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[ [ "Lemuridae" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lemuridae''' is a family of strepsirrhine primates native to Madagascar and the Comoros.", "They are represented by the Lemuriformes in Madagascar with one of the highest concentration of the lemurs.", "One of five families commonly known as lemurs.", "These animals were once thought to be the evolutionary predecessors of monkeys and apes, but this is no longer considered correct.", "They are formally referred to as '''lemurids'''." ], [ "Classification", "The family Lemuridae contains 21 extant species in five genera.", "'''Family Lemuridae'''*Genus ''Lemur''**Ring-tailed lemur, ''Lemur catta''*Genus ''Eulemur'', true lemurs''**Common brown lemur, ''Eulemur fulvus''**Sanford's brown lemur, ''Eulemur sanfordi''**White-headed lemur, ''Eulemur albifrons''**Red lemur, ''Eulemur rufus''**Red-fronted lemur, ''Eulemur rufifrons''**Collared brown lemur, ''Eulemur collaris''**Gray-headed lemur, ''Eulemur cinereiceps''**Black lemur, ''Eulemur macaco''**Blue-eyed black lemur, ''Eulemur flavifrons''**Crowned lemur, ''Eulemur coronatus''**Red-bellied lemur, ''Eulemur rubriventer''**Mongoose lemur, ''Eulemur mongoz''*Genus ''Varecia'', ruffed lemurs**Black-and-white ruffed lemur, ''Varecia variegata''**Red ruffed lemur, ''Varecia rubra''*Genus ''Hapalemur'', bamboo lemurs**Eastern lesser bamboo lemur (a.k.a.", "gray gentle bamboo lemur), ''Hapalemur griseus''**Southern lesser bamboo lemur, ''Hapalemur meridionalis''**Western lesser bamboo lemur, ''Hapalemur occidentalis''**Lac Alaotra gentle lemur (a.k.a.", "''bandro''), ''Hapalemur alaotrensis''**Golden bamboo lemur, ''Hapalemur aureus''**Greater bamboo lemur, ''Hapalemur simus''*Genus †''Pachylemur''**†''Pachylemur insignis''**†''Pachylemur jullyi''This family was once broken into two subfamilies, '''Hapalemurinae''' (bamboo lemurs and the greater bamboo lemur) and '''Lemurinae''' (the rest of the family), but molecular evidence and the similarity of the scent glands have since placed the ring-tailed lemur with the bamboo lemurs and the greater bamboo lemur.Lemur species in the genus ''Eulemur'' are known to interbreed, despite having dramatically different chromosome numbers.", "Red-fronted (2N=60) and collared (2N=50–52) brown lemurs were found to hybridize at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar." ], [ "Characteristics", "Lemurids are medium-sized arboreal primates, ranging from 32 to 56 cm in length, excluding the tail, and weighing from 0.7 to 5 kg.", "They have long, bushy tails and soft, woolly fur of varying coloration.", "The hindlegs are slightly longer than the forelegs, although not enough to hamper fully quadrupedal movement (unlike the sportive lemurs).", "Most species are highly agile, and regularly leap several metres between trees.", "They have a good sense of smell and binocular vision.", "Unlike most other lemurs, all but one species of lemurid (the ring-tailed lemur) lack a tapetum lucidum, a reflective layer in the eye that improves night vision.", "Historically among mammals, activity cycles are either strictly diurnal or nocturnal, however, these can widely vary across species.", "Lemur activity has in general evolved from nocturnal to diurnal.", "Some lemurs are also cathemeral, an activity pattern where an animal is neither strictly diurnal nor nocturnal.Lemurids are herbivorous, eating fruit, leaves, and, in some cases, nectar.", "For the most part, they have the dental formula: .", "A lemur's diet is one that is not restricted since their diet consists of frugivory, granivory, folivory, insectivory, omnivory, and gumnivory foods.", "Some Subfossil records have contributed to the knowledge of the currently extant lemurs from the Holocene by showing the changes in their dental records in habitats near human activity.", "This demonstrates that lemur species such as the lemur ''catta'' and the common brown lemur were forced to switch their primary diet to a group of secondary food sources.With most lemurids, the mother gives birth to one or two young after a gestation period of between 120 and 140 days, depending on species.", "The ruffed lemur species are the only lemurids that have true litters, consisting of anywhere from two to six offspring.", "They are generally sociable animals, living in groups of up to thirty individuals in some species.", "In some cases, such