details and drapery, studies of faces and emotions, of animals, babies, dissections, plant studies, rock formations, whirlpools, war machines, flying machines and architecture.Leonardo's study of a foetus in the womb (), Royal Library, Windsor CastleThese notebooks originally loose papers of different types and sizes were largely entrusted to Leonardo's pupil and heir Francesco Melzi after the master's death.", "These were to be published, a task of overwhelming difficulty because of its scope and Leonardo's idiosyncratic writing.", "Some of Leonardo's drawings were copied by an anonymous Milanese artist for a planned treatise on art .", "After Melzi's death in 1570, the collection passed to his son, the lawyer Orazio, who initially took little interest in the journals.", "In 1587, a Melzi household tutor named Lelio Gavardi took 13 of the manuscripts to Pisa; there, the architect Giovanni Magenta reproached Gavardi for having taken the manuscripts illicitly and returned them to Orazio.", "Having many more such works in his possession, Orazio gifted the volumes to Magenta.", "News spread of these lost works of Leonardo's, and Orazio retrieved seven of the 13 manuscripts, which he then gave to Pompeo Leoni for publication in two volumes; one of these was the Codex Atlanticus.", "The other six works had been distributed to a few others.", "After Orazio's death, his heirs sold the rest of Leonardo's possessions, and thus began their dispersal.Some works have found their way into major collections such as the Royal Library at Windsor Castle, the Louvre, the , the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, which holds the 12-volume Codex Atlanticus, and the British Library in London, which has put a selection from the Codex Arundel (BL Arundel MS 263) online.", "Works have also been at Holkham Hall, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and in the private hands of John Nicholas Brown I and Robert Lehman.", "The Codex Leicester is the only privately owned major scientific work of Leonardo; it is owned by Bill Gates and displayed once a year in different cities around the world.Most of Leonardo's writings are in mirror-image cursive.", "Since Leonardo wrote with his left hand, it was probably easier for him to write from right to left.", "Leonardo used a variety of shorthand and symbols, and states in his notes that he intended to prepare them for publication.", "In many cases a single topic is covered in detail in both words and pictures on a single sheet, together conveying information that would not be lost if the pages were published out of order.", "Why they were not published during Leonardo's lifetime is unknown." ], [ "Science and inventions", "Rhombicuboctahedron as published in Pacioli's ''Divina proportione'' (1509)Leonardo's approach to science was observational: he tried to understand a phenomenon by describing and depicting it in utmost detail and did not emphasise experiments or theoretical explanation.", "Since he lacked formal education in Latin and mathematics, contemporary scholars mostly ignored Leonardo the scientist, although he did teach himself Latin.", "His keen observations in many areas were noted, such as when he wrote \"Il sole non si move.\"", "(\"The Sun does not move.", "\")In the 1490s he studied mathematics under Luca Pacioli and prepared a series of drawings of regular solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as plates for Pacioli's book ''Divina proportione'', published in 1509.While living in Milan, he studied light from the summit of Monte Rosa.", "Scientific writings in his notebook on fossils have been considered as influential on early palaeontology.The content of his journals suggest that he was planning a series of treatises on a variety of subjects.", "A coherent treatise on anatomy is said to have been observed during a visit by Cardinal Louis d'Aragon's secretary in 1517.Aspects of his work on the studies of anatomy, light and the landscape were assembled for publication by Melzi and eventually published as ''A Treatise on Painting'' in France and Italy in 1651 and Germany in 1724, with engravings based upon drawings by the Classical painter Nicolas Poussin.", "According to Arasse, the treatise, which in France went into 62 editions in fifty years, caused Leonardo to be seen as \"the precursor of French academic thought on art.", "\"While Leonardo's experimentation followed scientific methods, a recent and exhaustive analysis of Leonardo as a scientist by Fritjof Capra argues that Leonardo was a fundamentally different kind of scientist from Galileo, Newton and other scientists who followed him in that, as a \"Renaissance Man\", his theorising and hypothesising integrated the arts and particularly painting.=== Anatomy and physiology ===Leonardo started his study in the anatomy of the human body under the apprenticeship of Verrocchio, who demanded that his students develop a deep knowledge of the subject.", "As an artist, he quickly became master of ''topographic anatomy'', drawing many studies of muscles, tendons and other visible anatomical features.As a successful artist, Leonardo was given permission to dissect human corpses at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence and later at hospitals in Milan and Rome.", "From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his studies with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre, professor of Anatomy at the University of Pavia.", "Leonardo made over 240 detailed drawings and wrote about 13,000 words toward a treatise on anatomy.", "Only a small amount of the material on anatomy was published in Leonardo's ''Treatise on painting''.", "During the time that Melzi was ordering the material into chapters for publication, they were examined by a number of anatomists and artists, including Vasari, Cellini and Albrecht Dürer, who made a number of drawings from them.Leonardo's anatomical drawings include many studies of the human skeleton and its parts, and of muscles and sinews.", "He studied the mechanical functions of the skeleton and the muscular forces that are applied to it in a manner that prefigured the modern science of biomechanics.", "He drew the heart and vascular system, the sex organs and other internal organs, making one of the first scientific drawings of a fetus ''in utero''.", "The drawings and notation are far ahead of their time, and if published would undoubtedly have made a major contribution to medical science.Leonardo also closely observed and recorded the effects of age and of human emotion on the physiology, studying in particular the effects of rage.", "He drew many figures who had significant facial deformities or signs of illness.", "Leonardo also studied and drew the anatomy of many animals, dissecting cows, birds, monkeys, bears, and frogs, and comparing in his drawings their anatomical structure with that of humans.", "He also made a number of studies of horses.Leonardo's dissections and documentation of muscles, nerves, and vessels helped to describe the physiology and mechanics of movement.", "He attempted to identify the source of 'emotions' and their expression.", "He found it difficult to incorporate the prevailing system and theories of bodily humours, but eventually he abandoned these physiological explanations of bodily functions.", "He made the observations that humours were not located in cerebral spaces or ventricles.", "He documented that the humours were not contained in the heart or the liver, and that it was the heart that defined the circulatory system.", "He was the first to define atherosclerosis and liver cirrhosis.", "He created models of the cerebral ventricles with the use of melted wax and constructed a glass aorta to observe the circulation of blood through the aortic valve by using water and grass seed to watch flow patterns.=== Engineering and inventions ===During his lifetime, Leonardo was also valued as an engineer.", "With the same rational and analytical approach that moved him to represent the human body and to investigate anatomy, Leonardo studied and designed many machines and devices.", "He drew their \"anatomy\" with unparalleled mastery, producing the first form of the modern technical drawing, including a perfected \"exploded view\" technique, to represent internal components.", "Those studies and projects collected in his codices fill more than 5,000 pages.", "In a letter of 1482 to the lord of Milan Ludovico il Moro, he wrote that he could create all sorts of machines both for the protection of a city and for siege.", "When he fled from Milan to Venice in 1499, he found employment as an engineer and devised a system of moveable barricades to protect the city from attack.", "In 1502, he created a scheme for diverting the flow of the Arno river, a project on which Niccolò Machiavelli also worked.", "He continued to contemplate the canalization of Lombardy's plains while in Louis XII's company and of the Loire and its tributaries in the company of Francis I. Leonardo's journals include a vast number of inventions, both practical and impractical.", "They include musical instruments, a mechanical knight, hydraulic pumps, reversible crank mechanisms, finned mortar shells, and a steam cannon.fighting vehicleLeonardo was fascinated by the phenomenon of flight for much of his life, producing many studies, including ''Codex on the Flight of Birds'' (), as well as plans for several flying machines, such as a flapping ornithopter and a machine with a helical rotor.", "In a 2003 documentary by British television station Channel Four, titled ''Leonardo's Dream Machines'', various designs by Leonardo, such as a parachute and a giant crossbow, were interpreted and constructed.", "Some of those designs proved successful, whilst others fared less well when tested.", "Similarly, a team of engineers built ten machines designed by Leonardo in the 2009 American television series ''Doing DaVinci'', including a fighting vehicle and a self-propelled cart.Research performed by Marc van den Broek revealed older prototypes for more than 100 inventions that are ascribed to Leonardo.", "Similarities between Leonardo's illustrations and drawings from the Middle Ages and from Ancient Greece and Rome, the Chinese and Persian Empires, and Egypt suggest that a large portion of Leonardo's inventions had been conceived before his lifetime.", "Leonardo's innovation was to combine different functions from existing drafts and set them into scenes that illustrated their utility.", "By reconstituting technical inventions he created something new.In his notebooks, Leonardo first stated the 'laws' of sliding friction in 1493.His inspiration for investigating friction came about in part from his study of perpetual motion, which he correctly concluded was not possible.", "His results were never published and the friction laws were not rediscovered until 1699 by Guillaume Amontons, with whose name they are now usually associated.", "For this contribution, Leonardo was named as the first of the 23 \"Men of Tribology\" by Duncan Dowson." ], [ "Legacy", "Statue outside the Uffizi, Florence, by Luigi Pampaloni (1791–1847)\|alt=Although he had no formal academic training, many historians and scholars regard Leonardo as the prime exemplar of the \"Universal Genius\" or \"Renaissance Man\", an individual of \"unquenchable curiosity\" and \"feverishly inventive imagination.\"", "He is widely considered one of the most diversely talented individuals ever to have lived.", "According to art historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent in recorded history, and \"his mind and personality seem to us superhuman, while the man himself mysterious and remote.\"", "Scholars interpret his view of the world as being based in logic, though the empirical methods he used were unorthodox for his time.Leonardo's fame within his own lifetime was such that the King of France carried him away like a trophy, and was claimed to have supported him in his old age and held him in his arms as he died.", "Interest in Leonardo and his work has never diminished.", "Crowds still queue to see his best-known artworks, T-shirts still bear his most famous drawing, and writers continue to hail him as a genius while speculating about his private life, as well as about what one so intelligent actually believed in.The continued admiration that Leonardo commanded from painters, critics and historians is reflected in many other written tributes.", "Baldassare Castiglione, author of ''Il Cortegiano'' (''The Courtier''), wrote in 1528: \"...Another of the greatest painters in this world looks down on this art in which he is unequalled...\" while the biographer known as \"Anonimo Gaddiano\" wrote, : \"His genius was so rare and universal that it can be said that nature worked a miracle on his behalf...\" Vasari, in his ''Lives of the Artists'' (1568), opens his chapter on Leonardo:In the normal course of events many men and women are born with remarkable talents; but occasionally, in a way that transcends nature, a single person is marvellously endowed by Heaven with beauty, grace and talent in such abundance that he leaves other men far behind, all his actions seem inspired and indeed everything he does clearly comes from God rather than from human skill.", "Everyone acknowledged that this was true of Leonardo da Vinci, an artist of outstanding physical beauty, who displayed infinite grace in everything that he did and who cultivated his genius so brilliantly that all problems he studied he solved with ease.", "''The Death of Leonardo da Vinci'', by Ingres, 1818\|alt=The 19th century brought a particular admiration for Leonardo's genius, causing Henry Fuseli to write in 1801: \"Such was the dawn of modern art, when Leonardo da Vinci broke forth with a splendour that distanced former excellence: made up of all the elements that constitute the essence of genius...\" This is echoed by A.E.", "Rio who wrote in 1861: \"He towered above all other artists through the strength and the nobility of his talents.", "\"By the 19th century, the scope of Leonardo's notebooks was known, as well as his paintings.", "Hippolyte Taine wrote in 1866: \"There may not be in the world an example of another genius so universal, so incapable of fulfilment, so full of yearning for the infinite, so naturally refined, so far ahead of his own century and the following centuries.\"", "Art historian Bernard Berenson wrote in 1896: The interest in Leonardo's genius has continued unabated; experts study and translate his writings, analyse his paintings using scientific techniques, argue over attributions and search for works which have been recorded but never found.", "Liana Bortolon, writing in 1967, said: The Elmer Belt Library of Vinciana is a special collection at the University of California, Los Angeles.Leonardo Museum in Vinci, which houses a large collection of models constructed on the basis of Leonardo's drawings\|alt=Twenty-first-century author Walter Isaacson based much of his biography of Leonardo on thousands of notebook entries, studying the personal notes, sketches, budget notations, and musings of the man whom he considers the greatest of innovators.", "Isaacson was surprised to discover a \"fun, joyous\" side of Leonardo in addition to his limitless curiosity and creative genius.On the 500th anniversary of Leonardo's death, the Louvre in Paris arranged for the largest ever single exhibit of his work, called ''Leonardo'', between November 2019 and February 2020.The exhibit includes over 100 paintings, drawings and notebooks.", "Eleven of the paintings that Leonardo completed in his lifetime were included.", "Five of these are owned by the Louvre, but the ''Mona Lisa'' was not included because it is in such great demand among general visitors to the Louvre; it remains on display in its gallery.", "''Vitruvian Man'', however, is on display following a legal battle with its owner, the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Venice.", "''Salvator Mundi'' was also not included because its Saudi owner did not agree to lease the work.The ''Mona Lisa'', considered Leonardo's magnum opus, is often regarded as the most famous portrait ever made.", "''The Last Supper'' is the most reproduced religious painting of all time, and Leonardo's ''Vitruvian Man'' drawing is also considered a cultural icon.More than a decade of analysis of Leonardo's genetic genealogy, conducted by Alessandro Vezzosi and Agnese Sabato, came to a conclusion in mid-2021.It was determined that the artist has 14 living male relatives.", "The work could also help determine the authenticity of remains thought to belong to Leonardo." ], [ "Location of remains", "Tomb in the chapel of Saint Hubert at the Château d'Amboise where a plaque describes it as the presumed site of Leonardo's remainsWhile Leonardo was certainly buried in the collegiate church of Saint Florentin at the Château d'Amboise in 12 August 1519, the current location of his remains is unclear.", "Much of Château d'Amboise was damaged during the French Revolution, leading to the church's demolition in 1802.Some of the graves were destroyed in the process, scattering the bones interred there and thereby leaving the whereabouts of Leonardo's remains subject to dispute; a gardener may have even buried some in the corner of the courtyard.In 1863, fine-arts inspector general Arsène Houssaye received an imperial commission to excavate the site and discovered a partially complete skeleton with a bronze ring on one finger, white hair, and stone fragments bearing the inscriptions \"EO\", \"AR\", \"DUS\", and \"VINC\" interpreted as forming \"Leonardus Vinci\".", "The skull's eight teeth corresponds to someone with approximately the same age and a silver shield found near the bones depicts a beardless Francis I, corresponding to the king's appearance during Leonardo's time in France.Houssaye postulated that the unusually large skull was an indicator of Leonardo's intelligence; author Charles Nicholl describes this as a \"dubious phrenological deduction\".", "At the same time, Houssaye noted some issues with his observations, including that the feet were turned toward the high altar, a practice generally reserved for laymen, and that the skeleton of seemed too short.", "Art historian Mary Margaret Heaton wrote in 1874 that the height would be appropriate for Leonardo.", "The skull was allegedly presented to Napoleon III before being returned to the Château d'Amboise, where they were in the chapel of Saint Hubert in 1874.A plaque above the tomb states that its contents are only presumed to be those of Leonardo.It has since been theorized that the folding of the skeleton's right arm over the head may correspond to the paralysis of Leonardo's right hand.", "In 2016, it was announced that DNA tests would be conducted to determine whether the attribution is correct.", "The DNA of the remains will be compared to that of samples collected from Leonardo's work and his half-brother Domenico's descendants; it may also be sequenced.In 2019, documents were published revealing that Houssaye had kept the ring and a lock of hair.", "In 1925, his great-grandson sold these to an American collector.", "Sixty years later, another American acquired them, leading to their being displayed at the Leonardo Museum in Vinci beginning on 2 May 2019, the 500th anniversary of the artist's death." ], [ "Notes", "'''General''''''Dates of works'''" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ==='''Early''''''Modern'''=== Works cited ======= Early ====* in * in * * ==== Modern ===='''Books'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * volume 2: .", "A reprint of the original 1883 edition* * * * * * * * * '''Journals and encyclopedia articles'''* * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "See and for extensive bibliographies * * " ], [ "External links", "'''General''' Universal Leonardo, a database of Leonardo's life and works maintained by Martin Kemp and Marina Wallace* Leonardo da Vinci on the National Gallery website'''Works'''* Biblioteca Leonardiana, online bibliography (in Italian)* e-Leo: Archivio digitale di storia della tecnica e della scienza, archive of drawings, notes and manuscripts* * * Complete text and images of Richter's translation of the Notebooks* The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lacrosse" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lacrosse''' is a contact team sport played with a lacrosse stick and a lacrosse ball.", "It is the oldest organized sport in North America, with its origins with the indigenous people of North America as early as the 12th century.", "The game was extensively modified by European colonists, reducing the violence, to create its current collegiate and professional form.Players use the head of the lacrosse stick to carry, pass, catch, and shoot the ball into the goal.", "The sport has five versions that have different sticks, fields, rules and equipment: field lacrosse, women's lacrosse, box lacrosse, lacrosse sixes and intercrosse.", "The men's games, field lacrosse (outdoor) and box lacrosse (indoor), are contact sports and all players wear protective gear: helmet, gloves, shoulder pads, and elbow pads.", "The women's game is played outdoors and does not allow body contact but does allow stick to stick contact.", "The only protective gear required for women players is eyegear, while goalies wear helmets and protective pads.", "Lacrosse sixes is played by both men and women on a smaller field, and is the most common version at multi-sport events.", "Intercrosse is a mixed-gender non-contact sport that uses an all-plastic stick and a softer ball.The modern sport is governed by World Lacrosse and is the only international sport organization to recognize First Nations bands and Native American tribes as sovereign nations.", "The organization hosts the World Lacrosse Championship for men, the Women's Lacrosse World Cup, the World Indoor Lacrosse Championship for box lacrosse, and the Under-19 World Lacrosse Championships for both men and women.", "Each is held every four years.", "Lacrosse at the Summer Olympics has been contested at two editions of the Summer Olympic Games, 1904 and 1908.It will be contested at the 2028 Olympic Games in the lacrosse sixes format.", "It was also held as a demonstration event at the 1928, 1932, and 1948 Summer Olympics." ], [ "History", "''Ball-play of the Choctaw – ball up'' by George Catlin, Lacrosse is based on games played by various Native American communities as early as 1100 AD.", "By the 17th century, a version of lacrosse was well-established and was documented by Jesuit missionary priests in the territory of present-day Canada.In the traditional aboriginal Canadian version, each team consisted of about 100 to 1,000 men on a field several miles/kilometers long.", "These games lasted from sunup to sundown for two to three days straight and were played as part of ceremonial ritual, a kind of symbolic warfare, or to give thanks to the Creator or Master.Lacrosse played a significant role in the community and religious life of tribes across the continent for many years.", "Early lacrosse was characterized by deep spiritual involvement, befitting the spirit of combat in which it was undertaken.", "Those who took part did so in the role of warriors, with the goal of bringing glory and honour to themselves and their tribes.", "The game was said to be played \"for the Creator\" or was referred to as \"The Creator's Game,\" and a version of the game was called \"baggataway.\"", "''Ball Players'' by George CatlinThe French Jesuit missionary saw Huron tribesmen play the game during 1637 in present-day Ontario.", "He called it , \"the stick\" in French.", "The name seems to be originated from the French term for field hockey, .James Smith described in some detail a game being played in 1757 by Mohawk people \"wherein now they used a wooden ball, about in diameter, and the instrument they moved it with was a strong staff about long, with a hoop net on the end of it, large enough to contain the ball.", "\"English-speaking people from Montreal noticed Mohawk people playing the game and started playing themselves in the 1830s.", "In 1856, William George Beers, a Canadian dentist, founded the Montreal Lacrosse Club.", "In 1860, Beers codified the game, shortening the length of each game and reducing the number of players to 12 per team.", "The first game played under Beers's rules was at Upper Canada College in 1867; they lost to the Toronto Cricket Club by a score of 3–1.The new sport proved to be very popular and spread across the English-speaking world; by 1900 there were dozens of men's clubs in Canada, the United States, England, Australia, and New Zealand.", "The women's game was introduced by Louisa Lumsden in Scotland in 1890.The first women's club in the United States was started by Rosabelle Sinclair at Bryn Mawr School in 1926.Richmond Hill \"Young Canadians\" lacrosse team, 1885In the United States, lacrosse during the late 1800s and first half of the 1900s was primarily a regional sport centered around the Mid-Atlantic states, especially New York and Maryland.", "However, in the last half of the 20th century, the sport spread outside this region, and can be currently found in most of the United States.", "According to a survey conducted by US Lacrosse in 2016, there are over 825,000 lacrosse participants nationwide and lacrosse is the fastest-growing team sport among NFHS member schools." ], [ "Versions of lacrosse", "===Field lacrosse===Diagram of a men's college lacrosse fieldField lacrosse is the men's outdoor version of the sport.", "There are ten players on each team: three attackmen, three midfielders, three defensemen, and one goalie.", "Each player carries a lacrosse stick.", "A short stick measures between long and is used by attackmen and midfielders.", "A maximum of four players on the field per team may carry a long stick which is between long and is used by the three defensemen and sometimes one defensive midfielder.", "The goalie uses a stick with a head as wide as that can be between long.The field of play is .", "The goals are and are apart.", "Each goal sits inside a circular \"crease\", measuring in diameter.", "The goalie has special privileges within the crease to avoid opponents' stick checks.", "Offensive players or their sticks may not enter into the crease at any time.", "The mid-field line separates the field into an offensive and defensive zone for each team.", "Each team must keep four players in its defensive zone and three players in its offensive zone at all times.", "It does not matter which positional players satisfy the requirement, although usually the three attackmen stay in the offensive zone, the three defensemen and the goalie stay in the defensive zone, and the three middies play in both zones.", "A team that violates this rule is offsides and either loses possession of the ball if they have it or incurs a technical foul if they do not.A face-offThe regulation playing time of a game is 60 minutes, divided into four periods of 15 minutes each.", "Play is started at the beginning of each quarter and after each goal with a face-off.", "During a face-off, two players lay their sticks on the ground parallel to the mid-line, the two heads of their sticks on opposite sides of the ball.", "At the whistle, the face-off-men scrap for the ball, often by \"clamping\" it under their stick and flicking it out to their teammates.", "When one of the teams has possession of the ball, they bring it into their offensive zone and try to score a goal.", "Due to the offsides rule, settled play involves six offensive players versus six defensive players and a goalie.If the ball goes out of bounds, possession is awarded against the team that touched it last.", "The exception is when the ball is shot towards the goal.", "Missed shots that go out of bounds are awarded to the team that has the player who is the closest to the ball when and where the ball goes out.", "During play, teams may substitute players in and out if they leave and enter the field through the substitution area, sometimes referred to as \"on the fly\".", "After penalties and goals, players may freely substitute and do not have to go through the substitution area.Penalties are awarded for rule violations and result in the offending team losing possession (loss of possession) or temporarily losing a player (time serving).", "During time serving penalties, the penalized team plays with one fewer player for the duration of the penalty.", "Time serving penalties are either releasable or non-releasable.", "When serving a releasable penalty, the offending player may re-enter play if a goal is scored by the opposing team during the duration of the penalty.", "Non-releasable penalties do not allow this and the player must serve the entire duration.", "In conjunction with the offsides rule, the opponent may play with six attackers versus the penalized team's five defenders and goalie.", "The team that has taken the penalty is said to be playing man down, while the other team is man up.", "Teams will use various lacrosse strategies to attack and defend while a player is being penalized.There are two classes of rule violations that result in penalties: technical fouls and personal fouls.", "Technical fouls, such as offsides, pushing, and holding, result in either a loss of possession or a 30-second penalty, depending on which team has the ball.", "Personal fouls, such as cross-checking, illegal body checking, or slashing, concern actions that endanger player safety.", "Cross-checking is when a player strikes another player with the shaft of the stick between his hands.", "A slash is when a player strikes another player with the end of the stick anywhere besides the gloves.", "These fouls draw 1-minute or longer penalties; the offending player must leave the field.===Box lacrosse===NLLBox lacrosse is played by teams of five runners plus a goalie on an ice hockey rink where the ice has been removed or covered by artificial turf, or in an indoor soccer field.", "The enclosed playing area is called a box, in contrast to the open playing field of the traditional game.", "This version of the game was introduced in Canada in the 1930s to promote business for hockey arenas outside of the ice hockey season.", "Within several years it had nearly supplanted field lacrosse in Canada.The goals in box lacrosse are smaller than field lacrosse, traditionally wide and tall.", "Also, the goaltender wears much more protective padding, including a massive chest protector and armguard combination known as \"uppers\", large shin guards known as leg pads (both of which must follow strict measurement guidelines), and ice hockey-style goalie masks.The style of the game is quick, accelerated by the close confines of the floor and a shot clock.", "The shot clock requires the attacking team to take a shot on goal within 30 seconds of gaining possession of the ball.", "Box lacrosse is also a much more physical game.", "Since cross checking is legal in box lacrosse, players wear rib pads and the shoulder and elbow pads are bigger and stronger than what field lacrosse players wear.", "Box lacrosse players wear a hockey helmet with a box lacrosse cage.", "There is no offsides in box lacrosse, the players substitute freely from their bench areas as in hockey.", "However, most players specialize in offense or defense, so usually all five runners substitute for teammates as their team transitions between offense and defense.For penalties, the offending player is sent to the penalty box and his team has to play without him, or man-down, for the length of the penalty.", "Most fouls are minor penalties and last for two minutes, major penalties for serious offenses last five minutes.", "What separates box lacrosse (and ice hockey) from other sports is that at the top levels of professional and junior lacrosse, participating in a fight does not automatically cause an ejection, but a five-minute major penalty is given.Box lacrosse is played at the highest level in the National Lacrosse League and by the Senior A divisions of the Canadian Lacrosse Association.", "The National Lacrosse League (NLL) employs some minor rule changes from the Canadian Lacrosse Association (CLA) rules.", "Notably, the goals are wide instead of and the games are played during the winter.", "The NLL games consist of four fifteen-minute quarters compared with three periods of twenty minutes each in CLA games.", "NLL players may only use sticks with hollow shafts, while CLA permits solid wooden sticks.===Women's lacrosse===2005 NCAA Division I Women's Lacrosse ChampionshipThe rules of women's lacrosse differ significantly from men's lacrosse, most notably by equipment and the degree of allowable physical contact.", "Women's lacrosse rules also differ significantly between the US and all other countries, who play by the Federation of International Lacrosse (FIL) rules.", "Women's lacrosse does not allow physical contact, the only protective equipment worn is a mouth guard and eye-guard.", "In the early part of the 21st century, there have been discussions of requiring headgear to prevent concussions.", "In 2008, Florida was the first state to mandate headgear in women's lacrosse.", "Stick checking is permitted in the women's game, but only in certain levels of play and within strict rules.", "Women's lacrosse also does not allow players to have a pocket, or loose net, on the lacrosse stick.", "Women start the game with a \"draw\" instead of a face-off.", "The two players stand up and the ball is placed between their stick heads while their sticks are horizontal at waist-height.", "At the whistle, the players lift their sticks into the air, trying to control where the ball goes.The first modern women's lacrosse game was held at St Leonards School in Scotland in 1890.It was introduced by the school's headmistress Louisa Lumsden after a visit to Quebec, where she saw it played.", "The first women's lacrosse team in the United States was established at Bryn Mawr School in Baltimore, Maryland in 1926.Women's lacrosse field diagramBoth the number of players and the lines on the field differ from men's lacrosse.", "There are 12 players in women's lacrosse and players must abide by certain boundaries that do not exist in men's play.", "The three specific boundaries are the \"fan\" in front of the goal ( internationally), the ( internationally) half circle that surrounds the 8-meter fan, and the draw circle in the center of the field, which is used for draws to start quarters and after goals.", "The goal circle is also positioned slightly closer to the end line in women's lacrosse compared to men's.", "In women's lacrosse on either the offensive or defensive end, the players besides the goaltender are not able to step inside the goal circle; this becomes a \"goal-circle violation\".", "However, at the women's collegiate level, a new rule has been established that allows defenders to pass through the goal circle.The 8-meter fan that is in front of the goal circle has a few restrictions in it.", "Defenders cannot stand inside the 8-meter fan longer than 3 seconds without being a stick-length away from the offensive player they are guarding.", "This is very similar to the three-second rule in basketball.", "A three seconds violation results in a player from the other team taking a free shot against the goalie.", "If you are an attacker trying to shoot the ball into the goal, you are not supposed to take a shot while a defender is in \"shooting space\".", "To make sure that you, the defender, are being safe, you want to lead with your lacrosse stick and once you are a sticks-length away, you can be in front of her.===Lacrosse sixes===Lacrosse sixes is a variant of lacrosse played outdoors with six players on each side.", "The game follows similar rules to traditional field lacrosse, with modifications and a shorter game time.", "It was created in 2021 by World Lacrosse in a bid to achieve lacrosse's participation in the Olympic Games, and will make its Olympic debut at the 2028 edition in Los Angeles.Lacrosse sixes has similar rules for men and women but preserves some differences, such as the amount of contact allowed.", "The major rule differences as compared to traditional field lacrosse are as follows:* The field of play is smaller, at 70 meters by 36 meters.", "* Face-offs only occur at the beginning of each quarter.", "Play is restarted after goals by the goalie taking the ball out of the net.", "* A 30-second shot clock is added.", "* Games are played in 4, 8-minute quarters.", "* Rosters consist of 12 players.", "* Everyone plays both offense and defense.", "* There are no long crosses.===Intercrosse===Intercrosse, or soft stick lacrosse, is a non-contact form of lacrosse with a standardized set of rules using modified lacrosse equipment.", "An intercrosse stick is different from a normal lacrosse stick, the head is made completely of plastic instead of leather or nylon pockets in traditional lacrosse sticks.", "The ball is larger, softer and hollow, unlike a lacrosse ball, which is solid rubber.Intercrosse as a competitive adult sport is popular in Quebec, Canada, as well as in many European countries, particularly in the Czech Republic.", "Generally, teams consist of five players per side, and the field size is wide and long.", "Goals for adults are the same size as box lacrosse, in height and width.", "The international governing body, the Fédération Internationale d'Inter-Crosse, hosts a World Championship bi-annually.Soft stick lacrosse is a popular way to introduce youth to the sport.", "It can be played outdoors or indoors and has a developed curriculum for physical education classes." ], [ "International lacrosse", "Lacrosse has historically been played for the most part in Canada and the United States, with small but dedicated lacrosse communities in the United Kingdom and Australia.", "Recently, however, lacrosse has begun to flourish at the international level, with teams being established around the world, particularly in Europe and East Asia.===World Lacrosse===In August 2008, the men's international governing body, the International Lacrosse Federation, merged with the women's, the International Federation of Women's Lacrosse Associations, to form the Federation of International Lacrosse (FIL).", "The FIL changed its name to World Lacrosse in May 2019.There are currently 62 member nations of World Lacrosse.===Tournaments===World Lacrosse sponsors five world championship tournaments: the World Lacrosse Championship for men's field, the Women's Lacrosse World Championship for women's, the World Indoor Lacrosse Championship for box lacrosse, as well as the Men's Under-20 World Lacrosse Championships and Women's Under-20 World Lacrosse Championships.", "Each is held every four years.", "Tournament Editions First (# teams) Most recent (# teams) Most golds (# golds) Most silvers (# silvers) World Lacrosse Championship 14 1967 (4) 2023 (30) United States (11) Canada (7) Women's Lacrosse World Championship 11 1982 (6) 2022 (30) United States (9) Australia (4)World Lacrosse Men's U20 Championship91988 (4)2022 (23)United States (9)Canada (7) World Lacrosse Women's U20 Championship 7 1995 (7) 2019 (22) United States (5) Australia (4) World Indoor Lacrosse Championship 5 2003 (6) 2019 (13) Canada (5) Haudenosaunee (5)The World Lacrosse Championship (WLC) began in 1968 as a four-team invitational tournament sponsored by the International Lacrosse Federation.", "Until 1990, only the United States, Canada, England, and Australia had entered.", "With the expansion of the game internationally, the 2014 World Lacrosse Championship was contested by 38 countries.", "The WLC has been dominated by the United States.", "Team USA has won 11 of the 14 titles, with Canada winning the other three.The Women's Lacrosse World Cup (WLWC) began in 1982.The United States has won 9 of the 11 titles, with Australia winning the other two.", "Canada and England have always finished in the top five.", "The 2017 tournament was held in England and featured 25 countries.The first World Indoor Lacrosse Championship (WILC) was held in 2003 and contested by six nations at four sites in Ontario.", "Canada won the championship by beating the Iroquois Nationals 21–4 in the final.", "The 2007 championship hosted by the Onondaga Nation included 13 teams.", "Canada has dominated the competition, winning all five gold medals and never losing a game.The Iroquois Nationals are the men's national team representing the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy in international field lacrosse competition.", "The team was admitted to the FIL in 1987.It is the only First Nations team sanctioned for international competition in any sport.", "The Nationals placed fourth in the 1998, 2002 and 2006 World Lacrosse Championships and third in 2014.The indoor team won the silver medal in all four World Indoor Lacrosse Championships.", "In 2008, the Iroquois women's team was admitted to the FIL as the Haudenosaunee Nationals.", "They placed 7th at the 2013 Women's Lacrosse World Cup.===Olympic Games===1904 Olympics Gold Medal winning ''Winnipeg Shamrocks'' lacrosse teamField lacrosse was a medal sport in the 1904 and the 1908 Summer Olympics.", "In 1904, three teams competed in the games held in St. Louis.", "Two Canadian teams, the Winnipeg Shamrocks and a team of Mohawk people from the Iroquois Confederacy, plus the local St. Louis Amateur Athletic Association team representing the United States participated.", "The Winnipeg Shamrocks captured the gold medal.", "The 1908 games held in London, England, featured only two teams, representing Canada and Great Britain.", "The Canadians again won the gold medal in a single championship match by a score of 14–10.In the 1928, 1932, and the 1948 Summer Olympics, lacrosse was a demonstration sport.", "The 1928 Olympics in Amsterdam featured three teams: the United States, Canada, and Great Britain.", "The 1932 games in Los Angeles featured a three-game exhibition between a Canadian all-star team and the United States.", "The United States was represented by Johns Hopkins in both the 1928 and 1932 Olympics.", "The 1948 games featured an exhibition by an \"All-England\" team organized by the English Lacrosse Union and the collegiate lacrosse team from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute representing the United States.", "This exhibition match ended in a 5–5 tie.Efforts were made to include lacrosse as an exhibition sport at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, and the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia, but they were not successful.An obstacle for lacrosse to return to the Olympics has been insufficient international participation.", "To be considered for the Olympics, a sport had to be played on four continents and by at least 75 countries.", "Lacrosse is played on all six continents, but as of August 2019 when Ghana joined, there are only 63 countries playing the sport.", "However, nowadays numeric criteria about widely practiced sports have been abolished.", "The International Olympic Committee granted provisional status to World Lacrosse in 2018.In August 2022, it was announced that nine sports had made the shortlist to be included in the games, among them lacrosse, with presentations expected to be made later that month.", "In October 2023, the LA28 Organizing Committee announced that it had recommended lacrosse as one of five sports that may be added to the program for the 2028 Summer Olympics.", "On October 16, 2023, lacrosse received approval from the International Olympic Committee for inclusion in the 2028 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.===Other=== A player taking a \"dive shot\"The European Lacrosse Federation (ELF) was established in 1995 and held the first European Lacrosse Championships that year.", "Originally an annual event, it is now held every four years, in between FIL's men's and women's championships.", "In 2004, 12 men's and 6 women's teams played in the tournament, making it the largest international lacrosse event of the year.", "The last men's tournament was in 2016, when 24 countries participated.", "England won its ninth gold medal out of the ten tournaments played.", "2015 was the last women's tournament, when 17 teams participated in the Czech Republic.", "England won its sixth gold medal, with Wales earning silver and Scotland bronze.", "These three countries from Great Britain have dominated the women's championships, earning all but three medals since the tournament began in 1996.There are currently 29 members of the ELF, they make up the majority of nations in the FIL.The Asia Pacific Lacrosse Union was founded in 2004 by Australia, Hong Kong, South Korea and Japan.", "It currently has 12 members and holds the Asia Pacific Championship for both men's and women's teams every two years.Lacrosse was played in the World Games for the first time at the 2017 World Games held in Poland.", "Only women's teams took part in the competition.", "The United States won the gold medal defeating Canada in the finals.", "Australia won the bronze medal match.", "The Haudenosaunee Nationals women's lacrosse team could not participate.Both men and women tournaments consisting of the 6v6 version played on smaller fields were held in the 2022 World Games in Birmingham, Alabama, USA." ], [ "Lacrosse in the United States", "===College lacrosse=======Men's college lacrosse====A men's college lacrosse match between the Allegheny Gators and Baldwin Wallace Yellow Jackets in 2020Collegiate lacrosse in the United States is played at the NCAA, NAIA and club levels.", "There are currently 71 NCAA Division I men's lacrosse teams, 93 Division II teams, and 236 Division III teams.", "Thirty-two schools participate at the NAIA level.", "184 men's club teams compete in the Men's Collegiate Lacrosse Association, including most universities and colleges outside the northeastern United States.", "The National College Lacrosse League and Great Lakes Lacrosse League are two other lower-division club leagues.", "In Canada, 14 teams from Ontario and Quebec play field lacrosse in the fall in the Canadian University Field Lacrosse Association.The first U. S. intercollegiate men's lacrosse game was played on November 22, 1877 between New York University and Manhattan College.", "An organizing body for the sport, the U. S. National Lacrosse Association, was founded in 1879 and the first intercollegiate lacrosse tournament was held in 1881, with Harvard beating Princeton 3–0 in the championship game.", "Annual post-season championships were awarded by a variety of early lacrosse associations through the 1930s.", "From 1936 to 1972, the United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association awarded the Wingate Memorial Trophy to the best college lacrosse team each year.The NCAA began sponsoring a men's lacrosse championship in 1971, when Cornell took the first title over Maryland, 12–6.Syracuse has 10 Division I titles, Johns Hopkins 9, and Princeton 6.The NCAA national championship weekend tournament draws over 80,000 fans.====Women's college lacrosse====There are currently 112 Division I women's lacrosse teams, 109 Division II teams, and 282 Division III teams.", "There are 36 NAIA women's lacrosse teams.", "The NCAA started sponsoring a women's lacrosse championship in 1982.Maryland has traditionally dominated women's intercollegiate play, producing many head coaches and U.S. national team players.", "The Terrapins won seven consecutive NCAA championships from 1995 through 2001.Princeton's women's teams have made it to the final game seven times since 1993 and have won three NCAA titles, in 1993, 2002, and 2003.In recent years, Northwestern has become a force, winning the national championship from 2005 through 2009.Maryland ended Northwestern's streak by defeating the Wildcats in the 2010 final, however, Northwestern won the next two titles in 2011 and 2012.Maryland again claimed the national championship in 2014, 2015, and 2017.The Women's Collegiate Lacrosse Associates (WCLA) is a collection of over 260 college club teams that are organized by US Lacrosse.", "Teams are organized into two divisions and various leagues.===Professional lacrosse======= Active leagues ========= National Lacrosse League =====The National Lacrosse League (NLL) is a men's semi-professional box lacrosse league in North America.", "The NLL currently has fifteen teams, ten in the United States and five in Canada.", "The 18-game regular season runs from December to April; games are always on the weekends.", "The champion is awarded the National Lacrosse League Cup in early June.Games are played in ice rinks with artificial turf covering the ice.", "Venues range from NHL arenas seating 19,000 to smaller arenas with under 10,000 capacity.", "In 2017, average attendance ranged from 3,200 per game in Vancouver to over 15,000 in Buffalo.", "Overall, the league averaged 9,500 people per game.With an average salary around $20,000 per season, players have regular jobs, mostly non-lacrosse related, and live in different cities, flying into town for games.", "Canadians and Native Americans make up over 90% of the players.The NLL started in 1987 as the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League.", "Teams in Philadelphia, New Jersey, Baltimore and Washington, DC, played a 6-game season.", "The league operated as the Major Indoor Lacrosse League from 1989 to 1997, when there were six teams playing a 10-game schedule.", "The current NLL name began in the 1998 season, which included the first Canadian team.The most successful franchises have been the Toronto Rock and the former Philadelphia Wings (now the Albany FireWolves), each has won six championships.===== Premier Lacrosse League =====In October 2018, former MLL player Paul Rabil branched away from the MLL and created the Premier Lacrosse League.", "The PLL focuses on being a traveling lacrosse league that will bring the best players in the world to different cities in the United States.Each player has a minimum salary of $25,000, equity in the league, and medical benefits.", "The average salary is $35,000.The most successful team is Whipsnakes Lacrosse Club which has two championships.Since its inaugural season in 2019, the PLL has expanded to eight teams and merged with the MLL.Beginning with the 2022 season, the PLL has had a broadcasting deal with ESPN.Prior to the 2023 season the PLL announced that they would be assigning home-cities to each team for the 2024 season.", "The touring model would not cease, however, with each team hosting one regular season weekend where they play a doubleheader.", "There will also be two neutral site weekends.==== Athletes Unlimited Lacrosse ====Athletes Unlimited Lacrosse is a women's lacrosse league that had its inaugural season in 2021.Rather than having set teams, at the end of each week, the top four players are determined by a point system and named captains of next week's teams.", "They then draft their team for the next week.", "The champion of the league is the player that scores the most points.", "There are 56 players in the league as of 2023.==== Defunct leagues ========= Major League Lacrosse =====Major League Lacrosse (MLL) was a semi-professional field lacrosse league started in 2001 with six teams in the Northeastern United States.", "The leagues final year had six teams, playing a week long round-robin regular season.", "MLL rules were based on NCAA men's rules with several exceptions, such as a 16-yard 2-point line and a 60-second shot clock.MLL venues ranged from small stadiums with under 10,000 capacity to an NFL stadium in Denver that seats 76,000.Overall league average attendance is around 4,000 per game, although the leagues Denver Outlaws had averaged around 10,000 per game since their founding in 2006.The rookie salary was $7,000 per season and most players made between $10,000 and $20,000 per season.", "Therefore, the players had other jobs, often non-lacrosse related, and travel to games on the weekends.The Chesapeake Bayhawks, who had played in the Annapolis–Baltimore–Washington, DC area since 2001, were the most successful franchise with six championships.On December 16, 2020, it was announced that the MLL was merging all operations with the Premier Lacrosse League.", "The PLL added the Boston Cannons and rebranded them to \"Cannons Lacrosse Club\".", "No other MLL teams were added into the PLL.===== United Women's Lacrosse League =====The United Women's Lacrosse League (UWLX), was a four-team women's lacrosse league, was launched in 2016.The teams are the Baltimore Ride, Boston Storm, Long Island Sound and Philadelphia Force.", "Long Island won the first two championships.", "The league closed in 2020.===== Women’s Professional Lacrosse League =====The Women's Professional Lacrosse League was a professional women's lacrosse league with 5 teams that started in 2018.It closed in 2020." ], [ "Equipment", "===Stick===Women's lacrosse stickThe lacrosse stick has two parts, the head and the shaft.", "There are three parts to the head: the scoop, sidewall, and pocket.", "The scoop is the top of the stick that affects picking up ground ball as well as passing and shooting.", "The sidewall is the side of the head that affects the depth of the head and the stiffness.", "The pocket is the leather or nylon mesh attached to the sidewall and scoop.", "A wider pocket allows an easier time catching balls, but will also cause less ball control.", "A narrower pocket makes catching harder, but allows more ball retention and accuracy.Shafts are usually made of hollow metal.", "They are octagonal, instead of round, in order to provide a better grip.", "Most are made of aluminum, titanium, scandium, or alloys, but some shafts are made from other materials, including wood, plastic, carbon fiber, or fiberglass.Stick length, both shaft and head together, is governed by NCAA regulations, which require that men's sticks be from long for offensive players, and long for defensemen, and long for goalies.Women's sticks must be an overall length of .", "The head must be seven to nine inches wide and the top of the ball must remain above the side walls when dropped in the pocket.", "The goalkeeper's stick must be long.", "The head of the goalie's stick can up to wide and the pocket may be mesh.===Ball===The ball is made of solid rubber.", "It is typically white for men's lacrosse, or yellow for women's lacrosse; but is also produced in a wide variety of colors, such as yellow, orange or lime green according to the Men's Lacrosse Rules and Interpretations.===Men's field protective equipment===Men's field lacrosse protective equipment contains a pair of gloves, elbow pads, shoulder pads, helmet, mouthguard, and cleats.", "Pads differ in size and protection from player to player based on position, ability, comfort and preference.", "For example, many attack players wear larger and more protective elbow pads to protect themselves from checks thrown at them while defenders typically wear smaller and less protective pads due to their smaller possibility of being checked and goalies usually wear no elbow pads due to the very limited opportunities of being checked.", "A goalkeeper must also wear a large protective chest pad to cover their stomach and chest and a plastic neck guard that connects to the chin of their helmet to protect them from shots hitting their windpipe.", "In addition, male goalkeepers are required to wear a protective cup.===Men's box protective equipment===Men's box players wear more protective gear than field players due to the increased physical contact and more permissive checking rules.", "Cross-checking in the back is allowed by the rules.", "Runners wear larger and heavier elbow pads and stronger shoulder pads that extend down the back of the player.", "Most players wear rib pads as well.", "Box goalies wear equipment very similar to ice hockey goalies, the leg blockers are somewhat smaller, although the shoulder pads are bigger than ice hockey pads.===Women's field protective equipment===Women's field players are not required to wear protective equipment besides eyewear and a mouthguard.", "Eyegear is a metal cage covering the eyes attached with a strap around the back of the head.", "In recent years, there has been discussion about allowing or requiring padded headgear to protect against concussions.", "Women goalies wear a helmet, gloves, and chest protector." ], [ "See also", "* Polocrosse, a version of lacrosse played on horseback* Hurling, an ancient Gaelic team sport played with sticks and a ball* Indigenous North American stickball" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Downey, Allan.", "''The creator’s game: Lacrosse, identity, and Indigenous nationhood'' (UBC Press, 2018).", "* * Fisher, Donald M. ''Lacrosse: A history of the game'' (JHU Press, 2002).", "* * * Stoikos, Alex.", "''A Journalistic Overview of Lacrosse in the Western World\" ''Academia Letters,'' (2021) Article 1591.https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1591* * Wiser, Melissa C. \"Lacrosse History, a History of One Sport or Two?", "A Comparative Analysis of Men's Lacrosse and Women's Lacrosse in the United States.\"", "''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 31.13 (2014): 1656-1676.", "" ], [ "External links", " US Lacrosse – The national governing body for lacrosse in the United States." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Liverpool" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Liverpool''' is a city and metropolitan borough in Merseyside, North West England.", "It had a population of 486,100 at the 2021 census.", "The city is located on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary, adjacent to the Irish Sea, and is approximately from London.", "The wider Liverpool built-up area is the third largest in England and Wales outside London.", "Liverpool itself is the largest settlement in the Liverpool City Region, which is the fourth largest combined authority in the UK with a population of 1,551,722 in 2021.The city also forms part of a larger urban region of over 2 million people which extends in to the neighbouring counties of northeast Wales, Cheshire and Lancashire.", "The region shares political boundaries and significant economic connections.Liverpool was established as a borough in 1207 in the county of Lancashire and became a significant town in the late seventeenth century, when the port at nearby Chester began to silt up.", "The Port of Liverpool became heavily involved in the Atlantic slave trade, with the first slave ship departing from the town in 1699.The port also imported much of the cotton required by the neighbouring Lancashire textile mills, and became a major departure point for English and Irish emigrants to North America.", "In the nineteenth century, Liverpool rose to global economic importance at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution, and built the first intercity railway, the first non-combustible warehouse system, and a pioneering elevated electrical railway; it was granted city status in 1880.In common with many British cities, the city entered a period of decline in the mid-twentieth century after which it experienced significant regeneration when it was selected as the European Capital of Culture in 2008.Liverpool's modern economy is diversified.", "The city has a significant influence on the knowledge sector, maritime industry, tourism, culture, hospitality, healthcare industry, life sciences, advanced manufacturing, the creative and digital sectors.", "The city contains the second-highest number of national museums, listed buildings, and listed parks in the UK after London.", "Its architecture means the city is often used as a filming location, and in 2022 it was one of top five cities in the UK most visited by overseas tourists.", "Liverpool is England's only UNESCO City of Music and has produced many notable musicians, including the Beatles.", "In sports, the city is the home of Premier League football teams Everton F.C.", "and Liverpool F.C.", "The Port of Liverpool was the fourth-largest in the UK in 2020, and numerous shipping and freight lines have headquarters and offices in the city.Residents of Liverpool are often called \"Scousers\" in reference to scouse, a local stew made popular by sailors in the city; the name is also applied to the distinct Liverpool accent and dialect.", "The city has a culturally and ethnically diverse population, and historically attracted many immigrants from Ireland, Norway, and Wales.", "It is also home to the oldest black community in the UK, the oldest Chinese community in Europe and the first mosque in England, now restored." ], [ "Toponymy", "The name comes from the Old English ''lifer'', meaning thick or muddy water, and ''pōl'', meaning a pool or creek, and is first recorded around 1190 as ''Liuerpul''.", "According to the ''Cambridge Dictionary of English Place-Names'', \"The original reference was to a pool or tidal creek now filled up into which two streams drained\".", "The place appearing as ''Leyrpole'', in a legal record of 1418, may also refer to Liverpool.", "Other origins of the name have been suggested, including \"elverpool\", a reference to the large number of eels in the Mersey.", "The adjective \"Liverpudlian\" was first recorded in 1833.Although the Old English origin of the name Liverpool is beyond dispute, claims are sometimes made that the name Liverpool is of Welsh origin, but these are without foundation.", "The Welsh name for Liverpool is Lerpwl, from a former English local form Leerpool.", "This is a reduction of the form \"Leverpool\" with the loss of the intervocalic v (seen in other English names and words e.g.", "Daventry (Northamptonshire) > Danetry, never-do-well > ne’er-do-well).In the 19th century, some Welsh publications used the name \"Lle'r Pwll\" (\"(the) place (of) the pool\"), a reinterpretation of Lerpwl, probably in the belief that \"Lle'r Pwll\" was the original form.Another name, which is widely known even today, is Llynlleifiad, again a 19th-century coining.", "\"Llyn\" is pool, but \"lleifiad\" has no obvious meaning.", "G. Melville Richards (1910–1973), a pioneer of scientific toponymy in Wales, in \"Place Names of North Wales\", does not attempt to explain it beyond noting that \"lleifiad\" is used as a Welsh equivalent of \"Liver\".A derivative form of a learned borrowing into Welsh (llaf) of Latin lāma (slough, bog, fen) to give \"lleifiad\" is possible, but unproven." ], [ "History", "The earliest known image of ''Liverpool'', in 1680A map of Liverpool's original seven streets (north to the left) Bluecoat Chambers, completed in 1725, the oldest surviving building in Liverpool city centre===Early history===In the Middle Ages, Liverpool existed firstly as farmland within the West Derby Hundred before growing in to a small town of farmers, fishermen and tradesmen and tactical army base for King John of England.", "The town was planned with its own castle, although due to outbreaks of disease and its subordinance to the nearby Roman port of Chester, the town's growth and prosperity stagnated until the late 17th and early 18th centuries.", "Substantial growth took place in the mid-late 18th century when the town became the most heavily involved European port in the Atlantic slave trade.King John's letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool (then spelt as ''Liuerpul'').", "There is no evidence that the place had previously been a centre of any trade.", "The creation of the borough was probably due to King John deciding it would be a convenient place to embark men and supplies for his Irish campaigns, in particular John's Irish campaign of 1209.The original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough.", "The original seven streets were laid out in the shape of a double cross: Bank Street (now Water Street), Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street (now High Street), Moor Street (now Tithebarn Street) and Whiteacre Street (now Old Hall Street).", "Liverpool Castle was built before 1235, it survived until it was demolished in the 1720s.", "By the middle of the 16th century, the population was still around 600, although this was likely to have fallen from an earlier peak of 1000 people due to slow trade and the effects of the plague.In the 17th century, there was slow progress in trade and population growth.", "Battles for control of the town were waged during the English Civil War, including a brief siege in 1644.In 1699, the same year as its first recorded slave ship, ''Liverpool Merchant'', set sail for Africa, Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament.", "But arguably, the legislation of 1695 that reformed the Liverpool council was of more significance to its subsequent development.", "Since Roman times, the nearby city of Chester on the River Dee had been the region's principal port on the Irish Sea.", "However, as the Dee began to silt up, maritime trade from Chester became increasingly difficult and shifted towards Liverpool on the neighbouring River Mersey.", "The first of the Liverpool docks was constructed in 1715, and the system of docks gradually grew into a large interconnected system.As trade from the West Indies, including sugar, surpassed that of Ireland and Europe, and as the River Dee continued to silt up, Liverpool began to grow with increasing rapidity.", "The first commercial wet dock was built in Liverpool in 1715.Substantial profits from the slave trade and tobacco helped the town to prosper and rapidly grow, although several prominent local men, including William Rathbone, William Roscoe and Edward Rushton, were at the forefront of the local abolitionist movement.===19th century===Inaugural journey of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830, the first-ever commercial railway line in the worldLime Street, Liverpool, in the 1890s, St.George's Hall to the left, Great North Western Hotel to the right, Walker Art Gallery and Sessions House in the background.", "Statues of Prince Albert, Disraeli, Queen Victoria and Wellington's Column in the middle ground.The 19th century saw Liverpool rise to global economic importance.", "Pioneering, world first, technology and civic facilities launched in the city to serve the accelerating population which was fuelled by an influx of ethnic and religious communities from all around the world.By the start of the 19th century, a large volume of trade was passing through Liverpool, and the construction of major buildings reflected this wealth.", "In 1830, Liverpool and Manchester became the first cities to have an intercity rail link, through the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.", "The population continued to rise rapidly, especially during the 1840s when Irish migrants began arriving by the hundreds of thousands as a result of the Great Famine.", "While many Irish settled during this time in the city, a large percentage also emigrated to the United States or moved to the industrial centres of Lancashire, Yorkshire and the Midlands.In her poetical illustration \"Liverpool\" (1832), which celebrates the city's worldwide commerce, Letitia Elizabeth Landon refers specifically to the Macgregor Laird expedition to the Niger River, at that time in progress.", "This is to a painting by Samuel Austin, ''Liverpool, from the Mersey''.Britain was a major market for cotton imported from the Deep South of the United States, which fed the textile industry in the country.", "Given the crucial place cotton held in the city's economy, during the American Civil War Liverpool was, in the words of historian Sven Beckert, \"the most pro-Confederate place in the world outside the Confederacy itself.\"", "Liverpool merchants helped to bring out cotton from ports blockaded by the Union Navy, built ships of war for the Confederacy, and suppliedthe South with military equipment and credit.During the war, the Confederate Navy ship, the CSS ''Alabama'', was built at Birkenhead on the Mersey, and the CSS ''Shenandoah'' surrendered there (being the final surrender at the end of the war).", "The city was also the center of Confederate purchasing war materiel, including arms and ammunition, uniforms, and naval supplies to be smuggled by British blockade runners to the South.For periods during the 19th century, the wealth of Liverpool exceeded that of London, and Liverpool's Custom House was the single largest contributor to the British Exchequer.", "Liverpool was the only British city ever to have its own Whitehall office.", "During this century, at least 40% of the world's entire trade passed through Liverpool.In the early 19th century, Liverpool played a major role in the Antarctic sealing industry, in recognition of which Liverpool Beach in the South Shetland Islands is named after the city.As early as 1851, the city was described as \"the New York of Europe\".", "During the late 19th and early 20th century, Liverpool was attracting immigrants from across Europe.", "This resulted in the construction of a diverse array of religious buildings in the city for the new ethnic and religious groups, many of which are still in use today.", "The Deutsche Kirche Liverpool, Greek Orthodox Church of St Nicholas, Gustav Adolf Church and Princes Road Synagogue were all established in the 1800s to serve Liverpool's growing German, Greek, Nordic and Jewish communities, respectively.", "One of Liverpool's oldest surviving churches, St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church, served the Polish community in its final years as a place of worship.===20th century===Liverpool's Lime Street area pictured from above in 1946The 20th century saw Liverpool's established rank as a global economic powerhouse challenged.", "Its strategic location as an international seaport made it particularly vulnerable in two World wars.", "Economic depressions (both in the United Kingdom and across the world), changing housing patterns and containerisation in the maritime industry contributed to a downtrend in the city's productivity and prosperity.", "Despite this, the city's influence on global popular culture excelled and by the end of the century, the continuing process of urban renewal paved the way for the redefined modern city of the 21st century.The period after the Great War was marked by social unrest, as society grappled with the massive war losses of young men, as well as trying to re-integrate veterans into civilian life and the economy.", "Unemployment and poor living standards greeted many ex-servicemen.", "Union organising and strikes took place in numerous locations, including a police strike in Liverpool among the City Police.", "Numerous colonial soldiers and sailors from Africa and India, who had served with the British Armed Forces, settled in Liverpool and other port cities.", "In June 1919, they were subject to attack by whites in racial riots; residents in the port included Swedish immigrants, and both groups had to compete with native people from Liverpool for jobs and housing.", "In this period, race riots also took place in other port cities.''Titanic''.", "The ship sank on its maiden voyage in April 1912, with the loss of 1,517 lives (including numerous Liverpudlians).", "A Memorial to the Engine Room Heroes of the Titanic is located on the city's waterfront.The Housing Act 1919 resulted in mass council housing being built across Liverpool during the 1920s and 1930s.", "In the 1920s and 1930s, as much as 15% of the city's population (around 140,000 people) was relocated from the inner-city to new purpose built, lower density suburban housing estates, based on the belief that this would improve their standard of living, though the overall benefits have been contested.", "Numerous private homes were also built during this era.", "During the Great Depression of the early 1930s, unemployment peaked at around 30% in the city.", "Liverpool was the site of Britain's first provincial airport, operating from 1930.During the Second World War, the critical strategic importance of Liverpool was recognised by both Hitler and Churchill.", "The city was heavily bombed by the Germans, suffering a blitz second only to London's.", "The pivotal Battle of the Atlantic was planned, fought and won from Liverpool.The ''Luftwaffe'' made 80 air raids on Merseyside, killing 2,500 people and causing damage to almost half the homes in the metropolitan area.", "Significant rebuilding followed the war, including massive housing estates and the Seaforth Dock, the largest dock project in Britain.", "Since 1952, Liverpool has been twinned with Cologne, Germany, a city which also suffered severe aerial bombing during the war.", "In the 1950s and 1960s, much of the immediate reconstruction that took place in the city centre proved to be deeply unpopular.", "The historic portions of the city that had survived German bombing suffered extensive destruction during urban renewal.", "It has been argued that the so-called 'Shankland Plan' of the 1960s, named after the town planner Graeme Shankland, led to compromised town planning and vast road-building schemes that devastated and divided inner city neighbourhoods.", "Concrete brutalist architecture, compromised visions, botched projects and grand designs that were never realised became the subject of condemnation.", "Historian Raphael Samuel labelled Graeme Shankland \"the butcher of Liverpool\".", "A significant West Indian black community has existed in the city since the first two decades of the 20th century.", "Like most British cities and industrialised towns, Liverpool became home to a significant number of Commonwealth immigrants, beginning after World War I with colonial soldiers and sailors who had served in the area.", "More immigrants arrived after World War II, mostly settling in older inner-city areas such as Toxteth, where housing was less expensive.", "The black population of Liverpool was recorded at 1.90% in 2011.In the 2021 Census, 5.2% described themselves as black African, Caribbean, mixed white and black African, mixed white and Caribbean or 'other black'.The construction of suburban public housing expanded after the Second World War.", "Some of the older inner-city areas were redeveloped for new homes.Mathew Street is one of many tourist attractions related to the Beatles, and the location of The Cavern Club and Liverpool Wall of FameIn the 1960s, Liverpool was the centre of the \"Merseybeat\" sound, which became synonymous with the Beatles and fellow Liverpudlian rock bands.", "Influenced by American rhythm and blues and rock music, they also in turn strongly affected American music.", "The Beatles became internationally known in the early 1960s and performed around the world together; they were, and continue to be, the most commercially successful and musically influential band in popular history.", "Their co-founder, singer, and composer John Lennon was killed in New York City in 1980.Liverpool Airport was renamed after him in 2002, the first British airport to be named in honour of an individual.Previously part of Lancashire, and a county borough from 1889, Liverpool became a metropolitan borough within the newly created metropolitan county of Merseyside, in 1974.From the mid-1970s onwards, Liverpool's docks and traditional manufacturing industries declined due to restructuring of shipping and heavy industry, causing massive losses of jobs.", "The advent of containerisation meant that the city's docks became largely obsolete, and dock workers were made unemployed.", "By the early 1980s, unemployment rates in Liverpool were among the highest in the UK, standing at 17% by January 1982 although, this was about half the level of unemployment that had affected the city during the Great Depression some 50 years previously.", "During this period, Liverpool became a hub of fierce left-wing opposition to the central government in London.", "Liverpool in the 1980s has been labelled as Britain's 'shock city'.", "Once the second city of the British Empire which rivalled the capital city in global significance, Liverpool had collapsed in to its 'nadir' at the depths of post-colonial, post-industrial Britain.In the late 20th century, Liverpool's economy began to recover.", "The late 1980s saw the opening of a regenerated Albert Dock which proved to be a catalyst for further regeneration.", "In the mid-1990s, the city enjoyed growth rates higher than the national average.", "At the end of the 20th century, Liverpool was concentrating on regeneration, a process that continues today.===21st century===The Liverpool Cruise Terminal and surrounding office and residential developments, part of the Liverpool Waters megaprojectOngoing regeneration combined with the hosting of internationally significant events has helped to re-purpose Liverpool as one of the most visited, tourist orientated, cities in the United Kingdom.", "City leaders are focussing on long-term strategies to grow the city's population and economy, while national government explores the continuous potential for devolution in the city.In 2002, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh visited Liverpool to mark the Golden Jubilee.", "On speaking to an audience at Liverpool Town Hall, the Queen recognised Liverpool as \"one of the most distinctive and energetic parts of the United Kingdom\", and paid tribute to the city's \"major orchestras, world-class museums and galleries\".", "She also acknowledged Liverpool's bid to become the European Capital of Culture.", "To celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II in 2002, the conservation charity Plantlife organised a competition to choose county flowers; the sea-holly was Liverpool's final choice.", "The initiative was designed to highlight growing threats to the UK's flower species and also ask the public about which flowers best represented their county.Capitalising on the popularity of 1960s rock groups, such as the Beatles, as well as the city's world-class art galleries, museums and landmarks, tourism and culture have become a significant factor in Liverpool's economy.Modern developments on the Liverpool WaterfrontIn 2004, property developer Grosvenor started the Paradise Project, a £920 million development based on Paradise Street.", "This produced one of the most significant changes to Liverpool's city centre since the post-war reconstruction.", "Renamed as 'Liverpool One,' the centre opened in May 2008.In 2007, events and celebrations took place in honour of the 800th anniversary of the founding of the borough of Liverpool.", "Liverpool was designated as a joint European Capital of Culture for 2008.The celebrations included the erection of La Princesse, a large mechanical spider 20 metres high and weighing 37 tonnes, which represented the \"eight legs\" of Liverpool: honour, history, music, the Mersey, the ports, governance, sunshine and culture.", "La Princesse roamed the streets of the city during the festivities, and concluded by entering the Queensway Tunnel.Spearheaded by the multi-billion-pound Liverpool ONE development, regeneration continued throughout the 2010s.", "Some of the most significant redevelopment projects included new buildings in the Commercial District, King's Dock, Mann Island, around Lime Street, the Baltic Triangle, RopeWalks, and Edge Lane.Headquarters of Liverpool City Region Combined Authority, which invests in Liverpool's major infrastructure and regeneration projectsChanges to Liverpool's governance took place in 2014.The local authority of Liverpool City Council decided to pool its power and resources with surrounding boroughs through the formation of the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority in a form of devolution.", "With a devolved budget granted by central government, the authority now oversees and invests in foremost strategic affairs throughout the Liverpool City Region, including major regeneration projects.", "The authority, along with Liverpool City Council itself, has embarked on long-term plans to grow the population and economy of the city.By the 2020s, urban regeneration throughout the city continues.", "Liverpool Waters, a mixed-use development in the city's disused northern docklands, has been identified as one of the largest megaprojects in the UK's history.", "Everton's new stadium at Bramley-Moore Dock was regarded as the largest single-site private sector development in the United Kingdom at the time of construction.Major events, business and political conferences regularly take place in the city and form an important part of the economy.", "In June 2014, Prime Minister David Cameron launched the International Festival for Business in Liverpool, the world's largest business event in 2014, and the largest in the UK since the Festival of Britain in 1951.The Labour Party has chosen Liverpool numerous times since the mid 2010s for their annual Labour Party Conference.", "Liverpool hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2023.===Inventions and innovations===The Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, the first such school in the worldLiverpool has been a centre of invention and innovation.", "Railways, transatlantic steamships, municipal trams, and electric trains were all pioneered in Liverpool as modes of mass transit.", "In 1829 and 1836, the first railway tunnels in the world were constructed under Liverpool (Wapping Tunnel).", "From 1950 to 1951, the world's first scheduled passenger helicopter service ran between Liverpool and Cardiff.The first School for the Blind, Mechanics' Institute, High School for Girls, council house, and Juvenile Court were all founded in Liverpool.", "Charities such as the RSPCA, NSPCC, Age Concern, Relate, and Citizen's Advice Bureau all evolved from work in the city.The first lifeboat station, public bath and wash-house, sanitary act, medical officer for health (William Henry Duncan), district nurse, slum clearance, purpose-built ambulance, X-ray medical diagnosis, school of tropical medicine (Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine), motorised municipal fire-engine, free school meal, cancer research centre, and zoonosis research centre all originated in Liverpool.", "The first British Nobel Prize was awarded in 1902 to Ronald Ross, professor at the School of Tropical Medicine, the first school of its kind in the world.", "Orthopaedic surgery was pioneered in Liverpool by Hugh Owen Thomas, and modern medical anaesthetics by Thomas Cecil Gray.The world's first integrated sewer system was constructed in Liverpool by James Newlands, appointed in 1847 as the UK's first borough engineer.", "Liverpool also founded the UK's first Underwriters' Association and the first Institute of Accountants.", "The Western world's first financial derivatives (cotton futures) were traded on the Liverpool Cotton Exchange in the late 1700s.Oriel Chambers, the first \"modern\" building in the worldIn the arts, Liverpool was home to the first lending library (The Lyceum), athenaeum society (Liverpool Athenaeum), arts centre (Bluecoat Chambers), and public art conservation centre (National Conservation Centre).", "It is also home to the UK's oldest surviving classical orchestra (Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra) and repertory theatre (Liverpool Playhouse).In 1864, Peter Ellis built the world's first iron-framed, curtain-walled office building, Oriel Chambers, which was a prototype of the skyscraper.", "The UK's first purpose-built department store was Compton House, completed in 1867 for the retailer J.R. Jeffrey.", "It was the largest store in the world at the time.Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival.", "Devised by John Hulley and Charles Pierre Melly, these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook.", "The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics.", "In 1865, Hulley co-founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association.", "Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter.Sir Alfred Lewis Jones, a shipowner, introduced bananas to the UK via Liverpool's docks in 1884.The Mersey Railway, opened in 1886, incorporated the world's first tunnel under a tidal estuary and the world's first deep-level underground stations (Liverpool James Street railway station).Liverpool was the first city outside London to be chosen to have an official Blue plaque and now has the largest number outside LondonIn 1889, borough engineer John Alexander Brodie invented the football goal net.", "He was also a pioneer in the use of pre-fabricated housing and oversaw the construction of the UK's first ring road (A5058) and intercity highway (East Lancashire Road), as well as the Queensway Tunnel linking Liverpool and Birkenhead.", "Described as \"the eighth wonder of the world\" at the time of its construction, it was the longest underwater tunnel in the world for 24 years.In 1897, the Lumière brothers filmed Liverpool, including what is believed to be the world's first tracking shot, taken from the Liverpool Overhead Railway, the world's first elevated electrified railway.", "The Overhead Railway was the first railway in the world to use electric multiple units, employ automatic signalling, and install an escalator.Liverpool inventor Frank Hornby was a visionary in toy development and manufacture, producing three of the most popular lines of toys in the 20th century: Meccano, Hornby Model Railways, and Dinky Toys.", "The British Interplanetary Society, founded in Liverpool in 1933 by Phillip Ellaby Cleator, is the world's oldest existing organisation devoted to the promotion of spaceflight.", "Its journal, the ''Journal of the British Interplanetary Society'', is the longest-running astronautical publication in the world.In 1999, Liverpool was the first city outside London to be awarded blue plaques by English Heritage in recognition of the \"significant contribution made by its sons and daughters in all walks of life\"." ], [ "Government", "The Cunard Building (left), housing the main offices of Liverpool City CouncilFor the purposes of local government, the city of Liverpool is classified as a metropolitan borough.", "The metropolitan borough is located within both the county of Merseyside and the Liverpool City Region.", "Each of these geographical areas is treated as an administrative area with different levels of local governance applying to each.Liverpool City Council is the governing body solely for the city of Liverpool and performs functions that are standard of an English Unitary Authority.", "The Liverpool City Region Combined Authority reserves major strategic powers over such things as transport, economic development and regeneration for the city along with the 5 surrounding boroughs of the Liverpool City Region.", "The Combined Authority has competency over areas which have been devolved by national government and are specific to the local area.Nevertheless, there are a few exceptions to local governance apart from these two structures.", "Liverpool was administered by Merseyside County Council between 1974 and 1986 and some residual aspects of organisation which date back to this time have survived.", "When the County Council was disbanded in 1986, most civic functions were transferred to Liverpool City Council.", "However, several authorities such as the police and fire and rescue service, continue to be run at a county-wide level.", "The county of Merseyside, therefore, continues to exist as an administrative area for a few limited services only, while the capability and capacity of the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority is evolving over time.The city also elects five members of Parliament (MPs) to the Westminster Parliament, all Labour as of the 2019 general election.=== City Council Leader and Cabinet ===City Councillors meet regularly at the Council Chamber in Liverpool Town Hall to conduct civic businessLiverpool City Council operates under a constitution comprising 85 city councillors who are directly elected by the Liverpool electorate every 4 years and represent a variety of different political parties.", "The city councillors make decisions about local services for the city's people.At each election, the political party that wins the majority of the 85 council seats leads the council for the following 4 years.", "The local leader of this party assumes the role of Leader of the City Council who then chairs a Cabinet of 9 councillors who are assigned specific responsibilities known as 'portfolios'.The incumbent Leader of Liverpool City Council is Councillor Liam Robinson, who represents the Labour Party, which secured a large majority at the 2023 local election.The City Council's decisions and scrutiny of activities are undertaken by a number of different committees and panels which include the Overview and Scrutiny Committees, Scrutiny Panels, Regulatory Committees and other committees.", "The day-to-day management of the council is carried out by the management team which includes the Chief Executive and several directors and senior officers.", "The management team works with the Cabinet and councillors to deliver strategic direction and priorities such as the budget and the City Plan.=== Liverpool City Council elections ===Every 4 years, the city elects 85 councillors from 64 local council wards, which in alphabetical order are: AigburthAllertonAnfieldArundelBelle ValeBroadgreenBrownlow HillCalderstonesCanningChildwallChurchCity Centre NorthCity Centre SouthClubmoor EastClubmoor WestCountyCroxtethCroxteth Country ParkDingleEdge HillEverton EastEverton NorthEverton WestFazakerley EastFazakerley NorthFazakerley WestFestival GardensGarstonGateacreGrassendale & CressingtonGreenbank ParkKensington & FairfieldKirkdale East right Kirkdale WestKnotty Ash & Dovecot ParkMossley HillMuch Woolton & Hunts CrossNorris GreenOld Swan EastOld Swan WestOrrell ParkPenny LanePrinces ParkSandfield ParkSefton ParkSmithdownSpekeSpringwoodSt MichaelsStoneycroftToxtethTuebrook Breckside ParkTuebrook LarkhillVauxhallWaltonWaterfront NorthWaterfront SouthWavertree Garden SuburbWavertree VillageWest Derby DeysbrookWest Derby LeyfieldWest Derby MuirheadWoolton VillageYew TreeDuring the 2023 Liverpool City Council election, the Labour Party consolidated its control of Liverpool City Council, following on from the previous elections.", "Out of the total 85 City Council seats up for election, The Labour Party won 61 seats (53.13% of the electorate's total votes), the Liberal Democrats won 15 seats (21.61% of the votes), the Green Party won 3 seats (9.76% of the votes), the Liverpool Community Independents won 3 seats (4.64% of the votes) and the Liberal Party won the remaining 3 seats (3.21% of the votes).", "The Conservative Party, the political party in power at national government, had no representation on Liverpool City Council.", "Only 27.27% of the eligible Liverpool electorate turned out to vote.Throughout most of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Liverpool was a municipal stronghold of Toryism.", "However, support for the Conservative Party in recent times has been among the lowest in any part of Britain, particularly since the monetarist economic policies of former prime minister Margaret Thatcher.", "After the 1979 general election, many have claimed that her victory contributed to longstanding high unemployment and decline in the city.", "Liverpool is one of the Labour Party's key strongholds; however, the city has also seen hard times under Labour governments also.", "Particularly in the Winter of Discontent (late 1978 and early 1979) when Liverpool suffered public sector strikes along with the rest of the United Kingdom, but also when it suffered the particularly humiliating misfortune of having grave-diggers going on strike, leaving the dead unburied for long periods.=== City Council criticism and improvement ===In recent years, Liverpool City Council began an extensive improvement program designed to ensure that the authority makes efficient use of taxpayer's money and to encourage more business and investment in the city.", "Grosvenor Group, the property company responsible for Liverpool One, commended the changes as an \"opportunity for bold thinking in liverpool\".In 2021, a highly critical government inspection and subsequent report of Liverpool City Council (referred to as the Caller report) identified multiple shortcomings at Liverpool City Council.", "The Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government, Robert Jenrick sent government commissioners to oversee the City Council's highways, regeneration, property management, governance and financial decision-making.", "The authority was compelled to commit to a three-year improvement plan in which the entire structure of the council would be overhauled.", "As a result of the intervention, major structural changes at the City Council took place by the 2023 United Kingdom local elections, which were labelled \"the most unpredictable elections in the city's history\".", "The number of electoral wards in the city was doubled from 30 to 64, while the overall number of City Councillors up for election was reduced from 90 to 85.In future, the council would also change to 'all out' elections every four years whereby every single City Councillor would be eligible for re-election at the same time.", "The role of elected city mayor was also abolished and the Council reverted to the previous Leader and Cabinet style of leadership.", "The outcome of the elections were seen not only as a test of how the general public would respond to the government intervention in the city, but also to Prime Minister Rishi Sunak's government as a whole.Councillor Liam Robinson became the new Leader of Liverpool City Council at the 2023 City Council election.", "The Liverpool Strategic Futures Advisory Panel, chaired by the Mayor of Liverpool City Region Steve Rotheram, and including several high-profile figures with experience in local government, was established.", "The panel was tasked with directing the council's long-term future outside of government intervention measures and to advise on plans and priorities that the city should pursue.In February 2008, Liverpool City Council was reported to be the worst-performing council in the country, receiving just a one-star rating (classified as inadequate).", "The main cause of the poor rating was attributed to the council's poor handling of tax-payer money, including the accumulation of a £20m shortfall while the city held the title of European Capital of Culture.=== Lord Mayor of Liverpool ===Liverpool Town Hall houses the official office for the Lord Mayor of LiverpoolThe Lord Mayor of Liverpool is an ancient ceremonial role.", "Councillors within Liverpool City Council (not the general public) elect the Lord Mayor annually, who then serves a one-year term.", "The Lord Mayor is styled as the 'first citizen' and is chosen to represent the city at civic functions and engagements, promote it to the wider world, support local charities and community groups, attend religious events, meet delegates from Liverpool's twin cities, chair council meetings and confer Honorary Freemen and associations.=== Metro Mayor of Liverpool City Region ===The City of Liverpool is one of the six constituent local government districts of the Liverpool City Region.", "The Metro Mayor of the Liverpool City Region is directly every four years by residents of those six boroughs and oversees the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority.", "The Combined Authority is the top-tier administrative body for the local governance of the city region and is tasked with taking major strategic decisions on issues such as transport and investment, economic development, employment and skills, tourism, culture, housing and physical infrastructure.", "The current Metro Mayor is Steve Rotheram.=== Parliamentary constituencies and MPs ===Liverpool is included within five parliamentary constituencies, through which MPs are elected to represent the city in Westminster: Liverpool Riverside, Liverpool Walton, Liverpool Wavertree, Liverpool West Derby and Garston and Halewood.", "At the last general election, all were won by Labour with representation being from Kim Johnson, Dan Carden, Paula Barker and Ian Byrne respectively.", "Due to boundary changes prior to the 2010 election, the Liverpool Garston constituency was merged with most of Knowsley South to form the Garston and Halewood cross-boundary seat.", "At the most recent 2019 election, this seat was won by Maria Eagle of the Labour Party." ], [ "Geography", "=== Environment ===Satellite imagery showing Liverpool Bay, Liverpool and the wider Merseyside areaLiverpool has been described as having \"the most splendid setting of any English city.\"", "At (53.4, −2.98), northwest of London, located on the Liverpool Bay of the Irish Sea the city of Liverpool is built across a ridge of sandstone hills rising up to a height of around above sea-level at Everton Hill, which represents the southern boundary of the West Lancashire Coastal Plain.The Mersey Estuary separates Liverpool from the Wirral Peninsula.", "The boundaries of Liverpool are adjacent to Bootle, Crosby and Maghull in south Sefton to the north, and Kirkby, Huyton, Prescot and Halewood in Knowsley to the east.===Climate===Liverpool experiences a temperate maritime climate (Köppen: ''Cfb''), like much of the British Isles, with relatively mild summers, cool winters and rainfall spread fairly evenly throughout the year.", "Rainfall and temperature records had been kept at Bidston Hill since 1867, but records for atmospheric pressure go back as far as at least 1846.Bidston closed down in 2002 but the Met Office also has a weather station at Crosby.", "Since records began in 1867, temperatures have ranged from on 21 December 2010 to on 2 August 1990, although Liverpool Airport recorded a temperature of on 19 July 2006.The lowest amount of sunshine on record was 16.5 hours in December 1927 whereas the most was 314.5 hours in July 2013.Tornado activity or funnel cloud formation is very rare in and around the Liverpool area and tornadoes that do form are usually weak.", "Recent tornadoes or funnel clouds in Merseyside have been seen in 1998 and 2014.During the period 1981–2010, Crosby recorded an average of 32.8 days of air frost per year, which is low for the United Kingdom.", "Snow is fairly common during the winter although heavy snow is rare.", "Snow generally falls between November and March but can occasionally fall earlier and later.", "In recent times, the earliest snowfall was on 1 October 2008 while the latest occurred on 15 May 2012.Although historically, the earliest snowfall occurred on 10 September 1908 and the latest on 2 June 1975.Rainfall, although light, is quite a common occurrence in Liverpool, with the wettest month on record being August 1956, which recorded of rain and the driest being February 1932, with .", "The driest year on record was 1991, with of rainfall and the wettest was 1872, with .=== Human =======Suburbs and districts====Suburbs and districts of Liverpool include:AigburthAllertonAnfieldBelle ValeBroadgreenCanningChildwallChinatownCity CentreClubmoorCroxtethDingleDovecotEdge HillEvertonFairfieldFazakerleyGarstonGateacreGillmossGrassendaleHunt's CrossKensingtonKirkdaleKnotty AshMossley HillNetherleyNorris GreenOgletOld SwanOrrell ParkSt Michael's HamletSpekeStoneycroftToxtethTuebrookVauxhallWaltonWavertreeWest DerbyWoolton====Green Liverpool====UK core cities – Population and population density (Number of usual residents per km2) (2021)'''Core City''''''Population''''''Population density'''Birmingham1,144,9004275.4\tLeeds812,0001471.7\tGlasgow635,1303637Sheffield556,5001512.5Manchester552,0004772.7Liverpool486,1004346.1Bristol472,4004308.1Cardiff362,4002571.3\tBelfast345,4182597.8 Nottingham323,7004337.6Newcastle300,2002646.1\tIn 2010, Liverpool City Council and the Primary Care Trust commissioned the Mersey Forest to complete \"A Green Infrastructure Strategy\" for the city.====Green belt====Liverpool is a core urban element of a green belt region that extends into the wider surrounding counties, which is in place to reduce urban sprawl, prevent the towns in the conurbation from further convergence, protect the identity of outlying communities, encourage brownfield reuse, and preserve nearby countryside.", "This is achieved by restricting inappropriate development within the designated areas and imposing stricter conditions on permitted building.Due to being already highly built up, the city contains limited portions of protected green belt area within greenfield throughout the borough at Fazakerley, Croxteth Hall and country park and Craven Wood, Woodfields Park and nearby golf courses in Netherley, small greenfield tracts east of the Speke area by the St Ambrose primary school, and the small hamlet of Oglet and the surrounding area south of Liverpool Airport.The green belt was first drawn up in 1983 under Merseyside County Council and the size in the city amounts to ." ], [ "Demography", "===Population===Historical population of Liverpool (numbers vary by source)Sources:'''Date''''''Population''''''Notes'''Borough of Liverpool founded by John, King of England.", "The economy was focused on agricultural and food processing, grain mills and warehouses until the 16th century.", "'''1272'''840'''14th century'''1,000 – 1,200 Population roughly 1,000 in 1300.Because Liverpool was a port, it was more at risk from the spread of disease.", "Townspeople lived partly by farming and fishing.", "Some were craftsmen or tradesmen such as bakers, brewers, butchers, blacksmiths, and carpenters.", "A watermill existed to ground grain into flour for the townspeople's bread, and there was a windmill.", "Black Death wiped out whole families and bodies were buried in a mass grave at St Nicholas's churchyard.", "Ireland was still Liverpool's main trading partner.", "In 1540, a writer said: \"Irish merchants come much hither as to a good harbor\".", "He also said there was \"good merchandise at Liverpool and much Irish yarn, that Manchester men buy there\".", "Skins and hides were still imported from Ireland.", "Exports from Liverpool included coal, woolen cloth, knives and leather goods.", "There were still many fishermen in Liverpool.", "In the mid 16th century, the town was under the control of the country gentry and trade was slow.", "The population dropped to below 600, in part due to deaths in the 1558 plague when a third of the townspeople died.", "Further plague outbreaks took place in 1609, 1647 and 1650 which led to static or retrogressive population levels.", "The town was regarded as subordinate to Chester until the 1650s.", "'''1600'''At the 2021 Census, the ITL 1 region of North West England had a usual resident population of 7,417,300.=====ITL 2 region=====Merseyside (code TLD7) The ITL 2 region of Merseyside is defined as the area comprising East Merseyside (TLD71) plus Liverpool (TLD72), Sefton (TLD73) and Wirral (TLD74).At the 2021 Census, the population of this area was as follows:East Merseyside (TLD71):Halton = 128,200 Knowsley = 154,500 St. Helens = 183,200Liverpool (TLD72) = 486,100Sefton (TLD73) = 279,300Wirral (TLD74) = 320,200Therefore, the total population of the ITL 2 Merseyside region was 1,551,500 based on the 2021 Census.=====ITL 3 region=====The smallest ITL 3 area classed as Liverpool (code TLD72), therefore, had a population of 486,100 at the 2021 Census.=====Other definitions=====At the 2021 Census, the ONS used a refreshed concept of built-up areas (BUAs) based on the physical built environment, using satellite imagery to recognise developed land, such as cities, towns, and villages.", "This allows the ONS to investigate economic and social statistics based on actual settlements where most people live.", "Data from the 2021 Census is not directly comparable with 2011 Census data due to this revised methodology.", "Using the population figures of BUAs at the 2021 Census (excluding London), Liverpool Built-up Area is the third largest in England with some 506,565 usual residents (behind only Birmingham and Leeds).", "Liverpool's built-up area is, therefore, larger than the major English cities of Bristol, Manchester, Newcastle upon Tyne, Nottingham and Sheffield.Map showing the six boroughs of Liverpool City Region: the 4th largest combined authority area in England.Excluding London, the Liverpool City Region was the 4th largest combined authority area in England, by 2021.The population is approximately 1.6 million.", "The Liverpool City Region is a political and economic partnership between local authorities including Liverpool, plus the Metropolitan boroughs of Knowsley, Sefton, St Helens, Wirral and the Borough of Halton.", "The Liverpool City Region Combined Authority exercises strategic governance powers for the region in many areas.", "The economic data of the Liverpool city region is of particular policy interest to the Office for National Statistics, particularly as the British Government continuously explores the potential to negotiate increased devolved powers for each combined authority area.A 2011 report, ''Liverpool City Region – Building on its Strengths'', by Lord Heseltine and Terry Leahy, stated that \"what is now called Liverpool City Region has a population of around 1.5million\", but also referred to \"an urban region that spreads from Wrexham and Flintshire to Chester, Warrington, West Lancashire and across to Southport\", with a population of 2.3million.In 2006, in an attempt to harmonise the series of metropolitan areas across the European Union, ESPON (now European Observation Network for Territorial Development and Cohesion) released a study defining a \"Liverpool/Birkenhead Metropolitan area\" with an estimated population of 2,241,000 people.", "The metro area comprised a functional urban area consisting of a contiguous urban sprawl, labour pool, and commuter Travel to work areas.", "The analysis defined this metropolitan area as Liverpool itself, combined with the surrounding areas of Birkenhead, Wigan/Ashton, Warrington, Widnes/Runcorn, Chester, Southport, Ellesmere Port, Ormskirk and Skelmersdale.Liverpool and Manchester are sometimes considered as one large polynuclear metropolitan area, or megalopolis.===Ethnicity===In recent decades, Liverpool's population is becoming more multicultural.", "According to the 2021 census, 77% of all Liverpool residents described their ethnic group as White English, Welsh, Scottish, Northern Irish or British.", "The remaining 23% were described as non-White English/British.", "Between 2011 and 2021, there was population growth across all ethnic groups, except 'White English/British' and 'Any Other', where there were overall losses.", "The number of 'Other White residents' in Liverpool also increased by almost 12,000 people, with notable increases in the 'Other Asian', 'Arab', and 'Other Mixed/Multiple' population categories.", "The non-White English/British population as a percentage of the total population across the 'newly organised city electoral wards' ranged from 5% in the Orrell Park ward to 69% in the Princes Park ward.", "9 out of 10 Liverpool residents regarded English as their main language.", "The highest non-English languages in the city were Arabic (5,743 main speakers) followed by Polish (4,809 main speakers).", "Overall, almost 45,000 residents had a main language that was not English.According to a 2014 survey, the ten most popular surnames of Liverpool and their occurrence in the population are::1.Jones – 23,012:2.Smith – 16,276:3.Williams – 13,997:4.Davies – 10,149:5.Hughes – 9,787:6.Roberts – 9,571:7.Taylor – 8,219:8.Johnson – 6,715:9.Brown – 6,603:10.Murphy – 6,495Liverpool is home to Britain's oldest Black community, dating to at least the 1730s.", "Some Liverpudlians can trace their black ancestry in the city back ten generations.", "Early Black settlers in the city included seamen, the children of traders sent to be educated, and freed slaves, since slaves entering the country after 1722 were deemed free men.", "Since the 20th century, Liverpool is also noted for its large African-Caribbean, Ghanaian, and Somali communities, formed of more recent African-descended immigrants and their subsequent generations.Chinese community in Europe and the largest Chinese arch outside China.The city is also home to the oldest Chinese community in Europe; the first residents of the city's Chinatown arrived as seamen in the 19th century.", "The traditional Chinese gateway erected in Liverpool's Chinatown is the largest gateway outside China.", "Liverpool also has a long-standing Filipino community.", "Lita Roza, a singer from Liverpool who was the first woman to achieve a UK number one hit, had Filipino ancestry.Ethnic breakdown in Liverpool – (UK Census 2021)'''Ethnic group''''''Population''''''Percentage'''White: English, Welsh, Scottish, Northern Irish or British375,78577.3White: Other White24,1625Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African: African12,7092.6Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh: Chinese8,8411.8Other ethnic group: Arab8,3121.7Other ethnic group: Any other ethnic group7,7221.6Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh: Other Asian7,0851.5White: Irish6,8261.4Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh: Indian6,2511.3Mixed or multiple ethnic groups: Other mixed or multiple ethnic groups4,9341\tMixed or multiple ethnic groups: White and Black African4,1570.9Mixed or multiple ethnic groups: White and Black Caribbean4,1270.8Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh: Pakistani3,6730.8Mixed or multiple ethnic groups: White and Asian3,6620.8Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African: Other Black2,7620.6Asian, Asian British or Asian Welsh: Bangladeshi1,9170.4Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African: Caribbean1,4930.3White: Roma1,1690.2White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller5010.1The city is also known for its large Irish and Welsh populations.", "In 1813, 10 per cent of Liverpool's population was Welsh, leading to the city becoming known as \"the capital of North Wales.", "\"During, and in the decades following, the Great Irish Famine in the mid-19th century, up to two million Irish people travelled to Liverpool within one decade, with many subsequently departing for the United States.", "By 1851, more than 20 per cent of the population of Liverpool was Irish.", "At the 2001 Census, 1.17 per cent of the population were Welsh-born and 0.75 per cent were born in the Republic of Ireland, while 0.54 per cent were born in Northern Ireland, but many more Liverpudlians are of legacy Welsh or Irish ancestry.Other contemporary ethnicities include Indian, Latin American, Malaysian, and Yemeni communities, which number several thousand each.===Religion===The thousands of migrants and sailors passing through Liverpool resulted in a religious diversity that is still apparent today.", "This is reflected in the equally diverse collection of religious buildings, including two Christian cathedrals.Liverpool is known to be England's 'most Catholic city', with a Catholic population much larger than in other parts of England.", "This is mainly due to high historic Irish migration to the city and their descendants since.The parish church of Liverpool is the Anglican Our Lady and St Nicholas, colloquially known as \"the sailors church\", which has existed near the waterfront since 1257.It regularly plays host to Catholic masses.", "Other notable churches include the Greek Orthodox Church of St Nicholas (built in the Neo-Byzantine architecture style), and the Gustav Adolf Church (the Swedish Seamen's Church, reminiscent of Nordic styles).Liverpool's wealth as a port city enabled the construction of two enormous cathedrals in the 20th century.", "The Anglican Cathedral, which was designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott and plays host to the annual Liverpool Shakespeare Festival, has one of the longest naves, largest organs and heaviest and highest peals of bells in the world.", "The Roman Catholic Metropolitan Cathedral, on Mount Pleasant next to Liverpool Science Park, was initially planned to be even larger.", "Of Sir Edwin Lutyens's original design, only the crypt was completed.", "The cathedral was eventually built to a simpler design by Sir Frederick Gibberd.", "While this is on a smaller scale than Lutyens' original design, it still incorporates the largest panel of stained glass in the world.", "The road running between the two cathedrals is called Hope Street.", "The cathedral has long been colloquially referred to as \"Paddy's Wigwam\" due to its shape.Liverpool contains several synagogues, of which the Grade I listed Moorish Revival Princes Road Synagogue is architecturally the most notable.", "Princes Road is widely considered to be the most magnificent of Britain's Moorish Revival synagogues and one of the finest buildings in Liverpool.", "Liverpool has a thriving Jewish community with a further two orthodox Synagogues, one in the Allerton district of the city and a second in the Childwall district of the city where a significant Jewish community reside.", "A third orthodox Synagogue in the Greenbank Park area of L17 has recently closed and is a listed 1930s structure.", "There is also a Lubavitch Chabad House and a reform Synagogue.", "Liverpool has had a Jewish community since the mid-18th century.", "The Jewish population of Liverpool is around 5,000.The Liverpool Talmudical College existed from 1914 until 1990, when its classes moved to the Childwall Synagogue.Liverpool also has a Hindu community, with a Mandir on Edge Lane, Edge Hill.", "The Shri Radha Krishna Temple from the Hindu Cultural Organisation in Liverpool is located there.", "Liverpool also has the Guru Nanak Sikh Gurdwara in Wavertree and a Baháʼí Centre in the same area.The city had the earliest Mosque in England and possibly the UK, founded in 1887 by William Abdullah Quilliam, a lawyer who had converted to Islam who set up the Liverpool Muslim Institute in a terraced house on West Derby Road.", "Apart from the first mosque in England which now houses a museum, the largest and main one, Al-Rahma mosque, was also the third purpose built mosque in the United Kingdom.", "The second largest mosque in Liverpool is the Masjid Al-Taiseer.", "Other mosques in the city include the Bait ul Lateef Ahmadiyya Mosque, Hamza Center (Community Center), Islamic community centre, Liverpool Mosque and Islamic Institute, Liverpool Towhid Centre, Masjid Annour, and the Shah Jalal Mosque.===Demonym and identity===Natives of the city of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians, and colloquially as \"Scousers\", a reference to \"scouse\", a form of stew.", "The word \"Scouse\" has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect.", "Many people \"self-identify\" as Liverpudlians or Scousers without actually being born or living within the city boundaries of Liverpool." ], [ "Economy", "===City and region===Liverpool is a major component of the third largest regional economy in the United Kingdom.", "Important sectors in the city include the knowledge economy, maritime industry, tourism, culture, hospitality, healthcare industry, life sciences, the creative and digital sectors.The City of Liverpool forms an integral part of North West England's economy, the third largest regional economy in the United Kingdom.", "The city is also a major contributor to the economy of Liverpool City Region, worth over £40 billion per year.The local authority area governed by Liverpool City Council accounts for 39% of the Liverpool city region's total jobs, 40% of its total GVA and 35% of its total businesses.", "At the local authority level, the city's GVA (balanced) at current basic prices was £14.3 billion in 2021.Its GDP at current market prices was £15.9 billion.", "This equates to £32,841 per head of the population.At the 2021 United Kingdom census, 51.1% of Liverpool's population aged 16 years and over was classed as employed, 44.2% economically inactive and 4.8% unemployed.", "Of those employed, the most popular industries providing the employment were human health and social work activities (18.7%), wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles and motor cycles (15%), education (10.8%), public administration and defence; compulsory social security (7.3%), accommodation and food service activities (6.8%), construction (6.5%), transport and storage (5.8%), manufacturing (5.5%) and professional, scientific and technical activities (5.2%).According to the ONS Business Register and Employment Survey 2021, some industries within Liverpool perform strongly compared to other local authorities in Great Britain.", "In terms of absolute number of jobs per industry in Great Britain's local authority areas, Liverpool features in the national top 10 for human health and social work activities; arts, entertainment and recreation; public administration and defence; compulsory social security; accommodation and food service activities and real estate activities.", "Liverpool features in the national top 20 for number of jobs in education; construction; wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles; transportation and storage; financial and insurance activities and professional, scientific and technical activities.In 2023, Liverpool City Council set out an economic growth plan for the city over the following 20 years.", "The City Council will have particular focus on economic sectors such as the visitor economy (tourism), culture, life sciences, digital and creative sectors, and advanced car manufacturing.According to the International passenger Survey, from the ONS, Liverpool was one of the top 5 most visited cities in the UK by overseas tourists in 2022.As of the same year, the city's tourist industry was worth a total of £3.5 billion annually and was part of a larger city region tourist industry worth £5 billion.", "A consistent calendar of major events, as well as a plethora of cultural attractions, continue to provide a significant draw for tourists.", "Tourism related to the Beatles is worth an estimated £100m to the Liverpool economy each year alone.", "Liverpool One, as well as a growing retail offer overall, has led to the city being one of the most prominent destinations for shopping in the UK.", "Liverpool Cruise Terminal, which is situated close to the Pier Head, enables tourists to berth in the centre of the city.Liverpool is home to the Knowledge Quarter, a 450-acre city centre district that hosts some of the world's most influential institutions in science, health, technology, education, music and the creative performing arts.", "The UK government has also identified the city as a 'pharmaceutical production superpower' and one of the UK's leading regions for bioprocessing.", "The accolade led to the government choosing the city for England's second ever 'Investment Zone' in 2023.This will involve millions of pounds being invested over the coming years in to science orientated districts including the Knowledge Quarter and the so-called 'pharma cluster' in the city suburb of Speke.", "The two clusters form an internationally significant role in infectious disease control.", "Liverpool City Council also plan to invest in the city's Baltic Triangle, which is renowned in the creative and digital industries.Car manufacturing also takes place in the city at the Jaguar Land Rover Halewood plant, where the Range Rover Evoque model is assembled.", "In 2023, Jaguar Land Rover announced that the Halewood plant would begin to shift its focus to electric car production.Historically, the economy of Liverpool was centred on the city's port and manufacturing base.", "Today, the Port of Liverpool is the UK's fourth largest port by tonnage of freight, handling over 30 million tonnes in 2020.The city is also the UK's largest port for transatlantic trade, handling 45% of the country's trade from the United States.", "In 2023, the city was chosen by the British government to be a designated Freeport to encourage growing international commerce.The Liverpool2 container terminal, completed in 2022, has greatly increased the volume of cargo which Liverpool is able to handle and has facilitated the world's biggest container vessels.Liverpool is also home to numerous UK headquarters, or the major strategic branch offices, of many shipping and freight lines including: Atlantic Container Line, Bibby Line, Borchard Lines Ltd, CMA CGM, Hapag-Lloyd, Independent Container Line, Irish Ferries, Maersk Line, Mediterranean Shipping Company and Zim Integrated Shipping Services.Liverpool's rich architectural base has helped the city become the second most filmed city in the UK outside London.", "As well as being a featured location in its own right, it often doubles up for Chicago, London, Moscow, New York City, Paris and Rome.", "The Depot studios, close to the city centre, provide space for film and TV productions.Major economic projects planned for the city include the revitalisation of disused land in the North docks/Ten Streets area, Liverpool Waters and a new purpose built TV studio at the former Littlewoods Pools building, adjacent to the Depot.===City region economy and devolution===The policy agenda of the British Government is to continuously monitor the economy and productivity of the UK's core cities within the context of their respective city regions.", "The government's longer-term plan is to assess each area's potential for increased devolution and transfer of additional powers and budgets from central government in Whitehall to their corresponding combined authorities.", "As such, official statistics about Liverpool's economy within the context of the Liverpool City Region, are closely monitored by the Office for National Statistics.", "This allows policy and decision makers to more accurately assess the 'functional economic area' of the city, which is not bound by traditional local government geographies.As of 2023, there are 10 city regions in England with Combined Authorities.", "The economy of Liverpool's combined authority area in comparison to the other city regions is as follows:+Economy of Liverpool City Region compared to all combined authority areas in England Combined authority area Core city (if applicable) GVA (2021)(£ billions) GDP (2021)(£ billions)GDP per head (2021)(£) Cambridgeshire and Peterborough 28.648 31.698 35,348 Greater Manchester Manchester 78.744 87.703 30,576 Liverpool City Region Liverpool 35.345 40.479 26,086North East 22.516 26.255 23,038 North of Tyne Newcastle upon Tyne 19.725 22.444 27,075 South Yorkshire Sheffield 28.971 33.528 24,399 Tees Valley 14.241 16.346 24,103 West Midlands Birmingham 70.961 79.076 27,117 West of England Bristol 34.110 37.571 39,371 West Yorkshire Leeds 60.137 67.607 28,769" ], [ "Landmarks and recent development projects", "Liverpool's Three Graces, the Royal Liver Building, Cunard Building and Port of Liverpool Building at the Pier HeadLiverpool's long commercial history has given rise to a considerable variety of architectural styles found within the city, ranging from 16th century Tudor buildings to modern-day contemporary architecture.", "The majority of buildings in the city date from the late-18th century onwards, the period during which the city grew into one of the foremost powers in the British Empire.", "There are over 2,500 listed buildings in Liverpool, of which 27 are Grade I listed and 85 are Grade II listed.", "The city also has a greater number of public sculptures than any other location in the United Kingdom aside from Westminster and more Georgian houses than the city of Bath.", "This richness of architecture has subsequently seen Liverpool described by English Heritage, as England's finest Victorian city.The value of Liverpool's architecture and design was recognised in 2004, when several areas throughout the city were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "Known as the Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City, the sites were added in recognition of the city's role in the development of international trade and docking technology.", "However, this status was revoked in July 2021, when UNESCO resolved that recent and proposed developments, such as the Bramley-Moore Dock Stadium and Liverpool Waters projects, had resulted in the \"serious deterioration\" of the area's significance.===Waterfront and docks===The Liverpool Waterfront with the Port of Liverpool Building, Museum of Liverpool, Royal Albert Dock and Wheel of Liverpool all visibleModern office and commercial developments on the Liverpool WaterfrontAs a major British port, the docks in Liverpool have historically been central to the city's development.", "Several major docking firsts have occurred in the city including the construction of the world's first enclosed wet dock (the Old Dock) in 1715 and the first ever hydraulic lifting cranes.", "The best-known dock in Liverpool is the Royal Albert Dock, which was constructed in 1846 and today comprises the largest single collection of Grade I listed buildings anywhere in Britain.", "Built under the guidance of Jesse Hartley, it was considered to be one of the most advanced docks anywhere in the world upon completion and is often attributed with helping the city to become one of the most important ports in the world.", "Today, the Royal Albert Dock houses restaurants, bars, shops, two hotels as well as the Merseyside Maritime Museum, International Slavery Museum, Tate Liverpool and The Beatles Story.", "North of the city centre is Stanley Dock, home to the Stanley Dock Tobacco Warehouse, which was at the time of its construction in 1901, the world's largest building in terms of area and today stands as the world's largest brick-work building.One of the most famous locations in Liverpool is the Pier Head, renowned for the trio of buildings – the Royal Liver Building, the Cunard Building and the Port of Liverpool Building – which sit upon it.", "Collectively referred to as the ''Three Graces'', these buildings stand as a testament to the great wealth in the city during the late 19th and early 20th century.", "Built in a variety of architectural styles, they are recognised as being the symbol of 'maritime Liverpool' and are regarded by many as contributing to one of the most impressive waterfronts in the world.In the 21st century, several areas along Liverpool's waterfront have undergone significant redevelopment.", "Among the notable developments are the Museum of Liverpool, the construction of the Liverpool Arena, ACC Liverpool and Exhibition Centre Liverpool on King's Dock, Alexandra Tower and 1 Princes Dock on Prince's Dock and Liverpool Marina around Coburg and Brunswick Docks.", "The Wheel of Liverpool opened on 25 March 2010.However, plans to redevelop parts of Liverpool city centre have been marred by controversy.", "In December 2016, a newly formed company called North Point Global Ltd. was given the rights to develop part of the docks under the \"New Chinatown\" working name.", "Though heavily advertised in Liverpool, Hong Kong and Chinese cities with high profile advertisements and videos, the \"New Chinatown\" development failed to materialise.", "In January 2018, the ''Liverpool Echo'' and ''Asia Times'' revealed that the site remained sans any construction.", "North Point Global as well as its subcontractor \"Bilt\" had both declared bankruptcy, and the small investors (mostly middle class couples) who had already paid money for the apartments had lost most of their savings in them.", "===Commercial district and cultural quarter===St George's HallMunicipal BuildingsLiverpool's historic position as one of the most important trading ports in the world has meant that over time many grand buildings have been constructed in the city as headquarters for shipping firms, insurance companies, banks and other large firms.", "The great wealth this brought then allowed for the development of grand civic buildings, which were designed to allow the local administrators to 'run the city with pride'.The commercial district is centred on the Castle Street, Dale Street and Old Hall Street areas of the city, with many of the area's roads still following their medieval layout.", "Having developed predominantly over a period of three centuries, the area is regarded as one of the most important architectural locations in the city, as recognised by its inclusion in Liverpool's former World Heritage site.The oldest building in the area is the Grade I listed Liverpool Town Hall, which is located at the top of Castle Street and dates from 1754.Often regarded as the city's finest piece of Georgian architecture, the building is known as one of the most extravagantly decorated civic buildings anywhere in Britain.", "Also on Castle Street is the Grade I listed Bank of England Building, constructed between 1845 and 1848, as one of only three provincial branches of the national bank.", "Among the other buildings in the area are the Tower Buildings, Albion House (the former White Star Line headquarters), the Municipal Buildings and Oriel Chambers, which is considered to be one of the earliest Modernist style buildings ever built.The area around William Brown Street is referred to as the city's 'Cultural Quarter', owing to the presence of numerous civic buildings, including the William Brown Library, Walker Art Gallery, Picton Reading Rooms and World Museum Liverpool.", "The area is dominated by neo-classical architecture, of which the most prominent, St George's Hall, is widely regarded as the best example of a neo-classical building anywhere in Europe.", "A Grade I listed building, it was constructed between 1840 and 1855 to serve a variety of civic functions in the city and its doors are inscribed with \"S.P.Q.L.\"", "(Latin ''senatus populusque Liverpudliensis''), meaning \"the senate and people of Liverpool\".", "William Brown Street is also home to numerous public monuments and sculptures, including Wellington's Column and the Steble Fountain.", "Many others are located around the area, particularly in St John's Gardens, which was specifically developed for this purpose.", "The William Brown Street area has been likened to a modern recreation of the Roman Forum.===Other notable landmarks===Speke Hall Tudor manor house is one of Liverpool's oldest buildings.Liverpool Cathedral, the largest cathedral in the UKSefton Park Palm HouseWhile the majority of Liverpool's architecture dates from the mid-18th century onwards, there are several buildings that pre-date this time.", "One of the oldest surviving buildings is Speke Hall, a Tudor manor house located in the south of the city, which was completed in 1598.The building is one of the few remaining timber framed Tudor houses left in the north of England and is particularly noted for its Victorian interiors, which were added in the mid-19th century.", "In addition to Speke Hall, many of the city's other oldest surviving buildings are also former manor houses including Croxteth Hall and Woolton Hall, which were completed in 1702 and 1704 respectively.The oldest building within the city centre is the Grade I listed Bluecoat Chambers, which was built between 1717 and 1718.Constructed in British Queen Anne style architecture, the building was influenced in part by the work of Christopher Wren and was originally the home of the Bluecoat School (who later moved to a larger site in Wavertree in the south of the city).", "Since 1908, it has acted as a centre for arts in Liverpool.Liverpool is noted for having two Cathedrals, each of which imposes over the landscape around it.", "The Anglican Cathedral, which was constructed between 1904 and 1978, is the largest Cathedral in Britain and the fifth largest in the world.", "Designed and built in Gothic style, it is regarded as one of the greatest buildings to have been constructed during the 20th century and was described by former British Poet Laureate, John Betjeman, as \"one of the great buildings of the world\".", "The Roman Catholic Metropolitan Cathedral was constructed between 1962 and 1967 and is known as one of the first cathedrals to break the traditional longitudinal design.In the 21st century, many parts of Liverpool's city centre have undergone significant redevelopment and regeneration after years of decline.", "So far, the largest of these developments has been Liverpool One, which saw almost £1 billion invested in the redevelopment of of land, providing new retail, commercial, residential and leisure space.", "Around the north of the city centre, several new skyscrapers have also been constructed including the RIBA award-winning Unity Buildings and West Tower, which at 140m is Liverpool's tallest building.", "Many redevelopment schemes are also in progress including Circus, King's Dock, Paddington Village and Liverpool Waters.", "There are many other notable buildings in Liverpool, including the art deco former terminal building of Speke Airport, the University of Liverpool's Victoria Building, (which provided the inspiration for the term ''Red Brick University''), and the Adelphi Hotel, which was in the past considered to be one of the finest hotels anywhere in the world.===Parks and gardens===The Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England describes Merseyside's Victorian Parks as collectively the \"most important in the country\".", "The city of Liverpool has ten listed parks and cemeteries, including two Grade I and five Grade II, more than any other English city apart from London." ], [ "Transport", "Liverpool has an extensive transport infrastructure that connects the city with its metropolitan area, the rest of the United Kingdom, Europe and the world.", "Various modes of transport provide considerable connections by road, rail, air and sea.", "The local network of buses, trains and ferries is managed by Merseytravel on behalf of the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority and the Metro Mayor of the Liverpool City Region.", "The Mayor and Combined Authority have control of a devolved transport budget and associated transport powers for this local system.", "The city's major port and international airport provide global links for both passengers and freight.