as the ring-tailed lemur, the groups are long-lasting, with distinct dominance hierarchies, while in others, such as the common brown lemur, the membership of the groups varies from day to day, and seems to have no clear social structure.Some of the lemur traits include low basal metabolic rate, highly seasonal breeders, adaptations to unpredictable climate and female dominance.", "Female dominance amongst lemurs is when the females are sexually monomorphic and have priority access to food.", "Lemurs live in groups of 11 to 17 animals, where females tend to stay within their natal groups and the males migrate.", "Male lemurs are competitive to win their mates which causes instability among the other organisms.", "Lemurs are able to mark their territory by using scents from local areas.A number of lemur species are considered threatened; two species are critically endangered, one species is endangered, and five species are rated as vulnerable." ], [ "Habitat", "The highly seasonal dry deciduous forest of Madagascar alternates between dry and wet seasons, making it uniquely suitable for lemurs.", "Lemur species diversity increases as the number of tree species in an area increase and is also higher in forests that have been disturbed over undisturbed areas.", "Evidence from the Subfossil records show that many of the now extinct lemurs actually lived in much drier climates than the currently extant lemurs." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lucent" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lucent Technologies, Inc.''' was an American multinational telecommunications equipment company headquartered in Murray Hill, New Jersey.", "It was established on September 30, 1996, through the divestiture of the former AT&T Technologies business unit of AT&T Corporation, which included Western Electric and Bell Labs.Lucent was merged with Alcatel SA of France on December 1, 2006, forming Alcatel-Lucent.", "Alcatel-Lucent was absorbed by Nokia in January 2016." ], [ "Name", "Inferno in IEEE Internet Computing, Volume 1, Number 2, March–April 1997Lucent means \"light-bearing\" in Latin.", "The name was applied for in 1996 at the time of the split from AT&T.The name was widely criticised, as the logo was to be, both internally and externally.", "Corporate communications and business cards included the strapline 'Bell Labs Innovations' in a bid to retain the prestige of the internationally famous research lab, within a new business under an as-yet unknown name.This same linguistic root also gives Lucifer, \"the light bearer\" (from lux, 'light', and ferre, 'to bear'), who is also a character in Dante's epic poem ''Inferno''.", "Shortly after the Lucent renaming in 1996, Lucent's Plan 9 project released a development of their work as the Inferno OS in 1997.This extended the 'Lucifer' and Dante references as a series of punning names for the components of Inferno - Dis, Limbo, Charon and Styx (9P Protocol).", "When the rights to Inferno were sold in 2000, the company Vita Nuova Holdings was formed to represent them.", "This continues the Dante theme, although moving away from his ''Divine Comedy'' to the poem ''La Vita Nuova''." ], [ "Logo", "The Lucent logo, the Innovation Ring, was designed by Landor Associates, a prominent San Francisco-based branding consultancy.", "One source inside Lucent says that the logo is a Zen Buddhist symbol for \"eternal truth\", the Enso, turned 90 degrees and modified.", "Another source says it represents the mythic ouroboros, a snake holding its tail in its mouth.", "Lucent's logo also has been said to represent constant re-creating and re-thinking.", "Carly Fiorina picked the logo because her mother was a painter and she rejected the sterile geometric logos of most high tech companies.After the logo was compared in the media to the ring a coffee mug leaves on paper, a ''Dilbert'' comic strip showed Dogbert as an overpaid consultant designing a new company logo; he takes a piece of paper that his coffee cup was sitting on and calls it the \"Brown Ring of Quality\".", "A telecommunication commentator referred to the logo as \"a big red zero\" and predicted financial losses." ], [ "History", "One of the primary reasons AT&T Corporation chose to spin off its equipment manufacturing business was to permit it to profit from sales to competing telecommunications providers; these customers had previously shown reluctance to purchase