===National and international travel=======Roads====The Liverpool city centre entrance to the Queensway tunnel under the River MerseyThe city of Liverpool proper sits at the centre of a much larger metropolitan area.", "The city's suburbs run contiguously in to the neighbouring boroughs of the Liverpool City Region, a heavily urbanised region with substantial road links to many other areas within England.", "The city is surrounded by a network of six motorways (M58 to the north, M56 to the south, M6 & M62 to the east and M53 to the west).", "The M57 also acts as an outer ring road and bypass for the city of Liverpool itself.", "To the north, the M58 motorway runs 12 miles and provides links from Liverpool to the neighbouring counties of Lancashire and Greater Manchester.", "To the south, Liverpool is connected to Widnes and Warrington via the A562 and across the River Mersey to Runcorn, via the Silver Jubilee and Mersey Gateway bridges.", "The M56 motorway then provides routes in to parts of the neighbouring counties of Cheshire and Greater Manchester, with connections to the Wirral and North Wales.", "To the east, the M62 motorway connects Liverpool with Hull and along the route to several large cities including Manchester, Leeds and Bradford.", "The M62 also provides a connection to both the M6 and M1 motorways, providing indirect links to more distant areas including Birmingham, London, Nottingham, Preston and Sheffield.", "To the west of the city, the Kingsway and Queensway Tunnels connect Liverpool with the Wirral Peninsula, including Birkenhead, and Wallasey.", "The A41 road and M53 motorway, which both begin in Birkenhead, link to Cheshire and Shropshire and via the A55, to North Wales.", "The M57 acts as a 10 mile ring road for the city itself and links various towns east of the city with the M62 and M58 motorways.====Railway====Liverpool Lime Street Station, one of the busiest train stations in the UK outside LondonLiverpool is served by two separate rail networks.", "The local rail network is managed and run by Merseyrail and provides links throughout the Liverpool city region and beyond (see Local travel below).", "The national network, which is managed by Network Rail, provides Liverpool with connections to major towns and cities across England.", "The city's primary main line station is Lime Street station, which is the terminus for several lines into the city.", "The station is served by a number of different train operating companies including Avanti West Coast, East Midlands Railway, London North Eastern Railway, Northern Rail, TransPennine Express and West Midlands Trains.", "Between them, the station is connected with direct train services to numerous destinations including London (in 2 hours 8 minutes with Pendolino trains), Birmingham, Glasgow, Hull, Leeds, Manchester, Newcastle upon Tyne, Norwich, Nottingham, Preston, Scarborough, Sheffield and York.", "Opened in 1836, Lime Street station is the world's oldest mainline terminus station still in use.", "In the south of the city, Liverpool South Parkway provides a connection to the city's airport.====Port====The Port of Liverpool connects passengers and freight to Liverpool from all around the world.", "Passenger ferry services depart from the city across the Irish Sea to Belfast, Dublin and the Isle of Man.", "Services are provided by several companies, including the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company, P&O Ferries and Stena Line.", "The Liverpool Cruise Terminal handles over 200,000 passengers and crew annually and is located alongside the Pier Head in the city centre.", "Berthing facilities for long-distance passenger cruises are provided and served by a large number of different cruise lines.", "Ports in Australia, France, Faroe Islands, Iceland, North America, Norway, Spain and the Caribbean are served by the facility.", "The cruise lines that call at Liverpool cruise terminal include the following:AmbassadorAtlas Ocean VoyagesAzamaraCarnival Cruise LineCelebrity CruisesCunard LineDisney Cruise LineFred OlsenHapag-Lloyd cruisesHolland America LineNoble CaledoniaNorwegianP&O CruisesPrincess CruisesRegent Seven SeasRoyal CaribbeanSaga CruisesSilversea CruisesVikingIn terms of freight traffic today, the Port of Liverpool is the 4th busiest port in the UK by tonnage.", "It is the main port in the country for transatlantic trade and the largest port on the west coast of the UK.", "The Royal Seaforth and Liverpool2 container terminals are the port's two main terminals and handle a wide variety of cargo including containers, liquid and dry bulk cargoes such as coal and grain, biomass and roll-on/roll-off cargoes such as cars and trucks.Leeds and Liverpool Canal runs into Liverpool city centre via Liverpool Canal Link at Pier Head since 2009.====Airport====Liverpool John Lennon Airport terminal buildingLiverpool John Lennon Airport, which is located in the south of the city, provides Liverpool with direct air connections across the United Kingdom and Europe.", "It offers direct services to over 60 airports world wide and to over 100 destinations via one-stop connections in Frankfurt, Dublin and Reykjavík.", "The airport is primarily served by low-cost airlines namely Aer Lingus, easyJet, Jet2.com, Loganair, Lufthansa, Play, Ryanair, Widerøe and Wizz Air, although it does provide facilities for private aircraft.", "Jet2 have announced that new services to winter sun destinations will be starting from winter 2024 to destinations such as Lanzarote & Tenerife.===Local travel=======Trains====Class 777 train operated by MerseyrailLiverpool's urban railway network, known as Merseyrail, is one of the busiest and most extensive in the country.", "The network provides approximately 30 million passenger journeys per year, across a system of 69 stations throughout Liverpool's metropolitan area, within the formal boundaries of the Liverpool city region and adjacent areas of Cheshire and Lancashire.", "The network consists of three lines: the Northern Line, which runs to Southport, Ormskirk, Headbolt Lane and Hunts Cross; the Wirral Line, which runs through the Mersey Railway Tunnel and has branches to New Brighton, West Kirby, Chester and Ellesmere Port; and the City Line, which begins at Lime Street, providing links to St Helens, Wigan, Preston, Warrington and Manchester.", "The network is predominantly electric and covers of track.", "Trains are owned and operated by the Merseyrail franchise and managed by Merseytravel under the direction of the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority.", "Local services on the City Line are operated by Northern rather than Merseyrail, although the line itself remains part of the Merseyrail network.", "Within Liverpool city centre, four stations and over of tunnels are underground.", "Hamilton Square and Liverpool James Street are the oldest deep level underground stations in the world.", "In 2023, for the first time in UK history, battery-powered passenger trains launched on Merseyrail tracks from the newly opened Headbolt Lane station in Kirkby.", "The Liverpool City Region Combined Authority's long term \"Merseyrail for All\" plan is to reduce dependency on live third rail and promote battery power in order to further expand Merseyrail to previously inaccessible places across the city region and as far as Manchester, Wrexham, Warrington and Preston.====Buses====Liverpool South Parkway, a bus & rail interchange serving south Liverpool & Liverpool John Lennon AirportLocal bus services within and around Liverpool are managed by Merseytravel and are run by several different companies, including Arriva and Stagecoach.", "The two principal termini for local buses are Queen Square bus station (located near Lime Street railway station) for services north and east of the city, and Liverpool One bus station (located near the Royal Albert Dock) for services to the south and east.", "Cross-river services to the Wirral use roadside terminus points in Castle Street and Sir Thomas Street.", "A night bus service also operates on Saturdays providing services from the city centre across Liverpool and wider region.", "Tour bus services are provided by Maghull Coaches which allow tourists to hop-on-hop-off and view historical landmarks and attractions, as well as Liverpool F.C.", "and Beatles related locations.", "National Express services operate from the Liverpool One bus station to and from destinations across the UK.", "In 2023, the Liverpool city region confirmed plans to become the second place outside London to implement bus franchising.", "Local leaders have argued that it will improve services by transferring control over fares, ticketing and routes from bus companies to the Combined Authority.", "The full implementation of bus franchising will take place by the end of 2028.====Mersey Ferry====A Mersey Ferry (foreground) with the Liverpool waterfront in the distanceThe cross-river ferry service in Liverpool, known as the Mersey Ferry, is managed and operated by Merseytravel, with services operating between the Pier Head in Liverpool city centre and both Woodside in Birkenhead and Seacombe in Wallasey.", "Services operate at intervals ranging from 20 minutes, at peak times, to every hour during the middle of the day and at weekends.", "Despite remaining an important transport link between the city and the Wirral Peninsula, the Mersey Ferry has become an increasingly popular tourist attraction within the city, with daytime River Explorer Cruises providing passengers with an historical overview of the River Mersey and surrounding areas.===Cycling and scooters===A scooter-sharing system and electric bicycle scheme operates throughout Liverpool which allows residents and visitors to move around the city on rented scooters and bicycles.", "The scheme is operated by Swedish technology company Voi, and riders are able to pick up and drop off bikes and scooters at various locations around the city.", "National Cycle Route 56, National Cycle Route 62 and National Cycle Route 810 run through Liverpool." ], [ "Culture", "As with other large cities, Liverpool is an important cultural centre within the United Kingdom, incorporating music, performing arts, museums and art galleries, literature and nightlife among others.", "In 2008, the cultural heritage of the city was celebrated with the city holding the title of European Capital of Culture, during which time a wide range of cultural celebrations took place in the city, including Go Superlambananas!", "and La Princesse.", "Liverpool has also held Europe's largest music and poetry event, the Welsh national Eisteddfod, three times, despite being in England, in 1884, 1900, and 1929.===Music===The Beatles statue in their home city Liverpool.", "The group are the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed band in popular music.Liverpool is internationally known for music and is recognised by ''Guinness World Records'' as the \"World Capital City of Pop\".", "Musicians from the city have produced 58 No.", "1 singles, more than any other city in the world.", "Both the most successful male band and girl group in global music history have contained Liverpudlian members.", "Liverpool is most famous as the birthplace of the Beatles and during the 1960s was at the forefront of the Beat Music movement, which would eventually lead to the British Invasion.", "Many notable musicians of the time originated in the city including Billy J. Kramer, Cilla Black, Gerry and the Pacemakers and The Searchers.", "The influence of musicians from Liverpool, coupled with other cultural exploits of the time, such as the Liverpool poets, prompted American poet Allen Ginsberg to proclaim that the city was \"the centre of consciousness of the human universe\".", "Other musicians from Liverpool include Billy Fury, A Flock of Seagulls, Echo & the Bunnymen, Frankie Goes to Hollywood, Frankie Vaughan, Anathema, Ladytron, The Zutons, Cast, Atomic Kitten and Rebecca Ferguson.", "The La's 1990 hit single \"There She Goes\" was described by ''Rolling Stone'' as a \"founding piece of Britpop's foundation.", "\"Philharmonic Hall, home of the Royal Liverpool PhilharmonicThe city is also home to the oldest surviving professional symphony orchestra in the UK, the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra, which is based in the Philharmonic Hall.", "The chief conductor of the orchestra is Vasily Petrenko.", "Sir Edward Elgar dedicated his Pomp and Circumstance March No.", "1 to the Liverpool Orchestral Society, and the piece had its first performance in the city in 1901.Among Liverpool's curiosities, the Austrian émigré Fritz Spiegl is notable.", "He not only became a world expert on the etymology of Scouse, but composed the music to Z-cars and the Radio 4 UK Theme.Well established festivals in the city include Africa Oyé and Brazilica which are the UK's largest free African and Brazilian music festivals respectively.", "The dance music festival Creamfields was established by the Liverpool-based Cream clubbing brand which started life as a weekly event at Nation nightclub.", "There are numerous music venues located across the city, however, the Liverpool Arena is by far the largest.", "Opened in 2008, the 11,000-seat arena hosted the MTV Europe Music Awards the same year, and since then has played host to world-renowned acts such as Andrea Bocelli, Beyoncé, Elton John, Kanye West, Kasabian, The Killers, Lady Gaga, Oasis, Pink, Rihanna, and UB40.The Eurovision Village stage at the Pier Head, held as a side event for the Eurovision Song Contest 2023On 7 October 2022, the BBC and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) announced that Liverpool would host the Eurovision Song Contest 2023 on behalf of the previous year's winning country Ukraine, which was unable to meet the demands of hosting the event due to security concerns caused by the Russian invasion of the country.", "The contest was held at Liverpool Arena, and consisted of two semi-finals on 9 and 11 May and a final on 13 May 2023.This was the first time that the contest took place in the city, and was also a record-extending ninth time that the UK has hosted the contest, having last done so in Birmingham in 1998.===Visual arts===William Brown Street, also known as the Cultural Quarter, was a World Heritage Site consisting of the World Museum, Central Library, Picton Reading Room and Walker Art Gallery.Liverpool has more galleries and national museums than any other city in the United Kingdom apart from London.", "National Museums Liverpool is the only English national collection based wholly outside London.", "The Tate Liverpool gallery houses the modern art collection of the Tate in the North of England and was, until the opening of Tate Modern, the largest exhibition space dedicated to modern art in the United Kingdom.", "The FACT centre hosts touring multimedia exhibitions, while the Walker Art Gallery houses one of the most impressive permanent collections of Pre-Raphaelite art in the world.", "Sudley House contains another major collection of pre-20th-century art.", "Liverpool University's Victoria Building was re-opened as a public art gallery and museum to display the university's artwork and historical collections which include the largest display of art by Audubon outside the US.", "A number of artists have also come from the city, including painter George Stubbs who was born in Liverpool in 1724.The Liverpool Biennial festival of arts runs from mid-September to late November and comprises three main sections; the International, The Independents and New Contemporaries although fringe events are timed to coincide.", "It was during the 2004 festival that Yoko Ono's work \"My mother is beautiful\" caused widespread public protest when photographs of a naked woman's pubic area were exhibited on the main shopping street.Nelson Monument at Exchange Flags.", "The other British hero of the Napoleonic Wars is commemorated in Wellington's Column.===Literature===Felicia Hemans (née Browne) was born in Dale Street, Liverpool, in 1793, although she later moved to Flintshire, in Wales.", "Felicia was born in Liverpool, a granddaughter of the Venetian consul in that city.", "Her father's business soon brought the family to Denbighshire in North Wales, where she spent her youth.", "They made their home near Abergele and St. Asaph (Flintshire), and it is clear that she came to regard herself as Welsh by adoption, later referring to Wales as \"Land of my childhood, my home and my dead\".", "Her first poems, dedicated to the Prince of Wales, were published in Liverpool in 1808, when she was only fourteen, arousing the interest of Percy Bysshe Shelley, who briefly corresponded with her.An engraving of a painting of by S. F. Serres was published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1834 with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon to which she adds the note 'I believe that to this haunted gate, a common superstition is attached, namely, that to wish, and to have that wish fulfilled, is the result of such wish being uttered while passing'.", "It stood on the North Shore before the docks were built and was a place where farewells could be waved to departing voyagers.A number of notable authors have visited Liverpool, including Daniel Defoe, Washington Irving, Thomas De Quincey, Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Charles Dickens, Gerard Manley Hopkins and Hugh Walpole.", "Daniel Defoe, after visiting the city, described it, as \"one of the wonders of Britain in his 'Tour through England and Wales'\".Herman Melville's novel Redburn deals with the first seagoing voyage of 19 years old Wellingborough Redburn between New York and Liverpool in 1839.Largely autobiographical, the middle sections of the book are set in Liverpool and describe the young merchantman's wanderings, and his reflections.", "Hawthorne was stationed in Liverpool as United States consul between 1853 and 1856.Charles Dickens visited the city on numerous occasions to give public readings.", "Hopkins served as priest at St Francis Xavier Church, Langdale St., Liverpool, between 1879 and 81.Although he is not known to have ever visited Liverpool, Jung famously had a vivid dream of the city which he analysed in one of his works.Constantine P. Cavafy, widely regarded as one of the most important figures in Western literature, spent a significant part of his life in LiverpoolOf all the poets who are connected with Liverpool, perhaps the greatest is Constantine P. Cavafy, a twentieth-century Greek cultural icon, although he was born in Alexandria.", "From a wealthy family, his father had business interests in Egypt, London and Liverpool.", "After his father's death, Cavafy's mother brought him in 1872 at the age of nine to Liverpool, where he spent part of his childhood being educated.", "He lived first in Balmoral Road, then when the family firm crashed, he lived in poorer circumstances in Huskisson Street.", "After his father died in 1870, Cavafy and his family settled for a while in Liverpool.", "In 1876, his family faced financial problems due to the Long Depression of 1873, so, by 1877, they had to move back to Alexandria.", "''Her Benny'', a novel telling the tragic story of Liverpool street urchins in the 1870s, written by Methodist preacher Silas K. Hocking, was a best-seller and the first book to sell a million copies in the author's lifetime.", "The prolific writer of adventure novels, Harold Edward Bindloss (1866–1945), was born in Liverpool.The writer, docker and political activist George Garrett was born in Seacombe, on the Wirral Peninsula in 1896 and was brought up in Liverpool's South end, around Park Road, the son of a fierce Liverpool–Irish Catholic mother and a staunch 'Orange' stevedore father.", "In the 1920s and 1930s, his organisation within the Seamen's Vigilance Committees, unemployed demonstrations, and hunger marches from Liverpool became part of a wider cultural force.", "He spoke at reconciliation meetings in sectarian Liverpool, and helped found the Unity Theatre in the 1930s as part of the Popular Front against the rise of fascism, particularly its echoes in the Spanish Civil War.", "Garrett died in 1966.The novelist and playwright James Hanley (1897–1985) was born in Kirkdale, Liverpool, in 1897 (not Dublin, nor 1901 as he generally implied) to a working-class family.", "Hanley grew up close to the docks and much of his early writing is about seamen.", "''The Furys'' (1935) is first in a sequence of five loosely autobiographical novels about working-class life in Liverpool.", "James Hanley's brother, novelist Gerald Hanley (1916–92) was also born in Liverpool (not County Cork, Ireland, as he claimed).", "While he published a number of novels he also wrote radio plays for the BBC as well as some film scripts, most notably ''The Blue Max'' (1966).", "He was also one of several scriptwriters for a life of Gandhi (1964).", "Novelist Beryl Bainbridge (1932–2010) was born in Liverpool and raised in nearby Formby.", "She was primarily known for her works of psychological fiction, often set among the English working classes.", "Bainbridge won the Whitbread Awards prize for best novel in 1977 and 1996 and was nominated five times for the Booker Prize.", "''The Times'' newspaper named Bainbridge among their list of \"The 50 greatest British writers since 1945\".J.", "G. Farrell was born in Liverpool in 1935 but left at the outbreak of war in 1939.A novelist of Irish descent, Farrell gained prominence for his historical fiction, most notably his ''Empire Trilogy'' (''Troubles'', ''The Siege of Krishnapur'' and ''The Singapore Grip''), dealing with the political and human consequences of British colonial rule.", "However, his career ended when he drowned in Ireland in 1979 at the age of 44.Clive Barker, Liverpool born writer of Hellraiser and inspiration behind CandymanHelen Forrester was the pen name of June Bhatia (née Huband) (1919–2011), who was known for her books about her early childhood in Liverpool during the Great Depression, including ''Twopence to Cross the Mersey'' (1974), as well as several works of fiction.", "During the late 1960s the city became well known for the Liverpool poets, who include Roger McGough and the late Adrian Henri.", "An anthology of poems, ''The Mersey Sound'', written by Henri, McGough and Brian Patten, has sold well since it was first being published in 1967.Liverpool has produced several noted writers of horror fiction, often set on Merseyside – Ramsey Campbell, Clive Barker and Peter Atkins among them.", "A collection of Liverpudlian horror fiction, ''Spook City'' was edited by a Liverpool expatriate, Angus Mackenzie, and introduced by Doug Bradley, also from Liverpool.", "Bradley is famed for portraying Barker's creation Pinhead in the ''Hellraiser'' series of films.===Performing arts===Empire Theatre has the largest two-tier auditorium in the UK.Liverpool also has a long history of performing arts, reflected in several annual theatre festivals such as the Liverpool Shakespeare Festival, which takes place inside Liverpool Cathedral and in the adjacent historic St James' Gardens every summer; the Everyword Festival of new theatre writing, the only one of its kind in the country; Physical Fest, an international festival of physical theatre; the annual festivals organised by Liverpool John Moores University's drama department and the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts; and other festivals by the large number of theatres in the city, such as the Empire, Epstein, Everyman, Playhouse, Royal Court, and Unity theatres.Notable actors and actresses from Liverpool include Arthur Askey, Tom Baker, Kim Cattrall, Jodie Comer, Stephen Graham, Rex Harrison, Jason Isaacs, Tina Malone, the McGann brothers (Joe, Mark, Paul, and Stephen), David Morrissey, Elizabeth Morton, Peter Serafinowicz, Elisabeth Sladen, Alison Steadman, and Rita Tushingham.", "Actors and actresses from elsewhere in the world have strong ties to the city, such as Canadian actor Mike Myers (whose parents were both from Liverpool) and American actress Halle Berry (whose mother was from Liverpool).===Nightlife===Nightlife in Mathew Street and Temple Court, Liverpool city centreLiverpool has a thriving and varied nightlife.", "The majority of the city's late-night restaurants, bars, pubs, nightclubs, music venues and comedy clubs are located in a number of distinct districts.In 2023, figures from global data company Square show that night-time spending in bars and restaurants in Liverpool city centre outperformed all major UK cities, including London.Figures by the Liverpool BID Company suggest that the busiest nights of the week in Liverpool city centre are Friday and Saturday.", "Using cameras to track the flow of people in key locations between 7 pm and 4 am, at least 1.5 million people pass through the city centre every Friday night and almost 2 million people on Saturday nights.", "The data demonstrates that Monday night is the quietest night of the week in the city centre and footfall then increases every single night to reach its peak on Saturday nights.", "125,889 people worked in the city's night time economy as of 2022, according to the Liverpool BID Company.Liverpool's nightlife is concentrated in a number of districts including Ropewalks which comprises Concert Square, St. Peter's Square and the adjoining Seel Street and Duke Street.", "Other popular areas include Hardman Street, the Cavern Quarter, Baltic Triangle, Royal Albert Dock and the city's Pride Quarter, which is home to a large number of LGBT venues.In the city's suburbs, Lark Lane in Aigburth is noted for an abundance of bars and late-night venues." ], [ "Education", "University of Liverpool's Victoria BuildingIn Liverpool primary and secondary education is available in various forms supported by the state including secular, Church of England, Jewish, and Roman Catholic.", "Islamic education is available at primary level, but there is no secondary provision.One of Liverpool's important early schools was The Liverpool Blue Coat School; founded in 1708 as a charitable school.The Liverpool Blue Coat School is the top-performing school in the city with 100% 5 or more A-C grades at GCSE resulting in the 30th best GCSE results in the country and an average point score per student of 1087.4 in A/AS levels.", "Other notable schools include Liverpool College founded in 1840 Merchant Taylors' School founded in 1620.Another of Liverpool's notable senior schools is St. Edward's College situated in the West Derby area of the city.", "Historic grammar schools, such as the Liverpool Institute High School and Liverpool Collegiate School—both closed in the 1980s—are still remembered as centres of academic excellence.", "Bellerive Catholic College is the city's top-performing non-selective school, based upon GCSE results in 2007.Liverpool John Moores University's James Parsons BuildingLiverpool has three universities: the University of Liverpool, Liverpool John Moores University and Liverpool Hope University.", "Edge Hill University, founded as a teacher-training college in the Edge Hill district of Liverpool, is now located in Ormskirk in South-West Lancashire.", "Liverpool is also home to the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts (LIPA).The University of Liverpool was established in 1881 as University College Liverpool.", "In 1884, it became part of the federal Victoria University.", "Following a Royal Charter and Act of Parliament in 1903, it became an independent university, the University of Liverpool, with the right to confer its own degrees.", "It was the first university to offer degrees in biochemistry, architecture, civic design, veterinary science, oceanography and social science.City of Liverpool College's Arts Centre Liverpool Hope University, which was formed through the merger of three colleges, the earliest of which was founded in 1844, gained university status in 2005.It is the only ecumenical university in Europe.", "It is situated on both sides of Taggart Avenue in Childwall and has a second campus in the city centre (the Cornerstone).The Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, founded to address some of the problems created by trade, continues today as a post-graduate school affiliated with the University of Liverpool and houses an anti-venom repository.Liverpool John Moores University was previously a polytechnic, and gained status in 1992.It is named in honour of Sir John Moores, one of the founders of the Littlewoods football pools and retail group, who was a major benefactor.", "The institution was previously owned and run by Liverpool City Council.", "It traces it lineage to the Liverpool Mechanics' institute, opened in 1823, making it by this measure England's third-oldest university.The city has one further education college, City of Liverpool College in the city centre.", "Liverpool City Council operates Burton Manor, a residential adult education college in nearby Burton, on the Wirral Peninsula.There are two Jewish schools in Liverpool, both belonging to the King David Foundation.", "King David School, Liverpool, is the High School and the King David Primary School.", "There is also a King David Kindergarten, featured in the community centre of Harold House.", "These schools are all run by the King David Foundation located in Harold House in Childwall; conveniently next door to the Childwall Synagogue." ], [ "Sport", "===Football===The Merseyside derby is the football match between the two biggest clubs in the city; Liverpool in red and Everton in blueLiverpool is one of the most successful footballing cities in England, and is home to two top flight Premier League teams.", "Everton F.C.", "was founded in 1878 and was one of the twelve founder members of the Football League.", "It plays at Goodison Park.", "Liverpool F.C.", "were founded in 1892 and play at Anfield.", "Between them, the clubs have won 28 English First Division titles, 12 FA Cup titles, 10 League Cup titles, 6 European Cup titles, 1 FIFA Club World Cup title, 1 European Cup Winners' Cup title, 3 UEFA Cup titles, and 24 FA Charity Shields.The two clubs contest the Merseyside derby, dubbed the 'friendly derby'.", "Despite the name the fixture is known for its keen rivalry, having seen more sending-offs in this fixture than any other.", "Unlike many other derbies it is not rare for families in the city to contain supporters of both clubs.", "Liverpool F.C.", "is the English and British club with the most European Cup titles with six, the latest in 2019.Anfield, home of Liverpool F.C.Liverpool has played at Anfield since 1892, when the club was formed to occupy the stadium following Everton's departure due to a dispute with their landlord.", "Liverpool are still playing there 125 years later, although the ground has been completely rebuilt since the 1970s.", "The Spion Kop (rebuilt as an all-seater stand in 1994–95) was the most famous part of the ground, gaining cult status across the world due to the songs and celebrations of the many fans who packed onto its terraces.", "Anfield as capacity for 54,000 spectators in comfort and is a distinctive landmark in an area filled with smaller and older buildings.", "Liverpool club also has a multimillion-pound youth training facility called The Academy.Goodison Park, home of Everton F.C.", "After leaving Anfield in 1892, Everton moved to Goodison Park on the opposite side of Stanley Park.", "The ground was opened on 24 August 1892, by Lord Kinnaird and Frederick Wall of the FA but the first crowds to attend the ground saw a short athletics meeting followed by a selection of music and a fireworks display.", "Everton's first game there was on 2 September 1892 when they beat Bolton 4–2.It was one of the host venues during the 1966 FIFA World Cup.", "It now has the capacity for just under 40,000 spectators all-seated, but the last expansion took place in 1994 when a new Park End Stand gave the stadium an all-seater capacity.", "The Goodison Road Stand dates back to the 1970s, while the Gwladys Steet Stand and Bullens Road Stand are refurbished pre-Second World War structures.", "Everton is currently in the process of relocating, with a stadium move first mooted as early as 1996.In 2003, the club were forced to abandon plans for a 55,000-seat stadium at King's Dock due to financial constraints, with further proposed moves to Kirkby (comprising part of Destination Kirkby, moving the stadium just beyond Liverpool's council boundary into Kirkby) and Walton Hall Park similarly scrapped.", "The club will relocate to the multimillion-pound Everton Stadium designed by the American architect Dan Meis at the nearby Bramley-Moore Dock on the River Mersey waterfront during the 2024/25 season, with ground broken on the project in August 2021.The new stadium will have a capacity of 52,888 which could be expanded to 62,000 demand permitting and it will be a host venue for the UEFA Euro 2028.Everton also have a multimillion-pound training facility based at Finch Farm.", "The Everton Women's Team play in the Women's Super League at the Walton Hall Park Stadium.===Rugby league===Rugby league is a developing sport in Liverpool, with many community partners assisting the sport's governing body (RFL) to offer opportunities to participate.", "These include well established professional clubs in the neighbouring towns of St. Helens and Widnes.", "The city has a thriving student rugby league scene; Liverpool University took part in the first university game in 1968 and the other universities have been regular participants in the BUSA competition.Today there are a number of non-professional clubs in the city, including Liverpool Buccaneers, who in 2006 won the regional final of the Rugby League Conference and in 2008 were elevated to the Rugby League Conference National division.", "Two junior clubs, ''Liverpool Lions'' (based in Croxteth) and ''Liverpool Storm'' (based in Childwall), have been established in 2008.They will be competing in the NWC Junior leagues in 2009.Rugby league has more recently returned to Huyton-with-Roby in the form of the Huyton Bulldogs A.R.L.F.C.", "Huyton Bulldogs currently compete in the RL Merit League, and their home ground is at the Jubilee Playing Fields, Twig Lane, Huyton.A number of secondary schools throughout Merseyside are now participating in the inaugural merit league and 2008 is the first year that Merseyside schools have qualified for the RFL's Champion Schools tournament.", "Primary schools have been competing in tag festivals for a few years and the annual Tag World Cup is one of the major events in the Liverpool schools' competition calendar.===Boxing===Boxing is massively popular in Liverpool.", "The city has a proud heritage and history in the sport and is home to around 22 amateur boxing clubs, which are responsible for producing many successful boxers, such as Nel Tarleton, Alan Rudkin, John Conteh, Andy Holligan, Liam Smith, Paul Hodkinson, Tony Bellew and Robin Ried.", "The city also boasts a consistently strong amateur contingent which is highlighted by Liverpool being the most represented city on the GB Boxing team, as well as at the 2012 London Olympics, the most notable Liverpool amateur fighters include; Jimmy Lloyd, George Turpin, Tony Willis, Robin Reid and David Price who have all medalled at the Olympic Games.", "Boxing events are usually hosted at the Echo Arena and Liverpool Olympia within the city, although the former home of Liverpool boxing was the renowned Liverpool Stadium.===Horse racing===The Earl of Derby Stand at Aintree Racecourse; home of the Grand National Aintree Racecourse in the adjacent Metropolitan Borough of Sefton is home to the world's most famous steeple-chase, the Randox Grand National which takes place annually in early April.", "The race meeting attracts horse owners/ jockeys from around the world to compete in the demanding and 30-fence course.", "There have been many memorable moments of the Grand National, for instance, the 100/1 outsider Foinavon in 1967, the dominant Red Rum and Ginger McCain of the 1970s and Mon Mome (100/1) who won the 2009 meeting.", "In 2010, the National became the first horse race to be televised in high-definition in the UK.===Golf===The Royal Liverpool Golf Club, situated in the nearby town of Hoylake on the Wirral Peninsula, has hosted The Open Championship on a number of occasions, most recently in 2023.It also hosted the Walker Cup in 1983.The Royal Liverpool Golf Club, Hoylake===Greyhound racing===Liverpool once contained four greyhound tracks, Seaforth Greyhound Stadium (1933–1965), Breck Park Stadium (1927–1948), Stanley Greyhound Stadium (1927–1961) and.White City Stadium (1932–1973).", "Breck Park also hosted boxing bouts and both Stanley and Seaforth hosted Motorcycle speedway.===Athletics===Wavertree Sports Park is home to the Liverpool Harriers athletics club, which has produced such athletes as Curtis Robb, Allyn Condon (the only British athlete to compete at both the Summer and Winter Olympics), and Katarina Johnson-Thompson; Great Britain was represented by Johnson-Thompson at the 2012 London Olympics in the women's heptathlon, and she would go on to win the gold medal at the 2019 World Championships, giving Liverpool its first gold medal and breaking the British record in the process.===Gymnastics===In August 2012, Liverpool gymnast Beth Tweddle won an Olympic bronze medal in London 2012 in the uneven bars at her third Olympic Games, thus becoming the most decorated British gymnast in history.", "Park Road Gymnastics Centre provides training to a high level.===Swimming===Liverpool has produced several swimmers who have represented their nation at major championships such as the Olympic Games.", "The most notable of which is Steve Parry who claimed a bronze medal at the 2004 Athens Olympics in the 200m butterfly.", "Others include Herbert Nickel Haresnape, Margaret Kelly, Shellagh Ratcliffe and Austin Rawlinson.", "There is a purpose-built aquatics centre at Wavertree Sports Park, which opened in 2008.The City of Liverpool Swimming Club has been National Speedo League Champions 8 out of the last 11 years.===Cricket===Liverpool Cricket ClubThe city is the hub of the Liverpool and District Cricket Competition, an ECB Premier League.", "Sefton Park and Liverpool are the league's founder members based in the city with Wavertree, Alder and Old Xaverians clubs having joined the league more recently.", "Liverpool plays host Lancashire County Cricket Club as an outground most seasons, including six of eight home County Championship games during Lancashire's 2011 title winning campaign while Old Trafford was refurbished.===Tennis===Since 2014 Liverpool Cricket Club has played host to the annual Tradition-ICAP Liverpool International tennis tournament, which has seen tennis stars such as Novak Djokovic, David Ferrer, Mardy Fish, Laura Robson and Caroline Wozniacki.", "Previously this had been held at Calderstones Park, situated in Allerton in the south of the city.", "Liverpool Tennis Development Programme at Wavertree Tennis Centre is one of the largest in the UK.===Basketball===Liverpool Arena hosts numerous sporting events and was formerly the home of British Basketball League team, the Mersey Tigers.Professional basketball came to the city in 2007 with the entry of Everton Tigers, now known as Mersey Tigers, into the elite British Basketball League.", "The club was originally associated with Everton F.C., and was part of the ''Toxteth Tigers'' youth development programme, which reached over 1,500 young people every year.", "The Tigers began to play in Britain's top league for the 2007–08 season, playing at the Greenbank Sports Academy before moving into the newly completed Echo Arena during that season.", "After the 2009–10 season, Everton F.C.", "withdrew funding from the Tigers, who then changed their name to Mersey Tigers.", "Their closest professional rivals are the Cheshire Jets, based away in Chester.===Baseball===Liverpool is one of three cities which still host the traditional sport of British baseball and it hosts the annual England-Wales international match every two years, alternating with Cardiff and Newport.", "Liverpool Trojans are the oldest existing baseball club in the UK.===Cycling===The 2014 Tour of Britain cycle race began in Liverpool on 7 September, using a city centre circuit to complete of racing.", "The Tour of Britain took nine stages and finished in London on 14 September.===Other===A 2016 study of UK fitness centres found that, of the top 20 UK urban areas, Liverpool had the highest number of leisure and sports centres per capita, with 4.3 centres per 100,000 of the city population." ], [ "Media", "The city has one daily newspaper: the ''Echo'', published by Reach plc.", "''The Liverpool Daily Post'' was also published until 2013.The UK's first online only weekly newspaper called ''Southport Reporter'' (''Southport and Mersey Reporter''), is also one of the many other news outlets that cover the city.", "The independent media organisation ''The Post'' also covers Liverpool, while ''Nerve'' magazine publishes articles and reviews of cultural events.LOCAL TV Liverpool is a local television station serving Liverpool City Region and surrounding areas.", "The station is owned and operated by Made Television Ltd and forms part of a group of eight local TV stations.", "It broadcasts from studios and offices in Liverpool.Radio City Tower, home to Radio City and Greatest Hits RadioThe ITV region which covers Liverpool is ITV Granada.", "In 2006, the Television company opened a new newsroom in the Royal Liver Building.", "Granada's regional news broadcasts were produced at the Royal Albert Dock News Centre during the 1980s and 1990s.", "The BBC also opened a new newsroom on Hanover Street in 2006.ITV's daily magazine programme ''This Morning'' was broadcast from studios at Royal Albert Dock until 1996, when production was moved to London.", "Granada's short-lived shopping channel \"Shop!\"", "was also produced in Liverpool until it was cancelled in 2002.Liverpool is the home of the TV production company Lime Pictures, formerly Mersey Television, which produced the now-defunct soap operas ''Brookside'' and ''Grange Hill''.", "It also produces the soap opera ''Hollyoaks'', which was formerly filmed in Chester and began on Channel 4 in 1995.All three series were/are largely filmed in the Childwall area of Liverpool.Radio stations include BBC Radio Merseyside, Liverpool Live Radio, Melodic Distraction, In Demand Radio, Capital Liverpool, Radio City and Greatest Hits Radio Liverpool & The North West.", "The last two are owned by Bauer and located in Radio City Tower which, along with the two cathedrals, dominates the city's skyline.Liverpool has also featured in films; see List of films set in Liverpool for some of them.", "In films the city has \"doubled\" for London, Paris, New York, Chicago, Moscow, Dublin, Venice and Berlin." ], [ "Notable people", ":''See :Category:People from Merseyside''" ], [ "Quotes about Liverpool", " \"Lyrpole, alias Lyverpoole, a pavid towne, hath but a chapel ...", "The king hath a castelet there, and the Earl of Darbe hath a stone howse there.", "Irisch merchants cum much thither, as to a good haven ... At Lyrpole is smaul custom payed, that causith marchantes to resorte thither.", "Good marchandis at Lyrpole, and much Irish yarrn that Manchester men do buy there ...\" – John Leland, ''Itinerary'', –1539* \"Liverpoole is one of the wonders of Britain ...", "In a word, there is no town in England, London excepted, that can equal it for the fineness of the streets, and the beauty of the buildings.\"", "– Daniel Defoe, ''A tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain'', 1721–1726* \"One of the neatest, best towns I have seen in England.\"", "– John Wesley.", "''Journal'', 1755* \"I have not come here to be insulted by a set of wretches, every brick in whose infernal town is cemented with an African's blood.\"", "– George Frederick Cooke (1756–1812), an actor responding to being hissed at when he came onstage drunk during a visit to Liverpool* \"That immense City which stands like another Venice upon the water ... where there are riches overflowing and every thing which can delight a man who wishes to see the prosperity of a great community and a great empire ...", "This quondam village, now fit to be the proud capital of any empire in the world, has started up like an enchanted palace even in the memory of living men.\"", "– Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine, 1791* \"I have heard of the greatness of Liverpool, but the reality far surpasses my expectation.\"", "– Prince Albert, speech, 1846* \"Liverpool ... has become a wonder of the world.", "It is the New York of Europe, a world city rather than merely British provincial.\"", "– ''Illustrated London News'', 15 May 1886* \"The dream represented my situation at the time.", "I can still see the greyish-yellow raincoats, glistening with the wetness of the rain.", "Everything was extremely unpleasant, black and opaque – just as I felt then.", "But I had a vision of unearthly beauty, and that is why I was able to live at all.", "Liverpool is the \"pool of life.\"", "The \"liver,\" according to an old view, is the seat of life, that which makes to live.\"", "– C. G. Jung, ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections'', 1928* \"The centre is imposing, dignified and darkish, like a city in a rather gloomy Victorian novel ... We had now arrived in the heart of the big city, and as usual it was almost a heart of darkness.", "But it looked like a big city, there was no denying that.", "Here, emphatically, was the English seaport second only to London.", "The very weight of stone emphasised that fact.", "And even if the sun never seems to properly rise over it, I like a big city to proclaim itself a big city at once...\" – J.", "B. Priestley, ''English Journey'', 1934* \"If Liverpool can get into top gear again, there is no limit to the city's potential.", "The scale and resilience of the buildings and people is amazing – it is a world city, far more so than London and Manchester.", "It doesn't feel like anywhere else in Lancashire: comparisons always end up overseas – Dublin, or Boston, or Hamburg.", "The city is tremendous, and so, right up to the First World War, were the abilities of the architects who built over it.", "The centre is humane and convenient to walk around in, but never loses its scale.", "And, in spite of the bombings and the carelessness, it is still full of superb buildings.", "Fifty years ago it must have outdone anything in England.\"", "– Ian Nairn, ''Britain's Changing Towns'', 1967" ], [ "International links", "===Twin cities===Liverpool is twinned with:* Surabaya, Indonesia (2017)* Birmingham, Alabama, United States (2015)* Cologne, Germany (1952)* Dublin, Ireland (1997)* Johor Bahru, Malaysia* Medan, Indonesia* Odesa, Odesa Oblast, Ukraine* Penang, Malaysia* Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (2003)* Shanghai, China (1999)===Friendship links===Liverpool has friendship links (without formal constitution) with the following cities:* Givenchy-lès-la-Bassée, Pas-de-Calais, France* Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada* Havana, La Habana, Cuba* La Plata, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina* Memphis, Tennessee, US* Minamitane, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan* Naples, Campania, Italy* New Orleans, Louisiana, US* Ponsacco, Tuscany, Italy* Râmnicu Vâlcea, Vâlcea County, Romania* Valparaíso, Valparaíso Province, Chile* Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico===Consulates===The first overseas consulate of the United States was opened in Liverpool in 1790, and it remained operational for almost two centuries.", "Today, a large number of consulates are located in the city serving Chile, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Romania, Sweden and Thailand.", "Tunisian & Ivory Coast Consulates are located in the neighbouring Metropolitan Borough of Sefton." ], [ "Freedom of the City", "The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Liverpool.===Individuals===* List of Freemen of the City of Liverpool.===Military units===* Duke of Lancaster's Regiment: 14 September 2008.", "* War Widows Association (Merseyside Branch): 1 December 2014.", "* 208 (3rd West Lancashire) Battery 103rd (Lancashire Artillery Volunteers) Regiment Royal Artillery: 14 October 2017.", "* 8th Engineer Brigade, RE: 11 December 2020.===Organisations and groups===* The Pain Relief Foundation: 3 March 2010.", "* The Whitechapel Centre: 5 October 2016.", "* The Parachute Regiment Association (Liverpool Branch): 24 October 2021.", "* The Royal Signals Association (Liverpool Branch): 26 November 2021." ], [ "See also", "* 1911 Liverpool general transport strike* 2008 European Amateur Boxing Championships* Atlantic history* Big Dig (Liverpool)* Healthcare in Liverpool* History of slavery* International Garden Festival* List of films and television shows set in Liverpool* List of hotels in Liverpool* Magistrates Courts, Liverpool* Triangular trade* Williamson Tunnels* :Category: Culture in Liverpool* Liver bird" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Bibliography===* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * ''Liverpool'', Dixon Scott, 1907* ''A History of Liverpool'', Ramsay Muir, 1907* ''Bygone Liverpool'', Ramsay Muir, 1913* ''Bygone Liverpool'', David Clensy, 2008.", "* ''Liverpool 800'', John Belchem, 2006.", "* ''Beatle Pete, Time Traveller'', Mallory Curley, 2005.", "* ''Chinese Liverpudlians'', Maria Lin Wong, 1989.", "* ''Writing Liverpool: Essays and Interviews'', edited by Michael Murphy and Rees Jones, 2007.", "* Jenkinson, Jacqueline, ''Black 1919: Riots, Racism and Resistance in Imperial Britain'' (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009)* May, Roy and Cohen, Robin, 'The Interaction between Race and Colonialism: A Case Study of the Liverpool Race Riots of 1919', ''Race and Class'' XVI.2 (1974), pp.", "111–26" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Long jump" ], [ "Introduction", "Women's Long Jump Final – 28th Summer Universiade 2015The '''long jump''' is a track and field event in which athletes combine speed, strength and agility in an attempt to leap as far as possible from a takeoff point.", "Along with the triple jump, the two events that measure jumping for distance as a group are referred to as the \"horizontal jumps\".", "This event has a history in the ancient Olympic Games and has been a modern Olympic event for men since the first Olympics in 1896 and for women since 1948." ], [ "Rules", "An indicator of wind direction and a device for measuring wind speed (here +2.6 m/s) along a run-up trackAt the elite level, competitors run down a runway (usually coated with the same rubberized surface as running tracks, crumb rubber or vulcanized rubber, known generally as an all-weather track) and jump as far as they can from a wooden or synthetic board, 20 centimetres or 8 inches wide, that is built flush with the runway, into a pit filled with soft damp sand.", "If the competitor starts the leap with any part of the foot past the foul line, the jump is declared a foul and no distance is recorded.", "To detect this occurrence, a layer of plasticine is placed at a 90° angle immediately after the board.", "An official (similar to a referee) will also watch the jump and make the determination.", "In recent times, laser sensors have replaced the plasticine at elite competitions (like Diamond League meetings).", "The competitor can initiate the jump from any point behind the foul line; however, the distance measured will always be perpendicular to the foul line to the nearest break in the sand caused by any part of the body or uniform.", "Therefore, it is in the best interest of the competitor to get as close to the foul line as possible.", "Competitors are allowed to place two marks along the side of the runway in order to assist them to jump accurately.", "At a lesser meet and facilities, the plasticine will likely not exist, the runway might be a different surface or jumpers may initiate their jump from a painted or taped mark on the runway.", "At a smaller meet, the number of attempts might also be limited to four or three.Each competitor has a set number of attempts.", "That would normally be three trials, with three additional jumps being awarded to the best eight or nine (depending on the number of lanes on the track at that facility, so the event is equatable to track events) competitors.", "All valid attempts will be recorded but only the best mark counts towards the results.", "The competitor with the longest valid jump (from either the trial or final rounds) is declared the winner at the end of competition.", "In the event of an exact tie, then comparing the next best jumps of the tied competitors will be used to determine place.", "In a large, multi-day elite competition (like the Olympics or World Championships), a qualification is held in order to select at least 12 finalists.", "Ties and automatic qualifying distances are potential factors.", "In the final, a set of trial round jumps will be held, with the best eight performers advancing to the final rounds.", "(For specific rules and regulations in United States Track & Field see Rule 185)For record purposes, the maximum accepted wind assistance is two metres per second (m/s) (4.5 mph)." ], [ "History", "Halteres used in athletic games in ancient GreeceThe long jump is the only known jumping event of ancient Greece's original Olympics' pentathlon events.", "All events that occurred at the Olympic Games were initially supposed to act as a form of training for warfare.", "The long jump emerged probably because it mirrored the crossing of obstacles such as streams and ravines.", "After investigating the surviving depictions of the ancient event it is believed that unlike the modern event, athletes were only allowed a short running start.", "The athletes carried a weight in each hand, which were called halteres (between 1 and 4.5 kg).", "These weights were swung forward as the athlete jumped in order to increase momentum.", "It was commonly believed that the jumper would throw the weights behind him in midair to increase his forward momentum; however, halteres were held throughout the duration of the jump.", "Swinging them down and back at the end of the jump would change the athlete's center of gravity and allow the athlete to stretch his legs outward, increasing his distance.", "The jump itself was made from the ''bater'' (\"that which is trod upon\").", "It was most likely a simple board placed on the stadium track which was removed after the event.", "The jumpers would land in what was called a ''skamma'' (\"dug-up\" area).", "The idea that this was a pit full of sand is wrong.", "Sand in the jumping pit is a modern invention.", "The ''skamma'' was simply a temporary area dug up for that occasion and not something that remained over time.The long jump was considered one of the most difficult of the events held at the Games since a great deal of skill was required.", "Music was often played during the jump and Philostratus says that pipes at times would accompany the jump so as to provide a rhythm for the complex movements of the halteres by the athlete.", "Philostratus is quoted as saying, \"The rules regard jumping as the most difficult of the competitions, and they allow the jumper to be given advantages in rhythm by the use of the flute, and in weight by the use of the halter.\"", "Most notable in the ancient sport was a man called Chionis, who in the 656 BC Olympics staged a jump of .There has been some argument by modern scholars over the long jump.", "Some have attempted to recreate it as a triple jump.", "The images provide the only evidence for the action so it is more well received that it was much like today's long jump.", "The main reason some want to call it a triple jump is the presence of a source that claims there once was a fifty-five ancient foot jump done by a man named Phayllos.The long jump has been part of modern Olympic competition since the inception of the Games in 1896.In 1914, Dr. Harry Eaton Stewart recommended the \"running broad jump\" as a standardized track and field event for women.", "However, it was not until 1948 that the women's long jump was added to the Olympic athletics programme." ], [ "Technique", "An athlete performing a long jump as part of the heptathlon at the 2013 French Athletics Championships at Stade Charléty in ParisThere are five main components of the long jump: the approach run, the last two strides, takeoff, action in the air, and landing.", "Speed in the run-up, or approach, and a high leap off the board are the fundamentals of success.", "Because speed is such an important factor of the approach, it is not surprising that many long jumpers also compete successfully in sprints.", "Classic examples of this long jump / sprint doubling are performances by Carl Lewis and Heike Drechsler.===Approach===The objective of the approach is to gradually accelerate to a maximum controlled speed at takeoff.", "The most important factor for the distance travelled by an object is its velocity at takeoff – both the speed and angle.", "Elite jumpers usually leave the ground at an angle of twenty degrees or less; therefore, it is more beneficial for a jumper to focus on the speed component of the jump.", "The greater the speed at takeoff, the longer the trajectory of the center of mass will be.", "The importance of takeoff speed is a factor in the success of sprinters in this event.The length of the approach is usually consistent distance for an athlete.", "Approaches can vary between 12 and 19 steps on the novice and intermediate levels, while at the elite level they are closer to between 20 and 22 steps.", "The exact distance and number of steps in an approach depends on the jumper's experience, sprinting technique, and conditioning level.", "Consistency in the approach is important as it is the competitor's objective to get as close to the front of the takeoff board as possible without crossing the line with any part of the foot.===Last two steps===The objective of the last two steps is to prepare the body for takeoff while conserving as much speed as possible.The penultimate step is longer than the previous ones and than the final one before takeoff.", "The competitor begins to lower his or her center of gravity to prepare the body for the vertical impulse.", "The last step is shorter because the body is beginning to raise the center of gravity in preparation for takeoff.The last two steps are extremely important because they determine the velocity with which the competitor will enter the jump.===Takeoff===Takeoff boardThe objective of the takeoff is to create a vertical impulse through the athlete's center of gravity while maintaining balance and control.This phase is one of the most technical parts of the long jump.", "Jumpers must be conscious to place the foot flat on the ground, because jumping off either the heels or the toes negatively affects the jump.", "Taking off from the board heel-first has a braking effect, which decreases velocity and strains the joints.", "Jumping off the toes decreases stability, putting the leg at risk of buckling or collapsing from underneath the jumper.", "While concentrating on foot placement, the athlete must also work to maintain proper body position, keeping the torso upright and moving the hips forward and up to achieve the maximum distance from board contact to foot release.There are four main styles of takeoff: the kick style, double-arm style, sprint takeoff, and the power sprint or bounding takeoff.====Kick====The kick style takeoff is where the athlete actively cycles the leg before a full impulse has been directed into the board then landing into the pit.", "This requires great strength in the hamstrings.", "This causes the jumper to jump to large distances.====Double-arm====The double-arm style of takeoff works by moving both arms in a vertical direction as the competitor takes off.", "This produces a high hip height and a large vertical impulse.====Sprint====The sprint takeoff is the style most widely instructed by coaching staff.", "This is a classic single-arm action that resembles a jumper in full stride.", "It is an efficient takeoff style for maintaining velocity through takeoff.====Power sprint or bounding====The power sprint takeoff, or bounding takeoff, is one of the more common elite styles.", "Very similar to the sprint style, the body resembles a sprinter in full stride.", "However, there is one major difference.", "The arm that pushes back on takeoff (the arm on the side of the takeoff leg) fully extends backward, rather than remaining at a bent position.", "This additional extension increases the impulse at takeoff.The \"correct\" style of takeoff will vary from athlete to athlete.===Action in the air and landing===Multi-eventer Jessica Ennis during a long jump, preparing to landThere are three major flight techniques for the long jump: the hang, the sail, and the hitch-kick.", "Each technique is to combat the forward rotation experienced from take-off but is basically down to preference from the athlete.", "It is important to note that once the body is airborne, there is nothing that the athlete can do to change the direction they are traveling and consequently where they are going to land in the pit.", "However, it can be argued that certain techniques influence an athlete's landing, which can affect the distance measured.", "For example, if an athlete lands feet first but falls back because they are not correctly balanced, a lower distance will be measured.In the 1970s, some jumpers used a forward somersault, including Tuariki Delamere who used it at the 1974 NCAA Championships, and who matched the jump of the then Olympic champion Randy Williams.", "The somersault jump has potential to produce longer jumps than other techniques because in the flip, no power is lost countering forward momentum, and it reduces wind resistance in the air.", "The front flip jump was subsequently banned for fear that it was unsafe." ], [ "Records", "Sand pit at Estadio Olímpico Universitario where Bob Beamon set the 8.90 m recordThe men's long jump world record has been held by just four individuals for the majority of time since the IAAF started to ratify records.", "The first mark recognized by the IAAF in 1912, the performance by Peter O'Connor, stood just short of 20 years (nine years as an IAAF record).", "After it was broken in 1921, the record changed hands five times until Jesse Owens set the mark of at the 1935 Big Ten track meet in Ann Arbor, Michigan, a record that was not broken for over 25 years, until 1960 by Ralph Boston.", "Boston improved upon it and exchanged records with Igor Ter-Ovanesyan three times over the next seven years.", "At the 1968 Summer Olympics, Bob Beamon jumped at an altitude of , a record jump not exceeded for almost 23 years, and which remains the second longest wind legal jump of all time; it has now stood as the Olympic record for over years.", "On 30 August 1991, Mike Powell of the United States set the current men's world record at the World Championships in Tokyo.", "It was in a dramatic showdown against Carl Lewis who also surpassed Beamon's record that day, but his jump was wind-assisted (and thus not legal for record purposes).", "Powell's record of has now stood for over years.Some jumps over have been officially recorded.", "Wind-assisted were recorded by Powell at high altitude in Sestriere in 1992.A potential world record of was recorded by Iván Pedroso also in Sestriere.", "Despite a \"legal\" wind reading, the jump was not validated because videotape revealed a person standing in front of the wind gauge, invalidating the reading (and costing Pedroso a Ferrari valued at $130,000—the prize for breaking the record at that meet).", "As mentioned above, Lewis jumped moments before Powell's record-breaking jump with the wind exceeding the maximum allowed.", "This jump remains the longest ever not to win an Olympic or World Championship gold medal, or any competition in general.The women's world record has seen more consistent improvement, though the current record has stood longer than any other long jump world record by men or women.", "The longest to hold the record prior was by Fanny Blankers-Koen during World War II, who held it for over 10 years.", "There have been four occasions when the record was tied and three when it was improved upon twice in the same competition.", "The current women's world record is held by Galina Chistyakova of the former Soviet Union who leapt in Leningrad on 11 June 1988, a mark that has now stood for over years." ], [ "Continental records", "Updated 9 January 2024 Area Men Women Mark(m) Wind(m/s) Athlete Nation Mark(m) Wind(m/s) Athlete Nation Africa '''8.65''' +1.3 Luvo Manyonga '''7.17''' +1.1 Ese Brume Asia '''8.48''' +0.6 Mohammed Al-Khuwalidi '''7.01''' +1.4 Weili Yao Europe '''8.86''' +1.9 Robert Emmiyan '''7.52''' +1.4 \tGalina Chistyakova North, Central America and Caribbean '''8.95''' +0.3 Mike Powell '''7.49''' +1.3Jackie Joyner-Kersee '''7.49''' +1.7 Oceania '''8.54''' +1.7 Mitchell Watt '''7.13''' +1.8 Brooke Buschkuehl South America '''8.73''' +1.2 Irving Saladino '''7.26''' +1.8 Maurren Maggi === Notes === Represents a mark set at a high altitude." ], [ "All-time top 25", "Tables show data for two definitions of \"Top 25\" - the top 25 '''distances''' and the top 25 '''athletes''': ''- denotes top performance for an athlete in the top 25 '''distances''''' ''- denotes lesser performances, still in the top 25 '''distances''', by a repeat athlete'' ''- denotes top performance (only) for other top 25 '''athletes''' who fall outside the top 25 '''distances'''''===Men===* Mark Wind(m/s) Athlete Nation Date Place 1 1 +0.3 Mike Powell 30 August 1991 Tokyo 2 2 +2.0 Bob Beamon 18 October 1968 Mexico City 3 3 −0.2 Carl Lewis 30 August 1991 Tokyo 4 4 +1.9 Robert Emmiyan 22 May 1987 Tsaghkadzor 5 +1.7 ''Lewis #2'' 30 August 1991 Tokyo 6 +1.9 ''Lewis #3'' 19 June 1983 Indianapolis ''Lewis #4'' 27 January 1984 New York City 8 +1.0 ''Lewis #5'' 24 July 1982 Indianapolis +0.8 ''Lewis #6'' 18 July 1988 Indianapolis 5 10 +1.4 Larry Myricks 18 July 1988 Indianapolis +2.0 Erick Walder 2 April 1994 El Paso −1.2 Dwight Phillips 7 June 2009 Eugene 8 13 +1.2 Irving Saladino 24 May 2008 Hengelo 14 −0.2 ''Lewis #7'' 26 September 1988 Seoul 15 −0.4 ''Lewis #8'' 13 May 1984 Westwood +0.1 ''Lewis #9'' 19 June 1984 Los Angeles 9 15 +1.9 Iván Pedroso 18 July 1995 Salamanca Sebastian Bayer 8 March 2009 Turin 19 +0.9 ''Myricks #2'' 17 June 1989 Houston +0.7 ''Powell #2'' 27 July 1993 Salamanca +1.6 ''Pedroso #2'' 12 August 1995 Gothenburg 11 22 +0.5 Tajay Gayle 28 September 2019 Doha 23 +1.0 ''Lewis #10'' 5 August 1992 Barcelona +1.6 ''Pedroso #3'' 17 June 1995 Lisbon 12 25 +1.7 Juan Miguel Echevarría 30 June 2018 Bad Langensalza 13 +1.6 Louis Tsatoumas 2 June 2007 Kalamata 14 +1.3 Luvo Manyonga 22 April 2017 Potchefstroom 15 +0.5 Kareem Streete-Thompson 4 July 1994 Linz 16 +0.7 James Beckford 5 April 1997 Orlando 17 +0.7 Miltiadis Tentoglou 26 May 2021 Kallithea 18 Miguel Pate 1 March 2002 New York City 19 +1.8 Jarrion Lawson 3 July 2016 Eugene 20 Yago Lamela 7 March 1999 Maebashi +0.2 Aleksandr Menkov 16 August 2013 Moscow 22 +0.9 Lutz Dombrowski 28 July 1980 Moscow +1.7 Mitchell Watt 29 July 2011 Stockholm +1.2 Wayne Pinnock 23 August 2023 Budapest 25 +1.2 Jaime Jefferson 12 May 1990 Havana ====Para marks====Performances by disabled athletes that would qualify for the all-time top 25:ClassMarkWind(m/s)AthleteDatePlaceT64 +1.6 25 June 2023 Rhede ====Assisted marks====Any performance with a following wind of more than 2.0 metres per second is not counted for record purposes.", "Below is a list of wind-assisted jumps (equal or superior to 8.53 m).", "Only best assisted mark that is superior to legal best is shown:Mike Powell jumped 8.99 (+4.4) in Sestriere, Italy on 21 July 1992.", "Juan Miguel Echevarría jumped 8.92 (+3.3) in Havana, Cuba on 10 March 2019.", "Carl Lewis jumped 8.91 (+2.9) in Tokyo, Japan on 30 August 1991.", "Iván Pedroso jumped 8.79 (+3.0) in Havana, Cuba on 21 May 1992.", "Fabrice Lapierre jumped 8.78 (+3.1) in Perth, Australia on 18 April 2010.", "James Beckford jumped 8.68 (+4.9) in Odessa, Texas on 19 May 1995.", "Marquis Dendy jumped 8.68 (+3.7) in Eugene, Oregon on 25 June 2015.", "Joe Greene jumped 8.66 (+4.0) in Sestriere, Italy on 21 July 1992.", "Kareem Streete-Thompson jumped 8.64 (+3.5) in Knoxville, Tennessee on 18 June 1994.", "Mike Conley jumped 8.63 (+3.9) in Eugene, Oregon on 20 June 1986.", "Jeff Henderson jumped 8.59 (+2.9) in Eugene, Oregon on 3 July 2016.", "Jason Grimes jumped 8.57 (+5.2) in Durham, North Carolina on 27 June 1982.", "Kevin Dilworth jumped 8.53 (+4.9) in Fort-de-France, Martinique on 27 April 2002.===Women=== Mark Wind(m/s) Athlete Nation Date Place 1 1 +1.4 Galina Chistyakova 11 June 1988 Leningrad 2 2 +1.3 Jackie Joyner-Kersee 22 May 1994 New York City 2 +1.7 ''Joyner-Kersee #2'' 31 July 1994 Sestriere 3 4 +1.2 Heike Drechsler 9 July 1988 Neubrandenburg 4 +0.4 ''Drechsler #2'' 8 July 1992 Lausanne 6 +0.9 ''Drechsler #3'' 21 June 1986 Tallinn +1.1 ''Drechsler #4'' 3 July 1986 Dresden +0.6 ''Joyner-Kersee #3'' 13 August 1987 Indianapolis +1.0 ''Chistyakova #2'' 11 June 1988 Leningrad +1.6 ''Chistyakova #3'' 12 August 1988 Budapest 11 +2.0 ''Drechsler #5'' 22 September 1985 Berlin 4 12 +1.4 Anişoara Cuşmir 4 June 1983 Bucharest 5 13 +2.0 Tatyana Kotova 23 June 2002 Annecy 14 +1.8 ''Drechsler #6'' 26 July 1984 Dresden +0.7 ''Drechsler #7'' 21 August 1987 Potsdam +0.9 ''Joyner-Kersee #4'' 29 September 1988 Seoul 17 +0.3 ''Drechsler #8'' 21 August 1985 Zürich 6 17 +0.5 Yelena Belevskaya 18 July 1987 Bryansk 17 ''Joyner-Kersee #5'' 25 June 1988 San Diego 20 ''Drechsler #9'' 13 February 1988 Vienna +1.8 ''Drechsler #10'' 31 July 1991 Sestriere 7 20 Inessa Kravets 13 June 1992 Kyiv 23 +0.4 ''Joyner-Kersee #6'' 4 September 1987 Rome +1.8 ''Belevskaya #2'' 11 June 1988 Leningrad +1.8 ''Drechsler #11'' 28 May 1992 Jena 8 +0.4 Tatyana Lebedeva 31 July 2004 Tula 9 +1.5 Olena Khlopotnova 12 September 1985 Alma Ata +1.9 Marion Jones 31 May 1998 Eugene +1.7 Brittney Reese 2 July 2016 Eugene 12 −0.8 Malaika Mihambo 6 October 2019 Doha 13 −0.4 Irina Simagina 31 July 2004 Tula 14 +1.8 Maurren Maggi 25 June 1999 Bogotá 15 +1.0 Larysa Berezhna 25 May 1991 Granada Ivana Španović 5 March 2017 Belgrade 17 +1.6 Helga Radtke 26 July 1984 Dresden +1.9 Lyudmila Kolchanova 27 May 2007 Sochi 19 −0.3 Vali Ionescu 1 August 1982 Bucharest +2.0 Irena Oženko 12 September 1986 Budapest +0.8 Yelena Sinchukova 20 June 1991 Budapest +0.7 Irina Mushailova 14 July 1994 Saint Petersburg 23 Tara Davis-Woodhall 16 February 2024 Albuquerque 24 +1.8 Irina Valyukevich 18 July 1987 Bryansk +0.6 Tianna Bartoletta 17 August 2016 Rio de Janeiro +1.1 Ese Brume 29 May 2021 Chula Vista ====Assisted marks====Any performance with a following wind of more than 2.0 metres per second is not counted for record purposes.", "Below is a list of wind-assisted jumps (equal or superior to 7.17 m).", "Only best assisted mark that is superior to legal best is shown:Heike Drechsler jumped 7.63 (+2.1) in Sestriere, Italy on 21 July 1992.", "Yulimar Rojas jumped 7.27 (+2.7) in La Nucia, Spain on 13 June 2021.", "Tara Davis jumped 7.24 (+2.8) in Chula Vista, California on 9 July 2022.", "Fiona May jumped 7.23 (+4.3) in Sestriere, Italy on 29 July 1995.", "Anastassia Mirochuk-Ivanova jumped 7.22 (+4.3) in Grodno, Belarus on 6 July 2012.", "Susen Tiedtke jumped 7.19 (+3.7) in Sestriere, Italy on 28 July 1993.", "Eva Murková jumped 7.17 (+3.6) in Nitra, Czechoslovakia on 26 August 1984." ], [ "Olympic medalists", "===Men======Women===" ], [ "World Championships medalists", "===Men======Women===" ], [ "World Indoor Championships medalists", "===Men===1985 Paris1987 Indianapolis1989 Budapest1991 Seville1993 Toronto1995 Barcelona1997 Paris1999 Maebashi2001 Lisbon2003 Birmingham2004 Budapest2006 Moscow2008 Valencia2010 Doha2012 Istanbul2014 Sopot2016 Portland2018 Birmingham2022 Belgrade====Medal table=======Women===1985 Paris1987 Indianapolis1989 Budapest1991 Seville1993 Toronto1995 Barcelona1997 Paris1999 Maebashi2001 Lisbon2003 Birmingham2004 Budapest2006 Moscow2008 Valencia2010 Doha2012 Istanbul2014 Sopot2016 Portland2018 Birmingham2022 Belgrade====Medal table==== Known as the ''World Indoor Games''" ], [ "Season's bests", "===Men===YearMarkAthletePlace1960Walnut1961Moscow1962 Yerevan19638.33 m (27 ft 4 in)Modesto1964Los Angeles19658.35 m (27 ft 5 in)Modesto1966 Dortmund Leselidze1967 Mexico City1968 Mexico City1969 OdessaChorzów1970Stuttgart1971Irvine1972Munich19738.24 m (27 ft in)Westwood1974Modesto1975Montreal1976Montreal1977Nova Gorica1978Rovereto1979Montreal1980Moscow1981Sacramento1982Indianapolis1983Indianapolis1984 New York City1985Brussels1986Moscow1987 Tsaghkadzor1988Indianapolis1989Houston1990Villeneuve d'Ascq1991Tokyo1992Barcelona1993Salamanca1994El Paso1995Salamanca1996Springfield1997Padua1998Bad Langensalza1999 Maebashi2000Jena2001 Lisbon2002 New York City2003Castellón de la Plana2004Linz2005Helsinki2006Rio de Janeiro2007Kalamáta2008Hengelo2009Eugene2010Barcelona2011Stockholm2012Chula VistaCheboksary2013Moscow2014Chula Vista2015Toronto2016Eugene2017 Potchefstroom2018Bad Langensalza2019Doha2020 Madrid2021 Kallithea2022 Belgrade2023 Budapest2024 Albuquerque Ancona===Women===YearMarkAthletePlace1960Erfurt1961Moscow1962Brussels1963Kurayoshi1964Tokyo1965Kyiv1966 Dortmund Dnipropetrovsk1967Kyiv1968 Mexico City1969LeverkusenVienna1970Turin1971Leipzig1972Munich1973Dresden1974East BerlinEast Berlin1975Nice1976Dresden1977Krasnodar1978Prague1979Potsdam1980Moscow1981 Colorado Springs1982Bucharest1983Bucharest1984Dresden1985East Berlin1986Tallinn1987Indianapolis1988Leningrad1989 Lipetsk1990Bratislava1991 Sestriere1992Lausanne1993Zürich1994New York City Sestriere1995 LiévinSindelfingen1996Atlanta1997Athens1998Eugene1999 Bogotá2000Rio de Janeiro2001Turin2002Annecy2003Milan2004Tula2005Sochi2006Novosibirsk2007Sochi2008Monaco2009Berlin2010Sochi2011Eugene2012 Istanbul2013Doha2014Oslo2015Beijing2016Eugene2017 Belgrade2018Birmingham2019Doha2020 Berlin2021Chula Vista2022Chula Vista2023Budapest2024 Albuquerque" ], [ "National records", "Updated 19 February 2024===Men (outdoor)===Equal or superior to 8.00 m:NationMarkAthleteDatePlace Mike Powell30 August 1991Tokyo/ Robert Emmiyan22 May 1987Tsaghkadzor Irving Saladino24 May 2008Hengelo Iván Pedroso18 July 1995SalamancaTajay Gayle28 September 2019DohaLouis Tsatoumas2 June 2007Kalamata Luvo Manyonga22 April 2017PotchefstroomYago Lamela24 June 1999TurinAleksandr Menkov16 August 2013Moscow/ Lutz Dombrowski28 July 1980Moscow Mitchell Watt29 July 2011Stockholm Greg Rutherford24 April 2014Chula Vista Mohamed Al-Khuwalidi2 July 2006Sotteville-lès-Rouen Andrew Howe30 August 2007OsakaLi Jinzhe29 June 2014Bad Langensalza Wang Jianan16 June 2018GuiyangCheikh Touré15 June 1997Bad LangensalzaLuis Rivera12 July 2013Kazan/ Nenad Stekić25 July 1975Montreal Simon Ehammer28 May 2022Götzis Michel Tornéus10 July 2016MonachilIgnisious Gaisah14 July 2006RomeSalim Sdiri12 June 2009Pierre-BéniteJeswin Aldrin2 March 2023Ballari Craig Hepburn17 June 1993Nassau Douglas de Souza15 February 1995São Paulo Gregor Cankar18 May 1997Celje Yahya Berrabah2 October 2009Beirut Ngonidzashe Makusha9 June 2011Des MoinesShotaro Shiroyama17 August 2019Fukui Lin Yu-tang15 July 2023Bangkok Bogdan Tudor9 July 1995Bad Cannstatt Carlos Calado20 June 1997LisbonSergey Layevskiy16 July 1988DnipropetrovskRoman Shchurenko25 July 2000Kyiv Víctor Castillo30 May 2004CochabambaTyrone Smith5 May 2017Houston Ivaylo Mladenov3 June 1995Seville Aliaksandar Hlavatski7 August 1996Sestriere Hatem Mersal30 June 1999Oslo Kareem Streete-Thompson1 July 2000Bad Langensalza Radek Juška27 August 2017Taipei City László Szalma7 July 1985Budapest Andreas Steiner4 June 1988Innsbruck Ignisious Gaisah16 August 2013Moscow Grzegorz Marciniszyn14 July 2001Mals Jonathan Chimier24 August 2004AthensDamian Warner29 May 2021Götzis Emiliano Lasa1 May 2022São Paulo Yusuf Alli8 August 1989LagosGable Garenamotse20 August 2006RhedeKristian Pulli11 June 2020Espoo Chenault Lionel Coetzee15 April 2023WindhoekIssam Nima28 July 2007ZaragozaSergey Podgainiy18 August 1990KishinevErik Nys6 July 1996HechtelMorten Jensen3 July 2005Gothenburg Andwuelle Wright5 July 2019Queretaro Bachana Khorava29 May 2021TbilisiSiniša Ergotić5 June 2002Zagreb6 September 2003CórdobaKim Deok-hyeon10 June 2016Ried Anvar Anvarov10 June 2023Geneva Ingar Bratseth-Kiplesund29 April 2023Gaborone Arnovis Dalmero5 August 2023Bogotá Elmer Williams11 August 1989BogotáVasiliy Sokov5 July 1988TallinnMohammad Arzandeh7 July 2012TehranShamil Abbyasov2 August 1981LeningradSergey Vasilenko18 June 1988Alma Ata Hugo Chila23 November 2009Sucre Izmir Smajlaj8 May 2021Tirana Povilas Mykolaitis4 June 2011KaunasW.", "P. Amila Jayasiri16 August 2016DiyagamaAbdulrahman Al-Nubi21 September 2003Manila Jacob Katonon23 September 1995JohannesburgChan Ming Tai7 May 2016Hong Kong Emanuel Archibald11 May 2019KingstonLeon Hunt18 June 2011TallahasseeErki Nool27 May 1995Götzis Jorge McFarlane23 November 2009Sucre José Luis Mandros7 May 2022Ibiza Eugene Licorish5 May 1989Port of Spain Sapwaturrahman26 August 2018Jakarta Omod Okugn10 March 2022AsellaMesut Yavaş24 June 2000IstanbulClayton Latham29 July 2008Hamburg Daniel Pineda21 April 2012Santiago de ChileElvijs Misāns12 July 2016Saldus Tristan James29 May 2022Chula VistaJanry Ubas8 May 2023Phnom PenhCiaran McDonagh21 August 2005La Chaux-de-Fonds Ifeanyichukwu Otuonye9 June 2018Chula VistaBob Thomas20 January 1968WhangāreiRóbert Széli6 July 1988BudapestSupanara Sukhasvasti10 July 2011Kobe Vladimir Tsepelyov17 September 1978Tbilisi Mohamed Bishty25 May 1985Chania Marcel Mayack2 March 2019Bafoussam Lester Benjamin12 May 1984Baton Rouge Saleh Al-Haddad5 May 2009Al-Kuwait Andre Anura7 December 2019New Clark CityAnis Gallali22 August 1998Dakar Jón Arnar Magnússon26 August 1994Reykjavík Franck Zio21 June 1998Viry-Chatillon Téko Folligan15 September 1999Johannesburg Cadeau Kelley18 April 2009Ypsilanti===Women (outdoor)===Equal or superior to 6.75 m:NationMarkAthleteDatePlace/ Galina Chistyakova11 June 1988Leningrad Jackie Joyner-Kersee22 May 1994New York City 31 July 1994Sestriere/ Heike Drechsler9 July 1988Neubrandenburg8 July 1992Lausanne Anișoara Cușmir4 June 1983Bucharest Yelena Belevskaya18 July 1987 Bryansk Olena Khlopotnova12 September 1985Alma Ata Maurren Maggi26 July 1999Bogotá Larysa Berezhna25 May 1991Granada Irena Oženko12 September 1986Budapest Ese Brume29 May 2021Chula Vista Elva Goulbourne22 May 2004Mexico City Ivana Vuleta20 August 2023Budapest Brooke Buschkuehl9 July 2022Chula Vista Naide Gomes29 July 2008Monaco Fiona May22 August 1998Budapest Ludmila Ninova5 June 1994Seville Chantel Malone27 March 2021Miramar Shara Proctor28 August 2015Beijing Tatyana Kolpakova31 July 1980Moscow Niurka Montalvo23 August 1999Seville Eunice Barber14 September 2003Monaco Niki Xanthou18 August 1997Bellinzona Agate De Sousa27 May 2023Weinheim/ Eva Murková26 May 1984Leningrad Yao Weili4 June 1993Jinan Silvia Khristova-Moneva3 August 1986Sofia Lissette Cuza3 June 2000Jena Erica Johansson5 July 2000Lausanne Christabel Nettey29 May 2015Eugene Agata Karczmarek6 August 1988Lublin Sumire Hata14 July 2023Bangkok Madeline de Jesús24 July 1988Mexico City Renata Nielsen5 June 1994Seville Tyra Gittens14 May 2021College Station Deborah Acquah7 August 2022Birmingham Marthe Koala2 August 2023Kinshasa Karin Melis Mey7 July 2007Bad Langensalza7 June 2008 Caterine Ibargüen9 September 2018Ostrava Ineta Radēviča28 July 2010Barcelona Jarmila Strejčková18 September 1982Prague Yulimar Rojas13 June 2021La Nucia Karin Melis Mey31 July 2009Leverkusen Ksenija Balta8 August 2010Tallinn Tünde Vaszi7 August 2001Edmonton Nafissatou Thiam18 August 2019Birmingham Ringa Ropo-Junnila11 August 1990Lahti Darya Reznichenko28 June 2021Tashkent Irène Pusterla20 August 2011Chiasso Anju Bobby George27 August 2004Athens Bianca Stuart26 June 2015Nassau Jennifer Inniss18 June 1983Indianapolis Maroula Lambrou25 March 1985Limassol Akela Jones29 May 2021Chula Vista Nina Kolarič29 June 2008Ptuj Dafne Schippers26 July 2014Amsterdam Ghada Shouaa26 May 1996Götzis Jung Soon-ok4 June 2009Daegu Eunice Barber5 June 1998Lyon===Men (indoor)===Equal or superior to 8.00 m:NationMarkAthleteDatePlace Carl Lewis27 January 1984New York City Sebastian Bayer8 March 2009Turin Iván Pedroso7 March 1999Maebashi Yago Lamela7 March 1999Maebashi Miltiadis Tentoglou18 March 2022Belgrade/ Robert Emmiyan21 February 1987Liévin Luvo Manyonga2 March 2018Birmingham Stanislav Tarasenko26 January 1994Moscow Irving Saladino13 February 2008Athens James Beckford9 February 1996Madrid Carey McLeod10 March 2023Albuquerque Thobias Montler18 March 2022Belgrade Ignisious Gaisah2 February 2006Stockholm Roman Shchurenko16 February 2002Brovary Ivaylo Mladenov28 February 1994Piraeus Bogdan Țăruș29 January 2000Bucharest Andrew Howe4 March 2007Birmingham Gregor Cankar7 March 1999Maebashi Mauro Vinícius da Silva9 March 2012Istanbul8 March 2014Sopot Salim Sdiri28 January 2006Mondeville Su Xiongfeng11 March 2010Nanjing Charlton Ehizuelen7 March 1975Bloomington Greg Rutherford5 February 2016Albuquerque Simon Ehammer29 January 2022Aubière Bachana Khorava7 February 2016Tbilisi Fabrice Lapierre20 March 2016Portland László Szalma22 February 1986Madrid Mohammed Al-Khuwalidi16 February 2008Doha Kristian Pulli5 March 2021Toruń Emiel Mellaard5 February 1989The Hague Carlos Calado26 January 2002Espinho Ngonidzashe Makusha27 February 2009Blacksburg Yuki Hashioka18 March 2021Osaka/ Milan Gombala16 February 1992Prague Morten Jensen8 February 2006Gothenburg Marcin Starzak8 March 2009TurinAdrian Strzałkowski7 March 2014Sopot LaQuan Nairn18 February 2022Fayetteville Cheikh Touré15 February 1998Bordeaux José Luis Mandros20 February 2022Cochabamba Kareem Streete-Thompson11 March 2001Lisbon Arnovis Dalmero25 January 2024Cochabamba Povilas Mykolaitis11 February 2005Kaunas Mike Francis6 March 1992Manhattan Artūrs Āboliņš10 March 2006Fayetteville Aleksandr Glavatskiy15 January 1994Gomel Emiliano Lasa20 February 2022Cochabamba Shamil Abbyasov8 February 1985Moscow Mesut Yavaş3 March 2000Ames Alexandru Cuharenco3 February 2012Chișinău Erik Nys12 February 1995Ghent Siniša Ergotić8 February 2003Budapest Izmir Smajlaj4 March 2017Belgrade Franck Zio3 February 1996Liévin Tõnu Lepik15 March 1970Vienna Mark Mason25 January 1991Johnson City Jonathan Chimier22 February 2004Aubière Damian Warner18 March 2022 Belgrade Strahinja Jovančević3 March 2019Glasgow Vasiliy Sokov4 February 1989Gomel Younés Moudrik2 February 2001Erfurt14 March 2001Madrid1 February 2002ErfurtYahya Berrabah13 February 2010Valencia Raihau Maiau4 February 2016NantesLin Yu-tang12 February 2023Astana Gable Garenamotse3 February 2002Cardiff Luis Rivera7 March 2014Sopot Vladimir Tsepelyov6 February 1983Vilnius Victor Castillo5 February 2005Flagstaff Ciaran McDonagh14 January 2006Blacksburg===Women (indoor)===Equal or superior to 6.75 m:NationMarkAthleteDatePlace/ Heike Drechsler13 February 1988Vienna/ Galina Chistyakova28 January 1989Lipetsk Ivana Španović5 March 2017BelgradeBrittney Reese11 March 2012Istanbul Larysa Berezhna4 February 1989Gomel Olena Khlopotnova16 February 1985Kishinev Nijolė Medvedeva25 January 1987Vilnius Yelena Belevskaya14 February 1987Moscow Naide Gomes9 March 2008Valencia Jazmin Sawyers5 March 2023Istanbul/ Eva Murková2 March 1985Piraeus Mirela Dulgheru23 January 1993Bacău Christabel Nettey19 February 2015Stockholm Chioma Ajunwa5 February 1997Erfurt Larissa Iapichino5 March 2023Istanbul Carolina Klüft7 March 2004BudapestKhaddi Sagnia25 February 2018Glasgow Niki Xanthou16 February 1997Liévin Magdalena Khristova19 February 1998Stockholm Elva Goulbourne23 February 2002Fayetteville Éloyse Lesueur2 March 2013Gothenburg Maurren Maggi9 March 2008Valencia Niurka Montalvo10 March 2001Lisbon Ksenija Balta7 March 2009Turin Eunice Barber15 February 1998Bordeaux Karin Melis Mey21 February 2008Stockholm Yang Juan13 March 1992Beijing Daphne Saunders26 February 1994Gainesville Tünde Vaszi29 January 1999Chemnitz Aiga Grabuste8 February 2015Tbilisi Nicole Boegman12 March 1995Barcelona Ludmila Ninova14 February 1996Moscow Yulimar Rojas17 February 2022Liévin Akela Jones11 March 2016Birmingham11 February 2022Clemson Yargelis Savigne3 February 2007Stuttgart Nafissatou Thiam1 March 2020Liévin Ringa Ropo-Junnila19 February 1991Stockholm Renata Nielsen12 March 1995BarcelonaAnnik Kälin17 February 2024St.", "Gallen" ], [ "See also", "" ], [ "References" ], [ "Cited sources", "" ], [ "Further reading", " * " ], [ "External links", " IAAF long jump homepage* IAAF list of long-jump records in XML* Powell vs Lewis Tokyo 91 (video)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Luke (given name)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Luke''' is a male given name, and less commonly, a surname.The name Luke is the English form of the Latin name .Although the name is attested in ancient inscriptions, the best known historical use of the name is in the New Testament.", "The Gospel of Luke was written around 70 to 90 AD (the exact years are unknown).", "Luke, who is credited with the authorship of the Gospel of Luke, was a physician who lived around 30 to 130 AD.", "Luke is also credited with the Book of Acts in the Bible, and also is mentioned by the Apostle Paul in some of Paul's letters to first-century churches.The name is sometimes used as a nickname for Luther." ], [ "Popularity", "In 2020, Luke was the 31st most popular name for babies in the United States.+Popularity of the name Lukein England and Wales20202019201820172016201520142013109th100th94th76th59th58th44th45th2012201120102009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 20032002200120001999 19981997199645th41st38th33rd 25th 21st 17th 13th 15th 14th13th11th11th12th 13th11th12th+Popularity of the name Luke in the United States 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 43rd 41st 41st 46th 46th 50th 59th 67th 75th 78th 75th 82nd 91st 87th 93rd 113th 118th 121st 119th 111th" ], [ "Notable people with the given name \"Luke\" include", "=== Mononym ===Luke the Evangelist (died 84), one of the Four EvangelistsLuke (rapper) (born 1960), stage name of American rapper Luther Campbell===A===Luke Abbott, English electronic musicianLuke Ablett (born 1982), Australian rules footballerLuke Abraham (born 1983), English rugby union footballerLuke Adam (born 1990), Canadian ice hockey playerLuke Adams (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Adamson (born 1987), English rugby league footballerLuke Aikins (born 1973), American skydiverLuke Allen (1978–2022), American baseball playerLuke Allen-Gale (born 1984), British actorLuke Altmyer (born 2002), American football playerLuke Ambler (born 1989), Irish rugby league footballerLuke Amos (born 1997), English footballerLuke Anderson (born 1981), South African-Welsh chefLuke Anguhadluq (1895–1982), Canadian artistLuke Anowtalik (1932–2006), Native Canadian artistLuke Anthony (born 1976), Australian actorLuke Appling (1907–1991), American baseball playerLuke Archer (1899–1988), American baseball playerLuke Armstrong (born 1996), English footballerLuke Arnold (born 1984), Australian actorLuke Arscott (born 1984), English rugby union footballerLuke Ashworth (born 1989), English footballerLuke Askew (1932–2012), American actorLuke Ayling (born 1991), English footballer===B===Luke Babbitt (born 1989), American basketball playerLuke Bailey (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Bain (born 2000), Scottish rugby league footballerLuke Baines (born 1990), English-Australian actorLuke Bakhuizen (born 1993), Australian photographerLuke Baldauf (born 1969), Virgin Island windsurferLuke Ball (born 1984), Australian rules footballerLuke Baldwin (born 1990), English rugby union footballerLuke Bambridge (born 1995), British tennis playerLuke Bard (born 1990), American baseball playerLuke Barker (born 1992), American baseball playerLuke Barker (American football) (born 1991), American football coachLuke Barnatt (born 1988), English mixed martial artistLuke Barry, Irish actorLuke Bateman (born 1995), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Bateman (trade unionist) (1873–??", "), British trade unionistLuke Bates (1873–1943), British trade unionistLuke Bayer (born 1992), English actorLuke Beauchamp (born 1992), Australian rugby union footballerLuke Beaufort (born 2001), South African cricketerLuke Becker (born 1999), American racing driverLuke Beckett (born 1976), English footballerLuke Bedford (born 1978), British composerLuke Bell (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Belton (1918–2006), Irish politicianLuke Benward (born 1995), American actorLuke Berry (born 1992), English footballerLuke Beveridge (born 1970), Australian rules footballerLuke Bezzina (born 1995), Maltese sprinterLuke Biasi (born 1999), American soccer playerLuke Bilyk (born 1994), Canadian actorLuke Bird (born 1986), New Zealand singerLuke Black (born 1992), Serbian singer-songwriterLuke Blackaby (born 1991), English cricketerLuke P. Blackburn (1816–1887), American physician and politicianLuke Blackwell (born 1986), Australian rules footballerLuke Blake, English rugby league footballerLuke Blakely (born 1988), English-Antiguan footballerLuke Boden (born 1988), English footballerLuke Bodensteiner (born 1970), American skierLuke Bodnar (born 2000), Australian footballerLuke Bolton (born 1999), English footballerLuke Bond (born 1980), British organistLuke Bonner (born 1985), American basketball playerLuke Booker (1762–1835), English clergymanLuke Booth, British product designerLuke Bourgeois (born 1977), Australian tennis playerLuke Bowanko (born 1991), American football playerLuke Bowen (born 1986), British race car driverLuke Kibet Bowen (born 1983), Kenyan runnerLuke Boyd (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Bracey (born 1989), Australian actorLuke Braid (born 1988), New Zealand rugby union footballerLuke Branighan (born 1981), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Brattan (born 1990), Australian football playerLuke Brennan (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Bretherton, British theologianLuke Breust (born 1990), Australian rules footballerLuke Briscoe (born 1994), English rugby league footballerLuke Bronin (born 1979), American politicianLuke Brooks (born 1994), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Brooks (American soldier) (1731–1817), American soldierLuke Brookshier (born 1971), American television writerLuke Brown (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Browning (born 2002), British racing driverLuke Brugnara (born 1963), American real estate investorLuke Bryan (born 1976), American country singerLuke Bullen (born 1973), English drummerLuke Burbank (born 1976), American radio hostLuke Burgess (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Burke (born 1998), English footballerLuke F. Burns (1881–1956), American politicianLuke Burrage (born 1980), British jugglerLuke Burt (born 1981), Australian rugby league coachLuke Burton (born 1994), Australian rugby union footballerLuke Busby (born 1981), English singer-songwriterLuke Butkus (born 1979), American football coachLuke Butterworth (born 1983), Australian cricketer===C===Luke Cain (born 1980), Australian shooterLuke Caldwell (born 1991), Scottish runnerLuke Campbell (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Cann (born 1994), Australian javelin throwerLuke Capewell (born 1989), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Carlin (born 1980), Canadian-American baseball playerLuke Carroll (born 1982), Australian actorLuke Carter (born 1960), New Zealand sailorLuke Carty (born 1997), Irish rugby union footballerLuke Casserly (born 1973), Australian footballerLuke Caudillo (born 1980), American mixed martial artistLuke Chadwick (born 1980), English footballerLuke Challoner (1550–1613), Irish academicLuke Chambers (born 1985), English footballerLuke Chambers (footballer, born 2004) (born 2004), English footballerLuke Chan (1896–1983), Chinese-Canadian actorLuke Chapman (born 1991), English footballerLuke Charlesworth (born 1992), New Zealand badminton playerLuke Charman (born 1997), English footballerLuke Charteris (born 1983), Welsh rugby union footballerLuke Ching (born 1972), Hong Kong labor activistLuke Chrysoberges (?", "?–1169), Patriarch of ConstantinopleLuke Chueh (born 1973), Chinese-American painterLuke Cissell, American musicianLuke Clark (born 1994), English footballerLuke Clausen (born 1978), American fishermanLuke Clennell (1781–1840), British painterLuke Clippinger (born 1972), American politician and lawyerLuke Clough (1878–1956), Australian politicianLuke Cole (1962–2009), American lawyerLuke Cole (rugby union) (born 1993), English rugby union footballerLuke Collis (born 1988), American football playerLuke Combs (born 1990), American singer-songwriterLuke Conlan (born 1994), Northern Irish footballerLuke Connolly (born 1992), Irish-Gaelic footballerLuke Cook (born 1986), Australian actorLuke Cook (footballer) (born 2002), English footballerLuke Cooper (born 1994), English rugby league footballerLuke Corbett (born 1984), English footballerLuke Cornish (born 1979), Australian artistLuke Cornwall (born 1980), English footballerLuke Coulson (born 1994), English footballerLuke Covell (born 1981), New Zealand rugby league footballerLuke Cowan-Dickie (born 1993), English rugby union footballerLuke F. Cozans (1836–1903), American politicianLuke Crane (born 1985), Australian rules footballerLuke Cresswell (born 1963), English percussionistLuke Croll (born 1995), English footballerLuke Crosbie (born 1997), Scottish rugby union footballerLuke Cummo (born 1980), American mixed martial artistLuke Cundle (born 2002), English footballerLuke Cuni (1911–1980), Albanian-Australian teacherLuke Currie (born 1981), Australian jockeyLuke Curtin (born 1977), American ice hockey playerLuke Cutts (born 1988), British pole vaulter===D===Luke Dahlhaus (born 1992), Australian rules footballerLuke Daniels (born 1988), English footballerLuke Darcy (born 1975), Australian rules footballerLuke Davenport (born 1993), British racing driverLuke Davids, South African sprinterLuke Davies (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Davies-Uniacke (born 1999), Australian rules footballerLuke Davison (born 1990), Australian cyclistLuke Dawai (?", "?–1970), Fijian chiefLuke Dawson, American screenwriterLuke Dean (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke de Beaulieu (?", "?–1723), English clericLuke Delaney (born 1989), Australian rules footballerLuke Delaney (astronaut) (born 1979), American astronautLuke Del Rio (born 1994), American football player and coachLuke Demetre (born 1990), Canadian bobsledderLuke Dempsey (born 1979/1980), Irish Gaelic football managerLuke de Pulford (born 1984), English activistLuke de Tany (?", "?–1282), English nobleLuke DeVere (born 1989), Australian footballerLuke de Woolfson (born 1976), British actorLuke Digby (born 2001), British figure skaterLuke Dillon (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Dimech (born 1977), Maltese footballerLuke Di Somma, New Zealand lyricistLuke Dobie (born 1992), English footballerLuke Doerner (born 1979), Australian field hockey playerLuke Dollman, Australian conductorLuke Donald (born 1977), English professional golferLuke Donald (footballer) (born 1971), Australian rules footballerLuke Donaldson (born 2000), New Zealand rugby union footballerLuke Doneathy (born 2001), English cricketerLuke Donnellan (born 1966), Australian politicianLuke Donnelly (born 1996), Scottish footballerLuke Doolan (born 1979), Australian film editorLuke Doran (born 1991), Australian cricketerLuke Dorman, American graphic designerLuke Dorn (born 1982), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Doty (born 2001), American football playerLuke Doucet (born 1973), Canadian singer-songwriterLuke Douglas (born 1986), Scottish footballerLuke Douglas-Home, British environmentalistLuke Dowler (born 1981), American songwriterLuke Drone (born 1984), American football playerLuke Drury (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Duffy (1890–1961), Irish trade unionistLuke Duffy (rugby league) (born 1980), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Dunstan (born 1995), Australian rules footballerLuke Durbridge (born 1991), Australian racing cyclistLuke Duzel (born 2002), Australian footballerLuke Dwyer (born 1977/1978), Australian rules football coachLuke Dyer (born 1981), Australian rugby league footballer===E===Luke Easter (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Ebbin, American record producerLuke Edmunds, Australian politicianLuke Edwards (born 2002), Australian rules footballerLuke Egan (born 1970), Australian surferLuke Erede Ejohwomu (born 1936), Nigerian royalLuke Elliot (born 1984), American singer-songwriterLuke Elwes (born 1961), British artistLuke Erceg (born 1993), Australian actorLuke Erickson (born 1982), American ice hockey playerLuke Esser, American politicianLuke Evangelista (born 2002), Canadian ice hockey playerLuke Evans (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Eve (born 1974), Australian film producerLuke Eves (born 1989), English rugby union footballerLuke Evslin, American politician===F===Luke Fagan (1659–1733), Irish bishopLuke Falk (born 1994), American football playerLuke Farmer (born 1980), Australian rules umpireLuke Farrell (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Faust (born 1936), American musicianLuke Fawcett (1881–1960), British trade unionistLuke Feldman (born 1984), Australian cricketerLuke Felsch (born 1974), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Fenhaus (born 2004), American racing driverLuke Ferreira (born 1995), American soccer playerLuke Fickell (born 1973), American football coachLuke Fildes (1843–1927), British painterLuke Fildes (fencer) (1879–1970), British fencer Luke Fischer (born 1994), Armenian-American basketball playerLuke 'Ming' Flanagan (born 1972), Irish politicianLuke Fletcher (born 1988), English cricketerLuke Fletcher (politician) (born 1995/1996), Welsh politicianLuke Fleurs (born 2000), South African soccer playerLuke Flintoft (1680–1727), English clergymanLuke Flynn (born 1988), American composerLuke Foley (born 1970), Australian politicianLuke Foley (footballer) (born 1999), Australian rules footballerLuke Folwell (born 1987), British artistic gymnastLuke Ford (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Fortune (born 1998), Irish Gaelic footballerLuke Foster (born 1985), English footballerLuke Fowler (born 1978), British artistLuke Fox (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Francis (born 1989), Welsh racing driverLuke Frederick, American politicianLuke Freeman (born 1992), English footballerLuke French (born 1985), American baseball playerLuke Friend (born 1996), English singerLuke Fritz (born 1978), American football playerLuke Frost (born 1976), British painterLuke Fulghum (born 1980), American ice hockey playerLuke Furner (1837–1912), Australian politician===G===Luke Gadsdon (born 1997), Canadian rowerLuke Gale (born 1988), English rugby league footballerLuke Gallichan (born 1995), British cricketerLuke Gambin (born 1993), English footballerLuke Garbutt (born 1993), English footballerLuke Gardiner (1690–1755), Irish politicianLuke Gardiner, 1st Viscount Mountjoy (1745–1798), Irish politicianLuke Garner (born 1995), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Garnons (?", "?–1615), English politicianLuke Garrard (born 1985), English footballerLuke Garrett (born 1995), Welsh rugby union footballerLuke Gazdic (born 1989), Canadian ice hockey playerLuke Gebbie (born 1996), Filipino swimmerLuke Geissbühler (born 1970), American cinematographerLuke Gell (born 1987), English actorLuke George (born 1987), English rugby league footballerLuke Georghiou (born 1955), British academic administratorLuke Gernon (1580–1672), English judgeLuke Getsy (born 1984), American football playerLuke Gibleon, American sound editorLuke Gifford (born 1995), American football playerLuke Gilford (born 1986), American writerLuke Gillespie (born 1957), American pianistLuke Gilliam (born 1976), British artistLuke Gingras, Canadian paralympic athleteLuke Glavenich (1893–1935), American baseball playerLuke Glendening (born 1989), American ice hockey playerLuke Goddard (born 1988), English golferLuke Godden (born 1978), Australian rules footballerLuke Goedeke (born 1998), American football playerLuke Goodwin (born 1973), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Gosling (born 1971), Australian politicianLuke Goss (born 1968), English singer and actorLuke Gower, Australian vocalistLuke Graham (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Green (born 2002), Canadian soccer playerLuke Greenbank (born 1997), British swimmerLuke Greenfield (born 1972), American film directorLuke Greenwood (1834–1909), English cricketerLuke Gregerson (born 1984), American baseball playerLuke Grimes (born 1984), American actorLuke M. Griswold (1837–1892), American seamanLuke Gross (born 1969), American rugby union footballerLuke Guldan (born 1986), American modelLuke Gullick (born 1986), English footballerLuke Gunn (born 1985), British track athleteLuke Guthrie (born 1990), American golferLuke Guttridge (born 1982), English footballerLuke Gygax, American game designer===H===Luke Haakenson (born 1997), American soccer playerLuke Haines (born 1967), English musicianLuke Hall (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Hallett (born 2002), English footballerLuke Halpin (born 1947), American actorLuke Hamilton (born 1992), Scottish rugby league footballerLuke Hamlin (1904–1978), American baseball playerLuke Hancock (born 1990), American basketball playerLuke Hannant (born 1993), English footballerLuke Hansard (1752–1828), English printerLuke Harangody (born 1988), American basketball playerLuke Harding (born 1968), British journalistLuke Harding (linguist) (born 1977), Australian linguistLuke Harlen (born 1984), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Harrington-Myers (born 2001), Caymanian cricketerLuke E. Hart (1880–1964), American religious figureLuke Hartsuyker (born 1959), Australian politicianLuke Hasegawa, Japanese artist Luke Hasz (born 2004), American football playerLuke Hawx (born 1981), American professional wrestlerLuke Hayden (1850–1897), Irish politicianLuke Hayes-Alexander (born 1990), Canadian chefLuke Hazlett (1909–1987), New Zealand farmerLuke Hedger (born 1995), British motorcycle racerLuke Heimlich (born 1996), American baseball playerLuke Helder (born 1981), American criminalLuke Helliwell (born 1988), English rugby league footballerLuke Hemmerich (born 1998), German footballerLuke Hemmings (born 1996), Australian singerLuke Hemsworth (born 1980), Australian actorLuke Hendrie (born 1994), English footballerLuke Henman (born 2000), Canadian ice hockey playerLuke Herr (born 1994), Canadian volleyball playerLuke Herrmann (1932–2016), British art historianLuke Heslop (1738–1825), English priestLuke Higgins (1921–1991), American football playerLuke Higham (born 1996), English footballerLuke Hines (born 1982), British auto racing driverLuke Hinton (born 1990), British motorcycle racerLuke Hochevar (born 1983), American tennis playerLuke Hodge (born 1984), Australian rules footballerLuke Hodge (rugby league), Italian rugby league footballer Luke Hogan, British politicianLuke Holden (born 1988), English musicianLuke Holland (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Hollman (born 2000), English cricketerLuke Holmes (born 1983), Australian rugby union footballerLuke Holmes (footballer) (born 1990), English footballerLuke Homan (?", "?–2006), American basketball playerLuke Joseph Hooke (1716–1796), Irish theologianLuke Hooley (born 1998), English rugby league footballerLuke Howard (1772–1864), British chemistLuke Howard (musician) (born 1978), Australian composerLuke Howarth (born 1972), Australian politicianLuke Howell (born 1987), English footballerLuke Hoyer (2002–2018), one of the 17 victims who was killed in the Stoneman Douglas High School shootingLuke Hubbins (born 1991), English footballerLuke Hudson (born 1977), American baseball playerLuke Hughes (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Hume (born 1988), American rugby league footballerLuke Humphrey (born 1987), American-Canadian actorLuke Humphries (born 1995), English darts playerLuke Hunt (born 1962), Australian journalistLuke Hurley (born 1957), New Zealand singer-songwriterLuke Hutton (?", "?–1598), English criminalLuke Hyam (born 1991), English footballer===I===Luke Irvine-Capel (born 1975), British priestLuke Isakka (born 1980), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Ivanovic (born 2000), Australian footballer===J===Luke Jackson (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Jacobs (born 2000), English professional wrestlerLuke Jacobson (born 1997), New Zealand rugby union footballerLuke Jacobz (born 1981), Australian actorLuke Jager (born 2000), American skierLuke James (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Jerdy (born 1990), British actorLuke Jenkins (born 2002), English footballerLuke Jennings (born 1963), British authorLuke Jensen (born 1966), American tennis playerLuke Jephcott (born 2000), Welsh footballerLuke Jericho (born 1984), Australian rules footballerLuke Jerram (born 1974), British installation artistLuke Joeckel (born 1991), American football playerLuke Johnson (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Johnsos (1905–1984), American football playerLuke Johnston (born 1993), Scottish footballerLuke Jones (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Jongwe (born 1995), Zimbabwean cricketerLuke Jordan (1892–1952), American guitaristLuke Jordan (footballer) (born 1998), English footballerLuke Joyce (born 1987), English footballerLuke Jukulile (born 1973), Zimbabwean footballerLuke Jurevicius, Australian film directorLuke Juriga (born 1997), American football player===K===Luke Katene (born 1986), New Zealand rugby union footballerLuke Keaney (born 1992), Irish Gaelic footballerLuke Keary (born 1992), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Keaschall (born 2002), American baseball playerLuke Keeler (born 1987), Irish boxerLuke A. Keenan (1872–1924), American politicianLuke Kelly (1940–1984), Irish folk singerLuke Kelly (rugby league) (born 1989), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Kempner (born 1987), English comedianLuke Kendall (born 1981), Australian basketball playerLuke Kenley (born 1945), American politicianLuke Kennard (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Kennedy (born 1982), Australian singerLuke Kenny (born 1974), Indian actorLuke Keough (born 1991), American cyclistLuke Killeen (born 2005), Australian stock car racing driverLuke Kipkosgei (born 1975), Kenyan runnerLuke Kirby (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Kleintank (born 1990), American actorLuke Koo, Ghanaian politicianLuke Korem (born 1982), American filmmakerLuke Kornet (born 1995), American basketball playerLuke Knapke (born 1997), American basketball playerLuke Kreamalmeyer (born 1982), American soccer playerLuke Kuechly (born 1991), American football playerLuke Kunin (born 1997), American ice hockey player===L===Luke Lachey (born 2001), American football playerLuke Laird (born 1978), American singer-songwriterLuke Lambert (born 1981/1982), American auto racing mechanicLuke Lamperti (born 2002), American cyclistLuke Lawal Jr. (born 1989), American entrepreneurLuke Lawrence, British racing driverLuke Lawton (born 1980), American football playerLuke Lea (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Leahy (born 1992), English footballerLuke Leake (1828–1886), Australian politicianLuke Lee (born 1991), Singaporean actorLuke Pyungse Lee (born 1959), American professorLuke Lennon-Ford (born 1989), British sprinterLuke Lennox (born 1983), Australian actorLuke Leonard (born 1975), American artistLuke Le Roux (born 2000), South African soccer playerLuke Letcher (born 1994), Australian rowerLuke Le Tissier (born 1996), English cricketerLuke Fleet Lester, American professorLuke Letlow (1979–2020), American politicianLuke Lewis (born 1983), Australian rugby league commentatorLuke Lillingstone (1653–1713), British army officerLuke Lindoe (1913–2000), Canadian painterLuke Lindon (1915–1988), American football playerLuke E. Linnan (1895–1975), American judgeLuke List (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Little (born 2000), American baseball playerLuke Livingston (born 1982), Australian rules footballerLuke Losey (born 1968), English film directorLuke Loucks (born 1990), American basketball playerLuke Loughlin (born 1994/1995), Irish Gaelic footballerLuke Lowden (born 1991), Australian rules footballerLuke Lowe (1889–??", "), English footballerLuke Lutenberg (1864–1938), American baseball player===M===Luke Mably (born 1976), English actorLuke Livingston Macassey (1843–1908), Irish engineerLuke MacDougall (born 1982), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Macfarlane (born 1980), Canadian-American actorLuke Machin (born 1988), English musicianLuke Madeley (born 1996), Irish field hockey playerLuke Madill (born 1980), Australian cyclistLuke Magill (born 1987), English footballerLuke Maile (born 1991), American baseball playerLuke Malaba (born 1951), Zimbabwean judgeLuke Mangan (born 1970), Australian restaurateur and chefLuke Mariette (born 2003), Welsh footballerLuke Marshall (born 1991), Irish rugby playerLuke Martin (born 1981), Australian basketball playerLuke Massey (born 1984), British film directorLuke Massey (rugby league) (born 1970), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Masterson (born 1998), American football playerLuke Matheny (born 1976), American actorLuke Matheson (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Mathews (born 1995), Australian runnerLuke Paul Matlatarea (1938–1998), Papua New Guinean bishopLuke Maxwell (born 1997), English footballerLuke May (born 1989), English rugby league footballerLuke Maye (born 1997), American basketball playerLuke Mbete (born 2003), English footballerLuke McAlister (born 1983), New Zealand rugby union footballerLuke McCabe (born 1976), Australian rules footballerLuke McCaffrey (born 2001), American football playerLuke McCann (born 1998), Irish athleteLuke McCarthy (born 1993), English footballerLuke McCormick (footballer, born 1983) (born 1983), English footballerLuke McCormick (footballer, born 1999) (born 1999), English footballerLuke McConnell (born 1975), American Marine Corps officerLuke McCowan (born 1997), Scottish footballerLuke McCown (born 1981), American football playerLuke McCullough (born 1994), Northern Irish footballerLuke McDaniel (1927–1992), American singerLuke McDermott (born 1987), American ice sled hockey playerLuke McDonald (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke McDonnell (born 1959), American artistLuke McFadyen (born 1982), Australian rugby union footballerLuke McGee (born 1995), English footballerLuke McGrath (born 1993), Irish rugby union footballerLuke McGregor (born 1983), Australian comedianLuke McGuane (born 1987), Australian rules footballerLuke A. McKay (born 1981), Australian film directorLuke McKenzie (born 1981), Australian triathleteLuke McKenzie (actor), Australian actorLuke McLean (born 1987), Italian rugby playerLuke McMaster (born 1976), Canadian singer-songwriterLuke McNamee (1871–1952), American naval Admiral and businessmanLuke McNicholas (born 2000), Irish footballerLuke McNitt (born 1994), American football playerLuke McPharlin (born 1981), Australian rules footballerLuke McShane (born 1984), English chess playerLuke McShane (footballer) (born 1985), English footballerLuke Meade (born 1996), Irish hurlerLuke Medley (born 1989), English footballerLuke Meerman (born 1975), American politicianLuke Mejares (born 1975), Filipino singer-songwriterLuke Menzies (born 1988), English professional wrestlerLuke Merrill (born 2000), American soccer playerLuke Messer (born 1969), American politicianLuke Metcalf (born 1999), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Meyer, American filmmakerLuke Milanzi (born 1994), Malawian footballLuke Miles (born 1986), Australian rules footballerLuke \"Long Gone\" Miles (1925–1987), American singer-songwriterLuke Miller (born 1966), English priestLuke Miller (politician) (1815–1881), American politicianLuke Milligan (born 1976), British tennis playerLuke Mishu (born 1991), American soccer playerLuke Mitchell (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Mitrani (born 1990), American snowboarderLuke Mockridge (born 1989), German-Canadian comedianLuke Mogelson, American journalistLuke Molyneux (born 1998), English footballerLuke Montebello (born 1995), Maltese footballerLuke Montgomery (born 1973/1974), American political activistLuke Montz (born 1983), American baseball managerLuke Moore (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Morahan (born 1990), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Moran, American filmmakerLuke Morgan (rugby union) (born 1992), Welsh rugby union footballerLuke Morley (born 1960), English guitaristLuke Morris (born 1988), English jockeyLuke Morrison, Australian canoeistLuke Mossey (born 1992), British motorcycle riderLuke Mudgway (born 1996), New Zealand cyclistLuke Muldowney (born 1986), English footballerLuke Mulholland (born 1988), English footballerLuke Mullen (born 2001), American actor and environmentalistLuke Muller (born 1996), American sailorLuke Mullins (born 1984), Australian rules footballerLuke Munana (born 1979), American ice dancerLuke Munns (born 1980), Australian musicianLuke (Murianka) (born 1951), American bishopLuke Murphy (born 1989), English footballerLuke Murray (born 1980), New Zealand cricketerLuke Murrin (?", "?–1885), Irish-American politicianLuke Musgrave (born 2000), American football playerLuke Muyawa (born 1989), Malawian footballerLuke Mwananshiku (1938–2003), Zambian bankerLuke Myring (born 1983), English rugby union footballer===N===Luke Narraway (born 1983), English rugby union coachLuke Nelson (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Netterville (1510–1560), Irish judgeLuke Netterville (priest) (died 1227), Irish archbishopLuke Nevill (born 1986), Australian basketball playerLuke Newberry (born 1990), English actorLuke Newton (born 1993), English actorLuke Nguyen (born 1978), Vietnamese-Australian chefLuke Nicholson, Canadian singerLuke Nichter, American historianLuke Nightingale (born 1980), English footballerLuke Nolen (born 1980), Australian jockeyLuke Norman (born 1971), Australian rules footballerLuke Norris (born 1993), English footballerLuke Norris (actor) (born 1985), English actorLuke Northmore (born 1997), English rugby union footballerLuke Nosek (born 1975/1976), Polish-American entrepreneurLuke Null (born 1990), American actor and comedianLuke Nussbaumer (born 1989), British cricketerLuke Nuttall (born 2001), British Paralympic athlete===O===Luke O'Brien (born 1988), English footballerLuke Chijiuba Ochulor, Nigerian military officerLuke Ockerby (born 1992), Australian cyclistLuke O'Connor (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke O'Dea (born 1990), Irish rugby union playerLuke O'Dea (footballer) (born 1993), Australian footballerLuke O'Donnell (born 1980), Australian rugby league footballerLuke O'Dwyer (born 1983), Australian rugby league footballerLuke O'Farrell (born 1990), Irish hurlerLuke Offord (born 1999), English footballerLuke Kercan Ofungi (1934–1990), Ugandan businessman and politicianLuke O'Halloran (born 1991), American painterLuke Oldknow (born 2001), Zimbabwean cricketerLuke Oliver (born 1984), English footballerLuke O'Loughlin (born 1985), Australian actorLuke O'Neil, American journalist Luke O'Neill (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke O'Nien (born 1994), English footballerLuke O'Reilly (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke O'Sullivan (born 1968), Australian rules footballerLuke O'Sullivan (politician), Australian politicianLuke O'Toole (1873–1929), Irish-Gaelic athletic administratorLuke Ottens (born 1976), Australian rules footballerLuke Ouellette (born 1953), Canadian politician===P===Luke Page (born 1991), Papua New Guinean rugby league footballerLuke Paget (1853–1937), English bishopLuke Paris (born 1994), English footballerLuke Parker (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Parks (born 2001), Australian rules footballerLuke Partington (born 1997), Australian rules footballerLuke Pasqualino (born 1990), English actorLuke Patel (born 1990), English cricketerLuke Patience (born 1986), British sailorLuke Patten (born 1980), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Patterson (born 1987), American football playerLuke Pato, South African bishopLuke Pavlou (born 1996), Australian footballerLuke Pavone (born 1995), American soccer playerLuke Payne (born 1985), American basketball playerLuke Pearce (born 1987), British rugby union refereeLuke Pearson (born 1987), British cartoonistLuke Pedlar (born 2002), Australian rules footballerLuke Pegler (born 1981), Australian actorLuke Pen (1960–2002), Australian environmental scientistLuke Pennell (born 1996), English footballerLuke Penny (born 1981), Australian rules footballerLuke Perry (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Petitgout (born 1976), American football playerLuke Petrasek (born 1995), American basketball playerLuke Philip (born 1995), Canadian ice hockey playerLuke Phillips (born 1975), Australian rugby league football officialLuke Pike (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Pilkington (born 1990), Australian footballerLuke Pilling (born 1997), English footballerLuke Piper (born 1966), English painterLuke Pither (born 1989), Canadian ice hockey playerLuke Plange (born 2002), English footballerLuke Plapp (born 2000), Australian cyclistLuke Plunket (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke P. Poland (1815–1887), American politicianLuke Pollard (born 1980), British politicianLuke Polselli (born 1998), Italian rugby league footballerLuke Pomersbach (born 1984), Australian cricketerLuke Ives Pontifell (born 1968), American publisherLuke Pope (1740–1825), English floristLuke Pople (born 1991), Australian wheelchair basketball playerLuke Potter (born 1989), English footballerLuke Pougnault (born 1980), Australian rowerLuke Pratt (born 1989), Australian rules footballerLuke Preston (born 1976), Welsh judokaLuke Prestridge (born 1956), American football playerLuke Pretorius, South African bishopLuke Price (born 1995), Welsh rugby union footballerLuke Priddis (born 1977), Australian rugby union footballerLuke Procter (born 1988), English cricketerLuke Prokop (born 2002), Canadian ice hockey playerLuke Prokopec (born 1978), Australian baseball playerLuke Prosser (born 1988), English footballerLuke Pryor (1820–1900), American politicianLuke Puskedra (born 1990), American runnerLuke Putkonen (born 1986), American baseball player===Q===Luke Quigley (born 1981), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Quinlivan (born 1985), Australian water polo player===R===Luke Radford (born 1988), English cricketerLuke Ramsay (born 1988), Canadian sailorLuke A. Rankin (born 1962), American politicianLuke Rathborne, American musicianLuke Ravenstahl (born 1980), American politicianLuke Rawson (born 2001), English footballerLuke Rayner, British guitaristLuke Recker (born 1978), American basketball playerLuke Redfield (born 1983), American musicianLuke Reilly (born 1995), Canadian swimmerLuke Reimer, Australian rugby union footballerLuke Reimer (American football) (born 2000), American football playerLuke Reeves (born 1980), English-Australian cricketerLuke Reynolds (born 1979), American singer-songwriterLuke Rhinehart (1932–2020), American novelistLuke Rhodes (born 1992), American football playerLuke Richardson (born 1969), Canadian ice hockey coachLuke Richardson (strength athlete) (born 1997), British powerlifterLuke Ricketson (born 1973), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Ridnour (born 1981), American basketball playerLuke Rivington (1838–1899), English priestLuke Roberts (born 1977), Australian cyclistLuke Roberts (actor) (born 1977), English actorLuke Robertson (born 1985), British explorerLuke Robins (born 1994), Australian cricketerLuke Robinson (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Rockhold (born 1984), American mixed martial artistLuke Rodgers (born 1982), English footballerLuke Rollason, British actorLuke Romano (born 1986), New Zealand rugby union footballerLuke Romyn (born 1975), Australian authorLuke Ronchi (born 1981), New Zealand-Australian cricketerLuke Rooney (born 1983), Australian rugby union footballerLuke Rooney (footballer) (born 1990), English footballerLuke Roskell (born 1997), English actorLuke Ross (born 1972), American comic artistLuke Rossouw, South African rugby union footballerLuke Rounds (born 1991), Australian rules footballerLuke Rowe (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Russe (born 1999), English footballerLuke Russell (born 1992), Australian rules footballerLuke Russert (born 1985), American news correspondentLuke Ryan (born 1996), Australian rules footballerLuke Ryan (cricketer) (born 1988), English cricketer===S===Luke Sabis, American filmmakerLuke Samoa (born 1988), New Zealand-Romanian rugby union footballerLuke Sanders (born 1985), American mixed martial artistLuke Sassano (born 1985), American soccer playerLuke Him Sau (1904–1991), Chinese architectLuke Sauder (born 1970), Canadian skierLuke Saville (born 1994), Australian tennis playerLuke Sayers, Australian businessmanLuke Scanlan (1841–1915), American farmer and politicianLuke Scanlon (born 1996), Irish hurlerLuke Scavuzzo (born 1956), American politicianLuke Schaub (1690–1758), British diplomatLuke Schenn (born 1989), Canadian ice hockey playerLuke Schenscher (born 1982), Australian basketball playerLuke Schlemmer (born 1995), South African cricketerLuke Schoolcraft (1847–1893), American musical composerLuke Schoonmaker (born 1998), American football playerLuke Schwartz (born 1984), English poker playerLuke Scott (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Scully (born 2000), Welsh rugby union footballerLuke Sears (born 1980), English cricketerLuke Sela (?", "?–2007), Papua New Guinean newspaper editorLuke Sellars (born 1981), Canadian ice hockey playerLuke Seomore, English film directorLuke Sewell (1901–1987), American baseball playerLuke Shackleton (born 1984), Australian rules footballerLuke Sharry (born 1990), English footballerLuke Shaw (born 1995), English footballerLuke Short (1854–1893) American cowboy and gunfighterLuke Shuey (born 1990), Australian rules footballerLuke Sikma (born 1989), American basketball playerLuke Icarus Simon (born 1963), Australian authorLuke Simmonds (born 1979), English snooker playerLuke Simons (born 1978), American politicianLuke Simpkin (born 1979), British boxerLuke Simpkins (born 1964), Australian politicianLuke Simpson (born 1994), English footballerLuke Sital-Singh (born 1988), British singer-songwriterLuke Skaarup (born 1979), Canadian engineerLuke Slater (born 1968), English disc jockeyLuke Smalley (1955–2009), American photographerLuke Smith (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Snellin (born 1986), English screenwriterLuke Somers (1981–2014), American photojournalistLuke Elliott Sommer (born 1986), Canadian-American bank robberLuke Sommerton, Australian rugby league footballerLuke Song (born 1972), American fashion designerLuke Southwood (born 1997), English footballerLuke Spencer (soccer) (born 1990), American soccer playerLuke Spokes (born 2000), English footballerLuke Staley (born 1980), American football playerLuke Stannard, American gymnastLuke Staton (born 1979), English footballerLuke Stauffacher (born 1980), American ice hockey playerLuke Steckel (born 1985), American football coachLuke Steele (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Stewart, American mixed martial artistLuke Stewart (musician), American musicianLuke Steyn (born 1993), Zimbabwean skierLuke Stocker (born 1988), American football playerLuke Stokes, English colonistLuke Stoltman (born 1984), Scottish strongmanLuke Stoughton (born 1977), English cricketerLuke Strand (born 1973), American ice hockey coachLuke Stricklin (born 1982), American singer-songwriterLuke Stringer (born 1995), South African rugby union playerLuke Strobel (born 1986), American mountain bikerLuke Strong (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Stuart (born 1977), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Stuart (baseball) (1892–1947), American baseball playerLuke Sullivan (born 1961), Australian artistLuke Summerfield (born 1987), English footballerLuke Supyk (born 2006), New Zealand footballerLuke Sutherland (born 1971), Scottish novelistLuke Sutton (born 1976), English cricketerLuke Swain (born 1982), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Swan (born 1984), American football playerLuke Swann (1983–2022), English cricket coachLuke Syson, English museum curator===T===Luke Tabone (born 1997), Maltese footballerLuke Taft (1783–1863), American industrial pioneerLuke Tagi (born 1997), Fijian rugby union footballerLuke Tait (born 1981), Canadian rugby union footballerLuke Takamura (born 1964), Japanese singer-songwriterLuke Tan (born 1977), American singer-songwriterLuke Tapscott (born 1991), Australian rules footballerLuke Tarsitano (born 1990), American actorLuke Tasker (born 1991), American football playerLuke Taylor (born 1994), English field hockey playerLuke Temple, American singer-songwriterLuke Tenuta (born 1999), American football playerLuke Thomas (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Thompson (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Thurgate, Australian painterLuke Tierney, American statisticianLuke Tilley (born 1983), British entomologistLuke Tilt (born 1988), English footballerLuke Tittensor (born 1989), English actorLuke Toia (born 1977), Australian rules footballerLuke Toki (born 1986), Australian television personalityLuke Tomlinson (born 1977), English polo playerLuke Tongue (born 1999), New Zealand footballerLuke Tonkin, Australian actorLuke Top (born 1980), American singer-songwriterLuke Torian (born 1958), American politicianLuke Towers (born 1988), Australian cricketerLuke Trainor (1900–1973), Australian rules footballerLuke Travers (born 2001), Australian basketball playerLuke Traynor (born 1993), British runnerLuke Treadaway (born 1984), British actorLuke Trickett, Australian swimmerLuke Tuch (born 2002), American ice hockey playerLuke Turley (born 2000), English swimmerLuke Turner (footballer) (born 2002), Irish footballer===U===Luke Urban (1898–1980), American football playerLuke Ussher (?", "?