from a direct competitor.", "Bell Labs brought prestige to the new company, as well as the revenue from thousands of patents.At the time of its spinoff, Lucent was placed under the leadership of Henry Schacht, who was brought in to oversee its transition from an arm of AT&T into an independent corporation.", "Richard McGinn, who was serving as president and COO, succeeded Schacht as CEO in 1997 while Schacht remained chairman of the board.", "Lucent became a \"darling\" stock of the investment community in the late 1990s, and its split-adjusted spinoff price of $7.56/share rose to a high of $84.Its market capitalization reached a high of $258 billion, and it was at the time the most widely held company with 5.3 million shareholders.In 1997, Lucent acquired Milpitas-based voicemail market leader Octel Communications Corporation for $2.1 billion, a move which immediately rendered the Business Systems Group profitable.", "The same year, Lucent acquired Livingston Enterprises Inc. for $650 million in stock.", "Livingston was known most for the creation of the RADIUS protocol and their PortMaster product that was used widely by dial-up internet service providers.", "In 1999, Lucent acquired Ascend Communications, an Alameda, California–based manufacturer of communications equipment for US$24 billion.", "Lucent held discussions to acquire Juniper Networks but decided instead to build its own routers.In 1995, Carly Fiorina led corporate operations.", "In that capacity, she reported to Lucent chief executive Henry B. Schacht.", "She played a key role in planning and implementing the 1996 initial public offering of a successful stock and company launch strategy.", "Under her guidance, the spin-off raised 3 billion.Later in 1996, Fiorina was appointed president of Lucent's consumer products sector, reporting to president and chief operating officer Rich McGinn.", "In 1997, she was named group president for Lucent's 19 billion global service-provider business, overseeing marketing and sales for the company's largest customer segment.", "That year, Fiorina chaired a 2.5 billion joint venture between Lucent's consumer communications and Royal Philips Electronics, under the name Philips Consumer Communications (PCC).", "The focus of the venture was to bring both companies to the top three in technology, distribution, and brand recognition.Ultimately, the project struggled, and dissolved a year later after it garnered only 2% market share in mobile phones.", "Losses were at $500 million on sales of $2.5 billion.", "As a result of the failed joint venture, Philips announced the closure of one-quarter of the company's 230 factories worldwide, and Lucent closed down its wireless handset portion of the venture.", "Analysts suggested that the joint venture's failure was due to a combination of technology and management problems.", "Upon the end of the joint venture, PCC sent 5,000 employees back to Philips, many of which were laid off, and 8,400 employees back to Lucent.Under Fiorina, the company added 22,000 jobs and revenues seemed to grow from 19 billion to 38 billion.", "However, the real cause of Lucent spurring sales under Fiorina was by lending money to their own customers.", "According to ''Fortune'' magazine, \"In a neat bit of accounting magic, money from the loans began to appear on Lucent’s income statement as new revenue while the dicey debt got stashed on its balance sheet as an allegedly solid asset\".", "Lucent's stock price grew 10-fold.At the start of 2000, Lucent's \"private bubble\" burst, while competitors like Nortel Networks and Alcatel were still going strong; it would be many months before the rest of the telecom industry bubble collapsed.", "Previously Lucent had 14 straight quarters where it exceeded analysts' expectations, leading to high expectations for the 15th quarter, ending Dec. 31, 1999.On January 6, 2000, Lucent made the first of a string of announcements that it had missed its quarterly estimates, as CEO Rich McGinn grimly announced that Lucent had run into special problems during that quarter—including disruptions in its optical networking business—and reported flat revenues and a big drop in profits.", "That caused the stock to plunge by 28%, shaving $64 billion off of the company's market capitalization.", "When it was later revealed that it had used dubious accounting and sales practices to generate some of its earlier quarterly numbers, Lucent fell from grace.", "It was said that \"Rich McGinn couldn't accept Lucent's fall from its early triumphs.