–1632), Irish deacon===V===Luke van der Smit (born 1994), Namibian rugby union footballerLuke Varney (born 1982), English footballerLuke Venne (born 1979), American football coachLuke Vercollone (born 1982), American soccer playerLuke Vibert (born 1973), British musicianLuke Vivian (born 1981), New Zealand cricketerLuke Vogels (born 1983), Australian rules footballerLuke Voit (born 1991), American baseball player===W===Luke Wadding (1588–1657), Irish historian and friarLuke Wade-Slater (born 1998), Irish footballerLuke Waechter (born 1994), American soccer playerLuke Walker (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Wall (born 1996), English footballerLuke Wallace (born 1990), English rugby union footballerLuke Walsh (born 1987), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Walton (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Ward (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Warde, English naval officerLuke Ward-Wilkinson (born 1993), English actor and singerLuke Waterfall (born 1990), English footballerLuke Waterworth (born 1996), English rugby league footballerLuke Watkins (born 1989), English boxerLuke Watson (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Wattenberg (born 1997), American football playerLuke J. Weathers (1920–2011), American air force officerLuke Weaver (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Webb (born 1986), English footballerLuke Webb (cricketer) (born 1995), English cricketerLuke Webster (born 1982), Australian rules football coachLuke Weller (born 1982), Australian rules footballerLuke Wells (born 1990), English cricketerLuke Wessman, American tattoo artistLuke Whisnant (born 1957), American novelistLuke White (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Whitehead (born 1981), American basketball playerLuke Whitehouse (born 2002), British gymnastLuke Whitelock (born 1991), New Zealand rugby union footballerLuke Whitlatch (born 1977), American artistLuke Wijohn (born 2002), New Zealand politicianLuke Wiles (born 1982), Canadian lacrosse playerLuke Wilkins (born 1989), Australian baseball playerLuke Wilkinson (born 1990), English footballerLuke Wilkshire (born 1981), Australian footballerLuke Williams (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Williamson (born 1978), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Willson (born 1990), Canadian-American football playerLuke Wilson (born 1971), American actorLuke Wilton, English politicianLuke Winslow-King (born 1983), American guitaristLuke Winters (born 1997), American skierLuke Witkowski (born 1990), American ice hockey playerLuke Witte (born 1950), American basketball playerLuke Wood, American music executiveLuke Wood (cricketer) (born 1995), English cricketerLuke Woodcock (born 1982), New Zealand cricketerLuke Woodhouse (born 1988), English darts playerLuke Woodland (born 1995), English-Filipino footballerLuke Woodrow (1921–2000), Canadian priestLuke Woolfenden (born 1998), English footballerLuke Worrall (born 1989), English modelLuke Wright (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Wypler (born 2001), American football player===Y===Luke Yaklich (born 1976), American basketball coachLuke Yankee (born 1961), American writerLuke Yates (born 1995), Australian rugby league footballerLuke Yendle (born 2000), Welsh rugby union footballerLuke Youlden (born 1978), Australian race car driverLuke Young (disambiguation), multiple peopleLuke Youngblood (born 1986), English actorLuke Chia-Liu Yuan (1912–2003), Chinese-American physicist===Z===Luke Zachrich (born 1981), American mixed martial artistLuke Zeller (born 1987), American basketball playerLuke Zimmerman (born 1979), American actor" ], [ "Fictional characters", "Luke, from Trey Edward Shults’ 2019 drama film ''Waves''Luke (Buffyverse), a vampire in ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer''Lucky Luke, the titular character in the eponymous Belgian comic book series set in the American Old WestLuke Baker, from ''Degrassi'' Luke Cunningham ''(Home and Away)'', a character in ''Home and Away''* Luke Cunningham ''(Ninjago)'', a character in ''Ninjago''Luke Duke, the elder of two freewheeling cousins in the 1985 television series ''Dukes of Hazzard'' Lucas \"Luke\" Bankole, June's husband in ''The Handmaid's Tale''Luke Cage, a comic superhero in the Marvel UniverseLuke Carlyle, in the Marvel UniverseLuke Castellan, from ''Percy Jackson & the Olympians''Luke Crain, from the Netflix series ''The Haunting of Hill House''Luke Danes, in the comedy-drama television series ''Gilmore Girls''Luke Deveruex, main character in the television film ''Universal Soldier 2''Luke the Dog, a recurring character in American silent comedy shorts in the 1910sLuke Dunphy, in the television series ''Modern Family''Luke fon Fabre, the main character of the video game ''Tales of the Abyss''Luke Friedman, in the Netflix series ''Grand Army''Luke Hobbs, in ''The Fast and the Furious'' film series Luke Holliday, in the Netflix series ''13 Reasons Why''Luke Patterson, a character from television series ''Julie and the Phantoms''Luke Ross, from the 2011 television series ''Jessie''Luke Skywalker, the main protagonist of the ''Star Wars'' original trilogyLuke Smith in ''The Sarah Jane Adventures'' BBC series.", "Luke Snyder, on the long-running daytime drama ''As the World Turns''Luke Spencer, on the long-running serial ''General Hospital''Luke Triton, in the ''Professor Layton'' video gamesLuke the Warrior, an anthropomorphic mouse in the ''Redwall'' book seriesLuke Patterson, one of the phantoms of the Netflix hit show, Julie and the Phantoms Luke, character from Telltale's The Walking Dead, Season 2" ], [ "See also", "*Saint Luke (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for Saints named Luke" ], [ "References", "4.https://www.behindthename.com/name/luke" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lonsdaleite" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lonsdaleite''' (named in honour of Kathleen Lonsdale), also called '''hexagonal diamond''' in reference to the crystal structure, is an allotrope of carbon with a hexagonal lattice, as opposed to the cubical lattice of conventional diamond.", "It is found in nature in meteorite debris; when meteors containing graphite strike the Earth, the immense heat and stress of the impact transforms the graphite into diamond, but retains graphite's hexagonal crystal lattice.", "Lonsdaleite was first identified in 1967 from the Canyon Diablo meteorite, where it occurs as microscopic crystals associated with ordinary diamond.It is translucent and brownish-yellow and has an index of refraction of 2.40–2.41 and a specific gravity of 3.2–3.3 .", "Its hardness is theoretically superior to that of cubic diamond (up to 58% more), according to computational simulations, but natural specimens exhibited somewhat lower hardness through a large range of values (from 7–8 on Mohs hardness scale).", "The cause is speculated as being due to the samples having been riddled with lattice defects and impurities.In addition to meteorite deposits, hexagonal diamond has been synthesized in the laboratory (1966 or earlier; published in 1967) by compressing and heating graphite either in a static press or using explosives." ], [ "Hardness", "According to the conventional interpretation of the results of examining the meagre samples collected from meteorites or manufactured in the lab, lonsdaleite has a hexagonal unit cell, related to the diamond unit cell in the same way that the hexagonal and cubic close packed crystal systems are related.", "Its diamond structure can be considered to be made up of interlocking rings of six carbon atoms, in the chair conformation.", "In lonsdaleite, some rings are in the boat conformation instead.", "At nanoscale dimensions, cubic diamond is represented by ''diamondoids'' while hexagonal diamond is represented by ''wurtzoids''.In diamond, all the carbon-to-carbon bonds, both within a layer of rings and between them, are in the staggered conformation, thus causing all four cubic-diagonal directions to be equivalent; whereas in lonsdaleite the bonds between layers are in the eclipsed conformation, which defines the axis of hexagonal symmetry.Mineralogical ''simulation'' predicts lonsdaleite to be 58% harder than diamond on the face, and to resist indentation pressures of 152 GPa, whereas diamond would break at 97 GPa.", "This is yet exceeded by IIa diamond's tip hardness of 162 GPa.The extrapolated properties of lonsdaleite have been questioned, particularly its superior hardness, since specimens under crystallographic inspection have not shown a bulk hexagonal lattice structure, but instead a conventional cubic diamond dominated by structural defects that include hexagonal sequences.", "A quantitative analysis of the X-ray diffraction data of lonsdaleite has shown that about equal amounts of hexagonal and cubic stacking sequences are present.", "Consequently, it has been suggested that \"stacking disordered diamond\" is the most accurate structural description of lonsdaleite.", "On the other hand, recent shock experiments with in situ X-ray diffraction show strong evidence for creation of relatively pure lonsdaleite in dynamic high-pressure environments comparable to meteorite impacts." ], [ "Occurrence", "Diamond samples from the Popigai impact structure: (a) is pure diamond, while (b) is diamond with some lonsdaleite impurities.Lonsdaleite occurs as microscopic crystals associated with diamond in several meteorites: Canyon Diablo, Kenna, and Allan Hills 77283.It is also naturally occurring in non-bolide diamond placer deposits in the Sakha Republic.", "Material with d-spacings consistent with Lonsdaleite has been found in sediments with highly uncertain dates at Lake Cuitzeo, in the state of Guanajuato, Mexico, by proponents of the controversial Younger Dryas impact hypothesis, which is now refuted by earth scientists and planetary impact specialists.", "Claims of Lonsdaleite and other nanodiamonds in a layer of the Greenland ice sheet that could be of Younger Dryas age have not been confirmed and are now disputed.", "Its presence in local peat deposits is claimed as evidence for the Tunguska event being caused by a meteor rather than by a cometary fragment." ], [ "Manufacture", "In addition to laboratory synthesis by compressing and heating graphite either in a static press or using explosives, lonsdaleite has also been produced by chemical vapor deposition, and also by the thermal decomposition of a polymer, poly(hydridocarbyne), at atmospheric pressure, under argon atmosphere, at .In 2020, researchers at Australian National University found by accident they were able to produce lonsdaleite at room temperatures using a diamond anvil cell.In 2021, Washington State University's Institute for Shock Physics published a paper stating that they created lonsdaleite crystals large enough to measure their stiffness, confirming that they are stiffer than common cubic diamonds.", "However, the explosion used to create these crystals also destroys them nanoseconds later, providing just enough time to measure stiffness with lasers." ], [ "See also", "* * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Labrador duck" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Labrador duck''' ('''''Camptorhynchus labradorius''''') is an extinct North American duck.", "It has the distinction of being the first known endemic North American bird species to become extinct after the Columbian Exchange, with the last known sighting occurring in 1878 in Elmira, New York.", "It was already a rare duck before European settlers arrived, and as a result of its rarity, information on the Labrador duck is not abundant, although some, such as its habitat, characteristics, dietary habits and reasons behind its extinction, are known.", "There are 55 specimens of the Labrador duck preserved in museum collections worldwide." ], [ "Taxonomy", "Diagram of the maleThe Labrador duck is considered a sea duck.", "A basic difference in the shape of the process of metacarpal I divides the sea ducks into two groups:#''Bucephala'' and the mergansers#The eiders, scoters, ''Histrionicus'', ''Clangula'', and ''Camptorhynchus''The position of the nutrient foramen of the tarsometatarsus also separates the two groups of sea ducks.", "In the first group, the foramen is lateral to the long axis of the lateral groove of the hypotarsus; in the second, the foramen is on or medial to the axis of that groove.The Labrador duck was also known as the pied duck and skunk duck, the former being a vernacular name that it shared with the surf scoter and the common goldeneye (and even the American oystercatcher), a fact that has led to difficulties in interpreting old records of these species.", "Both names refer to the male's striking white/black piebald colouration.", "Yet another common name was sand shoal duck, referring to its habit of feeding in shallow water.", "The closest evolutionary relatives of the Labrador duck are apparently the scoters (''Melanitta'').A mitogenomic study of the placement of the Labrador duck found the species to be closely related to the Steller's eider as shown below." ], [ "Description", "Illustration by John Gerrard Keulemans of a female and maleThe female plumage was grey.", "Although weakly patterned, the pattern was scoter-like.", "The male's plumage was black and white in an eider-like pattern, but the wings were entirely white except for the primaries.", "The trachea of the male was scoter-like.", "An expansion of the tracheal tube occurred at the anterior end, and two enlargements (as opposed to one enlargement as seen in scoters) were near the middle of the tube.", "The bulla was bony and round, puffing out from the left side.", "This asymmetrical and osseus bulla was unlike that of scoters; this bulla was similar to eiders and harlequin duck's bullae.", "The Labrador duck has been considered the most enigmatic of all North American birds.The Labrador duck had an oblong head with small, beady eyes.", "Its bill was almost as long as its head.", "The body was short and depressed with short, strong feet that were far behind the body.", "The feathers were small and the tail was short and rounded.", "The Labrador duck belongs to a monotypic genus." ], [ "Habitat", "The Labrador duck migrated annually, wintering off the coasts of New Jersey and New England in the eastern United States, where it favored southern sandy coasts, sheltered bays, harbors, and inlets, and breeding in Labrador and northern Quebec in the summer.", "John James Audubon's son reported seeing a nest belonging to the species in Labrador.", "Some believe that it may have laid its eggs on the islands in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.", "The breeding biology of the Labrador duck is largely unknown." ], [ "Diet", "Illustration by John James AudubonThe Labrador duck fed on small molluscs, and some fishermen reported catching it on fishing lines baited with mussels.", "The structure of the bill was highly modified from that of most ducks, having a wide, flattened tip with numerous lamellae inside.", "In this way, it is considered an ecological counterpart of the North Pacific/North Asian Steller's eider.", "The beak was also particularly soft and may have been used to probe through sediment for food.Another, completely unrelated, duck with similar (but even more specialized) bill morphology is the Australian pink-eared duck, which feeds largely on plankton, but also mollusks; the condition in the Labrador duck probably resembled that in the blue duck most in outward appearance.Its peculiar bill suggests it ate shellfish and crustaceans from silt and shallow water.", "The Labrador duck may have survived by eating snails." ], [ "Extinction", "Turnaround video of a male specimen, Naturalis Biodiversity CenterThe Labrador duck is thought to have been always rare, but between 1850 and 1870, populations waned further.", "Its extinction (sometime after 1878) is still not fully explained.", "Although hunted for food, this duck was considered to taste bad, rotted quickly, and fetched a low price.", "Consequently, it was not sought much by hunters.", "However, the eggs may have been overharvested, and it may have been subject to depredations by the feather trade in its breeding area, as well.", "Another possible factor in the bird's extinction was the decline in mussels and other shellfish on which they are believed to have fed in their winter quarters, due to growth of population and industry on the Eastern Seaboard.", "Although all sea ducks readily feed on shallow-water molluscs, no Western Atlantic bird species seems to have been as dependent on such food as the Labrador duck.Stuffed specimens, American Museum of Natural HistoryAnother theory that was said to lead to their extinction was a huge increase of human influence on the coastal ecosystems in North America, causing the birds to flee their niches and find another habitat.", "These ducks were the only birds whose range was limited to the American coast of the North Atlantic, so changing niches was a difficult task.", "Whatever the causes may be, the Labrador duck became extinct in the late 19th century." ], [ "See also", "* List of extinct birds* List of extinct animals" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Chilton, Glen (2009): ''The Curse of the Labrador Duck: My Obsessive Quest to the Edge of Extinction''.", "Simon and Schuster, .", "* Cokinos, Christopher (2000): ''Hope is the Thing with Feathers''.", "New York: Putnam, pp. 281–304.", "* * Forbush, Edward Howe (1912): ''A History of the Game Birds, Wild-Fowl and Shore Birds of Massachusetts and Adjacent States.''", "Boston: Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, pp. 411–416.", "* Fuller, Errol (2001): ''Extinct Birds'', Comstock Publishing, , pp. 85–87.", "* Madge, Steve & Burn, Hilary (1988): ''Waterfowl.", "An identification guide to the ducks, geese and swans of the world.''", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp.", "265–266." ], [ "External links", "* BirdLife Species Factsheet* The Labrador Duck from John James Audubon's ''Birds of America''* Environment Canada* Swans, Geese, and Ducks of Canada* Marine Extinction Database University of East Anglia, UK" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lettres de cachet" ], [ "Introduction", "Louis XIV), opening ''De par le roy'' (\"In the name of the King...\")'''''Lettres de cachet''''' (; ) were letters signed by the king of France, countersigned by one of his ministers, and closed with the royal seal.", "They contained orders directly from the king, often to enforce arbitrary actions and judgments that could not be appealed.In the case of organized bodies, 'lettres de cachet’ were issued for the purpose of preventing assembly or accomplishing some other definite act.", "The provincial estates were convoked (called to assembly) in this manner, and it was by a ''lettre de cachet'' (in this case, a ''lettre de jussipri''), or by showing in person in a ''lit de justice'', that the king ordered a ''parlement'' to register a law despite that ''parlement''s refusal to pass it.The best-known ''lettres de cachet'', however, were penal, by which a subject was imprisoned without trial and without an opportunity of defense (after inquiry and due diligence by the ''lieutenant de police'') in a state prison or an ordinary jail, confinement in a convent or the General Hospital of Paris, transportation to the colonies, or expulsion to another part of the realm, or from the realm altogether.", "The ''lettres'' were mainly used against drunkards, troublemakers, prostitutes, squanderers of the family fortune, or insane persons.", "The wealthy sometimes petitioned such ''lettres'' to dispose of inconvenient individuals, especially to prevent unequal marriages (nobles with commoners), or to prevent a scandal (the ''lettre'' could prevent court cases that might otherwise dishonour a family).In this respect, the ''lettres de cachet'' were a prominent symbol of the abuses of the ''ancien régime'' monarchy, and as such were suppressed during the French Revolution.", "In 1789 and 1790, all cases were reviewed by a commission which confirmed most of the sentences.", "Historian Claude Quétel has interpreted these confirmations as indicating that the ''lettres'' were not as arbitrary and unjust as they have been represented after the Revolution, and he hence speaks of a ''Légende noire''." ], [ "History", "''Lettre de cachet'' ordering Jean-François Marmontel's detention at the Bastille, signed by Louis XV and minister Louis Phélypeaux in 1759The power to issue ''lettres de cachet'' was a royal privilege recognized by the French monarchic civil law that developed during the 13th century, as the Capetian monarchy overcame its initial distrust of Roman law.", "The principle can be traced to a maxim which furnished a text of the ''Pandects'' of Justinian: in their Latin version, \"''Rex solutus est a legibus''\", or \"The king is released from the laws.\"", "\"The French legal scholars interpreted the imperial office of the Justinian code generically and arrived at the conclusion that every 'king is an emperor in his own kingdom,' that is, he possesses the prerogatives of legal absolutism that the ''Corpus Juris Civilis'' attributes to the Roman emperor.", "\"This meant that when the king intervened directly, he could decide without heeding the laws, and even contrary to the laws.", "This was an early conception, and in early times the order in question was simply verbal; some letters patent of Henry III of France in 1576 state that François de Montmorency was \"prisoner in our castle of the Bastille in Paris by verbal command\" of the late king Charles IX.In the 14th century, the principle was introduced that the order should be written, and hence arose the ''lettre de cachet''.", "The ''lettre de cachet'' belonged to the class of ''lettres closes'', as opposed to ''lettres patentes'', which contained the expression of the legal and permanent will of the king, and had to be furnished with the seal of state affixed by the chancellor.The ''lettres de cachet'', on the contrary, were signed simply by a secretary of state for the king; they bore merely the imprint of the king's privy seal, from which circumstance they were often called, in the 14th and 15th centuries, ''lettres de petit signet'' or ''lettres de petit cachet'', and were entirely exempt from the control of the chancellor." ], [ "As a tool", "While serving the government as a silent weapon against political adversaries or controversial writers and as a means of punishing culprits of high birth without the scandal of a lawsuit, the ''lettres de cachet'' had many other uses.", "They were employed by the police in dealing with prostitutes, and on their authority lunatics were shut up in hospitals and sometimes in prisons.They were also often used by heads of families as a means of correction, for example, for protecting the family honour from the disorderly or criminal conduct of sons.", "The case of the Marquis de Sade (imprisoned 1777–1790 under a ''lettre de cachet'' obtained by his wealthy and influential mother-in-law) is a prominent example.", "Wives, too, took advantage of them to curb the profligacy of husbands and vice versa.In reality, the secretary of state had a delegation and could issue them at his own discretion, and in most cases the king was unaware of their issue.", "In the 18th century the letters were often issued blank, i.e.", "without containing the name of the person against whom they were directed; the recipient, or mandatary, filled in the name in order to make the letter effective." ], [ "Protests", "Protests against the ''lettres de cachet'' were made continually by the ''parlement'' of Paris and by the provincial ''parlements'', and also by the Estates-General.", "In 1648, during the Fronde, the sovereign courts of Paris, by their ''Arrêt d'Union'', procured their momentary suppression in a kind of charter of liberties which they imposed upon the crown, but which was short-lived.It was not until the reign of Louis XVI that a reaction against the abuse became clearly perceptible.", "At the beginning of that reign Malesherbes during his short ministry endeavoured to infuse some measure of justice into the system, and in March 1784 the baron de Breteuil, a minister of the king's household, addressed a circular to the intendants and the lieutenant of police with a view to preventing the most serious abuses connected with the issue of ''lettres de cachet''.The Comte de Mirabeau wrote a scathing indictment of ''lettres de cachet'' while imprisoned in the dungeon of Vincennes (by ''lettre de cachet'' obtained by his father).", "The treatise was published after his liberation in 1782 under the title ''Les Lettres de cachet et des prisons d'etat'' and was widely read throughout Europe.Besides the Bastille, there were thirty prisons in Paris by 1779 in which a person could be detained without trial.", "Convents were used for the same purpose.They were reported to have been openly sold, in the reign of Louis XV, by the mistress of one of his ministers.In Paris, in 1779, the Cour des Aides demanded their suppression, and in March 1788 the Parlement of Paris made some exceedingly energetic remonstrances, which are important for the light they throw upon old French public law.", "The crown, however, did not decide to lay aside this weapon, and in a declaration to the States-General in the royal session of June 23, 1789 (art.", "15) it did not renounce it absolutely." ], [ "Abolition and reinstatement", "''Lettres de cachet'' were abolished after the French Revolution by the Constituent Assembly, but Napoleon reestablished their penal equivalent by a political measure in the decree of 8 March 1801 on the state prisons.", "This is all the more striking, given that Napoleon had pushed for measures ensuring the rule of law in the codes of laws adopted under his rule.", "This action was one of the acts brought up against him by the senatus-consulte of 3 April 1814, which pronounced his fall \"considering that he has violated the constitutional laws by the decrees on the state prisons.\"" ], [ "Victims of ''lettres de cachet''", "* Charles Simon Favart (because a nobleman was interested in his wife)* Luke Joseph Hooke (deprived of his academic chair in theology for awarding a PhD to a candidate without having read the (heretical) thesis.", ")* Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau (several times, on request of his father, as protection against creditors and once to prevent a death penalty for kidnapping and eloping with a married woman)* Marguerite Monvoisin (complicity in a poisoning affair.", "A ''lettre de cachet'' was used to avoid a scandal that might have affected Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan, a mistress of the King who was assumed to have been involved).", "* Pigault-Lebrun (twice, for eloping with two successive young women)* Alexandre Balthazar Laurent Grimod de La Reynière (misconduct: sent away to an abbey by his father)* Marquis de Sade (rape and torture.", "The Lettre was petitioned by the marquis' wife, to avoid a court case)* Comte de Sanois (domestic disputes and debt.", "His wife petitioned a Lettre, claiming her husband insane)* Voltaire (once for slander, a second time for violent menaces against the Prince de Rohan)* Jean-François Marmontel, accused to be the author of a satire against the Duke d'Aumont.", "His account of his short stay in the Bastille contains a description of the food he received, the room he was imprisoned with his servant, and the goodwill shown to him.", "* Giacomo Casanova (dueling)* Marie-Anne de La Ville (practiced black magic.", "A scandalous trial was avoided by a ''lettre'')* Jean-Baptiste Forqueray (request of his father)" ], [ "In literature", "* Honoré Mirabeau, ''Des Lettres de Cachet et des prisons d'état'' (Hamburg, 1782), written in the dungeon at Vincennes into which his father had thrown him by a ''lettre de cachet'', one of the ablest and most eloquent of his works, which had an immense circulation and was translated into English in 1788.", "* The Castle of Wolfenbach, one of the \"Horrid Novels\" mentioned in \"Northanger Abbey\" by Jane Austen, features a \"lettre de cachet\" as a major plot point when the main villain, the guardian of a young lady who has run away, tries to use a \"lettre de cachet\" to obligate her to be returned to him so he can force her into marriage.", "* Doctor Alexandre Manette, in Dickens' ''A Tale of Two Cities'', was thrown into the Bastille prison by means of a ''lettre de cachet''.", "In addition, Charles Darnay suspected that his uncle, a marquis, would have used a ''lettre de cachet'' to put Darnay himself into prison had the Marquis not fallen out of favour with the royal court." ], [ "See also", "* Bill of attainder* Divine right of kings* Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France* National Security Letter* Firman* Letters close" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lilia Podkopayeva" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lilia Oleksandrivna Podkopayeva''' (; born 15 August 1978) is a Ukrainian former artistic gymnast.", "She is the 1995 world all-around champion, and the 1996 Olympic all-around and floor exercise champion.", "Often thought of as a complete athlete, Podkopayeva was known for combining power, style, and balletic grace." ], [ "Gymnastics career", "=== 1993–95 ===In March 1993, Lilia won her only National All Around Title in Ukraine.", "In April 1993, Podkopayeva competed at the World Artistic Gymnastics Championships in Birmingham, England.", "She qualified for the vault final, but crashed on her first attempt and finished last with a score of 8.893.At the 1994 World Championships in Brisbane, Australia, she placed sixth in the all-around with a score of 38.942.In event finals, she placed eighth on vault, scoring 9.424; fifth on uneven bars, scoring 9.350; and second on balance beam, scoring 9.737.In November 1994, at the World Team Championships in Dortmund, Germany, she contributed an all-around score of 38.099 toward the Ukrainian team's fifth-place finish.The following year, Podkopayeva competed at the 1995 World Championships in Sabae, Japan.", "She helped Ukraine place fifth and qualify a full team to the 1996 Olympics.", "Podkopayeva then won the all-around final with a score of 39.248.In event finals, she placed first on vault (9.781), second on uneven bars (9.837), second on balance beam (9.837), and seventh on floor (9.087).=== 1996 ===At the beginning of the year, Podkopayeva was seriously injured when she fell from the beam in practice, fracturing two ribs.", "However, in May, she competed at the European Championships in Birmingham, where she helped the Ukrainian team place third and won the individual all-around with a score of 39.205.In event finals, she placed third on balance beam (9.756), first on uneven bars (9.825), and first on floor (9.862).==== Atlanta Olympics ====In July, Podkopayeva competed at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia.", "In the team final, she contributed a combined compulsory and optional score of 78.061 toward the Ukrainian team's fifth-place finish.", "She then won the all-around final with a score of 39.255.In event finals, she placed fifth on uneven bars (9.787), second on balance beam (9.825), and first on floor (9.887).", "She was the fourth gymnast to win the Olympic all-around title as the reigning world champion, and the first gymnast to win the all-around without winning a team medal.", "She was also the last female gymnast to win the all-around title and an event-final gold medal until Simone Biles did this in 2016.=== 1997 ===Podkopayeva originally intended to continue competing after the 1996 Olympics, and she was named to the Ukrainian team for the 1997 World Championships.", "However, injuries forced her to sit out the competition and, later, to retire." ], [ "Eponymous skills", "Podkopayeva has two eponymous skills listed in the Code of Points.ApparatusNameDescriptionDifficultyVault Podkopayeva Round-off flic-flac with turn (180°) on - piked salto forward with turn (180°) off 4.2Floor exercise Podkopayeva Double salto forward tucked with turn (180°) F" ], [ "Post-retirement", "In 2002, Podkopayeva started the Golden Lilia International Sports Festival, an exhibition featuring artistic and rhythmic gymnasts, acrobats, and dancers.", "She said, \"It's important to us to show outstanding people and brightest talent so that the next generation can follow the best of the best.", "\"In December 2004, she married a Ukrainian businessman Tymofiy Nahornyi.", "They have two children: Vadym, adopted in Ukraine in July 2006, and Karolina, born in November 2006.The couple divorced in 2009.In 2005, Podkopayeva became a United Nations goodwill ambassador on HIV/AIDS in Ukraine.", "She is also an Ambassador of the Council of Europe for Sport, Tolerance, and Fair Play.In 2007, she won Ukraine's ''Dancing With the Stars'' with partner Sergiy Kostetskyi.", "The next year, she represented Ukraine in the Eurovision Dance Contest.", "Along with partner Kyrylo Khytrov, she placed third in the competition.In 2014, Podkopayeva did a gala event in Mexico, using similar choreography to the floor routine she performed in Atlanta, as well as doing back handsprings and round-offs.In 2019, Podkopayeva joined the coaching staff at Marcus Jewish Community Center of Atlanta's Perimeter Gymnastics." ], [ "See also", "List of Olympic female gymnasts for Ukraine" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lisbon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lisbon''' (; ) is the capital and largest city of Portugal, with an estimated population of 548,703 as of 2022 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km2.Lisbon is mainland Europe's westernmost capital city (second overall after Reykjavik) and the only one along the Atlantic coast, the others (Reykjavik and Dublin) being on islands.", "The city lies in the western portion of the Iberian Peninsula, on the northern shore of the River Tagus.", "The western portion of its metro area, the Portuguese Riviera, hosts the westernmost point of Continental Europe, culminating at Cabo da Roca.Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world and the second-oldest European capital city (after Athens), predating other modern European capitals by centuries.", "Established by pre-Celtic tribes and later Phoenicians, Julius Caesar made it a municipium called ''Felicitas Julia'', adding the term to the name ''Olissipo''.", "After the fall of the Roman Empire, it was ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, most notably the Visigoths.", "Later it was captured by the Moors in the 8th century.", "In 1147 Afonso Henriques conquered the city and in 1255 it became Portugal's capital, replacing Coimbra.", "It has since been the political, economic, and cultural centre of the country.It has been since the political centre of the country, as its seat of government, National Assembly, Supreme Court of Justice, Armed Forces and residence of the head of state.", "It is also the centre of Portuguese diplomacy, with ambassadors from 86 countries residing in the city, as well as representations from Taiwan and Palestine.About 2.9 million people live in the Lisbon metropolitan area, which extends beyond the city's administrative area, making it the third largest metropolitan area in the Iberian Peninsula (after Madrid and Barcelona) as well as figuring amongst the 10 most populous urban areas in the European Union.", "It represents approximately 27.70% of the country's population.", "Lisbon is recognised as an alpha-level global city because of its importance in finance, commerce, fashion, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education, and tourism.", "Lisbon is amongst the two Portuguese cities (the other being Porto) to be recognised as a global city, and it is also home to three companies in the Global 2000 (EDP Group, Galp Energia and Jerónimo Martins).", "Lisbon is one of the major economic centres in Europe, with a growing financial sector, with PSI-20 being part of Euronext, the largest center for debt and funds listings in the world.", "The Lisbon region has a higher GDP PPP per capita than any other region in Portugal.", "Its GDP PPP amounts to US$179 billion and thus $61,713 per capita.", "The city occupies the 40th place of highest gross earnings in the world and, with almost 21,000 millionaires, is the 11th European city by number of millionaires and the 14th by number of billionaires.", "Most of the headquarters of multinational corporations in Portugal are located in the Lisbon area." ], [ "Etymology", "Lisbon's name may have been derived from Proto-Celtic or Celtic ''Olisippo'', ''Lissoppo'', or a similar name which other visiting peoples like the ancient Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans adapted accordingly, such as the pre-Roman appellation for the Tagus River, ''Lisso'' or ''Lucio''.", "Classical authors writing in Latin and Greek, including Strabo, Solinus, and Martianus Capella, referred to popular legends that the city of Lisbon was founded by the mythical hero Ulysses (Odysseus).", "Lisbon's name was written ''Ulyssippo'' in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela, a native of Hispania.", "It was later referred to as \"Olisippo\" by Pliny the Elder and by the Greeks as ''Olissipo'' (Ὀλισσιπών) or ''Olissipona'' (Ὀλισσιπόνα).Another claim repeated in literature is that the name of Lisbon could be traced back to Phoenician times, referring to a supposed Phoenician term ''Alis-Ubbo'', meaning \"safe harbour\" or \"pleasant haven\".", "Although modern archaeological excavations show a Phoenician presence at this location since 1200BC, this folk etymology \"is never attested in ancient classical literature\".Lisbon's name is commonly abbreviated as \"LX\" or \"Lx\", originating in an antiquated spelling of Lisbon as ''Lixbõa''.", "While the old spelling has since been completely dropped from usage and goes against modern language standards, the abbreviation is still commonly used." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Phoenician archaeological dig in a cloister of the Lisbon CathedralDuring the Neolithic period, the region was inhabited by Pre-Celtic tribes, who built religious and funerary monuments, megaliths, dolmens and menhirs, which still survive in areas on the periphery of Lisbon.", "The Indo-European Celts invaded in the 1st millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population, thus giving rise to Celtic-speaking local tribes such as the Cempsi or Sefes.Although the first fortifications on Lisbon's Castelo hill are known to be no older than the 2nd century BC, recent archaeological finds have shown that Iron Age people occupied the site from the 8th to 6th centuries BC.", "This indigenous settlement maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians, which would account for the recent findings of Phoenician pottery and other material objects.", "Archaeological excavations made near the Castle of São Jorge (''Castelo de São Jorge'') and Lisbon Cathedral indicate a Phoenician presence at this location since 1200 BC, and it can be stated with confidence that a Phoenician trading post stood on a site now the centre of the present city, on the southern slope of the Castle hill.", "The sheltered harbour in the Tagus River estuary was an ideal spot for an Iberian settlement and would have provided a secure harbour for unloading and provisioning Phoenician ships.", "The Tagus settlement was an important centre of commercial trade with the inland tribes, providing an outlet for the valuable metals, salt and salted-fish they collected, and for the sale of the Lusitanian horses renowned in antiquity.According to a persistent legend, the location was named for the mythical Ulysses, who founded the city when he sailed westward to the ends of the known world.===Roman era===Part of the ''Cerca Velha'' (Old Wall), originally built by the RomansFollowing the defeat of Hannibal in 202 BC during the Punic wars, the Romans determined to deprive Carthage of its most valuable possession: Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula).", "The defeat of Carthaginian forces by Scipio Africanus in Eastern Hispania allowed the pacification of the west, led by Consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus.", "Decimus obtained the alliance of Olissipo (which sent men to fight alongside the Roman Legions against the northwestern Celtic tribes) by integrating it into the empire, as the ''Municipium Cives Romanorum Felicitas Julia''.", "Local authorities were granted self-rule over a territory that extended ; exempt from taxes, its citizens were given the privileges of Roman citizenship, and it was then integrated with the Roman province of Lusitania (whose capital was Emerita Augusta).Lusitanian raids and rebellions during Roman occupation required the construction of a wall around the settlement.", "During Augustus' reign, the Romans also built a great theatre; the Cassian Baths (underneath ''Rua da Prata''); temples to Jupiter, Diana, Cybele, Tethys and Idea Phrygiae (an uncommon cult from Asia Minor), in addition to temples to the Emperor; a large necropolis under ''Praça da Figueira''; a large forum and other buildings such as insulae (multi-storied apartment buildings) in the area between Castle Hill and the historic city core.", "Many of these ruins were first unearthed during the mid-18th century (when the recent discovery of Pompeii made Roman archaeology fashionable among Europe's upper classes).The city prospered as piracy was eliminated and technological advances were introduced, consequently ''Felicitas Julia'' became a center of trade with the Roman provinces of Britannia (particularly Cornwall) and the Rhine.", "Economically strong, Olissipo was known for its garum (a fish sauce highly prized by the elites of the empire and exported in amphorae to Rome), wine, salt, and horse-breeding, while Roman culture permeated the hinterland.", "The city was connected by a broad road to Western Hispania's two other large cities, Bracara Augusta in the province of Tarraconensis (Portuguese Braga), and Emerita Augusta, the capital of Lusitania.", "The city was ruled by an oligarchical council dominated by two families, the Julii and the Cassiae, although regional authority was administered by the Roman Governor of Emerita or directly by Emperor Tiberius.", "Among the majority of Latin speakers lived a large minority of Greek traders and slaves.Olissipo, like most great cities in the Western Empire, was a center for the dissemination of Christianity.", "Its first attested Bishop was Potamius (c. 356), and there were several martyrs during the period of persecution of the Christians: Verissimus, Maxima, and Julia are the most significant examples.", "By the time of the Fall of Rome, Olissipo had become a notable Christian center.===Middle Ages===Following the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire, there were barbarian invasions; between 409 and 429 the city was occupied successively by Sarmatians, Alans and Vandals.", "The Germanic Suebi, who established a kingdom in Gallaecia (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), with its capital in ''Bracara Augusta'', also controlled the region of Lisbon until 585.In 585, the Suebi Kingdom was integrated into the Germanic Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo, which comprised all of the Iberian Peninsula: Lisbon was then called ''Ulishbona''.King Afonso Henriques reconquered the city from the Almoravid Empire at the 1147 siege of Lisbon.On 6 August 711, Lisbon was taken by the Muslim forces of the Umayyad Caliphate.", "These conquerors built many mosques and houses, rebuilt the city wall (known as the ''Cerca Moura'') and established administrative control, while permitting the diverse population (Arabs, Berbers, Muwallad, Mozarabs, ''Saqaliba'', and Jews) to maintain their socio-cultural lifestyles.", "Mozarabic was the native language spoken by most of the Christian population although Arabic was widely known as spoken by all religious communities.", "Islam was the official religion practised by the Arabs, Berbers, Saqaliba and Muwallad.The Muslim influence is still visible in the Alfama district, an old quarter of Lisbon that survived the 1755 Lisbon earthquake: many place-names are derived from Arabic and the Alfama (the oldest existing district of Lisbon) was derived from the Arabic \"''al-hamma''.For a brief time, Lisbon was an independent Muslim kingdom known as the Taifa of Lisbon (1022–1094), before being conquered by the larger Taifa of Badajoz.In 1108 Lisbon was raided and occupied by Norwegian crusaders led by Sigurd I on their way to the Holy Land as part of the Norwegian Crusade and occupied by crusader forces for three years.", "It was taken by the Moorish Almoravids in 1111.1384 siege of Lisbon in Froissart's ChroniclesIn 1147, as part of Portuguese efforts during the ''Reconquista'', Afonso I of Portugal besieged and reconquered Lisbon with the aid of crusader knights.", "The city, with around 154,000 residents at the time, was returned to Christian rule.", "The reconquest of Portugal and re-establishment of Christianity is one of the most significant events in Lisbon's history, described in the chronicle ''Expugnatione Lyxbonensi'', which describes, among other incidents, how the local bishop was killed by the crusaders and the city's residents prayed to the Virgin Mary as it happened.", "Some of the Muslim residents converted to Roman Catholicism and most of those who did not convert fled to other parts of the Islamic world, primarily Muslim Spain and North Africa.", "All mosques were either completely destroyed or converted into churches.", "As a result of the end of Muslim rule, spoken Arabic quickly lost its place in the everyday life of the city and disappeared altogether.With its central location, Lisbon became the capital city of the new Portuguese territory in 1255.The first Portuguese university was founded in Lisbon in 1290 by King Denis I; for many years the ''Studium Generale'' (''General Study'') was transferred intermittently to Coimbra, where it was installed permanently in the 16th century as the University of Coimbra.In 1384, the city was besieged by King Juan I of Castille, as a part of the ongoing 1383–1385 Crisis.", "The result of the siege was a victory for the Portuguese led by Nuno Álvares Pereira.During the last centuries of the Middle Ages, the city expanded substantially and became an important trading post with both Northern European and Mediterranean cities.===Early Modern===The oldest known panorama of Lisbon (1500–1510) from the ''Crónica de Dom Afonso Henriques'' by Duarte GalvãoWhen the Spaniards expelled the Jews from Spanish territory, many of them fled to Lisbon.", "Although acknowledging the central importance of the Jews to the city's prosperity, Manuel I decreed in 1497 that all Jews must convert to Christianity, only those who refused being forced to leave, but not before the expropriation of their property.", "In 1506, an anti-semitic movement among the Old Christians of Lisbon culminated in a massacre lasting four days in which some 1,000 to 4,000 New Christian men, women and children, converted descendants of Sephardic Jews, are estimated to have been killed.", "The king was at Évora when these events occurred, but angered when he received the news, he ordered an investigation which resulted in two of the instigating friars being excommunicated and burned alive.Most of the Portuguese expeditions of the Age of Discovery set out from Lisbon during the period from the end of the 15th century to the beginning of the 17th century, including Vasco da Gama's expedition to India in 1498.The following years of the 16th century began Lisbon's golden era: the city was the European hub of commerce between Africa, India, the Far East and later, Brazil, and acquired great riches by exploiting the trade in spices, slaves, sugar, textiles and other goods.", "This period saw the rise of the exuberant Manueline style in architecture, which left its mark in many 16th-century monuments (including Lisbon's Belém Tower and Jerónimos Monastery, which were declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites).", "A description of Lisbon in the 16th century was written by Damião de Góis and published in 1554.King Manuel I ordered Jerónimos Monastery to be built in Belém, to serve Portuguese discoverers.Ribeira Palace and the Terreiro do Paço depicted in 1662 by Dirk StoopThe succession crisis of 1580, initiated a sixty-year period of dual monarchy in Portugal and Spain under the Spanish Habsburgs.", "This is referred to as the \"Philippine Dominion\" (''Domínio Filipino''), since all three Spanish kings during that period were called Philip (''Filipe'').", "In 1589, Lisbon was the target of an incursion by the English Armada led by Francis Drake, while Queen Elizabeth supported a Portuguese pretender in Antonio, Prior of Crato, but support for Crato was lacking and the expedition was a failure.", "The Portuguese Restoration War, which began with a coup d'état organised by the nobility and bourgeoisie in Lisbon and executed on 1 December 1640, restored Portuguese independence.", "The period from 1640 to 1668 was marked by periodic skirmishes between Portugal and Spain, as well as short episodes of more serious warfare until the Treaty of Lisbon was signed in 1668.In the early 18th century, gold from Brazil allowed King John V to sponsor the building of several Baroque churches and theatres in the city.", "Prior to the 18th century, Lisbon had experienced several significant earthquakes – eight in the 14th century, five in the 16th century (including the 1531 earthquake that destroyed 1,500 houses and the 1597 earthquake in which three streets vanished), and three in the 17th century.On 1 November 1755, the city was destroyed by another devastating earthquake, which killed an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 Lisbon residents of a population estimated at between 200,000 and 275,000, and destroyed 85 percent of the city's structures.", "Among several important buildings of the city, the Ribeira Palace and the Hospital Real de Todos os Santos were lost.", "In coastal areas, such as Peniche, situated about north of Lisbon, many people were killed by the following tsunami.By 1755, Lisbon was one of the largest cities in Europe; the catastrophic event shocked the whole of Europe and left a deep impression on its collective psyche.", "Voltaire wrote a long poem, ''Poême sur le désastre de Lisbonne'', shortly after the quake, and mentioned it in his 1759 novel ''Candide'' (indeed, many argue that this critique of optimism was inspired by that earthquake).", "Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. also mentions it in his 1857 poem, ''The Deacon's Masterpiece, or The Wonderful One-Hoss Shay''.After the 1755 earthquake, the city was rebuilt largely according to the plans of Prime Minister Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, the 1st Marquis of Pombal; the lower town began to be known as the ''Baixa Pombalina'' (Pombaline central district).", "Instead of rebuilding the medieval town, Pombal decided to demolish what remained after the earthquake and rebuild the city centre in accordance with principles of modern urban design.", "It was reconstructed in an open rectangular plan with two great squares: the ''Praça do Rossio'' and the ''Praça do Comércio''.", "The first, the central commercial district, is the traditional gathering place of the city and the location of the older cafés, theatres and restaurants; the second became the city's main access to the River Tagus and point of departure and arrival for seagoing vessels, adorned by a triumphal arch (1873) and a monument to King Joseph I.===Modern era===Proclamation of the Portuguese Republic in 1910In the first years of the 19th century, Portugal was invaded by the troops of Napoléon Bonaparte, forcing Queen Maria I and Prince-Regent John (future John VI) to flee temporarily to Brazil.", "By the time the new King returned to Lisbon, many of the buildings and properties were pillaged, sacked or destroyed by the invaders.During the 19th century, the Liberal movement introduced new changes into the urban landscape.", "The principal areas were in the ''Baixa'' and along the ''Chiado'' district, where shops, tobacconists shops, cafés, bookstores, clubs and theatres proliferated.", "The development of industry and commerce determined the growth of the city, seeing the transformation of the Passeio Público, a Pombaline era park, into the Avenida da Liberdade, as the city grew farther from the Tagus.Lisbon was the site of the regicide of Carlos I of Portugal in 1908, an event which culminated two years later in the establishment of the First Republic.The Palace of Ajuda was built as a residence for the King of Portugal following the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake.Queen Maria II National Theatre was built in 1842.The city refounded its university in 1911 after centuries of inactivity in Lisbon, incorporating reformed former colleges and other non-university higher education schools of the city (such as the ''Escola Politécnica'' – now ''Faculdade de Ciências'').", "Today there are two public universities in the city (University of Lisbon and New University of Lisbon), a public university institute (ISCTE - Lisbon University Institute) and a polytechnic institute (IPL – Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa).During World War II, Lisbon was one of the very few neutral, open European Atlantic ports, a major gateway for refugees to the U.S. and a haven for spies.", "More than 100,000 refugees were able to flee Nazi Germany via Lisbon.During the Estado Novo regime (1926–1974), Lisbon, under the influence of Duarte Pacheco, the minister of works, was expanded at the cost of other districts within the country, resulting in nationalist and monumental projects.", "New residential and public developments were constructed; the zone of Belém was modified for the 1940 Portuguese Exhibition, while along the periphery new districts appeared to house the growing population.", "The inauguration of the bridge over the Tagus allowed a rapid connection between both sides of the river.Lisbon was the site of three revolutions in the 20th century.", "The first, the 5 October 1910 revolution, brought an end to the Portuguese monarchy and established the highly unstable and corrupt Portuguese First Republic.", "The 6 June 1926 revolution ended the first republic and firmly established the Estado Novo, or the Portuguese Second Republic, as the ruling regime.===Contemporary===The Carnation Revolution, which took place on 25 April 1974, ended the right-wing Estado Novo regime and reformed the country to become as it is today, the Portuguese Third Republic.In the 1990s, many of the districts were renovated and projects in the historic quarters were established to modernise those areas, for instance, architectural and patrimonial buildings were renovated, the northern margin of the Tagus was re-purposed for leisure and residential use, the Vasco da Gama Bridge was constructed and the eastern part of the municipality was re-purposed for Expo '98 to commemorate the 500th anniversary of Vasco da Gama's sea voyage to India, a voyage that would bring immense riches to Lisbon and cause many of Lisbon's landmarks to be built.In 1988, a fire in the historical district of Chiado saw the destruction of many 18th-century Pombaline style buildings.", "A series of restoration works has brought the area back to its former self and made it a high-scale shopping district.The Treaty of Lisbon, which forms the constitutional basis of the European Union, was signed at the Jerónimos Monastery in 2007.The Lisbon Agenda was a European Union agreement on measures to revitalise the EU economy, signed in Lisbon in March 2000.In October 2007 Lisbon hosted the 2007 EU Summit, where an agreement was reached regarding a new EU governance model.", "The resulting Treaty of Lisbon was signed on 13 December 2007 and came into force on 1 December 2009.Lisbon has been the site for many international events and programmes.", "In 1994, Lisbon was the European Capital of Culture.", "On 3 November 2005, Lisbon hosted the MTV European Music Awards.", "On 7 July 2007, Lisbon held the ceremony of the \"New 7 Wonders Of The World\" election, in the Luz Stadium, with live transmission for millions of people all over the world.", "Every two years, Lisbon hosts the Rock in Rio Lisboa Music Festival, one of the largest in the world.", "Lisbon hosted the NATO summit (19–20 November 2010), a summit meeting that is regarded as a periodic opportunity for Heads of State and Heads of Government of NATO member states to evaluate and provide strategic direction for Alliance activities.", "The city hosts the Web Summit and is the head office for the Group of Seven Plus (G7+).", "In 2018 it hosted the Eurovision Song Contest for the first time as well as the Michelin Gala.", "On 11 July 2018, the Aga Khan officially chose the Henrique de Mendonça Palace, located on Rua Marquês de Fronteira, as the ''Divan'', or seat, of the global Nizari Muslim Imamate.", "Lisbon hosted World Youth Day 2023 in August of that year, attracting Catholic youth from the around the world.", "Pope Francis led several events, with the final mass held in the city's Parque do Tejo having an estimated 1.5 million attendees." ], [ "Geography", "View of the Lisbon metropolitan area, with the Portuguese Riviera to the west of Lisbon and the Setúbal Peninsula south of the Tagus RiverMap of the 24 ''freguesias'' (administrative divisions of the city) of Lisbon grouped by zone:===Physical geography===Lisbon is located at , situated at the mouth of the Tagus River and is the westernmost capital of a mainland European country.The westernmost part of Lisbon is occupied by the Monsanto Forest Park, a urban park, one of the largest in Europe, and occupying 10% of the municipality.The city occupies an area of , and its city boundaries, unlike those of most major cities, coincide with those of the municipality.", "The rest of the urbanised area of the Lisbon urban area, known generically as Greater Lisbon () includes several administratively defined cities and municipalities, in the north bank of the Tagus River.", "The larger Lisbon metropolitan area includes the Setúbal Peninsula to the south.===Climate===Lisbon has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: ''Csa'') with mild, rainy winters and warm to hot, dry summers.", "The average annual temperature is , during the day and at night.", "In the coldest month – January – the highest temperature during the day typically ranges from , the lowest temperature at night ranges from and the average sea temperature is .", "In the warmest month – August – the highest temperature during the day typically ranges from , the lowest temperature at night ranges from and the average sea temperature is around .Among European capitals, Lisbon ranks among those with the warmest winters and has the mildest winter nights out of any major European city, with an average of in the coldest month, and in the warmest month.", "The coldest temperature ever recorded in Lisbon was in February 1956; although other locations in its metropolitan area can record lower temperatures, not being as affected by the urban heat island of the city centre, with Sintra and Setúbal having reached and respectively, both experiencing about 13 days of frost per year on average.", "The highest temperature ever recorded in Lisbon was on 4 August 2018.The city has around 2,806 hours of sunshine per year, averaging 4.6 hours of sunshine per day in December and 11.4 hours of sunshine per day in July, though when disregarding the duration of the day August is actually the sunniest, with over 80% chance of direct sunlight hitting the ground.Lisbon has around of precipitation per year.", "November and December are the wettest months, accounting for a third of the total annual precipitation.", "July and August are the driest.===Freguesias===The municipality of Lisbon included 53 ''freguesias'' until November 2012.A new law (\"Lei n.º 56/2012\") reduced the number of ''freguesias'' to the following 24:AjudaAlcântaraAlvaladeAreeiroArroiosAvenidas NovasBeatoBelémBenficaCampo de OuriqueCampolideCarnideEstrelaLumiarMarvilaMisericórdiaOlivaisParque das NaçõesPenha de FrançaSanta ClaraSanta Maria MaiorSanto AntónioSão Domingos de BenficaSão Vicente===Neighborhoods===Locally, Lisbon's inhabitants may commonly refer to the spaces of Lisbon in terms of historic ''Bairros de Lisboa'' (neighbourhoods).", "These communities have no clearly defined boundaries and represent distinctive quarters of the city that have in common a historical culture, similar living standards, and identifiable architectural landmarks, as exemplified by the ''Bairro Alto'', ''Alfama'', ''Chiado'', and so forth.====Alcântara====Alcântara from the Port of LisbonAlthough today it is quite central, it was once a mere suburb of Lisbon, comprising mostly farms and country estates of the nobility with their palaces.", "In the 16th century, there was a brook there which the nobles used to promenade in their boats.", "During the late 19th century, Alcântara became a popular industrial area, with many small factories and warehouses.In the early 1990s, Alcântara began to attract youth because of the number of pubs and discothèques.", "This was mainly due to its outer area of mostly commercial buildings, which acted as barriers to the noise-generating nightlife (which acted as a buffer to the residential communities surrounding it).", "In the meantime, some of these areas began to become gentrified, attracting loft developments and new flats, which have profited from its river views and central location.The riverfront of Alcântara is known for its nightclubs and bars.", "The area is commonly known as ''docas'' (docks), since most of the clubs and bars are housed in converted dock warehouses.====Alfama====Alfama, with the churches of S. Vicente de Fora, S. Engrácia, and S. Estêvão, and the Tagus river behindThe oldest district of Lisbon, it spreads down the southern slope from the Castle of São Jorge to the River Tagus.", "Its name, derived from the Arabic ''Al-hamma'', means fountains or baths.", "During the Islamic invasion of Iberia, the Alfama constituted the largest part of the city, extending west to the Baixa neighbourhood.", "Increasingly, the Alfama became inhabited by fishermen and the poor: its fame as a poor neighbourhood continues to this day.", "While the 1755 Lisbon earthquake caused considerable damage throughout the capital, the Alfama survived with little damage, thanks to its compact labyrinth of narrow streets and small squares.View from the São Jorge Castle, including the Praça do Comércio on the waterfrontIt is a historical quarter of mixed-use buildings occupied by Fado bars, restaurants, and homes with small shops downstairs.", "Modernising trends have invigorated the district: old houses have been re-purposed or remodelled, while new buildings have been constructed.", "Fado, the typically Portuguese style of melancholy music, is common (but not obligatory) in the restaurants of the district.====Mouraria====The Mouraria, or Moorish quarter, is one of the most traditional neighbourhoods of Lisbon, although most of its old buildings were demolished by the Estado Novo between the 1930s and the 1970s.", "It takes its name from the fact that after the reconquest of Lisbon, the Muslims who remained were confined to this part of the city.", "In turn, the Jews were confined to three neighbourhoods called \"Judiarias\".====Bairro Alto====''Duke of Cadaval Square'', bordering Bairro Alto and the Baixa PombalinaBairro Alto (literally ''the upper quarter'' in Portuguese) is an area of central Lisbon that functions as a residential, shopping and entertainment district; it is the center of the Portuguese capital's nightlife, attracting hipster youth and members of various music subcultures.", "Lisbon's punk, gay, metal, goth, hip hop and reggae scenes all find a home in the ''Bairro'' with its many clubs and bars that cater to them.", "The crowds in the Bairro Alto are a multicultural mix of people representing a broad cross-section of modern Portuguese society, many of them being entertainment seekers and devotees of various music genres outside the mainstream, Fado, Portugal's national music, still survives in the midst of the new nightlife.====Baixa====The heart of the city is the ''Baixa'' or city centre; the Pombaline Baixa is an elegant district, primarily constructed after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, taking its name from its benefactor, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, who was the minister of Joseph I of Portugal (1750–1777) and a key figure during the Portuguese Enlightenment.", "Following the 1755 disaster, Pombal took the lead in rebuilding Lisbon, imposing strict conditions and guidelines on the construction of the city, and transforming the organic street plan that characterised the district before the earthquake into its current grid pattern.", "As a result, the Pombaline Baixa is one of the first examples of earthquake-resistant construction.", "Architectural models were tested by having troops march around them to simulate an earthquake.", "Notable features of Pombaline structures include the Pombaline cage, a symmetrical wood-lattice framework aimed at distributing earthquake forces, and inter-terrace walls that were built higher than roof timbers to inhibit the spread of fires.====Beato====Facade of Teatro Ibérico, in BeatoThe parish of Beato stands out for the new cultural dynamics it has been experiencing in recent years.", "The manufacturing districts and the industrial facilities by the riverside docks are the place of choice for contemporary art galleries, iconic bars, and gourmet restaurants that simmer in the streets.", "This reality has not gone unnoticed by the national press, and Visão, TimeOut, or Jornal de Negócios have already made notice of this parish that hides treasures such as the National Museum of the Azulejo or the Palacio do Grilo.====Belém====Belém is famous as the place from which many of the great Portuguese explorers set off on their voyages of discovery.", "In particular, it is the place from which Vasco da Gama departed for India in 1497 and Pedro Álvares Cabral departed for Brazil in 1499.It is also a former royal residence and features the 17th – 18th-century Belém Palace, a former royal residence now occupied by the President of Portugal, and the Ajuda Palace, begun in 1802 but never completed.Perhaps Belém's most famous feature is its tower, Torre de Belém, whose image is much used by Lisbon's tourist board.", "The tower was built as a fortified lighthouse late in the reign of Dom Manuel l (1515–1520) to guard the entrance to the port.", "It stood on a little island on the right side of the Tagus, surrounded by water.", "Belém's other major historical building is the ''Mosteiro dos Jerónimos'' (Jerónimos Monastery), which the Torre de Belém was built partly to defend.", "Belém's most notable modern feature is the Padrão dos Descobrimentos (Monument to the Discoveries) built for the Portuguese World Fair in 1940.In the heart of Belém is the ''Praça do Império'': gardens centred upon a large fountain, laid out during World War II.", "To the west of the gardens lies the ''Centro Cultural de Belém''.", "Belém is one of the most visited Lisbon districts.", "Here is located the Estádio do Restelo, home to Belenenses.====Chiado====Monument to Luís de Camões, considered the greatest poet of the Portuguese language, in ChiadoThe Chiado is a traditional shopping area that mixes old and modern commercial establishments, concentrated specially in the Rua do Carmo and the Rua Garrett.", "Locals as well as tourists visit the Chiado to buy books, clothing and pottery as well as to have a cup of coffee.", "The most famous café of Chiado is ''A Brasileira'', famous for having had poet Fernando Pessoa among its customers.", "The Chiado is also an important cultural area, with several museums and theatres, including the opera.", "Several buildings of the Chiado were destroyed in a fire in 1988, an event that deeply shocked the country.", "Thanks to a renovation project that lasted more than 10 years, coordinated by celebrated architect Siza Vieira, the affected area has now virtually recovered.====Estrela====The ornate, late 18th-century Estrela Basilica is the main attraction of this district.", "The church with its large dome is located on a hill in what was at the time the western part of Lisbon and can be seen from great distances.", "The style is similar to that of the Mafra National Palace, late baroque and neoclassical.", "The façade has twin bell towers and includes statues of saints and some allegorical figures.", "São Bento Palace, the seat of the Portuguese parliament and the official residences of the Prime Minister of Portugal and the President of the Assembly of the Republic of Portugal, are in this district.", "Also in this district is Estrela Park, a favorite with families.", "There are exotic plants and trees, a duck pond, various sculptures, a children's playground, and many cultural events going on throughout the year, including outdoor cinema, markets, and music festivals.====Parque das Nações====The Parque das Nações district was initially built for the Lisbon World Expo.Parque das Nações (Park of Nations) is the newest district in Lisbon; it emerged from an urban renewal program to host the 1998 World Exhibition of Lisbon, also known as Expo'98.The area suffered massive changes giving Parque das Nações a futuristic look.", "A long-lasting legacy of the same, the area has become another commercial and higher-end residential area for the city.Central in the area is the Gare do Oriente (Orient railway station), one of the main transport hubs of Lisbon for trains, buses, taxis, and the metro.", "Its glass and steel columns are inspired by Gothic architecture, lending the whole structure a visual fascination (especially in sunlight or when illuminated at night).", "It was designed by the architect Santiago Calatrava from Valencia, Spain.", "The Parque das Nações is across the street.The area is pedestrian-friendly with new buildings, restaurants, gardens, the Casino Lisbon, the FIL building (International Exhibition and Fair), the Camões Theatre and the ''Oceanário de Lisboa'' (Lisbon Oceanarium), which is the second-largest in the world.", "The district's Altice Arena has become Lisbon's \"jack-of-all-trades\" performance arena.", "With seating for 20,000, it has staged events ranging from concerts to basketball tournaments." ], [ "Politics", "Lisbon City Hall, the seat of Lisbon's municipal governmentPSD / CDS / A / MPT / PPM (7) PS / L (7) CDU (2) BE (1)Carlos Moedas (PSD) took office as the 78th and current Mayor of Lisbon on 18 October 2021, following the 2021 local elections.===Local election results 1976–2021===+ Summary of local elections for Lisbon city hall, 1976–2021ElectionPCPPSPSDCDSPPMAPUCDUBECRHRPANILCHO/ITurnout'''1976'''20.7'''35.5'''15.219.00.49.1'''66.5''''''1979'''23.4'''46.7'''25.14.9'''75.6''''''1982'''27.0'''41.3'''26.75.1'''72.2''''''1985'''18.0'''44.8'''5.127.54.7'''58.7''''''1989''''''49.1'''42.1w.PS8.9'''54.8''''''1993''''''56.7'''26.47.8w.PS9.3'''53.5''''''1997''''''51.9'''39.3w.PS8.8'''48.3''''''2001'''41.7'''42.0'''7.6w.PSDw.PS3.84.9'''55.0''''''2005'''26.6'''42.4'''5.911.47.95.9'''52.7''''''2007''''''29.5'''15.73.70.49.56.816.710.27.8'''37.4''''''2009''''''44.0'''38.78.14.64.7'''53.4''''''2013''''''50.9'''22.41.29.94.62.38.7'''45.1''''''2017'''width=\"30\" align=right valign=\"top\"'''42.0'''11.220.6width=\"30\" align=right valign=\"top\"9.67.1width=\"30\" align=right valign=\"top\"width=\"30\" align=right valign=\"top\"3.0width=\"30\" align=right valign=\"top\"width=\"30\" align=right valign=\"top\"6.5'''51.2''''''2021'''width=\"30\" align=right valign=\"top\"33.3'''34.3'''width=\"30\" align=right valign=\"top\"10.56.2width=\"30\" align=right valign=\"top\"width=\"30\" align=right valign=\"top\"2.74.24.44.4'''51.0'''O/I: Other parties and Invalid/Blank votes.Source: Comissão Nacional de Eleições" ], [ "Culture", "The National Coach Museum has the largest collection of royal carriages in the world and is one of Lisbon's most visited institutions.The National Museum of Ancient Art has one of the largest art collections in the world.The city of Lisbon is rich in architecture; Romanesque, Gothic, Manueline, Baroque, Modern and Postmodern constructions can be found all over Lisbon.", "The city is also crossed by historical boulevards and monuments along the main thoroughfares, particularly in the upper districts; notable among these are the ''Avenida da Liberdade'' (Avenue of Liberty), ''Avenida Fontes Pereira de Melo'', ''Avenida Almirante Reis'' and ''Avenida da República'' (Avenue of the Republic).Lisbon is home to numerous prominent museums and art collections, from all around the world.", "The National Museum of Ancient Art, which has one of the largest art collections in the world, and the National Coach Museum, which has the world's largest collection of royal coaches and carriages, are the two most visited museums in the city.", "Other notable national museums include the National Museum of Archaeology, the Museum of Lisbon, the National Azulejo Museum, the National Museum of Contemporary Art, and the National Museum of Natural History & Science.The Belém Tower, one of the most famous and visited landmarks in Lisbon and throughout PortugalProminent private museums and galleries include the Gulbenkian Museum (run by the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, one of the wealthiest foundations in the world), which houses one of the largest private collections of antiquities and art in the world, the Berardo Collection Museum, which houses the private collection of Portuguese billionaire Joe Berardo, the Museum of Art, Architecture and Technology, and the Museum of the Orient.", "Other popular museums include the Electricity Museum, the Ephemeral Museum, the Museu da Água, and the Museu Benfica, among many others.Lisbon's Opera House, the ''Teatro Nacional de São Carlos'', hosts a relatively active cultural agenda, mainly in autumn and winter.", "Other important theatres and musical houses are the ''Centro Cultural de Belém'', the ''Teatro Nacional D. Maria II'', the Gulbenkian Foundation, and the ''Teatro Camões''.The monument to ''Christ the King'' (Cristo-Rei) stands on the southern bank of the Tagus River, in Almada.", "With open arms, overlooking the whole city, it resembles the Corcovado monument in Rio de Janeiro, and was built after World War II, as a memorial of thanksgiving for Portugal's being spared the horrors and destruction of the war.13 June is Lisbon's holiday in honour of the city's saint, Anthony of Lisbon ().", "Saint Anthony, also known as ''Saint Anthony of Padua'', was a wealthy Portuguese bohemian who was canonised and made Doctor of the Church after a life preaching to the poor.", "Although Lisbon’s patron saint is Saint Vincent of Saragossa, whose remains are housed in the Sé Cathedral, there are no festivities associated with this saint.Eduardo VII Park, the second-largest park in the city following the ''Parque Florestal de Monsanto'' (Monsanto Forest Park), extends down the main avenue (Avenida da Liberdade), with many flowering plants and green spaces, that includes the permanent collection of subtropical and tropical plants in the winter garden ().", "Originally named ''Parque da Liberdade'', it was renamed in honour of Edward VII who visited Lisbon in 1903.Rossio Square, with Queen Maria II National Theatre in the backgroundLisbon is home every year to the Lisbon Gay & Lesbian Film Festival, the Lisboarte, the DocLisboa – Lisbon International Documentary Film Festival, the Festival Internacional de Máscaras e Comediantes, the Lisboa Mágica – Street Magic World Festival, the Monstra – Animated Film Festival, the Lisbon Book Fair, the Peixe em Lisboa – Lisbon Fish and Flavours, and many others.Lisbon has two sites listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site: Belém Tower and Jerónimos Monastery.", "Furthermore, in 1994, Lisbon was the European Capital of Culture and, in 1998, organised the Expo '98 (''1998 Lisbon World Exposition'').Lisbon is also home to the Lisbon Architecture Triennial, the Moda Lisboa (Fashion Lisbon), ExperimentaDesign – Biennial of Design, and LuzBoa – Biennial of Light.Lisbon hosts many fine examples of Portuguese azulejo tile art, a use of ceramic tile as an architectural finish for both building interiors and exteriors dating from the 15th Century.", "This art form is celebrated in Lisbon's National Museum of the Azulejo and as a station feature in the Lisbon metro.", "In addition, the mosaic Portuguese pavement (''Calçada Portuguesa'') was born in Lisbon, in the mid-1800s.", "The art has since spread to the rest of the Portuguese Speaking world.", "The city remains one of the most expansive examples of the technique, nearly all walkways and even many streets being created and maintained in this style.In May 2018, the city hosted the 63rd edition of the Eurovision Song Contest, after the victory of Salvador Sobral with the song \"''Amar pelos dois''\" in Kyiv on 13 May 2017.World Youth Day 2023 was hosted in August of that year in Lisbon, attracting hundreds of thousands of young Catholics from over 140 countries." ], [ "Demographics", "The historical population of the city was around 35,000 in 1300 .", "This number went up to 60,000 in 1400, and raised to 70,000 by 1500.Between 1528 and 1590 the population went from 70,000 to 120,000.The population was about 150,000 in 1600, and almost 200,000 in 1700.Lisbon has 548,703 inhabitants within the administrative center on the area of only 100.05 km2 The population density of the city itself is .The Lisbon metropolitan area incorporates two NUTS III (European statistical subdivisions): ''Grande Lisboa'' (Greater Lisbon), along the northern bank of the Tagus River, and ''Península de Setúbal'' (Setúbal Peninsula), along the southern bank.", "These two subdivisions make for the ''Região de Lisboa'' (Lisbon Region).223x223pxAdministratively defined cities that exist in the vicinity of the capital are in fact part of the metropolitan perimeter of Lisbon.", "The urban area has, according to Government data, a population of approximately 2.9 million inhabitants and is the eleventh largest urban area in the European Union.", "Other sources also show similar figures: according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development the area had 2,797,612 inhabitants; according to the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations 2,890,000; according to the European Statistical Office Eurostat 2,839,908 and according to the Brookings Institution 2,968,600.===Religion===The largest religion is, according to 2021 Portuguese Census, Roman Catholicism.", "The proportion of Catholics in Lisbon city proper (around 66%) is significantly higher than in the city's metropolitan area (55%).", "This may due to the fact that Lisbon city's age structure is older than the one found in the surrounding areas and, in general, younger generations tend to be less religious.===Immigration===In 2022, around 21.7% of the city's population is constituted by foreign nationals, with Brazilians being the largest resident foreign community, followed by Italians, French, Nepalis and Bangladeshis.Lisbon's population has steadily dropped over the years due to people searching better accommodations for lower prices elsewhere in Greater Lisbon.", "In addition, a plurality of the houses in the city centre have become tourist facilities, exacerbating the lack of offer in Lisbon's housing market.", "+'''Largest groups of foreign residents in 2022'''NationalityPopulation22,0809,3919,0338,8758,486" ], [ "Economy", "Avenida da Liberdade is one of the most expensive shopping streets in Europe and famous as a popular destination for luxury goods shopping.The Lisbon region is the wealthiest region in Portugal and it is well above the European Union's GDP per capita average – it produces 45% of the Portuguese GDP.The Lisbon region is rapidly growing, with GDP (PPP) per capita calculated for each year as follows: €22,745 (2004) – €23,816 (2005) – €25,200 (2006) – €26,100 (2007).", "The Lisbon metropolitan area had a GDP amounting to $110.4 billion, and $32,434 per capita.The oil tanker ''Rio Arauca'' at the oil terminal in Lisboa to unload crude oilLisbon's economy is based primarily on the tertiary sector.", "Most of the headquarters of multinationals operating in Portugal are concentrated in the Grande Lisboa Subregion, especially in the Oeiras municipality.", "The Lisbon metropolitan area is heavily industrialized, especially the south bank of the Tagus river (Rio Tejo).", "The lisbonite industry has very large sectors in oil, as refineries are found just across the Tagus, textile mills, shipyards and fishing.The Port of Lisbon is one of the busiest ports in Europe.The country's chief seaport, featuring one of the largest and most sophisticated regional markets on the Iberian Peninsula, Lisbon and its heavily populated surroundings are also developing as an important financial centre and a dynamic technological hub.", "Automobile manufacturers have erected factories in the suburbs, for example, AutoEuropa.Lisbon has the largest and most developed mass media sector of Portugal and is home to several related companies ranging from leading television networks and radio stations to major newspapers.Lisbon is the home of leftBased in Lisbon, Euronext Lisbon is a stock exchange which is part of the pan-European Euronext system of stock exchanges and market infrastructure.Before Portugal's sovereign debt crisis and an EU-IMF rescue plan, for the decade of 2010 Lisbon was expecting to receive many state-funded investments, including building a new airport, a new bridge, an expansion of the Lisbon Metro underground, the construction of a mega-hospital (or central hospital), the creation of two lines of a TGV to join Madrid, Porto, Vigo and the rest of Europe, the restoration of the main part of the town (between the Marquês de Pombal roundabout and Terreiro do Paço), the creation of a large number of bike lanes, as well as modernization and renovation of various facilities.Lisbon was the 7th most \"livable city\" in the world in 2021 according to lifestyle magazine ''Monocle.", "''Tourism is also a significant industry.", "The city is the ninth-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome, Barcelona, Milan, Athens, Venice, Madrid and Florence with 3,639,900 tourists in 2019.In 2022 there were around 6 tourists for every resident.", "The city is popular for both leisure and business tourism.", "Around 7.7 million tourists visited Lisbon region in 2022 alone, with 71.1% of them being international tourists.", "It is estimated that tourist receipts will stand at 17.4 billion euros (€) in 2023." ], [ "Transport", "===Metro===The Lisbon Metro is Portugal's oldest and largest subway system.The Lisbon Metro connects the city centre with the upper and eastern districts, and also reaches some suburbs that are part of the Lisbon metropolitan area, such as Amadora and Loures.", "It is the fastest way to get around the city and it provides a good number of interchanging stations with other types of transportation.", "From the Lisbon Airport station to the city centre it may take roughly 25 mins.", "In 2019, the Lisbon Metro served around 173 million passengers (and 475.000 daily).", "As of 2018, the Lisbon Metro comprises four lines, identified by individual colours (blue, yellow, green and red) and 56 stations, with a total length of 44.2 km.", "Several expansion projects have been proposed, the most recent being the transformation of the Green Line into a circular line and the creation of two more stations (Santos and Estrela).===Trams===Lisbon tram by Lisbon Cathedral and Santo António Church\|left\|213x213pxThe tram is a traditional form of public transport in Lisbon.", "Introduced in 1901, electric trams were originally imported from the US, and thus called the ''americanos'' (Portuguese for \"American\").Other than on the modern Line 15, the Lisbon tramway system still employs small (four-wheel) vehicles of a design dating from the early twentieth century.", "These distinctive yellow trams are one of the tourist icons of modern Lisbon, and their size is well suited to the steep hills and narrow streets of the central city.The earliest trams can still be seen in the Museu da Carris (the Lisbon Public Transport Museum).The line has now a total length of 31 kilometers operating on 6 lines, down from a maximum of 76 kilometers for 27 lines.", "The slow decline of the network began with the construction of the Lisbon Metro and the expansion of the bus system.", "Starting in 2017 the system has been expanded and new vehicles are being progressively added, aiming at expanding significantly the current tramway system.", "There are currently 64 trams in operation in Lisbon and, during 2023-2026, 35 more will be added (Of which 10 will be \"Historical models\").===Trains===Gare do Oriente train station, designed by Santiago CalatravaThere are four commuter train lines departing from Lisbon: the Sintra, Azambuja, Cascais and Sado lines (operated by CP – Comboios de Portugal), as well as a fifth line to Setúbal (operated by Fertagus), which crosses the Tagus river via the 25 de Abril Bridge.", "The major railway stations are Santa Apolónia, Rossio, Gare do Oriente, Entrecampos, and Cais do Sodré.===Buses===The local bus service within Lisbon is operated by Carris.", "Carris' fleet includes 741 buses and, in the period 2023-2026, other 342 buses will be added so as to increase the public transportation system reach.", "The bus network has a length of 748 km comprising 99 bus routes.", "Major investments have been made in recent years: for instance, in 2017 there were 600 buses operating on 674 km and 75 routes: 141 buses, 74 kilometers and 24 bus routes were added in 2018-2022.Outside Lisbon, there are two main commuter bus services connecting the cities outside Lisbon amongst them and to Lisbon: Carris Metropolitana, a brand operated by 4 companies, all operating inside the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, and Barraqueiro Transportes (with 4 brands operating outside the Metropolitan Area with services to Lisbon), which operate from different terminals in the city.===Bridges===The 25 de Abril Bridge crosses the Tagus River from Alcântara to Almada.\|212x212pxVasco da Gama bridge crosses the Tagus from Parque das Nações to MontijoThe city is connected to the far side of the Tagus by two important bridges:The 25 de Abril Bridge, inaugurated (as Ponte Salazar) on 6 August 1966, and later renamed after the date of the Carnation Revolution, was the longest suspension bridge in Europe.", "The Vasco da Gama Bridge, opened on 29 March 1998 is, at , the longest bridge in Europe.The foundations for a third bridge across the Tagus have already been laid, but the overall project has been postponed due to the economic crisis in Portugal and all of Europe.=== Ferries ===Another way of crossing the river is by taking the ferry.", "The operator Transtejo & Soflusa, runs to different locations from within the city: Cacilhas, Seixal, Montijo, Porto Brandão and Trafaria under the brand Transtejo and to Barreiro under the brand Soflusa.", "Ferry stations in Lisbon include , and .===Air travel===Lisbon airportHumberto Delgado Airport is located within the city limits.It is the headquarters and hub for TAP Portugal as well as a hub for EasyJet, Azores Airlines, Ryanair, EuroAtlantic Airways, White Airways, and Hi Fly.", "Having served 33.65 million passengers in 2023, it is by far the busiest airport in Portugal, the third busiest in the Iberian Peninsula and the 12th busiest in Europe.A second airport has been proposed, but the project has been put on hold because of the Portuguese and European economic crisis, and also because of the long discussion on whether a new airport is needed.", "In 2023 there were still 9 possible sites who are thought to be able to host the future New Lisbon airport.Cascais Municipal Aerodrome, 20 km West of the city centre and hub for Sevenair, in Cascais, offers commercial domestic flights to Bragança, Portimão, Viseu and Vila Real.", "This location is where many of the country's aviation schools are concentrated.===Cycling===Bike lanes in Lisbon are typically green or redGira recharging stationFollowing the Covid-19 pandemic, Lisbon has seen a significant increase in cycling and plans to expand the current Gira bike hire system from 1,600 bikes to 2,600 by the end of 2023.Many of these bicycles are electric to deal with Lisbon's hills.", "The city also plans to expand the number of bike recharging stations, now standing at 146.Gira service is integrated in the public transportation system, as youth up to 23 years old and seniors over 65 years old can use the service for free, while for other residents bikes are included in the Navegante card.In 2023 there were over 200 kilometers of bike lanes within the city's administrative area and the city plans to expand its network of cycle paths in the next years.===Public transportation statistics===The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Lisbon, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 59 min.", "11.5% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day.", "The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 14 min, while 23.1% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day.", "The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 6 km, while 10% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.=== Car ===Lisbon is connected to its suburbs and throughout Portugal by an extensive motorway network.", "There are three circular motorways around the city; the 2ª Circular, the IC17 (CRIL), and the A9 (CREL)." ], [ "Education", "The rectory and main campus of the New University of Lisbon===International schools===In Greater Lisbon area, particularly in the Portuguese Riviera, an area popular with expats and foreign nationals, there are numerous international schools, including the Carlucci American International School of Lisbon (only American school in Portugal), Saint Julian's School (British), Saint Dominic's International School (British), (German), Instituto Español Giner de los Ríos (Spanish), Oerias Internacional School (IB), and Lycée Français Charles Lepierre (French).===Higher education===Instituto Superior Técnico, which belongs to the University of Lisbon is based on the Alameda D. Afonso Henriques.In the city, there are three public universities and a university institute.", "The University of Lisbon, which is the largest university in Portugal, was created in 2013 with the union of the Technical University of Lisbon and the Classical University of Lisbon (which was known as the University of Lisbon).", "The New University of Lisbon, founded in 1973, is another public university in Lisbon and is known internationally by its Nova School of Business and Economics (Nova SBE), its economics and management faculty.", "The third public university is Universidade Aberta.", "Additionally, there's ISCTE - Lisbon University Institute (founded in 1972), a university institute that provides degrees in all academic disciplines.Major private institutions of higher education include the Portuguese Catholic University, focused on law and management, as well as the Lusíada University, the Universidade Lusófona, and the Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa, among others.The total number of enrolled students in higher education in Lisbon was, for the 2007–2008 school year, of 125,867 students, of whom 81,507 in the Lisbon's public institutions.===Libraries===Lisbon is home to Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, the Portuguese national library, which has over 3 million books and manuscripts.", "The library has some rare books and manuscripts, such as an original Gutenberg Bible and original books by Erasmus, Christophe Platin and Aldus Manutius.", "Torre do Tombo, the national archive, is one of the most important archives in the world, with over 600 years and one of the oldest active Portuguese institutions.", "There are, among several others, the Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino and the Arquivo Histórico Militar." ], [ "Sports", "Lisbon has a long tradition in sports.", "It hosted several matches, including the final, of the UEFA Euro 2004 championship.", "The city also played host to the final of the 2001 IAAF World Indoor Championships and the European Fencing Championships in 1983 and 1992, as well as the 2003 World Men's Handball Championship, and the 2008 European Judo Championships.", "From 2006 to 2008, Lisbon was the starting point for the Dakar Rally.", "The city hosted the 2014 and 2020 UEFA Champions League finals.", "In 2008 and 2016, the city hosted the European Triathlon Championships.", "Lisbon has a leg at the Volvo Ocean Race.", "It is one of the potential host cities for the 2030 FIFA World Cup.===Football===The city hosts three association football clubs in Portugal's highest league, the Primeira Liga.", "Sport Lisboa e Benfica, commonly known as simply ''Benfica'', has won 38 league titles in addition to two European Cups.", "Lisbon's second-most successful club is Sporting Clube de Portugal (commonly known as ''Sporting'' and often referred to as ''Sporting Lisbon'' abroad to prevent confusion with other teams with the same name), winner of 19 league titles and the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup.", "A third club, C.F.", "Os Belenenses (commonly ''Belenenses'' or ''Belenenses Lisbon''), based in the Belém quarter, has solely won one league title.", "Other major clubs in Lisbon include Atlético, Casa Pia, and Oriental.Lisbon has two UEFA category four stadiums; Benfica's Estádio da Luz (''Stadium of Light''), with a capacity of over 65,000 and Sporting's Estádio José Alvalade, with a capacity of over 50,000.The Estádio da Luz held both the 2014 and 2020 UEFA Champions League Final.", "There is also Belenenses' Estádio do Restelo, with a capacity of over 30,000.The Estádio Nacional, in nearby Oeiras, has a capacity of 37,000 and was used exclusively for Portuguese international football matches and cup finals until the construction of larger stadia in the city.", "It held the 1967 European Cup Final.===Other sports===Other sports, such as basketball, futsal, handball, roller hockey, rugby union and volleyball are also popular; the latter's national stadium is in Lisbon.", "There are many other sports facilities in Lisbon, ranging from athletics, sailing, golfing to mountain-biking.", "Lisboa and Troia golf course are two of many stunning golf courses located in Lisbon.", "Every March the city hosts the Lisbon Half Marathon, while in September the Portugal Half Marathon." ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns – sister cities===Lisbon is twinned with:* Bissau, Guinea-Bissau (1985)* Budapest, Hungary (1992)* Cacheu, Guinea-Bissau (1988)* Fortaleza, Brazil (2016)* Guimarães, Portugal (1993)* Luanda, Angola (1988)* Macau, China (1982)* Madrid, Spain (1979)* Malacca City, Malaysia (1984)* Maputo, Mozambique (1982)* Praia, Cape Verde (1983)* Rabat, Morocco (1988)* Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1980)* Salvador, Brazil (1995)* São Tomé, São Tomé and Príncipe (1985)===Cooperation agreements===Lisbon has additional cooperation agreements with:* Algiers, Algeria (1988)* Asunción, Paraguay (2014)* Bangkok, Thailand (2016)* Beijing, China (2007)* Bethlehem, Palestine (1995)* Buenos Aires, Argentina (1992)* Curitiba, Brazil (2005)* Haimen, China (2011)* Kyiv, Ukraine (2000)* Miami, United States (1987)* Montevideo, Uruguay (1993)* Panaji, India (1989)* Paris, France (1998)* Qingdao, China (2010)* Santa Catarina, Cape Verde (1997)* Sofia, Bulgaria (2001)* Toronto, Canada (1987)* Tunis, Tunisia (1993)* Zagreb, Croatia (1977)===Membership in organizations===From 12 October 1982, Lisbon is part of the Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities.From 28 June 1985, Lisbon is part of the Union of Capital Cities of Portuguese Language, along with 22 other cities from Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, China, East Timor, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal, and São Tomé and Príncipe." ], [ "See also", "List of people from LisbonList of tallest buildings in Lisbon" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading" ], [ "External links", "* Visit Portugal – Official page by the Government of Portugal* Associação de Turismo de Lisboa – Official site of the Lisbon Tourism Association* OTLIS – Official site of the Lisbon Region Transport Operators Consortium* Portal das Nações Official site of Parque das Nações in Lisbon* Lisbon voted European City of the Year 2012 – Award – Portuguese American Journal* TVL Lisbon TV" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Local Group" ], [ "Introduction", "Distribution of the iron content (in logarithmic scale) in four neighbouring dwarf galaxies of the Milky WayThe '''Local Group''' is the galaxy group that includes the Milky Way.It has a total diameter of roughly , and a total mass of the order of .It consists of two collections of galaxies in a \"dumbbell\" shape; the Milky Way and its satellites form one lobe, and the Andromeda Galaxy and its satellites constitute the other.", "The two collections are separated by about and are moving toward one another with a velocity of .", "The group itself is a part of the larger Virgo Supercluster, which may be a part of the Laniakea Supercluster.The exact number of galaxies in the Local Group is unknown as some are occluded by the Milky Way; however, at least 80 members are known, most of which are dwarf galaxies.The two largest members, the Andromeda and the Milky Way galaxies, are both spiral galaxies with masses of about solar masses each.", "Each has its own system of satellite galaxies:* The Andromeda Galaxy's satellite system consists of Messier 32 (M32), Messier 110 (M110), NGC 147, NGC 185, Andromeda I (And I), And II, And III, And V, And VI (also known as the Pegasus Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy, or Pegasus dSph), And VII (a.k.a.", "the Cassiopeia Dwarf Galaxy), And VIII, And IX, And X, And XI, And XIX, And XXI and And XXII, plus several additional ultra-faint dwarf spheroidal galaxies.", "* The Milky Way's satellite galaxies system comprises the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy, Large Magellanic Cloud, Small Magellanic Cloud, Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy (disputed, considered by some not a galaxy), Ursa Minor Dwarf Galaxy, Draco Dwarf Galaxy, Carina Dwarf Galaxy, Sextans Dwarf Galaxy, Sculptor Dwarf Galaxy, Fornax Dwarf Galaxy, Leo I (a dwarf galaxy), Leo II (a dwarf galaxy), Ursa Major I Dwarf Galaxy and Ursa Major II Dwarf Galaxy, plus several additional ultra-faint dwarf spheroidal galaxies.Visual size comparison of the six largest Local Group galaxies, with detailsThe Triangulum Galaxy (M33) is the third-largest member of the Local Group, with a mass of approximately , and is the third spiral galaxy.", "It is unclear whether the Triangulum Galaxy is a companion of the Andromeda Galaxy; the two galaxies are 750,000 light years apart, and experienced a close passage 2–4 billion years ago which triggered star formation across Andromeda's disk.", "The Pisces Dwarf Galaxy is equidistant from the Andromeda Galaxy and the Triangulum Galaxy, so it may be a satellite of either.The membership of NGC 3109, with its companions Sextans A and the Antlia Dwarf Galaxy, is uncertain due to extreme distances from the center of the Local Group.The other members of the group are likely gravitationally secluded from these large subgroups: IC 10, IC 1613, Phoenix Dwarf Galaxy, Leo A, Tucana Dwarf Galaxy, Cetus Dwarf Galaxy, Pegasus Dwarf Irregular Galaxy, Wolf–Lundmark–Melotte, Aquarius Dwarf Galaxy, and Sagittarius Dwarf Irregular Galaxy." ], [ "History", "The term \"The Local Group\" was introduced by Edwin Hubble in Chapter VI of his 1936 book ''The Realm of the Nebulae''.", "There, he described it as \"a typical small group of nebulae which is isolated in the general field\" and delineated, by decreasing luminosity, its members to be M31, Milky Way, M33, Large Magellanic Cloud, Small Magellanic Cloud, M32, NGC 205, NGC 6822, NGC 185, IC 1613 and NGC 147.He also identified IC 10 as a possible part of the Local Group." ], [ "Component galaxies", "=== Map ===Image:Local_Group.svg\|frame\|center\|Local Group (clickable map)rect 392 53 405 72 lycircle 318 239 20 Milky Wayrect 345 256 375 284 Milky Waycircle 383 310 5 NGC 6822rect 348 292 380 322 NGC 6822circle 177 27 10 Sextans Brect 155 17 215 35 Sextans Bcircle 130 37 10 Sextans Arect 95 25 155 45 Sextans Acircle 100 144 5 NGC 3109rect 65 130 100 160 NGC 3109circle 109 149 5 Antlia Dwarfrect 109 146 145 175 Antlia Dwarfcircle 314 119 5 Leo Arect 280 97 340 125 Leo Acircle 315 210 5 Leo I (dwarf galaxy)rect 280 180 315 205 Leo I (dwarf galaxy)rect 320 180 335 220 Leo II (dwarf galaxy)circle 349 213 5 Canes Dwarfrect 350 195 400 223 Canes Dwarfcircle 310 350 15 Phoenix Dwarfrect 275 325 335 375 Phoenix Dwarfcircle 265 415 15 Tucana Dwarfrect 215 395 275 445 Tucana Dwarfcircle 392 445 5 Wolf-Lundmark-Melotterect 360 435 392 455 Wolf-Lundmark-Melottecircle 370 410 5 Cetus Dwarfrect 345 395 390 430 Cetus Dwarfcircle 395 373 10 IC 1613rect 390 373 420 400 IC 1613rect 381 335 393 357 SagDIGrect 430 450 480 475 SagDIGrect 393 335 406 356 Aquarius Dwarfrect 450 425 510 450 Aquarius Dwarfcircle 412 332 12 LGS 3rect 465 405 510 425 LGS 3circle 460 361 21 Pegasus Dwarfrect 485 370 540 405 Pegasus Dwarfpoly 440 282 455 260 511 259 493 285 Andromeda Galaxyrect 484 280 550 305 Andromeda Galaxycircle 417 304 2 Triangulum Galaxyrect 400 321 480 340 Triangulum Galaxycircle 417 254 15 NGC 185rect 440 185 480 211 NGC 185rect 432 237 447 260 NGC 147rect 480 195 508 225 NGC 147poly 450 264 434 265 431 280 442 280 M110rect 508 205 540 225 M110circle 461 229 17 IC 10rect 493 241 525 256 IC 10rect 524 305 550 323 M32circle 394 272 14 Andromeda IIrect 500 345 515 360 Andromeda IIrect 427 279 438 294 Andromeda IIIrect 518 345 530 360 Andromeda IIIrect 438 282 450 294 Andromeda Irect 557 345 570 360 Andromeda Idesc bottom-leftMap of the Milky Way with directions of nearby galaxies marked (not to scale).=== List ===+ Properties of galactic bodies in and around the Local Group Name Type Constellation Notes Spiral galaxies Andromeda Galaxy (M31, NGC 224) SA(s)b AndromedaLargest galaxy in the groupDiameter (D25 isophote): 152,000 light-yearsMass: Number of stars: ca.", ".", "Milky Way Galaxy SBbc Sagittarius (centre)Second largest galaxy in the group, which may or may not be the most massive galaxy of the group.Diameter (D25 isophote): 87,400 light-yearsMass: Number of stars: .", "Triangulum Galaxy (M33, NGC 598) SA(s)cd Triangulum Third largest, only unbarred spiral galaxy and possible satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy.Diameter (D25 isophote): 60,000 light-yearsMass: Number of stars: .", "Magellanic spiral galaxies Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) Irr/SB(s)m Dorado Fourth largest member of the group, satellite of Milky Way and only Magellanic Spiral Galaxy in the local groupMass: Diameter (D25 isophote): 32,200 light-years NGC 3109 SB(s)m Hydra Member of Antlia-Sextans Group Elliptical galaxies M32 (NGC 221) E2 Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy, shows signs of a supermassive black hole Irregular galaxies Wolf–Lundmark–Melotte (WLM, DDO 221) Ir+ Cetus Possible size between Small Magellanic Cloud and Large Magellanic Cloud IC 10 KBm or Ir+ Cassiopeia Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC, NGC 292) SB(s)m pec Tucana Satellite of Milky Way, 6th largest galaxy in the local groupmass: 7 × 109 Pisces Dwarf (LGS3) Irr Pisces Possible satellite of the Triangulum Galaxy IC 1613 (UGC 668) IAB(s)m V Cetus Phoenix Dwarf Irr Phoenix Leo A (Leo III) IBm V Leo Aquarius Dwarf (DDO 210) IB(s)m Aquarius Distance 3.2 million light years.", "Quite isolated in space, membership to Local Group established in 1999.SagDIG (Sagittarius Dwarf Irregular Galaxy) IB(s)m V Sagittarius Most remote from barycenter member thought to be in the Local Group.", "NGC 6822 (Barnard's Galaxy) IB(s)m IV-V Sagittarius Pegasus Dwarf (Pegasus Dwarf Irregular, DDO 216) Irr PegasusUGC 4879 (VV124)IAmUrsa MajorOne of the most isolated galaxies in Local Group.", "Situated at the edge of the Local Group.Sextans A (UGCA 205)Ir+VSextansMember of Antlia-Sextans GroupSextans B (UGC 5373)Ir+IV-VSextansMember of Antlia-Sextans GroupLeo PIrrLeoMember of Antlia-Sextans Group, extraordinarily low metallicity (Z = 0.03ZMW)AGC 198606Irr?LeoGas-rich ultra-faint dwarf galaxyAGC 215417Irr?LeoGas-rich ultra-faint dwarf galaxyAGC 219656Irr?LeoGas-rich ultra-faint dwarf galaxyAGC 249525Irr?BoötesGas-rich ultra-faint dwarf galaxy, Situated at the edge of the Local GroupAGC 268069Irr?SerpensGas-rich ultra-faint dwarf galaxy Dwarf elliptical galaxies M110 (NGC 205) dE6p Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy and 5th largest galaxy with the mass of 9.3 billion solar masses.", "NGC 147 (DDO 3) dE5 pec Cassiopeia Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Dwarf spheroidal galaxies Boötes I dSph Boötes Cetus Dwarf dSph/E4 Cetus Canes Venatici I Dwarf and Canes Venatici II Dwarf dSph Canes Venatici Satellites of the Milky Way Andromeda III dE2 Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy NGC 185 dE3 pec Cassiopeia Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda I dE3 pec Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Sculptor Dwarf (E351-G30) dE3 Sculptor Satellite of Milky Way Andromeda V dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda II dE0 Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Fornax Dwarf (E356-G04) dSph/E2 Fornax Satellite of Milky Way Carina Dwarf (E206-G220) dE3 Carina Satellite of Milky Way Leo I (DDO 74) dE3 Leo Satellite of Milky Way Sextans Dwarf dE3 Sextans Satellite of Milky Way Leo II (Leo B) dE0 pec Leo Satellite of Milky Way Ursa Minor Dwarf dE4 Ursa Minor Satellite of Milky Way Draco Dwarf (DDO 208) dE0 pec Draco Satellite of Milky Way SagDSG (Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy) dSph/E7 Sagittarius Satellite of Milky Way Tucana Dwarf dE5 Tucana Cassiopeia Dwarf (Andromeda VII) dSph Cassiopeia Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Pegasus Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy (Andromeda VI) dSph Pegasus Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Ursa Major I Dwarf and Ursa Major II Dwarf dSph Ursa Major Satellite of Milky Way Leo IV dSph Leo Satellite of the Milky Way Leo V dSph Leo Satellite of the Milky Way Leo T dSph/Irr Leo Satellite of the Milky Way Boötes II dSph Boötes Satellite of the Milky Way Boötes III dSph Boötes Satellite of the Milky Way Boötes IV dSph Boötes Satellite of the Milky Way Coma Berenices dSph Coma Berenices Satellite of the Milky Way Segue 2 dSph Aries Satellite of the Milky Way Hercules dSph Hercules Satellite of the Milky Way Pisces II dSph Pisces Satellite of the Milky Way Reticulum II dSph Reticulum Satellite of the Milky Way Reticulum III dSph Reticulum Satellite of the Milky Way Eridanus II dSph Eridanus Probable satellite of the Milky Way Grus I dSph Grus Satellite of the Milky Way Grus II dSph Grus Satellite of the Milky Way Tucana II dSph Tucana Satellite of the Milky Way Hydrus I dSph Hydrus Satellite of the Milky Way Draco II dSph Draco Satellite of the Milky Way Carina III dSph Carina Satellite of the Milky Way Triangulum II (Laevens 2) dSph Triangulum Satellite of the Milky Way Carina II dSph Carina Satellite of the Milky Way Pictor II dSph Pictor Satellite of the Milky Way Horologium II dSph Horologium Satellite of the Milky Way Virgo I dSph Virgo Satellite of the Milky Way Aquarius II dSph Aquarius Satellite of the Milky Way Crater II dSph Crater Satellite of the Milky Way Hydra II dSph Hydra Satellite of the Milky Way Antlia II dSph Antlia Satellite of the Milky Way Pegasus III dSph Pegasus Satellite of the Milky Way Pegasus IV dSph Pegasus Satellite of the Milky WayPegasus WdSphPegasusRecent star formation, could still be starforming Cetus III dSph Cetus Satellite of the Milky Way Tucana B dSph Tucana Perseus I Dwarf Galaxy (Andromeda XXXIII) dE Perseus Satellite of Andromeda Antlia Dwarf dE3/dSph/Irr?", "Antlia Member of Antlia-Sextans Group Andromeda IX dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda X dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XI dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XII dSph Andromeda Possible satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XIII (Pisces III) dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XIV (Pisces IV) dSph Pisces Possible satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XV dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XVII dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XIX dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XX dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXI dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXII dSph Pisces Possible satellite of the Triangulum Galaxy Andromeda XXIII dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXIV dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXV dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXVI dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXVII dSph Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy, tidally disrupted Andromeda XXIX dSph Pegasus Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXX (Cassiopeia II) dSph?", "Cassiopeia Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXXI (Lacerta I) dSph?", "Lacerta Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXXII (Cassiopeia III) dSph?", "Cassiopeia Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXXIV (Pegasus V) dSph Pegasus Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XVI (Pisces V) dSph Pisces Possible satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXVIII dSph?", "Pegasus Possible satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XXXIII (Perseus I) dSph?", "Perseus Possible satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda XVIII dSph Andromeda Centaurus I dSph Centaurus Satellite of the Milky WayPisces VII (Triangulum III)dSph?", "Pisces Candidate, possible satellite of the Triangulum Galaxy Identification unclear Virgo Stellar Stream dSph (remnant)?", "Virgo In the process of merging with the Milky Way Canis Major Dwarf Irr?", "Canis Major Possibly a dwarf galaxy in the process of merging with the Milky Way Hydra 1 Hydra Possibly a dwarf galaxy in the process of merging with the Milky Way Tucana III dSph or cluster?", "Tucana Satellite of the Milky Way, tidally disrupting Tucana IV dSph or cluster?", "Tucana Satellite of the Milky Way Tucana V dSph or cluster?", "Tucana Possibly non-existent Columba I dSph or cluster?", "Columba Satellite of the Milky Way Segue 1 dSph or Globular Cluster Leo Satellite of the Milky Way Cetus II Cetus Likely part of Sagittarius tidal stream Willman 1 dSph or Globular Cluster Ursa Major 147,000 light-years away Horologium I dSph or Globular Cluster Horologium Satellite of the Milky Way.", "Not to be confused with the Horologium Supercluster.", "Pictoris dSph or Globular Cluster Pictor Satellite of the Milky Way Phoenix II dSph or Globular Cluster Phoenix Satellite of the Milky Way Indus I (Kim 2) dSph or Globular Cluster Indus Satellite of the Milky Way Eridanus III dSph or Globular Cluster Eridanus Satellite of the Milky Way or SMC Sagittarius II dSph or Globular Cluster Sagittarius Satellite of the Milky Way Andromeda VIII dSph?", "Andromeda Satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy, tidally disruptingAntlia BAntliaMember of Antlia-Sextans Group Probable non-members Andromeda IV Irr Andromeda Once considered to be associated with M31.Its distance is now known to be 22 to 24 million light years (not close to the Andromeda Galaxy at all).", "GR 8 (DDO 155) Im V Virgo Distance 7.9 million light years IC 5152 IAB(s)m IV Indus Distance 5.8 million light years, possibly an outlying member of the local group NGC 300 SA(s)d Sculptor Distance 6.07 million light years NGC 55 SB(s)m Sculptor Distance 6.5 million light years NGC 404 E0 or SA(s)0− Andromeda Distance 10 million light years NGC 1569 Irp+ III-IV Camelopardalis In IC 342 group of galaxies.", "Distance 11 million light years NGC 1560 (IC 2062) Sd Camelopardalis Distance 8-12 million light years Camelopardalis A Irr Camelopardalis Distance 12 million light years Argo Dwarf Irr Carina ESO 347-8 (2318–42) Irr Grus UKS 2323-326 (ESO 407-18) Irr Sculptor Distance 7.2 million light-years UGC 9128 (DDO 187) Irp+ Boötes KKs 3 dSphHydrus Objects in the Local Group no longer recognised as galaxies Palomar 12 (Capricornus Dwarf) CapricornusGlobular cluster formerly classified as a dwarf spheroidal galaxy Palomar 4 (Ursa Major Dwarf) Ursa Major Globular cluster formerly classified as a dwarf spheroidal galaxy Palomar 5 (Serpens Dwarf) Serpens Globular cluster formerly classified as a dwarf spheroidal galaxy Palomar 3 (Sextans C) Sculptor Globular cluster formerly classified as a dwarf spheroidal galaxy Segue 3 Pegasus Globular cluster formerly classified as a dwarf spheroidal galaxy Laevens 1 (Crater Dwarf) Crater Globular cluster formerly classified as a dwarf spheroidal galaxy DES J2038-4609 (Indus II) Indus Likely a chance alignment of stars=== Future ===The galaxies of the Local Group are likely to merge together under their own mutual gravitational attractions over a timescale of tens of billions of years into a single elliptical galaxy, with the coalescence of Messier 31 and the Milky Way being the predominant event in this process." ], [ "Other objects", "* Magellanic Stream, a stream of gas being stripped off the Magellanic Clouds due to their interaction with the Milky Way* Monoceros Ring, a ring of stars around the Milky Way that is proposed to consist of a stellar stream torn from the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy" ], [ "See also", "* Galaxy cluster* IC 342/Maffei Group, the group of galaxies nearest to the Local Group* List of galaxy groups and clusters* List of nearest galaxies* Virgocentric flow" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Litre" ], [ "Introduction", "One-litre beer mugs () at the 2006 Oktoberfest in GermanyThe '''litre''' (Commonwealth English spelling) or '''liter''' (American English spelling) (SI symbols '''L''' and '''l''', other symbol used: '''ℓ''') is a metric unit of volume.", "It is equal to 1 cubic decimetre (dm3), 1000 cubic centimetres (cm3) or 0.001 cubic metres (m3).", "A cubic decimetre (or litre) occupies a volume of (see figure) and is thus equal to one-thousandth of a cubic metre.The original French metric system used the litre as a base unit.", "The word ''litre'' is derived from an older French unit, the ''litron'', whose name came from Byzantine Greek—where it was a unit of weight, not volume—via Late Medieval Latin, and which equalled approximately 0.831 litres.", "The litre was also used in several subsequent versions of the metric system and is accepted for use with the SI, although not an SI unit—the SI unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3).", "The spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is \"litre\", a spelling which is shared by most English-speaking countries.", "The spelling \"liter\" is predominantly used in American English.One litre of liquid water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram, because the kilogram was originally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic decimetre of water at the temperature of melting ice ().", "Subsequent redefinitions of the metre and kilogram mean that this relationship is no longer exact." ], [ "Definition", "A litre is a cubic decimetre, which is the volume of a cube 10 centimetres × 10 centimetres × 10 centimetres (1 L ≡ 1 dm3 ≡ 1000 cm3).", "Hence 1 L ≡ 0.001 m3 ≡ 1000 cm3; and 1 m3 (i.e.", "a cubic metre, which is the SI unit for volume) is exactly 1000 L.From 1901 to 1964, the litre was defined as the volume of one kilogram of pure water at maximum density (+3.98 °C) and standard pressure.", "The kilogram was in turn specified as the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram (a specific platinum/iridium cylinder) and was intended to be of the same mass as the 1 litre of water referred to above.", "It was subsequently discovered that the cylinder was around 28 parts per million too large and thus, during this time, a litre was about .", "Additionally, the mass–volume relationship of water (as with any fluid) depends on temperature, pressure, purity and isotopic uniformity.", "In 1964, the definition relating the litre to mass was superseded by the current one.", "Although the litre is not an SI unit, it is accepted by the CGPM (the standards body that defines the SI) for use with the SI.", "CGPM defines the litre and its acceptable symbols.A litre is equal in volume to the millistere, an obsolete non-SI metric unit formerly customarily used for dry measure." ], [ "Explanation", "Litres are most commonly used for items (such as fluids and solids that can be poured) which are measured by the capacity or size of their container, whereas cubic metres (and derived units) are most commonly used for items measured either by their dimensions or their displacements.", "The litre is often also used in some calculated measurements, such as density (kg/L), allowing an easy comparison with the density of water.One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram when measured at its maximal density, which occurs at about 4 °C.", "It follows, therefore, that 1000th of a litre, known as one millilitre (1 mL), of water has a mass of about 1 g; 1000 litres of water has a mass of about 1000 kg (1 tonne or megagram).", "This relationship holds because the gram was originally defined as the mass of 1 mL of water; however, this definition was abandoned in 1799 because the density of water changes with temperature and, very slightly, with pressure.It is now known that the density of water also depends on the isotopic ratios of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a particular sample.", "Modern measurements of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water, which is pure distilled water with an isotopic composition representative of the average of the world's oceans, show that it has a density of at its point of maximum density (3.984 °C) under one standard atmosphere (101.325 kPa) of pressure." ], [ "SI prefixes applied to the litre", "The litre, though not an official SI unit, may be used with SI prefixes.", "The most commonly used derived unit is the millilitre, defined as one-thousandth of a litre, and also often referred to by the SI derived unit name \"cubic centimetre\".", "It is a commonly used measure, especially in medicine, cooking and automotive engineering.", "Other units may be found in the table below, where the more often used terms are in bold.", "However, some authorities advise against some of them; for example, in the United States, NIST advocates using the millilitre or litre instead of the centilitre.", "There are two international standard symbols for the litre: L and l. In the United States the former is preferred because of the risk that (in some fonts) the letter and the digit may be confused.", "Multiple Name Symbols Equivalent volume 10−30 L quectolitre ql qL 103 pm3 thousand cubic picometres 10−27 L rontolitre rl rL 106 pm3 million cubic picometres 10−24 L yoctolitre yl yL nm3 cubic nanometre 10−21 L zeptolitre zl zL 103 nm3 thousand cubic nanometres 10−18 L attolitre al aL 106 nm3 million cubic nanometres 10−15 L femtolitre fl fL μm3 cubic micrometre 10−12 L picolitre pl pL 103 μm3 thousand cubic micrometres 10−9 L nanolitre nl nL 106 μm3 million cubic micrometres 10−6 L '''microlitre''' μl μL mm3 cubic millimetre 10−3 L '''millilitre''' ml mL cm3 cubic centimetre 10−2 L '''centilitre''' cl cL 101 cm3 ten cubic centimetres 10−1 L '''decilitre''' dl dL 102 cm3 hundred cubic centimetres 100 L '''litre''' l L dm3 cubic decimetre 101 L decalitre dal daL 101 dm3 ten cubic decimetres 102 L hectolitre hl hL 102 dm3 hundred cubic decimetres 103 L '''kilolitre''' kl kL m3 cubic metre 106 L '''megalitre''' Ml ML dam3 cubic decametre, 1 million litres 109 L '''gigalitre''' Gl GL hm3 cubic hectometre 1012 L teralitre Tl TL km3 cubic kilometre 1015 L petalitre Pl PL 103 km3 thousand cubic kilometres 1018 L exalitre El EL 106 km3 million cubic kilometres 1021 L zettalitre Zl ZL Mm3 cubic megametre 1024 L yottalitre Yl YL 103 Mm3 thousand cubic megametres 1027 L ronnalitre Rl RL 106 Mm3 million cubic megametres 1030 L quettalitre Ql QL Gm3 cubic gigametre" ], [ "Non-metric conversions", "Approx.", "value of 1 litre in non-metric units Non-metric unit Equivalent in litres ≈ 0.87987699 Imperial quart 1 Imperial quart ≡ 1.1365225 L≈ 1.056688 U.S. quarts 1 U.S. quart ≡ 0.946352946 L≈ 1.75975399 Imperial pints 1 Imperial pint ≡ 0.56826125 L≈ 2.11337641 U.S. pints 1 U.S. pint ≡ 0.473176473 L≈ 0.21996925 Imperial gallon 1 Imperial gallon ≡ 4.54609 L≈ 0.2641720523 U.S. gallon 1 U.S. gallon ≡ 3.785411784 L≈ 0.0353146667 cubic foot 1 cubic foot ≡ 28.316846592 L≈ 61.023744 cubic inches 1 cubic inch ≡ 0.016387064 L≈ 35.19508 Imperial fluid ounces 1 Imperial fluid ounce ≡ 28.4130625 mL≈ 33.814023 U.S. fluid ounces 1 U.S. fluid ounce ≡ 29.5735295625 mLSee also Imperial units and US customary units.===Rough conversions===One litre is slightly larger than a US liquid quart and slightly less than an imperial quart or one US dry quart.", "A mnemonic for its volume relative to an imperial pint is \"a litre of water's a pint and three-quarters\"; this is very close, as a litre is about 1.7598 pints.A cubic foot has an exact volume of 28.316846592 litres." ], [ "Symbol", "Originally, the only symbol for the litre was '''l''' (lowercase letter L), following the SI convention that only those unit symbols that abbreviate the name of a person start with a capital letter.", "In many English-speaking countries, however, the most common shape of a handwritten Arabic digit 1 is just a vertical stroke; that is, it lacks the upstroke added in many other cultures.", "Therefore, the digit \"1\" may easily be confused with the letter \"l\".", "In some computer typefaces, the two characters are barely distinguishable.", "As a result, '''L''' (uppercase letter L) was adopted by the CIPM as an alternative symbol for litre in 1979.The United States National Institute of Standards and Technology now recommends the use of the uppercase letter L, a practice that is also widely followed in Canada and Australia.", "In these countries, the symbol L is also used with prefixes, as in mL and μL, instead of the traditional ml and μl used in Europe.", "In the UK and Ireland, as well as the rest of Europe, lowercase ''l'' is used with prefixes, though whole litres are often written in full (so, \"750 ml\" on a wine bottle, but often \"1 litre\" on a juice carton).", "In 1990, the International Committee for Weights and Measures stated that it was too early to choose a single symbol for the litre.=== Script l ===Prior to 1979, the symbol came into common use in some countries; for example, it was recommended by South African Bureau of Standards publication M33 and Canada in the 1970s.", "This symbol can still be encountered occasionally in some English-speaking and European countries like Germany, and its use is ubiquitous in Japan and South Korea.Fonts covering the CJK characters usually include not only the script small but also four precomposed characters: for the microlitre, millilitre, decilitre and kilolitre to allow correct rendering for vertically written scripts.", "These have Unicode equivalents for compatibility, which are not recommended for use with new documents:* * * * " ], [ "History", "The first name of the litre was \"cadil\"; standards are shown at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris.The litre was introduced in France in 1795 as one of the new \"republican units of measurement\" and defined as one cubic decimetre.One litre of liquid water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram, due to the gram being defined in 1795 as one cubic centimetre of water at the temperature of melting ice.The original decimetre length was 44.344 ''lignes'', which was revised in 1798 to 44.3296 ''lignes''.", "This made the original litre of today's cubic decimetre.", "It was against this litre that the kilogram was constructed.In 1879, the CIPM adopted the definition of the litre, with the symbol '''l''' (lowercase letter L).In 1901, at the 3rd CGPM conference, the litre was redefined as the space occupied by 1 kg of pure water at the temperature of its maximum density (3.98 °C) under a pressure of 1 atm.", "This made the litre equal to about (earlier reference works usually put it at ).In 1964, at the 12th CGPM conference, the original definition was reverted to, and thus the litre was once again defined in exact relation to the metre, as another name for the cubic decimetre, that is, exactly 1 dm3.In 1979, at the 16th CGPM conference, the alternative symbol '''L''' (uppercase letter L) was adopted.", "It also expressed a preference that in the future only one of these two symbols should be retained, but in 1990 said it was still too early to do so." ], [ "Everyday usage", "In spoken English, the symbol \"mL\" (for millilitre) can be pronounced as \"mil\".", "This can potentially cause confusion with some other measurement words such as:# \"mm\" for millimetre, a unit of length equal to one-thousandth of a metre# \"mil\" for thousandth of an ''inch''# \"''mil''\", a Scandinavian unit of length equal to 10 kilometres# \"mil\", unit of angular measurementThe abbreviation \"cc\" (for cubic centimetre, equal to a millilitre or mL) is a unit of the cgs system, which preceded the MKS system, which later evolved into the SI system.", "The abbreviation \"cc\" is still commonly used in many fields, including medical dosage and sizing for combustion engine displacement.The microlitre (μL) has been known in the past as the lambda (λ), but this usage is now discouraged.", "In the medical field the microlitre is sometimes abbreviated as '''mcL''' on test results.Shot glasses with centilitre fill line graduations.", "\"ARC\" is the maker's (Arc International) certification of accuracy.In the SI system, apart from prefixes for powers of 1000, use of the \"centi\" (10−2), \"deci\" (10−1), \"deca\" (10+1) and \"hecto\" (10+2) prefixes with litres is common.", "For example, in many European countries, the hectolitre is the typical unit for production and export volumes of beverages (milk, beer, soft drinks, wine, etc.)", "and for measuring the size of the catch and quotas for fishing boats; decilitres are common in Croatia, Switzerland and Scandinavia and often found in cookbooks, and restaurant and café menus; centilitres indicate the capacity of drinking glasses and of small bottles.", "In colloquial Dutch in Belgium, a \"\" and a \"\" (literally \"twenty-fiver\" and \"thirty-threer\") are the common beer glasses, the corresponding bottles mention 25 cL and 33 cL.", "Bottles may also be 75 cL or half size at 37.5 cL for \"artisanal\" brews or 70 cL for wines or spirits.", "Cans come in 25 cL, 33 cL and 50 cL.", "Similarly, alcohol shots are often marked in cL in restaurant menus, typically .Petrol units used in the world:In countries where the metric system was adopted as the official measuring system after the SI standard was established, common usage eschews prefixes that are not powers of 1000.For example, in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, consumer beverages are labelled almost exclusively using litres and millilitres.", "An exception is in pathology, where for instance blood lead level and blood sugar level may be measured in micrograms/milligrams per decilitre.For larger volumes, kilolitres, megalitres, and gigalitres, have been used by the Northern Territory Government for measuring water consumption, reservoir capacities and river flows, although cubic metres are also used.", "Cubic metres are generally used for non-liquid commodities, such as sand and gravel, or storage space." ], [ "See also", " Acre-foot* Claude Émile Jean-Baptiste Litre* Integrated nanolitre system" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Bureau International des Poids et Mesures.", "(2006).", "\"The International System of Units (SI)\" (on-line browser):** Table 6 (Non-SI units accepted for use with the International System).", "Retrieved 2008-08-24* * National Institute of Standards and Technology.", "(December 2003).", "''The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty: International System of Units (SI)'' (web site): ''Note on SI units''.", "Retrieved 2008-08-24.", " ''Recommending uppercase letter L''.", "Retrieved 2008-08-24.", "* Taylor, B.N.", "and Thompson, A.", "(Eds.).", "(2008a).", "''The International System of Units (SI)'' .", "United States version of the English text of the eighth edition (2006) of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures publication ''Le Système International d' Unités (SI)'' (Special Publication 330).", "Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.", "Retrieved 2008-08-18.", "* Taylor, B.N.", "and Thompson, A.", "(2008b).", "''Guide for the Use of the International System of Units'' (Special Publication 811).", "Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.", "Retrieved 2008-08-23.", "* Turner, J.", "(Deputy Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology).", "(16 May 2008).", "\"Interpretation of the International System of Units (the Metric System of Measurement) for the United States\".", "''Federal Register'' Vol.", "73, No.", "96, p. 28432-3.", "* UK National Physical Laboratory.", "Non-SI Units" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Linguist (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "AlDUB '''linguist''' is an academic who studies human language scientifically.", "'''Linguist''' may also refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Language professional Translator Interpreter * Polyglot, one skilled in several languages* Maurice Linguist (born 1984), American football coach" ], [ "Periodicals", "* ''The Linguist'', a bimonthly British journal* Linguist List (or ''LINGUIST''), an online mailing list" ], [ "See also", "* Language education" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lavr Kornilov" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lavr Georgiyevich Kornilov''' (, ; – 13 April 1918) was a Russian military intelligence officer, explorer, and general in the Imperial Russian Army during World War I and the ensuing Russian Civil War.", "Kornilov was of Siberian Cossack origin.", "Today he is best remembered for the Kornilov Affair, an unsuccessful endeavor in August/September 1917 , but which led to Kerensky eventually having Kornilov arrested and charged with attempting a coup d'état, and ultimately undermined Kerensky's rule.Kornilov escaped from jail in November 1917 and subsequently became the military commander of the anti-Bolshevik Volunteer Army which took the charge of anti-Bolshevik opposition in the south of Russia.", "He and his troops were badly outnumbered in many of their encounters, and he was killed by a shell on 13 April 1918 while laying siege to Ekaterinodar, the capital of the Kuban Soviet Republic." ], [ "Pre-revolutionary career", "Kornilov as a teenagerOne story relates how Kornilov was originally born as a Don Cossack Kalmyk named Lavga Deldinov and adopted in Ust-Kamenogorsk, Russian Turkestan (now Kazakhstan) by the family of his mother's brother, the Russian Cossack Khorunzhiy Georgy Nikolayevich Kornilov, whose wife was of Kazakh origin.", "But his sister wrote that he had not been adopted, had not been a Don Cossack, and that their mother had Polish and Altai Oirot descent.", "(Though their language was not a Kalmyk/Mongolian one, but because of their Asian race and their history in the Jungar Oirot (Kalmyk) state, Altai Oirots were called Altai Kalmyks by Russians.", "They were not Muslims or Kazakhs.)", "But Boris Shaposhnikov, who served with Pyotr Kornilov, the brother of Lavr, in 1903, mentioned the \"Kyrgyz\" ancestry of their mother - this name was usually used in reference to Kazakhs in 1903.Kornilov's Siberian Cossack father was a friend of Potanin (1835-1920), a prominent figure in the Siberian autonomy movement.Kornilov entered military school in Omsk in 1885 and went on to study at the Mikhailovsky Artillery School in St. Petersburg in 1889.In August 1892 he was assigned as a lieutenant to the Turkestan Military District, where he led several exploration missions in Eastern Turkestan, Afghanistan and Persia, learned several Central Asian languages, and wrote detailed reports about his observations.Kornilov returned to St. Petersburg to attend the Nikolayev General Staff Academy and graduated as a captain in 1897.Again refusing a posting at St. Peterburg, he returned to the Turkestan Military District, where he resumed his duties as a military intelligence officer.", "Among his missions at this post was an attempt at traveling incognito to British India in 1904, though he was quickly discovered and subsequently kept under close surveillance.During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 Kornilov became the Chief of staff of the 1st Infantry Brigade, and was heavily involved in the Battle of Sandepu (January 1905) and the Battle of Mukden (February/March 1905).", "He was awarded the Order of St. George (4th class) for bravery and promoted to the rank of colonel.Following the end of the war, Kornilov served as military attache in China from 1907 to 1911.He studied the Chinese language, travelled extensively (researching data on the history, traditions and customs of the Chinese, which he intended to use as material for a book about life in contemporary China), and regularly sent detailed reports to the General Staff and Foreign Ministry.", "Kornilov paid much attention to the prospects of cooperation between Russia and China in the Far East and met with the future president of China, Chiang Kai-shek.", "In 1910 Kornilov was recalled from Beijing but remained in St. Petersburg for only five months before departing for western Mongolia and Kashgar to examine the military situation along China's border with Russia.", "On 2 February 1911 he became Commander of the 8th Infantry Regiment of Estonia and was later appointed commander of the 9th Siberian Rifle Division, stationed in Vladivostok.In 1914, at the start of World War I, Kornilov was appointed commander of the 48th Infantry Division, which saw combat in Galicia and the Carpathians.", "In 1915, he was promoted to the rank of major general.", "During heavy fighting, he was captured by the Austrians in April 1915, when his division became isolated from the rest of the Russian forces.", "After his capture, Field Marshal Conrad, the commander of the Austro-Hungarian Army, made a point of meeting him in person.", "As a major general, he was a high-value prisoner of war, but in July 1916 Kornilov managed to escape back to Russia and return to duty.After the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, he was given command of the Petrograd Military District in March 1917.On 8 March, Kornilov placed the Empress Alexandra and her children under house arrest at the Alexander Palace (Nicholas was still held at Stavka), replacing the Tsar's Escort and Combined Regiments of the Imperial Guard with 300 revolutionary troops.", "On 21 April, when the Provisional Government declined to give him the authority he sought to deal with protestors in Petrograd, he resigned as commander of the Petrograd district and was transferred at his request to command the Russian Eighth Army.", "His army inflicted a spectacular defeat on the Austrians, taking ten thousand prisoners - Russia's only notable military success in the year 1917 - though after five days, was forced to retreat.", "On 24 July, he was appointed commander of the southern front.", "A week later, he replaced Aleksei Brusilov as Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Provisional Government's armed forces." ], [ "Kornilov Affair", "Kornilov and Deputy War Minister Boris Savinkov in Moscow on In the mass discontent following the July Days, the Russian populace grew highly skeptical about the Provisional Government's abilities to alleviate the economic distress and social resentment among the lower classes.", "Pavel Milyukov, the Kadet leader, describes the situation in Russia in late July as, \"Chaos in the army, chaos in foreign policy, chaos in industry and chaos in the nationalist questions\".Kornilov, appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian army in July 1917, considered the Petrograd Soviet responsible for the breakdown in the military in recent times and believed that the Provisional Government lacked the power and confidence to dissolve the Petrograd Soviet.", "Following several ambiguous correspondences between Kornilov and Alexander Kerensky, Kornilov commanded an assault on the Petrograd Soviet.Because the Petrograd Soviet was able to quickly gather a powerful army of workers and soldiers in defence of the Revolution, Kornilov's coup was an abysmal failure, and he was placed under arrest.", "The Kornilov Affair resulted in significantly increased distrust among Russians towards the Provisional Government." ], [ "Russian Civil War", "Kornilov Shock Detachment flag bearer, 1917Insignia of the Kornilov Shock RegimentAfter the coup collapsed as his troops disintegrated, Kornilov and his fellow conspirators were placed under arrest in the Bykhov jail.", "On 19 November, a few weeks after the proclamation of Soviet power in Petrograd, they escaped from their confinement (eased by the fact that the jail was guarded by Kornilov's supporters) and made their way to the Don region, which was controlled by the Don Cossacks.", "Here they linked up with General Mikhail Alekseev.", "Kornilov became the military commander of the anti-Bolshevik Volunteer Army with Alekseev as the political chief.The Kornilov Shock Detachment of the 8th Army was the most famous and longest-lived volunteer unit in the Russian Imperial Army.", "It was also the last regiment of the Russian Imperial Army and the first of the Volunteer Army.", "In late 1917, the Kornilov Shock Regiment, one of the crack units of the Volunteer Army, was named after him, as well as many other autonomous White Army formations, such as the Kuban Cossack Kornilov Horse Regiment.", "Kornilov's forces became recognizable for their Totenkopf insignia, which appeared on the regiment's flags, pennants, and soldiers' sleeve patches.Even before the Red Army was formed, Lavr Kornilov promised, \"the greater the terror, the greater our victories.\"", "He vowed that the goals of his forces must be fulfilled even if it was needed \"to set fire to half the country and shed the blood of three-quarters of all Russians.\"", "In the Don region village of Lezhanka alone, bands of Kornilov's officers killed more than 500 people.", "On the other hand, Kornilov's adjutant recalled that the general \"loved only the Russia itself\" and served it for all his life, having no time to think about political systems.", "The Bolsheviks for him were dangerous traitors, who ruined Russia's unity and had to be stopped.On 24 February 1918, as Rostov and the Don Cossack capital of Novocherkassk fell to the Bolsheviks, Kornilov led the Volunteer Army on the epic 'Ice March' into the empty steppe towards the Kuban.", "Although badly outnumbered, he escaped destruction from pursuing Bolshevik forces and laid siege to Ekaterinodar, the capital of the Kuban Soviet Republic, on 10 April.", "However, in the early morning of 13 April, a Soviet shell landed on his farmhouse headquarters and killed him.", "He was quietly buried in nearby Gnadau (modern day Dolinovskoe).Kornilov's grave, prior to its desecration by the Bolsheviks.A few days later, when the Bolsheviks gained control of the village, they unearthed Kornilov's coffin, dragged his corpse to the main square and burnt his remains on the local rubbish dump." ], [ "Memorials", "In 13 April 2013, a monument to the late General was erected in Krasnodar.", "Commemoration ceremonies took place with local cossacks, along with Cossacks from Don, Stavropol and Taman." ], [ "Honours and awards", "Order of St. Stanislaus, third degree (1901), 2nd degree (1904 and 1906 with swords)Order of St. Anne, 3rd degree (1903) and 2nd degree (6 December 1909)Order of St. George, 4th degree (9 August 1905) and 3rd degree (28 April 1915)Gold Sword for Bravery (9 May 1907)* Badge of the 1st Kuban (Ice) campaign (3 October 1918), issued posthumously, No.1 out of 3,689" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "Asher, Harvey.", "\"The Kornilov Affair: A Reinterpretation.\"", "''Russian Review'' (1970) 29#3 pp: 286-300.in JSTOR Grebenkin, I. N. \"General L.G.", "Kornilov: A Rough Sketch for a Character Portrait.\"", "''Russian Studies in History'' 56.3 (2017): 188-211.", "Katkov, George.", "''Russia 1917, the Kornilov Affair: Kerensky and the Break-up of the Russian Army'' (Longman, 1980)Mawdsley, Evan.", "''The Russian Civil War'' (2008)Moncure, James A. ed.", "''Research Guide to European Historical Biography: 1450-Present'' (4 vol 1992) 3:1082-90White, James D. \"The Kornilov affair—a study in counter‐revolution,\" ''Europe‐Asia Studies'' (1968) 20#2 pp 187–205.", "* Yang, Ho-Hwan.", "\"Different Ways of Interpreting the Kornilov Affair: A Review of George Katkov's The Kornilov Affair: Kerensky and the Break-up of the Russian Army, London and New York: Longman, 1980\" ''The SNU Journal of Education Research'' (1993) pp 17–28.online" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "L. L. Zamenhof" ], [ "Introduction", "'''L.", "L. Zamenhof''' (15 December 185914 April 1917) was an ophthalmologist who lived for most of his life in Warsaw.", "He is best known as the creator of Esperanto, the most widely used constructed international auxiliary language.Zamenhof first developed the Esperanto language in 1873 while still in school.", "He grew up fascinated by the idea of a world without war and believed that this could happen with the help of a new international auxiliary language.", "The language would be a tool to gather people together through neutral, fair, equitable communication.", "He successfully formed a community which has survived to this day despite the World Wars of the 20th century, and which continues making attempts to reform the language or create more modern IALs (the only other language like Esperanto at the time was Volapük).", "Additionally, Esperanto has developed like other languages: through the interaction and creativity of its users.In light of his achievements, and his support of intercultural dialogue, UNESCO selected Zamenhof as one of its eminent personalities of 2017, on the 100th anniversary of his death.", "As of 2019, there are a minimum of 2 million people speaking Esperanto, including an estimated 1,000 native speakers." ], [ "Name", "Birth registerFamilies Zamenhof and at the first Esperanto Congress, Boulogne 1905Zamenhof came from a multilingual area.", "His name is transliterated as follows:* English: – English pronunciation: * Esperanto: – * French: – * German: – * – * Lithuanian: * Polish: – * * * Born into an Ashkenazi family, at his birth Zamenhof was given the common Hebrew name ''Eliezer'' by his parents, the equivalent of the English Lazarus.", "However, as the area was a part of the Russian Empire at the time, his name was recorded on his birth certificate as , using the Yiddish form of the forename and a russified version of his surname; many later Russian language documents also include the patronymic « son of Mark » (in reference to his father, Markus), as is the custom in the language.", "His family name is of German origin and was originally written ''Samenhof''; this was later transcribed into Yiddish as , then re-romanized back as ''Zamenhof''.", "The change of the initial letter from « S » to « Z » is not unusual, as in German an initial « s » is pronounced .In his adolescence he used both the Yiddish ''Leyzer'' and the Russian ''Lazar'' when writing his first name.", "While at university, Zamenhof began using the Russian name ''Lyudovik'' (also transcribed ''Ludovic'' or translated as ''Ludwig'') in place of ''Lazar'', possibly in honor of Francis Lodwick, who in 1652 had published an early conlang proposal.", "When his brother Leon became a doctor and started signing his name \"Dr L. Zamenhof\", Zamenhof reclaimed his birth name ''Lazar'' and from 1901 signed his name \"Dr L. L. Zamenhof\" to avoid confusion with his brother.", "The two L's do not seem to have specifically represented either name, and the order ''Ludwik Lejzer'' is a modern convention." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years===Zamenhof, Zamenhof was born on 15 December 1859, the son of Mark and Rozalia Zamenhof (), in the multi-ethnic city of Belostok (now Białystok in Poland).", "At that time, the city was in the Grodno Governorate of the Russian Empire.", "His parents were of Litvak Jewish descent.", "He appears to have been natively bilingual in Yiddish and Russian.", "His father was a teacher of German and French.", "From him, Zamenhof learned both languages, as well as Hebrew.", "He also spoke some major languages of Białystok, such as Polish and Belarusian.", "Polish became the native language of his children in Warsaw.", "In school, he studied the classical languages Latin, Greek, and Aramaic.", "He later learned some English, though in his own words not very well.", "He had an interest in Lithuanian and Italian and learned Volapük when it came out in 1880.By that time, his international language project was already well developed.In addition to the Jewish Yiddish-speaking minority, the population of Białystok included Roman Catholic Poles and Eastern Orthodox Russians (mainly government officials), with smaller groups of Belarusians, Germans and other ethnicities.", "Zamenhof was saddened and frustrated by the many quarrels among these groups.", "He supposed that the main reason for the hate and prejudice lay in the mutual misunderstanding caused by the lack of a common language.", "If such a language existed, Zamenhof postulated, it could play the role of a neutral communication tool between people of different ethnic and linguistic backgrounds.As a student at secondary school in Warsaw, Zamenhof attempted to create an international language with a grammar that was rich, but complex.", "When he later studied English, he decided that the international language must have a simpler grammar.", "Apart from his parents' native languages Russian and Yiddish and his adopted language Polish, his projects were also aided by his mastery of German, a good passive understanding of Latin, Hebrew and French, and a basic knowledge of Greek, English and Italian.By 1878, his project ''Lingwe uniwersala'' was finished.", "However, Zamenhof was too young then to publish his work.", "Soon after graduation he began to study medicine, first in Moscow, and later in Warsaw.", "In 1885, Zamenhof graduated from university and began his practice as a doctor in Veisiejai.", "After 1886, he worked as an ophthalmologist in Płock and Vienna.", "While healing people there, he continued to work on his project of an international language.What later Esperantists called ''Unua libro'' (\"First book\") was published in Russian, 1887.For two years, he tried to raise funds to publish a booklet describing the language, until he received the financial help from his future wife's father.", "In 1887, the book titled ''Международный язык.", "Предисловие и полный учебникъ'' (International language: Introduction and complete textbook) was published in Russian under the pseudonym \"Doktoro Esperanto\" (Doctor Hoper, or literally \"Doctor One Who Hopes\").", "Zamenhof initially called his language \"Lingvo internacia\" (international language), but those who learned it began to call it ''Esperanto'' after his pseudonym, and this soon became the official name for the language.", "For Zamenhof, this language, far from being merely a communication tool, was a way to promote peaceful coexistence between people of different cultures.===Work on Yiddish language and Jewish issues===Zamenhof at his desk in his Warsaw apartment, 1910In 1879, Zamenhof wrote the first grammar of Yiddish.", "It was partly published years later in the Yiddish magazine .", "The complete original Russian text of this manuscript was only published in 1982, with parallel Esperanto translation by Adolf Holzhaus, in (An attempt at a grammar of neo-Jewish language), Helsinki, pp.", "9–36.In this work, not only does he provide a review of Yiddish grammar, but also proposes its transition to the Latin script and other orthographic innovations.", "In the same period Zamenhof wrote some other works in Yiddish, including perhaps the first survey of Yiddish poetics (see p. 50 in the above-cited book).In 1882 a wave of pogroms within the Russian Empire, including Congress Poland, motivated Zamenhof to take part in the early Zionist movement, the Hibbat Zion.", "He left the movement in 1887, and in 1901 published a statement in Russian with the title ''Hillelism'', in which he argued that the Zionist project could not solve the problems of the Jewish people.In 1914, he declined an invitation to join a new organization of Jewish Esperantists, the TEHA.", "In his letter to the organizers, he said, \"I am profoundly convinced that every nationalism offers humanity only the greatest unhappiness ...", "It is true that the nationalism of oppressed peoples – as a natural self-defensive reaction – is much more excusable than the nationalism of peoples who oppress; but, if the nationalism of the strong is ignoble, the nationalism of the weak is imprudent; both give birth to and support each other\".", "The Hebrew Bible is among the many works that Zamenhof translated into Esperanto.Zamenhof died in Warsaw on 14 April 1917, possibly of a heart attack, and was buried at the Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery.", "The farewell speech was delivered by the chief rabbi and preacher of the Great Synagogue in Warsaw, Samuel Abraham Poznański, who said: \"There will be a time where the Polish soil and nation will understand what fame gave this great son of God to his homeland.", "\"Zamenhof speaking at the World Esperanto Congress in Barcelona (Spain) in 1909.===Family===Zamenhof and his wife Klara Silbernik raised three children, a son, Adam, and two daughters, Zofia and Lidia.", "All three were murdered in the Holocaust.Lidia Zamenhof in particular took a keen interest in Esperanto, and as an adult became a teacher of the language, traveling through Europe and to America to teach classes in it.", "Through her friendship with Martha Root, Lidia accepted Bahá'u'lláh and became a member of the Baháʼí Faith.", "As one of its social principles, the Baháʼí Faith teaches that an auxiliary world language should be selected by the representatives of all the world's nations.Zamenhof's grandson, Louis-Christophe Zaleski-Zamenhof (Adam's son), lived in France from the 1960s until his death in 2019.As of 2020, Louis-Christophe's daughter, Margaret Zaleski-Zamenhof, is active in the Esperanto movement.===Religious philosophy===Grave of Ludwik Zamenhof, designed by Mieczysław Lubelski and made of Aberdeen granite, Jewish Cemetery, Warsaw 2017Besides his linguistic work, Zamenhof published a religious philosophy he called ''Homaranismo'' (the term in Esperanto, usually rendered as \"humanitism\" in English, sometimes rendered loosely as humanitarianism or humanism), based on the principles and teachings of Hillel the Elder.", "He said of Homaranismo: \"It is indeed the object of my whole life.", "I would give up everything for it.\"" ], [ "Honours and namesakes", "In 1905, Zamenhof received the Légion d'honneur for creating Esperanto.", "In 1910, Zamenhof was first nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, by four British Members of Parliament (including James O'Grady and Philip Snowden) and Professor Stanley Lane Poole.", "(The Prize was instead awarded to the International Peace Bureau.)", "Ultimately Zamenhof was nominated 12 times for the Nobel Peace Prize.", "On the occasion of the fifth Universala Kongreso de Esperanto in Barcelona, Zamenhof was made a Commander of the Order of Isabella the Catholic by King Alfonso XIII of Spain.Plaque in Rue du Vieux-Collège, commemorating Zamenhof's residence in Geneva, Switzerland in 1905.A monument or place linked to Zamenhof or Esperanto is known as a Zamenhof-Esperanto object (or ZEO).The minor planet 1462 Zamenhof is named in his honour.", "It was discovered on 6 February 1938 by Yrjö Väisälä.", "There is also a minor planet named in honour of Esperanto (1421 Esperanto).Hundreds of city streets, parks, and bridges worldwide have also been named after Zamenhof.", "In Lithuania, the best-known Zamenhof Street is in Kaunas, where he lived and owned a house for some time.", "There are others in Poland, the United Kingdom, France, Hungary, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Spain (mostly in Catalonia), Italy, Israel, Belgium, the Netherlands and Brazil.", "There are Zamenhof Hills in Hungary and Brazil, and a Zamenhof Island in the Danube.", "Zamenhof Street, Tel AvivIn some Israeli cities, street signs identify Esperanto's creator and give his birth and death dates, but refer to him solely by his Jewish name Eliezer (a variant of which, El'azar, is the origin of Lazarus).", "Zamenhof is honoured as a deity by the Japanese religion Oomoto, which encourages the use of Esperanto among its followers.", "A genus of lichen has been named ''Zamenhofia'' in his honour, as well as the species ''Heteroplacidium zamenhofianum''.Russian writer , who lived in Odessa, together with , founded a branch of the first official Esperanto society Esrero in Russia.", "In the years 1896–97 N. A. Borovko became its chairman.", "A monument to L. Zamenhof was installed in Odessa in an ordinary residential courtyard.", "Esperantist sculptor Nikolai Vasilyevich Blazhkov lived in this house, who in the early 1960s brought a sculptural portrait into the courtyard, because the customs authorities did not allow the sculpture to be sent to the Esperanto Congress in Vienna.In Gothenburg, Sweden a public square is named Esperantoplatsen.In Italy, a few streets are named after Esperanto, including Largo Esperanto in Pisa.In 1959, UNESCO honoured Zamenhof in the occasion of his centenary.", "In 2015, it decided to support the celebration of the 100th anniversary of his death.His birthday, 15 December, is celebrated annually as Zamenhof Day by users of Esperanto.", "On 15 December 2009, Esperanto's green-starred flag flew on the Google homepage to commemorate Zamenhof's 150th birthday.The house of the Zamenhof family and a monument to Zamenhof are sites on the Jewish Heritage Trail in Białystok, which was opened in June 2008 by volunteers at The University of Białystok Foundation.", "Białystok is also home to the Ludwik Zamenhof Centre.In 1960, Esperanto summer schools were established in Stoke-on-Trent in the United Kingdom by the Esperanto Association of Britain (EAB), which began to provide lessons and promote the language locally.", "There is a road named after Zamenhof in the city: Zamenhof Grove.As Zamenhof was born on 15 December 1859, the Esperanto Society of New York gathers every December to celebrate Zamenhofa Tago (Zamenhof Day in Esperanto)." ], [ "Partial bibliography", "===Original works===* ''Unua Libro'', 1887 (''First Book'')* ''Dua Libro'', 1888 (''Second Book'')* ''Hilelismo – propono pri solvo de la hebrea demando'', 1901 (''Hillelism: A Project in Response to the Jewish Question'')* ''Esenco kaj estonteco de la ideo de lingvo internacia'', 1903 (''Essence and Future of the Idea of an International Language'')* ''Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo Esperanto'', 1903 (''Basic Anthology of the Esperanto Language'')* ''Fundamento de Esperanto'', 1905 (''Foundation of Esperanto'')* Declaration of Boulogne, 1905* ''Homaranismo'', 1913 (''Humanitism'')====Periodicals====* ''La Esperantisto'', 1889–1895 (''The Esperantist'')* ''Lingvo Internacia'', 1895–1914 (''International Language'')* ''La Revuo'', 1906–1914 (''The Review'')====Poems====* \"Al la fratoj\" (\"To the Brothers\")* \"Ho, mia kor'\" (\"Oh, My Heart\")* \"La Espero\" (\"The Hope\")* \"La vojo\" (\"The Way\")* \"Mia penso\" (\"My Thought\")===Translations===* ''Hamleto, Reĝido de Danujo'', 1894 (''Hamlet, Prince of Denmark'', by William Shakespeare)* ''La batalo de l' vivo'' (''The Battle of Life'', by Charles Dickens)* ''La revizoro'', 1907 (''The Government Inspector'', by Nikolai Gogol)* ''La Predikanto'', 1907 (translation of Ecclesiastes)* ''La Psalmaro'', 1908 (translation of the book of Psalms)* ''La rabistoj'', 1908 (''The Robbers'', by Friedrich Schiller)* ''Ifigenio en Taŭrido'', 1908 (''Iphigenia in Tauris'', by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe)* ''La Rabeno de Baĥaraĥ'', 1909 (\"The Rabbi of Bacharach\", by Heinrich Heine)* ''La Gimnazio'', 1909 (\"The High School\", by Scholem Aleichem)* ''Marta'', 1910 (''Marta'', by Eliza Orzeszkowa)* ''Genezo'', 1911 (translation of the Book of Genesis)* ''Eliro'', 1912 (translation of the Book of Exodus)* ''Levidoj'', 1912 (translation of the Book of Leviticus)* ''Nombroj'', 1914 (translation of the Book of Numbers)* ''Readmono'', 1914 (translation of the Book of Deuteronomy)* ''Malnova Testamento'' (parts of the Old Testament)" ], [ "See also", "* Adam Zamenhof* List of Poles* Zamenhof Day" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===****" ], [ "External links", " * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Linear map" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, and more specifically in linear algebra, a '''linear map''' (also called a '''linear mapping''', '''linear transformation''', '''vector space homomorphism''', or in some contexts '''linear function''') is a mapping between two vector spaces that preserves the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication.", "The same names and the same definition are also used for the more general case of modules over a ring; see Module homomorphism.If a linear map is a bijection then it is called a ''''''.", "In the case where , a linear map is called a '''linear endomorphism'''.", "Sometimes the term '''''' refers to this case, but the term \"linear operator\" can have different meanings for different conventions: for example, it can be used to emphasize that and are real vector spaces (not necessarily with ), or it can be used to emphasize that is a function space, which is a common convention in functional analysis.", "for all , for all and all real .", "Sometimes the term ''linear function'' has the same meaning as ''linear map'', while in analysis it does not.A linear map from to always maps the origin of to the origin of .", "Moreover, it maps linear subspaces in onto linear subspaces in (possibly of a lower dimension);Here are some properties of linear mappings whose proofs are so easy that we omit them; it is assumed that and : for example, it maps a plane through the origin in to either a plane through the origin in , a line through the origin in , or just the origin in .", "Linear maps can often be represented as matrices, and simple examples include rotation and reflection linear transformations.In the language of category theory, linear maps are the morphisms of vector spaces." ], [ "Definition and first consequences", "Let and be vector spaces over the same field .", "A function is said to be a ''linear map'' if for any two vectors and any scalar the following two conditions are satisfied:* Additivity / operation of addition * Homogeneity of degree 1 / operation of scalar multiplication Thus, a linear map is said to be ''operation preserving''.", "In other words, it does not matter whether the linear map is applied before (the right hand sides of the above examples) or after (the left hand sides of the examples) the operations of addition and scalar multiplication.By the associativity of the addition operation denoted as +, for any vectors and scalars the following equality holds: Thus a linear map is one which preserves linear combinations.Denoting the zero elements of the vector spaces and by and respectively, it follows that Let and in the equation for homogeneity of degree 1:A linear map with viewed as a one-dimensional vector space over itself is called a linear functional.These statements generalize to any left-module over a ring without modification, and to any right-module upon reversing of the scalar multiplication." ], [ "Examples", "* A prototypical example that gives linear maps their name is a function , of which the graph is a line through the origin.", "* More generally, any homothety centered in the origin of a vector space is a linear map (here is a scalar).", "* The zero map between two vector spaces (over the same field) is linear.", "* The identity map on any module is a linear operator.", "* For real numbers, the map is not linear.", "* For real numbers, the map is not linear (but is an affine transformation).", "* If is a real matrix, then defines a linear map from to by sending a column vector to the column vector .", "Conversely, any linear map between finite-dimensional vector spaces can be represented in this manner; see the , below.", "* If is an isometry between real normed spaces such that then is a linear map.", "This result is not necessarily true for complex normed space.", "* Differentiation defines a linear map from the space of all differentiable functions to the space of all functions.", "It also defines a linear operator on the space of all smooth functions (a linear operator is a linear endomorphism, that is, a linear map with the same domain and codomain).", "Indeed, * A definite integral over some interval is a linear map from the space of all real-valued integrable functions on to .", "Indeed, * An indefinite integral (or antiderivative) with a fixed integration starting point defines a linear map from the space of all real-valued integrable functions on to the space of all real-valued, differentiable functions on .", "Without a fixed starting point, the antiderivative maps to the quotient space of the differentiable functions by the linear space of constant functions.", "* If and are finite-dimensional vector spaces over a field , of respective dimensions and , then the function that maps linear maps to matrices in the way described in (below) is a linear map, and even a linear isomorphism.", "* The expected value of a random variable (which is in fact a function, and as such an element of a vector space) is linear, as for random variables and we have and , but the variance of a random variable is not linear.File:Streckung eines Vektors.gif\|The function with is a linear map.", "This function scales the component of a vector by the factor .File:Streckung der Summe zweier Vektoren.gif\|The function is additive: It does not matter whether vectors are first added and then mapped or whether they are mapped and finally added: File:Streckung homogenitaet Version 3.gif\|The function is homogeneous: It does not matter whether a vector is first scaled and then mapped or first mapped and then scaled: ===Linear extensions===Often, a linear map is constructed by defining it on a subset of a vector space and then to the linear span of the domain.", "Suppose and are vector spaces and is a function defined on some subset Then a '' of to '' if it exists, is a linear map defined on that extends (meaning that for all ) and takes its values from the codomain of When the subset is a vector subspace of then a (-valued) linear extension of to all of is guaranteed to exist if (and only if) is a linear map.", "In particular, if has a linear extension to then it has a linear extension to all of The map can be extended to a linear map if and only if whenever is an integer, are scalars, and are vectors such that then necessarily If a linear extension of exists then the linear extension is unique andholds for all and as above.", "If is linearly independent then every function into any vector space has a linear extension to a (linear) map (the converse is also true).For example, if and then the assignment and can be linearly extended from the linearly independent set of vectors to a linear map on The unique linear extension is the map that sends toEvery (scalar-valued) linear functional defined on a vector subspace of a real or complex vector space has a linear extension to all of Indeed, the Hahn–Banach dominated extension theorem even guarantees that when this linear functional is dominated by some given seminorm (meaning that holds for all in the domain of ) then there exists a linear extension to that is also dominated by" ], [ "Matrices", "If and are finite-dimensional vector spaces and a basis is defined for each vector space, then every linear map from to can be represented by a matrix.", "This is useful because it allows concrete calculations.", "Matrices yield examples of linear maps: if is a real matrix, then describes a linear map (see Euclidean space).Let be a basis for .", "Then every vector is uniquely determined by the coefficients in the field :If is a linear map,which implies that the function ''f'' is entirely determined by the vectors .", "Now let be a basis for .", "Then we can represent each vector asThus, the function is entirely determined by the values of .", "If we put these values into an matrix , then we can conveniently use it to compute the vector output of for any vector in .", "To get , every column of is a vectorcorresponding to as defined above.", "To define it more clearly, for some column that corresponds to the mapping ,where is the matrix of .", "In other words, every column has a corresponding vector whose coordinates are the elements of column .", "A single linear map may be represented by many matrices.", "This is because the values of the elements of a matrix depend on the bases chosen.The matrices of a linear transformation can be represented visually:# Matrix for relative to : # Matrix for relative to : # Transition matrix from to : # Transition matrix from to : noneSuch that starting in the bottom left corner and looking for the bottom right corner , one would left-multiply—that is, .", "The equivalent method would be the \"longer\" method going clockwise from the same point such that is left-multiplied with , or .===Examples in two dimensions===In two-dimensional space '''R'''2 linear maps are described by 2 × 2 matrices.", "These are some examples:* rotation by 90 degrees counterclockwise: by an angle ''θ'' counterclockwise: * reflection through the ''x'' axis: through the ''y'' axis: ** through a line making an angle ''θ'' with the origin: * scaling by 2 in all directions: * horizontal shear mapping: * skew of the ''y'' axis by an angle ''θ'': * squeeze mapping: * projection onto the ''y'' axis: If a linear map is only composed of rotation, reflection, and/or uniform scaling, then the linear map is a conformal linear transformation." ], [ "Vector space of linear maps", "The composition of linear maps is linear: if and are linear, then so is their composition .", "It follows from this that the class of all vector spaces over a given field ''K'', together with ''K''-linear maps as morphisms, forms a category.The inverse of a linear map, when defined, is again a linear map.If and are linear, then so is their pointwise sum , which is defined by .If is linear and is an element of the ground field , then the map , defined by , is also linear.Thus the set of linear maps from to itself forms a vector space over , sometimes denoted .", "Furthermore, in the case that , this vector space, denoted , is an associative algebra under composition of maps, since the composition of two linear maps is again a linear map, and the composition of maps is always associative.", "This case is discussed in more detail below.Given again the finite-dimensional case, if bases have been chosen, then the composition of linear maps corresponds to the matrix multiplication, the addition of linear maps corresponds to the matrix addition, and the multiplication of linear maps with scalars corresponds to the multiplication of matrices with scalars.===Endomorphisms and automorphisms===A linear transformation is an endomorphism of ; the set of all such endomorphisms together with addition, composition and scalar multiplication as defined above forms an associative algebra with identity element over the field (and in particular a ring).", "The multiplicative identity element of this algebra is the identity map .An endomorphism of that is also an isomorphism is called an automorphism of .", "The composition of two automorphisms is again an automorphism, and the set of all automorphisms of forms a group, the automorphism group of which is denoted by or .", "Since the automorphisms are precisely those endomorphisms which possess inverses under composition, is the group of units in the ring .If has finite dimension , then is isomorphic to the associative algebra of all matrices with entries in .", "The automorphism group of is isomorphic to the general linear group of all invertible matrices with entries in ." ], [ "Kernel, image and the rank–nullity theorem", "If is linear, we define the kernel and the image or range of by is a subspace of and is a subspace of .", "The following dimension formula is known as the rank–nullity theorem:The number is also called the rank of and written as , or sometimes, ; the number is called the nullity of and written as or .", "If and are finite-dimensional, bases have been chosen and is represented by the matrix , then the rank and nullity of are equal to the rank and nullity of the matrix , respectively." ], [ "Cokernel", "A subtler invariant of a linear transformation is the ''co''kernel, which is defined asThis is the ''dual'' notion to the kernel: just as the kernel is a ''sub''space of the ''domain,'' the co-kernel is a ''quotient'' space of the ''target.''", "Formally, one has the exact sequenceThese can be interpreted thus: given a linear equation ''f''('''v''') = '''w''' to solve,* the kernel is the space of ''solutions'' to the ''homogeneous'' equation ''f''('''v''') = 0, and its dimension is the number of degrees of freedom in the space of solutions, if it is not empty;* the co-kernel is the space of constraints that the solutions must satisfy, and its dimension is the maximal number of independent constraints.The dimension of the co-kernel and the dimension of the image (the rank) add up to the dimension of the target space.", "For finite dimensions, this means that the dimension of the quotient space ''W''/''f''(''V'') is the dimension of the target space minus the dimension of the image.As a simple example, consider the map ''f'': '''R'''2 → '''R'''2, given by ''f''(''x'', ''y'') = (0, ''y'').", "Then for an equation ''f''(''x'', ''y'') = (''a'', ''b'') to have a solution, we must have ''a'' = 0 (one constraint), and in that case the solution space is (''x'', ''b'') or equivalently stated, (0, ''b'') + (''x'', 0), (one degree of freedom).", "The kernel may be expressed as the subspace (''x'', 0) ∞ → '''R'''∞, with ''b''1 = 0 and ''b''''n'' + 1 = ''an'' for ''n'' > 0.Its image consists of all sequences with first element 0, and thus its cokernel consists of the classes of sequences with identical first element.", "Thus, whereas its kernel has dimension 0 (it maps only the zero sequence to the zero sequence), its co-kernel has dimension 1.Since the domain and the target space are the same, the rank and the dimension of the kernel add up to the same sum as the rank and the dimension of the co-kernel (), but in the infinite-dimensional case it cannot be inferred that the kernel and the co-kernel of an endomorphism have the same dimension (0 ≠ 1).", "The reverse situation obtains for the map ''h'': '''R'''∞ → '''R'''∞, with ''cn'' = ''a''''n'' + 1.Its image is the entire target space, and hence its co-kernel has dimension 0, but since it maps all sequences in which only the first element is non-zero to the zero sequence, its kernel has dimension 1.===Index===For a linear operator with finite-dimensional kernel and co-kernel, one may define ''index'' as:namely the degrees of freedom minus the number of constraints.For a transformation between finite-dimensional vector spaces, this is just the difference dim(''V'') − dim(''W''), by rank–nullity.", "This gives an indication of how many solutions or how many constraints one has: if mapping from a larger space to a smaller one, the map may be onto, and thus will have degrees of freedom even without constraints.", "Conversely, if mapping from a smaller space to a larger one, the map cannot be onto, and thus one will have constraints even without degrees of freedom.The index of an operator is precisely the Euler characteristic of the 2-term complex 0 → ''V'' → ''W'' → 0.In operator theory, the index of Fredholm operators is an object of study, with a major result being the Atiyah–Singer index theorem." ], [ "Algebraic classifications of linear transformations", "No classification of linear maps could be exhaustive.", "The following incomplete list enumerates some important classifications that do not require any additional structure on the vector space.Let and denote vector spaces over a field and let be a linear map.===Monomorphism=== is said to be ''injective'' or a ''monomorphism'' if any of the following equivalent conditions are true:# is one-to-one as a map of sets.# # # is monic or left-cancellable, which is to say, for any vector space and any pair of linear maps and , the equation implies .# is left-invertible, which is to say there exists a linear map such that is the identity map on .===Epimorphism=== is said to be ''surjective'' or an ''epimorphism'' if any of the following equivalent conditions are true:# is onto as a map of sets.# # is epic or right-cancellable, which is to say, for any vector space and any pair of linear maps and , the equation implies .# is right-invertible, which is to say there exists a linear map such that is the identity map on .===Isomorphism=== is said to be an ''isomorphism'' if it is both left- and right-invertible.", "This is equivalent to being both one-to-one and onto (a bijection of sets) or also to being both epic and monic, and so being a bimorphism.If is an endomorphism, then:* If, for some positive integer , the -th iterate of , , is identically zero, then is said to be nilpotent.", "* If , then is said to be idempotent* If , where is some scalar, then is said to be a scaling transformation or scalar multiplication map; see scalar matrix." ], [ "Change of basis", "Given a linear map which is an endomorphism whose matrix is ''A'', in the basis ''B'' of the space it transforms vector coordinates u as v = ''A''u.", "As vectors change with the inverse of ''B'' (vectors are contravariant) its inverse transformation is v = ''B''v'.Substituting this in the first expressionhenceTherefore, the matrix in the new basis is ''A′'' = ''B''−1''AB'', being ''B'' the matrix of the given basis.Therefore, linear maps are said to be 1-co- 1-contra-variant objects, or type (1, 1) tensors." ], [ "Continuity", "A ''linear transformation'' between topological vector spaces, for example normed spaces, may be continuous.", "If its domain and codomain are the same, it will then be a continuous linear operator.", "A linear operator on a normed linear space is continuous if and only if it is bounded, for example, when the domain is finite-dimensional.", "An infinite-dimensional domain may have discontinuous linear operators.An example of an unbounded, hence discontinuous, linear transformation is differentiation on the space of smooth functions equipped with the supremum norm (a function with small values can have a derivative with large values, while the derivative of 0 is 0).", "For a specific example, converges to 0, but its derivative does not, so differentiation is not continuous at 0 (and by a variation of this argument, it is not continuous anywhere)." ], [ "Applications", "A specific application of linear maps is for geometric transformations, such as those performed in computer graphics, where the translation, rotation and scaling of 2D or 3D objects is performed by the use of a transformation matrix.", "Linear mappings also are used as a mechanism for describing change: for example in calculus correspond to derivatives; or in relativity, used as a device to keep track of the local transformations of reference frames.Another application of these transformations is in compiler optimizations of nested-loop code, and in parallelizing compiler techniques." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", " ** * ** * * ** * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leyden jar" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''Leyden jar''' (or '''Leiden jar''', or archaically, '''Kleistian jar''') is an electrical component that stores a high-voltage electric charge (from an external source) between electrical conductors on the inside and outside of a glass jar.", "It typically consists of a glass jar with metal foil cemented to the inside and the outside surfaces, and a metal terminal projecting vertically through the jar lid to make contact with the inner foil.", "It was the original form of the capacitor (also called a ''condenser'').Its invention was a discovery made independently by German cleric Ewald Georg von Kleist on 11 October 1745 and by Dutch scientist Pieter van Musschenbroek of Leiden (Leyden), Netherlands in 1745–1746.The Leyden jar was used to conduct many early experiments in electricity, and its discovery was of fundamental importance in the study of electrostatics.", "It was the first means of accumulating and preserving electric charge in large quantities that could be discharged at the experimenter's will, thus overcoming a significant limit to early research into electrical conduction.", "Leyden jars are still used in education to demonstrate the principles of electrostatics." ], [ "Previous work", "The Ancient Greeks already knew that pieces of amber could attract lightweight particles after being rubbed.", "The amber becomes electrified by the triboelectric effect, mechanical separation of charge in a dielectric material.", "The Greek word for amber is ἤλεκτρον (\"ēlektron\") and is the origin of the word \"electricity\".", "Thales of Miletus, a pre-Socratic philosopher is thought to have accidentally commented on the phenomenon of electrostatic charging, due to his belief that even lifeless things have a soul in them, hence the popular analogy of the spark.", "Around 1650, Otto von Guericke built a crude electrostatic generator: a sulphur ball that rotated on a shaft.", "When Guericke held his hand against the ball and turned the shaft quickly, a static electric charge built up.", "This experiment inspired the development of several forms of \"friction machines\", which greatly helped in the study of electricity.Georg Matthias Bose (22 September 1710 – 17 September 1761) was a famous electrical experimenter in the early days of the development of electrostatics.", "He is credited with being the first to develop a way of temporarily storing static charges by using an insulated conductor (called a prime conductor).", "His demonstrations and experiments raised the interests of the German scientific community and the public in the development of electrical research." ], [ "Discovery", "Discovery of the Leyden jar in van Musschenbroek's lab.", "The static electricity produced by the rotating glass sphere electrostatic generator was conducted by the chain through the suspended bar to the water in the glass held by Andreas Cunaeus.", "A large charge accumulated in the water and an opposite charge in Cunaeus' hand on the glass.", "When he touched the wire dipping in the water, he received a powerful shockThe Leyden jar was effectively discovered independently by two parties: German deacon Ewald Georg von Kleist, who made the first discovery, and Dutch scientists Pieter van Musschenbroek and Andreas Cunaeus, who figured out why it only worked when held in the hand.=== Von Kleist ===battery of four water-filled Leyden jars, Museum Boerhaave, LeidenEwald Georg von Kleist was the deacon at the cathedral of Camin in Pomerania, a region now divided between Germany and Poland.", "Von Kleist is credited with first using the fluid analogy for electricity and demonstrated this to Bose by drawing sparks from water with his finger.", "He discovered the immense storage capability of the Leyden jar while attempting to demonstrate that a glass jar filled with alcohol would \"capture\" this fluid.In October 1745, von Kleist tried to accumulate electricity in a small medicine bottle filled with alcohol with a nail inserted in the cork.", "He was following up on an experiment developed by Georg Matthias Bose where electricity had been sent through water to set alcoholic spirits alight.", "He attempted to charge the bottle from a large prime conductor (invented by Bose) suspended above his friction machine.Von Kleist knew that the glass would provide an obstacle to the escape of the \"fluid\", and so was convinced that a substantial electric charge could be collected and held within it.", "He received a significant shock from the device when he accidentally touched the nail through the cork while still cradling the bottle in his other hand.", "He communicated his results to at least five different electrical experimenters, in several letters from November 1745 to March 1746, but did not receive any confirmation that they had repeated his results, until April 1746.Polish-Lithuanian physicist Daniel Gralath learned about von Kleist's experiment from seeing von Kleist's letter to Paul Swietlicki, written in November 1745.After Gralath's failed first attempt to reproduce the experiment in December 1745, he wrote to von Kleist for more information (and was told that the experiment would work better if the tube half-filled with alcohol was used).", "Gralath (in collaboration with ) succeeded in getting the intended effect on 5 March 1746, holding a small glass medicine bottle with a nail inside in one hand, moving it close to an electrostatic generator, and then moving the other hand close to the nail.", "Von Kleist didn't understand the significance of his conducting hand holding the bottle — and both he and his correspondents were loath to hold the device when told that the shock could throw them across the room.", "It took some time before von Kleist's student associates at Leyden worked out that the hand provided an essential element.=== Musschenbroek and Cunaeus ===The Leyden jar's invention was long credited to Pieter van Musschenbroek, the physics professor at Leiden University, who also ran a family foundry which cast brass cannonettes, and a small business (''De Oosterse Lamp'' – \"The Eastern Lamp\") which made scientific and medical instruments for the new university courses in physics and for scientific gentlemen keen to establish their own 'cabinets' of curiosities and instruments.Like von Kleist, Musschenbroek was also interested in, and attempting to repeat, Bose's experiment.", "During this time, Andreas Cunaeus, a lawyer, learned about this experiment from Musschenbroek, and attempted to duplicate the experiment at home with household items.", "Unaware of the \"Rule of Dufay\", that the experimental apparatus should be insulated, Cunaeus held his jar in his hand while charging it, and was thus the first to discover that such an experimental setup could deliver a severe shock.", "He reported his procedure and experience to Swiss-Dutch natural philosopher Jean-Nicolas-Sebastian Allamand, Musschenbroek's colleague.", "Allamand and Musschenbroek also received severe shocks.", "Musschenbroek communicated the experiment in a letter from 20 January 1746 to French entomologist René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, who was Musschenbroek's appointed correspondent at the Paris Academy.", "Abbé Jean-Antoine Nollet read this report, confirmed the experiment, and then read Musschenbroek's letter in a public meeting of the Paris Academy in April 1746 (translating from Latin to French).Musschenbroek's outlet in France for the sale of his company's 'cabinet' devices was the Abbé Nollet (who started building and selling duplicate instruments in 1735).", "Nollet then gave the electrical storage device the name \"Leyden jar\" and promoted it as a special type of flask to his market of wealthy men with scientific curiosity.", "The \"Kleistian jar\" was therefore promoted as the ''Leyden jar'', and as having been discovered by Pieter van Musschenbroek and his acquaintance Andreas Cunaeus.", "Musschenbroek, however, never claimed that he had invented it, and some think that Cunaeus was mentioned only to diminish credit to him." ], [ "Further developments", "Within months after Musschenbroek's report about how to reliably create a Leyden jar, other electrical researchers were making and experimenting with their own Leyden jars.", "One of his expressed original interests was to see if the total possible charge could be increased.Johann Heinrich Winckler, whose first experience with a single Leyden jar was reported in a letter to the Royal Society on 29 May 1746, had connected three Leyden jars together in a kind of electrostatic battery on 28 July 1746.In 1746, Abbé Nollet performed two experiments for the edification of King Louis XV of France, in the first of which he discharged a Leyden jar through 180 royal guardsmen, and in the second through a larger number of Carthusian monks; all of whom sprang into the air more or less simultaneously.", "The opinions of neither the king nor the experimental subjects have been recorded.", "Daniel Gralath reported in 1747 that in 1746 he had conducted experiments with connecting two or three jars, probably in series.In 1746-1748, Benjamin Franklin experimented with charging Leyden jars in series, and developed a system involving 11 panes of glass with thin lead plates glued on each side, and then connected together.", "He used the term \"electrical battery\" to describe his electrostatic battery in a 1749 letter about his electrical research in 1748.It is possible that Franklin's choice of the word ''battery'' was inspired by the humorous wordplay at the conclusion of his letter, where he wrote, among other things, about a salute to electrical researchers from a battery of guns.", "This is the first recorded use of the term ''electrical battery''.", "The multiple and rapid developments for connecting Leyden jars during the period 1746–1748 resulted in a variety of divergent accounts in secondary literature about who made the first \"battery\" by connecting Leyden jars, whether they were in series or parallel, and who first used the term \"battery\".", "The term was later used for combinations of multiple electrochemical cells, the modern meaning of the term \"battery\".The Swedish physicist, chemist, and meteorologist Torbern Bergman translated much of Benjamin Franklin's writings on electricity into German and continued to study electrostatic properties.Starting in late 1756, Franz Aepinus, in a complicated combination of independent work and collaboration with Johan Wilcke, developed an \"air condenser\", a variation on the Leyden jar, by using air rather than glass as the dielectric.", "This functioning apparatus, without glass, created a problem for Benjamin Franklin's explanation of the Leyden jar, which maintained that the charge was located in the glass." ], [ "Design", "Leyden jar constructionMeasuring Leyden jarA typical design consists of a glass jar with conducting tin foil coating the inner and outer surfaces.", "The foil coatings stop short of the mouth of the jar, to prevent the charge from arcing between the foils.", "A metal rod electrode projects through the nonconductive stopper at the mouth of the jar, electrically connected by some means (usually a hanging chain) to the inner foil, to allow it to be charged.", "The jar is charged by an electrostatic generator, or other source of electric charge, connected to the inner electrode while the outer foil is grounded.", "The inner and outer surfaces of the jar store equal but opposite charges.The original form of the device is just a glass bottle partially filled with water, with a metal wire passing through a cork closing it.", "The role of the outer plate is provided by the hand of the experimenter.", "Soon John Bevis found (in 1747) that it was possible to coat the exterior of the jar with metal foil, and he also found that he could achieve the same effect by using a plate of glass with metal foil on both sides.", "These developments inspired William Watson in the same year to have a jar made with a metal foil lining both inside and outside, dropping the use of water.Early experimenters (such as Benjamin Wilson in 1746) reported that the thinner the dielectric and the greater the surface, the greater the charge that could be accumulated.Further developments in electrostatics revealed that the dielectric material was not essential, but increased the storage capability (capacitance) and prevented arcing between the plates.", "Two plates separated by a small distance also act as a capacitor, even in a vacuum." ], [ "Storage of the charge", "\"Dissectible\" Leyden jar, 1876It was initially believed that the charge was stored in the water in early Leyden jars.", "In the 1700s American statesman and scientist Benjamin Franklin performed extensive investigations of both water-filled and foil Leyden jars, which led him to conclude that the charge was stored in the glass, not in the water.", "A popular experiment, due to Franklin, which seems to demonstrate this involves taking a jar apart after it has been charged and showing that little charge can be found on the metal plates, and therefore it must be in the dielectric.", "The first documented instance of this demonstration is in a 1749 letter by Franklin.", "Franklin designed a \"dissectible\" Leyden jar ''(right)'', which was widely used in demonstrations.", "The jar is constructed out of a glass cup nested between two fairly snugly fitting metal cups.", "When the jar is charged with a high voltage and carefully dismantled, it is discovered that all the parts may be freely handled without discharging the jar.", "If the pieces are re-assembled, a large spark may still be obtained from it.", "This demonstration appears to suggest that capacitors store their charge inside their dielectric.", "This theory was taught throughout the 1800s.", "However, this phenomenon is a special effect caused by the high voltage on the Leyden jar.", "In the dissectible Leyden jar, charge is transferred to the surface of the glass cup by corona discharge when the jar is disassembled; this is the source of the residual charge after the jar is reassembled.", "Handling the cup while disassembled does not provide enough contact to remove all the surface charge.", "Soda glass is hygroscopic and forms a partially conductive coating on its surface, which holds the charge.", "Addenbrooke (1922) found that in a dissectible jar made of paraffin wax, or glass baked to remove moisture, the charge remained on the metal plates.", "Zeleny (1944) confirmed these results and observed the corona charge transfer.If a charged Leyden jar is discharged by shorting the inner and outer coatings and left to sit for a few minutes, the jar will recover some of its previous charge, and a second spark can be obtained from it.", "Often this can be repeated, and a series of 4 or 5 sparks, decreasing in length, can be obtained at intervals.", "This effect is caused by dielectric absorption." ], [ "Capacity", "The Leyden jar is a high-voltage device; it is estimated that at a maximum the early Leyden jars could be charged to 20,000 to 60,000 volts.", "The center rod electrode has a metal ball on the end to prevent leakage of the charge into the air by corona discharge.", "It was first used in electrostatics experiments, and later in high-voltage equipment such as spark-gap radio transmitters and electrotherapy machines.", "Originally, the amount of capacitance was measured in number of 'jars' of a given size, or through the total coated area, assuming reasonably standard thickness and composition of the glass.", "A typical Leyden jar of one pint size has a capacitance of about 1 nF." ], [ "Uses", "Beginning in the late 18th century it was used in the Victorian medical field of electrotherapy to treat a variety of diseases by electric shock.", "By the middle of the 19th century, the Leyden jar had become common enough for writers to assume their readers knew of and understood its basic operation.", "Around the turn of the century it began to be widely used in spark-gap transmitters and medical electrotherapy equipment.", "By the early 20th century, improved dielectrics and the need to reduce their size and undesired inductance and resistance for use in the new technology of radio caused the Leyden jar to evolve into the modern compact form of capacitor." ], [ "See also", "* Franklin bells" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Leyden Jar – Interactive Java Tutorial National High Magnetic Field Laboratory* Schechner, Sara J.", "“The Art of Making Leyden Jars and Batteries according to Benjamin Franklin.” eRittenhouse 26 (2015).", "* Science fair project idea." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lennon Wall" ], [ "Introduction", "Lennon Wall in August 1981.Portion of the wall, 1993.Extinction Rebellion mural, 2019.The Wall after a new repainting, October 2022The '''Lennon Wall''' () or '''John Lennon Wall''' (Czech: ''Zeď Johna Lennona'') is a wall in Prague, Czech Republic.", "Since the 1980s, this once-typical wall has been filled with John Lennon–inspired graffiti, lyrics from Beatles' songs, and designs relating to local and global causes." ], [ "History and ongoing development", "Located in a small and secluded square across from the French Embassy, the wall had been decorated by love poems and short messages against the regime since 1960s.", "It received its first decoration connected to John Lennon—a symbol of freedom, western culture, and political struggle—following the 1980 assassination of John Lennon when an unknown artist painted a single image of the singer-songwriter and some lyrics.In 1988, the wall was a source of irritation for Gustáv Husák's communist regime.", "Following a short-lived era of democratization and political liberalization known as the Prague Spring, the newly-installed communist government dismantled the reforms, inspiring anger and resistance.", "Young Czechs wrote their grievances on the wall and, according to a report of the time, this led to a clash between hundreds of students and security police on the nearby Charles Bridge.", "The liberalization movement these students followed was described as Lennonism (not to be confused with Leninism), and Czech authorities described participants variously as alcoholic, mentally deranged, sociopathic, and agents of Western free market capitalism.The wall continuously undergoes change, and the original portrait of Lennon is long lost under layers of new paint.", "Even when the wall was repainted by authorities, by the next day it was again full of poems and flowers.", "Today, the wall represents a symbol of global ideals such as love and peace.The wall is owned by the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, which allowed the graffiti, and is located at ''Velkopřevorské náměstí'' (Grand Priory Square), Malá Strana.On 17 November 2014, the 25th anniversary of the Velvet Revolution, the wall was painted over in pure white by a group of art students, leaving only the text “wall is over” .", "The Knights of Malta initially filed a criminal complaint for vandalism against the students, which they later retracted after contacting them.The wall mural is still there as of 23 July 2017.And the “Wall is Over” bit has been changed to “War Is Over” from the song Happy Xmas (War Is Over).On 22 April 2019, Earth Day, the action group Extinction Rebellion repainted the entire wall with slogans demanding action from the Czech government on climate change.", "“KLIMATICKÁ NOUZE” was painted in large block print letters, which reads “climate emergency” in Czech.", "Members of the public were encouraged to add their own messages during the process, resulting in calls for action painted in several languages.", "A giant image of a skull was also painted.", "The repaint was carried out in a manner which allowed some of the existing artwork to be included on the new wall.In July 2019, artists painted a memorial on the wall for Hong Kong democracy activist Marco Leung Ling-kit, who became known as a martyr and a symbol of hope for the 2019 anti-extradition bill protest movement.", "The image on the wall depicts the yellow raincoat he was wearing during the banner drop that eventually led to a fall from the building, along with some words of solidarity: “Hong Kong, Add oil.”On 4 August 2019, it was reported that the wall will be put under CCTV surveillance to block unlawful graffiti and combat the swaths of tourists that pass by it every day.In October 2019, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta together with Prague 1 started the reconstruction of the Lennon Wall which lasted until November.", "They reacted thus to the recent situation of vandalism on the wall and its surroundings connected to the overtourism which became unbearable this summer.", "The place should have regained its respectable form which was going to be introduced on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Velvet Revolution in November as an open-air gallery with new rules.", "On 7 November 2019, the new face of the Lennon Wall as an open-air gallery was created and introduced to the public.", "Over 30 Czech and foreign professional artists gathered by the Czech designer Pavel Šťastný painted the Wall.", "New rules of the Wall no longer allow spraying, people can leave their messages connected to freedom and love only in the white free zones andy in more sensitive materials than sprays, e.g.", "pencil, marker, or chalk.", "Cameras and police monitor the wall to ensure the artistic portion is not defaced.In July 2021, a new museum about the history of the Lennon Wall, the Lennon Wall Story, was set in Prokopska Street 8 in the cool underground.", "The Lennon Wall Story is a new museum that tracks the history and art of one of Prague’s major attractions.", "Located just a few hundred metres from the famous Lennon Wall itself, the museum seeks to entice visitors with dozens of photos, historic objects, Beatles memorabilia and a half hour documentary about the history of the wall, known for political and artistic expression." ], [ "Lennon Walls in Hong Kong", "During the 2014 democracy protests in Hong Kong, a similar Lennon Wall appeared along the staircase outside of the Hong Kong Central Government Offices.", "Inspired by the original in Prague, many thousands of people posted colourful post-it notes expressing democratic wishes for Hong Kong.", "The wall was one of the major arts of the Umbrella Movement.", "Throughout several months of occupations and protest, many efforts were made by different groups to ensure physical and digital preservation of the Hong Kong Lennon Wall.Five years later, during the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, the same wall was created again, with new post-it notes.", "Within days, dozens of post-it note Lennon Walls had “blossomed everywhere” (遍地開花) throughout Hong Kong, including on Hong Kong Island itself, Kowloon, the New Territories, and on the many outlying islands.", "There are even some Lennon Walls located inside government offices, including RTHK and the Policy Innovation and Co-ordination Office.", "According to a crowd-sourced map of Hong Kong, there are over 150 Lennon Walls throughout the region.On 21 September 2019, police in Hong Kong began tearing down Lennon Walls across the city to remove anti-government statements.Lennon Walls have also appeared outside of Hong Kong in Toronto, Vancouver BC, Calgary, Seoul, Tokyo, Berlin, London, Sydney, Manchester, Melbourne, Taipei, and Auckland." ], [ "See also", "* John Lennon Park — Havana, Cuba* Strawberry Fields — Memorial in Central Park NYC* Tsoi Wall — a similar wall near Arbat Street in Moscow* Lennon Walls of Hong Kong Art of the Umbrella Movement 2019–20 Hong Kong protests* Extinction Rebellion* List of famous walls* r/place" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Digital Lennon Wall* Google Maps location of John Lennon Wall* Article about the Lennon Wall in the Erasmuspc World CityPoem collection* Book of Lennon Wall" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Los Angeles" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Los Angeles''' ( ; , ), often referred to by its initials '''L.A.", "''', is the most populous city in the U.S. state of California.", "With roughly 3.9 million residents within the city limits , Los Angeles is the second-most populous city in the United States, behind only New York City; it is also the commercial, financial and cultural center of Southern California.", "Los Angeles has a Mediterranean climate and an ethnically and culturally diverse population, and it is the principal city of a sprawling metropolitan area with over 18 million residents.The majority of the city proper lies in a basin in Southern California adjacent to the Pacific Ocean in the west and extending partly through the Santa Monica Mountains and north into the San Fernando Valley, with the city bordering the San Gabriel Valley to its east.", "It covers about , and is the county seat of Los Angeles County, which is the most populous county in the United States with an estimated 9.86 million residents .", "It is the fourth-most visited city in the U.S. with over 2.7 million visitors as of 2022.The area that became Los Angeles was originally inhabited by the indigenous Tongva people and later claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542.The city was founded on September 4, 1781, under Spanish governor Felipe de Neve, on the village of Yaanga.", "It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence.", "In 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and became part of the United States.", "Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4, 1850, five months before California achieved statehood.", "The discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city.", "The city was further expanded with the completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, which delivers water from Eastern California.Los Angeles has a diverse economy with a broad range of industries, best known as the home of the Hollywood film industry, the world's largest by revenue; the city was an important site in the history of film.", "It also has one of the busiest container ports in the Americas.", "In 2018, the Los Angeles metropolitan area had a gross metropolitan product of over $1.0 trillion, making it the city with the third-largest GDP in the world, after New York and Tokyo.", "Los Angeles hosted the Summer Olympics in 1932 and 1984, and will also host in 2028.More recently, statewide droughts in California have strained both the city's and Los Angeles County's water security." ], [ "Toponymy", "On September 4, 1781, a group of 44 settlers known as \"Los Pobladores\" founded the (town) they called .", "The original name of the settlement is disputed; the Guinness Book of World Records rendered it as \"El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles de Porciúncula\"; other sources have shortened or alternate versions of the longer name.The local English pronunciation of the name of the city has varied over time.", "A 1953 article in the journal of the American Name Society asserts that the pronunciation was established following the 1850 incorporation of the city and that since the 1880s the pronunciation emerged from a trend in California to give places Spanish, or Spanish-sounding, names and pronunciations.", "In 1908, librarian Charles Fletcher Lummis, who argued for the name's pronunciation with a hard ''g'' (), reported that there were at least 12 pronunciation variants.", "In the early 1900s, the ''Los Angeles Times'' advocated for pronouncing it ''Loce AHNG-hayl-ais'' (), approximating Spanish , by printing the respelling under its masthead for several years.", "This did not find favor.Since the 1930s, has been most common.", "In 1934, the United States Board on Geographic Names decreed that this pronunciation be used.", "This was also endorsed in 1952 by a \"jury\" appointed by Mayor Fletcher Bowron to devise an official pronunciation.Common pronunciations in the United Kingdom include .", "Phonetician Jack Windsor Lewis described the most common one, , as a spelling pronunciation based on analogy to Greek words ending in ''-es'', \"reflecting a time when the classics were familiar if Spanish was not\"." ], [ "History", "===Indigenous history===Yaanga, a prominent Tongva village, stood in the area before the Spanish founded Los Angeles.The settlement of Indigenous Californians in the modern Los Angeles Basin and the San Fernando Valley was dominated by the Tongva (now also known as the ''Gabrieleño'' since the era of Spanish colonization).", "The historic center of Tongva power in the region was the settlement of Yaanga (Tongva: ''Iyáangẚ''), meaning \"place of the poison oak\", which would one day be the site where the Spanish founded the Pueblo de Los Ángeles.", "''Iyáangẚ'' has also been translated as \"the valley of smoke\".===Spanish rule===Maritime explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo claimed the area of southern California for the Spanish Empire in 1542 while on an official military exploring expedition moving northward along the Pacific coast from earlier colonizing bases of New Spain in Central and South America.", "Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2, 1769.Spanish founded Mission San Fernando Rey de España in 1797.In 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area.", "On September 4, 1781, a group of 44 settlers known as \"Los Pobladores\" founded the (town) they called .", "The present-day city has the largest Roman Catholic archdiocese in the United States.", "Two-thirds of the Mexican or (New Spain) settlers were mestizo or mulatto, a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry.", "The settlement remained a small ranch town for decades, but by 1820, the population had increased to about 650 residents.", "Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the historic district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street, the oldest part of Los Angeles.===Mexican rule===Californio statesman Pío Pico, who served as the last Mexican governor of California, played an influential role in the development of Los Angeles in the late Mexican and early American eras.New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, and the pueblo now existed within the new Mexican Republic.", "During Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles the regional capital of Alta California.", "By this time, the new republic introduced more secularization acts within the Los Angeles region.", "In 1846, during the wider Mexican-American war, marines from the United States occupied the pueblo.", "This resulted in the siege of Los Angeles where 150 Mexican militias fought the occupiers which eventually surrendered.Mexican rule ended during following the American Conquest of California, part of the larger Mexican-American War.", "Americans took control from the Californios after a series of battles, culminating with the signing of the Treaty of Cahuenga on January 13, 1847.The Mexican Cession was formalized in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, which ceded Los Angeles and the rest of Alta California to the United States.===Post-Conquest era===The Treaty of Cahuenga, signed in 1847 by Californio Andrés Pico and American John C. Frémont, ended the U.S. Conquest of California.Railroads arrived with the completion of the transcontinental Southern Pacific line from New Orleans to Los Angeles in 1876 and the Santa Fe Railroad in 1885.Petroleum was discovered in the city and surrounding area in 1892, and by 1923, the discoveries had helped California become the country's largest oil producer, accounting for about one-quarter of the world's petroleum output.By 1900, the population had grown to more than 102,000, putting pressure on the city's water supply.", "The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, under the supervision of William Mulholland, ensured the continued growth of the city.", "Because of clauses in the city's charter that prevented the City of Los Angeles from selling or providing water from the aqueduct to any area outside its borders, many adjacent cities and communities felt compelled to join Los Angeles.Hollywood studios, like Paramount Pictures, helped transform Hollywood into the world capital of film and helped solidify LA as a global economic hub.Los Angeles created the first municipal zoning ordinance in the United States.", "On September 14, 1908, the Los Angeles City Council promulgated residential and industrial land use zones.", "The new ordinance established three residential zones of a single type, where industrial uses were prohibited.", "The proscriptions included barns, lumber yards, and any industrial land use employing machine-powered equipment.", "These laws were enforced against industrial properties after the fact.", "These prohibitions were in addition to existing activities that were already regulated as nuisances.", "These included explosives warehousing, gas works, oil drilling, slaughterhouses, and tanneries.", "Los Angeles City Council also designated seven industrial zones within the city.", "However, between 1908 and 1915, the Los Angeles City Council created various exceptions to the broad proscriptions that applied to these three residential zones, and as a consequence, some industrial uses emerged within them.", "There are two differences between the 1908 Residence District Ordinance and later zoning laws in the United States.", "First, the 1908 laws did not establish a comprehensive zoning map as the 1916 New York City Zoning Ordinance did.", "Second, the residential zones did not distinguish types of housing; they treated apartments, hotels, and detached-single-family housing equally.In 1910, Hollywood merged into Los Angeles, with 10 movie companies already operating in the city at the time.", "By 1921, more than 80 percent of the world's film industry was concentrated in L.A.", "The money generated by the industry kept the city insulated from much of the economic loss suffered by the rest of the country during the Great Depression.By 1930, the population surpassed one million.", "In 1932, the city hosted the Summer Olympics.===Post-WWII===During World War II, the California Shipbuilding Corporation on Terminal Island was among the many builders that made the Port of Los Angeles one of the largest shipyards in the country.During World War II Los Angeles was a major center of wartime manufacturing, such as shipbuilding and aircraft.", "Calship built hundreds of Liberty Ships and Victory Ships on Terminal Island, and the Los Angeles area was the headquarters of six of the country's major aircraft manufacturers (Douglas Aircraft Company, Hughes Aircraft, Lockheed, North American Aviation, Northrop Corporation, and Vultee).", "During the war, more aircraft were produced in one year than in all the pre-war years since the Wright brothers flew the first airplane in 1903, combined.", "Manufacturing in Los Angeles skyrocketed, and as William S. Knudsen, of the National Defense Advisory Commission put it, \"We won because we smothered the enemy in an avalanche of production, the like of which he had never seen, nor dreamed possible.", "\"After the end of World War II Los Angeles grew more rapidly than ever, sprawling into the San Fernando Valley.", "The expansion of the state owned Interstate Highway System during the 1950s and 1960s helped propel suburban growth and signaled the demise of the city's privately owned electrified rail system, once the world's largest.As a consequence of World War II, suburban growth, and population density, many amusement parks were built and operated in this area.", "An example is Beverly Park, which was located at the corner of Beverly Boulevard and La Cienega before being closed and substituted by the Beverly Center.Racial tensions led to the Watts riots in 1965, resulting in 34 deaths and over 1,000 injuries.Opening ceremony of the 1984 Summer Olympics at the LA ColiseumIn 1969, California became the birthplace of the Internet, as the first ARPANET transmission was sent from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to the Stanford Research Institute in Menlo Park.In 1973, Tom Bradley was elected as the city's first African American mayor, serving for five terms until retiring in 1993.Other events in the city during the 1970s included the Symbionese Liberation Army's South Central standoff in 1974 and the Hillside Stranglers murder cases in 1977–1978.In early 1984, the city surpassed Chicago in population, thus becoming the second largest city in the United States.In 1984, the city hosted the Summer Olympic Games for the second time.", "Despite being boycotted by 14 Communist countries, the 1984 Olympics became more financially successful than any previous, and the second Olympics to turn a profit; the other, according to an analysis of contemporary newspaper reports, was the 1932 Summer Olympics, also held in Los Angeles.Wilshire Grand Center, built in 2017, is the tallest building in California and in the Western United States.Racial tensions erupted on April 29, 1992, with the acquittal by a Simi Valley jury of four Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) officers captured on videotape beating Rodney King, culminating in large-scale riots.In 1994, the magnitude 6.7 Northridge earthquake shook the city, causing $12.5 billion in damage and 72 deaths.", "The century ended with the Rampart scandal, one of the most extensive documented cases of police misconduct in American history.===21st century===In 2002, Mayor James Hahn led the campaign against secession, resulting in voters defeating efforts by the San Fernando Valley and Hollywood to secede from the city.In 2022, Karen Bass became the city's first female mayor, making Los Angeles the largest U.S. city to have ever had a woman as mayor.Los Angeles will host the 2028 Summer Olympics and Paralympic Games, making Los Angeles the third city to host the Olympics three times." ], [ "Geography", "=== Topography ===Satellite view of Los AngelesThe city of Los Angeles covers a total area of , comprising of land and of water.", "The city extends for from north to south and for from east to west.", "The perimeter of the city is .Los Angeles is both flat and hilly.", "The highest point in the city proper is Mount Lukens at , located at the northeastern end of the San Fernando Valley.", "The eastern end of the Santa Monica Mountains stretches from Downtown to the Pacific Ocean and separates the Los Angeles Basin from the San Fernando Valley.", "Other hilly parts of Los Angeles include the Mt.", "Washington area north of Downtown, eastern parts such as Boyle Heights, the Crenshaw district around the Baldwin Hills, and the San Pedro district.Surrounding the city are much higher mountains.", "Immediately to the north lie the San Gabriel Mountains, which is a popular recreation area for Angelenos.", "Its high point is Mount San Antonio, locally known as Mount Baldy, which reaches .", "Further afield, the highest point in southern California is San Gorgonio Mountain, east of downtown Los Angeles, with a height of .The Los Angeles River, which is largely seasonal, is the primary drainage channel.", "It was straightened and lined in of concrete by the Army Corps of Engineers to act as a flood control channel.", "The river begins in the Canoga Park district of the city, flows east from the San Fernando Valley along the north edge of the Santa Monica Mountains, and turns south through the city center, flowing to its mouth in the Port of Long Beach at the Pacific Ocean.", "The smaller Ballona Creek flows into the Santa Monica Bay at Playa del Rey.=== Vegetation ===Del Rey Lagoon in Playa del ReyLos Angeles is rich in native plant species partly because of its diversity of habitats, including beaches, wetlands, and mountains.", "The most prevalent plant communities are coastal sage scrub, chaparral shrubland, and riparian woodland.", "Native plants include: the California poppy, matilija poppy, toyon, Ceanothus, Chamise, Coast Live Oak, sycamore, willow and Giant Wildrye.", "Many of these native species, such as the Los Angeles sunflower, have become so rare as to be considered endangered.", "Mexican Fan Palms, Canary Island Palms, Queen Palms, Date Palms, and California Fan Palms are common in the Los Angeles area, although only the last is native to California, though still not native to the City of Los Angeles.Los Angeles has a number of official flora:* the official tree of Los Angeles is the Coral Tree (''Erythrina caffra'')* the official flower is the Bird of Paradise (''Strelitzia reginae'') * the official plant is toyon (''Heteromeles arbutifolia'')=== Geology ===Mount Lukens, in the San Gabriel Mountains, is the highest point in LA.Los Angeles is subject to earthquakes because of its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire.", "The geologic instability has produced numerous faults, which cause approximately 10,000 earthquakes annually in Southern California, though most of them are too small to be felt.", "The strike-slip San Andreas Fault system, which sits at the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, passes through the Los Angeles metropolitan area.", "The segment of the fault passing through Southern California experiences a major earthquake roughly every 110 to 140 years, and seismologists have warned about the next \"big one\", as the last major earthquake was the 1857 Fort Tejon earthquake.", "The Los Angeles basin and metropolitan area are also at risk from blind thrust earthquakes.", "Major earthquakes that have hit the Los Angeles area include the 1933 Long Beach, 1971 San Fernando, 1987 Whittier Narrows, and the 1994 Northridge events.", "All but a few are of low intensity and are not felt.", "The USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast, which models earthquake occurrence in California.", "Parts of the city are also vulnerable to tsunamis; harbor areas were damaged by waves from Aleutian Islands earthquake in 1946, Valdivia earthquake in 1960, Alaska earthquake in 1964, Chile earthquake in 2010 and Japan earthquake in 2011.=== Cityscape ===The city is divided into many different districts and neighborhoods, some of which were incorporated cities that have merged with Los Angeles.", "These neighborhoods were developed piecemeal, and are well-defined enough that the city has signage which marks nearly all of them.==== Overview ====View of the Downtown Los Angeles skyline from Griffith ParkThe city's street patterns generally follow a grid plan, with uniform block lengths and occasional roads that cut across blocks.", "However, this is complicated by rugged terrain, which has necessitated having different grids for each of the valleys that Los Angeles covers.", "Major streets are designed to move large volumes of traffic through many parts of the city, many of which are extremely long; Sepulveda Boulevard is long, while Foothill Boulevard is over long, reaching as far east as San Bernardino.", "Drivers in Los Angeles suffer from one of the worst rush hour periods in the world, according to an annual traffic index by navigation system maker, TomTom.", "LA drivers spend an additional 92 hours in traffic each year.", "During the peak rush hour, there is 80% congestion, according to the index.Los Angeles is often characterized by the presence of low-rise buildings, in contrast to New York City.", "Outside of a few centers such as Downtown, Warner Center, Century City, Koreatown, Miracle Mile, Hollywood, and Westwood, skyscrapers and high-rise buildings are not common in Los Angeles.", "The few skyscrapers built outside of those areas often stand out above the rest of the surrounding landscape.", "Most construction is done in separate units, rather than wall-to-wall.", "However, Downtown Los Angeles itself has many buildings over 30 stories, with fourteen over 50 stories, and two over 70 stories, the tallest of which is the Wilshire Grand Center.", "Also Los Angeles is increasingly becoming a city of apartments rather than single-family dwellings, especially in the dense inner city and Westside neighborhoods.File:Crossing 1st St. (15569188450) (cropped2).jpg\|Boyle HeightsFile:Little Armenia Los Angeles view edit1.jpg\|East HollywoodFile:Skyline view of Los Angeles, California, centering on the 13-story Eastern Columbia Building in the Broadway Theater District LCCN2013631691 (cropped).tif\|Historic CoreFile:Pacific Palisades Photo D Ramey Logan (cropped).jpg\|Pacific PalisadesFile:20140810-0429 Nisei Week Festival (cropped).JPG\|Little TokyoFile:Silverlake, Los Angeles (cropped).jpg\|Silver LakeFile:San-Pedro1.jpg\|San PedroFile:View of Griffith Park from Sunset Boulevard (cropped2).jpg\|Los FelizFile:Sunny business district roads (Unsplash) (cropped).jpg\|Financial DistrictFile:Aerial view of beaches (Venice) July 2022 (3).jpg\|VeniceFile:The Duck Pond at Playa del Rey (cropped).jpg\|Playa del ReyFile:Wilshire Boulevard winds through Westwood-3730987095 (cropped).jpg\|Westwood=== Climate ===Los Angeles has a two-season Mediterranean climate with dry summers and very mild winters (Köppen: ''Csb'' on the coast, ''Csa'' otherwise), but it receives less annual precipitation than most other Mediterranean climates, so it is near the boundary of a semi-arid climate (''BSh''), though narrowly missing it.", "Daytime temperatures are generally temperate all year round.", "In winter, they average around .", "Autumn months tend to be hot, with major heat waves a common occurrence in September and October, while the spring months tend to be cooler and experience more precipitation.", "Los Angeles has plenty of sunshine throughout the year, with an average of only 35 days with measurable precipitation annually.Temperatures in the coastal basin exceed on a dozen or so days in the year, from one day a month in April, May, June and November to three days a month in July, August, October and to five days in September.", "Temperatures in the San Fernando and San Gabriel Valleys are considerably warmer.", "Temperatures are subject to substantial daily swings; in inland areas the difference between the average daily low and the average daily high is over .", "The average annual temperature of the sea is , from in January to in August.", "Hours of sunshine total more than 3,000 per year, from an average of 7 hours of sunshine per day in December to an average of 12 in July.Due to the mountainous terrain of the surrounding region, the Los Angeles area contains a large number of distinct microclimates, causing extreme variations in temperature in close physical proximity to each other.", "For example, the average July maximum temperature at the Santa Monica Pier is whereas it is in Canoga Park, away.", "The city, like much of the Southern Californian coast, is subject to a late spring/early summer weather phenomenon called \"June Gloom\".", "This involves overcast or foggy skies in the morning that yield to sun by early afternoon.Lake Hollywood in the Santa Monica MountainsMore recently, statewide droughts in California have further strained the city's water security.", "Downtown Los Angeles averages of precipitation annually, mainly occurring between November and March, generally in the form of moderate rain showers, but sometimes as heavy rainfall during winter storms.", "Rainfall is usually higher in the hills and coastal slopes of the mountains because of orographic uplift.", "Summer days are usually rainless.", "Rarely, an incursion of moist air from the south or east can bring brief thunderstorms in late summer, especially to the mountains.", "The coast gets slightly less rainfall, while the inland and mountain areas get considerably more.", "Years of average rainfall are rare.", "The usual pattern is a year-to-year variability, with a short string of dry years of rainfall, followed by one or two wet years with more than .", "Wet years are usually associated with warm water El Niño conditions in the Pacific, dry years with cooler water La Niña episodes.", "A series of rainy days can bring floods to the lowlands and mudslides to the hills, especially after wildfires have denuded the slopes.Venice Beach on the South Coast of CaliforniaBoth freezing temperatures and snowfall are extremely rare in the city basin and along the coast, with the last occurrence of a reading at the downtown station being January 29, 1979; freezing temperatures occur nearly every year in valley locations while the mountains within city limits typically receive snowfall every winter.", "The greatest snowfall recorded in downtown Los Angeles was on January 15, 1932.While the most recent snowfall occurred in February 2019, the first snowfall since 1962, with snow falling in areas adjacent to Los Angeles as recently as January 2021.Brief, localized instances of hail can occur on rare occasions, but are more common than snowfall.", "At the official downtown station, the highest recorded temperature is on September 27, 2010, while the lowest is , on January 4, 1949.Within the City of Los Angeles, the highest temperature ever officially recorded is , on September 6, 2020, at the weather station at Pierce College in the San Fernando Valley neighborhood of Woodland Hills.", "During autumn and winter, Santa Ana winds sometimes bring much warmer and drier conditions to Los Angeles, and raise wildfire risk.=== Environmental issues ===Owing to geography, heavy reliance on automobiles, and the Los Angeles/Long Beach port complex, Los Angeles suffers from air pollution in the form of smog.", "The Los Angeles Basin and the San Fernando Valley are susceptible to atmospheric inversion, which holds in the exhausts from road vehicles, airplanes, locomotives, shipping, manufacturing, and other sources.", "The percentage of small particle pollution (the kind that penetrates into the lungs) coming from vehicles in the city can get as high as 55 percent.Viewable smog in Los Angeles in December 2005The smog season lasts from approximately May to October.", "While other large cities rely on rain to clear smog, Los Angeles gets only of rain each year: pollution accumulates over many consecutive days.", "Issues of air quality in Los Angeles and other major cities led to the passage of early national environmental legislation, including the Clean Air Act.", "When the act was passed, California was unable to create a State Implementation Plan that would enable it to meet the new air quality standards, largely because of the level of pollution in Los Angeles generated by older vehicles.", "More recently, the state of California has led the nation in working to limit pollution by mandating low-emission vehicles.", "Smog is expected to continue to drop in the coming years because of aggressive steps to reduce it, which include electric and hybrid cars, improvements in mass transit, and other measures.The number of Stage 1 smog alerts in Los Angeles has declined from over 100 per year in the 1970s to almost zero in the new millennium.", "Despite improvement, the 2006 and 2007 annual reports of the American Lung Association ranked the city as the most polluted in the country with short-term particle pollution and year-round particle pollution.", "In 2008, the city was ranked the second most polluted and again had the highest year-round particulate pollution.", "The city met its goal of providing 20 percent of the city's power from renewable sources in 2010.The American Lung Association's 2013 survey ranks the metro area as having the nation's worst smog, and fourth in both short-term and year-round pollution amounts.Los Angeles is also home to the nation's largest urban oil field.", "There are more than 700 active oil wells within of homes, churches, schools and hospitals in the city, a situation about which the EPA has voiced serious concerns.The city has an urban population of bobcats (''Lynx rufus'').", "Mange is a common problem in this population.", "Although Serieys ''et al.''", "2014 find selection of immune genetics at several loci they do not demonstrate that this produces a real difference which helps the bobcats to survive future mange outbreaks." ], [ "Demographics", "The 2010 U.S. census reported Los Angeles had a population of 3,792,621.The population density was .", "The age distribution was 874,525 people (23.1%) under 18, 434,478 people (11.5%) from 18 to 24, 1,209,367 people (31.9%) from 25 to 44, 877,555 people (23.1%) from 45 to 64, and 396,696 people (10.5%) who were 65 or older.", "The median age was 34.1 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 99.2 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.6 males.There were 1,413,995 housing units—up from 1,298,350 during 2005–2009—at an average density of , of which 503,863 (38.2%) were owner-occupied, and 814,305 (61.8%) were occupied by renters.", "The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.1%; the rental vacancy rate was 6.1%.", "1,535,444 people (40.5% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 2,172,576 people (57.3%) lived in rental housing units.According to the 2010 United States Census, Los Angeles had a median household income of $49,497, with 22.0% of the population living below the federal poverty line.=== Race and ethnicity ===Racial and ethnic composition19401970199020102020Hispanic or Latino (of any race)7.1%17.1%39.9%48.5%46.9%White (non-Hispanic)86.3%61.1%37.3%28.7%28.9%Asian (non-Hispanic)2.2%3.6%9.8%11.1%11.7%Black or African American (non-Hispanic)4.2%17.9%14.0%9.2%8.3%Other (non-Hispanic)N/AN/A0.1%0.3%0.7%Two or more races (non-Hispanic)N/AN/AN/A2.0%3.3%According to the 2010 census, the racial makeup of Los Angeles included: 1,888,158 Whites (49.8%), 365,118 African Americans (9.6%), 28,215 Native Americans (0.7%), 426,959 Asians (11.3%), 5,577 Pacific Islanders (0.1%), 902,959 from other races (23.8%), and 175,635 (4.6%) from two or more races.", "Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 1,838,822 persons (48.5%).", "Los Angeles is home to people from more than 140 countries speaking 224 different identified languages.", "Ethnic enclaves like Chinatown, Historic Filipinotown, Koreatown, Little Armenia, Little Ethiopia, Tehrangeles, Little Tokyo, Little Bangladesh, and Thai Town provide examples of the polyglot character of Los Angeles.Los Angeles County census tractsNon-Hispanic Whites were 28.7% of the population in 2010, compared to 86.3% in 1940.The majority of the Non-Hispanic White population is living in areas along the Pacific coast as well as in neighborhoods near and on the Santa Monica Mountains from the Pacific Palisades to Los Feliz.Mexican ancestry makes up the largest ethnic group of Hispanics at 31.9% of the city's population, followed by those of Salvadoran (6.0%) and Guatemalan (3.6%) heritage.", "The Hispanic population has a long established Mexican-American and Central American community and is spread throughout the entire city of Los Angeles and its metropolitan area.", "It is most heavily concentrated in regions around Downtown as East Los Angeles, Northeast Los Angeles and Westlake.", "Furthermore, a vast majority of residents in neighborhoods in eastern South Los Angeles towards Downey are of Hispanic origin.Map of racial and ethnic distribution in Los Angeles as of the 2010 U.S. Census.", "Each dot is 25 people: The largest Asian ethnic groups are Filipinos (3.2%) and Koreans (2.9%), which have their own established ethnic enclaves—Koreatown in the Wilshire Center and Historic Filipinotown.", "Chinese people, which make up 1.8% of Los Angeles's population, reside mostly outside of Los Angeles city limits and rather in the San Gabriel Valley of eastern Los Angeles County, but make a sizable presence in the city, notably in Chinatown.", "Chinatown and Thaitown are also home to many Thais and Cambodians, which make up 0.3% and 0.1% of Los Angeles's population, respectively.", "The Japanese comprise 0.9% of the city's population and have an established Little Tokyo in the city's downtown, and another significant community of Japanese Americans is in the Sawtelle district of West Los Angeles.", "Vietnamese make up 0.5% of Los Angeles's population.", "Indians make up 0.9% of the city's population.", "Los Angeles is also home to Armenians, Assyrians, and Iranians, many of whom live in enclaves like Little Armenia and Tehrangeles.African Americans have been the predominant ethnic group in South Los Angeles, which has emerged as the largest African-American community in the western United States since the 1960s.", "The neighborhoods of South Los Angeles with highest concentration of African Americans include Crenshaw, Baldwin Hills, Leimert Park, Hyde Park, Gramercy Park, Manchester Square and Watts.", "Apart from South Los Angeles, neighborhoods in the Central region of Los Angeles, as Mid-City and Mid-Wilshire have a moderate concentration of African Americans as well.", "There is a sizeable Eritrean and Ethiopian community in the Fairfax region.Los Angeles has the second-largest Mexican, Armenian, Salvadoran, Filipino and Guatemalan populations by city in the world, the third-largest Canadian population in the world, and has the largest Japanese, Iranian/Persian, Cambodian and Romani (Gypsy) populations in the country.", "The Italian community is concentrated in San Pedro.Most of Los Angeles' foreign-born population were born in Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, the Philippines and South Korea.=== Religion ===According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, Christianity is the most prevalently practiced religion in Los Angeles (65%).", "The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles is the largest archdiocese in the country.", "Cardinal Roger Mahony, as the archbishop, oversaw construction of the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, which opened in September 2002 in Downtown Los Angeles.In 2011, the once common, but ultimately lapsed, custom of conducting a procession and Mass in honor of Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles, in commemoration of the founding of the City of Los Angeles in 1781, was revived by the Queen of Angels Foundation and its founder Mark Albert, with the support of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles as well as several civic leaders.", "The recently revived custom is a continuation of the original processions and Masses that commenced on the first anniversary of the founding of Los Angeles in 1782 and continued for nearly a century thereafter.St.", "Vincent de Paul Church, a parish of the Archdiocese of Los AngelesWith 621,000 Jews in the metropolitan area, the region has the second-largest population of Jews in the United States, after New York City.", "Many of Los Angeles's Jews now live on the Westside and in the San Fernando Valley, though Boyle Heights once had a large Jewish population prior to World War II due to restrictive housing covenants.", "Major Orthodox Jewish neighborhoods include Hancock Park, Pico-Robertson, and Valley Village, while Jewish Israelis are well represented in the Encino and Tarzana neighborhoods, and Persian Jews in Beverly Hills.", "Many varieties of Judaism are represented in the greater Los Angeles area, including Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist.", "The Breed Street Shul in East Los Angeles, built in 1923, was the largest synagogue west of Chicago in its early decades; it is no longer in daily use as a synagogue and is being converted to a museum and community center.", "The Kabbalah Centre also has a presence in the city.The International Church of the Foursquare Gospel was founded in Los Angeles by Aimee Semple McPherson in 1923 and remains headquartered there to this day.", "For many years, the church convened at Angelus Temple, which, at its construction, was one of the largest churches in the country.Wilshire Boulevard Temple is one of the largest synagogues in LA.Los Angeles has had a rich and influential Protestant tradition.", "The first Protestant service in Los Angeles was a Methodist meeting held in a private home in 1850 and the oldest Protestant church still operating, First Congregational Church, was founded in 1867.In the early 1900s the Bible Institute Of Los Angeles published the founding documents of the Christian Fundamentalist movement and the Azusa Street Revival launched Pentecostalism.", "The Metropolitan Community Church also had its origins in the Los Angeles area.", "Important churches in the city include First Presbyterian Church of Hollywood, Bel Air Presbyterian Church, First African Methodist Episcopal Church of Los Angeles, West Angeles Church of God in Christ, Second Baptist Church, Crenshaw Christian Center, McCarty Memorial Christian Church, and First Congregational Church.Second Church of Christ, ScientistThe Los Angeles California Temple, the second-largest temple operated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, is on Santa Monica Boulevard in the Westwood neighborhood of Los Angeles.", "Dedicated in 1956, it was the first temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints built in California and it was the largest in the world when completed.The Hollywood region of Los Angeles also has several significant headquarters, churches, and the Celebrity Center of Scientology.Because of Los Angeles's large multi-ethnic population, a wide variety of faiths are practiced, including Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Sikhism, Baháʼí, various Eastern Orthodox Churches, Sufism, Shintoism, Taoism, Confucianism, Chinese folk religion and countless others.", "Immigrants from Asia for example, have formed a number of significant Buddhist congregations making the city home to the greatest variety of Buddhists in the world.", "The first Buddhist joss house was founded in the city in 1875.Atheism and other secular beliefs are also common, as the city is the largest in the Western U.S. Unchurched Belt.=== Homelessness ===Homeless tents outside Los Angeles City Hall, 2021As of January 2020, there are 41,290 homeless people in the City of Los Angeles, comprising roughly 62% of the homeless population of LA County.", "This is an increase of 14.2% over the previous year (with a 12.7% increase in the overall homeless population of LA County).", "The epicenter of homelessness in Los Angeles is the Skid Row neighborhood, which contains 8,000 homeless people, one of the largest stable populations of homeless people in the United States.", "The increased homeless population in Los Angeles has been attributed to lack of housing affordability and to substance abuse.", "Almost 60 percent of the 82,955 people who became newly homeless in 2019 said their homelessness was because of economic hardship.", "In Los Angeles, black people are roughly four times more likely to experience homelessness." ], [ "Economy", "Los Angeles County in 2015The economy of Los Angeles is driven by international trade, entertainment (television, motion pictures, video games, music recording, and production), aerospace, technology, petroleum, fashion, apparel, and tourism.", "Other significant industries include finance, telecommunications, law, healthcare, and transportation.", "In the 2017 Global Financial Centres Index, Los Angeles was ranked the 19th most competitive financial center in the world and sixth most competitive in the U.S. after New York City, San Francisco, Chicago, Boston, and Washington, D.C.Of the five major film studios, only Paramount Pictures is within Los Angeles' city limits; it is located in the so-called Thirty-Mile Zone of entertainment headquarters in Southern California.Los Angeles is the largest manufacturing center in the United States.", "The contiguous ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach together comprise the busiest port in the United States by some measures and the fifth busiest port in the world, vital to trade within the Pacific Rim.The combined Port of Los Angeles-Port of Long Beach is the fifth-busiest port in the world.The Los Angeles metropolitan area has a gross metropolitan product of over $1.0 trillion (), making it the third-largest economic metropolitan area in the world, after New York and Tokyo.", "Los Angeles has been classified an \"alpha world city\" according to a 2012 study by a group at Loughborough University.The Department of Cannabis Regulation enforces cannabis legislation after the legalization of the sale and distribution of cannabis in 2016., more than 300 existing cannabis businesses (both retailers and their suppliers) have been granted approval to operate in what is considered the nation's largest market., Los Angeles is home to three Fortune 500 companies: AECOM, CBRE Group, and Reliance Steel & Aluminum Co. Other companies headquartered in Los Angeles and the surrounding metropolitan area include The Aerospace Corporation, California Pizza Kitchen, Capital Group Companies, Deluxe Entertainment Services Group, Dine Brands Global, DreamWorks Animation, Dollar Shave Club, Fandango Media, Farmers Insurance Group, Forever 21, Hulu, Panda Express, SpaceX, Ubisoft Film & Television, The Walt Disney Company, Universal Pictures, Warner Bros., Warner Music Group, and Trader Joe's.Downtown Los Angeles is the central business district of the city.+Largest non-government employers in Los Angeles County, June 2022RankEmployerEmployees1Kaiser Permanente40,3032University of Southern California22,7353Northrop Grumman Corp.18,0004Cedars-Sinai Medical Center16,6595Target Corp.15,8886Allied Universal15,3267Providence Health and Services Southern California14,9358Ralphs/Food 4 Less (Kroger Co. Division)14,0009Walmart14,00010Walt Disney Co.12,200" ], [ "Arts and culture", "Plaza de Los Ángeles near Calle OlveraLos Angeles is often billed as the creative capital of the world because one in every six of its residents works in a creative industry and there are more artists, writers, filmmakers, actors, dancers and musicians living and working in Los Angeles than any other city at any other time in world history.", "The city is also known for its prolific murals.=== Landmarks ===El Cabrillo, a Spanish Revival style National Historic LandmarkThe architecture of Los Angeles is influenced by its Spanish, Mexican, and American roots.", "Popular styles in the city include Spanish Colonial Revival style, Mission Revival style, California Churrigueresque style, Mediterranean Revival style, Art Deco style, and Mid-Century Modern style, among others.Important landmarks in Los Angeles include the Hollywood Sign, Walt Disney Concert Hall, Capitol Records Building, the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, Angels Flight, Grauman's Chinese Theatre, Dolby Theatre, Griffith Observatory, Getty Center, Getty Villa, Stahl House, the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, L.A. Live, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Venice Canal Historic District and boardwalk, Theme Building, Bradbury Building, U.S. Bank Tower, Wilshire Grand Center, Hollywood Boulevard, Los Angeles City Hall, Hollywood Bowl, battleship , Watts Towers, Staples Center, Dodger Stadium, and Olvera Street.=== Movies and the performing arts ===Grauman's Chinese Theatre on the Hollywood Walk of FameThe performing arts play a major role in Los Angeles's cultural identity.", "According to the USC Stevens Institute for Innovation, \"there are more than 1,100 annual theatrical productions and 21 openings every week.\"", "The Los Angeles Music Center is \"one of the three largest performing arts centers in the nation\", with more than 1.3 million visitors per year.", "The Walt Disney Concert Hall, centerpiece of the Music Center, is home to the prestigious Los Angeles Philharmonic.", "Notable organizations such as Center Theatre Group, the Los Angeles Master Chorale, and the Los Angeles Opera are also resident companies of the Music Center.", "Talent is locally cultivated at premier institutions such as the Colburn School and the USC Thornton School of Music.Hollywood Bowl in Hollywood HillsThe city's Hollywood neighborhood has been recognized as the center of the motion picture industry, having held this distinction since the early 20th century, and the Los Angeles area is also associated with being the center of the television industry.", "The city is home to major film studios as well as major record labels.", "Los Angeles plays host to the annual Academy Awards, the Primetime Emmy Awards, the Grammy Awards as well as many other entertainment industry awards shows.", "Los Angeles is the site of the USC School of Cinematic Arts which is the oldest film school in the United States.=== Museums and galleries ===The Getty Villa is one of the two campuses of the J. Paul Getty Museum, alongside the Getty Center.There are 841 museums and art galleries in Los Angeles County, more museums per capita than any other city in the U.S.", "Some of the notable museums are the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (the largest art museum in the Western United States), the Getty Center (part of the J. Paul Getty Trust, the world's wealthiest art institution), the Petersen Automotive Museum, the Huntington Library, the Natural History Museum, the Battleship Iowa, The Broad, which houses over 2,000 works of contemporary art and the Museum of Contemporary Art.", "A significant number of art galleries are on Gallery Row, and tens of thousands attend the monthly Downtown Art Walk there.===Libraries===Los Angeles Central Library\|219x219pxThe Los Angeles Public Library system operates 72 public libraries in the city.", "Enclaves of unincorporated areas are served by branches of the County of Los Angeles Public Library, many of which are within walking distance to residents.=== Cuisine ===Los Angeles' food culture is a fusion of global cuisine brought on by the city's rich immigrant history and population.", "As of 2022, the Michelin Guide recognized 10 restaurants granting 2 restaurants two stars and eight restaurants one star.Latin American immigrants, particularly Mexican immigrants, brought tacos, burritos, quesadillas, tortas, tamales, and enchiladas served from food trucks and stands, taquerias, and cafés.", "Asian restaurants, many immigrant-owned, exist throughout the city with hotspots in Chinatown, Koreatown, and Little Tokyo.", "Los Angeles also carries an outsized offering of vegan, vegetarian, and plant-based options." ], [ "Sports", "Los Angeles Memorial ColiseumLos Angeles and its metropolitan area are the home of eleven top-level professional sports teams, several of which play in neighboring communities but use Los Angeles in their name.", "These teams include the Los Angeles Dodgers and Los Angeles Angels of Major League Baseball (MLB), the Los Angeles Rams and Los Angeles Chargers of the National Football League (NFL), the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Clippers of the National Basketball Association (NBA), the Los Angeles Kings and Anaheim Ducks of the National Hockey League (NHL), the Los Angeles Galaxy and Los Angeles FC of Major League Soccer (MLS), and the Los Angeles Sparks of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA).Other notable sports teams include the UCLA Bruins and the USC Trojans in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), both of which are Division I teams in the Pac-12 Conference, but will soon be moving to the Big Ten Conference.Dodger Stadium, home of the LA Dodgers of Major League BaseballLos Angeles is the second-largest city in the United States but hosted no NFL team between 1995 and 2015.At one time, the Los Angeles area hosted two NFL teams: the Rams and the Raiders.", "Both left the city in 1995, with the Rams moving to St. Louis, and the Raiders moving back to their original home of Oakland.", "After 21 seasons in St. Louis, on January 12, 2016, the NFL announced the Rams would be moving back to Los Angeles for the 2016 NFL season with its home games played at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum for four seasons.", "Prior to 1995, the Rams played their home games in the Coliseum from 1946 to 1979 which made them the first professional sports team to play in Los Angeles, and then moved to Anaheim Stadium from 1980 until 1994.The San Diego Chargers announced on January 12, 2017, that they would also relocate back to Los Angeles (the first since its inaugural season in 1960) and become the Los Angeles Chargers beginning in the 2017 NFL season and played at Dignity Health Sports Park in Carson, California for three seasons.", "The Rams and the Chargers would soon move to the newly built SoFi Stadium, located in nearby Inglewood during the 2020 season.Crypto.com Arena, home to the Los Angeles Lakers, Los Angeles Clippers, Los Angeles Kings, and Los Angeles SparksLos Angeles boasts a number of sports venues, including Dodger Stadium, the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, BMO Stadium and the Crypto.com Arena.", "The Forum, SoFi Stadium, Dignity Health Sports Park, the Rose Bowl, Angel Stadium, and the Honda Center are also in adjacent cities and cities in Los Angeles's metropolitan area.Los Angeles has twice hosted the Summer Olympic Games: in 1932 and in 1984, and will host the games for a third time in 2028.Los Angeles will be the third city after London (1908, 1948 and 2012) and Paris (1900, 1924 and 2024) to host the Olympic Games three times.", "When the tenth Olympic Games were hosted in 1932, the former 10th Street was renamed Olympic Blvd.", "Los Angeles also hosted the Deaflympics in 1985 and Special Olympics World Summer Games in 2015.BMO Stadium, home of Los Angeles FC of Major League SoccerEight NFL Super Bowls were also held in the city and its surrounding areas - two at the Memorial Coliseum (the first Super Bowl, I and VII), five at the Rose Bowl in suburban Pasadena (XI, XIV, XVII, XXI, and XXVII), and one at the suburban Inglewood (LVI).", "The Rose Bowl also hosts an annual and highly prestigious NCAA college football game called the Rose Bowl, which happens every New Year's Day.Los Angeles also hosted eight FIFA World Cup soccer games at the Rose Bowl in 1994, including the final, where Brazil won.", "The Rose Bowl also hosted four matches in the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup, including the final, where the United States won against China on penalty kicks.", "This was the game where Brandi Chastain took her shirt off after she scored the tournament-winning penalty kick, creating an iconic image.", "Los Angeles will be one of eleven U.S. host cities for the 2026 FIFA World Cup with matches set to be held at SoFi Stadium.Los Angeles is one of six North American cities to have won championships in all five of its major leagues (MLB, NFL, NHL, NBA and MLS), having completed the feat with the Kings' 2012 Stanley Cup title." ], [ "Government", "Los Angeles City Hall, built in 1928, houses the Mayor of Los Angeles and the Los Angeles City Council.Los Angeles is a charter city as opposed to a general law city.", "The current charter was adopted on June 8, 1999, and has been amended many times.", "The elected government consists of the Los Angeles City Council and the mayor of Los Angeles, which operate under a mayor–council government, as well as the city attorney (not to be confused with the district attorney, a county office) and controller.", "The mayor is Karen Bass.", "There are 15 city council districts.The city has many departments and appointed officers, including the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), the Los Angeles Board of Police Commissioners, the Los Angeles Fire Department (LAFD), the Housing Authority of the City of Los Angeles (HACLA), the Los Angeles Department of Transportation (LADOT), and the Los Angeles Public Library (LAPL).The charter of the City of Los Angeles ratified by voters in 1999 created a system of advisory neighborhood councils that would represent the diversity of stakeholders, defined as those who live, work or own property in the neighborhood.", "The neighborhood councils are relatively autonomous and spontaneous in that they identify their own boundaries, establish their own bylaws, and elect their own officers.", "There are about 90 neighborhood councils.Residents of Los Angeles elect supervisors for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th supervisorial districts.=== Federal and state representation ===In the California State Assembly, Los Angeles is split between fourteen districts.", "In the California State Senate, the city is split between eight districts.", "In the United States House of Representatives, it is split among nine congressional districts." ], [ "Crime", "LAPD on May Day 2006 in front of the new Caltrans District 7 HeadquartersIn 1992, the city of Los Angeles recorded 1,092 murders.", "Los Angeles experienced a significant decline in crime in the 1990s and late 2000s and reached a 50-year low in 2009 with 314 homicides.", "This is a rate of 7.85 per 100,000 population—a major decrease from 1980 when a homicide rate of 34.2 per 100,000 was reported.", "This included 15 officer-involved shootings.", "One shooting led to the death of a SWAT team member, Randal Simmons, the first in LAPD's history.", "Los Angeles in the year of 2013 totaled 251 murders, a decrease of 16 percent from the previous year.", "Police speculate the drop resulted from a number of factors, including young people spending more time online.", "In 2021, murders rose to the highest level since 2008 and there were 348.In 2015, it was revealed that the LAPD had been under-reporting crime for eight years, making the crime rate in the city appear much lower than it really was.The Dragna crime family and Mickey Cohen dominated organized crime in the city during the Prohibition era and reached its peak during the 1940s and 1950s with the \"Battle of Sunset Strip\" as part of the American Mafia, but has gradually declined since then with the rise of various black and Hispanic gangs in the late 1960s and early 1970s.According to the Los Angeles Police Department, the city is home to 45,000 gang members, organized into 450 gangs.", "Among them are the Crips and Bloods, which are both African American street gangs that originated in the South Los Angeles region.", "Latino street gangs such as the Sureños, a Mexican American street gang, and Mara Salvatrucha, which has mainly members of Salvadoran descent, as well as other Central American descents, all originated in Los Angeles.", "This has led to the city being referred to as the \"Gang Capital of America\"." ], [ "Education", "=== Colleges and universities ===University of California, Los AngelesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaCalifornia State University, Los AngelesAmerican Film InstituteLoyola Marymount UniversityOccidental CollegeThere are three public universities within the city limits: California State University, Los Angeles (CSULA), California State University, Northridge (CSUN) and University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).Private colleges in the city include:* American Film Institute Conservatory* Alliant International University* American Academy of Dramatic Arts (Los Angeles Campus)* American Jewish University* Abraham Lincoln University* The American Musical and Dramatic Academy – Los Angeles campus* Antioch University's Los Angeles campus* Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science* Colburn School* Columbia College Hollywood* Emerson College (Los Angeles Campus)* Emperor's College* Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising's Los Angeles campus (FIDM)* Los Angeles Film School* Loyola Marymount University (LMU is also the parent university of Loyola Law School in Los Angeles)* Mount St. Mary's College* National University of California* Occidental College (\"Oxy\")* Otis College of Art and Design (Otis)* Southern California Institute of Architecture (SCI-Arc)* Southwestern Law School* University of Southern California (USC)* Woodbury UniversityThe community college system consists of nine campuses governed by the trustees of the Los Angeles Community College District:* East Los Angeles College (ELAC)* Los Angeles City College (LACC)* Los Angeles Harbor College* Los Angeles Mission College* Los Angeles Pierce College* Los Angeles Valley College (LAVC)* Los Angeles Southwest College* Los Angeles Trade-Technical College* West Los Angeles CollegeThere are numerous additional colleges and universities outside the city limits in the Greater Los Angeles area, including the Claremont Colleges consortium, which includes the most selective liberal arts colleges in the U.S., and the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), one of the top STEM-focused research institutions in the world.===Schools===Los Angeles Unified School District serves almost all of the city of Los Angeles, as well as several surrounding communities, with a student population around 800,000.After Proposition 13 was approved in 1978, urban school districts had considerable trouble with funding.", "LAUSD has become known for its underfunded, overcrowded and poorly maintained campuses, although its 162 Magnet schools help compete with local private schools.Several small sections of Los Angeles are in the Inglewood Unified School District, and the Las Virgenes Unified School District.", "The Los Angeles County Office of Education operates the Los Angeles County High School for the Arts." ], [ "Media", "The Hollywood Sign is a prominent symbol of the American film industry.The Los Angeles metro area is the second-largest broadcast designated market area in the U.S. (after New York) with 5,431,140 homes (4.956% of the U.S.), which is served by a wide variety of local AM and FM radio and television stations.", "Los Angeles and New York City are the only two media markets to have seven VHF allocations assigned to them.The major daily English-language newspaper in the area is the ''Los Angeles Times''.", "''La Opinión'' is the city's major daily Spanish-language paper.", "''The Korea Times'' is the city's major daily Korean-language paper while ''The World Journal'' is the city and county's major Chinese newspaper.", "The ''Los Angeles Sentinel'' is the city's major African-American weekly paper, boasting the largest African-American readership in the Western United States.", "''Investor's Business Daily'' is distributed from its LA corporate offices, which are headquartered in Playa del Rey.LA Times'' headquartersAs part of the region's aforementioned creative industry, the Big Four major broadcast television networks, ABC, CBS, FOX, and NBC, all have production facilities and offices throughout various areas of Los Angeles.", "All four major broadcast television networks, plus major Spanish-language networks Telemundo and Univision, also own and operate stations that both serve the Los Angeles market and serve as each network's West Coast flagship station: ABC's KABC-TV (Channel 7), CBS's KCBS-TV (Channel 2), Fox's KTTV-TV (Channel 11), NBC's KNBC-TV (Channel 4), MyNetworkTV's KCOP-TV (Channel 13), Telemundo's KVEA-TV (Channel 52), and Univision's KMEX-TV (Channel 34).", "The region also has four PBS stations, with KCET, re-joining the network as secondary affiliate in August 2019, after spending the previous eight years as the nation's largest independent public television station.", "KTBN (Channel 40) is the flagship station of the religious Trinity Broadcasting Network, based out of Santa Ana.", "A variety of independent television stations, such as KCAL-TV (Channel 9) and KTLA-TV (Channel 5), also operate in the area.Paramount Pictures StudiosThere are also a number of smaller regional newspapers, alternative weeklies and magazines, including the ''Los Angeles Register'', Los Angeles Community News, (which focuses on coverage of the greater Los Angeles area), ''Los Angeles Daily News'' (which focuses coverage on the San Fernando Valley), ''LA Weekly'', ''L.A.", "Record'' (which focuses coverage on the music scene in the Greater Los Angeles Area), ''Los Angeles Magazine'', the ''Los Angeles Business Journal'', the ''Los Angeles Daily Journal'' (legal industry paper), ''The Hollywood Reporter'', ''Variety'' (both entertainment industry papers), and ''Los Angeles Downtown News''.", "In addition to the major papers, numerous local periodicals serve immigrant communities in their native languages, including Armenian, English, Korean, Persian, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Hebrew, and Arabic.", "Many cities adjacent to Los Angeles also have their own daily newspapers whose coverage and availability overlaps with certain Los Angeles neighborhoods.", "Examples include ''The Daily Breeze'' (serving the South Bay), and ''The Long Beach Press-Telegram''.Los Angeles arts, culture and nightlife news is also covered by a number of local and national online guides, including ''Time Out Los Angeles'', ''Thrillist'', ''Kristin's List'', ''DailyCandy'', ''Diversity News Magazine'', ''LAist'', and ''Flavorpill''." ], [ "Infrastructure", "=== Transportation ======= Freeways ====Judge Harry Pregerson Interchange, connecting the Century Freeway (I-105) and the Harbor Freeway (I-110) in South LAThe city and the rest of the Los Angeles metropolitan area are served by an extensive network of freeways and highways.", "Texas Transportation Institute's annual Urban Mobility Report ranked Los Angeles area roads the most congested in the United States in 2019 as measured by annual delay per traveler, area residents experiencing a cumulative average of 119 hours waiting in traffic that year.", "Los Angeles was followed by San Francisco/Oakland, Washington, D.C., and Miami.", "Despite the congestion in the city, the mean daily travel time for commuters in Los Angeles is shorter than other major cities, including New York City, Philadelphia and Chicago.", "Los Angeles's mean travel time for work commutes in 2006 was 29.2 minutes, similar to those of San Francisco and Washington, D.C.The major highways that connect LA to the rest of the nation include Interstate 5, which runs south through San Diego to Tijuana in Mexico and north through Sacramento, Portland, and Seattle to the Canada–US border; Interstate 10, the southernmost east–west, coast-to-coast Interstate Highway in the United States, going to Jacksonville, Florida; and U.S. Route 101, which heads to the California Central Coast, San Francisco, the Redwood Empire, and the Oregon and Washington coasts.==== Buses ====Los Angeles Metro Bus operated by the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority.The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (LACMTA; branded as Metro) and other regional agencies provide a comprehensive bus system that covers Los Angeles County.", "While the Los Angeles Department of Transportation is responsible for contracting local and commuter bus services, the largest bus system in the city is operated by Metro.", "Called Los Angeles Metro Bus, the system consists of 117 routes (excluding Metro Busway) throughout Los Angeles County, with most routes following along a particular street in the city's street grid and run to or through Downtown Los Angeles.", "As of the third quarter of 2023, the system had an average ridership of approximately 692,500 per weekday, with a total of 197,950,700 riders in 2022.Metro also runs two Metro Busway lines, the G and J lines, which are bus rapid transit lines with stops and frequencies similar to those of Los Angeles's light rail system.There are also smaller regional systems that mainly serve specific cities or regions.", "For example, Big Blue Bus provides extensive service in Santa Monica, while Foothill Transit focuses on routes in the San Gabriel Valley.", "Los Angeles World Airports also runs two frequent FlyAway express bus routes (via freeways) from Los Angeles Union Station and Van Nuys to Los Angeles International Airport.While cash is accepted on all buses, the primary payment method for Los Angeles Metro Bus, Metro Busway, and 27 other regional bus agencies is a TAP card, a contactless stored-value card.", "According to the 2016 American Community Survey, 9.2% of working Los Angeles (city) residents made the journey to work via public transportation.==== Rail ====Map of the Los Angeles Metro Rail system (as of June 16, 2023).The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority also operate a subway and light rail system across Los Angeles and its county.", "The system is called Los Angeles Metro Rail and consists of the B and D subway lines, as well as the A, C, E, and K light rail lines.", "TAP cards are required for all Metro Rail trips.", "As of the third quarter of 2023, the city's subway system is the ninth busiest in the United States, and its light rail system is the country's second busiest.", "In 2022, the system had a ridership of 57,299,800, or about 189,200 per weekday, in the third quarter of 2023.Since the opening of the first line, the A Line, in 1990, the system has been extended significantly, with more extensions currently in progress.", "Today, the system serves numerous areas across the county on of rail, including Long Beach, Pasadena, Santa Monica, Norwalk, El Segundo, North Hollywood, Inglewood, and Downtown Los Angeles.", "As of 2023, there are 101 stations in the Metro Rail system.Metrolink passenger rail map, which stretches from Lancaster to Oceanside, with Union Station as the central hub.Los Angeles is also center of its county's commuter rail system, Metrolink, which links Los Angeles to Ventura, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, and San Diego Counties.", "The system consists of eight lines and 69 stations operating on of track.", "Metrolink averages 42,600 trips per weekday, the busiest line being the San Bernardino Line.", "Apart from Metrolink, Los Angeles is also connected to other cities by intercity passenger trains from Amtrak on five different lines.", "One of the lines is the Pacific Surfliner route which operates multiple daily round trips between San Diego and San Luis Obispo, California through Union Station.", "It is Amtrak's busiest line outside the Northeast Corridor.Union Station is served by Amtrak California, Metrolink, and Metro Rail.The main rail station in the city is Union Station which opened in 1939, and it is the largest passenger rail terminal in the Western United States.", "The station is a major regional train station for Amtrak, Metrolink and Metro Rail.", "The station is Amtrak's fifth busiest station, having 1.4 million Amtrak boardings and de-boardings in 2019.Union Station also offers access to Metro Bus, Greyhound, LAX FlyAway, and other buses from different agencies.==== Airports ====Los Angeles Intl.", "Airport (LAX) is the 4th busiest airport in the world.The main international and domestic airport serving Los Angeles is Los Angeles International Airport , commonly referred to by its airport code, '''LAX'''.", "It is located on the Westside of Los Angeles near the Sofi Stadium in Inglewood.Other major nearby commercial airports include:* Ontario International Airport, owned by the city of Ontario, CA; serves the Inland Empire.", "* Hollywood Burbank Airport, jointly owned by the cities of Burbank, Glendale, and Pasadena.", "Formerly known as Bob Hope Airport and Burbank Airport, the closest airport to Downtown Los Angeles serves the San Fernando, San Gabriel, and Antelope Valleys.", "* Long Beach Airport, serves the Long Beach/Harbor area.", "* John Wayne Airport of Orange County.One of the world's busiest general-aviation airports is also in Los Angeles: Van Nuys Airport .==== Seaports ====Vincent Thomas Bridge at Terminal Island in the Port of Los AngelesThe Port of Los Angeles is in San Pedro Bay in the San Pedro neighborhood, approximately south of Downtown.", "Also called Los Angeles Harbor and WORLDPORT LA, the port complex occupies of land and water along of waterfront.", "It adjoins the separate Port of Long Beach.The sea ports of the Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach together make up the ''Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor''.", "Together, both ports are the fifth busiest container port in the world, with a trade volume of over 14.2 million TEU's in 2008.Singly, the Port of Los Angeles is the busiest container port in the United States and the largest cruise ship center on the West Coast of the United States – The Port of Los Angeles's World Cruise Center served about 590,000 passengers in 2014.There are also smaller, non-industrial harbors along Los Angeles's coastline.", "The port includes four bridges: the Vincent Thomas Bridge, Henry Ford Bridge, Long Beach International Gateway Bridge, and Commodore Schuyler F. Heim Bridge.", "Passenger ferry service from San Pedro to the city of Avalon (and Two Harbors) on Santa Catalina Island is provided by Catalina Express." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "Sister cities", "LA City Hall displaying Los Angeles' sister citiesLos Angeles has 25 sister cities, listed chronologically by year joined:* Eilat, Israel (1959)* Nagoya, Japan (1959)* Salvador, Brazil (1962)* Bordeaux, France (1964)* Berlin, Germany (1967)* Lusaka, Zambia (1968)* Mexico City, Mexico (1969)* Auckland, New Zealand (1971)* Busan, South Korea (1971)* Mumbai, India (1972)* Tehran, Iran (1972)* Taipei, Taiwan (1979)* Guangzhou, China (1981)* Athens, Greece (1984)* Saint Petersburg, Russia (1984)* Vancouver, Canada (1986)* Giza, Egypt (1989)* Jakarta, Indonesia (1990)* Kaunas, Lithuania (1991)* Makati, Philippines (1992)* Split, Croatia (1993)* San Salvador, El Salvador (2005)* Beirut, Lebanon (2006)* Ischia, Campania, Italy (2006)* Yerevan, Armenia (2007)In addition, Los Angeles has the following \"friendship cities\":* Łódź, Poland* City of Melbourne, Australia* Manchester, United Kingdom* Tel Aviv, Israel" ], [ "See also", "* Largest cities in Southern California* Largest cities in the Americas* List of hotels in Los Angeles* List of largest houses in the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area* List of museums in Los Angeles* List of museums in Los Angeles County, California* List of music venues in Los Angeles* List of people from Los Angeles* List of tallest buildings in Los Angeles* National Register of Historic Places listings in Los Angeles, California* USS ''Los Angeles'', 4 ships (including 1 airship)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "=== General ===* Abu-Lughod, Janet L. ''New York, Chicago, Los Angeles: America's global cities'' (U of Minnesota Press, 1999).", ".", "online* Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds.", "''Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980'' (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980.online; see index at p. 409 for list.", "* * * * * * * === Architecture and urban theory ===* * * * * * === Race relations ===* * * * * === LGBT ===* * === Environment ===* * === Social movements ===* === Art and literature ===* " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lepus (constellation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lepus''' (, ) is a constellation lying just south of the celestial equator.", "Its name is Latin for hare.", "It is located below—immediately south—of Orion (the hunter), and is sometimes represented as a hare being chased by Orion or by Orion's hunting dogs.Although the hare does not represent any particular figure in Greek mythology, Lepus was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations." ], [ "History and mythology", "Lepus as seen in ''Urania's Mirror'' (1825)Lepus is most often represented as a hare being hunted by Orion, whose hunting dogs (Canis Major and Canis Minor) pursue it.", "The constellation is also associated with the Moon rabbit.Four stars of this constellation (α, β, γ, δ Lep) form a quadrilateral and are known as ''‘Arsh al-Jawzā''', \"the Throne of Jawzā'\" or ''Kursiyy al-Jawzā' al-Mu'akhkhar'', \"the Hindmost Chair of Jawzā'\" and ''al-Nihāl'', \"the Camels Quenching Their Thirst\" in Arabic." ], [ "Features", "===Stars===The constellation Lepus as it can be seen by the naked eyeThere are a fair number of bright stars, both single and double, in Lepus.", "Alpha Leporis, the brightest star of Lepus, is a white supergiant of magnitude 2.6, 1300 light-years from Earth.", "Its traditional name, Arneb (''أرنب'' ''’arnab''), means \"hare\" in Arabic.", "Beta Leporis, traditionally known as Nihal (Arabic for \"quenching their thirst\"), is a yellow giant of magnitude 2.8, 159 light-years from Earth.", "Gamma Leporis is a double star divisible in binoculars.", "The primary is a yellow star of magnitude 3.6, 29 light-years from Earth.", "The secondary is an orange star of magnitude 6.2.Delta Leporis is a yellow giant of magnitude 3.8, 112 light-years from Earth.", "Epsilon Leporis is an orange giant of magnitude 3.2, 227 light-years from Earth.", "Kappa Leporis is a double star divisible in medium aperture amateur telescopes, 560 light-years from Earth.", "The primary is a blue-white star of magnitude 4.4 and the secondary is a star of magnitude 7.4.There are several variable stars in Lepus.", "R Leporis is a Mira variable star.", "It is also called \"Hind's Crimson Star\" for its striking red color and because it was named for John Russell Hind.", "It varies in magnitude from a minimum of 9.8 to a maximum of 7.3, with a period of 420 days.", "R Leporis is at a distance of 1500 light-years.", "The color intensifies as the star brightens.", "It can be as dim as magnitude 12 and as bright as magnitude 5.5.T Leporis is also a Mira variable observed in detail by ESO's Very Large Telescope Interferometer.", "RX Leporis is a semi-regular red giant that has a period of 2 months.", "It has a minimum magnitude of 7.4 and a maximum magnitude of 5.0.===Deep-sky objects===There is one Messier object in Lepus, M79.It is a globular cluster of magnitude 8.0, 42,000 light-years from Earth.", "One of the few globular clusters visible in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere's winter, it is a Shapley class V cluster, which means that it has an intermediate concentration towards its center.", "It is often described as having a \"starfish\" shape.M79 was discovered in 1780 by Pierre Méchain." ], [ "See also", "Lepus (Chinese astronomy)List of star names in Lepus" ], [ "References", "===Inline citations======Sources referenced===* * * * * * Ridpath, Ian & Tirion, Wil (2007).", "''Stars and Planets Guide'', Collins, London.", ".", "Princeton University Press, Princeton.