\"", "He described himself once as imposing \"audacious\" goals on his managers, believing the stretch for performance would produce dream results.", "Henry Schacht defended the corporate culture that McGinn created and noted that McGinn did not sell any Lucent shares while serving as CEO.", "In June 2000, Lucent announced it would acquire Chromartis, an Israeli maker of optical network equipment, for $4.5 billion In November 2000, the company disclosed to the Securities and Exchange Commission that it had a $125 million accounting error for the third quarter of 2000, and by December 2000 it reported it had overstated its revenues for its latest quarter by nearly $700 million.", "Although no wrongdoing was found on his part, McGinn was forced to resign as CEO and he was replaced by Schacht on an interim basis.", "Subsequently, its CFO, Deborah Hopkins, left the company in May 2001 with Lucent's stock at $9.06 whereas at the time she was hired it was at $46.82.In August 2001, Lucent shut down Chromartis.In 2000, Lucent received the Shingo Prize for Excellence in Manufacturing at the Mount Olive, New Jersey Product Realization Center.In 2001 there were merger discussions between Lucent and Alcatel, which would have seen Lucent acquired at its current market price without a premium; the newly combined entity would have been headquartered in Murray Hill.", "However, these negotiations collapsed when Schacht insisted on an equal 7–7 split of the merged company's board of directors, while Alcatel chief executive officer Serge Tchuruk wanted 8 of the 14 board seats for Alcatel due to it being in a stronger position.", "The failure of the merger talks caused Lucent's share price to collapse, and by October 2002 the stock price had bottomed at 55 cents per share.Patricia Russo, formerly Lucent's EVP of the Corporate Office who then left for Eastman Kodak to serve as COO, was named permanent chairman and CEO of Lucent in 2002, succeeding Schacht who remained on the board of directors.In April 2000, Lucent sold its Consumer Products unit to VTech.", "In October 2000, Lucent spun off its Business Systems arm into Avaya, Inc., and in June 2002, it spun off its microelectronics division into Agere Systems.", "The spinoffs of enterprise networking and wireless, the industry's key growth businesses from 2003 onward, meant that Lucent no longer had the capacity to serve this market.Lucent was reduced to 30,500 employees, down from about 165,000 employees at its zenith.", "The layoffs of so many experienced employees meant that the company was in a weakened position and unable to re-establish itself when the market recovered in 2003.By early 2003, Lucent's market value was $15.6 billion (which includes $6.8 billion of current value for two companies that Lucent had recently spun off, Avaya and Agere Systems), making the shares worth around $2.13, a far cry from its dotcom bubble peak of around $84, when Lucent was worth $258 billion.Lucent continued to be active in the areas of telephone switching, optical, data and wireless networking.On April 2, 2006, Lucent announced a merger agreement with Alcatel, which was 1.5 times the size of Lucent.", "Serge Tchuruk became non-executive chairman, and Russo served as CEO of the newly merged company, Alcatel-Lucent, until they were both forced to resign at the end of 2008.The merger failed to produce the expected synergies, and there were significant write-downs of Lucent's assets that Alcatel purchased." ], [ "Operations", "===Divisions===Lucent was divided into several core groups:* '''Network Solutions Group''' served landline/cellular telephone service providers by providing equipment and other solutions necessary to provide telephone service, including networking equipment.", "* '''Lucent Worldwide Services (LWS)''' provided network services to telecom companies and business; clients included AT&T Corporation and Verizon.", "Divisions of LWS included the AT&T Customer Business Unit, known as ACBU; and another group for Southwestern Bell and other Bell companies.", "Both divisions were responsible for the installation of telecom equipment ranging from 2-pair copper to multi-wire fiber optics.", "Each group also installed the first true national cellular service with LTE speeds in the 1990s.", "* '''Bell Labs''' was created in 1925 as the R&D firm of the Bell System.", "It was an AT&T subsidiary set up as dual ownership by AT&T and Western Electric, the manufacturing arm of AT&T.===Murray Hill facility===The Murray Hill facility in New Providence, New Jersey was the global headquarters for Lucent Technologies.", "The building has the largest copper-clad roof in the world.", "There was a cricket field in the grounds.Lucent headquarters, Murray Hill, New Jersey, 2007The Murray Hill anechoic chamber, built in 1940, is the world's oldest wedge-based anechoic chamber.", "The interior room measures approximately high by wide by deep.", "The exterior concrete and brick walls are about thick to keep outside noise from entering the chamber.", "The chamber absorbs over 99.995% of the incident acoustic energy above 200 Hz.", "At one time the Murray Hill chamber was cited in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's quietest room.", "It is possible to hear the sounds of skeletal joints and heart beats very prominently.===Mount Olive facility===The Mount Olive Product Realization Center (MTO-PRC) facility in Mount Olive, New Jersey was part of the Wireless Networks Group business unit.", "The 252,000 square-feet building was constructed for AT&T Corp. in 1994.The two leased buildings were located at the International Trade Center (New Jersey) and one building was used for warehousing and the other used for wireless products manufacturing since 1995.An additionally built wireless products manufacturing, PRC, was located in Piscataway, New Jersey also independently of AT&T creation.This system integration plant was a manufacturing location with the business unit under one roof.", "This allowed, the development, design, business functions for manufacturing cellular phone parts and between 1996 and 1999, the production of first generation CDMA (Code-division multiple access) minicells needed for cellular phone carriers.", "A 1,015-lb second generation Flexent Modcell cabinet was introduced in October 1999 for production as PCS (1.9 gigahertz) and TDMA (time-division multiple access) cellular (850 MHz) versions.From 1996 to 1999, PRC achieved and reduced with this new facility the following production metrics and lean manufacturing statistics: product-development cycle time reduced over 50%, material cost reduced 43%, cost of goods by 68%, assembly productivity increased close to 150%, assembly defects reduced by 80%, manufacturing inventory reduced 70%, and 100% on-time delivery.", "The facility introduced several self-managed work teams called PODs (Production On Demand) to assemble and test 50 Flexent Modcells daily.The location was also active in research and development of CDMA minicells for future global market growth and third generation W-CDMA (Wideband Code-Division Multiple Access) innovation.", "Expansion was evident with minicell lines for the South America market with cross-training technicians from Brazil on the product and the W-CDMA product for Japan's cellular carrier, NTT DoCoMo.The facility was awarded various awards and prizes for the lean manufacturing of products and excellence in work methods.In June 2002, Lucent announced closure of the manufacturing building by the end of the year, due to the telecommunication losses in operations.", "Of the remaining 530 employees at the facility.", "170 were employee layoffs and the other 360 employees would mostly transfer to Lucent's Whippany, New Jersey location.", "The manufacturing of cell based systems would transfer to the Columbus, Ohio facility without employees.", "In the prior year.", "the warehouse building had closed for consolidation of facilities and cost reduction.=== Notable buildings ===During its expansion in the late 1990s, Lucent commissioned several large office buildings.", "The architectural firm, Kevin Roche, John Dinkeloo, and Associates (KRJDA) designed five structures clad in energy-efficient, tinted, low-E glass.", "* '''Westminster''' – built between 1997 and 2001, the Westminster, Colorado building was a 480,000 ft² research and development facility for 1,350 employees.", "Its design is similar to the Lisle, Illinois building, with two four-story wings arranged with an entrance resembling a glass satellite dish.", "The building was an expansion to the existing Westminster building via pedestrian bridge.", "* '''Naperville''' – in 2000, the 600,000 ft² Naperville, Illinois five-story structure was completed for 2000 