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Hundred metre virtual telescope captures unique detailed colour image — ESO's Organisational Release* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Lepus* Ian Ridpath's Star Tales – Lepus* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Lepus)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lupus (constellation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lupus''' is a constellation of the mid-Southern Sky.", "Its name is Latin for wolf.", "Lupus was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations but was long an asterism associated with the just westerly, larger constellation Centaurus." ], [ "History and mythology", "Lupus is located in the bottom-left corner of card 32 in ''Urania's Mirror'' (1825)In ancient times, the constellation was considered an asterism within Centaurus, and was considered to have been an arbitrary animal, killed, or about to be killed, on behalf of, or for, Centaurus.", "An alternative visualization, attested by Eratosthenes, saw this constellation as a wineskin held by Centaurus.", "It was not separated from Centaurus until Hipparchus of Bithynia named it ( meaning \"beast\") in the 2nd century BC.", "The Greek constellation is probably based on the Babylonian figure known as the Mad Dog (UR.IDIM).", "This was a strange hybrid creature that combined the head and torso of a man with the legs and tail of a lion (the cuneiform sign 'UR' simply refers to a large carnivore; lions, wolves and dogs are all included).", "It is often found in association with the sun god and another mythical being called the Bison-man, which is supposedly related to the Greek constellation of Centaurus.In Arab folk astronomy, Lupus, together with Centaurus were collectively called الشماريخ , meaning the dense branches of the date palm's fruit.Later, in Islamic Medieval astronomy, it was named السبع , which is a term used for any predatory wild beast (same as the Greek ), as a separate constellation, but drawn together with Centaurus.", "In some manuscripts of Al-Sufi's Book of Fixed Stars and celestial globes, it was drawn as a lion; in others, it is drawn as a wolf, both conforming to the ''Sab''' name.In Europe, no particular animal was associated with it until the Latin translation of Ptolemy's work identified it with the wolf." ], [ "Characteristics", "Lupus is bordered by six different constellations, although one of them (Hydra) merely touches at the corner.", "The other five are Scorpius (the scorpion), Norma (the right angle), Circinus (the compass), Libra (the balance scale), and Centaurus (the centaur).", "Covering 333.7 square degrees and 0.809% of the night sky, it ranks 46th of the 88 modern constellations.", "The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is ''Lup''.", "The official constellation boundaries are defined by a twelve-sided polygon (''illustrated in infobox'').", "In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and, while the declination coordinates are between −29.83° and −55.58°.", "The whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 34°N." ], [ "Features", "The constellation Lupus as it can be seen by the naked eye===Stars===Overall, there are 127 stars within the constellation's borders brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.In his book ''Star Names and Their Meanings'', R. H. Allen gave the names Yang Mun for Alpha Lupi, the brightest star in Lupus, and KeKwan for the blue giant Beta Lupi, both from Chinese.", "However, the first name is in error; both stars were part of a large Chinese constellation known in modern transliteration as Qíguān, the Imperial Guards.Most of the brightest stars in Lupus are massive members of the nearest OB association, Scorpius–Centaurus.Alpha Lupi is an ageing blue giant star of spectral type B1.5 III that is 460 ± 10 light-years distant from Earth.", "It is a Beta Cephei variable, pulsating in brightness by 0.03 of a magnitude every 7 hours and 6 minutes.===Deep-sky objects===Planetary nebula NGC 5882 (HST/NASA/ESA)Towards the north of the constellation are globular clusters NGC 5824 and NGC 5986, and close by the dark nebula B 228.To the south are two open clusters, NGC 5822 and NGC 5749, as well as globular cluster NGC 5927 on the eastern border with Norma.", "On the western border are two spiral galaxies and the Wolf–Rayet planetary nebula IC 4406, containing some of the hottest stars in existence.", "IC 4406, also called the Retina Nebula, is a cylindrical nebula at a distance of 5,000 light-years.", "It has dust lanes throughout its center.", "Another planetary nebula, NGC 5882, is towards the center of the constellation.", "The transiting exoplanet Lupus-TR-3b lies in this constellation.", "The historic supernova SN 1006 is described by various sources as appearing on April 30 to May 1, 1006, in the constellation of Lupus.ESO 274-1 is a spiral galaxy seen from edge-on that requires an amateur telescope with at least 12 inches of aperture to view.", "It can be found by using Lambda Lupi and Mu Lupi as markers, and can only be seen under very dark skies.", "It is 9 arcminutes by 0.7 arcminutes with a small, elliptical nucleus." ], [ "See also", "* SN 1006, a supernova widely observed in the year 1006, as well as the brightest stellar event in recorded history.", "* Chinese star names* Lupus in Chinese astronomy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===cited texts===* * Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007).", "''Stars and Planets Guide'', Collins, London.", ".", "Princeton University Press, Princeton.", "." ], [ "External links", "* The clickable Lupus* Ian Ridpath's Star Tales – Lupus* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Lupus)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lyra" ], [ "Introduction", ", from ; pronounced: ) is a small constellation.", "It is one of the 48 listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and is one of the modern 88 constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.", "Lyra was often represented on star maps as a vulture or an eagle carrying a lyre, and hence is sometimes referred to as '''Vultur Cadens''' or '''Aquila Cadens''' (\"Falling Vulture\" or \"Falling Eagle\"), respectively.", "Beginning at the north, Lyra is bordered by Draco, Hercules, Vulpecula, and Cygnus.", "Lyra is nearly overhead in temperate northern latitudes shortly after midnight at the start of summer.", "From the equator to about the 40th parallel south it is visible low in the northern sky during the same (thus winter) months.Vega, Lyra's brightest star, is one of the brightest stars in the night sky, and forms a corner of the famed Summer Triangle asterism.", "Beta Lyrae is the prototype of a class of binary stars known as Beta Lyrae variables.", "These binary stars are so close to each other that they become egg-shaped and material flows from one to the other.", "Epsilon Lyrae, known informally as the Double Double, is a complex multiple star system.", "Lyra also hosts the Ring Nebula, the second-discovered and best-known planetary nebula." ], [ "History", "Lyra can be seen on the right of this c. 1825 star map from ''300pxIn Greek mythology, Lyra represents the lyre of Orpheus.", "Orpheus's music was said to be so great that even inanimate objects such as rocks could be charmed.", "Joining Jason and the Argonauts, his music was able to quell the voices of the dangerous Sirens, who sang tempting songs to the Argonauts.At one point, Orpheus married Eurydice, a nymph.", "While fleeing from an attack by Aristaeus, she stepped on a snake that bit her, killing her.", "To reclaim her, Orpheus entered the Underworld, where the music from his lyre charmed Hades, the god of the Underworld.", "Hades relented and let Orpheus bring Eurydice back, on the condition that he never once look back until outside.", "Unfortunately, near the very end, Orpheus faltered and looked back, causing Eurydice to be left in the Underworld forever.", "Orpheus spent the rest of his life strumming his lyre while wandering aimlessly through the land, rejecting all marriage offers from women.There are two competing myths relating to the death of Orpheus.", "According to Eratosthenes, Orpheus failed to make a necessary sacrifice to Dionysus due to his regard for Apollo as the supreme deity instead.", "Dionysus then sent his followers to rip Orpheus apart.", "Ovid tells a rather different story, saying that women, in retribution for Orpheus's rejection of marriage offers, ganged up and threw stones and spears.", "At first, his music charmed them as well, but eventually their numbers and clamor overwhelmed his music and he was hit by the spears.", "Both myths then state that his lyre was placed in the sky by Zeus and Orpheus's bones were buried by the muses.Vega and its surrounding stars are also treated as a constellation in other cultures.", "The area corresponding to Lyra was seen by the Arabs as a vulture or an eagle diving with folded wings.", "In Wales, Lyra is known as King Arthur's Harp (''Talyn Arthur''), and King David's harp.", "The Persian Hafiz called it the Lyre of Zurah.It has been called the Manger of the Infant Saviour, Praesepe Salvatoris.", "In Australian Aboriginal astronomy, Lyra is known by the Boorong people in Victoria as the Malleefowl constellation.", "Lyra was known as Urcuchillay by the Incas and was worshipped as an animal deity." ], [ "Characteristics", "Lyra is bordered by Vulpecula to the south, Hercules to the west, Draco to the north, and Cygnus to the east.", "Covering 286.5 square degrees, it ranks 52nd of the 88 modern constellations in size.", "It appears prominently in the northern sky during the Northern Hemisphere's summer, and the whole constellation is visible for at least part of the year to observers north of latitude 42°S.", "Its main asterism consists of six stars, and 73 stars in total are brighter than magnitude 6.5.The constellation's boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a 17-sided polygon.", "In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between and .", "The International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted the three-letter abbreviation \"Lyr\" for the constellation in 1922." ], [ "Features", "The constellation Lyra as it can be seen by the naked eye.===Stars===The constellation Lyra, enhanced for color and contrast.", "Brightest five stars are labeled.German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters alpha through nu to label the most prominent stars in the constellation.", "English astronomer John Flamsteed observed and labelled two stars each as delta, epsilon, zeta and nu.", "He added pi and rho, not using xi and omicron as Bayer used these letters to denote Cygnus and Hercules on his map.The brightest star in the constellation is Vega (Alpha Lyrae), a main-sequence star of spectral type A0Va.", "Only 7.7 parsecs distant, Vega is a Delta Scuti variable, varying between magnitudes −0.02 and 0.07 over 0.2 days.", "On average, it is the second-brightest star of the northern hemisphere (after Arcturus) and the fifth-brightest star in all, surpassed only by Arcturus, Alpha Centauri, Canopus, and Sirius.", "Vega was the pole star in the year 12,000 BCE, and will again become the pole star around 14,000 CE.Vega is one of the most magnificent of all stars, and has been called \"arguably the next most important star in the sky after the Sun\".", "Vega was the first star other than the Sun to be photographed, as well as the first to have a clear spectrum recorded, showing absorption lines for the first time.", "The star was the first single main-sequence star other than the Sun to be known to emit X-rays, and is surrounded by a circumstellar debris disk, similar to the Kuiper Belt.", "Vega forms one corner of the famous Summer Triangle asterism; along with Altair and Deneb, these three stars form a prominent triangle during the northern hemisphere summer.Vega also forms one vertex of a much smaller triangle, along with Epsilon and Zeta Lyrae.", "Zeta forms a wide binary star visible in binoculars, consisting of an Am star and an F-type subgiant.", "The Am star has an additional close companion, bringing the total number of stars in the system to three.", "Epsilon is a more famous wide binary that can even be separated by the naked eye under excellent conditions.", "Both components are themselves close binaries which can be seen with telescopes to consist of A- and F-type stars, and a faint star was recently found to orbit component C as well, for a total of five stars.In contrast to Zeta and Epsilon Lyrae, Delta Lyrae is an optical double, with the two stars simply lying along the same line of sight east of Zeta.", "The brighter and closer of the two, Delta2 Lyrae, is a 4th-magnitude red bright giant that varies semiregularly by around 0.2 magnitudes with a dominant period of 79 days, while the fainter Delta1 Lyrae is a spectroscopic binary consisting of a B-type primary and an unknown secondary.", "Both systems, however, have very similar radial velocities, and are the two brightest members of a sparse open cluster known as the Delta Lyrae cluster.South of Delta is Sulafat (Gamma Lyrae), a blue giant and the second-brightest star in the constellation.", "Around 190 parsecs distant, it has been referred to as a \"superficially normal\" star.The final star forming the lyre's figure is Sheliak (Beta Lyrae), also a binary composed of a blue bright giant and an early B-type star.", "In this case, the stars are so close together that the larger giant is overflowing its Roche lobe and transferring material to the secondary, forming a semidetached system.", "The secondary, originally the less massive of the two, has accreted so much mass that it is now substantially more massive, albeit smaller, than the primary, and is surrounded by a thick accretion disk.", "The plane of the orbit is aligned with Earth and the system thus shows eclipses, dropping nearly a full magnitude from its 3rd-magnitude baseline every 13 days, although its period is increasing by around 19 seconds per year.", "It is the prototype of the Beta Lyrae variables, eclipsing semidetached binaries of early spectral types in which there are no exact onsets of eclipses, but rather continuous changes in brightness.A long-exposure image of LyraAnother easy-to-spot variable is the bright R Lyrae, north of the main asterism.", "Also known as 13 Lyrae, it is a 4th-magnitude red giant semiregular variable that varies by several tenths of a magnitude.", "Its periodicity is complex, with several different periods of varying lengths, most notably one of 46 days and one of 64 days.", "Even further north is FL Lyrae, a much fainter 9th-magnitude Algol variable that drops by half a magnitude every 2.18 days during the primary eclipse.", "Both components are main-sequence stars, the primary being late F-type and the secondary late G-type.", "The system was one of the first main-sequence eclipsing binaries containing G-type star to have its properties known as well as the better-studied early-type eclipsing binaries.At the very northernmost edge of the constellation is the even fainter V361 Lyrae, an eclipsing binary that does not easily fall into one of the traditional classes, with features of Beta Lyrae, W Ursae Majoris, and cataclysmic variables.", "It may be a representative of a very brief phase in which the system is transitioning into a contact binary.", "It can be found less than a degree away from the naked-eye star 16 Lyrae, a 5th-magnitude A-type subgiant located around 37 parsecs distant.The brightest star not included in the asterism and the westernmost cataloged by Bayer or Flamsteed is Kappa Lyrae, a typical red giant around 73 parsecs distant.", "Similar bright orange or red giants include the 4th-magnitude Theta Lyrae, Lambda Lyrae, and HD 173780.Lambda is located just south of Gamma, Theta is positioned in the east, and HD 173780, the brightest star in the constellation with no Bayer or Flamsteed designation, is more southernly.", "Just north of Theta and of almost exactly the same magnitude is Eta Lyrae, a blue subgiant with a near-solar metal abundance.", "Also nearby is the faint HP Lyrae, a post-asymptotic giant branch (AGB) star that shows variability.", "The reason for its variability is still a mystery: first cataloged as an eclipsing binary, it was theorized to be an RV Tauri variable in 2002, but if so, it would be by far the hottest such variable discovered.In the extreme east is RR Lyrae, the prototype of the large class of variables known as RR Lyrae variables, which are pulsating variables similar to Cepheids, but are evolved population II stars of spectral types A and F. Such stars are usually not found in a galaxy's thin disk, but rather in the galactic halo.", "Such stars serve as standard candles, and thus are a reliable way to calculate distances to the globular clusters in which they reside.", "RR Lyrae itself varies between magnitudes 7 and 8 while exhibiting the Blazhko effect.", "The easternmost star designated by Flamsteed, 19 Lyrae, is also a small-amplitude variable, an Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable with a period of just over one day.Another evolved star is the naked-eye variable XY Lyrae, a red bright giant just north of Vega that varies between 6th and 7th magnitudes over a period of 120 days.", "Also just visible to the naked eye is the peculiar classical Cepheid V473 Lyrae.", "It is unique in that it is the only known Cepheid in the Milky Way to undergo periodic phase and amplitude changes, analogous to the Blazhko effect in RR Lyrae stars.", "At 1.5 days, its period was the shortest known for a classical Cepheid at the time of its discovery.", "W and S Lyrae are two of the many Mira variables in Lyra.", "W varies between 7th and 12th magnitudes over approximately 200 days, while S, slightly fainter, is a silicate carbon star, likely of the J-type.", "Another evolved star is EP Lyrae, a faint RV Tauri variable and an \"extreme example\" of a post-AGB star.", "It and a likely companion are surrounded by a circumstellar disk of material.Rather close to Earth at a distance of only is Gliese 758.The sunlike primary star has a brown dwarf companion, the coldest to have been imaged around a sunlike star in thermal light when it was discovered in 2009.Only slightly farther away is V478 Lyrae, an eclipsing RS Canum Venaticorum variable whose primary star shows active starspot activity.One of the most peculiar systems in Lyra is MV Lyrae, a nova-like star consisting of a red dwarf and a white dwarf.", "Originally classified as a VY Sculptoris star due to spending most time at maximum brightness, since around 1979 the system has been dominantly at minimum brightness, with periodic outbursts.", "Its nature is still not fully understood.", "Another outbursting star is AY Lyrae, an SU Ursae Majoris-type dwarf nova that has undergone several superoutbursts.", "Of the same type is V344 Lyrae, notable for an extremely short period between superoutbursts coupled with one of the highest amplitudes for such a period.", "The true nova HR Lyrae flared in 1919 to a maximum magnitude of 6.5, over 9.5 magnitudes higher than in quiescence.", "Some of its characteristics are similar to those of recurring novae.===Deep-sky objects===Messier 56 is composed of a large number of stars, tightly bound to each other by gravity.", "In Lyra are the objects M56, M57, and Kuiper 90.M56 is a rather loose globular cluster at a distance of approximately 32,900 light-years, with a diameter of about 85 light-years.", "Its apparent brightness is 8.3m.M57, also known as the \"Ring Nebula\" and NGC 6720, at a distance of 2,000 light-years from Earth is one of the best known planetary nebulae and the second to be discovered; its integrated magnitude is 8.8.It was discovered in 1779 by Antoine Darquier, 15 years after Charles Messier discovered the Dumbbell Nebula.", "Astronomers have determined that it is between 6,000 and 8,000 years old; it is approximately one light-year in diameter.", "The outer part of the nebula appears red in photographs because of emission from ionized hydrogen.", "The middle region is colored green; doubly ionized oxygen emits greenish-blue light.", "The hottest region, closest to the central star, appears blue because of emission from helium.", "The central star itself is a white dwarf with a temperature of 120,000 kelvins.", "In telescopes, the nebula appears as a visible ring with a green tinge; it is slightly elliptical because its three-dimensional shape is a torus or cylinder seen from a slight angle.", "It can be found halfway between Gamma Lyrae and Beta Lyrae.Another planetary nebula in Lyra is Abell 46.The central star, V477 Lyrae, is an eclipsing post-common-envelope binary, consisting of a white dwarf primary and an oversized secondary component due to recent accretion.", "The nebula itself is of relatively low surface brightness compared to the central star, and is undersized for the primary's mass for reasons not yet fully understood.NGC 6791 is a cluster of stars in Lyra.", "It contains three age groups of stars: 4 billion year-old white dwarfs, 6 billion year-old white dwarfs and 8 billion year-old normal stars.NGC 6745 is an irregular spiral galaxy in Lyra that is at a distance of 208 million light-years.", "Several million years ago, it collided with a smaller galaxy, which created a region filled with young, hot, blue stars.", "Astronomers do not know if the collision was simply a glancing blow or a prelude to a full-on merger, which would end with the two galaxies incorporated into one larger, probably elliptical galaxy.A remarkable long-duration gamma-ray burst was GRB 050525A, which flared in 2005.The afterglow re-brightened at 33 minutes after the original burst, only the third found to exhibit such an effect in the timeframe, and unable to be completely explained by known phenomena.", "The light curve observed over the next 100 days was consistent with that of a supernova or even a hypernova, dubbed SN 2005nc.", "The host galaxy proved elusive to find at first, although it was subsequently identified.===Exoplanets===In orbit around the orange subgiant star HD 177830 is one of the earliest exoplanets to be detected.", "A jovian-mass planet, it orbits in an eccentric orbit with a period of 390 days.", "A second planet closer to the star was discovered in 2011.Visible to the naked eye are HD 173416, a yellow giant hosting a planet over twice the mass of Jupiter discovered in 2009; and HD 176051, a low-mass binary star containing another high-mass planet.", "Just short of naked-eye visibility is HD 178911, a triple system consisting of a close binary and a visually separable sunlike star.", "The sunlike star has a planet with over 6 Jupiter masses discovered in 2001, the second found in a triple system after that of 16 Cygni.One of the most-studied exoplanets in the night sky is TrES-1b, in orbit around the star GSC 02652-01324.Detected from a transit of its parent star, the planet has around 3/4 the mass of Jupiter, yet orbits its parent star in only three days.", "The transits have been reported to have anomalies multiple times.", "Originally thought to be possibly due to the presence of an Earth-like planet, it is now accepted that the irregularities are due to a large starspot.", "Also discovered by the transit method is WASP-3b, with 1.75 times the mass of Jupiter.", "At the time of its discovery, it was one of the hottest known exoplanets, in orbit around the F-type main-sequence star WASP-3.Similar to TrES-1b, irregularities in the transits had left open the possibility of a second planet, although this now appears unlikely as well.Lyra is one of three constellations (along with neighboring Cygnus and Draco) to be in the Kepler Mission's field of view, and as such it contains many more known exoplanets than most constellations.", "One of the first discovered by the mission is Kepler-7b, an extremely low-density exoplanet with less than half the mass of Jupiter, yet nearly 1.5 times the radius.", "Almost as sparse is Kepler-8b, only slightly more massive and of a similar radius.", "The Kepler-20 system contains five known planets; three of them are only slightly smaller than Neptune, while the other two are some of the first Earth-sized exoplanets to be discovered.", "Kepler-37 is another star with an exoplanet discovered by Kepler; the planet is the smallest known extrasolar planet known as of February 2013.In April 2013, it was announced that of the five planets orbiting Kepler-62, at least two—Kepler-62e and Kepler-62f—are within the boundaries of the habitable zone of that star, where scientists think liquid water could exist, and are both candidates for being a solid, rocky, earth-like planet.", "The exoplanets are 1.6 and 1.4 times the diameter of Earth respectively, with their star Kepler-62 at a distance of 1,200 light-years." ], [ "See also", "Lyra (Chinese astronomy)Uttara AshadhaAniara 2018 Film" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "External links", "* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Lyra)* The clickable Lyra" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Legnica" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Legnica''' (Polish: ; , ; ; ; ) is a city in southwestern Poland, in the central part of Lower Silesia, on the Kaczawa River and the Czarna Woda.", "It is the seat of the county and since 1992 the city has been the seat of a Diocese.", "Legnica had a population of 97,300 inhabitants.The city was first referenced in chronicles dating from the year 1004, although previous settlements could be traced back to the 7th century.", "The name \"Legnica\" was mentioned in 1149 under High Duke of Poland Bolesław IV the Curly.", "Legnica was most likely the seat of Bolesław and it became the residence of the dukes of Legnica from 1248 until 1675.Legnica is a city over which the Piast dynasty reigned the longest, for about 700 years, from the time of ruler Mieszko I of Poland after the creation of the Polish state in the 10th century, until 1675 and the death of the last Piast duke George William.", "Legnica is one of the historical burial sites of Polish monarchs and consorts.Legnica became renowned for the fierce battle that took place at Legnickie Pole near the city on 9 April 1241 during the first Mongol invasion of Poland, which ended in the defeat of the Polish-led Christian coalition by the Mongols.Legnica is an economic, cultural and academic centre in Lower Silesia, together with Wrocław.", "The city is renowned for its varied architecture, spanning from early medieval to modern period, and its preserved Old Town with the Piast Castle, one of the largest in Poland.", "According to the Foreign direct investment ranking (FDI) from 2016, Legnica is one of the most progressive high-income cities in the Silesian region." ], [ "Population", " Legnica has 102,708 inhabitants and is the third largest city in the voivodeship (after Wrocław and Wałbrzych) and 38th in Poland.", "It also constitutes the southernmost and the largest urban center of a copper deposit (''Legnicko-Głogowski Okręg Miedziowy'') with agglomeration of 448,617 inhabitants.", "Legnica is the largest city of the conurbation and is a member of the Association of Polish Cities." ], [ "History", "===Pre-history===Archaeological research conducted in eastern Legnica in the late 1970s, showed the existence of a bronze foundry and the graves of three metallurgists.", "The find indicates a time interval about year 1000 BC.A settlement of the Lusatian culture people existed in the 8th century B.C.", "After invasions of Celts beyond upper Danube basin, the area of Legnica and north foothills of Sudetes was infiltrated by Celtic settlers and traders.Tacitus and Ptolemy recorded the ancient nation of Lugii (Lygii) in the area, and mentioned their town of Lugidunum, which has been attributed to both Legnica and Głogów.===Early Poland===Battle of Legnica, medieval illuminated manuscript, collection of the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, CaliforniaSlavic Lechitic tribes moved into the area in the 8th century.The city was first officially mentioned in chronicles from 1004, although settlement dates to the 7th century.", "Dendrochronological research proves that during the reign of Mieszko I of Poland, a new fortified settlement was built here in a style typical of the early Piast dynasty.", "It is mentioned in 1149 when High Duke Bolesław IV the Curly funded a chapel at the St. Benedict monastery.", "Legnica was the most likely place of residence for Bolesław and it became the residence of the high dukes of Poland in 1163 and was the seat of a principality ruled from 1248 until 1675.Legnica became famous for the battle that took place at Legnickie Pole near the city on 9 April 1241 during the First Mongol invasion of Poland.", "The Christian army of the Polish duke Henry II the Pious of Silesia, supported by feudal nobility, which included in addition to Poles, Bavarian miners and military orders and Czech troops, was decisively defeated by the Mongols.", "The Mongols killed Henry and destroyed his forces, then turned south to rejoin the rest of the Mongol armies, which were massing at the Plain of Mohi in Hungary via Moravia against a coalition of King Bela IV and his armies, and Bela's Kipchak allies.Former Dominican monastery and burial site of Bolesław II the HornedAfter the war, nonetheless, the city was developing rapidly.", "In 1258 at the church of St. Peter, a parish school was established, probably the first of its kind in Poland.", "Around 1278 a Dominican monastery was founded by Bolesław II the Horned, who was buried there as the only monarch of Poland to be buried in Legnica.", "Already by 1300 there was a city council in Legnica.", "Duke Bolesław III the Generous granted new trade privileges in 1314 and 1318 and allowed the construction of a town hall, and in 1337 the first waterworks were built.", "In the years 1327–1380 a new Gothic church of Saint Peter (today's Cathedral) was erected in place of the old one, and is one of Legnica's landmarks since.", "Also by the 14th century the city walls were erected.", "In 1345 the first coins were produced in the local mint.", "In 1374, the potters' guild was founded, as one of the oldest in Silesia.", "Queen consort of Poland Hedwig of Sagan died in Legnica in 1390 and was buried in the local collegiate church, which has not survived to this day.===Duchy of Legnica===The Piast Castle in LegnicaAs the capital of the Duchy of Legnica at the beginning of the 14th century, Legnica was one of the most important cities of Central Europe, having a population of nearly 16,000 residents.", "The city began to expand quickly after the discovery of gold in the Kaczawa River between Legnica and Złotoryja (Goldberg).", "Unfortunately, such a growth rate can not be maintained long.", "Shortly after the city reached its maximum population increase, wooden buildings which had been erected during this period of rapid growth were devastated by a huge fire.", "The fire decreased the number of inhabitants in the city and halted any significant further development for many decades.Legnica, along with other Silesian duchies, became a vassal of the Kingdom of Bohemia during the 14th century and was included within the multi-ethnic Holy Roman Empire, however remained ruled by local dukes of the Polish Piast dynasty.", "In 1454, a local rebellion prevented Legnica from falling under direct rule of the Bohemian kings.", "In 1505, Duke Frederick II of Legnica met in Legnica with the duke of nearby Głogów, Sigismund I the Old, the future king of Poland.Mausoleum of the last Piast dukes in the Saint John the Baptist churchOne of the preserved streets in Legnica's Old Town with the Castle in the backgroundThe Protestant Reformation was introduced in the duchy as early as 1522 and the population became Lutheran.", "In 1526, a Protestant university was established in Legnica, which, however, was closed in 1529.In 1528 the first printing house in Legnica was established.", "After the death of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia at Mohács in 1526, Legnica became a fief of the Habsburg monarchy of Austria.", "The first map of Silesia was made by native son Martin Helwig.", "The city suffered during the Thirty Years' War.", "In 1633 a plague epidemic broke out, and in 1634 the Austrian army destroyed the suburbs.In 1668 Duke of Legnica Christian presented his candidacy to the Polish throne, however, in the 1669 Polish–Lithuanian royal election he wasn't chosen as King.", "In 1676, Legnica passed to direct Habsburg rule after the death of the last Silesian Piast duke and the last Piast duke overall, George William (son of Duke Christian), despite the earlier inheritance pact by Brandenburg and Silesia, by which it was to go to Brandenburg.", "The last Piast duke was buried in the St. John's church in Legnica in 1676.===18th and 19th centuries===Silesian aristocracy was trained at the Liegnitz Ritter-Akademie, established in the early 18th century.", "One of two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through the city in the 18th century and Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland traveled that route many times.", "The postal milestone of King Augustus II comes from that period.In 1742 most of Silesia, including Liegnitz, became part of the Kingdom of Prussia after King Frederick the Great's defeat of Austria in the War of the Austrian Succession.", "In 1760 during the Seven Years' War, Liegnitz was the site of the Battle of Liegnitz when Frederick's army defeated an Austrian army led by Laudon.Eclectic tenements located at ''Witelona'' StreetDuring the Napoleonic Wars and Polish national liberation fights, in 1807 Polish uhlans were stationed in the city, and in 1813, the Prussians, under Field Marshal Blücher, defeated the French forces of MacDonald in the Battle of Katzbach (Kaczawa) nearby.", "After the administrative reorganization of the Prussian state following the Congress of Vienna, Liegnitz and the surrounding territory (''Landkreis Liegnitz'') were incorporated into the Regierungsbezirk (administrative district) of Liegnitz, within the Province of Silesia on 1 May 1816.Along with the rest of Prussia, the town became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the unification of Germany.", "On 1 January 1874 Liegnitz became the third city in Lower Silesia (after Breslau and Görlitz) to be raised to an urban district, although the district administrator of the surrounding ''Landkreis'' of Liegnitz continued to have his seat in the city.", "Its military garrison was home to Königsgrenadier-Regiment Nr.", "7 a military unit formed almost exclusively out of Polish soldiers.===The 20th century===Old view of the Piast CastleThe census of 1910 gave Liegnitz's population as 95.86% German, 0.15% German and Polish, 1.27% Polish, 2.26% Wendish, and 0.19% Czech.", "On 1 April 1937 parts of the ''Landkreis'' of Liegnitz communities of Alt Beckern (Piekary), Groß Beckern (Piekary Wielkie), Hummel, Liegnitzer Vorwerke, Pfaffendorf (Piątnica) und Prinkendorf (Przybków) were incorporated into the city limits.", "After the Treaty of Versailles following World War I, Liegnitz was part of the newly created Province of Lower Silesia from 1919 to 1938, then of the Province of Silesia from 1938 to 1941, and again of the Province of Lower Silesia from 1941 to 1945.After the Nazi Party came to power in Germany, as early as 1933, a boycott of local Jewish premises was ordered, during the ''Kristallnacht'' in 1938 the synagogue was burned down, and in 1939 the local Polish population was terrorized and persecuted.", "A Nazi court prison was operated in the city with a forced labour subcamp.", "During World War II, several members of the Polish resistance movement were imprisoned and sentenced to death there.", "The Germans also established two forced labour camps in the city, as well as two prisoner of war labor subcamps of the POW camp located in Żagań (then ''Sagan''), and one labor subcamp of the Stalag VIII-A POW camp in Zgorzelec (then ''Görlitz'').Cemetery chapelAfter the defeat of Nazi Germany during World War II, Liegnitz and all of Silesia east of the Neisse was preliminarily transferred to Poland following the Potsdam Conference in 1945.Majority of the German population was either expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement or fled from the city.The city was repopulated with Poles, including expellees from pre-war eastern Poland after its annexation by the Soviet Union.", "Also Greeks, refugees of the Greek Civil War, settled in Legnica in 1950.As the medieval Polish name ''Lignica'' was considered archaic, the town was renamed Legnica.", "The transfer to Poland decided at Potsdam in 1945 was officially recognized by East Germany in 1950, by West Germany under Chancellor Willy Brandt in the Treaty of Warsaw signed in 1970, and finally by the reunited Germany by the Two Plus Four Agreement in 1990.By 1990 only a handful of Polonized Germans, prewar citizens of Liegnitz, remained of the pre-1945 German population.", "In 2010 the city celebrated the 65th anniversary of the return of Legnica to Poland and its liberation from the Nazi Germany.Post-war view of the Piast Castle (on the left) and the Głogów Gate (on the right)The city was only partly damaged in World War II.", "In June 1945 Legnica was briefly the capital of the Lower Silesian (Wrocław) Voivodship, after the administration was moved there from Trzebnica and before it was finally moved to Wrocław.", "In 1947, the Municipal Library was opened, in 1948 a piano factory was founded, and in the years 1951-1959 Poland's first copper smelter was built in Legnica.", "After 1965 most parts of the preserved old town with its town houses were demolished, the historical layout was abolished, and the city was rebuilt in modern form.From 1945 to 1990, during the Cold War, the headquarters of the Soviet forces in Poland, the so-called Northern Group of Forces, was located in the city.", "This fact had a strong influence on the life of the city.", "For much of the period, the city was divided into Polish and Soviet areas, with the latter closed to the public.", "These were first established in July 1945, when the Soviets forcibly ejected newly arrived Polish inhabitants from the parts of the city they wanted for their own use.", "The ejection was perceived by some as a particularly brutal action, and rumours circulated exaggerating its severity, though no evidence of anyone being killed in the course of it has come to light.", "In April 1946 city officials estimated that there were 16,700 Poles, 12,800 Germans, and 60,000 Soviets in Legnica.", "In October 1956, the largest anti-Soviet demonstrations in Lower Silesia took place in Legnica.", "The last Soviet units left the city in 1993.Between 1 June 1975 and 1998 Legnica was the capital of the Legnica Voivodeship.", "In 1992 the Roman Catholic Diocese of Legnica was established, Tadeusz Rybak became the first bishop of Legnica.", "New local newspapers and a radio station were founded in the 1990s.", "In 1997, Legnica was visited by Pope John Paul II.", "The city suffered in the 1997 Central European flood." ], [ "Climate", "Legnica has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: ''Cfb'')." ], [ "Sights", "baroque and neoclassical architectureLegnica is a city with rich historical architecture, ranging from Romanesque and Gothic through the Renaissance and Baroque to Historicist styles.", "Among the landmarks of Legnica are:* the Piast Castle, former seat of the local dukes of the Piast dynasty* Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul* Market Square (''Rynek'') with: Baroque Old Town Hall (''Stary Ratusz'') Helena Modrzejewska Theatre ''Kamienice Śledziowe'' (\"Herring Houses\") ''Dom Pod Przepiórczym Koszem'' (\"Under the Quail Basket House\")* former Dominican and later Benedictine monastery, founded by Bolesław II the Horned, who was buried there as the only monarch of Poland to be buried in Legnica; nowadays housing the ''I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im.", "Tadeusza Kościuszki'' (high school)* Saint John the Baptist Church with a mausoleum of the last Piast dukes* New Town Hall (''Nowy Ratusz''), seat of city authorities* Saint Mary church* (''Muzeum Miedzi'')* Medieval Chojnów and Głogów Gates, remnants of the medieval city walls* Former Knight Academy, now housing municipal offices and a branch of the Copper Museum* Public Library and archive* Park Miejski (\"City Park\"), the oldest and largest park of LegnicaThere is also a monument of Pope John Paul II and a postal milestone of King Augustus II the Strong from 1725 in Legnica.LEGNICA ZAMEK dziedziniec.jpg\|Piast Castle courtyardDom mieszkalny „śledziówka”.jpg\|''Kamienice Śledziowe'' at the Market SquareLegnica - Teatr im.", "Heleny Modrzejewskiej.jpg\|Helena Modrzejewska TheatreLegnica - Kościół Marii Panny.jpg\|Saint Mary churchLegnica - Główna siedziba Muzuem Miedzi.jpg\|Copper MuseumLegnica, Dom Pod Przepiórczym Koszem, Rynek 38.jpg\|Under the Quail Basket House" ], [ "Economy", "In the 1950s and 1960s, the local copper and nickel industries became a major factor in the economic development of the area.", "Legnica houses industrial plants belonging to KGHM Polska Miedź, one of the largest producers of copper and silver in the world.", "The company owns a large copper mill on the western outskirts of town.", "Legnica Special Economic Zone was established in 1997." ], [ "Education", "Witelon State University of Applied SciencesLegnica is a regional academic center with seven universities enrolling approximately 16,000 students.", "* State-run colleges and universities Witelon University of Applied Sciences (''Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa im.", "Witelona'') Wrocław University of Technology ** Foreign Language Teacher Training College in Legnica * Other ''Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania / The Polish Open University'' Legnica University of Management ** ''Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne / Seminary'' Legnica public library" ], [ "Environment", "Legnica is noted for its parks and gardens, and has seven hundred hectares of green space, mostly along the banks of the Kaczawa; the Tarninow district is particularly attractive." ], [ "Roads", "To the south of Legnica is the A4 motorway.", "Legnica has also a district, which is a part of national road no 3.The express road S3 building has been planned nearby." ], [ "Public transport", "Legnica main railway stationIn the city there are 20 regular bus lines, 1 belt-line, 2 night lines and 3 suburban.The town has an airport (airport code EPLE) with a 1600-metre runway, the remains of a former Soviet air base, but it is () in a poor state and not used for commercial flights." ], [ "Sports", "* Miedź Legnica – men's football team (Polish Cup winner 1992; played in the Ekstraklasa in season 2018–19)" ], [ "Films produced in Legnica", "In recent years Legnica has been frequently used as a film set for the following films as a result of its well preserved Old Town, proximity to Germany and low costs:''Przebacz'' (dir.", "M. Stacharski) – 2005''A Woman in Berlin'' (dir.", "M. Färberböck) – 2007''Wilki'' (dir.", "F. Fromm) – 2007''Little Moscow'' (dir.", "W. Krzystek) – 2008'''' (dir.", "D. Zahavi) – 2008''Die Wölfe'' (dir.", "F. Fromm) – 2009''Jack Strong'' (dir.", "W. Pasikowski) – 2014" ], [ "Politics", "===Municipal politics===Legnica tends to be a left-of-center town with a considerable influence of workers' unions.", "The Municipal Council of Legnica (''Rada miejska miasta Legnica'') is the legislative branch of the local government and is composed of 25 members elected in local elections every five years.", "The mayor or town president (''Prezydent miasta'') is the executive branch of the local government and is directly elected in the same municipal elections.===Legnica – Jelenia Góra constituency===Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Legnica-Jelenia Gora constituency: Ryszard Bonda, Samoobrona* Bronisława Kowalska, SLD-UP* Adam Lipiński, PiS* Tadeusz Maćkała, PO* Ryszard Maraszek, SLD-UP* Olgierd Poniźnik, SLD-UP* Władysław Rak, SLD-UP* Tadeusz Samborski, PSL* Jerzy Szmajdziński, SLD-UP* Halina Szustak, LPR* Michał Turkiewicz, SLD-UP* Ryszard Zbrzyzny, SLD-UP" ], [ "Notable people", "Memorial plaque to scientist and philosopher Witelo on the facade of the Copper MuseumTomasz KotAleksandra KlejnowskaHenry II the Pious (1196/1207–1241), High Duke of PolandWitelo (1230–died 1280–1314), philosopher and scientistBolesław II the Bald (1220–1278), High Duke of PolandHans Aßmann Freiherr von Abschatz (1646–1699), lyricist and translatorGeorg Rudolf Böhmer (1723–1803), physician and botanistJohann Wilhelm Ritter (1776–1810), scientist, philosopher, discoverer of ultraviolet radiationHeinrich Wilhelm Dove (1803–1879) physicistBenjamin Bilse (1816–1902), conductor and composerKarl von Vogelsang (1818–1890), Catholic journalist, politician and social reformerLeopold Kronecker (1823–1891), mathematicianHugo Rühle (1824–1888), physicianGustav Winkler (1867–1954), textile manufacturerWilhelm Schubart (1873–1960) classical philologist, historian and papyrologistPaul Löbe (1875–1967), social democratic politicianErich von Manstein (1887–1973) field marshalGert Jeschonnek (1912–1999), an officer of the Navy, Vice Admiral, Chief of NavyHans-Heinrich Jescheck (1915–2009), juristGünter Reich (1921–1989), opera singer (baritone)Claus-Wilhelm Canaris (1937–2021), jurist and legal philosopherUta Zapf (born 1941), politician (SPD), member of the Bundestag from 1990 to 2013Anna Dymna (born 1951), TV, film and theatre actressJacek Oleksyn (born 1953), biologistWłodzimierz Juszczak (born 1957), bishop of the Eparchy of Wroclaw–Gdansk of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic ChurchMarzena Kipiel-Sztuka (born 1965), actressBeata Tadla (born 1975), journalist and TV presenterTomasz Kot (born 1977), actorMarek Pająk (born 1977), musicianPopek (born 1978), rapper and MMA fighterMariusz Lewandowski (born 1979), footballer playerAleksandra Klejnowska (born 1982), weightlifterMarcin Robak (born 1982), football playerJagoda Szmytka (born 1982), composerJakub Popiwczak (born 1996), volleyball playerJoanna Jarmołowicz (born 1994), actressŁukasz Poręba (born 2000), football player" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Legnica is twinned with: Blansko, Czech Republic* Drohobych, Ukraine* Meissen, Germany* Roanne, France* Wuppertal, Germany" ], [ "In fiction", "Legnica and its then ruler Count Conrad figure prominently in the alternate history series ''The Crosstime Engineer'', set in the period of 1230 to 1270, by Leo Frankowski." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Jewish Community in Legnica on Virtual Shtetl0* Legnica - Liegnitz, Lignica na portalu polska-org.pl * Municipal website * Lca.pl * City hall * Legnica" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Liverpool F.C." ], [ "Introduction", " '''Liverpool Football Club''' is a professional football club based in Liverpool, England.", "The club competes in the Premier League, the top tier of English football.", "Founded in 1892, the club joined the Football League the following year and has played its home games at Anfield since its formation.", "Domestically, the club has won 19 league titles, eight FA Cups, a record nine League Cups and 16 FA Community Shields.", "In international competitions, the club has won six European Cups, three UEFA Cups, four UEFA Super Cups—all English records—and one FIFA Club World Cup.", "The club established itself as a major force in domestic and European football in the 1970s and 1980s, when Bill Shankly, Bob Paisley, Joe Fagan and Kenny Dalglish, led the club to a combined 11 League titles and four European Cups.", "Liverpool won two further European Cups in 2005 and 2019 under the management of Rafael Benítez and Jürgen Klopp, respectively; the latter led Liverpool to a 19th league title in 2020, the club's first during the Premier League era.Liverpool is one of the most valuable and widely supported clubs in the world.", "The club has long-standing rivalries with Manchester United and Everton.", "Under management by Shankly, in 1964 the team changed from red shirts and white shorts to an all-red home strip which has been used ever since.", "The club's anthem is \"You'll Never Walk Alone\".The club's supporters have been involved in two major tragedies.", "The Heysel Stadium disaster, where escaping fans were pressed against a collapsing wall at the 1985 European Cup Final in Brussels, resulted in 39 deaths.", "Most of these were Italians and Juventus fans.", "Liverpool were given a six-year ban from European competition, and all other English clubs received a five-year ban.", "The Hillsborough disaster in 1989, where 97 Liverpool supporters died in a crush against perimeter fencing, led to the elimination of fenced standing terraces in favour of all-seater stadiums in the top two tiers of English football.", "Prolonged campaigning for justice saw further coroners inquests, commissions and independent panels that ultimately exonerated the fans." ], [ "History", "alt=Black and white photograph of elder and bald John Houlding, wearing beard and bow tie.Liverpool F.C.", "was founded following a dispute between the Everton committee and John Houlding, club president and owner of the land at Anfield.", "After eight years at the stadium, Everton relocated to Goodison Park in 1892 and Houlding founded Liverpool F.C.", "to play at Anfield.", "Originally named \"Everton F.C.", "and Athletic Grounds Ltd\" (Everton Athletic for short), the club became Liverpool F.C.", "in March 1892 and gained official recognition three months later, after The Football Association refused to recognise the club as Everton.Liverpool played their first match on 1 September 1892, a pre-season friendly match against Rotherham Town, which they won 7–1.The team Liverpool fielded against Rotherham was composed entirely of Scottish players—the players who came from Scotland to play in England in those days were known as the Scotch Professors.", "Manager John McKenna had recruited the players after a scouting trip to Scotland—so they became known as the \"team of Macs\".", "The team won the Lancashire League in its debut season and joined the Football League Second Division at the start of the 1893–94 season.", "After the club was promoted to the First Division in 1896, Tom Watson was appointed manager.", "He led Liverpool to its first league title in 1901, before winning it again in 1906.Liverpool reached its first FA Cup Final in 1914, losing 1–0 to Burnley.", "It won consecutive League championships in 1922 and 1923, but did not win another trophy until the 1946–47 season, when the club won the First Division for a fifth time under the control of ex-West Ham United centre half George Kay.", "Liverpool suffered its second Cup Final defeat in 1950, playing against Arsenal.", "The club was relegated to the Second Division in the 1953–54 season.", "Soon after Liverpool lost 2–1 to non-league Worcester City in the 1958–59 FA Cup, Bill Shankly was appointed manager.", "Upon his arrival he released 24 players and converted a boot storage room at Anfield into a room where the coaches could discuss strategy; here, Shankly and other \"Boot Room\" members Joe Fagan, Reuben Bennett, and Bob Paisley began reshaping the team.Statue of Bill Shankly outside Anfield.", "Shankly won promotion to the First Division and the club's first league title since 1947.The club was promoted back into the First Division in 1962 and won it in 1964, for the first time in 17 years.", "In 1965, the club won its first FA Cup.", "In 1966, the club won the First Division but lost to Borussia Dortmund in the European Cup Winners' Cup final.", "Liverpool won both the League and the UEFA Cup during the 1972–73 season, and the FA Cup again a year later.", "Shankly retired soon afterwards and was replaced by his assistant, Bob Paisley.", "In 1976, Paisley's second season as manager, the club won another League and UEFA Cup double.", "The following season, the club retained the League title and won the European Cup for the first time, but it lost in the 1977 FA Cup Final.", "Liverpool retained the European Cup in 1978 and regained the First Division title in 1979.During Paisley's nine seasons as manager Liverpool won 20 trophies, including three European Cups, a UEFA Cup, six League titles and three consecutive League Cups; the only domestic trophy he did not win was the FA Cup.Statue of Bob Paisley carrying the injured former Liverpool captain Emlyn Hughes outside Anfield.", "Paisley remains the most successful manager in the club's history.Paisley retired in 1983 and was replaced by his assistant, Joe Fagan.", "Liverpool won the League, League Cup and European Cup in Fagan's first season, becoming the first English side to win three trophies in a season.", "Liverpool reached the European Cup final again in 1985, against Juventus at the Heysel Stadium.", "Before kick-off, Liverpool fans breached a fence that separated the two groups of supporters and charged the Juventus fans.", "The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse, killing 39 fans, mostly Italians.", "The incident became known as the Heysel Stadium disaster.", "The match was played in spite of protests by both managers, and Liverpool lost 1–0 to Juventus.", "As a result of the tragedy, English clubs were banned from participating in European competition for five years; Liverpool received a ten-year ban, which was later reduced to six years.", "Fourteen Liverpool fans received convictions for involuntary manslaughter.Fagan had announced his retirement just before the disaster and Kenny Dalglish was appointed as player-manager.", "During his tenure, the club won another three league titles and two FA Cups, including a League and Cup \"Double\" in the 1985–86 season.", "Liverpool's success was overshadowed by the Hillsborough disaster: in an FA Cup semi-final against Nottingham Forest on 15 April 1989, hundreds of Liverpool fans were crushed against perimeter fencing.", "Ninety-four fans died that day; the 95th victim died in hospital from his injuries four days later, the 96th died nearly four years later, without regaining consciousness, and the 97th, Andrew Devine, died of injuries sustained in the disaster in 2021.After the Hillsborough disaster there was a government review of stadium safety.", "The resulting Taylor Report paved the way for legislation that required top-division teams to have all-seater stadiums.", "The report ruled that the main reason for the disaster was overcrowding due to a failure of police control.The Hillsborough memorial, which is engraved with the names of the 97 people who died in the Hillsborough disaster.Liverpool was involved in the closest finish to a league season during the 1988–89 season.", "Liverpool finished equal with Arsenal on both points and goal difference, but lost the title on total goals scored when Arsenal scored the final goal in the last minute of the season.Dalglish cited the Hillsborough disaster and its repercussions as the reason for his resignation in 1991; he was replaced by former player Graeme Souness.", "Under his leadership Liverpool won the 1992 FA Cup Final, but their league performances slumped, with two consecutive sixth-place finishes, eventually resulting in his dismissal in January 1994.Souness was replaced by Roy Evans, and Liverpool went on to win the 1995 Football League Cup Final.", "While they made some title challenges under Evans, third-place finishes in 1996 and 1998 were the best they could manage, and so Gérard Houllier was appointed co-manager in the 1998–99 season, and became the sole manager in November 1998 after Evans resigned.", "In 2001, Houllier's second full season in charge, Liverpool won a \"treble\": the FA Cup, League Cup and UEFA Cup.", "Houllier underwent major heart surgery during the 2001–02 season and Liverpool finished second in the League, behind Arsenal.", "They won a further League Cup in 2003, but failed to mount a title challenge in the two seasons that followed.European Cup, trophy won by Liverpool for a fifth time in 2005.\|alt=A silver trophy with red ribbons on itHoullier was replaced by Rafael Benítez at the end of the 2003–04 season.", "Despite finishing fifth in Benítez's first season, Liverpool won the 2004–05 UEFA Champions League, beating A.C. Milan 3–2 in a penalty shootout after the match ended with a score of 3–3.The following season, Liverpool finished third in the Premier League and won the 2006 FA Cup Final, beating West Ham United in a penalty shootout after the match finished 3–3.American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks became the owners of the club during the 2006–07 season, in a deal which valued the club and its outstanding debts at £218.9 million.", "The club reached the 2007 UEFA Champions League Final against Milan, as it had in 2005, but lost 2–1.During the 2008–09 season Liverpool achieved 86 points, its then-highest Premier League points total, prior to the record-breaking 2018–19 season, and finished as runners up to Manchester United.In the 2009–10 season, Liverpool finished seventh in the Premier League and failed to qualify for the Champions League.", "Benítez subsequently left by mutual consent and was replaced by Fulham manager Roy Hodgson.", "At the start of the 2010–11 season Liverpool was on the verge of bankruptcy and the club's creditors asked the High Court to allow the sale of the club, overruling the wishes of Hicks and Gillett.", "John W. Henry, owner of the Boston Red Sox and of Fenway Sports Group, bid successfully for the club and took ownership in October 2010.Poor results during the start of that season led to Hodgson leaving the club by mutual consent and former player and manager Kenny Dalglish taking over.", "In the 2011–12 season, Liverpool secured a record 8th League Cup success and reached the FA Cup final, but finished in eighth position, the worst league finish in 18 years; this led to the sacking of Dalglish.", "He was replaced by Brendan Rodgers, whose Liverpool team in the 2013–14 season mounted an unexpected title charge to finish second behind champions Manchester City and subsequently return to the Champions League, scoring 101 goals in the process, the most since the 106 scored in the 1895–96 season.", "Following a disappointing 2014–15 season, where Liverpool finished sixth in the league, and a poor start to the following campaign, Rodgers was sacked in October 2015.Rodgers was replaced by Jürgen Klopp.", "Liverpool reached the finals of the Football League Cup and UEFA Europa League in Klopp's first season, finishing as runner-up in both competitions.", "The club finished second in the 2018–19 season with 97 points (surpassing the 86 points gained during the 2008–09 season), losing only one game: a points record for a non-title winning side.", "Klopp took Liverpool to successive Champions League finals in 2018 and 2019, with the club defeating Tottenham Hotspur 2–0 to win the 2019 UEFA Champions League Final.", "Liverpool beat Flamengo of Brazil in the final 1–0 to win the FIFA Club World Cup for the first time.", "Liverpool then went on to win the 2019–20 Premier League, winning their first top-flight league title in thirty years.", "The club set multiple records in the season, including winning the league with seven games remaining making it the earliest any team has ever won the title, amassing a club record 99 points, and achieving a joint-record 32 wins in a top-flight season.", "In January 2024, Klopp announced that he would leave the club at the end of the season." ], [ "Colours and badge", "alt=A blue and white shirt and white shortsFor much of Liverpool's history, its home colours have been all red.", "When the club was founded in 1892, blue and white quartered shirts were used until the club adopted the city's colour of red in 1896.The city's symbol of the liver bird was adopted as the club's badge (or crest, as it is sometimes known) in 1901, although it was not incorporated into the kit until 1955.Liverpool continued to wear red shirts and white shorts until 1964 when manager Bill Shankly decided to change to an all-red strip.", "Liverpool played in all red for the first time against Anderlecht, as Ian St John recalled in his autobiography::The Liverpool away strip has more often than not been all yellow or white shirts and black shorts, but there have been several exceptions.", "An all grey kit was introduced in 1987, which was used until the 1991–92 centenary season when it was replaced by a combination of green shirts and white shorts.", "After various colour combinations in the 1990s, including gold and navy, bright yellow, black and grey, and ecru, the club alternated between yellow and white away kits until the 2008–09 season, when it re-introduced the grey kit.", "A third kit is designed for European away matches, though it is also worn in domestic away matches on occasions when the current away kit clashes with a team's home kit.", "Between 2012 and 2015, the kits were designed by Warrior Sports, who became the club's kit providers at the start of the 2012–13 season.", "In February 2015, Warrior's parent company New Balance announced it would be entering the global football market, with teams sponsored by Warrior now being outfitted by New Balance.", "The only other branded shirts worn by the club were made by Umbro until 1985, when they were replaced by Adidas, who produced the kits until 1996 when Reebok took over.", "They produced the kits for 10 years before Adidas made the kits from 2006 to 2012.Nike became the club's official kit supplier at the start of the 2020–21 season.A version of Liverpool's badge as depicted on the Shankly GatesLiverpool was the first English professional club to have a sponsor's logo on its shirts, after agreeing a deal with Hitachi in 1979.However for the first few years of the deal, broadcasting rules meant that sponsors logos could not be shown on shirts for televised matches.", "Since then the club has been sponsored by Crown Paints, Candy, Carlsberg and Standard Chartered.", "The contract with Carlsberg, which was signed in 1992, was the longest-lasting agreement in English top-flight football.", "The association with Carlsberg ended at the start of the 2010–11 season, when Standard Chartered Bank became the club's sponsor.The Liverpool badge is based on the city's liver bird symbol, which in the past had been placed inside a shield.", "In 1977, a red liver bird standing on a football (blazoned as \"''Statant upon a football a Liver Bird wings elevated and addorsed holding in the beak a piece of seaweed gules''\") was granted as a heraldic badge by the College of Arms to the English Football League intended for use by Liverpool.", "However, Liverpool never made use of this badge.", "In 1992, to commemorate the centennial of the club, a new badge was commissioned, including a representation of the Shankly Gates.", "The next year twin flames were added at either side, symbolic of the Hillsborough memorial outside Anfield, where an eternal flame burns in memory of those who died in the Hillsborough disaster.", "In 2012, Warrior Sports' first Liverpool kit removed the shield and gates, returning the badge to what had adorned Liverpool shirts in the 1970s; the flames were moved to the back collar of the shirt, surrounding the number 96 for the number who died at Hillsborough.=== Sponsorship ===PeriodBrandShirt Sponsor Shirt Sponsor 1973–1979 Umbro None None1979–1982 Hitachi1982–1985 Crown Paints1985–1988 Adidas1988–1992 Candy1992–1996 Carlsberg1996–2006 Reebok2006–2010 Adidas2010–2012 Standard Chartered2012–2015 Warrior2015–2017 New Balance2017–2020 Western Union2020– Nike Expedia" ], [ "Stadium{{anchor\|Stadia}}", "Anfield, home of Liverpool F.C.Anfield was built in 1884 on land adjacent to Stanley Park.Situated 2 miles (3 km) from Liverpool city centre, it was originally used by Everton before the club moved to Goodison Park after a dispute over rent with Anfield owner John Houlding.", "Left with an empty ground, Houlding founded Liverpool in 1892 and the club has played at Anfield ever since.", "The capacity of the stadium at the time was 20,000, although only 100 spectators attended Liverpool's first match at Anfield.The Kop was built in 1906 due to the high turnout for matches and was called the Oakfield Road Embankment initially.", "Its first game was on 1 September 1906 when the home side beat Stoke City 1–0.In 1906 the banked stand at one end of the ground was formally renamed the Spion Kop after a hill in KwaZulu-Natal.", "The hill was the site of the Battle of Spion Kop in the Second Boer War, where over 300 men of the Lancashire Regiment died, many of them from Liverpool.", "At its peak, the stand could hold 28,000 spectators and was one of the largest single-tier stands in the world.", "Many stadiums in England had stands named after Spion Kop, but Anfield's was the largest of them at the time; it could hold more supporters than some entire football grounds.Anfield could accommodate more than 60,000 supporters at its peak and had a capacity of 55,000 until the 1990s, when, following recommendations from the ''Taylor Report'', all clubs in the Premier League were obliged to convert to all-seater stadiums in time for the 1993–94 season, reducing its capacity to 45,276.The findings of the report precipitated the redevelopment of the Kemlyn Road Stand, which was rebuilt in 1992, coinciding with the centenary of the club, and was known as the Centenary Stand until 2017 when it was renamed the Kenny Dalglish Stand.", "An extra tier was added to the Anfield Road end in 1998, which further increased the capacity of the ground but gave rise to problems when it was opened.", "A series of support poles and stanchions were inserted to give extra stability to the top tier of the stand after movement of the tier was reported at the start of the 1999–2000 season.Because of restrictions on expanding the capacity at Anfield, Liverpool announced plans to move to the proposed Stanley Park Stadium in May 2002.Planning permission was granted in July 2004, and in September 2006, Liverpool City Council agreed to grant Liverpool a 999-year lease on the proposed site.", "Following the takeover of the club by George Gillett and Tom Hicks in February 2007, the proposed stadium was redesigned.", "The new design was approved by the Council in November 2007.The stadium was scheduled to open in August 2011 and would hold 60,000 spectators, with HKS, Inc. contracted to build the stadium.", "Construction was halted in August 2008, as Gillett and Hicks had difficulty in financing the £300 million needed for the development.", "In October 2012, BBC Sport reported that Fenway Sports Group, the new owners of Liverpool FC, had decided to redevelop their current home at Anfield stadium, rather than building a new stadium in Stanley Park.", "As part of the redevelopment the capacity of Anfield was to increase from 45,276 to approximately 60,000 and would cost approximately £150m.", "When construction was completed on the new Main stand the capacity of Anfield was increased to 54,074.This £100 million expansion added a third tier to the stand.", "This was all part of a £260 million project to improve the Anfield area.", "Jürgen Klopp the manager at the time described the stand as \"impressive.", "\"In June 2021, it was reported that Liverpool Council had given planning permission for the club to renovate and expand the Anfield Road stand, boosting the capacity by around 7,000 and taking the overall capacity at Anfield to 61,000.The expansion, which is estimated to cost £60m, was described as \"a huge milestone\" by managing director Andy Hughes, and would also see rail seating being trialled in the Kop for the 2021–22 Premier League season." ], [ "Support", "The Kop StandLiverpool is one of the best supported clubs in the world.", "The club states that its worldwide fan base includes 300 officially recognised Supporters Clubs in 100 different countries.", "Notable groups include Spirit of Shankly.", "The club takes advantage of this support through its worldwide summer tours, which has included playing in front of 101,000 in Michigan, U.S., and 95,000 in Melbourne, Australia.", "Liverpool fans often refer to themselves as Kopites, a reference to the fans who once stood, and now sit, on the Kop at Anfield.", "In 2008 a group of fans decided to form a splinter club, A.F.C.", "Liverpool, to play matches for fans who had been priced out of watching Premier League football.The song \"You'll Never Walk Alone\", originally from the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical ''Carousel'' and later recorded by Liverpool musicians Gerry and the Pacemakers, is the club's anthem and has been sung by the Anfield crowd since the early 1960s.", "It has since gained popularity among fans of other clubs around the world.", "The song's title adorns the top of the Shankly Gates, which were unveiled on 2 August 1982 in memory of former manager Bill Shankly.", "The \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" portion of the Shankly Gates is also reproduced on the club's badge.The Shankly Gates, erected in honour of former manager alt=Design of the top of a set of gates, with the sky visible.", "The inscription on the gates reads \"You'll Never Walk Alone\".The club's supporters have been involved in two stadium disasters.", "The first was the 1985 Heysel Stadium disaster, in which 39 people, mostly Italians and Juventus supporters, were killed.", "They were confined to a corner by Liverpool fans who had charged in their direction; the weight of the cornered fans caused a wall to collapse.", "UEFA laid the blame for the incident solely on the Liverpool supporters, and banned all English clubs from European competition for five years.", "Liverpool was banned for an additional year, preventing it from participating in the 1990–91 European Cup, even though it won the League in 1990.Twenty-seven fans were arrested on suspicion of manslaughter and were extradited to Belgium in 1987 to face trial.", "In 1989, after a five-month trial in Belgium, 14 Liverpool fans were given three-year sentences for involuntary manslaughter; half of the terms were suspended.The second disaster took place during an FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest at Hillsborough Stadium, Sheffield, on 15 April 1989.Ninety-seven Liverpool fans died as a consequence of overcrowding at the Leppings Lane end, in what became known as the Hillsborough disaster.", "In the following days, ''The Sun''s coverage of the event spread falsehoods, particularly an article entitled \"The Truth\" that claimed that Liverpool fans had robbed the dead and had urinated on and attacked the police.", "Subsequent investigations proved the allegations false, leading to a boycott of the newspaper by Liverpool fans across the city and elsewhere; many still refuse to buy ''The Sun'' 30 years later.", "Many support organisations were set up in the wake of the disaster, such as the Hillsborough Justice Campaign, which represents bereaved families, survivors and supporters in their efforts to secure justice.=== Rivalries ===Manchester United at Old Trafford on 14 March 2009.Liverpool's longest-established rivalry is with fellow Liverpool team Everton, against whom they contest the Merseyside derby.", "The rivalry stems from Liverpool's formation and the dispute with Everton officials and the then owners of Anfield.", "The Merseyside derby is one of the few local derbies which do not enforce fan segregation, and hence has been known as the \"friendly derby\".", "Since the mid-1980s, the rivalry has intensified both on and off the field and, since the inception of the Premier League in 1992, the Merseyside derby has had more players sent off than any other Premier League game.", "It has been referred to as \"the most ill-disciplined and explosive fixture in the Premier League\".", "In terms of support within the city, the number of Liverpool fans outweighs Everton supporters by a ratio of 2:1.Liverpool's rivalry with Manchester United stems from the cities' competition in the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century.", "Connected by the world's first inter-city railway, by road Liverpool and Manchester are separated by approximately 30 miles (48 km) along the East Lancs Road.", "Ranked the two biggest clubs in England by ''France Football'' magazine, Liverpool and Manchester United are the most successful English teams in both domestic and international competitions, and both clubs have a global fanbase.", "Viewed as one of the biggest rivalries in world football, it is considered the most famous fixture in English football.", "The two clubs alternated as champions between 1964 and 1967, and Manchester United became the first English team to win the European Cup in 1968, followed by Liverpool's four European Cup victories.", "Despite the 39 league titles and nine European Cups between them the two rivals have rarely been successful at the same time – Liverpool's run of titles in the 1970s and 1980s coincided with Manchester United's 26-year title drought, and United's success in the Premier League-era likewise coincided with Liverpool's 30-year title drought, and the two clubs have finished first and second in the league only five times.", "Such is the rivalry between the clubs they rarely do transfer business with each other.", "The last player to be transferred between the two clubs was Phil Chisnall, who moved to Liverpool from Manchester United in 1964." ], [ "Ownership and finances", "As the owner of Anfield and founder of Liverpool, John Houlding was the club's first chairman, a position he held from its founding in 1892 until 1904.John McKenna took over as chairman after Houlding's departure.", "McKenna subsequently became President of the Football League.", "The chairmanship changed hands many times before John Smith, whose father was a shareholder of the club, took up the role in 1973.He oversaw the most successful period in Liverpool's history before stepping down in 1990.His successor was Noel White who became chairman in 1990.In August 1991 David Moores, whose family had owned the club for more than 50 years, became chairman.", "His uncle John Moores was also a shareholder at Liverpool and was chairman of Everton from 1961 to 1973.Moores owned 51 percent of the club, and in 2004 expressed his willingness to consider a bid for his shares in Liverpool.Moores eventually sold the club to American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks on 6 February 2007.The deal valued the club and its outstanding debts at £218.9 million.", "The pair paid £5,000 per share, or £174.1m for the total shareholding and £44.8m to cover the club's debts.", "Disagreements between Gillett and Hicks, and the fans' lack of support for them, resulted in the pair looking to sell the club.", "Martin Broughton was appointed chairman of the club on 16 April 2010 to oversee its sale.", "In May 2010, accounts were released showing the holding company of the club to be £350m in debt (due to leveraged takeover) with losses of £55m, causing auditor KPMG to qualify its audit opinion.", "The group's creditors, including the Royal Bank of Scotland, took Gillett and Hicks to court to force them to allow the board to proceed with the sale of the club, the major asset of the holding company.", "A High Court judge, Mr Justice Floyd, ruled in favour of the creditors and paved the way for the sale of the club to Fenway Sports Group (formerly New England Sports Ventures), although Gillett and Hicks still had the option to appeal.", "Liverpool was sold to Fenway Sports Group on 15 October 2010 for £300m.Liverpool has been described as a global brand; a 2010 report valued the club's trademarks and associated intellectual property at £141m, an increase of £5m on the previous year.", "Liverpool was given a brand rating of AA (Very Strong).", "In April 2010 business magazine ''Forbes'' ranked Liverpool as the sixth most valuable football team in the world, behind Manchester United, Real Madrid, Arsenal, Barcelona and Bayern Munich; they valued the club at $822m (£532m), excluding debt.", "Accountants Deloitte ranked Liverpool eighth in the Deloitte Football Money League, which ranks the world's football clubs in terms of revenue.", "Liverpool's income in the 2009–10 season was €225.3m.", "According to a 2018 report by Deloitte, the club had an annual revenue of €424.2 million for the previous year, and ''Forbes'' valued the club at $1.944 billion.", "In 2018, annual revenue increased to €513.7 million, and ''Forbes'' valued the club at $2.183 billion.", "In 2019 revenue increased to €604 million (£533 million) according to Deloitte, with the club breaching the half a billion pounds mark.In April 2020, the owners of the club came under fire from fans and the media for deciding to furlough all non-playing staff during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "In response to this, the club made a U-turn on the decision and apologised for their initial decision.", "In April 2021 ''Forbes'' valued the club at $4.1 billion, a two-year increase of 88%, making it the world's fifth-most-valuable football club.", "Based on the latest rankings by ''Forbes'', as of May 2023, Liverpool is ranked as the fourth most valuable football club in the world, behind Real Madrid, Manchester United and Barcelona; they valued the club at $5.29 billion, an increase of 19% from 2022." ], [ "Liverpool in the media", "Liverpool featured in the first edition of BBC's ''Match of the Day'', which screened highlights of their match against Arsenal at Anfield on 22 August 1964.The first football match to be televised in colour was between Liverpool and West Ham United, broadcast live in March 1967.Liverpool fans featured in the Pink Floyd song \"Fearless\", in which they sang excerpts from \"You'll Never Walk Alone\".", "To mark the club's appearance in the 1988 FA Cup Final, Liverpool released the \"Anfield Rap\", a song featuring John Barnes and other members of the squad.A docudrama on the Hillsborough disaster, written by Jimmy McGovern, was screened in 1996.It featured Christopher Eccleston as Trevor Hicks, who lost two teenage daughters in the disaster, went on to campaign for safer stadiums and helped to form the Hillsborough Families Support Group.", "Liverpool featured in the 2001 film ''The 51st State'', in which ex-hitman Felix DeSouza (Robert Carlyle) is a keen supporter of the team and the last scene takes place at a match between Liverpool and Manchester United.", "The club also featured in the 1984 children's television show ''Scully'', about a young boy who tries to gain a trial with Liverpool.", "In the ''Doctor Who'' episode \"The Halloween Apocalypse\", aired in October 2021, features The Doctor (played by Jodie Whittaker) exiting the TARDIS outside Anfield as she exclaims: \"Liverpool?", "Anfield!", "Klopp era, classic!", "\"." ], [ "Players", "===First-team squad====== Out on loan ======Reserves and Academy====== Former players ====== Player records ====== Club captains ===Since the establishment of the club in 1892, 46 players have been club captain of Liverpool F.C.", "Andrew Hannah became the first captain of the club after Liverpool separated from Everton and formed its own club.", "Alex Raisbeck, who was club captain from 1899 to 1909, was the longest serving captain before being overtaken by Steven Gerrard who served 12 seasons as Liverpool captain starting from the 2003–04 season.", "The present captain is Virgil van Dijk, who in the 2023–24 season replaced Jordan Henderson who moved to Al-Ettifaq.Steven Gerrard is Liverpool's longest serving captain.NamePeriod Andrew Hannah 1892–1895 Jimmy Ross 1895–1897 John McCartney 1897–1898 Harry Storer 1898–1899 Alex Raisbeck 1899–1909 Arthur Goddard 1909–1912 Ephraim Longworth 1912–1913 Harry Lowe 1913–1915 Donald McKinlay 1919–1920 Ephraim Longworth 1920–1921 Donald McKinlay 1921–1928 Tom Bromilow 1928–1929 James Jackson 1929–1930 Tom Morrison 1930–1931 Tom Bradshaw 1931–1934 Tom Cooper 1934–1939NamePeriod Matt Busby 1939–1940 Willie Fagan 1945–1947 Jack Balmer 1947–1950 Phil Taylor 1950–1953 Bill Jones 1953–1954 Laurie Hughes 1954–1955 Billy Liddell 1955–1958 Johnny Wheeler 1958–1959 Ronnie Moran 1959–1960 Dick White 1960–1961 Ron Yeats 1961–1970 Tommy Smith 1970–1973 Emlyn Hughes 1973–1978 Phil Thompson 1978–1981 Graeme Souness 1982–1984 Phil Neal 1984–1985NamePeriod Alan Hansen 1985–1988 Ronnie Whelan 1988–1989 Alan Hansen 1989–1990 Ronnie Whelan 1990–1991 Steve Nicol 1990–1991 Mark Wright 1991–1993 Ian Rush 1993–1996 John Barnes 1996–1997 Paul Ince 1997–1999 Jamie Redknapp 1999–2002 Sami Hyypiä 2001–2003 Steven Gerrard 2003–2015 Jordan Henderson 2015–2023 Virgil van Dijk2023–=== Player of the season ===" ], [ "Club officials", "* Owner: Fenway Sports Group* Ambassadors: Ian Rush, Robbie Fowler, Michael Owen=== Liverpool Football Club and Athletic Grounds Limited ===* Principal owner: John W. Henry* Chairman: Tom Werner* Chief executive officer: Billy Hogan* Chief operating officer: Andy HughesSource:=== Liverpool Football Club ===* Directors: John W. Henry, Tom Werner, Michael Gordon, Peter Moore, Michael Egan* Non-Executive Director: Kenny Dalglish* Director of communications: Susan Black* Director of scouting: Dave Fallows* Chief scout: Barry Hunter* Director of technical performance: Julian WardSource:=== Coaching and medical staff ===Current Liverpool manager, Jürgen Klopp* Manager: Jürgen Klopp* Assistant coach: Pepijn Lijnders* Assistant coach: Peter Krawietz* Elite Development coach: Vitor Matos* First-team goalkeeping coach: John Achterberg* First-team goalkeeping coach: Cláudio Taffarel* First-team assistant goalkeeping coach: Jack Robinson* Head of fitness and conditioning: Andreas Kornmayer* Head of recovery and performance: Andreas Schlumberger* First-team fitness coach: Conall Murtagh* First-team assistant fitness coach: Jordan Fairclough* Club doctor: Jim Moxon* Head physiotherapist: Lee Nobes* Head of nutrition: Mona Nemmer* Academy director: Alex InglethorpeSource:" ], [ "Honours", "European Cups Liverpool won from 1977 to 2019 on display in the club's museumLiverpool's first trophy was the Lancashire League, which it won in the club's first season.", "In 1901, the club won its first League title, while the nineteenth and most recent was in 2020.Its first success in the FA Cup was in 1965.In terms of the number of trophies won, Liverpool's most successful decade was the 1980s, when the club won six League titles, two FA Cups, four League Cups, one Football League Super Cup, five Charity Shields (one shared) and two European Cups.", "In 2020, Liverpool became the first English club to have won a League title in eight different decades.The club has accumulated more top-flight wins and points than any other English team.", "Liverpool also has the highest average league finishing position (3.3) for the 50-year period to 2015 and second-highest average league finishing position for the period 1900–1999 after Arsenal, with an average league placing of 8.7.Liverpool is the most successful British club in international football with fourteen trophies, having won the European Cup/UEFA Champions League, UEFA's premier club competition, six times, an English record and only surpassed by Real Madrid and A.C. Milan.", "Liverpool's fifth European Cup win, in 2005, meant that the club was awarded the trophy permanently and was also awarded a multiple-winner badge.", "Liverpool also hold the English record of three wins in the UEFA Cup, UEFA's secondary club competition.", "Liverpool also hold the English record of four wins in the UEFA Super Cup'''.'''", "In 2019, the club won the FIFA Club World Cup for the first time, and also became the first English club to win the international treble of Club World Cup, Champions League and UEFA Super Cup.+Liverpool FC honours Type Competition Titles Seasons'''Domestic'''First Division/Premier League191900–01, 1905–06, 1921–22, 1922–23, 1946–47, 1963–64, 1965–66, 1972–73, 1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1989–90, 2019–20Second Division41893–94, 1895–96, 1904–05, 1961–62FA Cup81964–65, 1973–74, 1985–86, 1988–89, 1991–92, 2000–01, 2005–06, 2021–22Football League Cup/EFL Cup91980–81, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1994–95, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2011–12, 2021–22FA Charity Shield/FA Community Shield161964, 1965, 1966, 1974, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1990, 2001, 2006, 2022 ( shared)Football League Super Cup11985–86'''Continental'''European Cup/UEFA Champions League61976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81, 1983–84, 2004–05, 2018–19UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League31972–73, 1975–76, 2000–01UEFA Super Cup41977, 2001, 2005, 2019'''Worldwide'''FIFA Club World Cup12019===Minor titles===* Lancashire League** Winners (1): 1892–93 * Sheriff of London Charity Shield** Winners (1): 1906=== Doubles and trebles ===* Doubles: League and FA Cup (1): 1985–86 League and League Cup (3): 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84 League and European Cup (2): 1976–77, 1983–84 League and UEFA Cup (2): 1972–73, 1975–76 League Cup and European Cup (1): 1980–81 FA Cup and League Cup (1): 2021–22* Trebles: League, League Cup and European Cup (1): 1983–84 FA Cup, League Cup and UEFA Cup (1): 2000–01" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " === Independent websites ===* Liverpool – statistics on LFCHistory.net** Liverpool at Sky Sports* Liverpool FC at Premier League* Liverpool FC at UEFA" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lysosome" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''lysosome''' () is a membrane-bound organelle found in many animal cells.", "They are spherical vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes that digest many kinds of biomolecules.", "A lysosome has a specific composition, of both its membrane proteins and its lumenal proteins.", "The lumen's pH (~4.5–5.0) is optimal for the enzymes involved in hydrolysis, analogous to the activity of the stomach.", "Besides degradation of polymers, the lysosome is involved in cell processes of secretion, plasma membrane repair, apoptosis, cell signaling, and energy metabolism.Lysosomes digest material.", "Step one shows material entering a food vacuole through the plasma membrane, a process known as endocytosis.", "In step two a lysosome with an active hydrolytic enzyme comes into the picture as the food vacuole moves away from the plasma membrane.", "Step three consists of the lysosome fusing with the food vacuole and hydrolytic enzymes entering the food vacuole.", "In the final step, step four, hydrolytic enzymes digest the food particles.Lysosomes are degradative organelles that act as the waste disposal system of the cell by digesting used materials in the cytoplasm, from both inside and outside the cell.", "Material from outside the cell is taken up through endocytosis, while material from the inside of the cell is digested through autophagy.", "The sizes of the organelles vary greatly—the larger ones can be more than 10 times the size of the smaller ones.", "They were discovered and named by Belgian biologist Christian de Duve, who eventually received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974.Lysosomes contain more than 60 different enzymes, and have more than 50 membrane proteins.", "Enzymes of the lysosomes are synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and exported to the Golgi apparatus upon recruitment by a complex composed of CLN6 and CLN8 proteins.", "The enzymes are transported from the Golgi apparatus to lysosomes in small vesicles, which fuse with larger acidic vesicles.", "Enzymes destined for a lysosome are tagged with the molecule mannose 6-phosphate, so that they are properly sorted into acidified vesicles.In 2009, Marco Sardiello and co-workers discovered that the synthesis of most lysosomal enzymes and membrane proteins is controlled by transcription factor EB (TFEB), which promotes the transcription of nuclear genes.", "Mutations in the genes for these enzymes are responsible for more than 50 different human genetic disorders collectively known as lysosomal storage diseases.", "These diseases result in an accumulation of specific substrates, due to the inability to break them down.", "These genetic defects are related to several neurodegenerative disorders, cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and aging-related diseases." ], [ "Etymology and pronunciation", "The word ''lysosome'' (, ) is Neo-Latin that uses the combining forms ''lyso-'' (referring to lysis and derived from the Latin ''lysis'', meaning \"to loosen\", via Ancient Greek λύσις lúsis), and ''-some'', from ''soma'', \"body\", yielding \"body that lyses\" or \"lytic body\".", "The adjectival form is ''lysosomal''.", "The forms ''lyosome'' and ''lyosomal'' are much rarer; they use the ''lyo-'' form of the prefix but are often treated by readers and editors as mere unthinking replications of typos, which has no doubt been true as often as not." ], [ "Discovery", "TEM views of various vesicular compartments.", "Lysosomes are denoted by \"Ly\".", "They are dyed dark due to their acidity; in the center of the top image, a Golgi Apparatus can be seen, distal from the cell membrane relative to the lysosome .Christian de Duve, at the Laboratory of Physiological Chemistry at the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium, had been studying the mechanism of action of insulin in liver cells.", "By 1949, he and his team had focused on the enzyme called glucose 6-phosphatase, which is the first crucial enzyme in sugar metabolism and the target of insulin.", "They already suspected that this enzyme played a key role in regulating blood sugar levels.", "However, even after a series of experiments, they failed to purify and isolate the enzyme from the cellular extracts.", "Therefore, they tried a more arduous procedure of cell fractionation, by which cellular components are separated based on their sizes using centrifugation.They succeeded in detecting the enzyme activity from the microsomal fraction.", "This was the crucial step in the serendipitous discovery of lysosomes.", "To estimate this enzyme activity, they used that of the standardized enzyme acid phosphatase and found that the activity was only 10% of the expected value.", "One day, the enzyme activity of purified cell fractions which had been refrigerated for five days was measured.", "Surprisingly, the enzyme activity was increased to normal of that of the fresh sample.", "The result was the same no matter how many times they repeated the estimation, and led to the conclusion that a membrane-like barrier limited the accessibility of the enzyme to its substrate, and that the enzymes were able to diffuse after a few days (and react with their substrate).", "They described this membrane-like barrier as a \"saclike structure surrounded by a membrane and containing acid phosphatase.", "\"It became clear that this enzyme from the cell fraction came from membranous fractions, which were definitely cell organelles, and in 1955 De Duve named them \"lysosomes\" to reflect their digestive properties.", "The same year, Alex B. Novikoff from the University of Vermont visited de Duve's laboratory, and successfully obtained the first electron micrographs of the new organelle.", "Using a staining method for acid phosphatase, de Duve and Novikoff confirmed the location of the hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes using light and electron microscopic studies.", "de Duve won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974 for this discovery.Originally, De Duve had termed the organelles the \"suicide bags\" or \"suicide sacs\" of the cells, for their hypothesized role in apoptosis.", "However, it has since been concluded that they only play a minor role in cell death." ], [ "Function and structure", "Lysosomes contain a variety of enzymes, enabling the cell to break down various biomolecules it engulfs, including peptides, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids (lysosomal lipase).", "The enzymes responsible for this hydrolysis require an acidic environment for optimal activity.In addition to being able to break down polymers, lysosomes are capable of fusing with other organelles & digesting large structures or cellular debris; through cooperation with phagosomes, they are able to conduct autophagy, clearing out damaged structures.", "Similarly, they are able to break down virus particles or bacteria in phagocytosis of macrophages.The size of lysosomes varies from 0.1 μm to 1.2 μm.", "With a pH ranging from ~4.5–5.0, the interior of the lysosomes is acidic compared to the slightly basic cytosol (pH 7.2).", "The lysosomal membrane protects the cytosol, and therefore the rest of the cell, from the degradative enzymes within the lysosome.", "The cell is additionally protected from any lysosomal acid hydrolases that drain into the cytosol, as these enzymes are pH-sensitive and do not function well or at all in the alkaline environment of the cytosol.", "This ensures that cytosolic molecules and organelles are not destroyed in case there is leakage of the hydrolytic enzymes from the lysosome.The lysosome maintains its pH differential by pumping in protons (H+ ions) from the cytosol across the membrane via proton pumps and chloride ion channels.", "Vacuolar-ATPases are responsible for transport of protons, while the counter transport of chloride ions is performed by ClC-7 Cl−/H+ antiporter.", "In this way a steady acidic environment is maintained.It sources its versatile capacity for degradation by import of enzymes with specificity for different substrates; cathepsins are the major class of hydrolytic enzymes, while lysosomal alpha-glucosidase is responsible for carbohydrates, and lysosomal acid phosphatase is necessary to release phosphate groups of phospholipids.Recent research also indicates that lysosomes can act as a source of intracellular calcium." ], [ "Formation", "The lysosome is shown in purple, as an endpoint in endocytotic sorting.", "AP2 is necessary for vesicle formation, whereas the mannose-6-receptor is necessary for sorting hydrolase into the lysosome's lumen.Many components of animal cells are recycled by transferring them inside or embedded in sections of membrane.", "For instance, in endocytosis (more specifically, macropinocytosis), a portion of the cell's plasma membrane pinches off to form vesicles that will eventually fuse with an organelle within the cell.", "Without active replenishment, the plasma membrane would continuously decrease in size.", "It is thought that lysosomes participate in this dynamic membrane exchange system and are formed by a gradual maturation process from endosomes.The production of lysosomal proteins suggests one method of lysosome sustainment.", "Lysosomal protein genes are transcribed in the nucleus in a process that is controlled by transcription factor EB (TFEB).", "mRNA transcripts exit the nucleus into the cytosol, where they are translated by ribosomes.", "The nascent peptide chains are translocated into the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where they are modified.", "Lysosomal soluble proteins exit the endoplasmic reticulum via COPII-coated vesicles after recruitment by the EGRESS complex ('''E'''R-to-'''G'''olgi '''r'''elaying of '''e'''nzymes of the ly'''s'''osomal '''s'''ystem), which is composed of CLN6 and CLN8 proteins.", "COPII vesicles then deliver lysosomal enzymes to the Golgi apparatus, where a specific lysosomal tag, mannose 6-phosphate, is added to the peptides.", "The presence of these tags allow for binding to mannose 6-phosphate receptors in the Golgi apparatus, a phenomenon that is crucial for proper packaging into vesicles destined for the lysosomal system.Upon leaving the Golgi apparatus, the lysosomal enzyme-filled vesicle fuses with a late endosome, a relatively acidic organelle with an approximate pH of 5.5.This acidic environment causes dissociation of the lysosomal enzymes from the mannose 6-phosphate receptors.", "The enzymes are packed into vesicles for further transport to established lysosomes.", "The late endosome itself can eventually grow into a mature lysosome, as evidenced by the transport of endosomal membrane components from the lysosomes back to the endosomes." ], [ "Pathogen entry", "As the endpoint of endocytosis, the lysosome also acts as a safeguard in preventing pathogens from being able to reach the cytoplasm before being degraded.", "Pathogens often hijack endocytotic pathways such as pinocytosis in order to gain entry into the cell.", "The lysosome prevents easy entry into the cell by hydrolyzing the biomolecules of pathogens necessary for their replication strategies; reduced lysosomal activity results in an increase in viral infectivity, including HIV.", "In addition, AB5 toxins such as cholera hijack the endosomal pathway while evading lysosomal degradation." ], [ "Clinical significance", "Lysosomes are involved in a group of genetically inherited deficiencies, or mutations called lysosomal storage diseases (LSD), inborn errors of metabolism caused by a dysfunction of one of the enzymes.", "The rate of incidence is estimated to be 1 in 5,000 births, and the true figure expected to be higher as many cases are likely to be undiagnosed or misdiagnosed.", "The primary cause is deficiency of an acid hydrolase.", "Other conditions are due to defects in lysosomal membrane proteins that fail to transport the enzyme, non-enzymatic soluble lysosomal proteins.", "The initial effect of such disorders is accumulation of specific macromolecules or monomeric compounds inside the endosomal–autophagic–lysosomal system.", "This results in abnormal signaling pathways, calcium homeostasis, lipid biosynthesis and degradation and intracellular trafficking, ultimately leading to pathogenetic disorders.", "The organs most affected are brain, viscera, bone and cartilage.There is no direct medical treatment to cure LSDs.", "The most common LSD is Gaucher's disease, which is due to deficiency of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase.", "Consequently, the enzyme substrate, the fatty acid glucosylceramide accumulates, particularly in white blood cells, which in turn affects spleen, liver, kidneys, lungs, brain and bone marrow.", "The disease is characterized by bruises, fatigue, anaemia, low blood platelets, osteoporosis, and enlargement of the liver and spleen.", "As of 2017, enzyme replacement therapy is available for treating 8 of the 50-60 known LDs.The most severe and rarely found, lysosomal storage disease is inclusion cell disease.Metachromatic leukodystrophy is another lysosomal storage disease that also affects sphingolipid metabolism.Dysfunctional lysosome activity is also heavily implicated in the biology of aging, and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and cardiovascular disease." ], [ "Different enzymes present in Lysosomes", "+Sr.", "NoEnzymesSubstrate 1'''Phosphates'''A- Acid phosphataseMost phosphomonoesters B- Acid phosphodiesteraseOligonucleotides and phosphodiesterase2'''Nucleases''' A- Acid ribonuclease RNAB- Acid deoxyribonucleaseDNA3'''Polysaccharides/ mucopolysaccharides hydrolyzing enzymes'''A- β-GalactosidaseGalactosidesB- α'''-'''GlucosidaseGlycogenC- α'''-'''MannosidaseMannosides, glycoproteinsD- β- GlucoronidasePolysaccharides and mucopolysaccharidesE- LysozymesBacterial cell walls and mucopolysaccharidesF- HyaluronidaseHyaluronic acids, chondroitin sulfatesH- ArylsulphataseOrganic sulfates4'''Proteases'''A- Cathepsin(s)ProteinsB- CollagenaseCollagenC- PeptidasePeptides5'''Lipid degrading enzymes''' A- EsteraseFatty acyl estersB- PhospholipasePhospholipids6'''Sulfatases'''A- Arylsulfatase(A, B & G)O- and N-Sulfate estersB- Glucosamine (N-acetyl)-6-Sulfatase/GNSGlycosaminoglycansC- Iduronate 2-Sulfatase/IDSO- and N-Sulfate esters===Lysosomotropism===Weak bases with lipophilic properties accumulate in acidic intracellular compartments like lysosomes.", "While the plasma and lysosomal membranes are permeable for neutral and uncharged species of weak bases, the charged protonated species of weak bases do not permeate biomembranes and accumulate within lysosomes.", "The concentration within lysosomes may reach levels 100 to 1000 fold higher than extracellular concentrations.", "This phenomenon is called lysosomotropism, \"acid trapping\" or \"proton pump\" effect.", "The amount of accumulation of lysosomotropic compounds may be estimated using a cell-based mathematical model.A significant part of the clinically approved drugs are lipophilic weak bases with lysosomotropic properties.", "This explains a number of pharmacological properties of these drugs, such as high tissue-to-blood concentration gradients or long tissue elimination half-lives; these properties have been found for drugs such as haloperidol, levomepromazine, and amantadine.", "However, high tissue concentrations and long elimination half-lives are explained also by lipophilicity and absorption of drugs to fatty tissue structures.", "Important lysosomal enzymes, such as acid sphingomyelinase, may be inhibited by lysosomally accumulated drugs.", "Such compounds are termed FIASMAs (functional inhibitor of acid sphingomyelinase) and include for example fluoxetine, sertraline, or amitriptyline.Ambroxol is a lysosomotropic drug of clinical use to treat conditions of productive cough for its mucolytic action.", "Ambroxol triggers the exocytosis of lysosomes via neutralization of lysosomal pH and calcium release from acidic calcium stores.", "Presumably for this reason, Ambroxol was also found to improve cellular function in some disease of lysosomal origin such as Parkinson's or lysosomal storage disease.=== Systemic lupus erythematosus ===Impaired lysosome function is prominent in systemic lupus erythematosus preventing macrophages and monocytes from degrading neutrophil extracellular traps and immune complexes.", "The failure to degrade internalized immune complexes stems from chronic mTORC2 activity, which impairs lysosome acidification.", "As a result, immune complexes in the lysosome recycle to the surface of macrophages causing an accumulation of nuclear antigens upstream of multiple lupus-associated pathologies." ], [ "Controversy in botany", "By scientific convention, the term lysosome is applied to these vesicular organelles only in animals, and the term vacuole is applied to those in plants, fungi and algae (some animal cells also have vacuoles).", "Discoveries in plant cells since the 1970s started to challenge this definition.", "Plant vacuoles are found to be much more diverse in structure and function than previously thought.", "Some vacuoles contain their own hydrolytic enzymes and perform the classic lysosomal activity, which is autophagy.", "These vacuoles are therefore seen as fulfilling the role of the animal lysosome.", "Based on de Duve's description that \"only when considered as part of a system involved directly or indirectly in intracellular digestion does the term lysosome describe a physiological unit\", some botanists strongly argued that these vacuoles are lysosomes.", "However, this is not universally accepted as the vacuoles are strictly not similar to lysosomes, such as in their specific enzymes and lack of phagocytic functions.", "Vacuoles do not have catabolic activity and do not undergo exocytosis as lysosomes do." ], [ "See also", "* Peroxisome* Cathelicidin* Antimicrobial peptides* Innate immune system* TMEM106B" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * 3D structures of proteins associated with lysosome membrane* Hide and Seek Foundation For Lysosomal Research* Lysosomal Disease Network, a research consortium funded by the NIH through its NCATS/Rare Diseases Clinical Research Network* Self-Destructive Behavior in Cells May Hold Key to a Longer Life* Mutations in the Lysosomal Enzyme–Targeting Pathway and Persistent Stuttering* Animation showing how lysosomes are made, and their function" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leg spin" ], [ "Introduction", "over the wicket.around the wicket.", "'''Leg spin''' is a type of spin bowling in cricket.", "A '''leg spinner''' bowls right-arm with a wrist spin action.", "The leg spinner's normal delivery causes the ball to spin from right to left (from the bowler's perspective) when the ball bounces on the pitch.", "For a right-handed batter, that is away from the leg side, and this is where it gets the name '''leg break'''.Leg spinners bowl mostly leg breaks, varying them by adjusting the line and length, and amount of side spin versus topspin of the deliveries.", "Leg spinners also typically use variations of flight by sometimes looping the ball in the air, allowing any cross-breeze and the aerodynamic effects of the spinning ball to cause the ball to dip and drift before bouncing and spinning or \"turning\", sharply.", "Leg spinners also bowl other types of delivery, which spin differently, such as the googly.The terms 'leg spin', 'leg spinner', 'leg break' and 'leggie' are used in slightly different ways by different sources.The bowlers with the second- and fourth-highest number of wickets in the history of Test cricket, Shane Warne and Anil Kumble, respectively, were leg spinners.", "One famous example of leg spin is Warne's Ball of the Century." ], [ "History", "In the 1970s and 1980s, it was thought that leg spin would disappear from the game due to the success of West Indian, and later Australian teams, exclusively using fast bowlers.", "During this time Abdul Qadir of Pakistan was the highest-profile leg spinner in the world and is sometimes credited with \"keeping the art alive\".", "However, leg spin has again become popular with cricket fans and a successful part of cricket teams, driven largely by the success of Shane Warne, beginning with his spectacular Ball of the Century to Mike Gatting in 1993." ], [ "Comparison with other types of bowling", "A left-handed bowler who bowls with the same (wrist spin) action as a leg spinner is known as a left-arm unorthodox spin bowler.", "The ball itself spins in the opposite direction.The same kind of trajectory, which spins from right to left on pitching, when performed by a left-arm bowler is known as left-arm orthodox spin bowling.As with all spinners, leg spinners bowl the ball far more slowly (70–90 km/h or 45–55 mph) than fast bowlers.", "The fastest leg spinners will sometimes top 100 km/h (60 mph).", "While very difficult to bowl accurately, good leg spin is considered one of the most threatening types of bowling to bat against for a right-handed batter, since the flight and sharp turn make the ball's movement extremely hard to read, and the turn away from the right-handed batter is more dangerous than the turn into the right-handed batter generated by an off spinner.", "Any miscalculation can result in an outside edge off the bat and a catch going to the wicket-keeper or slip fielders.", "Alternatively, for a ball aimed outside the leg stump, the breaking may be so sharp that the ball goes behind a right-handed batter and hits the stumps – the batter is then said (informally) to be \"bowled around his or her legs\".", "A left-handed batter has less difficulty facing leg spin bowling, because the ball moves in towards the batter's body, meaning the batter's legs are usually in the path of the ball if it misses the bat or takes an edge.", "This makes it difficult for the bowler to get the batter out bowled or caught from a leg break.", "'''Leg spin:''' Some sources make the term 'leg spin' synonymous with leg break, implying that other deliveries bowled by a leg spinner do not count as 'leg spin'.", "However, other sources use the term 'leg spin' more widely, to include all deliveries bowled by a leg spinner, including non-leg break deliveries.", "Mason Crane bowling a leg break during the 2017–18 Ashes series'''Leg break:''' In the definition of a leg break, some sources actually include the bowler being a leg spinner, which implies that only leg spinners can bowl leg breaks; all leg breaks are bowled by leg spinners.", "Other sources do not include the bowler being a leg spinner in the definition of a leg break, and say a leg break is simply a delivery that spins from the legside to the offside, and so can also be bowled by other types of bowler.", "In this case, leg breaks are (only) mostly bowled by leg spinners.", "'''Leg spinner:''' The term leg spinner can be used to mean either the bowler or the leg break delivery.", "'''Leggie:''' The term leggie can also be used to mean either the bowler or the leg break delivery." ], [ "Technique", "A leg break is bowled by holding the cricket ball in the palm of the hand with the seam running across under all the fingers.", "As the ball is released, the wrist is rotated to the left and the ball flicked by the ring finger, giving the ball an anti-clockwise spin as seen from behind.To grip the ball for a leg-spinning delivery, the ball is placed into the palm with the seam parallel to the palm.", "The first two fingers then spread and grip the ball, and the third and fourth fingers close together and rest against the side of the ball.", "The first bend of the third finger should grasp the seam.", "The thumb resting against the side is up to the bowler but should impart no pressure.", "When the ball is bowled, the third finger will apply most of the spin.", "The wrist is cocked as it comes down by the hip, and the wrist moves sharply from right to left as the ball is released, adding more spin.", "The ball is tossed up to provide flight.", "The batter will see the hand with the palm facing towards them when the ball is released." ], [ "Notable leg spin bowlers", "Shane Warne bowling a leg spin deliveryPlayers listed below have been included as they meet specific criteria which the general cricketing public would recognise as having achieved significant success in the art of leg spin bowling.", "For example: leading wicket-takers, and inventors of new deliveries.", "* Shane Warne – 708 Test wickets (second all-time), one of five Wisden Cricketers of the Century* Bernard Bosanquet – credited with inventing the googly* B. S. Chandrasekhar – took 16 five-wicket hauls* Clarrie Grimmett – 216 Test wickets* Anil Kumble – 619 Test wickets (currently 4th on the list of all-time Test cricket wicket takers), best bowling in an innings of 10/74 * Abdul Qadir – took 10 wickets in a Test match on five occasions* Tich Freeman - 3776 first-class wickets, the second of all time and the most of any leg spin bowler." ], [ "Other deliveries bowled by leg spin bowlers", "Highly skilled leg spin bowlers are also able to bowl deliveries that behave unexpectedly, including the googly, which turns the opposite way to a normal leg break and the topspinner, which does not turn but dips sharply and bounces higher than other deliveries.", "A few leg spinners such as Abdul Qadir, Anil Kumble, Shane Warne and Mushtaq Ahmed have also mastered the flipper, a delivery that like a topspinner goes straight on landing, but floats through the air before skidding and keeping low, often dismissing batters leg before wicket or bowled.", "Another variation in the arsenal of some leg spinners is the slider, a leg break pushed out of the hand somewhat faster, so that it does not spin as much, but travels more straight on." ], [ "See also", "* Ball of the Century* Flipper* Googly* Off break* Topspinner" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* About Leg Spin – talkCricket * Leg Spin Definition – Oxford Dictionaries* Leg Spin Basics video – wisdomtalkies* How to bowl leg spin – BBC Sport" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lisp machine" ], [ "Introduction", "A Knight machine preserved in the MIT Museum'''Lisp machines''' are general-purpose computers designed to efficiently run Lisp as their main software and programming language, usually via hardware support.", "They are an example of a high-level language computer architecture, and in a sense, they were the first commercial single-user workstations.", "Despite being modest in number (perhaps 7,000 units total as of 1988) Lisp machines commercially pioneered many now-commonplace technologies, including effective garbage collection, laser printing, windowing systems, computer mice, high-resolution bit-mapped raster graphics, computer graphic rendering, and networking innovations such as Chaosnet.", "Several firms built and sold Lisp machines in the 1980s: Symbolics (3600, 3640, XL1200, MacIvory, and other models), Lisp Machines Incorporated (LMI Lambda), Texas Instruments (Explorer, MicroExplorer), and Xerox (Interlisp-D workstations).", "The operating systems were written in Lisp Machine Lisp, Interlisp (Xerox), and later partly in Common Lisp.Symbolics 3640 Lisp machine" ], [ "History", "===Historical context===Artificial intelligence (AI) computer programs of the 1960s and 1970s intrinsically required what was then considered a huge amount of computer power, as measured in processor time and memory space.", "The power requirements of AI research were exacerbated by the Lisp symbolic programming language, when commercial hardware was designed and optimized for assembly- and Fortran-like programming languages.", "At first, the cost of such computer hardware meant that it had to be shared among many users.", "As integrated circuit technology shrank the size and cost of computers in the 1960s and early 1970s, and the memory needs of AI programs began to exceed the address space of the most common research computer, the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-10, researchers considered a new approach: a computer designed specifically to develop and run large artificial intelligence programs, and tailored to the semantics of the Lisp language.", "To keep the operating system (relatively) simple, these machines would not be shared, but would be dedicated to single users.===Initial development===In 1973, Richard Greenblatt and Thomas Knight, programmers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (AI Lab), began what would become the MIT Lisp Machine Project when they first began building a computer hardwired to run certain basic Lisp operations, rather than run them in software, in a 24-bit tagged architecture.", "The machine also did incremental (or ''Arena'') garbage collection.", "More specifically, since Lisp variables are typed at runtime rather than compile time, a simple addition of two variables could take five times as long on conventional hardware, due to test and branch instructions.", "Lisp Machines ran the tests in parallel with the more conventional single instruction additions.", "If the simultaneous tests failed, then the result was discarded and recomputed; this meant in many cases a speed increase by several factors.", "This simultaneous checking approach was used as well in testing the bounds of arrays when referenced, and other memory management necessities (not merely garbage collection or arrays).Type checking was further improved and automated when the conventional byte word of 32-bits was lengthened to 36-bits for Symbolics 3600-model Lisp machines and eventually to 40-bits or more (usually, the excess bits not accounted for by the following were used for error-correcting codes).", "The first group of extra bits were used to hold type data, making the machine a tagged architecture, and the remaining bits were used to implement CDR coding (wherein the usual linked list elements are compressed to occupy roughly half the space), aiding garbage collection by reportedly an order of magnitude.", "A further improvement was two microcode instructions which specifically supported Lisp functions, reducing the cost of calling a function to as little as 20 clock cycles, in some Symbolics implementations.The first machine was called the CONS machine (named after the list construction operator cons in Lisp).", "Often it was affectionately referred to as the ''Knight machine'', perhaps since Knight wrote his master's thesis on the subject; it was extremely well received.", "It was subsequently improved into a version called CADR (a pun; in Lisp, the cadr function, which returns the second item of a list, is pronounced or , as some pronounce the word \"cadre\") which was based on essentially the same architecture.", "About 25 of what were essentially prototype CADRs were sold within and without MIT for ~$50,000; it quickly became the favorite machine for hacking- many of the most favored software tools were quickly ported to it (e.g.", "Emacs was ported from ITS in 1975).", "It was so well received at an AI conference held at MIT in 1978 that Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) began funding its development.===Commercializing MIT Lisp machine technology===Symbolics 3620 (left) and LMI Lambda Lisp machinesIn 1979, Russell Noftsker, being convinced that Lisp machines had a bright commercial future due to the strength of the Lisp language and the enabling factor of hardware acceleration, proposed to Greenblatt that they commercialize the technology.", "In a counter-intuitive move for an AI Lab hacker, Greenblatt acquiesced, hoping perhaps that he could recreate the informal and productive atmosphere of the Lab in a real business.", "These ideas and goals were considerably different from those of Noftsker.", "The two negotiated at length, but neither would compromise.", "As the proposed firm could succeed only with the full and undivided assistance of the AI Lab hackers as a group, Noftsker and Greenblatt decided that the fate of the enterprise was up to them, and so the choice should be left to the hackers.The ensuing discussions of the choice divided the lab into two factions.", "In February 1979, matters came to a head.", "The hackers sided with Noftsker, believing that a commercial venture fund-backed firm had a better chance of surviving and commercializing Lisp machines than Greenblatt's proposed self-sustaining start-up.", "Greenblatt lost the battle.It was at this juncture that Symbolics, Noftsker's enterprise, slowly came together.", "While Noftsker was paying his staff a salary, he had no building or any equipment for the hackers to work on.", "He bargained with Patrick Winston that, in exchange for allowing Symbolics' staff to keep working out of MIT, Symbolics would let MIT use internally and freely all the software Symbolics developed.", "A consultant from CDC, who was trying to put together a natural language computer application with a group of West-coast programmers, came to Greenblatt, seeking a Lisp machine for his group to work with, about eight months after the disastrous conference with Noftsker.", "Greenblatt had decided to start his own rival Lisp machine firm, but he had done nothing.", "The consultant, Alexander Jacobson, decided that the only way Greenblatt was going to start the firm and build the Lisp machines that Jacobson desperately needed was if Jacobson pushed and otherwise helped Greenblatt launch the firm.", "Jacobson pulled together business plans, a board, a partner for Greenblatt (one F. Stephen Wyle).", "The newfound firm was named ''LISP Machine, Inc.'' (LMI), and was funded by CDC orders, via Jacobson.Around this time Symbolics (Noftsker's firm) began operating.", "It had been hindered by Noftsker's promise to give Greenblatt a year's head start, and by severe delays in procuring venture capital.", "Symbolics still had the major advantage that while 3 or 4 of the AI Lab hackers had gone to work for Greenblatt, a solid 14 other hackers had signed onto Symbolics.", "Two AI Lab people were not hired by either: Richard Stallman and Marvin Minsky.", "Stallman, however, blamed Symbolics for the decline of the hacker community that had centered around the AI lab.", "For two years, from 1982 to the end of 1983, Stallman worked by himself to clone the output of the Symbolics programmers, with the aim of preventing them from gaining a monopoly on the lab's computers.Regardless, after a series of internal battles, Symbolics did get off the ground in 1980/1981, selling the CADR as the LM-2, while Lisp Machines, Inc. sold it as the LMI-CADR.", "Symbolics did not intend to produce many LM-2s, since the 3600 family of Lisp machines was supposed to ship quickly, but the 3600s were repeatedly delayed, and Symbolics ended up producing ~100 LM-2s, each of which sold for $70,000.Both firms developed second-generation products based on the CADR: the Symbolics 3600 and the LMI-LAMBDA (of which LMI managed to sell ~200).", "The 3600, which shipped a year late, expanded on the CADR by widening the machine word to 36-bits, expanding the address space to 28-bits, and adding hardware to accelerate certain common functions that were implemented in microcode on the CADR.", "The LMI-LAMBDA, which came out a year after the 3600, in 1983, was compatible with the CADR (it could run CADR microcode), but hardware differences existed.", "Texas Instruments (TI) joined the fray when it licensed the LMI-LAMBDA design and produced its own variant, the TI Explorer.", "Some of the LMI-LAMBDAs and the TI Explorer were dual systems with both a Lisp and a Unix processor.", "TI also developed a 32-bit microprocessor version of its Lisp CPU for the TI Explorer.", "This Lisp chip also was used for the MicroExplorer – a NuBus board for the Apple Macintosh II (NuBus was initially developed at MIT for use in Lisp machines).Symbolics continued to develop the 3600 family and its operating system, Genera, and produced the Ivory, a VLSI implementation of the Symbolics architecture.", "Starting in 1987, several machines based on the Ivory processor were developed: boards for Suns and Macs, stand-alone workstations and even embedded systems (I-Machine Custom LSI, 32 bit address, Symbolics XL-400, UX-400, MacIvory II; in 1989 available platforms were Symbolics XL-1200, MacIvory III, UX-1200, Zora, NXP1000 \"pizza box\").", "Texas Instruments shrank the Explorer into silicon as the MicroExplorer which was offered as a card for the Apple Mac II.", "LMI abandoned the CADR architecture and developed its own K-Machine, but LMI went bankrupt before the machine could be brought to market.", "Before its demise, LMI was working on a distributed system for the LAMBDA using Moby space.These machines had hardware support for various primitive Lisp operations (data type testing, CDR coding) and also hardware support for incremental garbage collection.", "They ran large Lisp programs very efficiently.", "The Symbolics machine was competitive against many commercial super minicomputers, but was never adapted for conventional purposes.", "The Symbolics Lisp Machines were also sold to some non-AI markets like computer graphics, modeling, and animation.The MIT-derived Lisp machines ran a Lisp dialect named Lisp Machine Lisp, descended from MIT's Maclisp.", "The operating systems were written from the ground up in Lisp, often using object-oriented extensions.", "Later, these Lisp machines also supported various versions of Common Lisp (with Flavors, New Flavors, and Common Lisp Object System (CLOS)).===Interlisp, BBN, and Xerox=== Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN) developed its own Lisp machine, named Jericho, which ran a version of Interlisp.", "It was never marketed.", "Frustrated, the whole AI group resigned, and were hired mostly by Xerox.", "So, Xerox Palo Alto Research Center had, simultaneously with Greenblatt's own development at MIT, developed their own Lisp machines which were designed to run InterLisp (and later Common Lisp).", "The same hardware was used with different software also as Smalltalk machines and as the Xerox Star office system.", "These included the Xerox 1100, ''Dolphin'' (1979); the Xerox 1132, ''Dorado''; the Xerox 1108, ''Dandelion'' (1981); the Xerox 1109, ''Dandetiger''; and the Xerox 1186/6085, ''Daybreak''.", "The operating system of the Xerox Lisp machines has also been ported to a virtual machine and is available for several platforms as a product named ''Medley''.", "The Xerox machine was well known for its advanced development environment (InterLisp-D), the ROOMS window manager, for its early graphical user interface and for novel applications like NoteCards (one of the first hypertext applications).Xerox also worked on a Lisp machine based on reduced instruction set computing (RISC), using the 'Xerox Common Lisp Processor' and planned to bring it to market by 1987, which did not occur.===Integrated Inference Machines===In the mid-1980s, Integrated Inference Machines (IIM) built prototypes of Lisp machines named Inferstar.===Developments of Lisp machines outside the United States===In 1984–85 a UK firm, Racal-Norsk, a joint subsidiary of Racal and Norsk Data, attempted to repurpose Norsk Data's ND-500 supermini as a microcoded Lisp machine, running CADR software: the Knowledge Processing System (KPS).There were several attempts by Japanese manufacturers to enter the Lisp machine market: the Fujitsu Facom-alpha mainframe co-processor, NTT's Elis, Toshiba's AI processor (AIP) and NEC's LIME.", "Several university research efforts produced working prototypes, among them are Kobe University's TAKITAC-7, RIKEN's FLATS, and Osaka University's EVLIS.In France, two Lisp Machine projects arose: M3L at Toulouse Paul Sabatier University and later MAIA.In Germany Siemens designed the RISC-based Lisp co-processor COLIBRI.===End of the Lisp machines===With the onset of the ''AI winter'' and the early beginnings of the microcomputer revolution, which would sweep away the minicomputer and workstation makers, cheaper desktop PCs soon could run Lisp programs even faster than Lisp machines, with no use of special purpose hardware.", "Their high profit margin hardware business eliminated, most Lisp machine makers had gone out of business by the early 90s, leaving only software based firms like Lucid Inc. or hardware makers who had switched to software and services to avoid the crash.", ", besides Xerox and TI, Symbolics is the only Lisp machine firm still operating, selling the Open Genera Lisp machine software environment and the Macsyma computer algebra system.===Legacy===Several attempts to write open-source emulators for various Lisp Machines have been made: CADR Emulation, Symbolics L Lisp Machine Emulation, the E3 Project (TI Explorer II Emulation), Meroko (TI Explorer I), and Nevermore (TI Explorer I).", "On 3 October 2005, the MIT released the CADR Lisp Machine source code as open source.In September 2014, Alexander Burger, developer of PicoLisp, announced PilMCU, an implementation of PicoLisp in hardware.The Bitsavers' PDF Document Archive has PDF versions of the extensive documentation for the Symbolics Lisp Machines, the TI Explorer and MicroExplorer Lisp Machines and the Xerox Interlisp-D Lisp Machines.===Applications===Domains using the Lisp machines were mostly in the wide field of artificial intelligence applications, but also in computer graphics, medical image processing, and many others.The main commercial expert systems of the 80s were available: Intellicorp's Knowledge Engineering Environment (KEE), Knowledge Craft, from The Carnegie Group Inc., and ART (Automated Reasoning Tool) from Inference Corporation." ], [ "Technical overview", "Initially the Lisp machines were designed as personal workstations for software development in Lisp.", "They were used by one person and offered no multi-user mode.", "The machines provided a large, black and white, bitmap display, keyboard and mouse, network adapter, local hard disks, more than 1 MB RAM, serial interfaces, and a local bus for extension cards.", "Color graphics cards, tape drives, and laser printers were optional.The processor did not run Lisp directly, but was a stack machine with instructions optimized for compiled Lisp.", "The early Lisp machines used microcode to provide the instruction set.", "For several operations, type checking and dispatching was done in hardware at runtime.", "For example, only one addition operation could be used with various numeric types (integer, float, rational, and complex numbers).", "The result was a very compact compiled representation of Lisp code.The following example uses a function that counts the number of elements of a list for which a predicate returns true.", "(defun example-count (predicate list) (let ((count 0)) (dolist (i list count) (when (funcall predicate i) (incf count)))))The disassembled machine code for above function (for the Ivory microprocessor from Symbolics):Command: (disassemble (compile #'example-count)) 0 ENTRY: 2 REQUIRED, 0 OPTIONAL ;Creating PREDICATE and LIST 2 PUSH 0 ;Creating COUNT 3 PUSH FP\|3 ;LIST 4 PUSH NIL ;Creating I 5 BRANCH 15 6 SET-TO-CDR-PUSH-CAR FP\|5 7 SET-SP-TO-ADDRESS-SAVE-TOS SP\|-1 10 START-CALL FP\|2 ;PREDICATE 11 PUSH FP\|6 ;I 12 FINISH-CALL-1-VALUE 13 BRANCH-FALSE 15 14 INCREMENT FP\|4 ;COUNT 15 ENDP FP\|5 16 BRANCH-FALSE 6 17 SET-SP-TO-ADDRESS SP\|-2 20 RETURN-SINGLE-STACKThe operating system used virtual memory to provide a large address space.", "Memory management was done with garbage collection.", "All code shared a single address space.", "All data objects were stored with a tag in memory, so that the type could be determined at runtime.", "Multiple execution threads were supported and termed ''processes''.", "All processes ran in the one address space.All operating system software was written in Lisp.", "Xerox used Interlisp.", "Symbolics, LMI, and TI used Lisp Machine Lisp (descendant of MacLisp).", "With the appearance of Common Lisp, Common Lisp was supported on the Lisp Machines and some system software was ported to Common Lisp or later written in Common Lisp.Some later Lisp machines (like the TI MicroExplorer, the Symbolics MacIvory or the Symbolics UX400/1200) were no longer complete workstations, but boards designed to be embedded in host computers: Apple Macintosh II and Sun-3 or Sun-4.Some Lisp machines, such as the Symbolics XL1200, had extensive graphics abilities using special graphics boards.", "These machines were used in domains like medical image processing, 3D animation, and CAD." ], [ "See also", "ICAD – example of ''knowledge-based engineering'' software originally developed on a Lisp machine that was useful enough to be then ported via Common Lisp to UnixOrphaned technology" ], [ "References", "; General\" LISP Machine Progress Report\", Alan Bawden, Richard Greenblatt, Jack Holloway, Thomas Knight, David A.", "Moon, Daniel Weinreb, AI Lab memos, AI-444, 1977.", "\" CADR\", Thomas Knight, David A.", "Moon, Jack Holloway, Guy L. Steele.", "AI Lab memos, AIM-528, 1979.", "\" Design of LISP-based Processors, or SCHEME: A Dielectric LISP, or Finite Memories Considered Harmful, or LAMBDA: The Ultimate Opcode\", Guy Lewis Steele, Gerald Jay Sussman, AI Lab memo, AIM-514, 1979David A.", "Moon.", "''Chaosnet''.", "A.I.", "Memo 628, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, June 1981.", "\"Implementation of a List Processing Machine\".", "Tom Knight, Master's thesis.", " Lisp Machine manual, 6th ed.", "Richard Stallman, Daniel Weinreb, David A.", "Moon.", "1984.", "\"Anatomy of a LISP Machine\", Paul Graham, ''AI Expert'', December 1988''Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software''" ], [ "External links", "* Symbolics website* MedleyBitsavers, PDF documents* LMI documentation MIT CONS documentation MIT CADR documentationLisp Machine Manual, Chinual* \"The Lisp Machine manual, 4th Edition, July 1981\" \"The Lisp Machine manual, 6th Edition, HTML/XSL version\" \"The Lisp Machine manual\"* Information and code for LMI Lambda and LMI K-Machine* – A set of links and locally stored documents regarding all manner of Lisp machines* \"A Few Things I Know About LISP Machines\" – A set of links, mostly discussion of buying Lisp machines* Ralf Möller's Symbolics Lisp Machine Museum* Vintage Computer Festival pictures of some Lisp machines, one running Genera* LISPMachine.net – Lisp Books and Information* Lisp machines timeline – a timeline of Symbolics' and others' Lisp machines* \"Présentation Générale du projet M3L\" – An account of French efforts in the same veinDiscussion* \"If It Works, It's Not AI: A Commercial Look at Artificial Intelligence startups\" \"Symbolics, Inc.: A failure of Heterogenous engineering\" – (PDF) \"My Lisp Experiences and the Development of GNU Emacs\" – transcript of a speech Richard Stallman gave about Emacs, Lisp, and Lisp machines" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Links (web browser)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Links''' is a free software text and graphical web browser with a pull-down menu system.", "It renders complex pages, has partial HTML 4.0 support (including tables and frames and support for multiple character sets such as UTF-8), supports color and monochrome terminals, and allows horizontal scrolling.It is intended for users who want to retain many typical elements of graphical user interfaces (pop-up windows, menus etc.)", "in a text-only environment.The original version of Links was developed by Mikuláš Patočka in the Czech Republic.", "His group ''Twibright Labs'' later developed version 2 of the Links browser, which displays graphics, and renders fonts in different sizes (with spatial anti-aliasing), but no longer supports JavaScript (it used to, up to version 2.1pre28).", "The resulting browser is very fast, but does not display many pages as intended.", "The graphical mode works even on Unix systems without the X Window System or any other window environment, using either SVGAlib or the framebuffer of the system's graphics card." ], [ "Graphics stack", "The graphics stack has several peculiarities for a web browser.", "The fonts displayed by Links are not derived from the system, but compiled into binary as gray scale bitmaps using the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format.", "This allows the browser to be one executable file independent of the system libraries.", "However, this increases the size of the executable to about 5 MB.The fonts are anti-aliased without hinting; for small line pitches, they employ an artificial sharpening to increase legibility.", "Sub-pixel sampling further increases legibility on LCD displays.", "This allowed Links to have anti-aliased fonts when anti-aliased font libraries were uncommon.All graphic elements (images and text) are first converted from a given gamma space (according to known or assumed gamma information in PNG, JPEG etc.)", "through known user gamma setting into a 48 bits pixel photometrically linear space where they are re-sampled with bilinear re-sampling to the target size, possibly taking aspect ratio correction into account.", "Then the data are passed through a high-performance restartable dithering engine which is used regardless of monitor bit depth, i.e., also for 24 bits per pixel color.", "This Floyd-Steinberg dithering engine considers the gamma characteristics of the monitor and uses 768 KiB of dithering tables to avoid time expensive calculations.", "A technique similar to self-modifying code, function templates, is used to maximise the speed of the dithering engine without using assembly language optimization.Scaled down images also use sub-pixel sampling on LCD to increase the level of detail.The reason for this high-quality processing is: to provide proper realistic up and downsampling of images, and photorealistic display regardless of the monitor gamma, without color fringing caused by 8-Bit gamma correction built into the X server.", "It also increases the perceived color depth by over 24 bits per pixel.Links has graphics drivers for the X Server, Linux framebuffer, svgalib, OS/2 Presentation Manager, and AtheOS GUI." ], [ "Forks", "===ELinks===''Experimental/Enhanced Links'' (ELinks) is a fork of Links led by Petr Baudis.", "It is based on Links 0.9.It has a more open development and incorporates patches from other Links versions (such as additional extension scripting in Lua) and from Internet users.