employees.", "It had a pedestrian bridge to the existing Indian Hill research and development building.", "In April 2023, the building was sold for $4.8 million by Nokia to a developer and the new ownership began demolition in August 2023 of those structures formerly called 'Indian Hill New' by Lucent and Alcatel-Lucent.", "* '''Lisle''' – in 2001, the Network Software Center in Lisle, Illinois was also completed in a similar design of a five-story three building with wings and two parking garages.", "This research and development building was a 600,000 ft² glass building for 2,000 employees.", "A pedestrian bridge over an existing lake linked it to the Network Software Center, built in the 1970s.Lucent Technologies Nuremberg building was an expansion to two existing buildings in Germany previously owned by Philips Kommunikations Industrie and acquired by AT&T Network Systems.", "* '''Nuremberg''' – completed in 2002, the Nuremberg, Germany \"serpentine\" five-story building was a 215,000 ft² expansion for two existing buildings, with the same aesthetic design as the United States projects.", "It included a customer center and training area.", "* '''Agere Hanover''' – the last project was completed in 2002 in Hanover Township, Allentown, Pennsylvania.", "The project was called the Agere Systems Expansion, which was a three-story administration, research and development building for 2,000 employees with 560,000 ft² of space.", "These buildings also included parking garages with about 2,000 parking spaces.", "The new structures were planned in 1998 by Lucent Technologies, before Agere was incorporated on August 1, 2000, and Agere was spun off by Lucent Technologies on June 1, 2002.Built at a cost of $165 million, it became the Agere world headquarters in 2003 with consolidation of offices, research and development operations from former AT&T/Lucent Technologies locations at Allentown, Breinigsville, and Muhlenberg.=== Leased locations ===To meet customer and business needs, further locations were built and leased for Lucent, rather than built as corporate assets.", "At September, 1997 Lucent reported that future non-cancelable lease payments totaled $1,037 million.", "* '''Oklahoma City''' – in 1997, Adevco Corp. of Norcross, Ga., built the $8 million building for a Lucent customer center to employ 400 people in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.", "Additionally, $4 million was added to the cost for components, communications systems, and technology of the 10 year contracted lease.", "The location was to provide support in orders, billing, and scheduled service for over 1.5 million customers.", "The 57,000-square-foot building was at 14400 Hertz Quail Springs Parkway and was the largest of four customer care locations.", "The other three centers being opened were in Tucson, Arizona; Atlanta, Georgia; and Parsippany, New Jersey.", "* '''Altamonte Springs''' – in 1997, an international telecommunications training center was being constructed for potentially 20,000 yearly students learning the network and computerized phone switches.", "The Altamonte Springs, Florida 100,000-square-foot center would have approximately 100 employees and consolidate the Northlake Boulevard Altamonte Springs training center with 20 employees.", "The building was located near Interstate 4 and Central Parkway, and leased from Emerson International.", "State and city officials gave Lucent a $348,600 four-year incentive packages to build the center at that city.", "The address was 240 East Central Parkway and considered as Centerpointe building.", "The training courses were hands-on, lab-based training of company products in data-networking, network-management, optical-networking, wireless, and wireline technologies in either international or domestic markets.", "The location also provided Navis™ Optical EMS (Element Management System) System User and Administration Training Using the GUI optical courses.", "The Customer Training and Information Products at Lucent Technologies facility continued to be known later as Alcatel-Lucent University upon the merger.", "* '''Coppell''' – in 1998, consolidation of six office buildings, with seven business units, were planned for a new building in Coppell, Texas.", "A business communications systems division and various local area administration, service, and sales employees were moved to the building.", "The 100,000-square-foot constructed