===Hacked Links===''Hacked Links'' is another version of the Links browser which has merged some of Elinks' features into Links 2.Andrey Mirtchovski has ported it to Plan 9 from Bell Labs.", "It is considered a good browser on that operating system, though some users have complained about its inability to cut and paste with the Plan 9 snarf buffer., the last release of Hacked Links is that of July 9, 2003, with some further changes unreleased.===Other===Links were also ported to run on the Sony PSP platform as PSPRadio by Rafael Cabezas with the last version (2.1pre23_PSP_r1261) released on February 6, 2007.The BeOS port was updated by François Revol who also added GUI support.", "It also runs on Haiku." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * User documentation for Links* Links-Hacked project* Links for OS X on PowerPC and Intel* (forum) * Linkx fork* Original Links Source Code" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Learning object" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''learning object''' is \"a collection of content items, practice items, and assessment items that are combined based on a single learning objective\".", "The term is credited to Wayne Hodgins, and dates from a working group in 1994 bearing the name.", "The concept encompassed by 'Learning Objects' is known by numerous other terms, including: content objects, chunks, educational objects, information objects, intelligent objects, knowledge bits, knowledge objects, learning components, media objects, reusable curriculum components, nuggets, reusable information objects, reusable learning objects, testable reusable units of cognition, training components, and units of learning.The core idea of the use of learning objects is characterized by the following: discoverability, reusability, and interoperability.", "To support discoverability, learning objects are described by Learning Object Metadata, formalized as IEEE 1484.12 Learning object metadata.", "To support reusability, the IMS Consortium proposed a series of specifications such as the IMS Content package.", "And to support interoperability, the U.S. military's Advanced Distributed Learning organization created the Sharable Content Object Reference Model.", "Learning objects were designed in order to reduce the cost of learning, standardize learning content, and to enable the use and reuse of learning content by learning management systems." ], [ "Definitions", "The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defines a learning object as \"any entity, digital or non-digital, that may be used for learning, education or training\".Chiappe defined Learning Objects as: \"A digital self-contained and reusable entity, with a clear educational purpose, with at least three internal and editable components: content, learning activities and elements of context.", "The learning objects must have an external structure of information to facilitate their identification, storage and retrieval: the metadata.", "\"The following definitions focus on the relation between learning object and digital media.", "RLO-CETL, a British inter-university Learning Objects Center, defines \"reusable learning objects\" as \"web-based interactive chunks of e-learning designed to explain a stand-alone learning objective\".", "Daniel Rehak and Robin Mason define it as \"a digitized entity which can be used, reused or referenced during technology supported learning\".Adapting a definition from the Wisconsin Online Resource Center, Robert J. Beck suggests that learning objects have the following key characteristics:* Learning objects are a new way of thinking about learning content.", "Traditionally, content comes in a several hour chunk.", "Learning objects are much smaller units of learning, typically ranging from 2 minutes to 15 minutes.", "* Are self-contained – each learning object can be taken independently* Are reusable – a single learning object may be used in multiple contexts for multiple purposes* Can be aggregated – learning objects can be grouped into larger collections of content, including traditional course structures* Are tagged with metadata – every learning object has descriptive information allowing it to be easily found by a search" ], [ "Components", "The following is a list of some of the types of information that may be included in a learning object and its metadata:* General Course Descriptive Data, including: course identifiers, language of content (English, Spanish, etc.", "), subject area (Maths, Reading, etc.", "), descriptive text, descriptive keywords* Life Cycle, including: version, status* Instructional Content, including: text, web pages, images, sound, video* Glossary of Terms, including: terms, definition, acronyms* Quizzes and Assessments, including: questions, answers* Rights, including: cost, copyrights, restrictions on Use* Relationships to Other Courses, including prerequisite courses* Educational Level, including: grade level, age range, typical learning time, and difficulty.", "IEEE 1484.12.1:2002Typology as defined by Churchill (2007): presentation, practice, simulation, conceptual models, information, and contextual representation" ], [ "Metadata", "One of the key issues in using learning objects is their identification by search engines or content management systems.", "This is usually facilitated by assigning descriptive learning object metadata.", "Just as a book in a library has a record in the card catalog, learning objects must also be tagged with metadata.", "The most important pieces of metadata typically associated with a learning object include:# '''objective:''' The educational objective the learning object is instructing# '''prerequisites:''' The list of skills (typically represented as objectives) which the learner must know before viewing the learning object# '''topic:''' Typically represented in a taxonomy, the topic the learning object is instructing# '''interactivity:''' The Interaction Model of the learning object.# '''technology requirements:''' The required system requirements to view the learning object." ], [ "Mutability", "A mutated learning object is, according to Michael S. Shaw, MSc (2003), a learning object that has been \"re-purposed and/or re-engineered, changed or simply re-used in some way different from its original intended design\".", "In other words, educational content or learning materials, initially designed for a specific domain, may be intentionally or unintentionally, repurposed or applied, or become relevant in some significant way to the learner or situation, even though it is from a totally different domain.", "This interpretation aligns with the idea that the inherent properties of the learning objects remain constant, but their application becomes beneficial and adaptable across diverse domains.", "Shaw's speculative interpretation suggests an intrinsic stimulation of cognitive flexibility and creative reuse of learning resources for the learner.", "Shaw also introduces the term \"contextual learning object\", to describe a learning object with high specificity, that has been \"designed to have specific meaning and purpose to an intended learner\".", "This may be useful if the intent involves just-in-time learning and the individual needs of individual learners." ], [ "Portability", "Before any institution invests a great deal of time and energy into building high-quality e-learning content (which can cost over $10,000 per classroom hour), it needs to consider how this content can be easily loaded into a Learning Management System.", "It is possible for example, to package learning objects with SCORM specification and load it in Moodle Learning Management System or Desire2Learn Learning Environment.If all of the properties of a course can be precisely defined in a common format, the content can be serialized into a standard format such as XML and loaded into other systems.", "When it is considered that some e-learning courses need to include video, mathematical equations using MathML, chemistry equations using CML and other complex structures, the issues become very complex, especially if the systems needs to understand and validate each structure and then place it correctly in a database." ], [ "Criticism", "In 2001, David Wiley criticized learning object theory in his paper, The Reusability Paradox which is summarized by D'Arcy Norman as, ''If a learning object is useful in a particular context, by definition it is not reusable in a different context.", "If a learning object is reusable in many contexts, it isn’t particularly useful in any.''", "In Three Objections to Learning Objects and E-learning Standards, Norm Friesen, Canada Research Chair in E-Learning Practices at Thompson Rivers University, points out that the word ''neutrality'' in itself implies ''a state or position that is antithetical ... to pedagogy and teaching.''" ], [ "See also", " Instructional materials* Intelligent tutoring system* North Carolina Learning Object Repository (NCLOR)* Serious games" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "...", "* Spanish Draf: ''Blog de Andrés Chiappe - Objetos de Aprendizaje''...", "*Innayah: Creating An Audio Script with Learning Object, unpublished, 2013." ], [ "External links", " The Learning Objects at Milwaukee's Center for International Education." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of Labour parties" ], [ "Introduction", "The name Labour (or Labor) Party, or similar, is used by political parties around the world, particularly in countries of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "They are usually, but not exclusively, social-democratic or democratic-socialist and traditionally allied to trade unions and the labour movement.", "Many labour parties are members of the Socialist International and/or participants of the Progressive Alliance." ], [ "Active Labour parties", "Nation or territory PartyPeople's Movement for the Liberation of Angola – Labour PartyAntigua Labour PartyAll Armenian Labour PartyUnited Labour PartyAustralian Labor PartyBarbados Labour PartyDemocratic Labour PartyBelarusian Labour PartyProgressive Labour PartyBougainville Labour PartyActBrazilian Labour PartyBrazilian Labour Renewal PartyDemocratic Labour PartyForwardSolidarityWorkers' PartyIndependent Labor PartyCongolese Party of LabourCroatian Labourists – Labour PartyLabour Party People's CrusadeDominica Labour PartyFiji Labour PartyGeorgian Labour PartyGibraltar Socialist Labour PartyGrenada United Labor PartyLabour PartyLabour PartyLabour HouseIslamic Labour PartyLabour Party of Iran (banned/exiled)Islamic Association of WorkersIslamic Labour Welfare PartyLabour PartyManx Labour PartyIsraeli Labor PartyJamaica Labour PartyLabor Party of LiberiaLabour PartyLabour PartyLabour PartyLabor PartyLabour PartyLabour PartyLabour PartyNew Zealand Labour PartyLabour PartyLabour PartySocial Democratic and Labour PartyLabour PartyPeople's Labour PartyPolish Labour PartyPortuguese Labour PartySaint Kitts and Nevis Labour PartyPeople's Labour PartySaint Lucia Labour PartyUnity Labour PartyScottish Labour PartySolomon Islands Labour PartyNew Labour PartyLabor PartySurinamese Labour PartySwedish Social Democratic Labour PartySwiss Labour PartyTanzania Labour PartyLabor PartyLabour PartyLabour PartySocialist Labour PartyLabour and Co-operative PartyMinnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor PartyLabour PartyWelsh Labour PartyZimbabwe Labour Party" ], [ "Historical Labour parties", "NationPartyParty of Labour of AlbaniaSocialist Labor PartyIndustrial Socialist Labor PartyUnited Labour Party (S.A., 1891–1917) see ALP historyAgrarian Socialist and Labour Renewal Party 1985–1990Brazilian Labour Party 1945–1964Brazilian Renewal Labour Party 1993–1995Brazilian Workers' Nationalist Party 1989–1992Comunitary Labour Party 1992Free Fatherland Party 2009–2018National Labour Party 1945–1965Orienting Labour Party 1945–1961Reformer Labour Party 1985–1986Renewal Labour Movement 1959–1965Renewal Labour Party 1985–1993Republican Labour Party 1948–1965Social Labour Party 1946–1965Social Labour Party 1996–2003Syndicalist Popular Party 1945–1946Workers' General Party 1995–2003Workers' Nationalist Party 1990Belgian Labour PartyParty of Labour of BurkinaVoltaic Labour Party 1970Canadian Labour Party 1917-1929Labour Party of Canada 1870s-1960sCo-operative Commonwealth Federation - (Farmer-Labour-Socialist) 1932-1961Labor-Progressive PartyNorth American Labour PartyCroatian Labour Party, 1906-1918Gibraltar Labour PartySocialist Labour Party of GreeceLabour PartyGuatemalan Party of Labour – AlamosIndependent Labour PartyLabour Kisan Party of HindustanLabour Party (1949)Labour Party of IndonesiaLabour Party (1998)Labour FederationNational Labour PartyDemocratic Labour Party of LithuaniaLabour PartyLabour PartyCentral Democratic Labour PartyLabour Party (original)United Labour PartyDemocratic Labour PartyNewLabour PartyCape Breton Labour Party 1970-1984Labour PartyLabor PartyWestern Samoa Labour PartyLabour Party of Sine SaloumLabour PartyLabour PartyLabour PartyLabour Party (Coloured)Democratic Labor PartyTrinidad Labour PartyDemocratic Labour PartyUnited Labour FrontSocial Democratic Labour Party of Trinidad and TobagoCaribbean National Labour PartyCommunist Labour Party (Scotland)Independent Labour PartyNational LabourBelfast Labour PartyLabour Party of Northern IrelandLabour Party of Scotland (former name of Scottish branch of Labour Party (UK))Northern Ireland Labour PartyRepublican Labour Party (In Northern Ireland)Scottish Labour Party (1888-1895)Scottish Labour Party (1976-1981)Labor Party (United States, 19th century)Union Labor Party (California)Socialist Labor Party of AmericaFarmer–Labor Party (United States)Minnesota Farmer-Labor PartyLabor Party of the United StatesAmerican Labor PartyAmerican Labor Party (1932)U.S. Labor PartyLabor Party (United States, 1996)Communist Labor Party of North AmericaRevolutionary Socialist Labor PartyUnited States Socialist-Labor PartyGreenback-Labor Party" ], [ "See also", "Labour Party (disambiguation)Communist party*List of communist partiesDemocratic Socialist Party (disambiguation)Labour government (disambiguation)Labour movementList of left-wing political partiesSocial Democratic Party*List of social democratic partiesSocialist Labour Party (disambiguation)Socialist PartySocialist Workers Party (disambiguation)*Workers' Party" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Louisiana" ], [ "Introduction", "Louisiana entrance sign off Interstate 20 in Madison Parish east of Tallulah'''Louisiana''' ( ; ; ) is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States.", "It borders Texas to the west, Arkansas to the north, and Mississippi to the east.", "Of the 50 U.S. states, it ranks 20th in land area and the 25th in population, with roughly 4.6 million residents.", "Reflecting its French heritage, Louisiana is the only U.S. state with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are equivalent to counties, making it one of only two U.S. states not subdivided into counties (the other being Alaska and its boroughs).", "Baton Rouge is the state's capital, and New Orleans, a French Louisiana region, is its largest city with a population of about 383,000 people.", "Louisiana has a coastline with the Gulf of Mexico to the south; a large part of its eastern boundary is demarcated by the Mississippi River.Much of Louisiana's lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh and swamp.", "These contain a rich southern biota, including birds such as ibises and egrets, many species of tree frogs—such as the state recognized American green tree frog—and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish.", "More elevated areas, particularly in the north, contain a wide variety of ecosystems such as tallgrass prairie, longleaf pine forest and wet savannas; these support an exceptionally large number of plant species, including many species of terrestrial orchids and carnivorous plants.", "Over half the state is forested.", "Louisiana is situated at the confluence of the Mississippi river system and the Gulf of Mexico.", "Its location and biodiversity attracted various indigenous groups thousands of years before Europeans arrived in the 17th century.", "Louisiana has eighteen Native American tribes—the most of any southern state—of which four are federally recognized and ten are state recognized.", "The French claimed the territory in 1682, and it became the political, commercial, and population center of the larger colony of New France.", "After a brief period of Spanish rule, Louisiana was returned to France in 1801 before being purchased by the U.S. in 1803; it was admitted to the Union in 1812 as the 18th state.Following statehood, Louisiana saw an influx of settlers from the eastern U.S. as well as immigrants from the West Indies, Germany, and Ireland.", "It experienced an agricultural boom, particularly in cotton and sugarcane, which were cultivated primarily by slaves imported from Africa.", "As a slave state, Louisiana was one of the original seven members of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War.Louisiana's unique French heritage is reflected in its toponyms, dialects, customs, demographics, and legal system.", "Relative to the rest of the southern U.S., Louisiana is multilingual and multicultural, reflecting an admixture of Louisiana French (Cajun, Creole), Spanish, French Canadian, Acadian, Dominican Creole, Native American, and West African cultures (generally the descendants of slaves imported in the 18th century); more recent migrants include Filipinos and Vietnamese.", "In the post–Civil War environment, Anglo-Americans increased the pressure for Anglicization, and in 1921, English was shortly made the sole language of instruction in Louisiana schools before a policy of multilingualism was revived in 1974.Louisiana has never had an official language, and the state constitution enumerates \"the right of the people to preserve, foster, and promote their respective historic, linguistic, and cultural origins.", "\"Based on national averages, Louisiana frequently ranks low among U.S. states in terms of health, education, and development, with high rates of poverty and homicide.", "In 2018, Louisiana was ranked as the least healthy state in the country, with high levels of drug-related deaths.", "It also has had the highest homicide rate in the United States since at least the 1990s." ], [ "Etymology", "Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715.When René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it .", "The suffix –ana (or –ane) is a Latin suffix that can refer to \"information relating to a particular individual, subject, or place.\"", "Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of \"related to Louis.\"", "Once part of the French colonial empire, the Louisiana Territory stretched from present-day Mobile Bay to just north of the present-day Canada–United States border, including a small part of what are now the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan." ], [ "History", "=== Pre–colonial history ===Watson Brake, the oldest mound complex in North AmericaThe area of Louisiana is the place of origin of the Mound Builders culture during the Middle Archaic period, in the 4th millennium BC.", "The sites of Caney and Frenchman's Bend have been securely dated to 5600–5000 BP (about 3700–3100 BC), demonstrating that seasonal hunter-gatherers from around this time organized to build complex earthwork constructions in what is now northern Louisiana.", "The Watson Brake site near present-day Monroe has an eleven-mound complex; it was built about 5400 BP (3500 BC).", "These discoveries overturned previous assumptions in archaeology that such complex mounds were built only by cultures of more settled peoples who were dependent on maize cultivation.", "The Hedgepeth Site in Lincoln Parish is more recent, dated to 5200–4500 BP (3300–2600 BC).Poverty Point UNESCO siteNearly 2,000 years later, Poverty Point was built; it is the largest and best-known Late Archaic site in the state.", "The city of modern–day Epps developed near it.", "The Poverty Point culture may have reached its peak around 1500 BC, making it the first complex culture, and possibly the first tribal culture in North America.", "It lasted until approximately 700 BC.The Poverty Point culture was followed by the Tchefuncte and Lake Cormorant cultures of the Tchula period, local manifestations of Early Woodland period.", "The Tchefuncte culture were the first people in the area of Louisiana to make large amounts of pottery.", "These cultures lasted until 200 AD.", "The Middle Woodland period started in Louisiana with the Marksville culture in the southern and eastern part of the state, reaching across the Mississippi River to the east around Natchez, and the Fourche Maline culture in the northwestern part of the state.", "The Marksville culture was named after the Marksville Prehistoric Indian Site in Avoyelles Parish.Troyville Earthworks, once the second tallest earthworks in North AmericaThese cultures were contemporaneous with the Hopewell cultures of present-day Ohio and Illinois, and participated in the Hopewell Exchange Network.", "Trade with peoples to the southwest brought the bow and arrow.", "The first burial mounds were built at this time.", "Political power began to be consolidated, as the first platform mounds at ritual centers were constructed for the developing hereditary political and religious leadership.By 400 the Late Woodland period had begun with the Baytown culture, Troyville culture, and Coastal Troyville during the Baytown period and were succeeded by the Coles Creek cultures.", "Where the Baytown peoples built dispersed settlements, the Troyville people instead continued building major earthwork centers.", "Population increased dramatically and there is strong evidence of a growing cultural and political complexity.", "Many Coles Creek sites were erected over earlier Woodland period mortuary mounds.", "Scholars have speculated that emerging elites were symbolically and physically appropriating dead ancestors to emphasize and project their own authority.The Mississippian period in Louisiana was when the Plaquemine and the Caddoan Mississippian cultures developed, and the peoples adopted extensive maize agriculture, cultivating different strains of the plant by saving seeds, selecting for certain characteristics, etc.", "The Plaquemine culture in the lower Mississippi River Valley in western Mississippi and eastern Louisiana began in 1200 and continued to about 1600.Examples in Louisiana include the Medora site, the archaeological type site for the culture in West Baton Rouge Parish whose characteristics helped define the culture, the Atchafalaya Basin Mounds in St. Mary Parish, the Fitzhugh Mounds in Madison Parish, the Scott Place Mounds in Union Parish, and the Sims site in St. Charles Parish.Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture that is represented by its largest settlement, the Cahokia site in Illinois east of St. Louis, Missouri.", "At its peak Cahokia is estimated to have had a population of more than 20,000.The Plaquemine culture is considered ancestral to the historic Natchez and Taensa peoples, whose descendants encountered Europeans in the colonial era.By 1000 in the northwestern part of the state, the Fourche Maline culture had evolved into the Caddoan Mississippian culture.", "The Caddoan Mississippians occupied a large territory, including what is now eastern Oklahoma, western Arkansas, northeast Texas, and northwest Louisiana.", "Archaeological evidence has demonstrated that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present.", "The Caddo and related Caddo-language speakers in prehistoric times and at first European contact were the direct ancestors of the modern Caddo Nation of Oklahoma of today.", "Significant Caddoan Mississippian archaeological sites in Louisiana include Belcher Mound Site in Caddo Parish and Gahagan Mounds Site in Red River Parish.Many current place names in Louisiana, including Atchafalaya, Natchitouches (now spelled Natchitoches), Caddo, Houma, Tangipahoa, and Avoyel (as Avoyelles), are transliterations of those used in various Native American languages.===Exploration and colonization by Europeans===The first European explorers to visit Louisiana came in 1528 when a Spanish expedition led by Pánfilo de Narváez located the mouth of the Mississippi River.", "In 1542, Hernando de Soto's expedition skirted to the north and west of the state (encountering Caddo and Tunica groups) and then followed the Mississippi River down to the Gulf of Mexico in 1543.Spanish interest in Louisiana faded away for a century and a half.In the late 17th century, French and French Canadian expeditions, which included sovereign, religious and commercial aims, established a foothold on the Mississippi River and Gulf Coast.", "With its first settlements, France laid claim to a vast region of North America and set out to establish a commercial empire and French nation stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada.In 1682, the French explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle named the region Louisiana to honor King Louis XIV of France.", "The first permanent settlement, Fort Maurepas (now Ocean Springs, Mississippi), was founded in 1699 by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, a French military officer from New France.", "By then the French had also built a small fort at the mouth of the Mississippi at a settlement they named La Balise (or La Balize), \"seamark\" in French.", "By 1721, they built a wooden lighthouse-type structure here to guide ships on the river.A royal ordinance of 1722—following the Crown's transfer of the Illinois Country's governance from Canada to Louisiana—may have featured the broadest definition of Louisiana: all land claimed by France south of the Great Lakes between the Rocky Mountains and the Alleghenies.", "A generation later, trade conflicts between Canada and Louisiana led to a more defined boundary between the French colonies; in 1745, Louisiana governor general Vaudreuil set the northern and eastern bounds of his domain as the Wabash valley up to the mouth of the Vermilion River (near present-day Danville, Illinois); from there, northwest to ''le Rocher'' on the Illinois River, and from there west to the mouth of the Rock River (at present day Rock Island, Illinois).", "Thus, Vincennes and Peoria were the limit of Louisiana's reach; the outposts at Ouiatenon (on the upper Wabash near present-day Lafayette, Indiana), Chicago, Fort Miamis (near present-day Fort Wayne, Indiana), and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, operated as dependencies of Canada.The settlement of Natchitoches (along the Red River in present-day northwest Louisiana) was established in 1714 by Louis Juchereau de St. Denis, making it the oldest permanent European settlement in the modern state of Louisiana.", "The French settlement had two purposes: to establish trade with the Spanish in Texas via the Old San Antonio Road, and to deter Spanish advances into Louisiana.", "The settlement soon became a flourishing river port and crossroads, giving rise to vast cotton kingdoms along the river that were worked by imported African slaves.", "Over time, planters developed large plantations and built fine homes in a growing town.", "This became a pattern repeated in New Orleans and other places, although the commodity crop in the south was primarily sugar cane.French Acadians, who came to be known as Cajuns, settled in southern Louisiana, especially along the banks of its major bayous.Louisiana's French settlements contributed to further exploration and outposts, concentrated along the banks of the Mississippi and its major tributaries, from Louisiana to as far north as the region called the Illinois Country, around present-day St. Louis, Missouri.", "The latter was settled by French colonists from Illinois.Initially, Mobile and then Biloxi served as the capital of La Louisiane.", "Recognizing the importance of the Mississippi River to trade and military interests, and wanting to protect the capital from severe coastal storms, France developed New Orleans from 1722 as the seat of civilian and military authority south of the Great Lakes.", "From then until the United States acquired the territory in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, France and Spain jockeyed for control of New Orleans and the lands west of the Mississippi.In the 1720s, German immigrants settled along the Mississippi River, in a region referred to as the German Coast.France ceded most of its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain in 1763, in the aftermath of Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War (generally referred to in North America as the French and Indian War).", "This included the lands along the Gulf Coast and north of Lake Pontchartrain to the Mississippi River, which became known as British West Florida.", "The rest of Louisiana west of the Mississippi, as well as the \"isle of New Orleans\", had become a colony of Spain by the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762).", "The transfer of power on either side of the river would be delayed until later in the decade.In 1765, during Spanish rule, several thousand Acadians from the French colony of Acadia (now Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island) made their way to Louisiana after having been expelled from Acadia by the British government after the French and Indian War.", "They settled chiefly in the southwestern Louisiana region now called Acadiana.", "The governor Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga, eager to gain more settlers, welcomed the Acadians, who became the ancestors of Louisiana's Cajuns.Spanish Canary Islanders, called Isleños, emigrated from the Canary Islands of Spain to Louisiana under the Spanish crown between 1778 and 1783.In 1800, France's Napoleon Bonaparte reacquired Louisiana from Spain in the Treaty of San Ildefonso, an arrangement kept secret for two years.===Expansion of slavery===Map of New France (blue color) in 1750, before the French and Indian WarJean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville brought the first two African slaves to Louisiana in 1708, transporting them from a French colony in the West Indies.", "In 1709, French financier Antoine Crozat obtained a monopoly of commerce in La Louisiane, which extended from the Gulf of Mexico to what is now Illinois.", "According to historian Hugh Thomas, \"that concession allowed him to bring in a cargo of blacks from Africa every year\".", "Physical conditions, including disease, were so harsh there was high mortality among both the colonists and the slaves, resulting in continuing demand and importation of slaves.Starting in 1719, traders began to import slaves in higher numbers; two French ships, the ''Du Maine'' and the ''Aurore'', arrived in New Orleans carrying more than 500 black slaves coming from Africa.", "Previous slaves in Louisiana had been transported from French colonies in the West Indies.", "By the end of 1721, New Orleans counted 1,256 inhabitants, of whom about half were slaves.In 1724, the French government issued a law called the Code Noir (\"Black Code\" in English) which regulated the interaction of whites (blancs) and blacks (noirs) in its colony of Louisiana (which was much larger than the current state of Louisiana).", "The law consisted of 57 articles, which regulated religion in the colony, outlawed \"interracial\" marriages (those between people of different skin color, the varying shades of which were also defined by law), restricted manumission, outlined legal punishment of slaves for various offenses, and defined some obligations of owners to their slaves.", "The main intent of the French government was to assert control over the slave system of agriculture in Louisiana and to impose restrictions on slaveowners there.", "In practice, the Code Noir was exceedingly difficult to enforce from afar.", "Some priests continued to perform interracial marriage ceremonies, for example, and some slaveholders continued to manumit slaves without permission while others punished slaves brutally.Article II of the Code Noir of 1724 required owners to provide their slaves with religious education in the state religion, Roman Catholicism.", "Sunday was to be a day of rest for slaves.", "On days off, slaves were expected to feed and take care of themselves.", "During the 1740s economic crisis in the colony, owners had trouble feeding their slaves and themselves.", "Giving them time off also effectively gave more power to slaves, who started cultivating their own gardens and crafting items for sale as their own property.", "They began to participate in the economic development of the colony while at the same time increasing independence and self-subsistence.Article VI of the Code Noir forbade mixed marriages, forbade but did little to protect slave women from rape by their owners, overseers or other slaves.", "On balance, the code benefitted the owners but had more protections and flexibility than did the institution of slavery in the southern Thirteen Colonies.The Louisiana Black Code of 1806 made the cruel punishment of slaves a crime, but owners and overseers were seldom prosecuted for such acts.Fugitive slaves, called maroons, could easily hide in the backcountry of the bayous and survive in small settlements.", "The word \"maroon\" comes from the Spanish \"cimarron\", meaning \"fugitive cattle\".In the late 18th century, the last Spanish governor of the Louisiana territory wrote:Free woman of color with mixed-race daughter; late 18th-century collage painting, New OrleansWhen the United States purchased Louisiana in 1803, it was soon accepted that enslaved Africans could be brought to Louisiana as easily as they were brought to neighboring Mississippi, though it violated U.S. law to do so.", "Despite demands by United States Rep. James Hillhouse and by the pamphleteer Thomas Paine to enforce existing federal law against slavery in the newly acquired territory, slavery prevailed because it was the source of great profits and the lowest-cost labor.At the start of the 19th century, Louisiana was a small producer of sugar with a relatively small number of slaves, compared to Saint-Domingue and the West Indies.", "It soon thereafter became a major sugar producer as new settlers arrived to develop plantations.", "William C. C. Claiborne, Louisiana's first United States governor, said African slave labor was needed because white laborers \"cannot be had in this unhealthy climate.\"", "Hugh Thomas wrote that Claiborne was unable to enforce the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade, which the U.S. and Great Britain enacted in 1807.The United States continued to protect the domestic slave trade, including the coastwise trade—the transport of slaves by ship along the Atlantic Coast and to New Orleans and other Gulf ports.By 1840, New Orleans had the biggest slave market in the United States, which contributed greatly to the economy of the city and of the state.", "New Orleans had become one of the wealthiest cities, and the third largest city, in the nation.", "The ban on the African slave trade and importation of slaves had increased demand in the domestic market.", "During the decades after the American Revolutionary War, more than one million enslaved African Americans underwent forced migration from the Upper South to the Deep South, two thirds of them in the slave trade.", "Others were transported by their owners as slaveholders moved west for new lands.With changing agriculture in the Upper South as planters shifted from tobacco to less labor-intensive mixed agriculture, planters had excess laborers.", "Many sold slaves to traders to take to the Deep South.", "Slaves were driven by traders overland from the Upper South or transported to New Orleans and other coastal markets by ship in the coastwise slave trade.", "After sales in New Orleans, steamboats operating on the Mississippi transported slaves upstream to markets or plantation destinations at Natchez and Memphis.Interestingly, for a slave-state, Louisiana harbored escaped Filipino slaves from the Manila Galleons.", "The members of the Filipino community were then commonly referred to as ''Manila men,'' or ''Manilamen,'' and later ''Tagalas'', as they were free when they created the oldest settlement of Asians in the United States in the village of Saint Malo, Louisiana, the inhabitants of which, even joined the United States in the War of 1812 against the British Empire while they were being led by the French-American Jean Lafitte.===Dominican Creole asylum and influence===Dominican CreolesSpanish occupation of Louisiana lasted from 1769 to 1800.Beginning in the 1790s, waves of immigration took place from St. Dominican refugees, following a slave rebellion that started during the French Revolution of Saint-Domingue in 1791.Over the next decade, thousands of refugees landed in Louisiana from the island, including Europeans, Dominican Creoles, and Africans, some of the latter brought in by each free group.", "They greatly increased the French-speaking population in New Orleans and Louisiana, as well as the number of Africans, and the slaves reinforced African culture in the city.Anglo-American officials initially made attempts to keep out the additional Creoles of color, but the Louisiana Creoles wanted to increase the Creole population: more than half of the St. Dominican refugees eventually settled in Louisiana, and the majority remained in New Orleans.Pierre Clément de Laussat (Governor, 1803) said: \"Saint-Domingue was, of all our colonies in the Antilles, the one whose mentality and customs influenced Louisiana the most.", "\"French pirate Jean Lafitte, who operated in New Orleans, was born in Port-au-Prince around 1782.===Purchase by the United States===When the United States won its independence from Great Britain in 1783, one of its major concerns was having a European power on its western boundary, and the need for unrestricted access to the Mississippi River.", "As American settlers pushed west, they found that the Appalachian Mountains provided a barrier to shipping goods eastward.", "The easiest way to ship produce was to use a flatboat to float it down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to the port of New Orleans, where goods could be put on ocean-going vessels.", "The problem with this route was that the Spanish owned both sides of the Mississippi below Natchez.Napoleon's ambitions in Louisiana involved the creation of a new empire centered on the Caribbean sugar trade.", "By the terms of the Treaty of Amiens of 1802, Great Britain returned control of the islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe to the French.", "Napoleon looked upon Louisiana as a depot for these sugar islands, and as a buffer to U.S. settlement.", "In October 1801 he sent a large military force to take back Saint-Domingue, then under control of Toussaint Louverture after the Haitian Revolution.", "When the army led by Napoleon's brother-in-law Leclerc was defeated, Napoleon decided to sell Louisiana.Map of Louisiana in 1800Thomas Jefferson, third president of the United States, was disturbed by Napoleon's plans to re-establish French colonies in North America.", "With the possession of New Orleans, Napoleon could close the Mississippi to U.S. commerce at any time.", "Jefferson authorized Robert R. Livingston, U.S. minister to France, to negotiate for the purchase of the city of New Orleans, portions of the east bank of the Mississippi, and free navigation of the river for U.S. commerce.", "Livingston was authorized to pay up to $2million.An official transfer of Louisiana to French ownership had not yet taken place, and Napoleon's deal with the Spanish was a poorly kept secret on the frontier.", "On October 18, 1802, however, Juan Ventura Morales, acting intendant of Louisiana, made public the intention of Spain to revoke the right of deposit at New Orleans for all cargo from the United States.", "The closure of this vital port to the United States caused anger and consternation.", "Commerce in the west was virtually blockaded.", "Historians believe the revocation of the right of deposit was prompted by abuses by the Americans, particularly smuggling, and not by French intrigues as was believed at the time.", "President Jefferson ignored public pressure for war with France, and appointed James Monroe a special envoy to Napoleon, to assist in obtaining New Orleans for the United States.", "Jefferson also raised the authorized expenditure to $10million.However, on April 11, 1803, French foreign minister Talleyrand surprised Livingston by asking how much the United States was prepared to pay for the entirety of Louisiana, not just New Orleans and the surrounding area (as Livingston's instructions covered).", "Monroe agreed with Livingston that Napoleon might withdraw this offer at any time (leaving them with no ability to obtain the desired New Orleans area), and that approval from President Jefferson might take months, so Livingston and Monroe decided to open negotiations immediately.", "By April 30, they closed a deal for the purchase of the entire Louisiana territory of for sixty million Francs (approximately $15million).Part of this sum, $3.5million, was used to forgive debts owed by France to the United States.", "The payment was made in United States bonds, which Napoleon sold at face value to the Dutch firm of Hope and Company, and the British banking house of Baring, at a discount of per each $100 unit.", "As a result, France received only $8,831,250 in cash for Louisiana.", "English banker Alexander Baring conferred with Marbois in Paris, shuttled to the United States to pick up the bonds, took them to Britain, and returned to France with the money—which Napoleon used to wage war against Baring's own country.Louisiana Purchase, 1803When news of the purchase reached the United States, Jefferson was surprised.", "He had authorized the expenditure of $10million for a port city, and instead received treaties committing the government to spend $15million on a land package which would double the size of the country.", "Jefferson's political opponents in the Federalist Party argued the Louisiana purchase was a worthless desert, and that the U.S. constitution did not provide for the acquisition of new land or negotiating treaties without the consent of the federal legislature.", "What really worried the opposition was the new states which would inevitably be carved from the Louisiana territory, strengthening western and southern interests in U.S. Congress, and further reducing the influence of New England Federalists in national affairs.", "President Jefferson was an enthusiastic supporter of westward expansion, and held firm in his support for the treaty.", "Despite Federalist objections, the U.S. Senate ratified the Louisiana treaty on October 20, 1803.By statute enacted on October 31, 1803, President Thomas Jefferson was authorized to take possession of the territories ceded by France and provide for initial governance.", "A transfer ceremony was held in New Orleans on November 29, 1803.Since the Louisiana territory had never officially been turned over to the French, the Spanish took down their flag, and the French raised theirs.", "The following day, General James Wilkinson accepted possession of New Orleans for the United States.", "The Louisiana Territory, purchased for less than three cents an acre, doubled the size of the United States overnight, without a war or the loss of a single American life, and set a precedent for the purchase of territory.", "It opened the way for the eventual expansion of the United States across the continent to the Pacific Ocean.Shortly after the United States took possession, the area was divided into two territories along the 33rd parallel north on March 26, 1804, thereby organizing the Territory of Orleans to the south and the District of Louisiana (subsequently formed as the Louisiana Territory) to the north.===Statehood===Louisiana became the eighteenth U.S. state on April 30, 1812; the Territory of Orleans became the State of Louisiana and the Louisiana Territory was simultaneously renamed the Missouri Territory.At its creation, the state of Louisiana did not include the area north and east of the Mississippi River known as the Florida Parishes.", "On April 14, 1812, Congress had authorized Louisiana to expand its borders to include the Florida Parishes, but the border change required approval of the state legislature, which it did not give until August 4.For the roughly three months in between, the northern border of eastern Louisiana was the course of Bayou Manchac and the middle of Lake Maurepas and Lake Pontchartrain.From 1824 to 1861, Louisiana moved from a political system based on personality and ethnicity to a distinct two-party system, with Democrats competing first against Whigs, then Know Nothings, and finally only other Democrats.===Secession and the Civil War==='Signing the Ordinance of Secession of Louisiana, January 26, 1861', oil on canvas painting, 1861''Capture of New Orleans'', April 1862, colored lithograph of engravingAccording to the 1860 census, 331,726 people were enslaved, nearly 47% of the state's total population of 708,002.The strong economic interest of elite whites in maintaining the slave society contributed to Louisiana's decision to secede from the Union on January 26, 1861.It followed other U.S. states in seceding after the election of Abraham Lincoln as president of the United States.", "Louisiana's secession was announced on January 26, 1861, and it became part of the Confederate States of America.The state was quickly defeated in the Civil War, a result of Union strategy to cut the Confederacy in two by controlling the Mississippi River.", "Federal troops captured New Orleans on April 25, 1862.Because a large part of the population had Union sympathies (or compatible commercial interests), the federal government took the unusual step of designating the areas of Louisiana under federal control as a state within the Union, with its own elected representatives to the U.S. Congress.=== Post–Civil War to mid–20th century ===Consolidated Bond of the State of Louisiana, issued 6.July 1892Following the American Civil War and emancipation of slaves, violence rose in the southern U.S. as the war was carried on by insurgent private and paramilitary groups.", "During the initial period after the war, there was a massive rise in black participation in terms of voting and holding political office.", "Louisiana saw the United States' first and second black governors with Oscar Dunn and P.B.S.", "Pinchback, with 125 black members of the state legislature being elected during this time, while Charles E. Nash was elected to represent the state's 6th Congressional District in the U.S. House of Representatives.", "Eventually former Confederates came to dominate the state legislature after the end of Reconstruction and federal occupation in the late 1870s, and black codes were implemented to regulate freedmen and increasingly restricted the right to vote.", "They refused to extend voting rights to African Americans who had been free before the war and had sometimes obtained education and property (as in New Orleans).Following the Memphis riots of 1866 and the New Orleans riot the same year, the Fourteenth Amendment was passed that provided suffrage and full citizenship for freedmen.", "Congress passed the Reconstruction Act, establishing military districts for those states where conditions were considered the worst, including Louisiana.", "It was grouped with Texas in what was administered as the Fifth Military District.African Americans began to live as citizens with some measure of equality before the law.", "Both freedmen and people of color who had been free before the war began to make more advances in education, family stability and jobs.", "At the same time, there was tremendous social volatility in the aftermath of war, with many whites actively resisting defeat and the free labor market.", "White insurgents mobilized to enforce white supremacy, first in Ku Klux Klan chapters.By 1877, when federal forces were withdrawn, white Democrats in Louisiana and other states had regained control of state legislatures, often by paramilitary groups such as the White League, which suppressed black voting through intimidation and violence.", "Following Mississippi's example in 1890, in 1898, the white Democratic, planter-dominated legislature passed a new constitution that effectively disfranchised people of color by raising barriers to voter registration, such as poll taxes, residency requirements and literacy tests.", "The effect was immediate and long lasting.", "In 1896, there were 130,334 black voters on the rolls and about the same number of white voters, in proportion to the state population, which was evenly divided.Morganza, 1938The state population in 1900 was 47% African American: a total of 652,013 citizens.", "Many in New Orleans were descendants of Creoles of color, the sizeable population of free people of color before the Civil War.", "By 1900, two years after the new constitution, only 5,320 black voters were registered in the state.", "Because of disfranchisement, by 1910 there were only 730 black voters (less than 0.5 percent of eligible African-American men), despite advances in education and literacy among blacks and people of color.", "Blacks were excluded from the political system and also unable to serve on juries.", "White Democrats had established one-party Democratic rule, which they maintained in the state for decades deep into the 20th century until after congressional passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act provided federal oversight and enforcement of the constitutional right to vote.National Rice Festival, Crowley, Louisiana, 1938In the early decades of the 20th century, thousands of African Americans left Louisiana in the Great Migration north to industrial cities for jobs and education, and to escape Jim Crow society and lynchings.", "The boll weevil infestation and agricultural problems cost many sharecroppers and farmers their jobs.", "The mechanization of agriculture also reduced the need for laborers.", "Beginning in the 1940s, blacks went west to California for jobs in its expanding defense industries.In 1920 the state had no continuous paved roads running east to west or north to south which traversed the entire state.During some of the Great Depression, Louisiana was led by Governor Huey Long.", "He was elected to office on populist appeal.", "His public works projects provided thousands of jobs to people in need, and he supported education and increased suffrage for poor whites, but Long was criticized for his allegedly demagogic and autocratic style.", "He extended patronage control through every branch of Louisiana's state government.", "Especially controversial were his plans for wealth redistribution in the state.", "Long's rule ended abruptly when he was assassinated in the state capitol in 1935.=== Mid–20th century to present ===Mobilization for World War II created jobs in the state.", "But thousands of other workers, black and white alike, migrated to California for better jobs in its burgeoning defense industry.", "Many African Americans left the state in the Second Great Migration, from the 1940s through the 1960s to escape social oppression and seek better jobs.", "The mechanization of agriculture in the 1930s had sharply cut the need for laborers.", "They sought skilled jobs in the defense industry in California, better education for their children, and living in communities where they could vote.On November 26, 1958, at Chennault Air Force Base, a USAF B-47 bomber with a nuclear weapon on board developed a fire while on the ground.", "The aircraft wreckage and the site of the accident were contaminated after a limited explosion of non-nuclear material.In the 1950s the state created new requirements for a citizenship test for voter registration.", "Despite opposition by the States' Rights Party (Dixiecrats), downstate black voters had begun to increase their rate of registration, which also reflected the growth of their middle classes.", "In 1960 the state established the Louisiana State Sovereignty Commission, to investigate civil rights activists and maintain segregation.Despite this, gradually black voter registration and turnout increased to 20% and more, and it was 32% by 1964, when the first national civil rights legislation of the era was passed.", "The percentage of black voters ranged widely in the state during these years, from 93.8% in Evangeline Parish to 1.7% in Tensas Parish, for instance, where there were intense white efforts to suppress the vote in the black-majority parish.Violent attacks on civil rights activists in two mill towns were catalysts to the founding of the first two chapters of the Deacons for Defense and Justice in late 1964 and early 1965, in Jonesboro and Bogalusa, respectively.", "Made up of veterans of World War II and the Korean War, they were armed self-defense groups established to protect activists and their families.", "Continued violent white resistance in Bogalusa to blacks trying to use public facilities in 1965, following passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, caused the federal government to order local police to protect the activists.", "Other chapters were formed in Mississippi and Alabama.By 1960 the proportion of African Americans in Louisiana had dropped to 32%.", "The 1,039,207 black citizens were still suppressed by segregation and disfranchisement.", "African Americans continued to suffer disproportionate discriminatory application of the state's voter registration rules.", "Because of better opportunities elsewhere, from 1965 to 1970, blacks continued to migrate out of Louisiana, for a net loss of more than 37,000 people.", "Based on official census figures, the African American population in 1970 stood at 1,085,109, a net gain of more than 46,000 people compared to 1960.During the latter period, some people began to migrate to cities of the New South for opportunities.", "Since that period, blacks entered the political system and began to be elected to office, as well as having other opportunities.On May 21, 1919, the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, giving women full rights to vote, was passed at a national level, and was made the law throughout the United States on August 18, 1920.Louisiana finally ratified the amendment on June 11, 1970.View of flooded New Orleans in the aftermath of Hurricane KatrinaDue to its location on the Gulf Coast, Louisiana has regularly suffered the effects of tropical storms and damaging hurricanes.", "On August 29, 2005, New Orleans and many other low-lying parts of the state along the Gulf of Mexico were hit by the catastrophic Hurricane Katrina.", "It caused widespread damage due to breaching of levees and large-scale flooding of more than 80% of the city.", "Officials had issued warnings to evacuate the city and nearby areas, but tens of thousands of people, mostly African Americans, stayed behind, many of them stranded.", "Many people died and survivors suffered through the damage of the widespread floodwaters.In July 2016 the shooting of Alton Sterling sparked protests throughout the state capital of Baton Rouge.", "In August 2016, an unnamed storm dumped trillions of gallons of rain on southern Louisiana, including the cities of Denham Springs, Baton Rouge, Gonzales, St. Amant and Lafayette, causing catastrophic flooding.", "An estimated 110,000 homes were damaged and thousands of residents were displaced.", "In 2019, three Louisiana black churches were destroyed by arson.The first case of COVID-19 in Louisiana was announced on March 9, 2020.As of October 27, 2020, there had been 180,069 confirmed cases; 5,854 people have died of COVID-19." ], [ "Geography", "Louisiana pinesnakeAerial view of Louisiana's wetland habitatsSt.", "Bernard Parish Honey Island SwampEntrance to the Bald Eagle Nest Trail at South Toledo Bend State ParkBogue Chitto State ParkGeographic map of LouisianaLouisiana is bordered to the west by Texas; to the north by Arkansas; to the east by Mississippi; and to the south by the Gulf of Mexico.", "The state may properly be divided into two parts, the uplands of the north (the region of North Louisiana), and the alluvial along the coast (the Central Louisiana, Acadiana, Florida Parishes, and Greater New Orleans regions).", "The alluvial region includes low swamp lands, coastal marshlands and beaches, and barrier islands that cover about .", "This area lies principally along the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi River, which traverses the state from north to south for a distance of about and empties into the Gulf of Mexico; also in the state are the Red River; the Ouachita River and its branches; and other minor streams (some of which are called bayous).The breadth of the alluvial region along the Mississippi is 10–60 miles (15–100 km), and along the other rivers, the alluvial region averages about 10 miles (15 km) across.", "The Mississippi River flows along a ridge formed by its natural deposits (known as a levee), from which the lands decline toward a river beyond at an average fall of six feet per mile (3m/km).", "The alluvial lands along other streams present similar features.The higher and contiguous hill lands of the north and northwestern part of the state have an area of more than .", "They consist of prairie and woodlands.", "The elevations above sea level range from 10 feet (3m) at the coast and swamp lands to 50–60 feet (15–18m) at the prairie and alluvial lands.", "In the uplands and hills, the elevations rise to Driskill Mountain, the highest point in the state only 535 feet (163m) above sea level.", "From 1932 to 2010 the state lost 1,800 square miles due to rises in sea level and erosion.", "The Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority (CPRA) spends around $1billion per year to help shore up and protect Louisiana shoreline and land in both federal and state funding.Besides the waterways named, there are the Sabine, forming the western boundary; and the Pearl, the eastern boundary; the Calcasieu, the Mermentau, the Vermilion, Bayou Teche, the Atchafalaya, the Boeuf, Bayou Lafourche, the Courtableau River, Bayou D'Arbonne, the Macon River, the Tensas, Amite River, the Tchefuncte, the Tickfaw, the Natalbany River, and a number of other smaller streams, constituting a natural system of navigable waterways, aggregating over long.The state also has political jurisdiction over the approximately -wide portion of subsea land of the inner continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico.", "Through a peculiarity of the political geography of the United States, this is substantially less than the -wide jurisdiction of nearby states Texas and Florida, which, like Louisiana, have extensive Gulf coastlines.The southern coast of Louisiana in the United States is among the fastest-disappearing areas in the world.", "This has largely resulted from human mismanagement of the coast (see Wetlands of Louisiana).", "At one time, the land was added to when spring floods from the Mississippi River added sediment and stimulated marsh growth; the land is now shrinking.", "There are multiple causes.Artificial levees block spring flood water that would bring fresh water and sediment to marshes.", "Swamps have been extensively logged, leaving canals and ditches that allow salt water to move inland.", "Canals dug for the oil and gas industry also allow storms to move sea water inland, where it damages swamps and marshes.", "Rising sea waters have exacerbated the problem.", "Some researchers estimate that the state is losing a landmass equivalent to 30 football fields every day.", "There are many proposals to save coastal areas by reducing human damage, including restoring natural floods from the Mississippi.", "Without such restoration, coastal communities will continue to disappear.", "And as the communities disappear, more and more people are leaving the region.", "Since the coastal wetlands support an economically important coastal fishery, the loss of wetlands is adversely affecting this industry.The Gulf of Mexico 'dead zone' off the coast of Louisiana is the largest recurring hypoxic zone in the United States.", "It was in 2017, the largest ever recorded.===Geology===The oldest rocks in Louisiana are exposed in the north, in areas such as the Kisatchie National Forest.", "The oldest rocks date back to the early Cenozoic Era, some 60 million years ago.", "The youngest parts of the state were formed during the last 12,000 years as successive deltas of the Mississippi River: the Maringouin, Teche, St. Bernard, Lafourche, the modern Mississippi, and now the Atchafalaya.", "The sediments were carried from north to south by the Mississippi River.Between the tertiary rocks of the north, and the relatively new sediments along the coast, is a vast belt known as the Pleistocene Terraces.", "Their age and distribution can be largely related to the rise and fall of sea levels during past ice ages.", "The northern terraces have had sufficient time for rivers to cut deep channels, while the newer terraces tend to be much flatter.Salt domes are also found in Louisiana.", "Their origin can be traced back to the early Gulf of Mexico when the shallow ocean had high rates of evaporation.", "There are several hundred salt domes in the state; one of the most familiar is Avery Island, Louisiana.", "Salt domes are important not only as a source of salt; they also serve as underground traps for oil and gas.===Flora and fauna======Climate===Louisiana has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfa''), with long, hot, humid summers and short, mild winters.", "The subtropical characteristics of the state are due to its low latitude, low lying topography, and the influence of the Gulf of Mexico, which at its farthest point is no more than away.Rain is frequent throughout the year, although from April to September is slightly wetter than the rest of the year, which is the state's wet season.", "There is a dip in precipitation in October.", "In summer, thunderstorms build during the heat of the day and bring intense but brief, tropical downpours.", "In winter, rainfall is more frontal and less intense.Summers in southern Louisiana have high temperatures from June through September averaging or more, and overnight lows averaging above .", "At times, temperatures in the 90s°F(), combined with dew points in the upper 70s°F(), create sensible temperatures over .", "The humid, thick, jungle-like heat in southern Louisiana is a famous subject of countless stories and movies.Temperatures are generally warm in the winter in the southern part of the state, with highs around New Orleans, Baton Rouge, the rest of southern Louisiana, and the Gulf of Mexico averaging .", "The northern part of the state is mildly cool in the winter, with highs averaging .", "The overnight lows in the winter average well above freezing throughout the state, with the average near the Gulf and an average low of in the winter in the northern part of the state.On occasion, cold fronts from low-pressure centers to the north, reach Louisiana in winter.", "Low temperatures near occur on occasion in the northern part of the state but rarely do so in the southern part of the state.", "Snow is rare near the Gulf of Mexico, although residents in the northern parts of the state might receive a dusting of snow a few times each decade.", "Louisiana's highest recorded temperature is in Plain Dealing on August 10, 1936, while the coldest recorded temperature is at Minden on February 13, 1899.Louisiana is often affected by tropical cyclones and is very vulnerable to strikes by major hurricanes, particularly the lowlands around and in the New Orleans area.", "The unique geography of the region, with the many bayous, marshes and inlets, can result in water damage across a wide area from major hurricanes.", "The area is also prone to frequent thunderstorms, especially in the summer.The entire state averages over 60 days of thunderstorms a year, more than any other state except Florida.", "Louisiana averages 27 tornadoes annually.", "The entire state is vulnerable to a tornado strike, with the extreme southern portion of the state slightly less so than the rest of the state.", "Tornadoes are more common from January to March in the southern part of the state, and from February through March in the northern part of the state.+ Average temperatures in Louisiana (°F/°C) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Annual Shreveport Monroe Alexandria Lake Charles Lafayette Baton Rouge New Orleans ===Publicly owned land===Population density and low elevation coastal zones in the Mississippi River Delta.", "The Mississippi River Delta is especially vulnerable to sea level rise.Owing to its location and geology, the state has high biological diversity.", "Some vital areas, such as southwestern prairie, have experienced a loss in excess of 98 percent.", "The pine flatwoods are also at great risk, mostly from fire suppression and urban sprawl.", "There is not yet a properly organized system of natural areas to represent and protect Louisiana's biological diversity.", "Such a system would consist of a protected system of core areas linked by biological corridors, such as Florida is planning.Louisiana contains a number of areas which, to varying degrees, prevent people from using them.", "In addition to National Park Service areas and a United States National Forest, Louisiana operates a system of state parks, state historic sites, one state preservation area, one state forest, and many Wildlife Management Areas.One of Louisiana's largest government-owned areas is Kisatchie National Forest.", "It is some 600,000 acres in area, more than half of which is flatwoods vegetation, which supports many rare plant and animal species.", "These include the Louisiana pinesnake and red-cockaded woodpecker.", "The system of government-owned cypress swamps around Lake Pontchartrain is another large area, with southern wetland species including egrets, alligators, and sturgeon.", "At least 12 core areas would be needed to build a \"protected areas system\" for the state; these would range from southwestern prairies, to the Pearl River Floodplain in the east, to the Mississippi River alluvial swamps in the north.", "Additionally, the state operates a system of 22 state parks, 17 state historic sites and one state preservation area; in these lands, Louisiana maintains a diversity of fauna and flora.====National Park Service====Historic or scenic areas managed, protected, or recognized by the National Park Service include:* Atchafalaya National Heritage Area in Ascension Parish;* Cane River National Heritage Area near Natchitoches;* Cane River Creole National Historical Park near Natchitoches;* Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve, headquartered in New Orleans, with units in St. Bernard Parish, Barataria (Crown Point), and Acadiana (Lafayette);* Poverty Point National Monument at Delhi, Louisiana; and* Saline Bayou, a designated National Wild and Scenic River near Winn Parish in northern Louisiana.====U.S.", "Forest Service====* Kisatchie National Forest is Louisiana's only national forest.", "It includes more than 600,000 acres in central and northern Louisiana with large areas of flatwoods and longleaf pine forest.===Major cities===Louisiana contains 308 incorporated municipalities, consisting of four consolidated city-parishes, and 304 cities, towns, and villages.", "Louisiana's municipalities cover only 7.9% of the state's land mass but are home to 45.3% of its population.", "The majority of urban Louisianians live along the coast or in northern Louisiana.", "The oldest permanent settlement in the state is Nachitoches.", "Baton Rouge, the state capital, is the second-largest city in the state.", "The most populous city is New Orleans.", "As defined by the U.S. Census Bureau, Louisiana contains nine metropolitan statistical areas.", "Major areas include Greater New Orleans, Greater Baton Rouge, Lafayette, and Shreveport–Bossier City." ], [ "Demographics", "leftThe majority of the state's population lives in southern Louisiana, spread throughout Greater New Orleans, the Florida Parishes, and Acadiana, while Central and North Louisiana have been stagnating and losing population.", "From the 2020 U.S. census, Louisiana had an apportioned population of 4,661,468.Its resident population was 4,657,757 as of 2020.In 2010, the state of Louisiana had a population of 4,533,372, up from 76,556 in 1810.Despite historically positive trends of population growth leading up to the 2020 census, Louisiana began to experience population decline and stagnation since 2021, with Southwest Louisiana's Calcasieu and Cameron parishes losing more than 5% of their populations individually.", "Experiencing decline due to deaths and emigration to other states outpacing births and in-migration, Louisiana's 2022 census-estimated population was 4,590,241.According to immigration statistics in 2019, approximately 4.2% of Louisianians were immigrants, while 2% were native-born U.S. citizens with at least one immigrant parent.", "The majority of Louisianian immigrants came from Honduras (18.8%), Mexico (13.6%), Vietnam (11.3%), Cuba (5.8%), and India (4.4%); an estimated 29.4% were undocumented immigrants.", "Its documented and undocumented population collectively paid $1.2 billion in taxes.", "New Orleans has been defined as a sanctuary city.The population density of the state is 104.9 people per square mile.", "The center of population of Louisiana is located in Pointe Coupee Parish, in the city of New Roads.", "According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 7,373 homeless people in Louisiana.===Race and ethnicity===Racial and ethnic composition as of the 2020 census Race and ethnicityAloneTotal White (non-Hispanic) African American (non-Hispanic) Hispanic or Latino Asian Native American Pacific Islander Other Map of parishes in Louisiana by racial plurality, per the 2020 U.S. censusSeveral American Indian tribes such as the Atakapa and Caddo inhabited Louisiana before European colonization, concentrated along the Red River and Gulf of Mexico.", "At the beginning of French and Spanish colonization of Louisiana, white and black Americans began to move into the area.", "From French and Spanish rule in Louisiana, they were joined by Filipinos, Germans and Spaniards both slave and free, who settled in enclaves within the Greater New Orleans region and Acadiana; some of the Spanish-descended communities became the Isleños of St. Bernard Parish.By the 19th and 20th centuries, the state's most-populous racial and ethnic group fluctuated between white and black Americans; 47% of the population was black or African American in 1900.The black Louisianian population declined following migration to states including New York and California in efforts to flee Jim Crow regulations.At the end of the 20th century, Louisiana's population has experienced diversification again, and its non-Hispanic or non-Latino American white population has been declining.", "Since 2020, the black or African American population have made up the largest non-white share of youths.", "Hispanic and Latino Americans have also increased as the second-largest racial and ethnic composition in the state, making up nearly 7% of Louisiana's population at the 2020 census.", "As of 2018, the largest single Hispanic and Latino American ethnicity were Mexican Americans (2.0%), followed by Puerto Ricans (0.3%) and Cuban Americans (0.2%).", "Other Hispanic and Latino Americans altogether made up 2.6% of Louisiana's Hispanic or Latino American population.", "The Asian American and multiracial communities have also experienced rapid growth, with many of Louisiana's multiracial population identifying as Cajun or Louisiana Creole.At the 2019 American Community Survey, the largest ancestry groups of Louisiana were African American (31.4%), French (9.6%), German (6.2%), English (4.6%), Italian (4.2%), and Scottish (0.9%).", "African American and French heritage have been dominant since colonial Louisiana.", "As of 2011, 49.0% of Louisiana's population younger than age1 were minorities.===Religion===As an ethnically and culturally diverse state, pre-colonial, colonial and present-day Louisianians have adhered to a variety of religions and spiritual traditions; pre-colonial and colonial Louisianian peoples practiced various Native American religions alongside Christianity through the establishment of Spanish and French missions; and other faiths including Haitian Vodou and Louisiana Voodoo were introduced to the state and are practiced to the present day.", "In the colonial and present-day U.S. state of Louisiana, Christianity grew to become its predominant religion, representing 84% of the adult population in 2014 and 76.5% in 2020, during two separate studies by the Pew Research Center and Public Religion Research Institute.Antioch Baptist Church in ShreveportAmong its Christian population—and in common with other southern U.S. states—the majority, particularly in the north of the state, belong to various Protestant denominations.", "Protestantism was introduced to the state in the 1800s, with Baptists establishing two churches in 1812, followed by Methodists; Episcopalians first entered the state by 1805.Protestant Christians made up 57% of the state's adult population at the 2014 Pew Research Center study, and 53% at the 2020 Public Religion Research Institute's study.", "Protestants are concentrated in North Louisiana, Central Louisiana, and the northern tier of the Florida Parishes.", "Because of French and Spanish heritage, and their descendants the Creoles, and later Irish, Italian, Portuguese and German immigrants, southern Louisiana and Greater New Orleans are predominantly Catholic in contrast; according to the 2020 Public Religion Research Institute study, 22% of the adult population were Catholic.", "Since Creoles were the first settlers, planters and leaders of the territory, they have traditionally been well represented in politics; for instance, most of the early governors were Creole Catholics, instead of Protestants.", "As Catholics continue to constitute a significant fraction of Louisiana's population, they have continued to be influential in state politics.", "The high proportion and influence of the Catholic population makes Louisiana distinct among southern states.", "The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans, Diocese of Baton Rouge, and Diocese of Lafayette in Louisiana are the largest Catholic jurisdictions in the state, located within the Greater New Orleans, Greater Baton Rouge, and Lafayette metropolitan statistical areas.Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis in New OrleansLouisiana was among the southern states with a significant Jewish population before the 20th century; Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia also had influential Jewish populations in some of their major cities from the 18th and 19th centuries.", "The earliest Jewish colonists were Sephardic Jews who immigrated to the Thirteen Colonies.", "Later in the 19th century, German Jews began to immigrate, followed by those from eastern Europe and the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "Jewish communities have been established in the state's larger cities, notably New Orleans and Baton Rouge.", "The most significant of these is the Jewish community of the New Orleans area.", "In 2000, before the 2005 Hurricane Katrina, its population was about 12,000.Dominant Jewish movements in the state include Orthodox and Reform Judaism; Reform Judaism was the largest Jewish tradition in the state according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2020, representing some 5,891 Jews.Prominent Jews in Louisiana's political leadership have included Whig (later Democrat) Judah P. Benjamin, who represented Louisiana in the U.S. Senate before the American Civil War and then became the Confederate secretary of state; Democrat-turned-Republican Michael Hahn who was elected as governor, serving 1864–1865 when Louisiana was occupied by the Union Army, and later elected in 1884 as a U.S. congressman; Democrat Adolph Meyer, Confederate Army officer who represented the state in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1891 until his death in 1908; Republican secretary of state Jay Dardenne, and Republican (Democrat before 2011) attorney general Buddy Caldwell.Other non-Christian and non-Jewish religions with a continuous, historical presence in the state have been Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism.", "In the Shreveport–Bossier City metropolitan area, Muslims made up an estimated 14% of Louisiana's total Muslim population as of 2014.In 2020, the Association of Religion Data Archives estimated there were 24,732 Muslims living in the state.", "The largest Islamic denominations in the major metropolises of Louisiana were Sunni Islam, non-denominational Islam and Quranism, Shia Islam, and the Nation of Islam.Among Louisiana's irreligious community, 2% affiliated with atheism and 13% claimed no religion as of 2014; an estimated 10% of the state's population practiced nothing in particular at the 2014 study.", "According to the Public Religion Research Institute in 2020, 19% were religiously unaffiliated." ], [ "Economy", "Cargo ship at the Port of New OrleansLouisiana's population, agricultural products, abundance of oil and natural gas, and southern Louisiana's medical and technology corridors have contributed to its growing and diversifying economy.", "In 2014, Louisiana was ranked as one of the most small business friendly states, based on a study drawing upon data from more than 12,000 small business owners.", "The state's principal agricultural products include seafood (it is the biggest producer of crawfish in the world, supplying approximately 90%), cotton, soybeans, cattle, sugarcane, poultry and eggs, dairy products, and rice.", "Among its energy and other industries, chemical products, petroleum and coal products, processed foods, transportation equipment, and paper products have contributed to a significant portion of the state's GSP.", "Tourism and gaming are also important elements in the economy, especially in Greater New Orleans.The Port of South Louisiana, located on the Mississippi River between New Orleans and Baton Rouge, was the largest volume shipping port in the Western Hemisphere and 4th largest in the world, as well as the largest bulk cargo port in the U.S. in 2004.The Port of South Louisiana continued to be the busiest port by tonnage in the U.S. through 2018.South Louisiana was number 15 among world ports in 2016.Tabasco varieties produced in LouisianaNew Orleans, Shreveport, and Baton Rouge are home to a thriving film industry.", "State financial incentives since 2002 and aggressive promotion have given Louisiana the nickname \"Hollywood South\".", "Because of its distinctive culture within the United States, only Alaska is Louisiana's rival in popularity as a setting for reality television programs.", "In late 2007 and early 2008, a film studio was scheduled to open in Tremé, with state-of-the-art production facilities, and a film training institute.", "Tabasco sauce, which is marketed by one of the United States' biggest producers of hot sauce, the McIlhenny Company, originated on Avery Island.From 2010 to 2020, Louisiana's gross state product increased from $213.6billion to $253.3billion, the 26th highest in the United States at the time.", "As of 2020, its GSP is greater than the GDPs of Greece, Peru, and New Zealand.", "Ranking 41st in the United States with a per capita personal income of $30,952 in 2014, its residents per capita income decreased to $28,662 in 2019.The median household income was $51,073, while the national average was $65,712 at the 2019 American Community Survey.", "In July 2017, the state's unemployment rate was 5.3%; it decreased to 4.4% in 2019.Louisiana has three personal income tax brackets, ranging from 2% to 6%.", "The state sales tax rate is 4.45%, and parishes can levy additional sales tax on top of this.", "The state also has a use tax, which includes 4% to be distributed to local governments.", "Property taxes are assessed and collected at the local level.", "Louisiana is a subsidized state, and Louisiana taxpayers receive more federal funding per dollar of federal taxes paid compared to the average state.", "Per dollar of federal tax collected in 2005, Louisiana citizens received approximately $1.78 in the way of federal spending.", "This ranks the state fourth highest nationally and represents a rise from 1995 when Louisiana received $1.35 per dollar of taxes in federal spending (ranked seventh nationally).", "Neighboring states and the amount of federal spending received per dollar of federal tax collected were: Texas ($0.94), Arkansas ($1.41), and Mississippi ($2.02).", "Federal spending in 2005 and subsequent years since has been exceptionally high due to the recovery from Hurricane Katrina." ], [ "Culture", "Louisiana is home to many cultures; especially notable are the distinct cultures of the Louisiana Creoles and Cajuns, descendants of French and Spanish settlers in colonial Louisiana.===African culture===The French colony of ''La Louisiane'' struggled for decades to survive.", "Conditions were harsh, the climate and soil were unsuitable for certain crops the colonists knew, and they suffered from regional tropical diseases.", "Both colonists and the slaves they imported had high mortality rates.", "The settlers kept importing slaves, which resulted in a high proportion of native Africans from West Africa, who continued to practice their culture in new surroundings.", "As described by historian Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, they developed a marked Afro-Creole culture in the colonial era.At the turn of the 18th century and in the early 1800s, New Orleans received a major influx of White and mixed-race refugees fleeing the violence of the Haitian Revolution, many of whom brought their slaves with them.", "This added another infusion of African culture to the city, as more slaves in Saint-Domingue were from Africa than in the United States.", "They strongly influenced the African-American culture of the city in terms of dance, music and religious practices.===Creole culture===Typical dishes of Louisiana Creole cuisineCreole culture is an amalgamation of French, African, Spanish (and other European), and Native American cultures.", "Creole comes from the Portuguese word ''crioulo''; originally it referred to a colonist of European (specifically French) descent who was born in the New World, in comparison to immigrants from France.", "The oldest Louisiana manuscript to use the word \"Creole\", from 1782, applied it to a slave born in the French colony.", "But originally it referred more generally to the French colonists born in Louisiana.Over time, there developed in the French colony a relatively large group of Creoles of Color (''gens de couleur libres''), who were primarily descended from African slave women and French men (later other Europeans became part of the mix, as well as some Native Americans).", "Often the French would free their concubines and mixed-race children, and pass on social capital to them.", "They might educate sons in France, for instance, and help them enter the French Army.", "They also settled capital or property on their mistresses and children.", "The free people of color gained more rights in the colony and sometimes education; they generally spoke French and were Roman Catholic.", "Many became artisans and property owners.", "Over time, the term \"Creole\" became associated with this class of Creoles of color, many of whom achieved freedom long before the American Civil War.Wealthy French Creoles generally maintained town houses in New Orleans as well as houses on their large sugar plantations outside town along the Mississippi River.", "New Orleans had the largest population of free people of color in the region; they could find work there and created their own culture, marrying among themselves for decades.===Acadian culture===The ancestors of Cajuns immigrated mostly from west central France to New France, where they settled in the Atlantic provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, known originally as the French colony of Acadia.", "After the British defeated France in the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War) in 1763, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi River to Britain.", "After the Acadians refused to swear an oath of loyalty to the British Crown, they were expelled from Acadia, and made their way to places such as France, Britain, and New England.Other Acadians covertly remained in British North America or moved to New Spain.", "Many Acadians settled in southern Louisiana in the region around Lafayette and the LaFourche Bayou country.", "They developed a distinct rural culture there, different from the French Creole colonists of New Orleans.", "Intermarrying with others in the area, they developed what was called Cajun music, cuisine and culture.===Isleño culture===Saint BernardA third distinct culture in Louisiana is that of the Isleños.", "Its members are descendants of colonists from the Canary Islands who settled in Spanish Louisiana between 1778 and 1783 and intermarried with other communities such as Frenchmen, Acadians, Creoles, Spaniards, and other groups, mainly through the 19th and early 20th centuries.In Louisiana, the Isleños originally settled in four communities which included Galveztown, Valenzuela, Barataria, and San Bernardo.", "The large migration of Acadian refugees to Bayou Lafourche led to the rapid gallicization of the Valenzuela community while the community of San Bernardo (Saint Bernard) was able to preserve much of its unique culture and language into the 21st century.", "The transmission of Spanish and other customs has completely halted in St. Bernard with those having competency in Spanish being octogenarians.Through the centuries, the various Isleño communities of Louisiana have kept alive different elements of their Canary Islander heritage while also adopting and building upon the customs and traditions of the communities that surround them.", "Today two heritage associates exist for the communities: Los Isleños Heritage and Cultural Society of St. Bernard as well as the Canary Islanders Heritage Society of Louisiana.", "The Fiesta de los Isleños is celebrated annually in St. Bernard Parish which features heritage performances from local groups and the Canary Islands." ], [ "Education", "Aerial view of Louisiana State University's flagship campusDespite ranking as the third-least educated state as of 2023, preceded by Mississippi and West Virginia, Louisiana is home to over 40 public and private colleges and universities including: Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge; Louisiana Tech University in Ruston, the University of Louisiana at Lafayette in Lafayette; and Tulane University in New Orleans.", "Louisiana State University is the largest and most comprehensive university in Louisiana; Louisiana Tech University is one the most well regarded universities in Louisiana; the University of Louisiana at Lafayette is the second largest by enrollment.", "The University of Louisiana at Lafayette became an R1 university in December 2021.Tulane University is a major private research university and the wealthiest university in Louisiana with an endowment over $1.1billion.", "Tulane is also highly regarded for its academics nationwide, consistently ranked in the top 50 on ''U.S.", "News & World Report's'' list of best national universities.Louisiana's two oldest and largest historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) are Southern University in Baton Rouge and Grambling State University in Grambling.", "Both these Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC) schools compete against each other in football annually in the much anticipated Bayou Classic during Thanksgiving weekend in the Superdome.Of note among the education system, the Louisiana Science Education Act was a controversial law passed by the Louisiana Legislature on June 11, 2008, and signed into law by Governor Bobby Jindal on June 25.The act allowed public school teachers to use supplemental materials in the science classroom which are critical of established science on such topics as the theory of evolution and global warming.In 2000, of all of the states, Louisiana had the highest percentage of students in private schools.", "Danielle Dreilinger of ''The Times Picayune'' wrote in 2014 that \"Louisiana parents have a national reputation for favoring private schools.\"", "The number of students in enrolled in private schools in Louisiana declined by 9% from until 2014, due to the proliferation of charter schools, the 2008 recession and Hurricane Katrina.", "Ten parishes in the Baton Rouge and New Orleans area had a combined 17% decline in private school enrollment in that period.", "This prompted private schools to lobby for school vouchers.Louisiana's school voucher program is known as the Louisiana Scholarship Program.", "It was available in the New Orleans area beginning in 2008 and in the rest of the state beginning in 2012.In 2013, the number of students using school vouchers to attend private schools was 6,751, and for 2014 it was projected to exceed 8,800.As per a ruling from Ivan Lemelle, a U.S. district judge, the federal government has the right to review the charter school placements to ensure they do not further racial segregation." ], [ "Transportation", "The Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development is the state government organization in charge of maintaining public transportation, roadways, bridges, canals, select levees, floodplain management, port facilities, commercial vehicles, and aviation which includes 69 airports.===Roads=======Interstate highways====* * * ** * * * * Future ====United States highways====* * * * * ** * * * * * * ** * In 2011, Louisiana ranked among the five deadliest states for debris/litter-caused vehicle accidents per total number of registered vehicles and population size.===Rail===Six Class I freight railroads operate in Louisiana: BNSF, Canadian National, CPKC, CSX, Norfolk Southern and Union Pacific.", "A number of Class II and Class III railroads also carry freight.Amtrak, the national passenger railroad, operates three long-distance rail routes through Louisiana.", "All three originate at New Orleans Union Passenger Terminal.", "The ''Crescent'' serves then runs northeast to via , , , and The ''City of New Orleans'' stops at before continuing north to by way of and .", "The ''Sunset Limited'' serves , , , and on its route west to via , , , and .", "Before Hurricane Katrina, the ''Sunset Limited'' ran as far east as .===Mass transit===St.", "Charles Avenue Line in New OrleansPredominantly serving New Orleans, the New Orleans Regional Transit Authority is the largest transit agency in the state.", "Other transit organizations are St. Bernard Urban Rapid Transit, Jefferson Transit, Capital Area Transit System, Lafayette Transit System, Shreveport Area Transit System, and Monroe Transit, among others.The Louisiana Transportation Authority (under the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development) was created in 2001 to \"promote, plan, finance, develop, construct, control, regulate, operate and maintain any tollway or transitway to be constructed within its jurisdiction.", "Development, construction, improvement, expansion, and maintenance of an efficient, safe, and well-maintained intermodal transportation system is essential to promote Louisiana's economic growth and the ability of Louisiana's business and industry to compete in regional, national, and global markets and to provide a high quality of life for the people of Louisiana.", "\"===Air===Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport (MSY) is the busiest airport in Louisiana by an order of magnitude.", "It is also the second lowest-lying international airport in the world, at just above sea level.", "There are six other primary airports in the state: Baton Rouge Metropolitan, Shreveport Regional, Lafayette Regional, Alexandria International, Monroe Regional, and Lake Charles Regional.", "A total of 69 public-use airports exist in Louisiana.===Waterways===Gulf Intracoastal Waterway near New OrleansThe Gulf Intracoastal Waterway is an important means of transporting commercial goods such as petroleum and petroleum products, agricultural produce, building materials and manufactured goods.", "In 2018, the state sued the federal government to repair erosion along the waterway." ], [ "Law and government", ":The Louisiana State Capitol in Baton Rouge, the tallest state capitol building in the United StatesThe Louisiana Governor's MansionIn 1849, the state moved the capital from New Orleans to Baton Rouge.", "Donaldsonville, Opelousas, and Shreveport have briefly served as the seat of Louisiana state government.", "The Louisiana State Capitol and the Louisiana Governor's Mansion are both located in Baton Rouge.", "The Louisiana Supreme Court, however, did not move to Baton Rouge but remains headquartered in New Orleans.The current Louisiana governor is Republican Jeff Landry.", "The current United States senators are Republicans John Neely Kennedy and Bill Cassidy.", "Louisiana has six congressional districts and is represented in the U.S. House of Representatives by five Republicans and one Democrat.", "Louisiana had eight votes in the Electoral College for the 2020 election.In a 2020 study, Louisiana was ranked as the 24th hardest state for citizens to vote in.The Louisiana State Penitentiary, Angola is the largest maximum-security prison in the United States.===Administrative divisions===Louisiana is divided into 64 parishes (the equivalent of counties in most other states).", "List of parishes in LouisianaLouisiana census statistical areasMost parishes have an elected government known as the Police Jury, dating from the colonial days.", "It is the legislative and executive government of the parish, and is elected by the voters.", "Its members are called Jurors, and together they elect a president as their chairman.A more limited number of parishes operate under home rule charters, electing various forms of government.", "This include mayor–council, council–manager (in which the council hires a professional operating manager for the parish), and others.===Civil law===The Louisiana political and legal structure has maintained several elements from the times of French and Spanish governance.", "One is the use of the term \"parish\" (from the French: ) in place of \"county\" for administrative subdivision.", "Another is the legal system of civil law based on French, German, and Spanish legal codes and ultimately Roman law, as opposed to English common law.Louisiana's civil law system is what the majority of sovereign states in the world use, especially in Europe and its former colonies, excluding those that derive their legal systems from the British Empire.", "However, it is incorrect to equate the Louisiana Civil Code with the Napoleonic Code.", "Although the Napoleonic Code and Louisiana law draw from common legal roots, the Napoleonic Code was never in force in Louisiana, as it was enacted in 1804, after the United States had purchased and annexed Louisiana in 1803.While the Louisiana Civil Code of 1808 has been continuously revised and updated since its enactment, it is still considered the controlling authority in the state.", "Differences are found between Louisianian civil law and the common law found in the other U.S. states.", "While some of these differences have been bridged due to the strong influence of common law tradition, the civil law tradition is still deeply rooted in most aspects of Louisiana private law.", "Thus property, contractual, business entities structure, much of civil procedure, and family law, as well as some aspects of criminal law, are based mostly on traditional Roman legal thinking.===Marriage===In 1997, Louisiana became the first state to offer the option of a traditional marriage or a covenant marriage.", "In a covenant marriage, the couple waives their right to a \"no-fault\" divorce after six months of separation, which is available in a traditional marriage.", "To divorce under a covenant marriage, a couple must demonstrate cause.", "Marriages between ascendants and descendants, and marriages between collaterals within the fourth degree (i.e., siblings, aunt and nephew, uncle and niece, first cousins) are prohibited.", "Same-sex marriages were prohibited by statute, but the U.S. Supreme Court declared such bans unconstitutional in 2015 in ''Obergefell v. Hodges''.", "Same-sex marriages are now performed statewide.", "Louisiana is a community property state.===Elections===Treemap of the popular vote by parish, 2016 presidential electionFrom 1898 to 1965, a period when Louisiana had effectively disfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites by provisions of a new constitution, this was essentially a one-party state dominated by white Democrats.", "Elites had control in the early 20th century, before populist Huey Long came to power as governor.", "In multiple acts of resistance, blacks left behind the segregation, violence and oppression of the state and moved out to seek better opportunities in northern and western industrial cities during the Great Migrations of 1910–1970, markedly reducing their proportion of population in Louisiana.", "The franchise for whites was expanded somewhat during these decades, but blacks remained essentially disfranchised until after the civil rights movement of the mid-20th century, gaining enforcement of their constitutional rights through passage by Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.Since the 1960s, when civil rights legislation was passed under President Lyndon Johnson to protect voting and civil rights, most African Americans in the state have affiliated with the Democratic Party.", "In the same years, many white social conservatives have moved to support Republican Party candidates in national, gubernatorial and statewide elections.", "In 2004, David Vitter was the first Republican in Louisiana to be popularly elected as a U.S. senator.", "The previous Republican senator, John S. Harris, who took office in 1868 during Reconstruction, was chosen by the state legislature under the rules of the 19th century.Louisiana is unique among U.S. states in using a system for its state and local elections similar to that of modern France.", "All candidates, regardless of party affiliation, run in a nonpartisan blanket primary (or \"jungle primary\") on Election Day.", "If no candidate has more than 50% of the vote, the two candidates with the highest vote totals compete in a runoff election approximately one month later.", "This run-off method does not take into account party identification; therefore, it is not uncommon for a Democrat to be in a runoff with a fellow Democrat or a Republican to be in a runoff with a fellow Republican.Congressional races have also been held under the jungle primary system.", "All other states (except Washington, California, and Maine) use single-party primaries followed by a general election between party candidates, each conducted by either a plurality voting system or runoff voting, to elect senators, representatives, and statewide officials.", "Between 2008 and 2010, federal congressional elections were run under a closed primary system—limited to registered party members.", "However, on the passage of House Bill 292, Louisiana again adopted a nonpartisan blanket primary for its federal congressional elections.Louisiana has six seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, five of which are currently held by Republicans and one by a Democrat.", "Though the state historically flips between Republican and Democratic governors, Louisiana is not classified as a swing state in presidential elections, as it has consistently voted for the Republican candidate by solid margins since backing Democrat Bill Clinton in 1996.The state's two U.S. senators are Bill Cassidy (R) and John Neely Kennedy (R).", "Louisiana's party registration as of February 1, 2024 Party Total voters Percentage Democratic 1,142,584 38.38% Republican 1,011,247 33.97% Other 823,061 27.65% Total 2,976,892 100.00%===Law enforcement===Louisiana's statewide police force is the Louisiana State Police.", "In 1988, the Criminal Investigation Bureau was reorganized.", "Its troopers have statewide jurisdiction with power to enforce all laws of the state, including city and parish ordinances.", "Each year, they patrol over 12 million miles (20 million km) of roadway and arrest about 10,000 impaired drivers.", "The State Police are primarily a traffic enforcement agency, with other sections that delve into trucking safety, narcotics enforcement, and gaming oversight.Mardi Gras celebrations in the Spanish Town section of Baton RougeThe elected sheriff in each parish is its chief law enforcement officer.", "They are the keepers of the local parish prisons, which house felony and misdemeanor prisoners.", "They are the primary criminal patrol and first responder agency in all matters criminal and civil.", "They are also the official tax collectors in each parish.", "The sheriffs are responsible for general law enforcement in their respective parishes, with the exception of Orleans Parish where this falls to the New Orleans Police Department.", "Before 2010, Orleans Parish was the only parish to have two sheriff's offices, with a different elected sheriff overseeing civil and criminal matters.", "In 2006, a bill was passed which eventually consolidated the two sheriff's departments into one parish sheriff responsible for both.In 2015, Louisiana had a higher murder rate (10.3 per 100,000) than any other state in the country for the 27th straight year.", "Louisiana is the only state with an annual average murder rate (13.6 per 100,000) at least twice as high as the U.S. annual average (6.6 per 100,000) during that period, according to Bureau of Justice Statistics from FBI Uniform Crime Reports.", "In a different kind of criminal activity, the ''Chicago Tribune'' reports that Louisiana is the most corrupt state in the United States.According to a 2012 article in ''The Times Picayune'', Louisiana is the prison capital of the world.", "Many for-profit private prisons and sheriff-owned prisons have been built and operate here.", "Louisiana's incarceration rate is nearly five times Iran's, 13 times China's and 20 times Germany's.", "Minorities are incarcerated at rates disproportionate to their share of the state's population.", "There are more people serving life sentences without parole in Louisiana than in Texas, Tennessee, Arkansas, Alabama and Mississippi combined.The New Orleans Police Department began a sanctuary policy to \"no longer cooperate with federal immigration enforcement\" beginning on February 28, 2016.===Judiciary===The judiciary of Louisiana is defined under the constitution and law of Louisiana and comprises the Louisiana Supreme Court, the Louisiana Circuit Courts of Appeal, the district courts, the Justice of the Peace courts, the mayor's courts, the city courts, and the parish courts.", "The chief justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court is the chief administrator of the judiciary.", "Its administration is aided by the Judiciary Commission of Louisiana, the Louisiana Attorney Disciplinary Board, and the Judicial Council of the Supreme Court of Louisiana." ], [ "National Guard", "Louisiana has more than 9,000 soldiers in the Louisiana Army National Guard, including the 225th Engineer Brigade and the 256th Infantry Brigade.", "Both these units have served overseas during the War on Terror.", "The Louisiana Air National Guard has more than 2,000 airmen, and its 159th Fighter Wing has likewise seen combat.Training sites in the state include Louisiana National Guard Training Center Pineville near Pineville, Camp Villere near Slidell, Camp Minden near Minden, England Air Park (formerly England Air Force Base) near Alexandria, Gillis Long Center near Carville, and Jackson Barracks in New Orleans." ], [ "Sports", "Caesars Superdome and Smoothie King Center in New Orleans.Louisiana is the least populous state with more than one major professional sports league franchise: the National Basketball Association's New Orleans Pelicans and the National Football League's New Orleans Saints.Louisiana has 12 collegiate NCAA Division I programs, a high number given its population.", "The state has no NCAA Division II teams and only two NCAA Division III teams.", "As of 2019, the LSU Tigers football team has won 12 Southeastern Conference titles, six Sugar Bowls and four national championships.Each year New Orleans plays host to the Bayou Classic, and the New Orleans Bowl college football games, while Shreveport hosts the Independence Bowl.", "New Orleans has hosted the Super Bowl a record eleven times, as well as the BCS National Championship Game, NBA All-Star Game and NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship.The Zurich Classic of New Orleans, is a PGA Tour golf tournament held since 1938.The Rock 'n' Roll Mardi Gras Marathon and Crescent City Classic are two road running competitions held at New Orleans.As of 2016, Louisiana was the birthplace of the most NFL players per capita for the eighth year in a row." ], [ "Notable people", "* Phil Anselmo, singer, songwriter, best known for being member of the metal band Pantera* Terry Bradshaw, former NFL quarterback and sports personality* James Carville, political strategist known for his success with Bill Clinton's presidential campaign* Patricia Clarkson, actress* Ellen DeGeneres, comedian, television host, actress, writer, and producer* Armand Duplantis, pole vaulter.", "IAAF male World Athlete of the Year 2020* Mannie Fresh; DJ, producer, and rapper* Kevin Gates; rapper, singer, songwriter, and entrepreneur* DJ Khaled; American DJ, record executive and media personality* Angela Kinsey, actress* Ali Landry, actress and Miss USA 1996* Jared Leto, actor and musician* Jerry Lee Lewis; singer and piano-player* Huey Long, politicianPeyton Manning, former American football quarterback Tim McGraw, singer, actor and record producerTyler Perry, actor, director, producer, and screenwriter Dustin Poirier; American mixed martial artist, currently signed to the UFC* Zachary Richard; Cajun singer, songwriter and poet* Fred L. Smith Jr., founder of Competitive Enterprise Institute* Ian Somerhalder, actor, model and director* Britney Spears; singer, songwriter, dancer and actress* Jamie Lynn Spears, singer and actress* Lil Wayne; rapper, singer, songwriter, record executive, entrepreneur, and actor* Shane West, actor, singer and songwriter* Reese Witherspoon, actress* YoungBoy Never Broke Again; rapper, singer, and songwriter* $uicideboy$; singer, rapper and producer" ], [ "See also", "* Index of Louisiana-related articles* Outline of Louisiana* USS ''Louisiana'', 5 ships* USRC ''Louisiana''* ''''''''''* ''''''''''" ], [ "Notes", "'''Pronunciation'''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''The Sugar Masters: Planters and Slaves in Louisiana's Cane World, 1820–1860'' by Richard Follett, Louisiana State University Press, 2007.", "* ''The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870'' by Hugh Thomas.", "1997: Simon and Schuster.", "p. 548.", "* ''Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World'' by David Brion Davis 2006: Oxford University Press.", "* Yiannopoulos, A.N., ''The Civil Codes of Louisiana'' (reprinted from Civil Law System: Louisiana and Comparative law, A Coursebook: Texts, Cases and Materials, 3d Edition; similar to version in preface to Louisiana Civil Code, ed.", "by Yiannopoulos)* Rodolfo Batiza, \"The Louisiana Civil Code of 1808: Its Actual Sources and Present Relevance\", 46 ''TUL.", "L.", "REV.''", "4 (1971); Rodolfo Batiza, \"Sources of the Civil Code of 1808, Facts and Speculation: A Rejoinder\", 46 ''TUL.", "L.", "REV.''", "628 (1972); Robert A. Pascal, Sources of the Digest of 1808: A Reply to Professor Batiza, 46 TUL.", "L. REV.", "603 (1972); Joseph M. Sweeney, Tournament of Scholars Over the Sources of the Civil Code of 1808,46 TUL.", "L. REV.", "585 (1972).", "* The standard history of the state, though only through the Civil War, is Charles Gayarré's ''History of Louisiana'' (various editions, culminating in 1866, 4 vols., with a posthumous and further expanded edition in 1885).", "* A number of accounts by 17th- and 18th-century French explorers: Jean-Bernard Bossu, François-Marie Perrin du Lac, Pierre-François-Xavier de Charlevoix, Dumont (as published by Fr.", "Mascrier), Fr.", "Louis Hennepin, Lahontan, Louis Narcisse Baudry des Lozières, Jean-Baptiste Bénard de la Harpe, and Laval.", "In this group, the explorer Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz may be the first historian of Louisiana with his ''Histoire de la Louisiane'' (3 vols., Paris, 1758; 2 vols., London, 1763)* François Xavier Martin's ''History of Louisiana'' (2 vols., New Orleans, 1827–1829, later ed.", "by J. F. Condon, continued to 1861, New Orleans, 1882) is the first scholarly treatment of the subject, along with François Barbé-Marbois' ''Histoire de la Louisiane et de la cession de colonie par la France aux Etats-Unis'' (Paris, 1829; in English, Philadelphia, 1830).", "* Alcée Fortier's ''A History of Louisiana'' (N.Y., 4 vols., 1904) is the most recent of the large-scale scholarly histories of the state.", "* The official works of Albert Phelps and Grace King, the publications of the Louisiana Historical Society and several works on the history of New Orleans (q.v.", "), among them those by Henry Rightor and John Smith Kendall provide background." ], [ "External links", "** Louisiana: State Resource Guide, from the Library of Congress* * Louisiana Geographic Information Center* Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities* Louisiana Weather and Tides" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Los Angeles International Airport" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Los Angeles International Airport''' , commonly referred to as '''LAX''' (with each letter pronounced individually), is the primary international airport serving Los Angeles, California and its surrounding metropolitan area.", "LAX is located in the Westchester neighborhood of the city of Los Angeles, southwest of Downtown Los Angeles, with the commercial and residential areas of Westchester to the north, the city of El Segundo to the south and the city of Inglewood to the east.", "LAX is the closest airport to the Westside and the South Bay.The airport is operated by Los Angeles World Airports (LAWA), a branch of the Los Angeles city government, that also operates the Van Nuys Airport for general aviation.", "The airport covers of land and has four parallel runways.In 2022, LAX handled 65,924,298 passengers, making it the world's sixth-busiest airport.", "As the largest and busiest international airport on the West Coast of the United States, LAX is a major international gateway for the country, serving as a connection point for passengers travelling internationally (such as East and Southeast Asia, Australasia, Mexico and Central America).", "The airport holds the record for the world's busiest origin and destination airport, because relative to other airports, many more travellers begin or end their trips in Los Angeles than use it as a connection.", "In 2019, LAWA reported approximately 88 percent of travellers at LAX were origination and destination passengers, and 12 percent were connecting.", "It is also the only airport to rank among the top five U.S. airports for both passenger and cargo traffic.", "LAX serves as a hub, focus city or operating base for more passenger airlines than any other airport in the United States.Although LAX is the busiest airport in the Greater Los Angeles Area, several other airports serve the region including Burbank, John Wayne (Orange County), Long Beach, Ontario, and San Bernardino." ], [ "History", "Hangar No.", "1 was the first structure at LAX, built in 1929, restored in 1990 and remaining in active use.In 1926, the Los Angeles City Council and the Chamber of Commerce recognized the need for the city to have its own airport to tap into the fledgling, but quickly growing aviation industry.", "Several locations were considered, but the final choice was a field in the southern part of Westchester.", "The location had been promoted by real estate agent William W. Mines, and '''Mines Field''' as it was known, had already been selected to host the 1928 National Air Races.", "On August 13, 1928 the city leased the land and the newly formed Department of Airports began converting the fields once used to grow wheat, barley and lima beans into dirt landing strips.The airport opened on October 1, 1928 and the first structure, Hangar No.", "1, was erected in 1929.The building still stands at the airport, remaining in active use and listed on the National Register of Historic Places.", "Over the next year, the airport started to come together: the dirt runway was replaced with an all-weather surface and more hangars, a restaurant, and a control tower were built.", "On June 7, 1930, the facility was dedicated and renamed Los Angeles Municipal Airport.Los Angeles Municipal Airport on Army Day, The airport was used by private pilots and flying schools, but the city’s vision was that Los Angeles would become the main passenger hub for the area.", "However, the airport failed to entice any carriers away from the established Burbank Airport or the Grand Central Airport in Glendale.World War II put a pause on any further development of the airport for passenger use.", "Before the United States entered the war, the aviation manufacturers located around the airport were busy providing aircraft for the allied powers, while the flying schools found themselves in high demand.", "In January 1942, the military assumed control of the airport, stationing fighter planes at the airfield and building naval gun batteries in the ocean dunes to the west.Meanwhile, airport managers published a master plan for the land, and in early 1943 and convinced voters to back a $12.5 million bond for airport improvements.", "With a plan and funding in place, the airlines were finally convinced to make the move.After the end of the war, four temporary terminals were quickly erected on the north side of the airport and on December 9, 1946, American Airlines, Trans World Airlines (TWA), United Airlines, Southwest Airways and Western Airlines began passenger operations at the airport, with Pan American Airways (Pan Am) joining the next month.", "The airport was renamed Los Angeles International Airport in 1949.The temporary terminals would remain in place for 15 years but quickly became inadequate, especially as air travel entered the \"jet age\" and other cities invested in modern facilities.", "Airport leaders once again convinced voters to back a $59 million bond on June 5, 1956.The current layout of the passenger facilities was established in 1958 with a plan to build a series of terminals and parking facilities, arranged in the shape of the letter U, in the central portion of the property.", "The original plan called for the terminal buildings connected at the center of the property by a huge steel-and-glass dome.", "The dome was never built, but a smaller Theme Building built in the central area became a focal point for people coming to the airport.Continental passengers arriving at CAL terminal, July 1962, before jet bridges were constructedThe first of the new passenger buildings, Terminals 7 and 8, were opened for United Airlines on June 25, 1961, following opening festivities that lasted several days.", "Terminals 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 opened later that same year.A major expansion of the airport came in the early 1980s, ahead of the 1984 Summer Olympic Games.", "In November 1983 a second-level roadway was added, Terminal 1 opened in January 1984 and the Tom Bradley International Terminal opened in June 1984.The original terminals also received expansions and updates in the 1980s.Since 2008, the airport has been undergoing another major expansion.", "All of the terminals are being refurbished, and the Tom Bradley International Terminal was substantially rebuilt, with a West Gates satellite concourse added.", "Outside of the terminal area, the LAX West Intermodal Transportation Facility with 4,300 parking spaces opened in 2021 replacing the former Lot C. A new LAX/Metro Transit Center station and a LAX Consolidated Rent-A-Car Facility (ConRAC) are being built.", "All will be connected to the terminal area by the LAX Automated People Mover.", "In the near future, airport managers plan to build two more terminals (0 and 9).", "All together, these projects are expected to cost of $14 billion and bring LAX's total gates from 146 to 182.===The \"X\" in LAX===Before the 1930s, US airports used a two-letter abbreviation and at that time, \"LA\" served as the designation for Los Angeles Airport.", "With the rapid growth in the aviation industry, in 1947, the identifiers expanded to three letters and \"LA\" received an extra letter to become \"LAX.\"", "The letter \"X\" does not otherwise have any specific meaning in this identifier.", "\"LAX\" is also used for the Port of Los Angeles in San Pedro and by Amtrak for Union Station in Downtown Los Angeles." ], [ "Infrastructure", "The light towers, first installed in preparation for the Democratic National Convention in 2000, change colors throughout the night.=== Airfield ===Runways 24R/06L and 24L/06R (designated the North Airfield Complex) are north of the airport terminals, while runways 25R/07L and 25L/07R (designated the South Airfield Complex) are south of the airport terminals.+Runways at Los Angeles International E Length Width W 06L → ← 24R 06R → ← 24L Terminal Area 07L → ← 25R 07R → ← 25LLAX is located with the Pacific Ocean to the west and residential communities on all other sides.", "Since 1972, Los Angeles World Airports has adopted a \"Preferential Runway Use Policy\" to minimize noise levels in the communities closest to LAX.Typically the loudest operations at an airport are from departing aircraft (as engines operate at high power), so during daytime hours (6:30am to midnight), LAX prefers to operate under the \"Westerly Operations\" air traffic pattern, named for the prevailing west winds.", "Under \"Westerly Operations\", departing aircraft take off to the west (over the ocean), and arriving aircraft approach from the east.", "To reduce noise to areas north and south of the airport, LAX prefers to use the \"inboard\" runways (06R/24L and 07L/25R) closest to the central terminal area and further from residential areas for departures, and the \"outboard\" runways for arrivals.", "Historically, over 90% of flights have used the \"inboard\" departures and \"outboard\" arrivals scheme.During nighttime hours, when there are fewer aircraft operations and residential areas tend to be more noise sensitive, additional changes are made to reduce noise.", "Between 10pm and 7am, air traffic controllers try to use the \"outboard\" runways as little as possible and between midnight and 6:30am the air traffic pattern shifts to \"Over-Ocean Operations,\" where departing aircraft continue to take off to the west, but arriving aircraft also approach from the west (over the ocean).There are times when the Over-Ocean and Westerly operations are not possible, particularly when the winds originate from the east, typically during inclement weather and Santa Ana winds events.", "When that happens, the airport shifts to the non-preferred \"Easterly Operations\" air traffic pattern where departing aircraft take off to the east, and arriving aircraft approach from the west.The South Airfield Complex tends to see more operations than the North, due to a larger number of passenger gates and air cargo operations areas on the south side of the airport grounds.", "In 2007, the southernmost runway (07R/25L) was moved to the south to accommodate a new central taxiway.", "Runways in the North Airfield Complex are separated by .", "There were plans to increase the separation by , which would have allowed a central taxiway between runways to have been built, but faced opposition from residents living north of LAX.", "These plans were scrapped in 2016, in favor of lifting a gate cap at the airport and building a new park on the airport's north side.=== Terminals ======Theme Building===alt=The distinctive Theme Building in the Googie style was built in 1961 and resembles a flying saucer that has landed on its four legs.", "A restaurant with a sweeping view of the airport is suspended beneath two arches that form the legs.", "The Los Angeles City Council designated the building a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument in 1992.A $4 million renovation, with retro-futuristic interior and electric lighting designed by Walt Disney Imagineering, was completed before the Encounter Restaurant opened there in 1997 but is no longer in business.", "Visitors are able to take the elevator up to the observation deck of the \"Theme Building\", which had previously been closed after the September 11, 2001 attacks for security reasons.", "A memorial to the victims of the 9/11 attacks is located on the grounds, as three of the four hijacked planes were originally destined for LAX.", "The Bob Hope USO expanded and relocated to the first floor of the Theme Building in 2018.===Recent & future developments===LAWA currently has several plans to modernize LAX, at a cost of over $14 billion.", "These include terminal and runway improvements, which will \"enhance the passenger experience, reduce overcrowding, and provide airport access to the latest class of very large passenger aircraft\"; this will bring the number of LAX's total gates from 146 to 182.Recently completed improvements include:* Renovations of Terminals 7 and 8 completed in 2019, Terminal 1 in 2018, and Terminals 2 and 3 in 2023.", "Terminal 1.5, a building connecting Terminals 1 and 2, with a bus gate to take passengers to boarding gates in the Tom Bradley International Terminal (completed 2021)The Midfield Satellite Concourse at Tom Bradley International Terminal adding 15 gates (completed 2021)The Economy Parking facility, a 4,300-stall parking structure with passenger pick-up/drop-off areas, to later be connected to the terminal area by the APM (completed 2021)A new Los Angeles Airport Police headquarters, replacing a smaller facility located where Concourse 0 is planned to be built (completed 2021)Future improvements include:* Reconstruction of Terminals 4, 5, and 6 (all under construction)* Expansion of the Midfield Satellite Concourse at Tom Bradley International adding 8 gates (under construction)* Concourse 0 east of Terminal 1, adding 9 gates and an additional international arrivals facility (planned)Terminal 9 east of Sepulveda Boulevard, adding 12 gates and an additional international arrivals facility (planned) LAX Automated People Mover (APM) (under construction)* LAX/Metro Transit Center station, a Los Angeles Metro Rail and bus station, connected to the terminal area by the APM (under construction)* LAX Consolidated Rent-A-Car Facility, connected to the terminal area by the APM (under construction)* A high-voltage power receiving station to address persistent issues with the reliability, redundancy and capacity of electric service (under construction)Roadway improvements, providing improved access to the above facilities and the Central Terminal Area (under construction)" ], [ "Airlines and destinations", "===Passenger===: Sichuan Airlines’s flight from Los Angeles to Chengdu–Tianfu makes a refueling stop at Hangzhou.", "Passengers may not disembark.", "The flight from Chengdu–Tianfu to Los Angeles is nonstop.===Cargo===" ], [ "Traffic and statistics", "An Avianca Airbus A321 with two American Airlines and one JetBlue aircraft in the backgroundUnited 737-800 and a Lufthansa 747-400 taxiingA Copa Airlines 737-800 taxiing.It is the world's fourth-busiest airport by passenger traffic and eleventh-busiest by cargo traffic, serving over 87 million passengers and 2 million tons of freight and mail in 2018.It is the busiest airport in the state of California, and the fifth-busiest (2022) airport by passenger boardings in the United States.", "In terms of international passengers, the second busiest airport for international traffic in the United States, behind only JFK in New York City.The number of aircraft movements (landings and takeoffs) was 700,362 in 2017, the third most of any airport in the world.+ Traffic by calendar year Passenger volume Aircraft movements Freight(tons) Mail(tons)199451,050,275 689,888 1,516,567 186,878199553,909,223 732,639 1,567,248 193,747199657,974,559 763,866 1,696,663 194,091199760,142,588 781,492 1,852,487 212,410199861,215,712 773,569 1,787,400 '''264,473'''199964,279,571 779,150 1,884,526 253,695200067,303,182 '''783,433''' 2,002,614 246,538200161,606,204 738,433 1,779,065 162,629200256,223,843 645,424 1,869,932 92,422200354,982,838 622,378 1,924,883 97,193200460,704,568 655,097 2,022,911 92,402200561,489,398 650,629 2,048,817 88,371200661,041,066 656,842 2,022,687 80,395200762,438,583 680,954 2,010,820 66,707200859,815,646 622,506 1,723,038 73,505200956,520,843 544,833 1,599,782 64,073201059,069,409 575,835 1,852,791 74,034201161,862,052 603,912 1,789,204 80,442201263,688,121 605,480 1,867,155 88,438201366,667,619 614,917 1,848,764 77,286201470,662,212 636,706 1,921,302 79,850201574,936,256 655,564 2,047,197 94,299201680,921,527 697,138 2,105,941 99,394201784,557,968 700,362 2,279,878 109,596201887,534,384 707,833 2,338,642 109,6942019'''88,068,013''' 691,257 2,182,711 130,536202028,779,527 379,364 2,329,348 135,498202148,007,284 506,769 '''2,851,941''' 124,732202265,924,298 556,913 2,632,536 122,034202375,050,851 542,749 2,288,726 79,422 ''Source: Los Angeles World Airports''===Top domestic destinations===Tom Bradley International TerminalLos Angeles airport diagram of terminals+ '''Busiest domestic routes from LAX (November 2022 - October 2023)''' Rank Airport Passengers Carriers 1 New York–JFK, New York 1,414,000 American, Delta, JetBlue 2 San Francisco, California 1,332,000 Alaska, American, Delta, JetBlue, Southwest, United 3 Las Vegas, Nevada 1,315,000 Alaska, Allegiant, American, Delta, JetBlue, JSX, Southwest, Spirit, Sun Country, United 4 Chicago–O'Hare, Illinois 1,200,000 American, Spirit, United 5 Honolulu, Hawaii 1,164,000 Alaska, American, Delta, Hawaiian, Southwest, United 6 Newark, New Jersey 1,061,000 Alaska, JetBlue, Spirit, United 7 Dallas/Fort Worth, Texas 1,039,000 American, Delta, Spirit, United 8 Seattle/Tacoma, Washington 1,016,000 Alaska, American, Delta, United 9 Atlanta, Georgia 959,000 American, Delta, Spirit 10 Denver, Colorado 932,000 American, Delta, Southwest, Spirit, United===Top international destinations===A world map showing all countries airlines fly to and from the Los Angeles International Airport in blue.+ '''Busiest international routes from LAX (October 2022 – September 2023)''' Rank Airport Passengers Carriers 1 London–Heathrow, United Kingdom 1,546,657 American, British Airways, Delta, United, Virgin Atlantic 2 Guadalajara, Mexico 1,018,858 Aeroméxico, Alaska, VivaAerobus, Volaris 3 Seoul–Incheon, South Korea 977,636 Air Premia, Asiana Airlines, Korean Air 4 Vancouver, Canada 918,820 Air Canada, American, Flair, United, WestJet 5 Taipei–Taoyuan, Taiwan 885,900 China Airlines, EVA Air, Starlux Airlines 6 Tokyo–Haneda, Japan 846,351 All Nippon Airways, American, Delta, Japan Airlines, United 7 Mexico City, Mexico 830,422 Aeroméxico, American, Delta, Viva Aerobus, Volaris 8 Paris–Charles de Gaulle, France 790,378 Air France, Air Tahiti Nui, Delta 9 San José del Cabo, Mexico 751,800 Alaska, American, Delta, JetBlue, United 8 Sydney, Australia 746,756 American, Delta, Qantas, United=== Airline market share ===+ '''Largest airlines at LAX (November 2022 – October 2023)'''RankAirlinePassengersShare1 Delta Air Lines 11,304,000 21.86%2 American Airlines 8,883,000 17.18%3 United Airlines 8,667,000 16.76%4 Southwest Airlines 7,035,000 13.61%5 SkyWest 4,198,000 8.12% — Others 11,616,000 22.47%" ], [ "Ground transportation and access", "LAX sign as seen near the entrance of the airport===Transiting between terminals===In the secure area of the airport, tunnels or above-ground connectors link all the terminals except for the regional terminal.LAX Shuttle route A operates in a counter-clockwise loop around the Central Terminal Area, providing frequent service for connecting passengers.", "However, connecting passengers who use these shuttles must leave and then later re-enter security.===LAX Shuttle routes===LAX operates several shuttle routes to connect passengers and employees around the airport area:'''Route A Terminal Connector''' operates in a counter-clockwise loop around the Central Terminal Area, providing frequent service for connecting passengers.", "However, connecting passengers who use these shuttles must leave and then later re-enter security.", "'''Route C City Bus Center''' connects the Central Terminal Area and the LAX City Bus Center which is served by transit buses from Beach Cities Transit, Culver CityBus, Los Angeles Metro, Santa Monica Big Blue Bus and Torrance Transit.", "Buses on this route also serve the Employee South Lot.", "'''Route E Economy Parking''' connects the Central Terminal Area and the West Intermodal Transportation Facility, the airport's economy parking garage.", "'''Route G Metro Connector''' connects the Central Terminal Area and the Aviation/LAX station on the Metro C Line, away.", "Buses also stop at the \"Remote Rental Car Depot\", a bus stop served by shuttles to smaller rental car companies.", "'''Route X LAX Employee Lots''' connects the Central Terminal Area and the Employee Parking Lots.", "The route has three service patterns, the East Lot route only stops at Terminals 1, 2, 3, and B; the West Lot route only stops at Terminals 4, 5, 6, and 7; and the South Lot route stops at all terminals and also stops at the City Bus Center as Route C.=== Transit buses ===Buses at LAX City Bus CenterMost transit buses operate from the LAX City Bus Center, which is located away from the Central Terminal Area on 96th Street, east of Sepulveda Boulevard.LAX Shuttle route C offers free connections between the LAX City Bus Center and the Central Terminal Area.The LAX City Bus Center is served by Beach Cities Transit line 109 to Redondo Beach, Culver CityBus lines 6 and Rapid 6 to Culver City and UCLA, Los Angeles Metro Bus lines to South Gate, to Norwalk, to Downey and to Long Beach, Santa Monica Big Blue Bus lines 3 and Rapid 3 to Santa Monica, and Torrance Transit line 8 to Torrance.", "During the overnight hours, Los Angeles Metro line offers service to Downtown Los Angeles.The LAX City Bus Center will eventually be replaced by the LAX/Metro Transit Center station, which will be connected to the rest of LAX by the Automated People Mover system.There is also a bus stop at Sepulveda Boulevard and Century Boulevard that is a walk away from Terminals 1 and 7/8 that is served by LADOT Commuter Express line to Sylmar and Encino.", "This bus stop is also served by some of the same routes as the LAX City Bus Center: Los Angeles Metro lines 40 (overnight only), 117 and 232 and Torrance Transit line 8.===FlyAway Bus===FlyAway Bus at Los Angeles Union StationThe FlyAway bus is a nonstop motorcoach/shuttle service run by LAWA, which provides scheduled service between LAX and Union Station in Downtown LA or the FlyAway Terminal at the Van Nuys Airport in the San Fernando Valley.FlyAway buses stop at every LAX terminal in a counter-clockwise direction, starting at terminal 1.The service hours vary based on the line, with most leaving on or near the top of the hour.", "Buses use the regional system of high-occupancy vehicle lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes (Metro ExpressLanes) to expedite their trips.===Metro Rail and the LAX Automated People Mover===LAX does not currently have a direct connection to the Los Angeles Metro Rail system.", "LAX Shuttle route G offers free connections between the Central Terminal Area and the Aviation/LAX station on the C Line, away.The LAX Automated People Mover (APM), currently under construction by LAWA, is a rail line that will connect the terminal area with long- and short-term parking facilities, a connection to the Los Angeles Metro Rail and other transit at the LAX/Metro Transit Center, and a consolidated facility for all airport rental car agencies.The APM project is estimated to cost $5.5 billion and is scheduled to begin operation in 2025, with the connection to Metro Rail opening thereafter.LAWA does not operate shuttles to get to the Metro K Line; however, one seeking to get to/from LAX and the K Line can travel to Aviation/LAX station on LAWA Route M (Metro Connector), and from there take the C and K Line Link (line 857) to Westchester/Veterans station while the rest of the K Line connecting to the APM is being built.===Freeways and roads===The 405 freeway near LAXLAX's terminals are immediately west of the interchange between Century Boulevard and Sepulveda Boulevard (State Route 1).", "Interstate 405 can be reached to the east via Century Boulevard.", "Interstate 105 is to the south via Sepulveda Boulevard, through the Airport Tunnel that crosses under the airport runways.=== Taxis, ride-share and private shuttles ===Arriving passengers take a shuttle or walk to the LAXit waiting area east of Terminal 1 for taxi or ride-share pickups.", "Taxi services are operated by nine city-authorized taxi companies and regulated by Authorized Taxicab Supervision Inc. (ATS).", "ATS queues up taxis at the LAXit waiting area.A number of private shuttle companies also offer limousine and bus services to LAX." ], [ "Other facilities", "Hotels next to LAXThe airport has the administrative offices of Los Angeles World Airports.Continental Airlines once had its corporate headquarters on the airport property.", "At a 1962 press conference in the office of Mayor of Los Angeles Sam Yorty, Continental Airlines announced that it planned to move its headquarters to Los Angeles in July 1963.In 1963 Continental Airlines headquarters moved to a two-story, $2.3 million building on the grounds of the airport.", "The July 2009 ''Continental Magazine'' issue stated that the move \"underlined Continental Airlines western and Pacific orientation\".", "On July 1, 1983 the airline's headquarters were relocated to the America Tower in the Neartown area of Houston.In addition to Continental Airlines, Western Airlines and Flying Tiger Line also had their headquarters at LAX.===Flight Path Museum LAX===The Flight Path Museum LAX, formerly known as the Flight Path Learning Center, is a museum located at 6661 Imperial Highway and was formerly known as the \"West Imperial Terminal\".", "This building used to house some charter flights.", "It sat empty for 10 years until it was re-opened as a learning center for LAX.The center contains information on the history of aviation, several pictures of the airport, as well as aircraft scale models, flight attendant uniforms, and general airline memorabilia such as playing cards, china, magazines, signs, and a TWA gate information sign.The museum's library contains an extensive collection of rare items such as aircraft manufacturer company newsletters/magazines, technical manuals for both military and civilian aircraft, industry magazines dating back to World War II and before, historic photographs and other invaluable references on aircraft operation and manufacturing.The museum has on display \"The Spirit of Seventy-Six,\" a DC-3 that flew in commercial airline service, before serving as a corporate aircraft for Union 76 Oil Company for 32 years.", "The plane was built in the Douglas Aircraft Company plant in Santa Monica in January 1941, which was a major producer of both commercial and military aircraft." ], [ "Accidents and incidents", "LAX Airport Response Coordination Center used to coordinate emergency responseDuring its history there have been numerous incidents, but only the most notable are summarized below:===1930s=== On January 23, 1939, the sole prototype Douglas 7B twin-engine attack bomber, designed and built as a company project, suffered a loss of the vertical fin and rudder during a demonstration flight over Mines Field, flat spun into the parking lot of North American Aviation, and burned.", "Another source states that the test pilot, in an attempt to impress the Gallic passenger, attempted a snap roll at low altitude with one engine feathered, resulting in a fatal spin.", "Douglas test pilot Johnny Cable bailed out at 300 feet, his chute unfurled but did not have time to deploy, he was killed on impact, the flight engineer John Parks rode in the airframe and died, but 33-year-old French Air Force Capt.", "Paul Chemidlin, riding in the aft fuselage near the top turret, survived with a broken leg, severe back injuries, and a slight concussion.", "The presence of Chemidlin, a representative of a foreign purchasing mission, caused a furor in Congress by isolationists over neutrality and export laws.", "The type was developed as the Douglas DB-7.===1940s===* On June 1, 1940, the first Douglas R3D-1 for the U.S. Navy, BuNo ''1901'', crashed at Mines Field, before delivery.", "The Navy later acquired the privately owned DC-5 prototype, from William E. Boeing as a replacement.", "* On November 20, 1940, the prototype NA-73X Mustang, ''NX19998'', first flown October 26, 1940, by test pilot Vance Breese, crashed.", "According to P-51 designer Edgar Schmued, the NA-73 was lost because test pilot Paul Balfour refused, before a high-speed test run, to go through the takeoff and flight test procedure with Schmued while the aircraft was on the ground, claiming \"one airplane was like another\".", "After making two high speed passes over Mines Field, he forgot to put the fuel valve on \"reserve\" and during the third pass ran out of fuel.", "An emergency landing in a freshly plowed field caused the wheels to dig in, the aircraft flipped over, the airframe was not rebuilt, the second aircraft being used for subsequent testing.", "* On October 26, 1944, WASP pilot Gertrude Tompkins Silver of the 601st Ferrying Squadron, fifth Ferrying Group, Love Field, Dallas, Texas, departed Los Angeles Airport, in a North American P-51D Mustang, ''44-15669'', at 1600 hrs PWT, headed for the East Coast.", "She took off into the wind, into an offshore fog bank, and was expected that night at Palm Springs.", "She never arrived.", "Owing to a paperwork foul-up, a search did not get under way for several days, and while the eventual search of land and sea was massive, it failed to find a trace of Silver or her plane.", "She is the only missing WASP pilot.", "She had married Sgt.", "Henry Silver one month before her disappearance.===1950s===On June 30, 1956, United Airlines Flight 718 collided with TWA Flight 2 over the Grand Canyon, killing 128 people.", "Both aircraft departed LAX, with Flight 718 bound for Chicago Midway, and Flight 2 bound for Kansas City.", "The cause was found to be issued within the US air traffic control system and aviation law.===1960s=== On January 13, 1969, Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 933, a Douglas DC-8-62, crashed into Santa Monica Bay, approximately west of LAX at 7:21 pm, local time.", "The aircraft was operating as flight SK933, nearing the completion of a flight from Seattle.", "Of nine crewmembers, three lost their lives to drowning, while 12 of the 36 passengers also drowned.", "* On January 18, 1969, United Airlines Flight 266, a Boeing 727-100 bearing the registration number N7434U, crashed into Santa Monica Bay approximately west of LAX at 6:21 pm local time.", "The aircraft was destroyed, resulting in the death of all 32 passengers and six crew members aboard.===1970s===* On the evening of June 6, 1971, Hughes Airwest Flight 706, a Douglas DC-9 jetliner that had departed LAX on a flight to Salt Lake City, Utah, was struck nine minutes after takeoff by a U.S. Marine Corps McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II fighter jet over the San Gabriel Mountains.", "The midair collision killed all 44 passengers and five crew members aboard the DC-9 airliner and one of two crewmen aboard the military jet.", "* On August 4, 1971, Continental Airlines Flight 712, a Boeing 707, collided in midair with a Cessna 150 over Compton.", "Although the Cessna was destroyed upon landing, there were no fatalities.", "* On August 6, 1974, a bomb exploded near the Pan Am ticketing area at Terminal 2; three people were killed and 35 were injured.", "* On March 1, 1978, two tires burst in succession on a McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 on Continental Airlines Flight 603 during its takeoff roll at LAX and the plane, bound for Honolulu, veered off the runway.", "A third tire burst and the DC-10's left landing gear collapsed, causing a fuel tank to rupture.", "Following the aborted takeoff, spilled fuel ignited and enveloped the center portion of the aircraft in flames.", "During the ensuing emergency evacuation, a husband and wife died when they exited the passenger cabin onto the wing and dropped down directly into the flames.", "Two additional passengers died of their injuries approximately three months after the accident; 74 others aboard the plane were injured, as were 11 firemen battling the fire.", "* On the evening of March 10, 1979, Swift Aire Flight 235, a twin-engine Aerospatiale Nord 262A-33 turboprop en route to Santa Maria, was forced to ditch in Santa Monica Bay after experiencing engine problems upon takeoff from LAX.", "The pilot, co-pilot, and a female passenger drowned when they were unable to exit the aircraft after the ditching.", "The female flight attendant and the three remaining passengers—two men and a pregnant woman—survived and were rescued by several pleasure boats and other watercraft in the vicinity.===1980s===* In January 1985, a woman was found dead in a suitcase that was lying on the baggage carousel for a while.", "The suitcase had arrived on a Lufthansa flight.", "The woman was later discovered to have been an Iranian citizen who had recently married another Iranian with UGreen card status.", "She had been denied a US visa in West Germany and therefore decided to enter the US in this way.", "* On August 31, 1986, Aeroméxico Flight 498, a DC-9 en route from Mexico City, Mexico to Los Angeles, began its descent into LAX when a Piper Cherokee collided with the DC-9's left horizontal stabilizer over Cerritos, causing the DC-9 to crash into a residential neighborhood.", "All 67 people on the two aircraft were killed, in addition to 15 people on the ground.", "5 homes were destroyed and an additional 7 were damaged by the crash and resulting fire.", "The Piper went down in a nearby schoolyard and caused no further injuries on the ground.", "As a result of this incident, the FAA required all commercial aircraft to be equipped with Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS).===1990s===* On February 1, 1991, USAir Flight 1493 (arriving from Columbus, Ohio), a Boeing 737-300, landing on runway 24L at LAX, collided on touchdown with SkyWest Airlines Flight 5569, a Fairchild Metroliner, preparing to depart to Palmdale.", "The collision was caused by a controller who told the SkyWest plane to wait on the runway for takeoff, then later gave the USAir plane clearance to land on the same runway, forgetting that the SkyWest plane was there.", "The collision killed all 12 occupants of the SkyWest plane and 23 of the 89 people aboard the USAir 737.===2000s===* Al-Qaeda attempted to bomb LAX on New Year's Eve 1999/2000.The bomber, Algerian Ahmed Ressam, was captured in Port Angeles, Washington, the U.S. port of entry, with a cache of explosives that could have produced a blast 40 times greater than that of a car bomb hidden in the trunk of the rented car in which he had traveled from Canada.", "He had planned to leave one or two suitcases filled with explosives in an LAX passenger waiting area.", "He was initially sentenced to 22 years in prison, but in February 2010 an appellate court ordered that his sentence be extended.", "* On January 31, 2000, Alaska Airlines Flight 261, attempted to land at LAX after experiencing problems with its tail-mounted horizontal stabilizer.", "Before the plane could divert to Los Angeles, it suddenly plummeted into the Pacific Ocean approximately north of Anacapa Island of the California coast, killing all 88 people aboard.", "* During the September 11 attacks, American Airlines Flight 11, United Airlines Flight 175 and American Airlines Flight 77 were destined for LAX and they were hijacked mid-flight by Al-Qaeda terrorists.", "Flight 11 and Flight 175 deliberately crashed into the Twin Towers of World Trade Center and Flight 77 deliberately crashed into The Pentagon.", "* In the 2002 Los Angeles International Airport shooting of July 4, 2002, Hesham Mohamed Hadayet killed two Israelis at the ticket counter of El Al Airlines at LAX.", "Although the gunman was not linked to any terrorist group, the man was upset at U.S. support for Israel, and therefore was motivated by political disagreement.", "This led the FBI to classify this shooting as a terrorist act, one of the first on U.S. soil since the September 11 attacks.", "* On September 21, 2005, JetBlue Flight 292, an Airbus A320 discovered a problem with its landing gear as it took off from Bob Hope Airport in Burbank.", "It flew in circles for three hours to burn off fuel, then landed safely at Los Angeles International Airport on runway 25L, balancing on its back wheels as it rolled down the center of the runway.", "Passengers were able to watch their own coverage live from the satellite broadcast on JetBlue in-flight TV seat displays of their plane as it made an emergency landing with the front landing gear visibly becoming damaged.", "Because JetBlue did not serve LAX at the time, the aircraft was evaluated and repaired at a Continental Airlines hangar.", "* On June 2, 2006, an American Airlines Boeing 767 was about to complete a flight from John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City when the plane's pilots noted that the number 1 engine lagged the number 2 one by 2 percent.", "The plane landed safely and passengers disembarked, but when maintenance personnel retarded its throttle to idle, the number one engine, which had been put to maximum power, suffered an uncontained rupture of the high pressure turbine stage 1 disk, causing the engine to explode.", "There were no injuries among the three people on board the aircraft at the time (all of them maintenance workers), but the airplane was written off.", "* On July 29, 2006, after America West Express Flight 6008, a Canadair Regional Jet operated by Mesa Airlines from Phoenix, Arizona, landed on runway 25L, controllers instructed the pilot to leave the runway on a taxiway known as \"Mike\" and stop short of runway 25R.", "Even though the pilot read back the instructions correctly, he accidentally taxied onto 25R and into the path of a departing SkyWest Airlines Embraer EMB-120 operating United Express Flight 6037 to Monterey.", "They cleared each other by and nobody was hurt.", "* On August 16, 2007, a runway incursion occurred between WestJet Flight 900 and Northwest Airlines Flight 180 on runways 24R and 24L, respectively, with the aircraft coming within of each other.", "The planes were carrying a combined total of 296 people, none of whom were injured.", "The NTSB concluded that the incursion was the result of controller error.", "In September 2007, FAA Administrator Marion Blakey stressed the need for LAX to increase lateral separation between its pair of north runways in order to preserve the safety and efficiency of the airport.===2010s===* On October 13 and 14, 2013, two incidents of dry ice bomb explosions occurred at the airport.", "The first dry ice bomb exploded at 7:00 p.m. in an employee restroom in Terminal 2, with no injuries.", "Terminal 2 was briefly shut down as a result.", "On the next day at 8:30 p.m., a dry ice bomb exploded on the ramp area near the Tom Bradley International Terminal, also without injuries.", "Two other plastic bottles containing dry ice were found at the scene during the second explosion.", "On October 15, a 28-year-old airport employee was arrested in connection with the explosions and was booked on charges of possession of an explosive or destructive device near an aircraft.", "On October 18, a 41-year-old airport employee was arrested in connection with the second explosion, and was booked on suspicion of possessing a destructive device near an aircraft.", "Authorities believe that the incidents were not linked to terrorism.", "Both men subsequently pleaded no contest and were each sentenced to three years' probation.", "The airport workers had removed dry ice from a cargo hold into which a dog was to be loaded, because of fears that the dry ice could harm the animal.", "* In the 2013 Los Angeles International Airport shooting of November 1, 2013, at around 9:31 a.m. PDT, a lone gunman entered Terminal 3 and opened fire with a semi-automatic rifle, killing a Transportation Security Administration (TSA) officer and wounding three other people.", "The gunman was later apprehended and taken into custody.", "Until the situation was clarified and under control, a few terminals at the airport were evacuated, all inbound flights were diverted and all outbound flights were grounded until the airport began returning to normal operation at around 2:30 p.m.* On August 28, 2016, there was a false report of shots fired throughout the airport, causing a temporary lock down and about 3 hours of flight delays.", "* On May 20, 2017, Aeroméxico Flight 642, a Boeing 737-800, collided with a utility truck on a taxiway near Runway 25R, injuring 8 people, two of them seriously.", "* On July 25, 2018, jetblast from a Dash 8 caused some dollies to crash into a United 737.", "* On November 21, 2019, Philippine Airlines Flight 113, operated by a Boeing 777-300ER suffered an engine compressor stall shortly after take off from the airport's Runway 25R, forcing the flight to return.", "The flight made a successful emergency landing just 13 minutes after departure.", "There were 342 passengers and 18 crew on board the flight, with no injuries reported.===2020s===* On August 19, 2020, FedEx Express Flight 1026, a Boeing 767, made an emergency landing when its left main landing gear failed to extend.", "One of the pilots was injured while leaving the aircraft.", "* On October 28, 2021, more than 300 passengers were forced to flee onto the tarmac after report of a person with a gun at the Terminal 1.Two people were injured, and the flights were temporarily suspended.", "No weapons were found, but two people were arrested and taken into custody by the airport police.", "On Friday, February 10, 2023, an American Airlines A320 aircraft was being towed without any passengers when it collided with a passenger bus, injuring five people who were riding on the bus." ], [ "Aircraft spotting", "The \"Imperial Hill\" area of El Segundo is a prime location for aircraft spotting, especially for takeoffs.", "Part of the Imperial Hill area has been set aside as a city park, Clutter's Park.Another popular spotting location sits under the final approach for runways 24 L&R on a lawn next to the Westchester In-N-Out Burger on Sepulveda Boulevard.", "This is one of the few remaining locations in Southern California from which spotters may watch such a wide variety of low-flying commercial airliners from directly underneath a flight path.Another aircraft spotting location is at a small park in the take-off pattern that normally goes out over the Pacific.", "The park is on the east side of the street Vista Del Mar from where it takes its name, Vista Del Mar Park.===Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''===At 12:51 p.m. on Friday, September 21, 2012, a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft carrying the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' landed at LAX on runway 25L.", "An estimated 10,000 people saw the shuttle land.", "Interstate 105 was backed up for miles at a standstill.", "Imperial Highway was shut down for spectators.", "It was quickly taken off the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, a modified Boeing 747, and was moved to a United Airlines hangar.", "The shuttle spent about a month in the hangar while it was prepared to be transported to the California Science Center." ], [ "In popular culture", "Numerous films and television shows have been set or filmed partially at LAX, at least partly due to the airport's proximity to Hollywood studios and Los Angeles.", "Film shoots at the Los Angeles airports, including LAX, produced $590 million for the Los Angeles region from 2002 to 2005." ], [ "See also", " California World War II Army Airfields* List of airports in the Los Angeles area* Metro* Los Angeles Airport Police* Peirson Mitchell Hall" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bullock, Freddy.", "''LAX: Los Angeles International Airport'' (1998)* Schoneberger, William A., Ethel Pattison, and Lee Nichols.", "''Los Angeles International Airport'' (Arcadia Publishing, 2009.)" ], [ "External links", "* Los Angeles International Airport official website* LAneXt website* LAX Noise Management Internet Flight Tracking System* * * View of LAX runways from inside air traffic control tower, California, 1986.Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429).", "UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "La Tène culture" ], [ "Introduction", "Hallstatt and La Tène cultures.", "The core Hallstatt territory (800 BC) is shown in solid yellow, the area of influence by 500 BC (HaD) in light yellow.", "The core territory of the La Tène culture (450 BC) is shown in solid green, the area of La Tène influence by 50 BC in light green.", "The territories of some major Celtic tribes are labelled.", "Map drawn after ''Atlas of the Celtic World'', by John Haywood (2001: 30–37).The '''La Tène culture''' (; ) was a European Iron Age culture.", "It developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from about 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC), succeeding the early Iron Age Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break, under considerable Mediterranean influence from the Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul, the Etruscans, and the Golasecca culture, but whose artistic style nevertheless did not depend on those Mediterranean influences.La Tène culture's territorial extent corresponded to what is now France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, England, Southern Germany, the Czech Republic, Northern Italy and Central Italy, Slovenia, Hungary and Liechtenstein, as well as adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Serbia, Croatia, Transylvania (western Romania), and Transcarpathia (western Ukraine).", "The Celtiberians of western Iberia shared many aspects of the culture, though not generally the artistic style.", "To the north extended the contemporary Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe, including the Jastorf culture of Northern Germany and Denmark and all the way to Galatia in Asia Minor (today Turkey).Centered on ancient Gaul, the culture became very widespread, and encompasses a wide variety of local differences.", "It is often distinguished from earlier and neighbouring cultures mainly by the La Tène style of Celtic art, characterized by curving \"swirly\" decoration, especially of metalwork.It is named after the type site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland, where thousands of objects had been deposited in the lake, as was discovered after the water level dropped in 1857.La Tène is the type site and the term archaeologists use for the later period of the culture and art of the ancient Celts, a term that is firmly entrenched in the popular understanding, but presents numerous problems for historians and archaeologists." ], [ "Periodization", "Celtic expansion in Europe and Anatolia: Extensive contacts through trade are recognized in foreign objects deposited in elite burials; stylistic influences on La Tène material culture can be recognized in Etruscan, Italic, Greek, Dacian and Scythian sources.", "Date-able Greek pottery and analysis employing scientific techniques such as dendrochronology and thermoluminescence help provide date ranges for an absolute chronology at some La Tène sites.La Tène history was originally divided into \"early\", \"middle\" and \"late\" stages based on the typology of the metal finds (Otto Tischler 1885), with the Roman occupation greatly disrupting the culture, although many elements remain in Gallo-Roman and Romano-British culture.", "A broad cultural unity was not paralleled by overarching social-political unifying structures, and the extent to which the material culture can be linguistically linked is debated.", "The art history of La Tène culture has various schemes of periodization.The archaeological period is now mostly divided into four sub-periods, following Paul Reinecke.", "Tischler (1885) Reinecke (1902) Date La Tène I La Tène A 450–380 BC La Tène I La Tène B 380–250 BC La Tène II La Tène C 250–150 BC La Tène III La Tène D 150–1 BC" ], [ "History", "246x246pxThe preceding final phase of the Hallstatt culture, HaD, c. 650–450 BC, was also widespread across Central Europe, and the transition over this area was gradual, being mainly detected through La Tène style elite artefacts, which first appear on the western edge of the old Hallstatt region.Though there is no agreement on the precise region in which La Tène culture first developed, there is a broad consensus that the centre of the culture lay on the northwest edges of Hallstatt culture, north of the Alps, within the region between in the West the valleys of the Marne and Moselle, and the part of the Rhineland nearby.", "In the east the western end of the old Hallstatt core area in modern Bavaria, the Czech Republic, Austria and Switzerland formed a somewhat separate \"eastern style Province\" in the early La Tène, joining with the western area in Alsace.", "In 1994 a prototypical ensemble of elite grave sites of the early 5th century BCE was excavated at Glauberg in Hesse, northeast of Frankfurt-am-Main, in a region that had formerly been considered peripheral to the La Tène sphere.", "The site at La Tène itself was therefore near the southern edge of the original \"core\" area (as is also the case for the Hallstatt site for its core).The establishment of a Greek colony, soon very successful, at Massalia (modern Marseilles) on the Mediterranean coast of France led to great trade with the Hallstatt areas up the Rhone and Saone river systems, and early La Tène elite burials like the Vix Grave in Burgundy contain imported luxury goods along with artifacts produced locally.", "Most areas were probably controlled by tribal chiefs living in hilltop forts, while the bulk of the population lived in small villages or farmsteads in the countryside.By 500 BCE the Etruscans expanded to border Celts in north Italy, and trade across the Alps began to overhaul trade with the Greeks, and the Rhone route declined.", "Booming areas included the middle Rhine, with large iron ore deposits, the Marne and Champagne regions, and also Bohemia, although here trade with the Mediterranean area was much less important.", "Trading connections and wealth no doubt played a part in the origin of the La Tène style, though how large a part remains much discussed; specific Mediterranean-derived motifs are evident, but the new style does not depend on them.Barry Cunliffe notes localization of La Tène culture during the 5th century BCE when there arose \"two zones of power and innovation: a Marne – Moselle zone in the west with trading links to the Po Valley via the central Alpine passes and the Golasecca culture, and a Bohemian zone in the east with separate links to the Adriatic via the eastern Alpine routes and the Venetic culture\".Hallein, AustriaFrom their homeland, La Tène culture expanded in the 4th century BCE to more of modern France, Germany, and Central Europe, and beyond to Hispania, northern and central Italy, the Balkans, and even as far as Asia Minor, in the course of several major migrations.", "La Tène style artefacts start to appear in Britain around the same time, and Ireland rather later.", "The style of \"Insular La Tène\" art is somewhat different and the artefacts are initially found in some parts of the islands but not others.", "Migratory movements seem at best only partly responsible for the diffusion of La Tène culture there, and perhaps other parts of Europe.By about 400 BCE, the evidence for Mediterranean trade becomes sparse; this may be because the expanding Celtic populations began to migrate south and west, coming into violent conflict with the established populations, including the Etruscans and Romans.", "The settled life in much of the La Tène homelands also seems to have become much more unstable and prone to wars.", "In about 387 BCE, the Celts under Brennus defeated the Romans and then sacked Rome, establishing themselves as the most prominent threats to the Roman homeland, a status they would retain through a series of Roman-Gallic wars until Julius Caesar's final conquest of Gaul in 58-50 BCE.", "The Romans prevented the Celts from reaching very far south of Rome, but on the other side of the Adriatic Sea groups passed through the Balkans to reach Greece, where Delphi was attacked and sacked in 279 BCE, and Asia, where Galatia was established as a Celtic area of Anatolia.", "By this time, the La Tène style was spreading to the British Isles, though apparently without any significant movements in population.After about 275 BCE, Roman expansion into the La Tène area began with the conquest of Gallia Cisalpina.", "The conquest of Gallia Celtica followed in 121 BCE and was complete with the Gallic Wars of the 50s BCE.", "Gaulish culture quickly assimilated to Roman culture, giving rise to the hybrid Gallo-Roman culture of Late Antiquity." ], [ "Ethnology", "195x195pxThe bearers of the La Tène culture were the people known as Celts or Gauls to ancient ethnographers.", "Ancient Celtic culture had no written literature of its own, but rare examples of epigraphy in the Greek or Latin alphabets exist allowing the fragmentary reconstruction of Continental Celtic.Current knowledge of this cultural area is derived from three sources comprising archaeological evidence, Greek and Latin literary records, and ethnographical evidence suggesting some La Tène artistic and cultural survivals in traditionally Celtic regions of far western Europe.", "Some of the societies that are archaeologically identified with La Tène material culture were identified by Greek and Roman authors from the 5th century onwards as ''Keltoi'' (\"Celts\") and ''Galli'' (\"Gauls\").", "Herodotus (iv.49) correctly placed ''Keltoi'' at the source of the Ister/Danube, in the heartland of La Tène material culture: \"The Ister flows right across Europe, rising in the country of the Celts\".Whether the usage of classical sources means that the whole of La Tène culture can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess; archaeologists have repeatedly concluded that language, material culture, and political affiliation do not necessarily run parallel.", "Frey (2004) notes that in the 5th century, \"burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform; rather, localised groups had their own beliefs, which, in consequence, also gave rise to distinct artistic expressions\"." ], [ "Material culture", "La Tène metalwork in bronze, iron and gold, developing technologically out of Hallstatt culture, is stylistically characterized by inscribed and inlaid intricate spirals and interlace, on fine bronze vessels, helmets and shields, horse trappings and elite jewelry, especially the neck rings called torcs and elaborate clasps called ''fibulae''.", "It is characterized by elegant, stylized curvilinear animal and vegetal forms, allied with the Hallstatt traditions of geometric patterning.The Early Style of La Tène art and culture mainly featured static, geometric decoration, while the transition to the Developed Style constituted a shift to movement-based forms, such as triskeles.", "Some subsets within the Developed Style contain more specific design trends, such as the recurrent serpentine scroll of the Waldalgesheim Style.Initially La Tène people lived in open settlements that were dominated by the chieftains' hill forts.", "The development of towns—''oppida''—appears in mid-La Tène culture.", "La Tène dwellings were carpenter-built rather than of masonry.", "La Tène peoples also dug ritual shafts, in which votive offerings and even human sacrifices were cast.", "Severed heads appear to have held great power and were often represented in carvings.", "Burial sites included weapons, carts, and both elite and household goods, evoking a strong continuity with an afterlife.Elaborate burials also reveal a wide network of trade.", "In Vix, France, an elite woman of the 6th century BCE was buried with a very large bronze \"wine-mixer\" made in Greece.", "Exports from La Tène cultural areas to the Mediterranean cultures were based on salt, tin, copper, amber, wool, leather, furs and gold.", "Artefacts typical of the La Tène culture were also discovered in stray finds as far afield as Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Poland and in the Balkans.", "It is therefore common to also talk of the \"La Tène period\" in the context of those regions even though they were never part of the La Tène culture proper, but connected to its core area via trade.File:Gentleman, La Tène culture, c. 450 BC, replica - Naturhistorisches Museum Nürnberg - Nuremberg, Germany -DSC04213.jpgFile:Celtic.warriors.garments-replica.jpgFile:Iron Age Europe Celtic Bronze Helmets (28755977795).jpgFile:Axle cover for a charriot.", "Gold.", "Rheinland-Pfalz,400 BC.", "Neues Museum.jpgFile:Museum of ScotlandDSCF6355.jpgFile:Röhrenkanne.jpgFile:The Gaulish army, Interpretation Centre of the Muséo Parc, Alésia (7700615978).jpgFile:Roquepertuse.", "Statue de guerrier.jpgFile:MAN - casque de la Gorge Meillet (7).jpgFile:Celtic Gold-plated Disc, Auvers-sur-Oise, Val-d'Oise.jpg\|alt=File:Iron Age Europe La Tene Culture Burial Goods (28755919625).jpgFile:Celtic sword.jpgFile:Monnaie 9 MAN.jpgFile:Romano-Celtic mirror (Desborough).jpgFile:Museum of Pre- and Early History, Saarbrücken 46.jpgFile:British Museum Basse Yutz flagons (1).jpg" ], [ "Type site", "185x185pxThe La Tène type site is on the northern shore of Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland, where the small river Thielle, connecting to another lake, enters the Lake Neuchâtel.", "In 1857, prolonged drought lowered the waters of the lake by about 2 m. On the northernmost tip of the lake, between the river and a point south of the village of Epagnier (), Hansli Kopp, looking for antiquities for Colonel Frédéric Schwab, discovered several rows of wooden piles that still reached up about 50 cm into the water.", "From among these, Kopp collected about forty iron swords.215x215pxThe Swiss archaeologist Ferdinand Keller published his findings in 1868 in his influential first report on the Swiss pile dwellings (''Pfahlbaubericht'').", "In 1863 he interpreted the remains as a Celtic village built on piles.", "Eduard Desor, a geologist from Neuchâtel, started excavations on the lakeshore soon afterwards.", "He interpreted the site as an armory, erected on platforms on piles over the lake and later destroyed by enemy action.", "Another interpretation accounting for the presence of cast iron swords that had not been sharpened, was of a site for ritual depositions.With the first systematic lowering of the Swiss lakes from 1868 to 1883, the site fell completely dry.", "In 1880, Emile Vouga, a teacher from Marin-Epagnier, uncovered the wooden remains of two bridges (designated \"Pont Desor\" and \"Pont Vouga\") originally over 100 m long, that crossed the little Thielle River (today a nature reserve) and the remains of five houses on the shore.", "After Vouga had finished, F. Borel, curator of the Marin museum, began to excavate as well.", "In 1885 the canton asked the Société d'Histoire of Neuchâtel to continue the excavations, the results of which were published by Vouga in the same year.All in all, over 2500 objects, mainly made from metal, have been excavated in La Tène.", "Weapons predominate, there being 166 swords (most without traces of wear), 270 lanceheads, and 22 shield bosses, along with 385 brooches, tools, and parts of chariots.", "Numerous human and animal bones were found as well.", "The site was used from the 3rd century, with a peak of activity around 200 BCE and abandonment by about 60 BCE.", "Interpretations of the site vary.", "Some scholars believe the bridge was destroyed by high water, while others see it as a place of sacrifice after a successful battle (there are almost no female ornaments).An exhibition marking the 150th anniversary of the discovery of the La Tène site opened in 2007 at the Musée Schwab in Biel/Bienne, Switzerland, then Zürich in 2008 and Mont Beuvray in Burgundy in 2009." ], [ "Sites", "Manching oppidum, Germany, main gate\|251x251pxoppidaSome sites are:Altburg oppidum, GermanyBern, Engehalbinsel: oppidumJolimontManching: oppidumMormontMünsingen, burial fieldPetinescaBasel oppidumBibracte, oppidum of the Aedui at Mont Beuvray in BurgundyErstfeld hoardTuricum–LindenhofBopfingen: ''Viereckschanze'', a characteristic rectangular enclosureFellbach-Schmiden, near Stuttgart: ''Viereckschanze''; ritual objects recovered from a wellRodenbach: The Princely Grave of RodenbachKleinaspergle: elite graves of La Tène IWaldalgesheim chariot burial: an elite chariot burial, 4th centuryGlauberg, oppidum and elite gravesDürrnberg near Hallein: Burial field and earthworks of late Hallstatt–early La TèneDonnersberg oppidumSteinsburg oppidumVill near Innsbruck: remains of dwellingsSandberg Celtic city near Platt and Roseldorf in Lower AustriaVix/Mont Lassois: oppidum and elaborate gravesTitelberg: oppidum in LuxembourgReinheim: Tomb of a princess/priestess with burial giftsMihailovac: in SerbiaZávist oppidum, Czech Republic.", "Dünsberg hillfort, GermanySchwarzenbach oppidum, AustriaHavranok, Slovakia=== Gallery ===File:Manching model 1.jpg\|Manching oppidum, GermanyFile:Manching model 2.jpg\|Manching oppidumFile:La Porte du Rebout, principal accès à l’oppidum de Bibracte au Ier s. av.", "notre ère.", "Porte et murs ont été reconstruits après la fouille selon la technique du murus gallicus.", "Nièvre, Morvan, Bourgogne, France.jpg\|alt=Bibracte oppidum, fortification walls\|Bibracte oppidum, France, outer wallsFile:Bibracte, 1st century B.C.jpg\|Bibracte oppidumFile:Murus gallicus 1a.jpg\|Murus GallicusFile:Celtic Oppidum 1st century B.C..jpg\|Oppidum illustration.File:ÉvocationCérémonieÀTintignac.jpg\|Tintignac sanctuary, FranceFile:Corent oppidum 1.jpg\|Corent oppidum, France.File:Gergovie mur pano2.jpg\|Gergovia fortification wall remains, FranceFile:Avaricum westpoint july 2006.jpg\|Siege of Avaricum, FranceFile:Oppidum d'Entremont 2.jpg\|Entremont oppidum, FranceFile:Entremont - fortification wall 2 from SW (2007).jpg\|Entremont oppidum fortification wallFile:Mont Vully Maquette.jpg\|Mont Vully oppidum, SwitzerlandFile:MaquetteFermeDeVerberie2.jpg\|Gallic farm at Verberie, FranceFile:Maquette de la ferme du Patural, Musée Bargoin - vue de dessus.jpg\|Gallic farm at Le Patural, FranceFile:Vesontio oppidum.jpg\|Vesontio oppidum, FranceFile:Ringwall Otzenhausen.jpg\|Otzenhausen hillfort wall remains, GermanyFile:Glauberg oppidum Stockheim Gate (reconstruction).jpg\|Glauberg oppidum, GermanyFile:Aerial photograph of Maiden Castle, 1935.jpg\|Maiden Castle hillfort, BritainFile:Rekonstruierte Pfostenschlizmauer am Ipf bei Bopfingen.JPG\|Fortifications at Ipf, GermanyFile:Donnesberg 2.jpg\|Donnersberg hillfort, GermanyFile:MNHA - Finds from the Goeblange-Nospelt Celtic Graves (51187043051).jpg\|Grave at the Titelberg oppidum, LuxembourgFile:02023 Celtic homestead, La Tene culture, Samborowice, LT C works, reconstruction.jpg\|Celtic homestead, Samborowice, PolandFile:Heidengraben-6687.jpg\|Heidengraben oppidum, rampart, Germany." ], [ "Artifacts", "See :Category:Celtic art.Detail of the Battersea Shield, Britain, c. 350–50 BCSome outstanding La Tène artifacts are:Mšecké Žehrovice Head, a stone head from the modern Czech Republic A life-sized sculpture of a warrior that stood above the Glauberg burialsChariot burial found at La Gorge Meillet (St-Germain-en-Laye: Musée des Antiquités Nationales)Basse Yutz Flagons 5th centuryAgris Helmet, with gold covering, c. 350Waldalgesheim chariot burial, Bad Kreuznach, Germany, late 4th century BCE, Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn; the \"Waldalgesheim phase/style\" of the art takes its name from the jewellery found here.", "A gold-and-bronze model of an oak tree (3rd century BCE) found at the Oppidum of Manching.", "Sculptures from Roquepertuse, a sanctuary in the south of FranceThe silver Gundestrup cauldron (2nd or 1st century BCE), found ritually broken in a peat bog near Gundestrup, Denmark, but probably made near the Black Sea, perhaps in Thrace.", "(National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen)Battersea Shield (350–50 BCE), found in London in the Thames, made of bronze with red enamel.", "(British Museum, London)Waterloo Helmet, 150-50 BCE, Thames\"Witham Shield\" (4th century BCE).", "(British Museum, London) Torrs Pony-cap and Horns, from ScotlandCordoba TreasureTuroe stone in Galway and Killycluggin Stone in Cavan IrelandGreat Torc from Snettisham, 100-75 BCE, gold, the most elaborate of the British style of torcs Meyrick Helmet, post-conquest Roman helmet shape, with La Tène decorationNoric steelFile:Scissors Oppidum Manching.jpgFile:KMH - Schnabelkanne aus Grab 112 unterhalb der Hexenwand am Nordhang des Mosersteins am Dürnberg (1).jpgFile:Phalère 06007.JPGFile:Vor und Fruehgeschichte (89).jpgFile:Hallein, Keltenmuseum, 03.jpgFile:Linsenflasche Matzhausen.jpgFile:British Museum - Room 50 (21045342106).jpgFile:MAN - Bracelet gaulois a.jpgFile:Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte Berlin 001.jpgFile:Barde à la lyre.jpgFile:Landesmuseum Württemberg, Kelten 019.1.jpgFile:Musée de Bretagne Expo Celtique - Figure d'un aristocrate gaulois Morandais 20220917-02.jpgFile:Villeneuve d'Ascq Eté2016 Asnapio poignards gaulois.jpgFile:Musée de Bretagne Expo Celtique - Vase de Saint-Pol 20220917-01.jpgFile:KMM - Hirsch.jpgFile:Silver torque.jpg" ], [ "Genetics", "Princess of Reinheim burial reconstruction\|208x208pxChariot burial at 282x282pxA genetic study published in ''PLOS One'' in December 2018 examined 45 individuals buried at a La Tène necropolis in Urville-Nacqueville, France.", "The people buried there were identified as Gauls.", "The mtDNA of the examined individuals belonged primarily to haplotypes of H and U.", "They were found to be carrying a large amount of steppe ancestry, and to have been closely related to peoples of the preceding Bell Beaker culture, suggesting genetic continuity between Bronze Age and Iron Age France.", "Significant gene flow with Great Britain and Iberia was detected.", "The results of the study partially supported the notion that French people are largely descended from the Gauls.A genetic study published in the ''Journal of Archaeological Science'' in October 2019 examined 43 maternal and 17 paternal lineages for the La Tène necropolis in Urville-Nacqueville, France, and 27 maternal and 19 paternal lineages for La Tène tumulus of Gurgy Les Noisats near modern Paris, France.", "The examined individuals displayed strong genetic resemblance to peoples of the earlier Yamnaya culture, Corded Ware culture and Bell Beaker culture.", "They carried a diverse set of maternal lineages associated with steppe ancestry.", "The paternal lineages were on the other hand characterized by a \"striking homogeneity\", belonging entirely to haplogroup R and R1b, both of whom are associated with steppe ancestry.", "The evidence suggested that the Gauls of the La Tène culture were patrilineal and patrilocal, which is in agreement with archaeological and literary evidence.A genetic study published in the ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America'' in June 2020 examined the remains of 25 individuals ascribed to the La Tène culture.", "The nine examples of individual Y-DNA extracted were determined to belong to either the paragroups or subclades of haplogroups R1b1a1a2 (R-M269; three examples), R1b1a1a2a1a2c1a1a1a1a1 (R-M222), R1b1 (R-L278), R1b1a1a (R-P297), I1 (I-M253), E1b1b (E-M215), or other, unspecified, subclades of haplogroup R. The 25 samples of mtDNA extracted was determined to belong to various subclades of haplogroup H, HV, U, K, J, V and W. The examined individuals of the Hallstatt culture and La Tène culture were genetically highly homogeneous and displayed continuity with the earlier Bell Beaker culture.", "They carried about 50% steppe-related ancestry.A genetic study published in iScience in April 2022 examined 49 genomes from 27 sites in Bronze Age and Iron Age France.", "The study found evidence of strong genetic continuity between the two periods, particularly in southern France.", "The samples from northern and southern France were highly homogeneous, with northern samples displaying links to contemporary samples form Great Britain and Sweden, and southern samples displaying links to Celtiberians.", "The northern French samples were distinguished from the southern ones by elevated levels of steppe-related ancestry.", "R1b was by far the most dominant paternal lineage, while H was the most common maternal lineage.", "The Iron Age samples resembled those of modern-day populations of France, Great Britain and Spain.", "The evidence suggested that the Gauls of the La Tène culture largely evolved from local Bronze Age populations." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Hallein, Keltenmuseum, 04.jpgFile:Saint jean sur tourbe objets gaulois 06827.jpgFile:NBAM Kelten - Schatz Regenbogenschüsselchen 1.jpgFile:Clef Amboise.jpgFile:Celtic ceramic shoe-shaped vessel, La Tene period, Curtuiseni, Romania.jpgFile:Vase arverne, Musée de la Bataille de Gergovie .jpgFile:Head of druid from Mšecké Žehrovice, La Tène culture, NM Prague, 188090.jpgFile:Dejbjerg wagon, Nationalmuseet Copenhagen.jpgFile:Enserune celtic sword 300-275.jpgFile:Celtic neck ring.jpgFile:Tombe à char Châlons 1901.jpgFile:Bronze-Grabfund (330-320 v.", "Chr.)", "der Keltenfürstin von Waldalgesheim.jpgFile:Gundestrup Cauldron.jpgFile:Goldschmuck Erstfeld2.jpgFile:CoinsOfTheParisii.jpgFile:Chambre funéraire B de Goeblange-Nospelt, MNHA.jpgFile:Hallein Keltenmuseum - Streitwagen 1.jpgFile:0881 Tracht der Kelten in Südpolen im 3.Jh.", "v. Chr.JPGFile:Replica of a wooden reinforcement of a water reservoir, Vladař, 400 BC, 187657.jpg\|Remains of a water reservoir from Vladař, Czech Republic, 400 BCFile:Maison gauloise.jpg\|Gallic house and granaries, c. 300 BCFile:Bibracte basin 1.jpg\|Bibracte oppidum, monumental basinFile:Bibracte Musee Interieur domestique.jpg\|Gallic house interiorFile:2018 Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn, Pfalzfelder Säule 1.jpg\|Stone stele, Germany, c. 400 BCFile:Celes tchaur.jpg\|Reconstruction of a Gallic chariot" ], [ "See also", "Archaeology of Northern EuropeIron Age BritainIron Age FranceIron Age IberiaJublains archeological site" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " *** Garrow, Duncan (ed), ''Rethinking Celtic Art'', 2008, Oxbow Books, , 9781842173183, google booksGreen, Miranda, ''Celtic Art, Reading the Messages'', 1996, The Everyman Art Library, Laing, Lloyd and Jenifer.", "''Art of the Celts'', Thames and Hudson, London 1992 McIntosh, Jane, ''Handbook to Life in Prehistoric Europe'', 2009, Oxford University Press (USA), Megaw, Ruth and Vincent (2001).", "''Celtic Art''." ], [ "Further reading", " Cunliffe, Barry.", "''The Ancient Celts''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "1997* Collis, John.", "''The Celts: Origins, Myths, Invention''.", "London: Tempus, 2003.", "* Kruta, Venceslas, ''La grande storia dei Celti.", "La nascita, l'affermazione, la decadenza'', Newton & Compton, Roma, 2003 (492 pp.", "- a translation of ''Les Celtes, histoire et dictionnaire.", "Des origines à la romanisation et au christianisme'', Robert Laffont, Paris, 2000, without the dictionary)* James, Simon.", "''The Atlantic Celts''.", "London: British Museum Press, 1999.", "* James, Simon & Rigby, Valery.", "''Britain and the Celtic Iron Age''.", "London: British Museum Press, 1997.", "* Reginelli Servais Gianna and Béat Arnold, ''La Tène, un site, un mythe'', Hauterive : Laténium - Parc et musée d'archéologie de Neuchâtel, 2007, Cahiers d'archéologie romande de la Bibliothèque historique vaudoise, 3 vols," ], [ "External links", "* Charles Bergengren, Cleveland Institute of Art, 1999: illustrations of La Tène artifacts* Les Premieres Villes de l'Ouest - Exhibition on La Tene period towns and cities* La Tène Archaeological Sites in Romania *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lorenz curve" ], [ "Introduction", "A typical Lorenz curveIn economics, the '''Lorenz curve''' is a graphical representation of the distribution of income or of wealth.", "It was developed by Max O. Lorenz in 1905 for representing inequality of the wealth distribution.The curve is a graph showing the proportion of overall income or wealth assumed by the bottom ''x''% of the people, although this is not rigorously true for a finite population (see below).", "It is often used to represent income distribution, where it shows for the bottom ''x''% of households, what percentage (''y''%) of the total income they have.", "The percentage of households is plotted on the ''x''-axis, the percentage of income on the ''y''-axis.", "It can also be used to show distribution of assets.", "In such use, many economists consider it to be a measure of social inequality.The concept is useful in describing inequality among the size of individuals in ecology and in studies of biodiversity, where the cumulative proportion of species is plotted against the cumulative proportion of individuals.", "It is also useful in business modeling: e.g., in consumer finance, to measure the actual percentage ''y''% of delinquencies attributable to the ''x''% of people with worst risk scores.", "Lorenz curves were also applied to epidemiology and public health, e.g., to measure pandemic inequality as the distribution of national cumulative incidence (y%) generated by the population residing in areas (x%) ranked with respect to their local epidemic attack rate." ], [ "Explanation", " Data from 2005.Points on the Lorenz curve represent statements such as, \"the bottom 20% of all households have 10% of the total income.", "\"A perfectly equal income distribution would be one in which every person has the same income.", "In this case, the bottom ''N''% of society would always have ''N''% of the income.", "This can be depicted by the straight line ''y'' = ''x''; called the \"line of perfect equality.", "\"By contrast, a perfectly unequal distribution would be one in which one person has all the income and everyone else has none.", "In that case, the curve would be at ''y'' = 0% for all ''x'' < 100%, and ''y'' = 100% when ''x'' = 100%.", "This curve is called the \"line of perfect inequality.", "\"The Gini coefficient is the ratio of the area between the line of perfect equality and the observed Lorenz curve to the area between the line of perfect equality and the line of perfect inequality.", "The higher the coefficient, the more unequal the distribution is.", "In the diagram on the right, this is given by the ratio ''A''/(''A''+''B''), where ''A'' and ''B'' are the areas of regions as marked in the diagram." ], [ "Definition and calculation", "Lorenz curve for US wealth distribution in 2016 showing negative wealth and oligarchyThe Lorenz curve is a probability plot (a P–P plot) comparing the distribution of a variable against a hypothetical uniform distribution of that variable.", "It can usually be represented by a function ''L''(''F''), where ''F'', the cumulative portion of the population, is represented by the horizontal axis, and ''L'', the cumulative portion of the total wealth or income, is represented by the vertical axis.The curve ''L'' need not be a smoothly increasing function of ''F'', For wealth distributions there may be oligarchies or people with negative wealth for instance.For a discrete distribution of Y given by values ''y''1, ..., ''y''''n'' in non-decreasing order ( ''y''''i'' ≤ ''y''''i''+1) and their probabilities the Lorenz curve is the continuous piecewise linear function connecting the points ( ''F''''i'', ''L''''i'' ), ''i'' = 0 to ''n'', where ''F''0 = 0, ''L''0 = 0, and for ''i'' = 1 to ''n'':When all ''y''''i'' are equally probable with probabilities 1/''n'' this simplifies to For a continuous distribution with the probability density function ''f'' and the cumulative distribution function ''F'', the Lorenz curve ''L'' is given by:where denotes the average.", "The Lorenz curve ''L''(''F'') may then be plotted as a function parametric in ''x'': ''L''(''x'') vs. ''F''(''x'').", "In other contexts, the quantity computed here is known as the length biased (or size biased) distribution; it also has an important role in renewal theory.Alternatively, for a cumulative distribution function ''F''(''x'') with inverse ''x''(''F''), the Lorenz curve ''L''(''F'') is directly given by:The inverse ''x''(''F'') may not exist because the cumulative distribution function has intervals of constant values.", "However, the previous formula can still apply by generalizing the definition of ''x''(''F''):where is the infimum.For an example of a Lorenz curve, see Pareto distribution." ], [ "Properties", "upright=1.2A Lorenz curve always starts at (0,0) and ends at (1,1).The Lorenz curve is not defined if the mean of the probability distribution is zero or infinite.The Lorenz curve for a probability distribution is a continuous function.", "However, Lorenz curves representing discontinuous functions can be constructed as the limit of Lorenz curves of probability distributions, the line of perfect inequality being an example.The information in a Lorenz curve may be summarized by the Gini coefficient and the Lorenz asymmetry coefficient.The Lorenz curve cannot rise above the line of perfect equality.A Lorenz curve that never falls beneath a second Lorenz curve and at least once runs above it, has Lorenz dominance over the second one.If the variable being measured cannot take negative values, the Lorenz curve:cannot sink below the line of perfect inequality,is increasing.Note however that a Lorenz curve for net worth would start out by going negative due to the fact that some people have a negative net worth because of debt.The Lorenz curve is invariant under positive scaling.", "If '''''X''''' is a random variable, for any positive number ''c'' the random variable ''c'' '''X''' has the same Lorenz curve as '''''X'''''.The Lorenz curve is flipped twice, once about F = 0.5 and once about ''L'' = 0.5, by negation.", "If '''''X''''' is a random variable with Lorenz curve ''L'''''X'''(''F''), then −'''''X''''' has the Lorenz curve:: ''L'' − '''X''' = 1 − ''L'' '''X''' (1 − ''F'')The Lorenz curve is changed by translations so that the equality gap ''F'' − ''L''(''F'') changes in proportion to the ratio of the original and translated means.", "If '''''X''''' is a random variable with a Lorenz curve ''L'' '''X''' (''F'') and mean ''μ'' '''X''' , then for any constant ''c'' ≠ −''μ'' '''X''' , '''''X''''' + ''c'' has a Lorenz curve defined by:For a cumulative distribution function ''F''(''x'') with mean ''μ'' and (generalized) inverse ''x''(''F''), then for any ''F'' with 0 < ''F'' < 1 :If the Lorenz curve is differentiable:If the Lorenz curve is twice differentiable, then the probability density function ''f''(''x'') exists at that point and: If ''L''(''F'') is continuously differentiable, then the tangent of ''L''(''F'') is parallel to the line of perfect equality at the point ''F''(''μ'').", "This is also the point at which the equality gap ''F'' − ''L''(''F''), the vertical distance between the Lorenz curve and the line of perfect equality, is greatest.", "The size of the gap is equal to half of the relative mean absolute deviation:" ], [ "See also", " Distribution (economics)* Distribution of wealth* Welfare economics* Income inequality metrics* Gini coefficient* Hoover index (a.k.a.", "Robin Hood index)* ROC analysis* Social welfare (political science)* Economic inequality* Zipf's law* Pareto distribution* Mean deviation* The Elephant Curve" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "***" ], [ "External links", " WIID : World Income Inequality Database, a source of information on inequality, collected by WIDER (World Institute for Development Economics Research, part of United Nations University)* glcurve: Stata module to plot Lorenz curve (type \"findit glcurve\" or \"ssc install glcurve\" in Stata prompt to install)* Free add-on to STATA to compute inequality and poverty measures* Free Online Software (Calculator) computes the Gini Coefficient, plots the Lorenz curve, and computes many other measures of concentration for any dataset* Free Calculator: Online and downloadable scripts (Python and Lua) for Atkinson, Gini, and Hoover inequalities* Users of the R data analysis software can install the \"ineq\" package which allows for computation of a variety of inequality indices including Gini, Atkinson, Theil.", "* A MATLAB Inequality Package , including code for computing Gini, Atkinson, Theil indexes and for plotting the Lorenz Curve.", "Many examples are available.", "* A complete handout about the Lorenz curve including various applications, including an Excel spreadsheet graphing Lorenz curves and calculating Gini coefficients as well as coefficients of variation.", "* LORENZ 3.0 is a Mathematica notebook which draw sample Lorenz curves and calculates Gini coefficients and Lorenz asymmetry coefficients from data in an Excel sheet." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Literate programming" ], [ "Introduction", "''Literate Programming'' by Donald Knuth is the seminal book on literate programming.", "'''Literate programming''' is a programming paradigm introduced in 1984 by Donald Knuth in which a computer program is given as an explanation of how it works in a natural language, such as English, interspersed (embedded) with snippets of macros and traditional source code, from which compilable source code can be generated.", "The approach is used in scientific computing and in data science routinely for reproducible research and open access purposes.", "Literate programming tools are used by millions of programmers today.The literate programming paradigm, as conceived by Donald Knuth, represents a move away from writing computer programs in the manner and order imposed by the compiler, and instead gives programmers macros to develop programs in the order demanded by the logic and flow of their thoughts.", "Literate programs are written as an exposition of logic in more natural language in which macros are used to hide abstractions and traditional source code, more like the text of an essay.", "Literate programming (LP) tools are used to obtain two representations from a source file: one understandable by a compiler or interpreter, the \"tangled\" code, and another for viewing as formatted documentation, which is said to be \"woven\" from the literate source.", "While the first generation of literate programming tools were computer language-specific, the later ones are language-agnostic and exist beyond the individual programming languages." ], [ "History and philosophy", "Literate programming was first introduced in 1984 by Donald Knuth, who intended it to create programs that were suitable literature for human beings.", "He implemented it at Stanford University as a part of his research on algorithms and digital typography.", "The implementation was called \"WEB\" since he believed that it was one of the few three-letter words of English that had not yet been applied to computing.", "However, it resembles the complicated nature of software delicately pieced together from simple materials.", "The practice of literate programming has seen an important resurgence in the 2010s with the use of computational notebooks, especially in data science." ], [ "Concept", "Literate programming is writing out the program logic in a human language with included (separated by a primitive markup) code snippets and macros.", "Macros in a literate source file are simply title-like or explanatory phrases in a human language that describe human abstractions created while solving the programming problem, and hiding chunks of code or lower-level macros.", "These macros are similar to the algorithms in pseudocode typically used in teaching computer science.", "These arbitrary explanatory phrases become precise new operators, created on the fly by the programmer, forming a ''meta-language'' on top of the underlying programming language.A preprocessor is used to substitute arbitrary hierarchies, or rather \"interconnected 'webs' of macros\", to produce the compilable source code with one command (\"tangle\"), and documentation with another (\"weave\").", "The preprocessor also provides an ability to write out the content of the macros and to add to already created macros in any place in the text of the literate program source file, thereby disposing of the need to keep in mind the restrictions imposed by traditional programming languages or to interrupt the flow of thought.=== Advantages ===According to Knuth,literate programming provides higher-quality programs, since it forces programmers to explicitly state the thoughts behind the program, making poorly thought-out design decisions more obvious.", "Knuth also claims that literate programming provides a first-rate documentation system, which is not an add-on, but is grown naturally in the process of exposition of one's thoughts during a program's creation.", "The resulting documentation allows the author to restart their own thought processes at any later time, and allows other programmers to understand the construction of the program more easily.", "This differs from traditional documentation, in which a programmer is presented with source code that follows a compiler-imposed order, and must decipher the thought process behind the program from the code and its associated comments.", "The meta-language capabilities of literate programming are also claimed to facilitate thinking, giving a higher \"bird's eye view\" of the code and increasing the number of concepts the mind can successfully retain and process.", "Applicability of the concept to programming on a large scale, that of commercial-grade programs, is proven by an edition of TeX code as a literate program.Knuth also claims that literate programming can lead to easy porting of software to multiple environments, and even cites the implementation of TeX as an example.=== Contrast with documentation generation ===Literate programming is very often misunderstood to refer only to formatted documentation produced from a common file with both source code and comments – which is properly called documentation generation – or to voluminous commentaries included with code.", "This is the converse of literate programming: well-documented code or documentation extracted from code follows the structure of the code, with documentation embedded in the code; while in literate programming, code is embedded in documentation, with the code following the structure of the documentation.This misconception has led to claims that comment-extraction tools, such as the Perl Plain Old Documentation or Java Javadoc systems, are \"literate programming tools\".", "However, because these tools do not implement the \"web of abstract concepts\" hiding behind the system of natural-language macros, or provide an ability to change the order of the source code from a machine-imposed sequence to one convenient to the human mind, they cannot properly be called literate programming tools in the sense intended by Knuth.=== Critique ===In 1986, Jon Bentley asked Knuth to demonstrate the concept of literate programming for his ''Programming Pearls'' column in the ''Communications of the ACM'', by writing a program in WEB.", "Knuth sent him a program for a problem previously discussed in the column (that of sampling ''M'' random numbers in the range 1..''N''), and also asked for an \"assignment\".", "Bentley gave him the problem of finding the ''K'' most common words from a text file, for which Knuth wrote a WEB program that was published together with a review by Douglas McIlroy of Bell Labs.", "McIlroy praised the intricacy of Knuth's solution, his choice of a data structure (a variant of Frank M. Liang's hash trie), and the presentation.", "He criticized some matters of style, such as the fact that the central idea was described late in the paper, the use of magic constants, and the absence of a diagram to accompany the explanation of the data structure.", "McIlroy also used the review to critique the programming task itself, pointing out that in Unix (developed at Bell Labs), utilities for text processing (tr, sort, uniq and sed) had been written previously that were \"staples\", and a solution that was easy to implement, debug and reuse could be obtained by combining these utilities in a six-line shell script.", "In response, Bentley wrote that:McIlroy later admitted that his critique was unfair, since he criticized Knuth's program on engineering grounds, while Knuth's purpose was only to demonstrate the literate programming technique.", "In 1987, ''Communications of the ACM'' published a followup article which illustrated literate programming with a C program that combined artistic approach of Knuth with engineering approach of McIlroy, with a critique by John Gilbert." ], [ "Workflow", "Implementing literate programming consists of two steps:# Weaving: Generating a comprehensive document about the program and its maintenance.# Tangling: Generating machine executable codeWeaving and tangling are done on the same source so that they are consistent with each other." ], [ "Example", "A classic example of literate programming is the literate implementation of the standard Unix wc word counting program.", "Knuth presented a CWEB version of this example in Chapter 12 of his ''Literate Programming'' book.", "The same example was later rewritten for the noweb literate programming tool.", "This example provides a good illustration of the basic elements of literate programming.=== Creation of macros ===The following snippet of the wc literate program shows how arbitrary descriptive phrases in a natural language are used in a literate program to create macros, which act as new \"operators\" in the literate programming language, and hide chunks of code or other macros.", "The mark-up notation consists of double angle brackets (\">\") that indicate macros, the \"@\" symbol which indicates the end of the code section in a noweb file.", "The \">\" symbol stands for the \"root\", topmost node the literate programming tool will start expanding the web of macros from.", "Actually, writing out the expanded source code can be done from any section or subsection (i.e.", "a piece of code designated as \">=\", with the equal sign), so one literate program file can contain several files with machine source code.The purpose of wc is to count lines, words, and/or characters in a list of files.", "Thenumber of lines in a file is ......../more explanations/Here, then, is an overview of the file wc.c that is defined by the noweb program wc.nw: >= > > > > > @We must include the standard I/O definitions, since we want to send formatted outputto stdout and stderr.", ">= #include @The unraveling of the chunks can be done in any place in the literate program text file, not necessarily in the order they are sequenced in the enclosing chunk, but as is demanded by the logic reflected in the explanatory text that envelops the whole program.=== Program as a web ===Macros are not the same as \"section names\" in standard documentation.", "Literate programming macros hide the real code behind themselves, and be used inside any low-level machine language operators, often inside logical operators such as \"if\", \"while\" or \"case\".", "This can be seen in the following wc literate program.The present chunk, which does the counting, was actually one ofthe simplest to write.", "We look at each character and change state if it begins or endsa word.", ">= while (1) { > c = ptr++; if (c > ' ' && c The macros stand for any chunk of code or other macros, and are more general than top-down or bottom-up \"chunking\", or than subsectioning.", "Donald Knuth said that when he realized this, he began to think of a program as a ''web'' of various parts.=== Order of human logic, not that of the compiler ===In a noweb literate program besides the free order of their exposition, the chunks behind macros, once introduced with \">=\", can be grown later in any place in the file by simply writing \">=\" and adding more content to it, as the following snippet illustrates (\"plus\" is added by the document formatter for readability, and is not in the code).", "The grand totals must be initialized to zero at the beginning of the program.If we made these variables local to main, we would have to do this initializationexplicitly; however, C globals are automatically zeroed.", "(Or rather,``staticallyzeroed.''", "(Get it?)", ">+= long tot_word_count, tot_line_count, tot_char_count; / total number of words, lines, chars / @=== Record of the train of thought ===The documentation for a literate program is produced as part of writing the program.", "Instead of comments provided as side notes to source code a literate program contains the explanation of concepts on each level, with lower level concepts deferred to their appropriate place, which allows for better communication of thought.", "The snippets of the literate wc above show how an explanation of the program and its source code are interwoven.", "Such exposition of ideas creates the flow of thought that is like a literary work.", "Knuth wrote a \"novel\" which explains the code of the interactive fiction game Colossal Cave Adventure.=== Remarkable examples === Axiom, which is evolved from scratchpad, a computer algebra system developed by IBM.", "It is now being developed by Tim Daly, one of the developers of scratchpad, Axiom is totally written as a literate program." ], [ "Literate programming practices", "The first published literate programming environment was WEB, introduced by Knuth in 1981 for his TeX typesetting system; it uses Pascal as its underlying programming language and TeX for typesetting of the documentation.", "The complete commented TeX source code was published in Knuth's ''TeX: The program'', volume B of his 5-volume ''Computers and Typesetting''.", "Knuth had privately used a literate programming system called DOC as early as 1979.He was inspired by the ideas of Pierre-Arnoul de Marneffe.", "The free CWEB, written by Knuth and Silvio Levy, is WEB adapted for C and C++, runs on most operating systems and can produce TeX and PDF documentation.There are various other implementations of the literate programming concept as given below.", "Many of the newer ones among these don't have macros and hence violate the order of human logic principle, which makes them more of semi-literate tools.", "These however, allow cellular execution of code which makes them more on the likes of exploratory programming tools.", "Name Supported Languages Written in Markup Language Macros & Custom Order Cellular Execution Comments WEB Pascal Pascal TeX The first published literate programming environment.", "CWEB C++ and C C TeX Is WEB adapted for C and C++.", "NoWEB Any C, AWK, and Icon LaTeX, TeX, HTML and troff It is well known for its simplicity and it allows for text formatting in HTML rather than going through the TeX system.", "Literate Any D Markdown Supports TeX equations.", "Compatible with Vim ( literate.vim) FunnelWeb Any C HTML and TeXYes?", "It has more complicated markup, but has many more flexible options NuWEB Any C++ LaTeX It can translate a single LP source into any number of code files.", "It does it in a single invocation; it does not have separate weave and tangle commands.", "It does not have the extensibility of noweb pyWeb Any Python ReStructuredText Respects indentation which makes usable for the languages like Python, though you can use it for any programming language.", "Molly Any Perl HTML Aims to modernize and scale it with \"folding HTML\" and \"virtual views\" on code.", "It uses \"noweb\" markup for the literate source files.", "Codnar Ruby It is an inverse literate programming tool available as a Ruby Gem.", "Instead of the machine-readable source code being extracted out of the literate documentation sources, the literate documentation is extracted out of the normal machine-readable source code files.", "Emacs org-mode Any Emacs Lisp Plain text Requires Babel, which allows embedding blocks of source code from multiple programming languages within a single text document.", "Blocks of code can share data with each other, display images inline, or be parsed into pure source code using the noweb reference syntax.", "CoffeeScript CoffeeScript CoffeeScript, JavaScript Markdown CoffeeScript supports a \"literate\" mode, which enables programs to be compiled from a source document written in Markdown with indented blocks of code.", "Maple worksheets Maple (software) XML Maple worksheets are a platform-agnostic literate programming environment that combines text and graphics with live code for symbolic computation.", "Wolfram Notebooks Wolfram Language Wolfram Language Wolfram notebooks are a platform-agnostic literate programming method that combines text and graphics with live code.", "Playgrounds Swift (programming language) Provides an interactive programming environment that evaluates each statement and displays live results as the code is edited.", "Playgrounds also allow the user to add Markup language along with the code that provide headers, inline formatting and images.", "Jupyter Notebook, formerly IPython Notebook Python and any with a Jupyter Kernel JSON format Specification for ipynb Works in the format of notebooks, which combine headings, text (including LaTeX), plots, etc.", "with the written code.", "Jupytext plugin for Jupyter Many LanguagesPython Markdown in comments nbdevPython and Jupyter Notebooknbdev is a library that allows you to develop a python library in Jupyter Notebooks, putting all your code, tests and documentation in one place.", "Julia (programming language) Pluto.jl is a reactive notebook environment allowing custom order.", "But web-like macros aren't supported.", "Supports the iJulia mode of development which was inspired by iPython.", "Agda (programming language) Supports a limited form of literate programming out of the box.", "Eve programming language Programs are primarily prose.", "Eve combines variants of Datalog and Markdown with a live graphical development environment R Markdown Notebooks (or R Notebooks) R, Python, Julia and SQL PDF, Microsoft Word, LibreOffice and presentation or slide show formats plus interactive formats like HTML widgets Quarto R, Python, Julia and Observable PDF, Microsoft Word, LibreOffice and presentation or slide show formats plus interactive formats like HTML widgets Sweave R PDF Knitr R LaTeX, PDF, LyX, HTML, Markdown, AsciiDoc, and reStructuredText Codebraid Pandoc, Rust, Julia, Python, R, Bash Python Markdown Pweave Python PDF MATLAB Live Editor MATLABMarkdown Inweb C, C++, Inform 6, Inform 7 C, CWEB TeX, HTMLYes?", "Used to write the Inform Programming Language since 2004.Mercury Python Python, TypeScript JSON format specification for ipynb Mercury turns Jupyter Notebook into interactive computational documents.", "They can be published as web application, dashboards, reports, REST API, or slides.", "The executed document can be exported as standalone HTML or PDF file.", "Documents can be scheduled for automatic execution.", "The document presence and widgets are controlled with YAML header in the first cell of the notebook.", "Observable JavaScript JavaScript, TypeScript TeX(KaTeX), HTML Stored on the cloud with web interface.", "Contents are publishable as websites.", "Version controlled; the platform defines its own version control operations.", "Code cells can be organized ''out-of-order''; observable notebooks will construct the execution graph (a DAG) automatically.", "A rich standard library implemented with modern features of JavaScript.", "Cells from different observable notebooks can reference each other.", "Npm libraries can be imported on the fly.", "GaneshaJavaScript, TypeScriptJavaScriptMarkdownEnables Node.js to load literate modules, represented by Markdown files containing JavaScript or TypeScript code interspersed with richly formatted prose.", "Supports bundling literate modules for browsers when using the Rollup or Vite frontend module bundlers.", "JWEBC, C++, JavaScript, TypeScriptJavaScriptMarkdownOther useful tools include:* The Leo text editor is an ''outlining'' editor which supports optional noweb and CWEB markup.", "The author of Leo mixes two different approaches: first, Leo is an outlining editor, which helps with management of large texts; second, Leo incorporates some of the ideas of literate programming, which in its pure form (i.e., the way it is used by Knuth Web tool or tools like \"noweb\") is possible only with some degree of inventiveness and the use of the editor in a way not exactly envisioned by its author (in modified @root nodes).", "However, this and other extensions (@file nodes) make outline programming and text management successful and easy and in some ways similar to literate programming.", "* The Haskell programming language has native support for semi-literate programming.", "The compiler/interpreter supports two file name extensions: .hs and .lhs; the latter stands for literate Haskell.", ":The literate scripts can be full LaTeX source text, at the same time it can be compiled, with no changes, because the interpreter only compiles the text in a code environment, for example::% here text describing the function:\\begin{code}fact 0 = 1fact (n+1) = (n+1) * fact n\\end{code}here more text:The code can be also marked in the Richard Bird style, starting each line with a greater than symbol and a space, preceding and ending the piece of code with blank lines.", ":The LaTeX listings package provides a lstlisting environment which can be used to embellish the source code.", "It can be used to define a code environment to use within Haskell to print the symbols in the following manner::\\newenvironment{code}{\\lstlistingslanguage=Haskell}{\\endlstlistings}\\begin{code}comp :: (beta -> gamma) -> (alpha -> beta) -> (alpha -> gamma)(g `comp` f) x = g(f x)\\end{code}:which can be configured to yield::::Although the package does not provide means to organize chunks of code, one can split the LaTeX source code in different files.", "See listings manual for an overview.", "* The Web 68 Literate Programming system used Algol 68 as the underlying programming language, although there was nothing in the pre-processor 'tang' to force the use of that language.", "* The customization mechanism of the Text Encoding Initiative which enables the constraining, modification, or extension of the TEI scheme enables users to mix prose documentation with fragments of schema specification in their One Document Does-it-all format.", "From this prose documentation, schemas, and processing model pipelines can be generated and Knuth's Literate Programming paradigm is cited as the inspiration for this way of working." ], [ "See also", "* Documentation generator – the inverse on literate programming where documentation is embedded in and generated from source code* Notebook interface – virtual notebook environment used for literate programming* Sweave and Knitr – examples of use of the \"noweb\"-like Literate Programming tool inside the R language for creation of dynamic statistical reports* Self-documenting code – source code that can be easily understood without documentation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * (includes software)* * * " ], [ "External links", " LiterateProgramming at WikiWikiWeb* Literate Programming FAQ at CTAN" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Logistic map" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''logistic map''' is a polynomial mapping (equivalently, recurrence relation) of degree 2, often referred to as an archetypal example of how complex, chaotic behaviour can arise from very simple nonlinear dynamical equations.", "The map was popularized in a 1976 paper by the biologist Robert May, in part as a discrete-time demographic model analogous to the logistic equation written down by Pierre François Verhulst.Mathematically, the logistic map is writtenwhere is a number between zero and one, which represents the ratio of existing population to the maximum possible population.", "This nonlinear difference equation is intended to capture two effects:* ''reproduction'', where the population will increase at a rate proportional to the current population when the population size is small,* ''starvation'' (density-dependent mortality), where the growth rate will decrease at a rate proportional to the value obtained by taking the theoretical \"carrying capacity\" of the environment less the current population.The usual values of interest for the parameter are those in the interval , so that remains bounded on .", "The case of the logistic map is a nonlinear transformation of both the bit-shift map and the case of the tent map.", "If , this leads to negative population sizes.", "(This problem does not appear in the older Ricker model, which also exhibits chaotic dynamics.)", "One can also consider values of in the interval , so that remains bounded on ." ], [ "Characteristics of the map", "===Behavior dependent on ===The image below shows the amplitude and frequency content of some logistic map iterates for parameter values ranging from 2 to 4.Image:Logistic map animation.gifBy varying the parameter , the following behavior is observed:Evolution of different initial conditions as a function of With between 0 and 1, the population will eventually die, independent of the initial population.", " With between 1 and 2, the population will quickly approach the value , independent of the initial population.", "* 283x283pxWith between 2 and 3, the population will also eventually approach the same value , but first will fluctuate around that value for some time.", "The rate of convergence is linear, except for , when it is dramatically slow, less than linear (see Bifurcation memory).", "* With between 3 and 1 + ≈ 3.44949 the population will approach permanent oscillations between two values.", "These two values are dependent on and given by .", "* With between 3.44949 and 3.54409 (approximately), from almost all initial conditions the population will approach permanent oscillations among four values.", "The latter number is a root of a 12th degree polynomial .", "* With increasing beyond 3.54409, from almost all initial conditions the population will approach oscillations among 8 values, then 16, 32, etc.", "The lengths of the parameter intervals that yield oscillations of a given length decrease rapidly; the ratio between the lengths of two successive bifurcation intervals approaches the Feigenbaum constant .", "This behavior is an example of a period-doubling cascade.", "* At is the onset of chaos, at the end of the period-doubling cascade.", "From almost all initial conditions, we no longer see oscillations of finite period.", "Slight variations in the initial population yield dramatically different results over time, a prime characteristic of chaos.", "* Most values of beyond 3.56995 exhibit chaotic behaviour, but there are still certain isolated ranges of that show non-chaotic behavior; these are sometimes called ''islands of stability''.", "For instance, beginning at 1 + (approximately 3.82843) there is a range of parameters that show oscillation among three values, and for slightly higher values of oscillation among 6 values, then 12 etc.", "* At , the stable period-3 cycle emerges.", "* The development of the chaotic behavior of the logistic sequence as the parameter varies from approximately 3.56995 to approximately 3.82843 is sometimes called the Pomeau–Manneville scenario, characterized by a periodic (laminar) phase interrupted by bursts of aperiodic behavior.", "Such a scenario has an application in semiconductor devices.", "There are other ranges that yield oscillation among 5 values etc.", "; all oscillation periods occur for some values of .", "A ''period-doubling window'' with parameter is a range of -values consisting of a succession of subranges.", "The th subrange contains the values of for which there is a stable cycle (a cycle that attracts a set of initial points of unit measure) of period .", "This sequence of sub-ranges is called a ''cascade of harmonics''.", "In a sub-range with a stable cycle of period , there are unstable cycles of period for all .", "The value at the end of the infinite sequence of sub-ranges is called the ''point of accumulation'' of the cascade of harmonics.", "As rises there is a succession of new windows with different values.", "The first one is for ; all subsequent windows involving odd occur in decreasing order of starting with arbitrarily large .", "* At , two chaotic bands of the bifurcation diagram intersect in the first Misiurewicz point for the logistic map.", "It satisfies the equations .", "* Beyond , almost all initial values eventually leave the interval and diverge.", "The set of initial conditions which remain within form a Cantor set and the dynamics restricted to this Cantor set is chaotic.For any value of there is at most one stable cycle.", "If a stable cycle exists, it is globally stable, attracting almost all points.", "Some values of with a stable cycle of some period have infinitely many unstable cycles of various periods.The bifurcation diagram at right summarizes this.", "The horizontal axis shows the possible values of the parameter while the vertical axis shows the set of values of visited asymptotically from almost all initial conditions by the iterates of the logistic equation with that value.Bifurcation diagram for the logistic map.The attractor for any value of the parameter is shown on the vertical line at that .The bifurcation diagram is a self-similar: if we zoom in on the above-mentioned value and focus on one arm of the three, the situation nearby looks like a shrunk and slightly distorted version of the whole diagram.", "The same is true for all other non-chaotic points.", "This is an example of the deep and ubiquitous connection between chaos and fractals.Magnification of the chaotic region of the map.Stable regions within the chaotic region, where a tangent bifurcation occurs at the boundary between the chaotic and periodic attractor, giving intermittent trajectories as described in the Pomeau–Manneville scenario.We can also consider negative values of :* For between -2 and -1 the logistic sequence also features chaotic behavior.", "* With between -1 and 1 - and for 0 between 1/ and 1-1/, the population will approach permanent oscillations between two values, as with the case of between 3 and 1 + , and given by the same formula.===Chaos and the logistic map===A cobweb diagram of the logistic map, showing chaotic behaviour for most values of Logistic function (blue) and its iterated versions , , and for .", "For example, for any initial value on the horizontal axis, gives the value of the iterate four iterations later.The relative simplicity of the logistic map makes it a widely used point of entry into a consideration of the concept of chaos.", "A rough description of chaos is that chaotic systems exhibit a great sensitivity to initial conditions—a property of the logistic map for most values of between about 3.57 and 4 (as noted above).", "A common source of such sensitivity to initial conditions is that the map represents a repeated folding and stretching of the space on which it is defined.", "In the case of the logistic map, the quadratic difference equation describing it may be thought of as a stretching-and-folding operation on the interval .The following figure illustrates the stretching and folding over a sequence of iterates of the map.", "Figure (a), left, shows a two-dimensional Poincaré plot of the logistic map's state space for , and clearly shows the quadratic curve of the difference equation ().", "However, we can embed the same sequence in a three-dimensional state space, in order to investigate the deeper structure of the map.", "Figure (b), right, demonstrates this, showing how initially nearby points begin to diverge, particularly in those regions of corresponding to the steeper sections of the plot.Two- and three-dimensional Poincaré plots show the stretching-and-folding structure of the logistic mapThis stretching-and-folding does not just produce a gradual divergence of the sequences of iterates, but an exponential divergence (see Lyapunov exponents), evidenced also by the complexity and unpredictability of the chaotic logistic map.", "In fact, exponential divergence of sequences of iterates explains the connection between chaos and unpredictability: a small error in the supposed initial state of the system will tend to correspond to a large error later in its evolution.", "Hence, predictions about future states become progressively (indeed, exponentially) worse when there are even very small errors in our knowledge of the initial state.", "This quality of unpredictability and apparent randomness led the logistic map equation to be used as a pseudo-random number generator in early computers.At r = 2, the function intersects precisely at the maximum point, so convergence to the equilibrium point is on the order of .", "Consequently, the equilibrium point is called \"superstable\".", "Its Lyapunov exponent is .", "A similar argument shows that there is a superstable value within each interval where the dynamical system has a stable cycle.", "This can be seen in the Lyapunov exponent plot as sharp dips.Since the map is confined to an interval on the real number line, its dimension is less than or equal to unity.", "Numerical estimates yield a correlation dimension of (Grassberger, 1983), a Hausdorff dimension of about 0.538 (Grassberger 1981), and an information dimension of approximately 0.5170976 (Grassberger 1983) for (onset of chaos).", "Note: It can be shown that the correlation dimension is certainly between 0.4926 and 0.5024.It is often possible, however, to make precise and accurate statements about the ''likelihood'' of a future state in a chaotic system.", "If a (possibly chaotic) dynamical system has an attractor, then there exists a probability measure that gives the long-run proportion of time spent by the system in the various regions of the attractor.", "In the case of the logistic map with parameter and an initial state in , the attractor is also the interval and the probability measure corresponds to the beta distribution with parameters and .", "Specifically, the invariant measure is:Unpredictability is not randomness, but in some circumstances looks very much like it.", "Hence, and fortunately, even if we know very little about the initial state of the logistic map (or some other chaotic system), we can still say something about the distribution of states arbitrarily far into the future, and use this knowledge to inform decisions based on the state of the system.Logistic map with Lyapunov exponent function." ], [ "Graphical representation", "The Bifurcation diagram for the logistic map can be visualized with the following Python code:import numpy as npimport matplotlib.pyplot as pltinterval = (2.8, 4) # start, endaccuracy = 0.0001reps = 600 # number of repetitionsnumtoplot = 200lims = np.zeros(reps)fig, biax = plt.subplots()fig.set_size_inches(16, 9)lims0 = np.random.rand()for r in np.arange(interval0, interval1, accuracy): for i in range(reps - 1): limsi + 1 = r * limsi * (1 - limsi) biax.plot(r * numtoplot, limsreps - numtoplot :, \"b.", "\", markersize=0.02)biax.set(xlabel=\"r\", ylabel=\"x\", title=\"logistic map\")plt.show()" ], [ "Special cases of the map", "===Upper bound when ===Although exact solutions to the recurrence relation are only available in a small number of cases, a closed-form upper bound on the logistic map is known when .", "There are two aspects of the behavior of the logistic map that should be captured by an upper bound in this regime: the asymptotic geometric decay with constant , and the fast initial decay when is close to 1, driven by the term in the recurrence relation.", "The following bound captures both of these effects::===Solution when ===The special case of can in fact be solved exactly, as can the case with ; however, the general case can only be predicted statistically.", "The solution when is,:where the initial condition parameter is given by:For rational , after a finite number of iterations maps into a periodic sequence.", "But almost all are irrational, and, for irrational , never repeats itself – it is non-periodic.", "This solution equation clearly demonstrates the two key features of chaos – stretching and folding: the factor shows the exponential growth of stretching, which results in sensitive dependence on initial conditions, while the squared sine function keeps folded within the range .For an equivalent solution in terms of complex numbers instead of trigonometric functions is:where is either of the complex numbers:with modulus equal to 1.Just as the squared sine function in the trigonometric solution leads to neither shrinkage nor expansion of the set of points visited, in the latter solution this effect is accomplished by the unit modulus of .By contrast, the solution when is:for .", "Since for any value of other than the unstable fixed point 0, the term goes to 0 as goes to infinity, so goes to the stable fixed point .===Finding cycles of any length when ===For the case, from almost all initial conditions the iterate sequence is chaotic.", "Nevertheless, there exist an infinite number of initial conditions that lead to cycles, and indeed there exist cycles of length for ''all'' integers .", "We can exploit the relationship of the logistic map to the dyadic transformation (also known as the ''bit-shift map'') to find cycles of any length.", "If follows the logistic map and follows the ''dyadic transformation'':then the two are related by a homeomorphism:The reason that the dyadic transformation is also called the bit-shift map is that when is written in binary notation, the map moves the binary point one place to the right (and if the bit to the left of the binary point has become a \"1\", this \"1\" is changed to a \"0\").", "A cycle of length 3, for example, occurs if an iterate has a 3-bit repeating sequence in its binary expansion (which is not also a one-bit repeating sequence): 001, 010, 100, 110, 101, or 011.The iterate 001001001... maps into 010010010..., which maps into 100100100..., which in turn maps into the original 001001001...; so this is a 3-cycle of the bit shift map.", "And the other three binary-expansion repeating sequences give the 3-cycle 110110110... → 101101101... → 011011011... → 110110110....", "Either of these 3-cycles can be converted to fraction form: for example, the first-given 3-cycle can be written as → → → .", "Using the above translation from the bit-shift map to the logistic map gives the corresponding logistic cycle 0.611260467... → 0.950484434... → 0.188255099... → 0.611260467.... We could similarly translate the other bit-shift 3-cycle into its corresponding logistic cycle.", "Likewise, cycles of any length can be found in the bit-shift map and then translated into the corresponding logistic cycles.However, since almost all numbers in are irrational, almost all initial conditions of the bit-shift map lead to the non-periodicity of chaos.", "This is one way to see that the logistic map is chaotic for almost all initial conditions.The number of cycles of (minimal) length for the logistic map with (tent map with ) is a known integer sequence : 2, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 30, 56, 99, 186, 335, 630, 1161....", "This tells us that the logistic map with has 2 fixed points, 1 cycle of length 2, 2 cycles of length 3 and so on.", "This sequence takes a particularly simple form for prime : .", "For example: 2 ⋅ = 630 is the number of cycles of length 13.Since this case of the logistic map is chaotic for almost all initial conditions, all of these finite-length cycles are unstable." ], [ "Universality", "===Feigenbaum universality of 1-D maps===Universality of one-dimensional maps with parabolic maxima and Feigenbaum constants , is well visible with map proposed as a toy model for discrete laser dynamics: ,where stands for electric field amplitude, is laser gain as bifurcation parameter.", "The gradual increase of at interval changes dynamics from regular to chaotic one with qualitatively the same bifurcation diagram as those for logistic map.=== Renormalization estimate ===The Feigenbaum constants can be estimated by a renormalization argument.", "(Section 10.7, ).By universality, we can use another family of functions that also undergoes repeated period-doubling on its route to chaos, and even though it is not exactly the logistic map, it would still yield the same Feigenbaum constants.Define the family The family has an equilibrium point at zero, and as increases, it undergoes period-doubling bifurcation at .The first bifurcation occurs at .", "After the period-doubling bifurcation, we can solve for the period-2 stable orbit by , which yields At some point , the period-2 stable orbit undergoes period-doubling bifurcation again, yielding a period-4 stable orbit.", "In order to find out what the stable orbit is like, we \"zoom in\" around the region of , using the affine transform .", "Now, by routine algebra, we havewhere .", "At approximately , the second bifurcation occurs, thus .By self-similarity, the third bifurcation when , and so on.", "Thus we have , or .", "Iterating this map, we find , and .", "Thus, we have the estimates , and .", "These are within 10% of the true values." ], [ "See also", "* Logistic function, solution of the logistic map's continuous counterpart: the Logistic differential equation.", "* Lyapunov stability#Definition for discrete-time systems * Malthusian growth model* Periodic points of complex quadratic mappings, of which the logistic map is a special case confined to the real line* Radial basis function network, which illustrates the inverse problem for the logistic map.", "* Schröder's equation* Stiff equation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " The Chaos Hypertextbook.", "An introductory primer on chaos and fractals.", "* An interactive visualization of the logistic map as a Jupyter notebook* The Logistic Map and Chaos by Elmer G. Wiens* Complexity & Chaos (audiobook) by Roger White.", "Chapter 5 covers the Logistic Equation.", "* \" History of iterated maps,\" in ''A New Kind of Science'' by Stephen Wolfram.", "Champaign, IL: Wolfram Media, p. 918, 2002.", "* \"A very brief history of universality in period doubling\" by P. Cvitanović* \"A not so short history of Universal Function\" by P. Cvitanović* Discrete Logistic Equation by Marek Bodnar after work by Phil Ramsden, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.", "* Multiplicative coupling of 2 logistic maps by C. Pellicer-Lostao and R. Lopez-Ruiz after work by Ed Pegg Jr, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.", "* Using SAGE to investigate the discrete logistic equation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Levant" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Levant''' ( ) is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean region of West Asia.", "In its narrowest sense, which is in use today in archaeology and other cultural contexts, it is equivalent to Cyprus and a stretch of land bordering the Mediterranean Sea in western Asia: i.e.", "the historical region of Syria (\"Greater Syria\"), which includes present-day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the Palestinian territories and most of Turkey southwest of the middle Euphrates.", "Its overwhelming characteristic is that it represents the land bridge between Africa and Eurasia.", "In its widest historical sense, the Levant included all of the Eastern Mediterranean with its islands; that is, it included all of the countries along the Eastern Mediterranean shores, extending from Greece in Southern Europe to Cyrenaica, Eastern Libya in Northern Africa.In the 13th and 14th centuries, the term ''levante'' was used for Italian maritime commerce in the Eastern Mediterranean, including Greece, Anatolia, Syria-Palestine, and Egypt, that is, the lands east of Venice.", "Eventually the term was restricted to the Muslim countries of Syria-Palestine and Egypt.", "The term entered English in the late 15th century from French.", "It derives from the Italian , meaning \"rising\", implying the rising of the Sun in the east, and is broadly equivalent to the term ''al-Mashriq'' (, ), meaning \"the eastern place, where the Sun rises\".In 1581, England set up the Levant Company to trade with the Ottoman Empire.", "The name ''Levant States'' was used to refer to the French mandate over Syria and Lebanon after World War I.", "This is probably the reason why the term ''Levant'' has come to be used more specifically to refer to modern Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, and Cyprus.", "Some scholars mistakenly believed that it derives from the name of Lebanon.", "Today the term is often used in conjunction with prehistoric or ancient historical references.", "It has the same meaning as \"Syria-Palestine\" or ''Ash-Shaam'' (, ), the area that is bounded by the Taurus Mountains of Turkey in the north, the Mediterranean Sea in the west, the north Arabian Desert and Mesopotamia in the east, and Sinai in the south (which can be fully included or not).", "Typically, it does not include Anatolia (also called Asia Minor), the Caucasus Mountains, or any part of the Arabian Peninsula proper.", "Cilicia (in Asia Minor) and the Sinai Peninsula (Asian Egypt) are sometimes included.As a name for the contemporary region, several dictionaries consider Levant to be archaic today.", "Both the noun ''Levant'' and the adjective ''Levantine'' are now commonly used to describe the ancient and modern culture area formerly called Syro-Palestinian or Biblical: archaeologists now speak of the Levant and of Levantine archaeology; food scholars speak of Levantine cuisine; and the Latin Christians of the Levant continue to be called Levantine Christians.The Levant has been described as the \"crossroads of Western Asia, the Eastern Mediterranean, and Northeast Africa\", and in geological (tectonic) terms as the \"northwest of the Arabian Plate\".", "The populations of the Levant share not only the geographic position, but cuisine, some customs, and history.", "They are often referred to as ''Levantines''." ], [ "Etymology", "French medal commemorating the Franco-Turkish War in Cilicia, The term ''Levant'' appears in English in 1497, and originally meant 'the East' or 'Mediterranean lands east of Italy'.", "It is borrowed from the French 'rising', referring to the rising of the sun in the east, or the point where the sun rises.", "The phrase is ultimately from the Latin word , meaning 'lift, raise'.", "Similar etymologies are found in Greek ''Anatolē'' (''cf.''", "Anatolia 'the direction of sunrise'), in Germanic ''Morgenland'' (), in Italian (as in ''Riviera di Levante'', the portion of the Liguria coast east of Genoa), in Hungarian ''Kelet'' ('east'), in Spanish and Catalan ''Levante'' and ''Llevant'', ('the place of rising'), and in Hebrew ''mizraḥ'' ('east').", "Most notably, \"Orient\" and its Latin source ''oriens'' meaning 'east', is literally \"rising\", deriving from Latin ''orior'' 'rise'.The notion of the Levant has undergone a dynamic process of historical evolution in usage, meaning, and understanding.", "While the term \"Levantine\" originally referred to the European residents of the eastern Mediterranean region, it later came to refer to regional \"native\" and \"minority\" groups.The term became current in English in the 16th century, along with the first English merchant adventurers in the region; English ships appeared in the Mediterranean in the 1570s, and the English merchant company signed its agreement (\"capitulations\") with the Ottoman Sultan in 1579.The English Levant Company was founded in 1581 to trade with the Ottoman Empire, and in 1670 the French Compagnie du Levant was founded for the same purpose.", "At this time, the Far East was known as the \"Upper Levant\".1909 postcard depicting Ottoman Constantinople and bearing a French stamp inscribed \"Levant\"In early 19th-century travel writing, the term sometimes incorporated certain Mediterranean provinces of the Ottoman Empire, as well as independent Greece (and especially the Greek islands).", "In 19th-century archaeology, it referred to overlapping cultures in this region during and after prehistoric times, intending to reference the place instead of any one culture.", "The French mandate of Syria and Lebanon (1920–1946) was called the Levant states." ], [ "Geography and modern-day use of the term", "Satellite view of the Levant including Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan and the Northern Sinai (Egypt)Today, \"Levant\" is the term typically used by archaeologists and historians with reference to the history of the region.", "Scholars have adopted the term Levant to identify the region due to its being a \"wider, yet relevant, cultural corpus\" that does not have the \"political overtones\" of Syria-Palestine.", "The term is also used for modern events, peoples, states or parts of states in the same region, namely Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Turkey are sometimes considered Levant countries (compare with Near East, Middle East, Eastern Mediterranean and West Asia).", "Several researchers include the island of Cyprus in Levantine studies, including the Council for British Research in the Levant, the UCLA Near Eastern Languages and Cultures department, ''Journal of Levantine Studies'' and the UCL Institute of Archaeology, the last of which has dated the connection between Cyprus and mainland Levant to the early Iron Age.", "Archaeologists seeking a neutral orientation that is neither biblical nor national have used terms such as Levantine archaeology and archaeology of the Southern Levant.While the usage of the term \"Levant\" in academia has been restricted to the fields of archeology and literature, there is a recent attempt to reclaim the notion of the Levant as a category of analysis in political and social sciences.", "Two academic journals were launched in the early 2010s using the word: the ''Journal of Levantine Studies'', published by the Van Leer Jerusalem Institute and ''The Levantine Review'', published by Boston College.The word ''Levant'' has been used in some translations of the term ''ash-Shām'' as used by the organization known as ISIL, ISIS, and other names, though there is disagreement as to whether this translation is accurate.===In archaeology: a definition===In ''The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000–332 BCE'' (OHAL; 2013), the definition of the Levant for the specific purposes of the book is synonymous to that of the Arabic \"''bilad al-sham'', 'the land of sham Syria'\", translating in Western parlance to greater Syria.", "OHAL defines the boundaries of the Levant as follows.", "* To the north: the Taurus Mountains or the Plain of 'Amuq* To the east: the eastern deserts, i.e.", "(from north to south) the Euphrates and the Jebel el-Bishrī area for the northern Levant, followed by the Syrian Desert east of the eastern hinterland of the Anti-Lebanon range (whose southernmost part is Mount Hermon), and Transjordan's highlands and eastern desert (also discussed at Syrian Desert, also known as the Badia region).", "In other words, Mesopotamia and the North Arabian Desert.", "* To the south: Wadi al-Arish in Sinai* To the west: the Mediterranean Sea;SubregionsA distinction is made between the main subregions of the Levant, the northern and the southern:* The Litani River marks the division between the Northern Levant and the Southern Levant.The island of Cyprus is also included as a third subregion in the archaeological region of the Levant:* Cyprus, geographically distinct from the Levant, is included due to its proximity and natural resources (copper in particular), which induced close cultural ties." ], [ "History" ], [ "Demographics", "=== Groups ===The largest religious group in the Levant are Muslims and the largest ethnic group are Arabs.", "Levantines predominantly speak Levantine Arabic, a dialect of Arabic descended from a mix of local pre-Islamic Arabic dialects and Hejazi Arabic, with much influence from Western Middle Aramaic, the main language of the Levant before Islamic conquest.", "These derive their ancestry from the many ancient Semitic-speaking peoples who inhabited the ancient Near East during the Bronze and Iron ages.", "Other Arabs include Bedouin Arabs who inhabit the Syrian Desert and Naqab, and speak a dialect known as Bedouin Arabic that originated in Arabian Peninsula.", "Other minor ethnic groups in the Levant include Circassians, Chechens, Turks, Jews, Turkmens, Assyrians, Kurds, Nawars and Armenians.Islam became the predominant religion in the region after the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 7th century.", "The majority of Levantine Muslims are Sunni with Alawite and Shia (Twelver and Nizari Ismaili) minorities.", "Alawites and Ismaili Shiites mainly inhabit Hatay and the Syrian Coastal Mountain Range, while Twelver Shiites are mainly concentrated in parts of Lebanon.Levantine Christian groups are plenty and include Greek Orthodox (Antiochian Greek), Syriac Orthodox, Eastern Catholic (Syriac Catholic, Melkite and Maronite), Roman Catholic (Latin), Nestorian, and Protestant.", "Armenians mostly belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church.", "There are also Levantines or Franco-Levantines who adhere to Roman Catholicism.", "There are also Assyrians belonging to the Assyrian Church of the East and the Chaldean Catholic Church.Other religious groups in the Levant include Jews, Samaritans, Yazidis and Druze.In addition, this region has a number of sites that are of religious significance for Abrahamic religions, such as Masjid Al-Aqsa, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Western Wall in Jerusalem, Sayyidah Zainab Mosque in Damascus and Antioch in Hatay.=== Languages ===Map representing the distribution of the Arabic dialects in the area of the LevantMost populations in the Levant speak Levantine Arabic (, ), usually classified as the varieties North Levantine Arabic in Lebanon, Syria, and parts of Turkey, and South Levantine Arabic in Palestine and Jordan.", "Each of these encompasses a spectrum of regional or urban/rural variations.", "In addition to the varieties normally grouped together as \"Levantine\", a number of other varieties and dialects of Arabic are spoken in the Levant area, such as Levantine Bedawi Arabic and Mesopotamian Arabic.Among the languages of Israel, the official language is Hebrew; Arabic was until July 19, 2018, also an official language.", "The Arab minority, in 2018 about 21% of the population of Israel, speaks a dialect of Levantine Arabic essentially indistinguishable from the forms spoken in the Palestinian territories.Of the languages of Cyprus, the two official languages are Turkish and Greek.", "The most used languages by population are Greek in the south followed by Turkish in the north.", "Two minority languages are recognized: Armenian, and Cypriot Maronite Arabic, a hybrid of mostly medieval Arabic vernaculars with strong influence from contact with Turkish and Greek, spoken by approximately 1,000 people.Some communities and populations speak Aramaic, Greek, Armenian, Circassian, French, Russian, or English." ], [ "See also", "'''Overlapping regional designations'''* Fertile Crescent* Mashriq* Mesopotamia* Middle East* Near East* West Asia'''Subregional designations'''* Southern Levant'''Others'''* French post offices in the Ottoman Empire (\"Levant\" stamps)* History of the Levant* Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (Referred to in current events as ISIL or ISIS)* Levantine Sea* Levantines (Latin Christians), Catholic Europeans in the Levant''Other places in the east of a larger region''* Levante, Spain* Riviera di Levante, Italy" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Julia Chatzipanagioti: Griechenland, Zypern, Balkan und Levante.", "Eine kommentierte Bibliographie der Reiseliteratur des 18.Jahrhunderts.", "2 Vol.", "Eutin 2006..* Levantine Heritage site.", "Includes many oral and scholarly histories, and genealogies for some Levantine Turkish families.", "* Philip Mansel, ''Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean'', London, John Murray, 11 November 2010, hardback, 480 pages, , New Haven, Yale University Press, 24 May 2011, hardback, 470 pages, ." ], [ "External links", "* ''France and the Levant''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "League of Nations mandate" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''League of Nations mandate''' represented a legal status under international law for specific territories following World War I, involving the transfer of control from one nation to another.", "These mandates served as legal documents establishing the internationally agreed terms for administering the territory on behalf of the League of Nations.", "Combining elements of both a treaty and a constitution, these mandates contained minority rights clauses that provided for the rights of petition and adjudication by the Permanent Court of International Justice.The mandate system was established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, entered into force on 28 June 1919.With the dissolution of the League of Nations after World War II, it was stipulated at the Yalta Conference that the remaining mandates should be placed under the trusteeship of the United Nations, subject to future discussions and formal agreements.", "Most of the remaining mandates of the League of Nations (with the exception of South-West Africa) thus eventually became United Nations trust territories.Two governing principles formed the core of the Mandate System, being non-annexation of the territory and its administration as a \"sacred trust of civilisation\" to develop the territory for the benefit of its native people.According to historian Susan Pedersen, colonial administration in the mandates did not differ substantially from colonial administration elsewhere.", "Even though the Covenant of the League committed the great powers to govern the mandates differently, the main difference appeared to be that the colonial powers spoke differently about the mandates than their other colonial possessions." ], [ "Basis", "The mandate system was established by Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, drafted by the victors of World War I.", "The article referred to territories which after the war were no longer ruled by their previous sovereign, but their peoples were not considered \"able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world\".", "The article called for such people's tutelage to be \"entrusted to advanced nations who by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position can best undertake this responsibility\".U.S.", "President Woodrow Wilson and South African General Jan Smuts played influential roles in pushing for the establishment of a mandates system.", "The mandates system reflected a compromise between Smuts (who wanted colonial powers to annex the territories) and Wilson (who wanted trusteeship over the territories)." ], [ "Generalities", "All of the territories subject to League of Nations mandates were previously controlled by states defeated in World War I, principally Imperial Germany and the Ottoman Empire.", "The mandates were fundamentally different from the protectorates in that the mandatory power undertook obligations to the inhabitants of the territory and to the League of Nations.The process of establishing the mandates consisted of two phases:#The formal removal of sovereignty of the state previously controlling the territory.#The transfer of mandatory powers to individual states among the Allied Powers.===Treaties===The divestiture of Germany's overseas colonies, along with three territories disentangled from its European homeland area (the Free City of Danzig, Memel Territory, and Saar), was accomplished in the Treaty of Versailles (1919), with the territories being allotted among the Allies on 7 May of that year.", "Ottoman territorial claims were first addressed in the Treaty of Sèvres (1920) and finalised in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923).", "The Turkish territories were allotted among the Allied Powers at the San Remo conference in 1920." ], [ "Types of mandates", "Article 22 of Covenant of the League of Nations, highlighting the three mandate classes:The League of Nations decided the exact level of control by the mandatory power over each mandate on an individual basis.", "However, in every case the mandatory power was forbidden to construct fortifications or raise an army within the territory of the mandate, and was required to present an annual report on the territory to the Permanent Mandates Commission of the League of Nations.The mandates were divided into three distinct groups based upon the level of development each population had achieved at that time.===Class A mandates===The first group, or ''Class A mandates'', were territories formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire that were deemed to \"... have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone.", "The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory.", "\"===Class B mandates===The second group of mandates, or ''Class B mandates'', were all former German colonies in West and Central Africa, referred to by Germany as (protectorates or territories), which were deemed to require a greater level of control by the mandatory power: \"...the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion.\"", "The mandatory power was forbidden to construct military or naval bases within the mandates.===Class C mandates===The ''Class C mandates'', including South West Africa and certain of the South Pacific Islands, were considered to be \"best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory\"" ], [ "List of mandates", "Column header abbreviations: C = Class, sov.", "= sovereignty C Mandate Territory Mandate Power Prior name Prior sov.", "Comments Current state Document '''A''' '''Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon''' '''Greater Lebanon''' France Various Ottoman sanjaks 29 September 1923 – 24 October 1945.Joined the United Nations on 24 October 1945 as an independent state.", "100px '''Syria''' Various Ottoman sanjaks 29 September 1923 – 24 October 1945: This mandate included Hatay Province (a former Ottoman Alexandretta sandjak), which broke away from the mandate on 2 September 1938 to become a separate French protectorate, which lasted until Hatay Province was ceded to the new Republic of Turkey on 29 June 1939.Joined the United Nations on 24 October 1945 as an independent state.", "'''Mandate for Palestine''' '''Mandatory Palestine''' United Kingdom Ottoman sanjaks of Jerusalem, Nablus and Acre 29 September 1923 – 15 May 1948.A United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine for peacefully dividing the remainder of the Mandate failed.", "The Mandate terminated at midnight between 14 May and 15 May 1948.On the evening of 14 May, the Chairman of the Jewish Agency for Palestine had declared the establishment of the State of Israel.", "Following the war, 75% of the area was controlled by the new State of Israel.", "Other parts, until 1967, formed the West Bank of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the All-Palestine Government under the Egyptian-controlled Gaza Strip.", "100px '''Emirate of Transjordan''' Ottoman sanjaks of Hauran and Ma'an In April 1921, the Emirate of Transjordan was provisionally added as an autonomous area under the United Kingdom, and it became the independent Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan (later Jordan) on 17 June 1946 upon joint ratification of the Treaty of London of 1946.", "''Indirect'' '''Mandatory Iraq''' Various Ottoman sanjaks The draft British Mandate for Mesopotamia not enacted and was replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of October 1922.Britain committed to act the responsibilities of a Mandatory Power in 1924.Iraq attained independence from the United Kingdom on 3 October 1932.100px '''B''' '''Belgian Mandate for East Africa''' '''Ruanda-Urundi'''BelgiumGerman East Africa From 20 July 1922 to 13 December 1946.Formerly two separate German protectorates, they were joined as a single mandate on 20 July 1922.From 1 March 1926 to 30 June 1960, Ruanda-Urundi was in administrative union with the neighbouring colony of Belgian Congo.", "After 13 December 1946, it became a United Nations Trust Territory, remaining under Belgian administration until the separate nations of Rwanda and Burundi gained independence on 1 July 1962.100px '''British Mandate for East Africa''' '''Tanganyika Territory''' United Kingdom From 20 July 1922 to 11 December 1946.It became a United Nations Trust Territory on 11 December 1946, and was granted internal self-rule on 1 May 1961.On 9 December 1961, it became independent while retaining the British monarch as nominal head of state, transforming into a republic on the same day the next year.", "On 26 April 1964, Tanganyika merged with the neighbouring island of Zanzibar to become the modern nation of Tanzania.", "''Equivalent document as for Ruanda-Urundi, with all articles substantially the same'' '''British Mandate for the Cameroons''' '''British Cameroons''' United KingdomGerman Kamerun Became part of the United Nations trust territories after World War II on 13 December 1946 Part of and ''Equivalent document as for French Cameroons, with all articles substantially the same'' '''French Mandate for the Cameroons''' '''French Cameroons''' France Under a Resident and French Cameroun under a Commissioner until 27 August 1940, then under a governor.", "Became part of the United Nations trust territories after World War II on 13 December 1946 100px '''British Mandate for Togoland''' '''British Togoland''' United KingdomGerman Togoland British Administrator post filled by the colonial Governor of the British Gold Coast (present Ghana) except 30 September 1920 – 11 October 1923 Francis Walter Fillon Jackson).", "Transformed on 13 December 1946 into United Nations trust territories; on 13 December 1956 it ceased to exist as it became part of Ghana Volta Region, ''Equivalent document as for French Togoland, with all articles substantially the same'' '''French Mandate for Togoland''' '''French Togoland''' France French Togoland under a Commissioner till 30 August 1956, then under a High Commissioner as Autonomous Republic of Togo 100px '''C''' '''Mandate for the German Possessions in the Pacific Ocean situated South of the Equator other than German Samoa and Nauru''' '''Territory of New Guinea'''AustraliaGerman New Guinea Included German New Guinea and \"the group of islands in the Pacific Ocean lying south of the equator other than German Samoa and Nauru\".", "From 17 December 1920 under an (at first Military) Administrator; after (wartime) Japanese/U.S.", "military commands from 8 December 1946 under UN mandate as North East New Guinea (under Australia, as administrative unit), until it became part of present Papua New Guinea at independence in 1975 Part of ''Equivalent document as for Nauru, with all articles substantially the same'' '''Mandate for Nauru''' '''Nauru''' United Kingdom British mandate, administered by Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom.", "Became part of the United Nations trust territories after liberation from occupation by Japan in World War II 100px ''' Mandate for the German Possessions in the Pacific Ocean lying North of the Equator''' '''South Seas Mandate''' Japan Known as the South Seas Mandate.", "Became part of the United Nations trust territories administered by the United States after World War II ''Equivalent document as for Nauru, with all articles substantially the same'' '''Mandate for German Samoa''' '''Western Samoa''' New ZealandGerman Samoa From 17 December 1920 a League of Nations mandate, renamed Western Samoa (as opposed to American Samoa), from 25 January 1947 a United Nations trust territory until its 1 January 1962 independence ''Equivalent document as for Nauru, with all articles substantially the same'' '''Mandate for German South West Africa''' '''South West Africa''' South AfricaGerman South West Africa From 1 October 1922, Walvis Bay's administration (still merely having a Magistrate until its 16 March 1931 Municipal status, hence a Mayor) was also assigned to the mandate ''Equivalent document as for Nauru, with all articles substantially the same''" ], [ "Rules of establishment", "The League of Nations mandatesAccording to the Council of the League of Nations, meeting of August 1920: \"draft mandates adopted by the Allied and Associated Powers would not be definitive until they had been considered and approved by the League ... the legal title held by the mandatory Power must be a double one: one conferred by the Principal Powers and the other conferred by the League of Nations,\"Three steps were required to establish a Mandate under international law:(1) The Principal Allied and Associated Powers confer a mandate on one of their number or on a third power; (2) the principal powers officially notify the council of the League of Nations that a certain power has been appointed mandatory for such a certain defined territory; and (3) the council of the League of Nations takes official cognisance of the appointment of the mandatory power and informs the latter that it the council considers it as invested with the mandate, and at the same time notifies it of the terms of the mandate, after ascertaining whether they are in conformance with the provisions of the covenant.", "\"The U.S. State Department ''Digest of International Law'' says that the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne provided for the application of the principles of state succession to the \"A\" Mandates.", "The Treaty of Versailles (1920) provisionally recognised the former Ottoman communities as independent nations.", "It also required Germany to recognise the disposition of the former Ottoman territories and to recognise the new states laid down within their boundaries.", "The terms of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) required the newly created states that acquired the territory detached from the Ottoman Empire to pay annuities on the Ottoman public debt and to assume responsibility for the administration of concessions that had been granted by the Ottomans.", "The treaty also let the States acquire, without payment, all the property and possessions of the Ottoman Empire situated within their territory.", "The treaty provided that the League of Nations was responsible for establishing an arbitral court to resolve disputes that might arise and stipulated that its decisions were final.A disagreement regarding the legal status and the portion of the annuities to be paid by the \"A\" mandates was settled when an Arbitrator ruled that some of the mandates contained more than one State:The difficulty arises here how one is to regard the Asiatic countries under the British and French mandates.", "Iraq is a Kingdom in regard to which Great Britain has undertaken responsibilities equivalent to those of a Mandatory Power.", "Under the British mandate, Palestine and Transjordan have each an entirely separate organization.", "We are, therefore, in the presence of three States sufficiently separate to be considered as distinct Parties.", "France has received a single mandate from the Council of the League of Nations, but in the countries subject to that mandate, one can distinguish two distinct States: Syria and the Lebanon, each State possessing its own constitution and a nationality clearly different from the other." ], [ "Later history", "After the United Nations was founded in 1945 and the League of Nations was disbanded, all but one of the mandated territories became United Nations trust territories, a roughly equivalent status.", "In each case, the colonial power that held the mandate on each territory became the administering power of the trusteeship, except that of the Empire of Japan, which had been defeated in World War II, lost its mandate over the South Pacific islands, which became a \"strategic trust territory\" known as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands under US administration.The sole exception to the transformation of the League of Nations mandates into UN trusteeships was that of South Africa and its mandated territory South-West Africa.", "Rather than placing South-West Africa under trusteeship like other former mandates, South Africa proposed annexation, a proposition rejected by the UN General Assembly.", "Despite South Africa's resistance, the International Court of Justice affirmed that South Africa continued to have international obligations regarding the South-West Africa mandate.", "Eventually, in 1990, the mandated territory, now Namibia, gained independence, culminating from the Tripartite Accords and the resolution of the South African Border War — a prolonged guerrilla conflict against the apartheid regime that lasted from 1966 until 1990.Nearly all the former League of Nations mandates had become sovereign states by 1990, including all of the former UN trust territories with the exception of a few successor entities of the gradually dismembered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (formerly Japan's South Pacific Trust Mandate).", "These exceptions include the Northern Mariana Islands which is a commonwealth in political union with the US with the status of unincorporated organised territory.", "The Northern Mariana Islands does elect its own governor to serve as territorial head of government, but it remains a U.S. territory with its head of state being the President of the United States and federal funds to the commonwealth administered by the Office of Insular Affairs of the US Department of the Interior.Remnant Micronesia and the Marshall Islands, the heirs of the last territories of the Trust, attained final independence on 22 December 1990.", "(The UN Security Council ratified termination of trusteeship, effectively dissolving trusteeship status, on 10 July 1987.)", "The Republic of Palau, split off from the Federated States of Micronesia, became the last to effectively gain its independence, on 1 October 1994." ], [ "See also", "* United Nations trust territories" ], [ "Sources and references", "* Anghie, Antony \"Colonialism and the Birth of International Institutions: Sovereignty, Economy, and the Mandate System of the League of Nations\" 34 (3) New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 513 (2002)* * Nele Matz, Civilization and the Mandate System under the League of Nations as Origin of Trusteeship, in: A. von Bogdandy and R. Wolfrum, (eds.", "), Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, Volume 9, 2005, p. 47–95.", "* Pugh, Jeffrey, \" Whose Brother's Keeper?", "International Trusteeship and the Search for Peace in the Palestinian Territories\", ''International Studies Perspectives'' 13, no.", "4 (November 2012): 321–343.", "* Tamburini, Francesco \"I mandati della Società delle Nazioni\", in ''Africana, Rivista di Studi Extraeuropei'', n.XV – 2009, pp. 99–122.", "" ], [ "Further reading", " Bruce, Scot David, ''Woodrow Wilson's Colonial Emissary: Edward M. House and the Origins of the Mandate System, 1917–1919'' (University of Nebraska Press, 2013).", "* Callahan, Michael D. ''Mandates and empire: the League of Nations and Africa, 1914–1931'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 1999)* Haas, Ernst B.", "\"The reconciliation of conflicting colonial policy aims: acceptance of the League of Nations mandate system,\" ''International Organization'' (1952) 6#4 pp: 521–536.", "* Margalith, Aaron M. ''The International Mandates'' (1930) online * Mazower, Mark.", "2013.", "''No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations''.", "Princeton University Press.", "* Pedersen, Susan.", "''The Guardians: the League of Nations and the Crisis of Empire,'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015)* Sluglett, Peter.", "\"An improvement on colonialism?", "The 'A' mandates and their legacy in the Middle East,\" ''International Affairs'' (2014) 90#2 pp.", "413–427.On the former Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Loudon Classic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Loudon Classic''', originally named the '''Laconia Classic''', is an annual motorcycle road racing competition held during the Laconia Motorcycle Week at the New Hampshire Motor Speedway in Loudon, New Hampshire.", "Founded in 1934 when it was originally sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA), the race is one of the oldest motorcycle competitions in the United States.", "The competition changed locations over the years, starting as a dirt track race before evolving into a road race.", "From the late 1930s until the early 2000s, the Loudon Classic was one of the most prestigious motorcycle races in the United States, second only to the Daytona 200." ], [ "History", "===Rally beginnings===In the 1910s the New Hampshire Lakes Region became a popular riding destination for early motorcycle enthusiasts.", "Unlike the Sturgis Motorcycle Rally which originated as a motorcycle race, the Loudon Classic originated as a motorcycle rally.", "When motorcycle sales began to decline as a result of the introduction of the low cost Ford Model T, the American motorcycle industry body, the Federation of American Motorcyclists (FAM) sought to boost sales by sponsoring a series of Gypsy tours, so called because the participants camped in large gatherings like Romani people.", "The annual tour held at Weirs Beach in Laconia, New Hampshire on the southern shore of Lake Winnipesaukee, became the most popular of these tours due to its proximity to Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Montreal.===Dirt track roots===In 1933, the AMA introduced a new racing category called Class C which featured street-legal motorcycles in an effort to make motorcycle racing less expensive for ordinary motorcyclists.", "Street-legal motorcycles were known at the time as touring motorcycles hence, a tourist trophy (TT) signified a race classification for street-legal motorcycles.", "Informal motorcycle racing had occurred at previous Weirs Beach rallies however, the first race formally sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA), occurred in 1934 when, a dirt track TT race for Class C motorcycles was held on a 3.3 mile track in Swanzey, New Hampshire that used partially paved and unimproved gravel roads, up and down gently rolling hills.", "Local rider Babe Tancrede won the inaugural Laconia Classic riding a Harley-Davidson.", "===Belknap circuit===In 1937 the race moved to Old Orchard Beach, Maine where it was held as a event for only one year then, in 1938 it was moved to a 1.0-mile track in the Belknap Recreational Area, now known as the Gunstock Mountain Resort near Laconia, New Hampshire.", "The Belknap circuit featured crudely paved roads as well as improved gravel roads.", "Although the event became known as the Laconia Classic, the Belknap Recreational Area was located in nearby Gilford, New Hampshire.", "An integral promoter responsible for bringing the race to Belknap was Fritzie Baer, an Indian motorcycle dealer from Springfield, Massachusetts who would promote the race until 1963.Along with the move to Belknap, the event was accredited national championship status by the AMA in 1938.Indian rider Ed Kretz, who had won the inaugural Daytona 200 in 1937, won the first national championship race held at Belknap in 1938.His victory marked the only 200 mile Laconia Classic as, the race distance was reduced to 100 miles in 1939.In 1940, the circuit was converted from dirt and gravel to a fully paved course and, the AMA changed the race classification from a TT national to a road race national.", "Dick Klamfoth's 1951 Laconia Classic victory on a Norton marked the first win by a foreign manufacturer.", "Harley-Davidson rider Brad Andres was the most successful competitor during the Belknap era with four victories in five years between 1955 and 1959.Three-time Grand National Champion Joe Leonard won the event three times before going on to a successful auto racing career.", "Harley-Davidson would win 13 of the 20 races held at Belknap, despite the track being near the Springfield, Massachusetts factory of their largest competitor, Indian motorcycles.", "The event surged in popularity after the Second World War drawing increasingly larger crowds of spectators.", "The race grew to become a weeklong event known as Laconia Motorcycle Week that was the largest annual gathering of North American motorcyclists, until it was overtaken by the Sturgis Motorcycle Rally during the 1970s.", "When the overwhelming number of spectators created a rash of minor incidents in 1963, local residents protested the event.", "Unwilling to risk the increasing costs of property damage, and unable to reach an agreement with local officials, race promoters closed the Belknap track in 1964.The final race at the Belknap circuit held in 1963 was won by Jody Nicholas riding a BSA motorcycle.===Bryar Motorsports Park===The closure of the Belknap circuit resulted in the construction of the new 1.6-mile Bryar Motorsports Park in 1965, located 20 miles south of Laconia in Loudon, New Hampshire.", "The Laconia Classic gradually became known as the Loudon Classic.", "The Bryar Motorsports Park track road course followed the contours of a hillside around a small lake.", "Compressing 11 turns within its 1.6-mile length, the track was short and tight, making it one of the best venues to watch motorcycle racing in the United States.", "Slight elevation changes in the track layout allowed many spectators to follow a racer for a complete lap of the circuit.", "The track developed a reputation for its challenging nature as, riders were constantly applying throttle or their brakes for the entire lap.", "It rewarded a rider's skill over horsepower and its many turns allowed for aggressive racing.", "The circuit hosted numerous amateur races during the year which bred many local track experts who often provided challenging competition for national championship level riders when they arrived for the annual Loudon Classic.Gary Nixon and Mike Baldwin were the most successful competitors during the Bryar Motorsports era, each with four victories.", "When Gary Fisher won the race in 1972 riding a Yamaha, he joined his father, 1953 Laconia Classic winner Ed Fisher, as the only father son duo to have won the race.", "His victory aboard a Yamaha also marked the first victory by a Japanese manufacturer in the history of the event.", "Fisher's 1972 victory marked the last 100-mile national as, the race distance was reduced to 75-miles for 1973.Carter Alsop became the first female competitor in an AMA professional road race when she entered the Novice Class at the 1977 Loudon Classic.", "Jamie James won the final race on the Bryar Motorsports Park circuit in 1989 before it was purchased by Bob Bahre, who built the New Hampshire Motor Speedway in its place.===New Hampshire Motor Speedway===Construction of the New Hampshire Motor Speedway was completed in 1990.The Loudon Classic continued as a national championship race at the new speedway until 2001 however, a combination of safety issues and more powerful motorcycles eventually made the track obsolete for AMA Superbike events.", "Eric Bostrom won the final AMA National Championship race at Loudon in 2001.Since 2002 the race has continued featuring amateur racers." ], [ "Laconia & Loudon Classic Winners<ref name=\"Past Laconia National Winners\"/><ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.nhms.com/media/winners/loudon-classic.html \|title=The Loudon Classic Winners \|publisher=New Hampshire Motor Speedway.com \|access-date=12 March 2022 }}</ref>", "===Key===Denotes national championship event.Denotes inducted into the AMA Motorcycle Hall of Fame.", "Denotes winner of the Daytona 200 and Loudon Classic in the same year.", "Year Rider Country Machine Race Distance Course 1934 Babe Tancrede USA Harley-Davidson Swanzey, New Hampshire 1936 Hanford Marshall USA ?", "Swanzey, New Hampshire 1937 Lester Hillbish USA Indian Old Orchard Beach, Maine 1938 Ed Kretz USA Indian Belknap Recreational Area 1939 Charles Daniels USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1940 Babe Tancrede USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1941 June McCall USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1942–1945: Not held (World War II) 1946 Ed Kretz USA Indian Belknap Recreational Area 1947 Alli Quattrocchi USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1948 Joe Weatherly USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1949 Joe Weatherly USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1950 Bill Miller USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1951 Dick Klamfoth* USA Norton Belknap Recreational Area 1952 Dick Klamfoth* USA Norton Belknap Recreational Area 1953 Eddie Fisher USA Triumph Belknap Recreational Area 1954 Joe Leonard USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1955 Brad Andres* USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1956 Brad Andres USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1957 Joe Leonard* USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1958 Brad Andres USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1959 Brad Andres* USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1960 Dick Mann USA BSA Belknap Recreational Area 1961 Joe Leonard USA Harley-Davidson Belknap Recreational Area 1962 Dick Mann USA Matchless Belknap Recreational Area 1963 Jody Nicholas USA BSA Belknap Recreational Area 1964: Race cancelled 1965 Ralph White USA Matchless Bryar Motorsports Park 1966 Buddy Elmore* USA Triumph Bryar Motorsports Park 1967 Gary Nixon* USA Triumph Bryar Motorsports Park 1968 Cal Rayborn* USA Harley-Davidson Bryar Motorsports Park 1969 Fred Nix USA Harley-Davidson Bryar Motorsports Park 1970 Gary Nixon USA Triumph Bryar Motorsports Park 1971 Mark Brelsford USA Harley-Davidson Bryar Motorsports Park 1972 Gary Fisher USA Yamaha Bryar Motorsports Park 1973 Gary Nixon USA Kawasaki Bryar Motorsports Park 1974 Gary Nixon USA Suzuki Bryar Motorsports Park 1975 Ron Pierce USA Yamaha Bryar Motorsports Park 1976 Steve Baker USA Yamaha Bryar Motorsports Park 1977 Kenny Roberts USA Yamaha Bryar Motorsports Park 1978 Skip Aksland USA Yamaha Bryar Motorsports Park 1979 Skip Aksland USA Yamaha Bryar Motorsports Park 1980 Rich Schlachter USA Yamaha Bryar Motorsports Park 1981 Nick Richichi USA Yamaha Bryar Motorsports Park 1982 Mike Baldwin USA Honda Bryar Motorsports Park 1983 Mike Baldwin USA Honda Bryar Motorsports Park 1984 Mike Baldwin USA Honda Bryar Motorsports Park 1985 Mike Baldwin USA Honda Bryar Motorsports Park 1986 Randy Renfrow USA Honda Bryar Motorsports Park 1987 Kevin Schwantz USA Suzuki Bryar Motorsports Park 1988 Doug Polen USA Suzuki Bryar Motorsports Park 1989 Jamie James USA Yamaha Bryar Motorsports Park 1990 Doug Chandler USA Yamaha New Hampshire Motor Speedway 1991 Scott Russell USA Kawasaki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 1992 Scott Russell* USA Kawasaki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 1993 Scott Russell USA Kawasaki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 1994 Troy Corser Australia Ducati New Hampshire Motor Speedway 1995 Miguel Duhamel Canada Honda New Hampshire Motor Speedway 1996 Miguel Duhamel* Canada Honda New Hampshire Motor Speedway 1997 Mat Mladin Australia Ducati New Hampshire Motor Speedway 1998 Aaron Yates USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 1999 Doug Chandler USA Kawasaki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2000 Mat Mladin* Australia Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2001 Eric Bostrom USA Kawasaki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2002 Charles Chouinard USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2003 Scott Greenwood USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2004 Jeff Wood USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2005 Jeff Wood USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2006 Mike Martire USA Kawasaki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2007 Jeff Wood USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2008 Jeff Wood USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2009 Shane Narbonne USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2010 Scott Greenwood USA Yamaha New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2011 Shane Narbonne USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2012 Eric Wood USA Ducati New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2013 Shane Narbonne USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2014 Scott Greenwood USA Yamaha New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2015 Shane Narbonne USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2016 Shane Narbonne USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2017 Shane Narbonne USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2018 Shane Narbonne USA Yamaha New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2019 Scott Greenwood USA Yamaha New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2020 Shane Narbonne USA Yamaha New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2021 Shane Narbonne USA Yamaha New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2022 Shane Narbonne USA Yamaha New Hampshire Motor Speedway 2023 Tyler Scott USA Suzuki New Hampshire Motor Speedway" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lincoln, New Hampshire" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lincoln''' is a town in Grafton County, New Hampshire, United States.", "It is the second-largest town by area in New Hampshire.", "The population was 1,631 at the 2020 census.", "The town is home to the New Hampshire Highland Games and to a portion of Franconia Notch State Park.", "Set in the White Mountains, large portions of the town are within the White Mountain National Forest.", "The Appalachian Trail crosses the western and northeastern parts of the town.", "Lincoln is the location of Loon Mountain Ski Resort and associated recreation-centered development.The primary settlement in town, where 969 people resided at the 2020 census, is defined as the Lincoln census-designated place (CDP) and is located along New Hampshire Route 112 east of Interstate 93.The town also includes the former village sites of Stillwater and Zealand (sometimes known as Pullman) in the town's remote eastern and northern sections respectively, which are now within the White Mountain National Forest." ], [ "History", "General view The Flume Hiking trail in Franconia Notch State ParkIn 1764, colonial Governor Benning Wentworth granted to a group of approximately 70 land investors from Connecticut.", "Lincoln was named after Henry Fiennes Pelham-Clinton, 2nd Duke of Newcastle, 9th Earl of Lincoln – a cousin of the Wentworth governors.", "He held the position of comptroller of customs for the port of London under King George II and George III, which was important to trade between America and England.The town was settled about 1782.The 1790 census indicates that it had 22 inhabitants.", "Rocky soil yielded poor farming, but the area's abundant timber, combined with water power to run sawmills on the Pemigewasset River and its East Branch, helped Lincoln develop into a center for logging.", "By 1853, the Merrimack River Lumber Company was operating.", "The railroad transported freight, and increasingly brought tourists to the beautiful mountain region.", "In 1892, James Everell Henry (1831–1912) bought approximately of virgin timber and established a logging enterprise at what is today the center of Lincoln.", "In 1902, he built a pulp and paper mill.", "He erected the Lincoln House hotel in 1903, although a 1907 fire would nearly raze the community.", "Until he died in 1912, Henry controlled his company town, installing relatives in positions of civic authority.In 1917, Henry's heirs sold the business to the Parker Young Company, which in turn sold it to the Marcalus Manufacturing Company in 1946.Franconia Paper took over in 1950, producing 150 tons of paper a day until bankruptcy in 1971, at which time new river classification standards discouraged further papermaking in Lincoln.Tourism is today the principal business.", "Nearby Loon Mountain has long drawn skiers, and in recent years has attempted to convert itself into a four-season attraction.", "The Flume is one of the most visited attractions in the state.", "Discovered in 1808, it is a natural canyon extending at the base of Mount Liberty.", "Walls of Conway granite rise to a height of and are only apart." ], [ "Geography", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which are land and are water, comprising 0.43% of the town.", "It is the second-largest town in area in New Hampshire, after Pittsburg.Lincoln is drained by the Pemigewasset River and its East Branch.", "Lincoln lies almost fully within the Merrimack River watershed, with the western edge of town in the Connecticut River watershed.", "Kancamagus Pass, elevation , is on the Kancamagus Highway at the eastern boundary.", "The highest point in Lincoln is the summit of Mount Bond at above sea level." ], [ "Demographics", "As of the census of 2010, there were 1,662 people, 794 households, and 439 families residing in the town.", "There were 2,988 housing units, of which 2,194, or 73.4%, were vacant.", "2,083 of the vacant units were for seasonal or recreational use.", "The racial makeup of the town was 96.9% white, 0.3% African American, 0.1% Native American, 1.7% Asian, 0.0% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 0.3% some other race, and 0.6% from two or more races.", "1.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.Of the 794 households, 21.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.1% were headed by married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.7% were non-families.", "Of all households, 37.0% were made up of individuals, and 13.4% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.09, and the average family size was 2.75.In the town, 18.7% of the population were under the age of 18, 6.8% were from 18 to 24, 19.4% from 25 to 44, 34.8% from 45 to 64, and 20.4% were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 48.5 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 105.2 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.3 males.For the period 2011–2015, the estimated median annual income for a household was $37,095, and the median income for a family was $55,326.Male full-time workers had a median income of $31,106 versus $27,381 for females.", "The per capita income for the town was $24,109.21.0% of the population and 9.1% of families were below the poverty line.", "20.2% of the population under the age of 18 and 8.6% of those 65 or older were living in poverty." ], [ "Sites of interest", "* Clark's Bears (formerly Clark's Trading Post)** White Mountain Central Railroad* Franconia Notch State Park, including: Flume Gorge Lonesome Lake* Hobo Railroad* Loon Mountain ski resort* Whale's Tale Water Park" ], [ "See also", "* White Mountain art" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Lincoln Public Library* New Hampshire Highland Games* New Hampshire Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau Profile" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of laser applications" ], [ "Introduction", "Laser pointers in different coloursMany scientific, military, medical and commercial '''laser applications''' have been developed since the invention of the laser in 1958.The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for these specialized applications." ], [ "Scientific", "In science, lasers are used in many ways, including:* A wide variety of interferometric techniques* Raman spectroscopy* Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy* Atmospheric ''remote sensing''* Investigating nonlinear optics phenomena* Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques.", "* Laser based lidar (LIght raDAR) technology has application in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmospheric physics.", "* Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission.", "* In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial ''laser guide stars'', used as reference objects for adaptive optics telescopes.Lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation (LA), which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS.The principles of laser spectroscopy are discussed by Demtröder.===Spectroscopy===Most types of laser are an inherently pure source of light; they emit near-monochromatic light with a very well defined range of wavelengths.", "By careful design of the laser components, the purity of the laser light (measured as the \"linewidth\") can be improved more than the purity of any other light source.", "This makes the laser a very useful source for spectroscopy.", "The high intensity of light that can be achieved in a small, well collimated beam can also be used to induce a nonlinear optical effect in a sample, which makes techniques such as Raman spectroscopy possible.", "Other spectroscopic techniques based on lasers can be used to make extremely sensitive detectors of various molecules, able to measure molecular concentrations in the parts-per-1012 (ppt) level.", "Due to the high power densities achievable by lasers, beam-induced atomic emission is possible: this technique is termed Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS).===Heat treatment===Heat treating with the lasers allows selective surface hardening against wear with little or no distortion of the component.", "Because this eliminates much part reworking that is currently done, the laser system's capital cost is recovered in a short time.", "An inert, absorbent coating for laser heat treatment has also been developed that eliminates the fumes generated by conventional paint coatings during the heat-treating process with laser beams.One consideration crucial to the success of a heat treatment operation is control of the laser beam irradiance on the part surface.", "The optimal irradiance distribution is driven by the thermodynamics of the laser-material interaction and by the part geometry.Typically, irradiances between 500 and 5000 W/cm^2 satisfy the thermodynamic constraints and allow the rapid surface heating and minimal total heat input required.", "For general heat treatment, a uniform square or rectangular beam is one of the best options.", "For some special applications or applications where the heat treatment is done on an edge or corner of the part, it may be better to have the irradiance decrease near the edge to prevent melting.=== Weather ===Research shows that scientists may one day be able to induce rain and lightning storms (as well as micro-manipulating some other weather phenomena) using high energy lasers.", "Such a breakthrough could potentially eradicate droughts, help alleviate weather related catastrophes, and allocate weather resources to areas in need.===Lunar laser ranging===When the Apollo astronauts visited the Moon, they planted retroreflector arrays to make possible the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment.", "Laser beams are focused through large telescopes on Earth aimed toward the arrays, and the time taken for the beam to be reflected back to Earth measured to determine the distance between the Earth and Moon with high accuracy.===Photochemistry===Some laser systems, through the process of mode locking, can produce extremely brief pulses of light - as short as picoseconds or femtoseconds (10−12 - 10−15 seconds).", "Such pulses can be used to initiate and analyze chemical reactions, a technique known as ''photochemistry''.", "The short pulses can be used to probe the process of the reaction at a very high temporal resolution, allowing the detection of short-lived intermediate molecules.", "This method is particularly useful in biochemistry, where it is used to analyse details of protein folding and function.===Laser scanner===Laser barcode scanners are ideal for applications that require high speed reading of linear codes or stacked symbols.===Laser cooling===A technique that has recent success is ''laser cooling''.", "This involves atom trapping, a method where a number of atoms are confined in a specially shaped arrangement of electric and magnetic fields.", "Shining particular wavelengths of light at the ions or atoms slows them down, thus ''cooling'' them.", "As this process is continued, they all are slowed and have the same energy level, forming an unusual arrangement of matter known as a Bose–Einstein condensate.=== Nuclear fusion ===Some of the world's most powerful and complex arrangements of multiple lasers and optical amplifiers are used to produce extremely high intensity pulses of light of extremely short duration, e.g.", "laboratory for laser energetics, National Ignition Facility, GEKKO XII, Nike laser, Laser Mégajoule, HiPER.", "These pulses are arranged such that they impact pellets of tritium–deuterium simultaneously from all directions, hoping that the squeezing effect of the impacts will induce atomic fusion in the pellets.", "This technique, known as \"inertial confinement fusion\", so far has not been able to achieve \"breakeven\", that is, so far the fusion reaction generates less power than is used to power the lasers, but research continues.=== Particle acceleration ===Powerful lasers producing ultra-short (in the tens of femtoseconds) and ultra-intense (up to 1023 W/cm2) laser pulses offer much greater acceleration gradients than that of conventional accelerators.", "This fact is exploited in several plasma acceleration techniques used for accelerating both electrons and charged ions to high energies.===Microscopy===Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Two-photon excitation microscopy make use of lasers to obtain blur-free images of thick specimens at various depths.", "Laser capture microdissection use lasers to procure specific cell populations from a tissue section under microscopic visualization.Additional laser microscopy techniques include harmonic microscopy, four-wave mixing microscopy and interferometric microscopy." ], [ "Military", "===Directly as an energy weapon===A '''laser weapon''' is directed-energy weapon based on lasers.===Defensive countermeasures===Defensive countermeasure applications can range from compact, low power infrared countermeasures to high power, airborne laser systems.", "IR countermeasure systems use lasers to confuse the seeker heads on infrared homing missiles.===Disorientation===Some weapons simply use a laser to disorient a person.", "One such weapon is the Thales Green Laser Optical Warner.=== Guidance ===Laser guidance is a technique of guiding a missile or other projectile or vehicle to a target by means of a laser beam.===Target designator===A target designatorAnother military use of lasers is as a ''laser target designator''.", "This is a low-power laser pointer used to indicate a target for a precision-guided munition, typically launched from an aircraft.", "The guided munition adjusts its flight-path to home in to the laser light reflected by the target, enabling a great precision in aiming.", "The beam of the laser target designator is set to a pulse rate that matches that set on the guided munition to ensure munitions strike their designated targets and do not follow other laser beams which may be in use in the area.", "The laser designator can be shone onto the target by an aircraft or nearby infantry.", "Lasers used for this purpose are usually infrared lasers, so the enemy cannot easily detect the guiding laser light.===Firearms=======Laser sight====Laser sight used by the Israel Defense Forces during commando trainingSmith & Wesson revolver equipped with a laser sight mounted on the trigger guard.The laser has in most firearms applications been used as a tool to enhance the targeting of other weapon systems.", "For example, a ''laser sight'' is a small, usually visible-light laser placed on a handgun or a rifle and aligned to emit a beam parallel to the barrel.", "Since a laser beam has low divergence, the laser light appears as a small spot even at long distances; the user places the spot on the desired target and the barrel of the gun is aligned (but not necessarily allowing for bullet drop, windage, distance between the direction of the beam and the axis of the barrel, and the target mobility while the bullet travels).Most laser sights use a red laser diode.", "Others use an infrared diode to produce a dot invisible to the naked human eye but detectable with night vision devices.", "The firearms adaptive target acquisition module LLM01 laser light module combines visible and infrared laser diodes.", "In the late 1990s, green diode pumped solid state laser (DPSS) laser sights (532 nm) became available.====Eye-targeted lasers====A non-lethal laser weapon was developed by the U.S. Air Force to temporarily impair an adversary's ability to fire a weapon or to otherwise threaten enemy forces.", "This unit illuminates an opponent with harmless low-power laser light and can have the effect of dazzling or disorienting the subject or causing them to flee.", "Several types of dazzlers are now available, and some have been used in combat.There remains the possibility of using lasers to blind, since this requires relatively low power levels and is easily achievable in a man-portable unit.", "However, most nations regard the deliberate permanent blinding of the enemy as forbidden by the rules of war (see Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons).", "Although several nations have developed blinding laser weapons, such as China's ZM-87, none of these are believed to have made it past the prototype stage.In addition to the applications that cross over with military applications, a widely known law enforcement use of lasers is for lidar to measure the speed of vehicles.====Holographic weapon sight====A holographic weapon sight uses a laser diode to illuminate a hologram of a reticle built into a flat glass optical window of the sight.", "The user looks through the optical window and sees a cross hair reticle image superimposed at a distance on the field of view." ], [ "Medical", "* Cosmetic surgery (removing tattoos, scars, stretch marks, sunspots, wrinkles, birthmarks, and hair): see laser hair removal.", "Laser types used in dermatology include ruby (694 nm), alexandrite (755 nm), pulsed diode array (810 nm), Nd:YAG (1064 nm), Ho:YAG (2090 nm), and Er:YAG (2940 nm).", "* Eye surgery and refractive surgery* Soft tissue surgery: CO2, Er:YAG laser* Laser scalpel (General surgery, gynecological, urology, laparoscopic)* Photobiomodulation (i.e.", "laser therapy)* \"No-Touch\" removal of tumors, especially of the brain and spinal cord.", "* In dentistry for caries removal, endodontic/periodontic procedures, tooth whitening, and oral surgery* Cancer treatment* Burn and surgical scar management: scar contracture (especially the newer fractionated lasers), redness and itch (Pulsed Dye laser - PDL), post-inflammatory hyper-pigmentation (Q-switched lasers :Ruby, Alexandrite), burn scar unwanted hair growth and trapped hairs (Ruby, IPL and numerous hair removal lasers)" ], [ "Industrial and commercial", "laser light show.", ")Levelling of ceramic tiles floor with a laser deviceIndustrial laser applications can be divided into two categories depending on the power of the laser: material processing and micro-material processing.In material processing, lasers with average optical power above 1 kilowatt are used mainly for industrial materials processing applications.", "Beyond this power threshold there are thermal issues related to the optics that separate these lasers from their lower-power counterparts.", "Laser systems in the 50-300W range are used primarily for pumping, plastic welding and soldering applications.", "Lasers above 300W are used in brazing, thin metal welding, and sheet metal cutting applications.", "The required brightness (as measured in by the beam parameter product) is higher for cutting applications than for brazing and thin metal welding.", "High power applications, such as hardening, cladding, and deep penetrating welding, require multiple kW of optical power, and are used in a broad range of industrial processes.Micro material processing is a category that includes all laser material processing applications under 1 kilowatt.", "The use of lasers in Micro Materials Processing has found broad application in the development and manufacturing of screens for smartphones, tablet computers, and LED TVs.A detailed list of industrial and commercial laser applications includes:* Laser cutting* Laser welding* Laser drilling* Laser marking* Laser cleaning* Laser cladding, a surface engineering process applied to mechanical components for reconditioning, repair work or hardfacing* Photolithography* Optical communications over optical fiber or in free space* Laser peening* Guidance systems (e.g., ring laser gyroscopes)* Laser rangefinder / surveying,* Lidar / pollution monitoring,* Digital minilabs* Barcode readers* Laser engraving of printing plate* Laser bonding of additive marking materials for decoration and identification,* Laser pointers* Laser mice* Laser accelerometers* OLED display manufacturing* Holography* Bubblegrams* Optical tweezers* Writing subtitles onto motion picture films.", "* Power beaming, which is a possible solution to transfer energy to the climber of a Space elevator* 3D laser scanners for accurate 3D measurement* Laser line levels are used in surveying and construction.", "Lasers are also used for guidance for aircraft.", "* Extensively in both consumer and industrial imaging equipment.", "* In laser printers: gas and diode lasers play a key role in manufacturing high resolution printing plates and in image scanning equipment.", "* Diode lasers are used as a lightswitch in industry, with a laser beam and a receiver which will switch on or off when the beam is interrupted, and because a laser can keep the light intensity over larger distances than a normal light, and is more precise than a normal light it can be used for product detection in automated production.", "* Laser alignment* Additive manufacturing* Plastic welding* Metrology - handheld and robotic laser systems for Aerospace, Automotive and Rail applications* To store and retrieve data in optical discs, such as CDs and DVDs* Blu-ray=== Entertainment and recreation ===* Laser lighting displays accompany many music concerts* Laser tag* Laser harp: a musical instrument were the strings are replaced with laser beams* As a light source for digital cinema projectors=== Surveying and ranging ===" ], [ "Images", "File:Laser module.jpg\|Laser models in different coloursFile:Laser pens.jpeg\|Q-line LasersFile:Laser effects.jpg\|Lasers were used in the 2005 Classical Spectacular concertFile:Przestrzen wolnosci harfa laserowa.jpg\|A laser harpFile:Carbon Dioxide Laser At The Laser Effects Test Facility.jpg\|The surface of a test target is instantly vaporized and bursts into flame upon irradiation by a high power continuous wave carbon dioxide laser emitting tens of kilowatts of far infrared light.", "Note the operator is standing behind sheets of plexiglas, which is opaque in the far infrared." ], [ "See also", "* List of laser articles* Non-lethal weapon" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Coherent.com article on Applications for lasers" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Left-arm orthodox spin" ], [ "Introduction", "A left-arm orthodox spin deliveryLancashire players Gary Keedy and Stephen Parry bowling left-arm orthodox spin in the 2012 Friends Life t20'''Left-arm orthodox spin''' or '''left-arm off spin''', also known as '''slow left-arm orthodox spin bowling''', is a type of left-arm finger spin bowling in the sport of cricket.Left-arm orthodox spin is bowled by a left-arm bowler using the fingers to spin the ball from right to left of the cricket pitch (from the bowler's perspective).Left-arm orthodox spin bowlers generally attempt to drift the ball in the air into a right-handed batsman, and then turn it away from the batsman (towards off-stump) upon landing on the pitch.", "The drift and turn in the air are attacking techniques.", "The stock delivery of a left-arm orthodox spin bowler is the left-arm orthodox spinner.The major variations of a left-arm orthodox spin bowler are the topspinner (which turns less and bounces higher in the cricket pitch), the arm ball (which does not turn at all and drifts into a right-handed batsman in the direction of the bowler's arm movement; also called a 'floater') and the left-arm spinner's version of a doosra (which turns the other way)." ], [ "Notable slow left-arm orthodox spin bowlers", "Players listed below are included as they meet specific criteria which are generally recognized as having achieved significant success in the art of left-arm orthodox spin bowling.", "For example, leading wicket-takers, and inventors of new deliveries.", "* Rangana Herath – 433 Test wickets (Highest by a left arm Spinner in all Mens Test) 74 ODI Wickets and 18 T20I Wickets* Sanath Jayasuriya – 98 Test wickets , 323 ODI Wickets (Highest by a left arm Spinner in all Mens ODIs) and 19 T20I Wickets* Daniel Vettori – 362 Test wickets and 305 ODI wickets* Derek Underwood – 297 Test wickets* Ravindra Jadeja – 268 Test wickets and 191 ODI wickets* Bishan Singh Bedi – 266 Test wickets* Shakib Al Hasan – 233 Test wickets, 140 T20I wickets (the 2nd highest in men's T20Is) and 317 ODI wickets* Ravi Shastri – 151 Test wickets* Keshav Maharaj – 158 Test Wickets* Ashley Giles – 143 Test wickets* Taijul Islam – 192 Test wickets, 30 ODI wickets, 1 T20I wicket* Jess Jonassen – 135 ODI wickets and 91 T20I wickets* Sophie Ecclestone – 97 T20I wickets* Ajaz Patel – Only left-arm orthodox spinner to take 10 wickets in an innings of a Test Match* Monty Panesar – 167 Test wickets* Ashton Agar – Highest test score by a number 11 batsman" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Laser construction" ], [ "Introduction", "Schematic diagram of a typical laser, showing the three major partsA '''laser is constructed''' from three principal parts:An energy source (usually referred to as the ''pump'' or ''pump source''),A ''gain medium'' or ''laser medium'', andTwo or more mirrors that form an ''optical resonator''." ], [ "Pump source", "The ''pump source'' is the part that provides energy to the laser system.", "Examples of pump sources include electrical discharges, flashlamps, arc lamps, light from another laser, chemical reactions and even explosive devices.", "The type of pump source used principally depends on the ''gain medium'', and this also determines how the energy is transmitted to the medium.", "A helium–neon (HeNe) laser uses an electrical discharge in the helium-neon gas mixture, a Nd:YAG laser uses either light focused from a xenon flash lamp or diode lasers, and excimer lasers use a chemical reaction." ], [ "Gain medium / Laser medium", "The ''gain medium'' is the major determining factor of the wavelength of operation, and other properties, of the laser.", "''Gain media'' in different materials have linear spectra or wide spectra.", "''Gain media'' with wide spectra allow tuning of the laser frequency.", "There are hundreds if not thousands of different gain media in which laser operation has been achieved (see list of laser types for a list of the most important ones).", "The gain medium is excited by the pump source to produce a population inversion, and it is in the gain medium where spontaneous and stimulated emission of photons takes place, leading to the phenomenon of optical gain, or amplification.Examples of different gain media include:Liquids, such as dye lasers.", "These are usually organic chemical solvents, such as methanol, ethanol or ethylene glycol, to which are added chemical dyes such as coumarin, rhodamine, and fluorescein.", "The exact chemical configuration of the dye molecules determines the operation wavelength of the dye laser.", "Gases, such as carbon dioxide, argon, krypton and mixtures such as helium–neon.", "These lasers are often pumped by electrical discharge.", "Solids, such as crystals and glasses.", "The solid ''host'' materials are usually doped with an impurity such as chromium, neodymium, erbium or titanium ions.", "Typical hosts include YAG (yttrium aluminium garnet), YLF (yttrium lithium fluoride), sapphire (aluminium oxide) and various glasses.", "Examples of solid-state laser media include Nd:YAG, Ti:sapphire, Cr:sapphire (usually known as ruby), Cr:LiSAF (chromium-doped lithium strontium aluminium fluoride), Er:YLF, Nd:glass, and Er:glass.", "Solid-state lasers are usually pumped by flashlamps or light from another laser.", "Semiconductors, a type of solid, crystal with uniform dopant distribution or material with differing dopant levels in which the movement of electrons can cause laser action.", "Semiconductor lasers are typically very small, and can be pumped with a simple electric current, enabling them to be used in consumer devices such as compact disc players.", "See laser diode." ], [ "Optical resonator", "The Gaussian beam photographic paper burn comparison of a carbon dioxide transversely-excited atmospheric-pressure laser, obtained during the optimization process by adjusting the alignment mirrors.The ''optical resonator'', or ''optical cavity'', in its simplest form is two parallel mirrors placed around the gain medium, which provide feedback of the light.", "The mirrors are given optical coatings which determine their reflective properties.", "Typically, one will be a high reflector, and the other will be a partial reflector.", "The latter is called the output coupler, because it allows some of the light to leave the cavity to produce the laser's output beam.Light from the medium, produced by spontaneous emission, is reflected by the mirrors back into the medium, where it may be amplified by stimulated emission.", "The light may reflect from the mirrors and thus pass through the gain medium many hundreds of times before exiting the cavity.", "In more complex lasers, configurations with four or more mirrors forming the cavity are used.", "The design and alignment of the mirrors with respect to the medium is crucial for determining the exact operating wavelength and other attributes of the laser system.Other optical devices, such as spinning mirrors, modulators, filters, and absorbers, may be placed within the optical resonator to produce a variety of effects on the laser output, such as altering the wavelength of operation or the production of pulses of laser light.Some lasers do not use an optical cavity, but instead rely on very high optical gain to produce significant amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) without needing feedback of the light back into the gain medium.", "Such lasers are said to be superluminescent, and emit light with low coherence but high bandwidth.", "Since they do not use optical feedback, these devices are often not categorized as lasers." ], [ "See also", "Injection seederMode lockingQ-switchingList of laser articles" ], [ "References", "Koechner, Walter (1992).", "''Solid-State Laser Engineering'', 3rd ed., Springer-Verlag." ], [ "External links", "* Sam's Laser FAQ A Practical Guide to Lasers for Experimenters and Hobbyists*Laser 247 A Guide for All Laser Equipment and Parts" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Logical conjunction" ], [ "Introduction", "Venn diagram of In logic, mathematics and linguistics, ''and'' () is the truth-functional operator of '''conjunction''' or '''logical conjunction'''.", "The logical connective of this operator is typically represented as or or (prefix) or or in which is the most modern and widely used.The ''and'' of a set of operands is true if and only if ''all'' of its operands are true, i.e., is true if and only if is true and is true.An operand of a conjunction is a '''conjunct'''.Beyond logic, the term \"conjunction\" also refers to similar concepts in other fields:* In natural language, the denotation of expressions such as English \"and\";* In programming languages, the short-circuit and control structure;* In set theory, intersection.", "* In lattice theory, logical conjunction (greatest lower bound)." ], [ "Notation", "'''And''' is usually denoted by an infix operator: in mathematics and logic, it is denoted by (Unicode ), or ; in electronics, ; and in programming languages, '''&''', '''&&''', or '''and'''.", "In Jan Łukasiewicz's prefix notation for logic, the operator is , for Polish ''koniunkcja''." ], [ "Definition", "'''Logical conjunction''' is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of ''true'' if and only if (also known as iff) both of its operands are true.The conjunctive identity is true, which is to say that AND-ing an expression with true will never change the value of the expression.", "In keeping with the concept of vacuous truth, when conjunction is defined as an operator or function of arbitrary arity, the empty conjunction (AND-ing over an empty set of operands) is often defined as having the result true.===Truth table===true bit form a Sierpinski triangle.The truth table of : ===Defined by other operators===In systems where logical conjunction is not a primitive, it may be defined as:or:" ], [ "Introduction and elimination rules", "As a rule of inference, conjunction introduction is a classically valid, simple argument form.", "The argument form has two premises, and .", "Intuitively, it permits the inference of their conjunction.:,:.", ":Therefore, ''A'' and ''B''.or in logical operator notation::::Here is an example of an argument that fits the form ''conjunction introduction''::Bob likes apples.", ":Bob likes oranges.", ":Therefore, Bob likes apples and Bob likes oranges.Conjunction elimination is another classically valid, simple argument form.", "Intuitively, it permits the inference from any conjunction of either element of that conjunction.", ": and .", ":Therefore, ....or alternatively,: and .", ":Therefore, .In logical operator notation:::...or alternatively,::" ], [ "Negation", "=== Definition ===A conjunction is proven false by establishing either or .", "In terms of the object language, this reads:This formula can be seen as a special case of:when is a false proposition.=== Other proof strategies ===If implies , then both as well as prove the conjunction false::In other words, a conjunction can actually be proven false just by knowing about the relation of its conjuncts, and not necessary about their truth values.This formula can be seen as a special case of:when is a false proposition.Either of the above are constructively valid proofs by contradiction." ], [ "Properties", "'''commutativity: yes''' 50px 50px'''associativity: yes''' 50px50px 50px 50px50px'''distributivity:''' with various operations, especially with ''or'' 50px50px 50px 50px50pxothers with exclusive or: 50px50px 50px 50px50pxwith material nonimplication: 50px50px 50px 50px50pxwith itself: 50px50px 50px 50px50px'''idempotency: yes''' 36px36px 36px'''monotonicity: yes''' 50px 50px 50px50px'''truth-preserving: yes'''When all inputs are true, the output is true.", "50px 60px'''falsehood-preserving: yes'''When all inputs are false, the output is false.", "60px 50px'''Walsh spectrum: (1,-1,-1,1)''''''Nonlinearity: 1''' (the function is bent)If using binary values for true (1) and false (0), then ''logical conjunction'' works exactly like normal arithmetic multiplication." ], [ "Applications in computer engineering{{anchor\|software_AND}}", "AND logic gateIn high-level computer programming and digital electronics, logical conjunction is commonly represented by an infix operator, usually as a keyword such as \"AND\", an algebraic multiplication, or the ampersand symbol & (sometimes doubled as in &&).", "Many languages also provide short-circuit control structures corresponding to logical conjunction.Logical conjunction is often used for bitwise operations, where 0 corresponds to false and 1 to true:* 0 AND 0 = 0,* 0 AND 1 = 0,* 1 AND 0 = 0,* 1 AND 1 = 1.The operation can also be applied to two binary words viewed as bitstrings of equal length, by taking the bitwise AND of each pair of bits at corresponding positions.", "For example:* 11000110 AND 10100011 = 10000010.This can be used to select part of a bitstring using a bit mask.", "For example, 1001'''1'''101 AND 0000'''1'''000 = 0000'''1'''000 extracts the fourth bit of an 8-bit bitstring.In computer networking, bit masks are used to derive the network address of a subnet within an existing network from a given IP address, by ANDing the IP address and the subnet mask.Logical conjunction \"AND\" is also used in SQL operations to form database queries.The Curry–Howard correspondence relates logical conjunction to product types." ], [ "Set-theoretic correspondence", "The membership of an element of an intersection set in set theory is defined in terms of a logical conjunction: if and only if .", "Through this correspondence, set-theoretic intersection shares several properties with logical conjunction, such as associativity, commutativity and idempotence." ], [ "Natural language", "As with other notions formalized in mathematical logic, the logical conjunction ''and'' is related to, but not the same as, the grammatical conjunction ''and'' in natural languages.English \"and\" has properties not captured by logical conjunction.", "For example, \"and\" sometimes implies order having the sense of \"then\".", "For example, \"They got married and had a child\" in common discourse means that the marriage came before the child.The word \"and\" can also imply a partition of a thing into parts, as \"The American flag is red, white, and blue.\"", "Here, it is not meant that the flag is ''at once'' red, white, and blue, but rather that it has a part of each color." ], [ "See also", "* And-inverter graph* AND gate* Bitwise AND* Boolean algebra* Boolean conjunctive query* Boolean domain* Boolean function* Boolean-valued function* Conjunction elimination* Conjunction (grammar)* De Morgan's laws* First-order logic* Fréchet inequalities* List of Boolean algebra topics* Logical disjunction* Logical graph* Negation* Operation* Peano–Russell notation* Propositional calculus" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Wolfram MathWorld: Conjunction*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Logical connective" ], [ "Introduction", "Hasse diagram of logical connectives.In logic, a '''logical connective''' (also called a '''logical operator''', '''sentential connective''', or '''sentential operator''') is a logical constant.", "Connectives can be used to connect logical formulas.", "For instance in the syntax of propositional logic, the binary connective can be used to join the two atomic formulas and , rendering the complex formula .Common connectives include negation, disjunction, conjunction, implication, and equivalence.", "In standard systems of classical logic, these connectives are interpreted as truth functions, though they receive a variety of alternative interpretations in nonclassical logics.", "Their classical interpretations are similar to the meanings of natural language expressions such as English \"not\", \"or\", \"and\", and \"if\", but not identical.", "Discrepancies between natural language connectives and those of classical logic have motivated nonclassical approaches to natural language meaning as well as approaches which pair a classical compositional semantics with a robust pragmatics.A logical connective is similar to, but not equivalent to, a syntax commonly used in programming languages called a conditional operator." ], [ "Overview", "In formal languages, truth functions are represented by unambiguous symbols.", "This allows logical statements to not be understood in an ambiguous way.", "These symbols are called ''logical connectives'', ''logical operators'', ''propositional operators'', or, in classical logic, ''truth-functional connectives''.", "For the rules which allow new well-formed formulas to be constructed by joining other well-formed formulas using truth-functional connectives, see well-formed formula.Logical connectives can be used to link zero or more statements, so one can speak about ''-ary logical connectives''.", "The boolean constants ''True'' and ''False'' can be thought of as zero-ary operators.", "Negation is a 1-ary connective, and so on.", "Symbol, name Truth table Venn diagram Zeroary connectives (constants) ⊤ Truth/tautology 1 32px ⊥ Falsity/contradiction 0 32px Unary connectives = 0 1 Proposition 0 1 32px ¬ Negation 1 0 32px Binary connectives = 0 1 = 0 1 0 1 Proposition 0011 40px Proposition 0101 40px ∧ Conjunction 0001 40px ↑ Alternative denial 1110 40px ∨ Disjunction 0111 40px ↓ Joint denial 1000 40px → Material conditional 1101 40px Exclusive or 0110 40px ↔ Biconditional 1001 40px ← Converse implication 1011 40px More information ===List of common logical connectives===Commonly used logical connectives include the following ones.", "* Negation (not): , , (prefix) in which is the most modern and widely used, and is used by many people too;* Conjunction (and): , , (prefix) in which is the most modern and widely used;* Disjunction (or): , (prefix) in which is the most modern and widely used;* Implication (if...then): , , , (prefix) in which is the most modern and widely used, and is used by many people too;* Equivalence (if and only if): , , , , (prefix) in which is the most modern and widely used, and may be also a good choice compared to denoting implication just like to .For example, the meaning of the statements ''it is raining'' (denoted by ) and ''I am indoors'' (denoted by ) is transformed, when the two are combined with logical connectives:* It is '''''not''''' raining ();* It is raining '''''and''''' I am indoors ();* It is raining '''''or''''' I am indoors ();* '''''If''''' it is raining, '''''then''''' I am indoors ();* '''''If''''' I am indoors, '''''then''''' it is raining ();* I am indoors '''''if and only if''''' it is raining ().It is also common to consider the ''always true'' formula and the ''always false'' formula to be connective.", "* True formula: , , (prefix), or ;* False formula: , , (prefix), or .===History of notations===* Negation: the symbol appeared in Heyting in 1930 (compare to Frege's symbol ⫟ in his Begriffsschrift); the symbol appeared in Russell in 1908; an alternative notation is to add a horizontal line on top of the formula, as in ; another alternative notation is to use a prime symbol as in .", "* Conjunction: the symbol appeared in Heyting in 1930 (compare to Peano's use of the set-theoretic notation of intersection ); the symbol appeared at least in Schönfinkel in 1924; the symbol comes from Boole's interpretation of logic as an elementary algebra.", "* Disjunction: the symbol appeared in Russell in 1908 (compare to Peano's use of the set-theoretic notation of union ); the symbol is also used, in spite of the ambiguity coming from the fact that the of ordinary elementary algebra is an exclusive or when interpreted logically in a two-element ring; punctually in the history a together with a dot in the lower right corner has been used by Peirce.", "* Implication: the symbol appeared in Hilbert in 1918; was used by Russell in 1908 (compare to Peano's Ɔ the inverted C); appeared in Bourbaki in 1954.", "* Equivalence: the symbol in Frege in 1879; in Becker in 1933 (not the first time and for this see the following); appeared in Bourbaki in 1954; other symbols appeared punctually in the history, such as in Gentzen, in Schönfinkel or in Chazal, * True: the symbol comes from Boole's interpretation of logic as an elementary algebra over the two-element Boolean algebra; other notations include (abbreviation for the Latin word \"verum\") to be found in Peano in 1889.", "* False: the symbol comes also from Boole's interpretation of logic as a ring; other notations include (rotated ) to be found in Peano in 1889.Some authors used letters for connectives: for conjunction (German's \"und\" for \"and\") and for disjunction (German's \"oder\" for \"or\") in early works by Hilbert (1904); for negation, for conjunction, for alternative denial, for disjunction, for implication, for biconditional in Łukasiewicz in 1929.===Redundancy===Such a logical connective as converse implication \"\" is actually the same as material conditional with swapped arguments; thus, the symbol for converse implication is redundant.", "In some logical calculi (notably, in classical logic), certain essentially different compound statements are logically equivalent.", "A less trivial example of a redundancy is the classical equivalence between and .", "Therefore, a classical-based logical system does not need the conditional operator \"\" if \"\" (not) and \"\" (or) are already in use, or may use the \"\" only as a syntactic sugar for a compound having one negation and one disjunction.There are sixteen Boolean functions associating the input truth values and with four-digit binary outputs.", "These correspond to possible choices of binary logical connectives for classical logic.", "Different implementations of classical logic can choose different functionally complete subsets of connectives.One approach is to choose a ''minimal'' set, and define other connectives by some logical form, as in the example with the material conditional above.The following are the minimal functionally complete sets of operators in classical logic whose arities do not exceed 2:;One element: , .", ";Two elements: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .", ";Three elements: , , , , , .Another approach is to use with equal rights connectives of a certain convenient and functionally complete, but ''not minimal'' set.", "This approach requires more propositional axioms, and each equivalence between logical forms must be either an axiom or provable as a theorem.The situation, however, is more complicated in intuitionistic logic.", "Of its five connectives, {∧, ∨, →, ¬, ⊥}, only negation \"¬\" can be reduced to other connectives (see for more).", "Neither conjunction, disjunction, nor material conditional has an equivalent form constructed from the other four logical connectives." ], [ "Natural language", "The standard logical connectives of classical logic have rough equivalents in the grammars of natural languages.", "In English, as in many languages, such expressions are typically grammatical conjunctions.", "However, they can also take the form of complementizers, verb suffixes, and particles.", "The denotations of natural language connectives is a major topic of research in formal semantics, a field that studies the logical structure of natural languages.The meanings of natural language connectives are not precisely identical to their nearest equivalents in classical logic.", "In particular, disjunction can receive an exclusive interpretation in many languages.", "Some researchers have taken this fact as evidence that natural language semantics is nonclassical.", "However, others maintain classical semantics by positing pragmatic accounts of exclusivity which create the illusion of nonclassicality.", "In such accounts, exclusivity is typically treated as a scalar implicature.", "Related puzzles involving disjunction include free choice inferences, Hurford's Constraint, and the contribution of disjunction in alternative questions.Other apparent discrepancies between natural language and classical logic include the paradoxes of material implication, donkey anaphora and the problem of counterfactual conditionals.", "These phenomena have been taken as motivation for identifying the denotations of natural language conditionals with logical operators including the strict conditional, the variably strict conditional, as well as various dynamic operators.The following table shows the standard classically definable approximations for the English connectives.", "English word Connective Symbol Logical gate not negation NOT and conjunction AND or disjunction OR if...then material implication IMPLY ...if converse implication either...or exclusive disjunction XOR if and only if biconditional XNOR not both alternative denial NAND neither...nor joint denial NOR but not material nonimplication NIMPLY" ], [ "Properties", "Some logical connectives possess properties that may be expressed in the theorems containing the connective.", "Some of those properties that a logical connective may have are:; Associativity: Within an expression containing two or more of the same associative connectives in a row, the order of the operations does not matter as long as the sequence of the operands is not changed.", "; Commutativity:The operands of the connective may be swapped, preserving logical equivalence to the original expression.", "; Distributivity: A connective denoted by · distributes over another connective denoted by +, if for all operands , , .", "; Idempotence: Whenever the operands of the operation are the same, the compound is logically equivalent to the operand.", "; Absorption: A pair of connectives ∧, ∨ satisfies the absorption law if for all operands , .", "; Monotonicity: If ''f''(''a''1, ..., ''a''''n'') ≤ ''f''(''b''1, ..., ''b''''n'') for all ''a''1, ..., ''a''''n'', ''b''1, ..., ''b''''n'' ∈ {0,1} such that ''a''1 ≤ ''b''1, ''a''2 ≤ ''b''2, ..., ''a''''n'' ≤ ''b''''n''.", "E.g., ∨, ∧, ⊤, ⊥.", "; Affinity: Each variable always makes a difference in the truth-value of the operation or it never makes a difference.", "E.g., ¬, ↔, , ⊤, ⊥.", "; Duality: To read the truth-value assignments for the operation from top to bottom on its truth table is the same as taking the complement of reading the table of the same or another connective from bottom to top.", "Without resorting to truth tables it may be formulated as .", "E.g., ¬.", "; Truth-preserving: The compound all those arguments are tautologies is a tautology itself.", "E.g., ∨, ∧, ⊤, →, ↔, ⊂ (see validity).", "; Falsehood-preserving: The compound all those argument are contradictions is a contradiction itself.", "E.g., ∨, ∧, , ⊥, ⊄, ⊅ (see validity).", "; Involutivity (for unary connectives): .", "E.g.", "negation in classical logic.For classical and intuitionistic logic, the \"=\" symbol means that corresponding implications \"...→...\" and \"...←...\" for logical compounds can be both proved as theorems, and the \"≤\" symbol means that \"...→...\" for logical compounds is a consequence of corresponding \"...→...\" connectives for propositional variables.", "Some many-valued logics may have incompatible definitions of equivalence and order (entailment).Both conjunction and disjunction are associative, commutative and idempotent in classical logic, most varieties of many-valued logic and intuitionistic logic.", "The same is true about distributivity of conjunction over disjunction and disjunction over conjunction, as well as for the absorption law.In classical logic and some varieties of many-valued logic, conjunction and disjunction are dual, and negation is self-dual, the latter is also self-dual in intuitionistic logic." ], [ "Order of precedence", "As a way of reducing the number of necessary parentheses, one may introduce precedence rules: ¬ has higher precedence than ∧, ∧ higher than ∨, and ∨ higher than →.", "So for example, is short for .Here is a table that shows a commonly used precedence of logical operators.Operator Precedence 1 2 3 4 5However, not all compilers use the same order; for instance, an ordering in which disjunction is lower precedence than implication or bi-implication has also been used.", "Sometimes precedence between conjunction and disjunction is unspecified requiring to provide it explicitly in given formula with parentheses.", "The order of precedence determines which connective is the \"main connective\" when interpreting a non-atomic formula." ], [ "Computer science", "A truth-functional approach to logical operators is implemented as logic gates in digital circuits.", "Practically all digital circuits (the major exception is DRAM) are built up from NAND, NOR, NOT, and transmission gates; see more details in Truth function in computer science.", "Logical operators over bit vectors (corresponding to finite Boolean algebras) are bitwise operations.But not every usage of a logical connective in computer programming has a Boolean semantic.", "For example, lazy evaluation is sometimes implemented for and , so these connectives are not commutative if either or both of the expressions , have side effects.", "Also, a conditional, which in some sense corresponds to the material conditional connective, is essentially non-Boolean because for if (P) then Q;, the consequent Q is not executed if the antecedent P is false (although a compound as a whole is successful ≈ \"true\" in such case).", "This is closer to intuitionist and constructivist views on the material conditional— rather than to classical logic's views." ], [ "Table and Hasse diagram", "The 16 logical connectives can be partially ordered to produce the following Hasse diagram.", "The partial order is defined by declaring that if and only if whenever holds then so does" ], [ "See also", "* Boolean domain* Boolean function* Boolean logic* Boolean-valued function* Four-valued logic* List of Boolean algebra topics* Logical constant* Modal operator* Propositional calculus* Truth function* Truth table* Truth values" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Bocheński, Józef Maria (1959), ''A Précis of Mathematical Logic'', translated from the French and German editions by Otto Bird, D. Reidel, Dordrecht, South Holland.", "* * * * .", "" ], [ "External links", "Lloyd Humberstone (2010), \" Sentence Connectives in Formal Logic\", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (An abstract algebraic logic approach to connectives.", ")John MacFarlane (2005), \" Logical constants\", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Propositional calculus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Propositional calculus''' is a branch of logic.", "It is also called '''propositional logic''', '''statement logic''', '''sentential calculus''', '''sentential logic''', or sometimes '''zeroth-order logic'''.", "It deals with propositions (which can be true or false) and relations between propositions, including the construction of arguments based on them.", "Compound propositions are formed by connecting propositions by logical connectives.", "Propositions that contain no logical connectives are called atomic propositions.Unlike first-order logic, propositional logic does not deal with non-logical objects, predicates about them, or quantifiers.", "However, all the machinery of propositional logic is included in first-order logic and higher-order logics.", "In this sense, propositional logic is the foundation of first-order logic and higher-order logic." ], [ "Explanation", "Logical connectives are found in natural languages.", "In English, some examples are \"and\" (conjunction), \"or\" (disjunction), \"not\" (negation) and \"if\" (but only when used to denote material conditional).The following is an example of a very simple inference within the scope of propositional logic::Premise 1: If it's raining then it's cloudy.", ":Premise 2: It's raining.", ":Conclusion: It's cloudy.Both premises and the conclusion are propositions.", "The premises are taken for granted, and with the application of modus ponens (an inference rule), the conclusion follows.As propositional logic is not concerned with the structure of propositions beyond the point where they cannot be decomposed any more by logical connectives, this inference can be restated replacing those ''atomic'' statements with statement letters, which are interpreted as variables representing statements::Premise 1: :Premise 2: :Conclusion: The same can be stated succinctly in the following way::When is interpreted as \"It's raining\" and as \"it's cloudy\" the above symbolic expressions can be seen to correspond exactly with the original expression in natural language.", "Not only that, but they will also correspond with any other inference of this ''form'', which will be valid on the same basis this inference is.Propositional logic may be studied through a formal system in which formulas of a formal language may be interpreted to represent propositions.", "A system of axioms and inference rules allows certain formulas to be derived.", "These derived formulas are called theorems and may be interpreted to be true propositions.", "A constructed sequence of such formulas is known as a ''derivation'' or ''proof'' and the last formula of the sequence is the theorem.", "The derivation may be interpreted as proof of the proposition represented by the theorem.When a formal system is used to represent formal logic, only statement letters (usually capital roman letters such as , and ) are represented directly.", "The natural language propositions that arise when they're interpreted are outside the scope of the system, and the relation between the formal system and its interpretation is likewise outside the formal system itself.In classical '''truth-functional propositional logic''', formulas are interpreted as having precisely one of two possible truth values, the truth value of ''true'' or the truth value of ''false''.", "The principle of bivalence and the law of excluded middle are upheld.", "Truth-functional propositional logic defined as such and systems isomorphic to it are considered to be '''zeroth-order logic'''.", "However, alternative propositional logics are also possible.", "For more, see Other logical calculi below." ], [ "History", "Although propositional logic (which is interchangeable with propositional calculus) had been hinted by earlier philosophers, it was developed into a formal logic (Stoic logic) by Chrysippus in the 3rd century BC and expanded by his successor Stoics.", "The logic was focused on propositions.", "This advancement was different from the traditional syllogistic logic, which was focused on terms.", "However, most of the original writings were lost and the propositional logic developed by the Stoics was no longer understood later in antiquity.", "Consequently, the system was essentially reinvented by Peter Abelard in the 12th century.Propositional logic was eventually refined using symbolic logic.", "The 17th/18th-century mathematician Gottfried Leibniz has been credited with being the founder of symbolic logic for his work with the calculus ratiocinator.", "Although his work was the first of its kind, it was unknown to the larger logical community.", "Consequently, many of the advances achieved by Leibniz were recreated by logicians like George Boole and Augustus De Morgan—completely independent of Leibniz.Just as propositional logic can be considered an advancement from the earlier syllogistic logic, Gottlob Frege's predicate logic can be also considered an advancement from the earlier propositional logic.", "One author describes predicate logic as combining \"the distinctive features of syllogistic logic and propositional logic.\"", "Consequently, predicate logic ushered in a new era in logic's history; however, advances in propositional logic were still made after Frege, including natural deduction, truth trees and truth tables.", "Natural deduction was invented by Gerhard Gentzen and Stanisław Jaśkowski.", "Truth trees were invented by Evert Willem Beth.", "The invention of truth tables, however, is of uncertain attribution.Within works by Frege and Bertrand Russell, are ideas influential to the invention of truth tables.", "The actual tabular structure (being formatted as a table), itself, is generally credited to either Ludwig Wittgenstein or Emil Post (or both, independently).", "Besides Frege and Russell, others credited with having ideas preceding truth tables include Philo, Boole, Charles Sanders Peirce, and Ernst Schröder.", "Others credited with the tabular structure include Jan Łukasiewicz, Alfred North Whitehead, William Stanley Jevons, John Venn, and Clarence Irving Lewis.", "Ultimately, some have concluded, like John Shosky, that \"It is far from clear that any one person should be given the title of 'inventor' of truth-tables.", "\"." ], [ "Terminology", "In general terms, a calculus is a formal system that consists of a set of syntactic expressions (''well-formed formulas''), a distinguished subset of these expressions (axioms), plus a set of formal rules that define a specific binary relation, intended to be interpreted as logical equivalence, on the space of expressions.When the formal system is intended to be a logical system, the expressions are meant to be interpreted as statements, and the rules, known to be ''inference rules'', are typically intended to be truth-preserving.", "In this setting, the rules, which may include axioms, can then be used to derive (\"infer\") formulas representing true statements—from given formulas representing true statements.The set of axioms may be empty, a nonempty finite set, or a countably infinite set (see axiom schema).", "A formal grammar recursively defines the expressions and well-formed formulas of the language.", "In addition a semantics may be given which defines truth and valuations (or interpretations).The language of a propositional calculus consists of:# a set of primitive symbols, variously referred to as ''atomic formulas'', ''placeholders'', ''proposition letters'', or ''variables'', and# a set of operator symbols, variously interpreted as ''logical operators'' or ''logical connectives''.A ''well-formed formula'' is any atomic formula, or any formula that can be built up from atomic formulas by means of operator symbols according to the rules of the grammar.Mathematicians sometimes distinguish between propositional constants, propositional variables, and schemata.", "Propositional constants represent some particular proposition, while propositional variables range over the set of all atomic propositions.", "Schemata, however, range over all propositions.", "It is common to represent propositional constants by , , and , propositional variables by , , and , and schematic letters are often Greek letters, most often , , and ." ], [ "Basic concepts", "The following outlines a standard propositional calculus.", "Many different formulations exist which are all more or less equivalent, but differ in the details of:# their language (i.e., the particular collection of primitive symbols and operator symbols),# the set of axioms, or distinguished formulas, and# the set of inference rules.Any given proposition may be represented with a letter called a 'propositional constant', analogous to representing a number by a letter in mathematics (e.g., ).", "All propositions require exactly one of two truth-values: true or false.", "For example, let be the proposition that it is raining outside.", "This will be true () if it is raining outside, and false otherwise ().", "We then define truth-functional operators, beginning with negation.", "represents the negation of , which can be thought of as the denial of .", "In the example above, expresses that it is not raining outside, or by a more standard reading: \"It is not the case that it is raining outside.\"", "When is true, is false; and when is false, is true.", "As a result, always has the same truth-value as .", "Conjunction is a truth-functional connective which forms a proposition out of two simpler propositions, for example, and .", "The conjunction of and is written , and expresses that each are true.", "We read as \" and \".", "For any two propositions, there are four possible assignments of truth values:# is true and is true# is true and is false# is false and is true# is false and is false:The conjunction of and is true in case 1, and is false otherwise.", "Where is the proposition that it is raining outside and is the proposition that a cold-front is over Kansas, is true when it is raining outside ''and'' there is a cold-front over Kansas.", "If it is not raining outside, then is false; and if there is no cold-front over Kansas, then is also false.", "Disjunction resembles conjunction in that it forms a proposition out of two simpler propositions.", "We write it , and it is read \" or \".", "It expresses that either or is true.", "Thus, in the cases listed above, the disjunction of with is true in all cases—except case 4.Using the example above, the disjunction expresses that it is either raining outside, or there is a cold front over Kansas.", "(Note, this use of disjunction is supposed to resemble the use of the English word \"or\".", "However, it is most like the English inclusive \"or\", which can be used to express the truth of at least one of two propositions.", "It is not like the English exclusive \"or\", which expresses the truth of exactly one of two propositions.", "In other words, the exclusive \"or\" is false when both and are true (case 1), and similarly is false when both and are false (case 4).", "An example of the exclusive or is: You may keep a cake (for later) or you may eat it all now, but you cannot both eat it all now and keep it for later.", "Often in natural language, given the appropriate context, the addendum \"but not both\" is omitted—but implied.", "In mathematics, however, \"or\" is always inclusive or; if exclusive or is meant it will be specified, possibly by \"xor\".", ")Material conditional also joins two simpler propositions, and we write , which is read \"if then \".", "The proposition to the left of the arrow is called the antecedent, and the proposition to the right is called the consequent.", "(There is no such designation for conjunction or disjunction, since they are commutative operations.)", "It expresses that is true whenever is true.", "Thus is true in every case above except case 2, because this is the only case when is true but is not.", "Using the example, if then expresses that if it is raining outside, then there is a cold-front over Kansas.", "The material conditional is often confused with physical causation.", "The material conditional, however, only relates two propositions by their truth-values—which is not the relation of cause and effect.", "It is contentious in the literature whether the material implication represents logical causation.", "Biconditional joins two simpler propositions, and we write , which is read \" if and only if \".", "It expresses that and have the same truth-value, and in cases 1 and 4.'", "is true if and only if ' is true, and is false otherwise.It is very helpful to look at the truth tables for these different operators, as well as the method of analytic tableaux.===Closure under operations===Propositional logic is closed under truth-functional connectives.", "That is to say, for any proposition , is also a proposition.", "Likewise, for any propositions and , is a proposition, and similarly for disjunction, conditional, and biconditional.", "This implies that, for instance, is a proposition, and so it can be conjoined with another proposition.", "In order to represent this, we need to use parentheses to indicate which proposition is conjoined with which.", "For instance, is not a well-formed formula, because we do not know if we are conjoining with or if we are conjoining with .", "Thus we must write either to represent the former, or to represent the latter.", "By evaluating the truth conditions, we see that both expressions have the same truth conditions (will be true in the same cases), and moreover that any proposition formed by arbitrary conjunctions will have the same truth conditions, regardless of the location of the parentheses.", "This means that conjunction is associative, however, one should not assume that parentheses never serve a purpose.", "For instance, the sentence does not have the same truth conditions of , so they are different sentences distinguished only by the parentheses.", "One can verify this by the truth-table method referenced above.Note: For any arbitrary number of propositional constants, we can form a finite number of cases which list their possible truth-values.", "A simple way to generate this is by truth-tables, in which one writes , , ..., , for any list of propositional constants—that is to say, any list of propositional constants with entries.", "Below this list, one writes rows, and below one fills in the first half of the rows with true (or T) and the second half with false (or F).", "Below one fills in one-quarter of the rows with T, then one-quarter with F, then one-quarter with T and the last quarter with F. The next column alternates between true and false for each eighth of the rows, then sixteenths, and so on, until the last propositional constant varies between T and F for each row.", "This will give a complete listing of cases or truth-value assignments possible for those propositional constants.===Argument===The propositional calculus then defines an ''argument'' to be a list of propositions.", "A valid argument is a list of propositions, the last of which follows from—or is implied by—the rest.", "All other arguments are invalid.", "The simplest valid argument is modus ponens, one instance of which is the following list of propositions::This is a list of three propositions, each line is a proposition, and the last follows from the rest.", "The first two lines are called premises, and the last line the conclusion.", "We say that any proposition follows from any set of propositions , if must be true whenever every member of the set is true.", "In the argument above, for any and , whenever and are true, necessarily is true.", "Notice that, when is true, we cannot consider cases 3 and 4 (from the truth table).", "When is true, we cannot consider case 2.This leaves only case 1, in which is also true.", "Thus is implied by the premises.This generalizes schematically.", "Thus, where and may be any propositions at all,:Other argument forms are convenient, but not necessary.", "Given a complete set of axioms (see below for one such set), modus ponens is sufficient to prove all other argument forms in propositional logic, thus they may be considered to be a derivative.", "Note, this is not true of the extension of propositional logic to other logics like first-order logic.", "First-order logic requires at least one additional rule of inference in order to obtain completeness.The significance of argument in formal logic is that one may obtain new truths from established truths.", "In the first example above, given the two premises, the truth of is not yet known or stated.", "After the argument is made, is deduced.", "In this way, we define a deduction system to be a set of all propositions that may be deduced from another set of propositions.", "For instance, given the set of propositions , we can define a deduction system, , which is the set of all propositions which follow from .", "Reiteration is always assumed, so .", "Also, from the first element of , last element, as well as modus ponens, is a consequence, and so .", "Because we have not included sufficiently complete axioms, though, nothing else may be deduced.", "Thus, even though most deduction systems studied in propositional logic are able to deduce , this one is too weak to prove such a proposition." ], [ "Generic description of a propositional calculus", "A '''propositional calculus''' is a formal system , where:The ''language'' of , also known as its set of ''formulas'', ''well-formed formulas'', is inductively defined by the following rules:# Base: Any element of the alpha set is a formula of .# If are formulas and is in , then is a formula.# Closed: Nothing else is a formula of .Repeated applications of these rules permits the construction of complex formulas.", "For example: By rule 1, is a formula.", "* By rule 2, is a formula.", "* By rule 1, is a formula.", "* By rule 2, is a formula." ], [ "Example 1. Simple axiom system", "Let , where , , , are defined as follows:* The set , the countably infinite set of symbols that serve to represent logical propositions:: The functionally complete set of logical operators (logical connectives and negation) is as follows.", "Of the three connectives for conjunction, disjunction, and implication (, and ), one can be taken as primitive and the other two can be defined in terms of it and negation ().", "Alternatively, all of the logical operators may be defined in terms of a sole sufficient operator, such as the Sheffer stroke (nand).", "The biconditional () can of course be defined in terms of conjunction and implication as .", "Adopting negation and implication as the two primitive operations of a propositional calculus is tantamount to having the omega set partition as follows:: : Then is defined as , and is defined as .", "* The set (the set of initial points of logical deduction, i.e., logical axioms) is the axiom system proposed by Jan Łukasiewicz, and used as the propositional-calculus part of a Hilbert system.", "The axioms are all substitution instances of: ** * The set of transformation rules (rules of inference) is the sole rule modus ponens (i.e., from any formulas of the form and , infer ).This system is used in Metamath set.mm formal proof database." ], [ "Example 2. Natural deduction system", "Let , where , , , are defined as follows:* The alpha set , is a countably infinite set of symbols, for example:: The omega set partitions as follows:: : In the following example of a propositional calculus, the transformation rules are intended to be interpreted as the inference rules of a so-called ''natural deduction system''.", "The particular system presented here has no initial points, which means that its interpretation for logical applications derives its theorems from an empty axiom set.", "* The set of initial points is empty, that is, .", "* The set of transformation rules, , is described as follows:Our propositional calculus has eleven inference rules.", "These rules allow us to derive other true formulas given a set of formulas that are assumed to be true.", "The first ten simply state that we can infer certain well-formed formulas from other well-formed formulas.", "The last rule however uses hypothetical reasoning in the sense that in the premise of the rule we temporarily assume an (unproven) hypothesis to be part of the set of inferred formulas to see if we can infer a certain other formula.", "Since the first ten rules do not do this they are usually described as ''non-hypothetical'' rules, and the last one as a ''hypothetical'' rule.In describing the transformation rules, we may introduce a metalanguage symbol .", "It is basically a convenient shorthand for saying \"infer that\".", "The format is , in which is a (possibly empty) set of formulas called premises, and is a formula called conclusion.", "The transformation rule means that if every proposition in is a theorem (or has the same truth value as the axioms), then is also a theorem.", "Considering the following rule Conjunction introduction, we will know whenever has more than one formula, we can always safely reduce it into one formula using conjunction.", "So for short, from that time on we may represent as one formula instead of a set.", "Another omission for convenience is when is an empty set, in which case may not appear.", "; Negation introduction: From and , infer .", ": That is, .", "; Negation elimination: From , infer .", ": That is, .", "; Double negation elimination: From , infer .", ": That is, .", "; Conjunction introduction: From and , infer .", ": That is, .", "; Conjunction elimination: From , infer .", ": From , infer .", ": That is, and .", "; Disjunction introduction: From , infer .", ": From , infer .", ": That is, and .", "; Disjunction elimination: From and and , infer .", ": That is, .", "; Biconditional introduction: From and , infer .", ": That is, .", ";Biconditional elimination: From , infer .", ": From , infer .", ": That is, and .", ";Modus ponens (conditional elimination) : From and , infer .", ": That is, .", "; Conditional proof (conditional introduction) : From accepting allows a proof of , infer .", ": That is, ." ], [ "Basic and derived argument forms", " Name Sequent Description Modus Ponens If then ; ; therefore Modus Tollens If then ; not ; therefore not Hypothetical Syllogism If then ; if then ; therefore, if then Disjunctive Syllogism Either or , or both; not ; therefore, Constructive Dilemma If then ; and if then ; but or ; therefore or Destructive Dilemma If then ; and if then ; but not or not ; therefore not or not Bidirectional Dilemma If then ; and if then ; but or not ; therefore or not Simplification and are true; therefore is true Conjunction and are true separately; therefore they are true conjointly Addition is true; therefore the disjunction ( or ) is true Composition If then ; and if then ; therefore if is true then and are true De Morgan's Theorem (1) The negation of ( and ) is equiv.", "to (not or not ) De Morgan's Theorem (2) The negation of ( or ) is equiv.", "to (not and not ) Commutation (1) ( or ) is equiv.", "to ( or ) Commutation (2) ( and ) is equiv.", "to ( and ) Commutation (3) ( iff ) is equiv.", "to ( iff ) Association (1) or ( or ) is equiv.", "to ( or ) or Association (2) and ( and ) is equiv.", "to ( and ) and Distribution (1) and ( or ) is equiv.", "to ( and ) or ( and ) Distribution (2) or ( and ) is equiv.", "to ( or ) and ( or ) Double Negation is equivalent to the negation of not Transposition If then is equiv.", "to if not then not Material Implication If then is equiv.", "to not or Material Equivalence (1) ( ) is equiv.", "to (if is true then is true) and (if is true then is true) Material Equivalence (2) ( ) is equiv.", "to either ( and are true) or (both and are false) Material Equivalence (3) ( ) is equiv to., both ( or not is true) and (not or is true) Exportation from (if and are true then is true) we can prove (if is true then is true, if is true) Importation If then (if then ) is equivalent to if and then Tautology (1) is true is equiv.", "to is true or is true Tautology (2) is true is equiv.", "to is true and is true Tertium non datur (Law of Excluded Middle) or not is true Law of Non-Contradiction and not is false, is a true statement" ], [ "Proofs in propositional calculus", "One of the main uses of a propositional calculus, when interpreted for logical applications, is to determine relations of logical equivalence between propositional formulas.", "These relationships are determined by means of the available transformation rules, sequences of which are called ''derivations'' or ''proofs''.In the discussion to follow, a proof is presented as a sequence of numbered lines, with each line consisting of a single formula followed by a ''reason'' or ''justification'' for introducing that formula.", "Each premise of the argument, that is, an assumption introduced as a hypothesis of the argument, is listed at the beginning of the sequence and is marked as a \"premise\" in lieu of other justification.", "The conclusion is listed on the last line.", "A proof is complete if every line follows from the previous ones by the correct application of a transformation rule.", "(For a contrasting approach, see proof-trees).===Example of a proof in natural deduction system===* To be shown that .", "* One possible proof of this (which, though valid, happens to contain more steps than are necessary) may be arranged as follows:+ Example of a proof Number Formula Reason premise From () by disjunction introduction From () and () by conjunction introduction From () by conjunction elimination Summary of () through () From () by conditional proofInterpret as \"Assuming , infer \".", "Read as \"Assuming nothing, infer that implies \", or \"It is a tautology that implies \", or \"It is always true that implies \".===Example of a proof in a classical propositional calculus system===We now prove the same theorem in the axiomatic system by Jan Łukasiewicz described above, which is an example of a Hilbert-style deductive system for the classical propositional calculus.The axioms are::(A1) :(A2) :(A3) And the proof is as follows:# (instance of (A1))# (instance of (A2))# (from (1) and (2) by modus ponens)# (instance of (A1))# (from (4) and (3) by modus ponens)" ], [ "Soundness and completeness of the rules", "The crucial properties of this set of rules are that they are ''sound'' and ''complete''.", "Informally this means that the rules are correct and that no other rules are required.", "These claims can be made more formal as follows.The proofs for the soundness and completeness of the propositional logic are not themselves proofs in propositional logic ; these are theorems in ZFC used as a metatheory to prove properties of propositional logic.We define a ''truth assignment'' as a function that maps propositional variables to '''true''' or '''false'''.", "Informally such a truth assignment can be understood as the description of a possible state of affairs (or possible world) where certain statements are true and others are not.", "The semantics of formulas can then be formalized by defining for which \"state of affairs\" they are considered to be true, which is what is done by the following definition.We define when such a truth assignment satisfies a certain well-formed formula with the following rules:* satisfies the propositional variable if and only if * satisfies if and only if does not satisfy * satisfies if and only if satisfies both and * satisfies if and only if satisfies at least one of either or * satisfies if and only if it is not the case that satisfies but not * satisfies if and only if satisfies both and or satisfies neither one of themWith this definition we can now formalize what it means for a formula to be implied by a certain set of formulas.", "Informally this is true if in all worlds that are possible given the set of formulas the formula also holds.", "This leads to the following formal definition: We say that a set of well-formed formulas ''semantically entails'' (or ''implies'') a certain well-formed formula if all truth assignments that satisfy all the formulas in also satisfy .Finally we define ''syntactical entailment'' such that is syntactically entailed by if and only if we can derive it with the inference rules that were presented above in a finite number of steps.", "This allows us to formulate exactly what it means for the set of inference rules to be sound and complete:''Soundness:'' If the set of well-formed formulas ''syntactically'' entails the well-formed formula then ''semantically'' entails .", "''Completeness:'' If the set of well-formed formulas ''semantically'' entails the well-formed formula then ''syntactically'' entails .For the above set of rules this is indeed the case.===Sketch of a soundness proof===(For most logical systems, this is the comparatively \"simple\" direction of proof)Notational conventions: Let be a variable ranging over sets of sentences.", "Let and range over sentences.", "For \" syntactically entails \" we write \" proves \".", "For \" semantically entails \" we write \" implies \".We want to show: (if proves , then implies ).We note that \" proves \" has an inductive definition, and that gives us the immediate resources for demonstrating claims of the form \"If proves , then ...\".", "So our proof proceeds by induction.Notice that Basis Step II can be omitted for natural deduction systems because they have no axioms.", "When used, Step II involves showing that each of the axioms is a (semantic) logical truth.The Basis steps demonstrate that the simplest provable sentences from are also implied by , for any .", "(The proof is simple, since the semantic fact that a set implies any of its members, is also trivial.)", "The Inductive step will systematically cover all the further sentences that might be provable—by considering each case where we might reach a logical conclusion using an inference rule—and shows that if a new sentence is provable, it is also logically implied.", "(For example, we might have a rule telling us that from \"\" we can derive \" or \".", "In III.a We assume that if is provable it is implied.", "We also know that if is provable then \" or \" is provable.", "We have to show that then \" or \" too is implied.", "We do so by appeal to the semantic definition and the assumption we just made.", "is provable from , we assume.", "So it is also implied by .", "So any semantic valuation making all of true makes true.", "But any valuation making true makes \" or \" true, by the defined semantics for \"or\".", "So any valuation which makes all of true makes \" or \" true.", "So \" or \" is implied.)", "Generally, the Inductive step will consist of a lengthy but simple case-by-case analysis of all the rules of inference, showing that each \"preserves\" semantic implication.By the definition of provability, there are no sentences provable other than by being a member of , an axiom, or following by a rule; so if all of those are semantically implied, the deduction calculus is sound.===Sketch of completeness proof===(This is usually the much harder direction of proof.", ")We adopt the same notational conventions as above.We want to show: If implies , then proves .", "We proceed by contraposition: We show instead that if does ''not'' prove then does ''not'' imply .", "If we show that there is a model where does not hold despite being true, then obviously does not imply .", "The idea is to build such a model out of our very assumption that does not prove .Thus every system that has modus ponens as an inference rule, and proves the following theorems (including substitutions thereof) is complete:* * * * * * * * The first five are used for the satisfaction of the five conditions in stage III above, and the last three for proving the deduction theorem.====Example====As an example, it can be shown that as any other tautology, the three axioms of the classical propositional calculus system described earlier can be proven in any system that satisfies the above, namely that has modus ponens as an inference rule, and proves the above eight theorems (including substitutions thereof).", "Out of the eight theorems, the last two are two of the three axioms; the third axiom, , can be proven as well, as we now show.For the proof we may use the hypothetical syllogism theorem (in the form relevant for this axiomatic system), since it only relies on the two axioms that are already in the above set of eight theorems.The proof then is as follows:# (instance of the 7th theorem)# (instance of the 7th theorem)# (from (1) and (2) by modus ponens)# (instance of the hypothetical syllogism theorem)# (instance of the 5th theorem)# (from (5) and (4) by modus ponens)# (instance of the 2nd theorem)# (instance of the 7th theorem)# (from (7) and (8) by modus ponens)# #:: (instance of the 8th theorem)# (from (9) and (10) by modus ponens)# (from (3) and (11) by modus ponens)# (instance of the 8th theorem)# (from (12) and (13) by modus ponens)# (from (6) and (14) by modus ponens)====Verifying completeness for the classical propositional calculus system====We now verify that the classical propositional calculus system described earlier can indeed prove the required eight theorems mentioned above.", "We use several lemmas proven here:: (DN1) - Double negation (one direction): (DN2) - Double negation (another direction): (HS1) - one form of Hypothetical syllogism: (HS2) - another form of Hypothetical syllogism: (TR1) - Transposition:(TR2) - another form of transposition.", ":(L1) :(L3) We also use the method of the hypothetical syllogism metatheorem as a shorthand for several proof steps.", "* - proof:# (instance of (A1))# (instance of (TR1))# (from (1) and (2) using the hypothetical syllogism metatheorem)# (instance of (DN1))# (instance of (HS1))# (from (4) and (5) using modus ponens)# (from (3) and (6) using the hypothetical syllogism metatheorem) - proof:# (instance of (HS1))# (instance of (L3))# (instance of (HS1))# (from (2) and (3) by modus ponens)# (from (1) and (4) using the hypothetical syllogism metatheorem)# (instance of (TR2))# (instance of (HS2))# (from (6) and (7) using modus ponens)# (from (5) and (8) using the hypothetical syllogism metatheorem) - proof:# (instance of (A1))# (instance of (A1))# (from (1) and (2) using modus ponens) - proof:# (instance of (L1))# (instance of (TR1))# (from (1) and (2) using the hypothetical syllogism metatheorem) - proof:# (instance of (A1))# (instance of (A3))# (from (1) and (2) using the hypothetical syllogism metatheorem) - proof given in the proof example above* - axiom (A1)* - axiom (A2)===Another outline for a completeness proof===If a formula is a tautology, then there is a truth table for it which shows that each valuation yields the value true for the formula.", "Consider such a valuation.", "By mathematical induction on the length of the subformulas, show that the truth or falsity of the subformula follows from the truth or falsity (as appropriate for the valuation) of each propositional variable in the subformula.", "Then combine the lines of the truth table together two at a time by using \"( is true implies ) implies (( is false implies ) implies )\".", "Keep repeating this until all dependencies on propositional variables have been eliminated.", "The result is that we have proved the given tautology.", "Since every tautology is provable, the logic is complete." ], [ "Interpretation of a truth-functional propositional calculus", "An ''interpretation of a truth-functional propositional calculus'' is an assignment to each propositional symbol of of one or the other (but not both) of the truth values truth ('''T''') and falsity ('''F'''), and an assignment to the connective symbols of of their usual truth-functional meanings.", "An interpretation of a truth-functional propositional calculus may also be expressed in terms of truth tables.For distinct propositional symbols there are distinct possible interpretations.", "For any particular symbol , for example, there are possible interpretations:# is assigned '''T''', or# is assigned '''F'''.For the pair , there are possible interpretations:# both are assigned '''T''',# both are assigned '''F''',# is assigned '''T''' and is assigned '''F''', or# is assigned '''F''' and is assigned '''T'''.Since has , that is, denumerably many propositional symbols, there are , and therefore uncountably many distinct possible interpretations of .===Interpretation of a sentence of truth-functional propositional logic===If and are formulas of and is an interpretation of then the following definitions apply:* A sentence of propositional logic is ''true under an interpretation'' if assigns the truth value '''T''' to that sentence.", "If a sentence is true under an interpretation, then that interpretation is called a ''model'' of that sentence.", "* is ''false under an interpretation'' if is not true under .", "* A sentence of propositional logic is ''logically valid'' if it is true under every interpretation.", ": means that is logically valid.", " A sentence of propositional logic is a ''semantic consequence'' of a sentence if there is no interpretation under which is true and is false.", "* A sentence of propositional logic is ''consistent'' if it is true under at least one interpretation.", "It is inconsistent if it is not consistent.Some consequences of these definitions:* For any given interpretation a given formula is either true or false.", "* No formula is both true and false under the same interpretation.", "* is false for a given interpretation is true for that interpretation; and is true under an interpretation is false under that interpretation.", "* If and are both true under a given interpretation, then is true under that interpretation.", "* If and , then .", "* is true under is not true under .", "* is true under either is not true under or is true under .", "* A sentence of propositional logic is a semantic consequence of a sentence is logically valid, that is, ." ], [ "Alternative calculus", "It is possible to define another version of propositional calculus, which defines most of the syntax of the logical operators by means of axioms, and which uses only one inference rule.===Axioms===Let , , and stand for well-formed formulas.", "(The well-formed formulas themselves would not contain any Greek letters, but only capital Roman letters, connective operators, and parentheses.)", "Then the axioms are as follows:+ Axioms Name Axiom Schema Description Add hypothesis , implication introduction Distribute hypothesis over implication Eliminate conjunction Introduce conjunction Introduce disjunction Eliminate disjunction Introduce negation Eliminate negation Excluded middle, classical logic Eliminate equivalence Introduce equivalenceAxiom may be considered to be a \"distributive property of implication with respect to implication.", "\"Axioms and correspond to \"conjunction elimination\".", "The relation between and reflects the commutativity of the conjunction operator.", "Axiom corresponds to \"conjunction introduction.", "\"Axioms and correspond to \"disjunction introduction.\"", "The relation between and reflects the commutativity of the disjunction operator.", "Axiom corresponds to \"reductio ad absurdum.", "\"Axiom says that \"anything can be deduced from a contradiction.", "\"Axiom is called \"tertium non-datur\" (Latin: \"a third is not given\") and reflects the semantic valuation of propositional formulas: a formula can have a truth-value of either true or false.", "There is no third truth-value, at least not in classical logic.", "Intuitionistic logicians do not accept the axiom .===Inference rule===The inference rule is modus ponens::.===Meta-inference rule===Let a demonstration be represented by a sequence, with hypotheses to the left of the turnstile and the conclusion to the right of the turnstile.", "Then the deduction theorem can be stated as follows:: ''If the sequence''::: ''has been demonstrated, then it is also possible to demonstrate the sequence''::.This deduction theorem (DT) is not itself formulated with propositional calculus: it is not a theorem of propositional calculus, but a theorem about propositional calculus.", "In this sense, it is a meta-theorem, comparable to theorems about the soundness or completeness of propositional calculus.On the other hand, DT is so useful for simplifying the syntactical proof process that it can be considered and used as another inference rule, accompanying modus ponens.", "In this sense, DT corresponds to the natural conditional proof inference rule which is part of the first version of propositional calculus introduced in this article.The converse of DT is also valid:: ''If the sequence''::: ''has been demonstrated, then it is also possible to demonstrate the sequence''::in fact, the validity of the converse of DT is almost trivial compared to that of DT:: ''If'':: : ''then'':: 1: :: 2: : ''and from (1) and (2) can be deduced'':: 3: : ''by means of modus ponens, Q.E.D.", "''The converse of DT has powerful implications: it can be used to convert an axiom into an inference rule.", "For example, by axiom AND-1 we have,: which can be transformed by means of the converse of the deduction theorem into: which tells us that the inference rule: is admissible.", "This inference rule is conjunction elimination, one of the ten inference rules used in the first version (in this article) of the propositional calculus.===Example of a proof===The following is an example of a (syntactical) demonstration, involving only axioms and :''Prove:'' (Reflexivity of implication).", "''Proof:''# #: Axiom with # #: Axiom with # #: From (1) and (2) by modus ponens.# #: Axiom with # #: From (3) and (4) by modus ponens." ], [ "Equivalence to equational logics", "The preceding alternative calculus is an example of a Hilbert-style deduction system.", "In the case of propositional systems the axioms are terms built with logical connectives and the only inference rule is modus ponens.", "Equational logic as standardly used informally in high school algebra is a different kind of calculus from Hilbert systems.", "Its theorems are equations and its inference rules express the properties of equality, namely that it is a congruence on terms that admits substitution.Classical propositional calculus as described above is equivalent to Boolean algebra, while intuitionistic propositional calculus is equivalent to Heyting algebra.", "The equivalence is shown by translation in each direction of the theorems of the respective systems.", "Theorems of classical or intuitionistic propositional calculus are translated as equations of Boolean or Heyting algebra respectively.", "Conversely theorems of Boolean or Heyting algebra are translated as theorems of classical or intuitionistic calculus respectively, for which is a standard abbreviation.", "In the case of Boolean algebra can also be translated as , but this translation is incorrect intuitionistically.In both Boolean and Heyting algebra, inequality can be used in place of equality.", "The equality is expressible as a pair of inequalities and .", "Conversely the inequality is expressible as the equality , or as .", "The significance of inequality for Hilbert-style systems is that it corresponds to the latter's deduction or entailment symbol .", "An entailment::is translated in the inequality version of the algebraic framework as::Conversely the algebraic inequality is translated as the entailment::.The difference between implication and inequality or entailment or is that the former is internal to the logic while the latter is external.", "Internal implication between two terms is another term of the same kind.", "Entailment as external implication between two terms expresses a metatruth outside the language of the logic, and is considered part of the metalanguage.", "Even when the logic under study is intuitionistic, entailment is ordinarily understood classically as two-valued: either the left side entails, or is less-or-equal to, the right side, or it is not.Similar but more complex translations to and from algebraic logics are possible for natural deduction systems as described above and for the sequent calculus.", "The entailments of the latter can be interpreted as two-valued, but a more insightful interpretation is as a set, the elements of which can be understood as abstract proofs organized as the morphisms of a category.", "In this interpretation the cut rule of the sequent calculus corresponds to composition in the category.", "Boolean and Heyting algebras enter this picture as special categories having at most one morphism per homset, i.e., one proof per entailment, corresponding to the idea that existence of proofs is all that matters: any proof will do and there is no point in distinguishing them." ], [ "Graphical calculi", "It is possible to generalize the definition of a formal language from a set of finite sequences over a finite basis to include many other sets of mathematical structures, so long as they are built up by finitary means from finite materials.", "What's more, many of these families of formal structures are especially well-suited for use in logic.For example, there are many families of graphs that are close enough analogues of formal languages that the concept of a calculus is quite easily and naturally extended to them.", "Many species of graphs arise as ''parse graphs'' in the syntactic analysis of the corresponding families of text structures.", "The exigencies of practical computation on formal languages frequently demand that text strings be converted into pointer structure renditions of parse graphs, simply as a matter of checking whether strings are well-formed formulas or not.", "Once this is done, there are many advantages to be gained from developing the graphical analogue of the calculus on strings.", "The mapping from strings to parse graphs is called ''parsing'' and the inverse mapping from parse graphs to strings is achieved by an operation that is called ''traversing'' the graph." ], [ "Other logical calculi", "Propositional calculus is about the simplest kind of logical calculus in current use.", "It can be extended in several ways.", "(Aristotelian \"syllogistic\" calculus, which is largely supplanted in modern logic, is in ''some'' ways simpler – but in other ways more complex – than propositional calculus.)", "The most immediate way to develop a more complex logical calculus is to introduce rules that are sensitive to more fine-grained details of the sentences being used.First-order logic (a.k.a.", "first-order predicate logic) results when the \"atomic sentences\" of propositional logic are broken up into terms, variables, predicates, and quantifiers, all keeping the rules of propositional logic with some new ones introduced.", "(For example, from \"All dogs are mammals\" we may infer \"If Rover is a dog then Rover is a mammal\".)", "With the tools of first-order logic it is possible to formulate a number of theories, either with explicit axioms or by rules of inference, that can themselves be treated as logical calculi.", "Arithmetic is the best known of these; others include set theory and mereology.", "Second-order logic and other higher-order logics are formal extensions of first-order logic.", "Thus, it makes sense to refer to propositional logic as ''\"zeroth-order logic\"'', when comparing it with these logics.Modal logic also offers a variety of inferences that cannot be captured in propositional calculus.", "For example, from \"Necessarily \" we may infer that .", "From we may infer \"It is possible that \".", "The translation between modal logics and algebraic logics concerns classical and intuitionistic logics but with the introduction of a unary operator on Boolean or Heyting algebras, different from the Boolean operations, interpreting the possibility modality, and in the case of Heyting algebra a second operator interpreting necessity (for Boolean algebra this is redundant since necessity is the De Morgan dual of possibility).", "The first operator preserves 0 and disjunction while the second preserves 1 and conjunction.Many-valued logics are those allowing sentences to have values other than ''true'' and ''false''.", "(For example, ''neither'' and ''both'' are standard \"extra values\"; \"continuum logic\" allows each sentence to have any of an infinite number of \"degrees of truth\" between ''true'' and ''false''.)", "These logics often require calculational devices quite distinct from propositional calculus.", "When the values form a Boolean algebra (which may have more than two or even infinitely many values), many-valued logic reduces to classical logic; many-valued logics are therefore only of independent interest when the values form an algebra that is not Boolean." ], [ "Solvers", "One notable difference between propositional calculus and predicate calculus is that satisfiability of a propositional formula is decidable.", "Deciding satisfiability of propositional logic formulas is an NP-complete problem.", "However, practical methods exist (e.g., DPLL algorithm, 1962; Chaff algorithm, 2001) that are very fast for many useful cases.", "Recent work has extended the SAT solver algorithms to work with propositions containing arithmetic expressions; these are the SMT solvers." ], [ "See also", "===Higher logical levels=== First-order logic* Second-order propositional logic* Second-order logic* Higher-order logic===Related topics===* Boolean algebra (logic)* Boolean algebra (structure)* Boolean algebra topics* Boolean domain* Boolean function* Boolean-valued function* Categorical logic* Combinational logic* Combinatory logic* Conceptual graph* Disjunctive syllogism* Entitative graph* Equational logic* Existential graph* Frege's propositional calculus* Implicational propositional calculus* Intuitionistic propositional calculus* Jean Buridan * ''Laws of Form''* List of logic symbols* Logical graph* Logical NOR* Logical value* Mathematical logic* Operation (mathematics)* Paul of Venice * Peirce's law* Peter of Spain (author) * Propositional formula* Symmetric difference* Tautology (rule of inference)* Truth function * Truth table* Walter Burley * William of Sherwood" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Brown, Frank Markham (2003), ''Boolean Reasoning: The Logic of Boolean Equations'', 1st edition, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, MA.", "2nd edition, Dover Publications, Mineola, NY.", "* Chang, C.C.", "and Keisler, H.J.", "(1973), ''Model Theory'', North-Holland, Amsterdam, Netherlands.", "* Kohavi, Zvi (1978), ''Switching and Finite Automata Theory'', 1st edition, McGraw–Hill, 1970.2nd edition, McGraw–Hill, 1978.", "* Korfhage, Robert R. (1974), ''Discrete Computational Structures'', Academic Press, New York, NY.", "* Lambek, J. and Scott, P.J.", "(1986), ''Introduction to Higher Order Categorical Logic'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.", "* Mendelson, Elliot (1964), ''Introduction to Mathematical Logic'', D. Van Nostrand Company.===Related works===" ], [ "External links", "Klement, Kevin C. (2006), \"Propositional Logic\", in James Fieser and Bradley Dowden (eds.", "), ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Eprint.", "* Formal Predicate Calculus, contains a systematic formal development along the lines of Alternative calculus* '' forall x: an introduction to formal logic'', by P.D.", "Magnus, covers formal semantics and proof theory for sentential logic.", "* Chapter 2 / Propositional Logic from Logic In Action* Propositional sequent calculus prover on Project Nayuki.", "(''note'': implication can be input in the form !X\|Y, and a sequent can be a single formula prefixed with > and having no commas)* Propositional Logic - A Generative Grammar* A Propositional Calculator that helps to understand simple expressions" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lazy evaluation" ], [ "Introduction", "In programming language theory, '''lazy evaluation''', or '''call-by-need''', is an evaluation strategy which delays the evaluation of an expression until its value is needed (non-strict evaluation) and which also avoids repeated evaluations (by the use of sharing).The benefits of lazy evaluation include: * The ability to define control flow (structures) as abstractions instead of primitives.", "* The ability to define potentially infinite data structures.", "This allows for more straightforward implementation of some algorithms.", "* The ability to define partly-defined data structures where some elements are errors.", "This allows for rapid prototyping.Lazy evaluation is often combined with memoization, as described in Jon Bentley's ''Writing Efficient Programs''.", "After a function's value is computed for that parameter or set of parameters, the result is stored in a lookup table that is indexed by the values of those parameters; the next time the function is called, the table is consulted to determine whether the result for that combination of parameter values is already available.", "If so, the stored result is simply returned.", "If not, the function is evaluated, and another entry is added to the lookup table for reuse.Lazy evaluation is difficult to combine with imperative features such as exception handling and input/output, because the order of operations becomes indeterminate.The opposite of lazy evaluation is eager evaluation, sometimes known as strict evaluation.", "Eager evaluation is the evaluation strategy employed in most programming languages." ], [ "History", "Lazy evaluation was introduced for lambda calculus by Christopher Wadsworth and employed by the Plessey System 250 as a critical part of a Lambda-Calculus Meta-Machine, reducing the resolution overhead for access to objects in a capability-limited address space.", "For programming languages, it was independently introduced by Peter Henderson and James H. Morris and by Daniel P. Friedman and David S. Wise." ], [ "Applications", "Delayed evaluation is used particularly in functional programming languages.", "When using delayed evaluation, an expression is not evaluated as soon as it gets bound to a variable, but when the evaluator is forced to produce the expression's value.", "That is, a statement such as x = expression; (i.e.", "the assignment of the result of an expression to a variable) clearly calls for the expression to be evaluated and the result placed in x, but what actually is in x is irrelevant until there is a need for its value via a reference to x in some later expression whose evaluation could itself be deferred, though eventually the rapidly growing tree of dependencies would be pruned to produce some symbol rather than another for the outside world to see.===Control structures===Lazy evaluation allows control structures to be defined normally, and not as primitives or compile-time techniques.", "For example one can define if-then-else and short-circuit evaluation operators:ifThenElse True b c = bifThenElse False b c = c-- orTrue b = TrueFalse b = b-- andTrue && b = bFalse && b = FalseThese have the usual semantics, i.e., evaluates (a), then if and only if (a) evaluates to true does it evaluate (b), otherwise it evaluates (c).", "That is, exactly one of (b) or (c) will be evaluated.", "Similarly, for , if the easy part gives '''True''' the lots of work expression could be avoided.", "Finally, when evaluating , if ''SafeToTry'' is '''false''' there will be no attempt at evaluating the ''Expression''.Conversely, in an eager language the above definition for would evaluate (a), (b), and (c) regardless of the value of (a).", "This is not the desired behavior, as (b) or (c) may have side effects, take a long time to compute, or throw errors.", "It is usually possible to introduce user-defined lazy control structures in eager languages as functions, though they may depart from the language's syntax for eager evaluation: Often the involved code bodies need to be wrapped in a function value, so that they are executed only when called.=== Working with infinite data structures ===Delayed evaluation has the advantage of being able to create calculable infinite lists without infinite loops or size matters interfering in computation.", "The actual values are only computed when needed.", "For example, one could create a function that creates an infinite list (often called a ''stream'') of Fibonacci numbers.", "The calculation of the ''n''-th Fibonacci number would be merely the extraction of that element from the infinite list, forcing the evaluation of only the first n members of the list.Take for example this trivial program in Haskell:numberFromInfiniteList :: Int -> IntnumberFromInfiniteList n = infinity n - 1 where infinity = 1..main = print $ numberFromInfiniteList 4In the function , the value of is an infinite range, but until an actual value (or more specifically, a specific value at a certain index) is needed, the list is not evaluated, and even then, it is only evaluated as needed (that is, until the desired index.)", "Provided the programmer is careful, the program completes normally.", "However, certain calculations may result in the program attempting to evaluate an infinite number of elements; for example, requesting the length of the list or trying to sum the elements of the list with a fold operation would result in the program either failing to terminate or running out of memory.As another example, the list of all Fibonacci numbers can be written in the programming language Haskell as: fibs = 0 : 1 : zipWith (+) fibs (tail fibs)In Haskell syntax, \":\" prepends an element to a list, tail returns a list without its first element, and zipWith uses a specified function (in this case addition) to combine corresponding elements of two lists to produce a third.=== List-of-successes pattern ======Other uses===In computer windowing systems, the painting of information to the screen is driven by ''expose events'' which drive the display code at the last possible moment.", "By doing this, windowing systems avoid computing unnecessary display content updates.Another example of laziness in modern computer systems is copy-on-write page allocation or demand paging, where memory is allocated only when a value stored in that memory is changed.Laziness can be useful for high performance scenarios.", "An example is the Unix mmap function, which provides ''demand driven'' loading of pages from disk, so that only those pages actually touched are loaded into memory, and unneeded memory is not allocated.MATLAB implements ''copy on edit'', where arrays which are copied have their actual memory storage replicated only when their content is changed, possibly leading to an ''out of memory'' error when updating an element afterwards instead of during the copy operation." ], [ "Performance", "The number of beta reductions to reduce a lambda term with call-by-need is no larger than the number needed by call-by-value or call-by-name reduction.", "And with certain programs the number of steps may be much smaller, for example a specific family of lambda terms using Church numerals take an infinite amount of steps with call-by-value (i.e.", "never complete), an exponential number of steps with call-by-name, but only a polynomial number with call-by-need.", "Call-by-need embodies two optimizations - never repeat work (similar to call-by-value), and never perform unnecessary work (similar to call-by-name).", "Lazy evaluation can also lead to reduction in memory footprint, since values are created when needed.In practice, lazy evaluation may cause significant performance issues compared to eager evaluation.", "For example, on modern computer architectures, delaying a computation and performing it later is slower than performing it immediately.", "This can be alleviated through strictness analysis.", "Lazy evaluation can also introduce memory leaks due to unevaluated expressions." ], [ "Implementation", "Some programming languages delay evaluation of expressions by default, and some others provide functions or special syntax to delay evaluation.", "In Miranda and Haskell, evaluation of function arguments is delayed by default.", "In many other languages, evaluation can be delayed by explicitly suspending the computation using special syntax (as with Scheme's \"delay\" and \"force\" and OCaml's \"lazy\" and \"Lazy.force\") or, more generally, by wrapping the expression in a thunk.", "The object representing such an explicitly delayed evaluation is called a ''lazy future.''", "Raku uses lazy evaluation of lists, so one can assign infinite lists to variables and use them as arguments to functions, but unlike Haskell and Miranda, Raku does not use lazy evaluation of arithmetic operators and functions by default." ], [ "Laziness and eagerness", "===Controlling eagerness in lazy languages===In lazy programming languages such as Haskell, although the default is to evaluate expressions only when they are demanded, it is possible in some cases to make code more eager—or conversely, to make it more lazy again after it has been made more eager.", "This can be done by explicitly coding something which forces evaluation (which may make the code more eager) or avoiding such code (which may make the code more lazy).", "''Strict'' evaluation usually implies eagerness, but they are technically different concepts.However, there is an optimisation implemented in some compilers called strictness analysis, which, in some cases, allows the compiler to infer that a value will always be used.", "In such cases, this may render the programmer's choice of whether to force that particular value or not, irrelevant, because strictness analysis will force strict evaluation.In Haskell, marking constructor fields strict means that their values will always be demanded immediately.", "The seq function can also be used to demand a value immediately and then pass it on, which is useful if a constructor field should generally be lazy.", "However, neither of these techniques implements ''recursive'' strictness—for that, a function called deepSeq was invented.Also, pattern matching in Haskell 98 is strict by default, so the ~ qualifier has to be used to make it lazy.=== Simulating laziness in eager languages =======Java====In Java, lazy evaluation can be done by using objects that have a method to evaluate them when the value is needed.", "The body of this method must contain the code required to perform this evaluation.", "Since the introduction of lambda expressions in Java SE8, Java has supported a compact notation for this.", "The following example generic interface provides a framework for lazy evaluation:interface Lazy { T eval();}The Lazy interface with its eval() method is equivalent to the Supplier interface with its get() method in the java.util.function library.Each class that implements the Lazy interface must provide an eval method, and instances of the class may carry whatever values the method needs to accomplish lazy evaluation.", "For example, consider the following code to lazily compute and print 210:Lazy a = () -> 1;for (int i = 0; i b = a; a = () -> b.eval() + b.eval();}System.out.println(\"a = \" + a.eval());In the above, the variable initially refers to a lazy integer object created by the lambda expression () -> 1.Evaluating this lambda expression is similar to constructing a new instance of an anonymous class that implements Lazy with an method returning .Each iteration of the loop links to a new object created by evaluating the lambda expression inside the loop.", "Each of these objects holds a reference to another lazy object, , and has an method that calls b.eval() twice and returns the sum.", "The variable is needed here to meet Java's requirement that variables referenced from within a lambda expression be effectively final.This is an inefficient program because this implementation of lazy integers does not memoize the result of previous calls to .", "It also involves considerable autoboxing and unboxing.", "What may not be obvious is that, at the end of the loop, the program has constructed a linked list of 11 objects and that all of the actual additions involved in computing the result are done in response to the call to a.eval() on the final line of code.", "This call recursively traverses the list to perform the necessary additions.We can build a Java class that memoizes a lazy object as follows:class Memo implements Lazy { private Lazy lazy; // a lazy expression, eval sets it to null private T memo; // the memorandum of the previous value public Memo(Lazy lazy) { this.lazy = lazy; } public T eval() { if (lazy != null) { memo = lazy.eval(); lazy = null; } return memo; }}This allows the previous example to be rewritten to be far more efficient.", "Where the original ran in time exponential in the number of iterations, the memoized version runs in linear time:Lazy a = () -> 1;for (int i = 0; i b = a; a = new Memo(() -> b.eval() + b.eval());}System.out.println(\"a = \" + a.eval());Java's lambda expressions are just syntactic sugar.", "Anything that can be written with a lambda expression can be rewritten as a call to construct an instance of an anonymous inner class implementing the interface, and any use of an anonymous inner class can be rewritten using a named inner class, and any named inner class can be moved to the outermost nesting level.====JavaScript====In JavaScript, lazy evaluation can be simulated by using a generator.", "For example, the stream of all Fibonacci numbers can be written, using memoization, as:/** * Generator functions return generator objects, which reify lazy evaluation.", "* @return {!Generator} A non-null generator of integers.", "/function fibonacciNumbers() { let memo = 1n, -1n; // create the initial state (e.g.", "a vector of \"negafibonacci\" numbers) while (true) { // repeat indefinitely memo = memo0 + memo1, memo0; // update the state on each evaluation yield memo0; // yield the next value and suspend execution until resumed }}let stream = fibonacciNumbers(); // create a lazy evaluated stream of numberslet first10 = Array.from(new Array(10), () => stream.next().value); // evaluate only the first 10 numbersconsole.log(first10); // the output is 0n, 1n, 1n, 2n, 3n, 5n, 8n, 13n, 21n, 34n====Python====In Python 2.x the range() function computes a list of integers.", "The entire list is stored in memory when the first assignment statement is evaluated, so this is an example of eager or immediate evaluation:>>> r = range(10)>>> print r0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9>>> print r33In Python 3.x the range() function returns a generator which computes elements of the list on demand.", "Elements are only generated when they are needed (e.g., when print(r3) is evaluated in the following example), so this is an example of lazy or deferred evaluation:>>> r = range(10)>>> print(r)range(0, 10)>>> print(r3)3:This change to lazy evaluation saves execution time for large ranges which may never be fully referenced and memory usage for large ranges where only one or a few elements are needed at any time.In Python 2.x is possible to use a function called xrange() which returns an object that generates the numbers in the range on demand.", "The advantage of xrange is that generated object will always take the same amount of memory.>>> r = xrange(10)>>> print(r)xrange(10)>>> lst = x for x in r>>> print(lst)0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9From version 2.2 forward, Python manifests lazy evaluation by implementing iterators (lazy sequences) unlike tuple or list sequences.", "For instance (Python 2):>>> numbers = range(10)>>> iterator = iter(numbers)>>> print numbers0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9>>> print iterator>>> print iterator.next()0:The above example shows that lists are evaluated when called, but in case of iterator, the first element '0' is printed when need arises.====.NET ====In the .NET framework, it is possible to do lazy evaluation using the class System.Lazy.", "The class can be easily exploited in F# using the lazy keyword, while the force method will force the evaluation.", "There are also specialized collections like Microsoft.FSharp.Collections.Seq that provide built-in support for lazy evaluation.", "let fibonacci = Seq.unfold (fun (x, y) -> Some(x, (y, x + y))) (0I,1I)fibonacci \|> Seq.nth 1000In C# and VB.NET, the class System.Lazy is directly used.", "public int Sum(){ int a = 0; int b = 0; Lazy x = new Lazy(() => a + b); a = 3; b = 5; return x.Value; // returns 8}Or with a more practical example: // recursive calculation of the n'th fibonacci numberpublic int Fib(int n){ return (n == 1)?", "1 : (n == 2)?", "1 : Fib(n-1) + Fib(n-2);}public void Main(){ Console.WriteLine(\"Which Fibonacci number do you want to calculate?", "\"); int n = Int32.Parse(Console.ReadLine()); Lazy fib = new Lazy(() => Fib(n)); // function is prepared, but not executed bool execute; if (n > 100) { Console.WriteLine(\"This can take some time.", "Do you really want to calculate this large number?", "y/n\"); execute = (Console.ReadLine() == \"y\"); } else execute = true; if (execute) Console.WriteLine(fib.Value); // number is only calculated if needed}Another way is to use the yield keyword: // eager evaluation public IEnumerable Fibonacci(int x){ IList fibs = new List(); int prev = -1; int next = 1; for (int i = 0; i LazyFibonacci(int x){ int prev = -1; int next = 1; for (int i = 0; i" ], [ "See also", "* Combinatory logic* Currying* Dataflow* Eager evaluation* Functional programming* Futures and promises* Generator (computer programming)* Graph reduction* Incremental computing – a related concept whereby computations are only repeated if their inputs change.", "May be combined with lazy evaluation.", "* Lambda calculus* Lazy initialization* Look-ahead* Non-strict programming language* Normal order evaluation* Short-circuit evaluation (minimal)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Lazy evaluation macros in Nemerle* Lambda calculus in Boost Libraries in C++ language* Lazy Evaluation in ANSI C++ by writing code in a style which uses classes to implement function closures." ] ]	wikipedia

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