building was a two-story office building at address, 1111 Freeport Parkway.", "Catellus Management Corporation was the developer on the project and Compass Management & Leasing was the lessor for Lucent.", "Lucent's real estate costs for Carrollton and Las Colinas buildings were eliminated with this new building constructed.", "Also, additional buildings at the following locations were moved as planned: 1841 Hutton in Valwood, 4006 Belt Line Road, 4100 Bryan, 5429 LBJ Freeway, 5501 LBJ Freeway, and 17950 Preston Road.", "In 1999, Townsend Capital purchased the building and Lucent was subletting the building to Avaya.Lucent Technologies building at Highlands Ranch, Colorado.", "This center building is address 8742 Lucent Blvd and later became Alcatel-Lucent.", "The other two buildings on the left and right were also built for Lucent until one was later used by Avaya.", "* '''Highlands Ranch''' – in 1999, Lucent moved its regional headquarters into the recently built Highlands Ranch Business Park at Highlands Ranch, Colorado.", "Shea Properties constructed the center and anticipated Lucents' decision by changing the name of Highlands Ranch Boulevard to Lucent Boulevard in 1997.The address was 8740-8744 Lucent Blvd and there was 600,000 square feet of office space to consolidate 3,200 employees from 13 sites near Denver.", "The 37-acre campus of three white precast buildings was built by Citadel National Construction Group in 21 months and Townsend Capital, LLC was the lessor for Lucent's project.", "The 8744 Lucent Blvd building was later used by Avaya.", "* '''Miramar''' – in 2000, Lucent announced the Miramar, Florida, 240,000 square foot Caribbean & Latin American division (CALA) regional headquarters, to be built at a cost of $40 million.", "Opening was expected in summer 2001 at 2400 SW 145th Avenue, to consolidate 1,200 employees from 13 South Florida locations.", "Clayco built and developed the four-story, V-shaped building, including two wings for Rockefeller Group Development Corporation, the lessor of the building for Lucent's 15-year contract.", "About 2,500 square feet of lab space was planned for product development as part of this project.", "In 2002, Lucent's technology bubble burst and it relinquished 150,000 square feet of unused space.", "Within 24 months, the company recovered $20 million or more from subleasing the former space to new tenants.", "Alcatel-Lucent continued to use the building for CALA operations after the Lucent merger.=== International locations ===* '''Bangalore''' - in 1997, Bell Labs R&D was opened in Bangalore, India and after four years of operation, Lucent announced the closure of Bell Labs in India.", "In August 2001, during the announcement, up to 500 employees were at Bangalore and Hyderabad locations.", "Lucent planned a $2 billion improvement in capital with restructuring on a global plan.", "On July 9, 2000, a year earlier, Lucent had hired five Indian teenagers Bangalore jobs as they were considered, the “best and brightest minds” of Chennai and Bangalore.", "* '''Singapore''' – in 1998, an $8 million education and training center was planned for the Asia Pacific region.", "The Singapore location would have 20,000 square feet of space with allocation of about 5,000 square feet of lab and equipment areas.", "The ten classrooms were for training customers on telecommunications services and products.", "* '''Madrid''' – in 2000, the microelectronics unit of Lucent Technologies located at Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain was ending production of integrated circuits under Agere.", "The facility was installed by AT&T in 1987 and became Lucent in 1996.During Lucent's creation of Agere as a subsidiary, the facility became Agere and was later acquired by BP Solar to manufacture photovoltaic panels.", "Lucent sold the facility in restructuring efforts to reduce staff and reduce the value of manufacturing assets.", "The location was called Lucent Technologies Madrid or Tres Cantos.", "Although the facility had a record of turnover production in November 2000 of 180 million euros and 18 million euros in income, it sold after June 2001 to BP due to not exceeding 25% production demand.Lucent Technologies buildings were former Philips Telecommunications buildings in Larenseweg, Hilversum, Netherlands.", "Two out of the four office buildings were demolished in 2015.The former office parking lot became a school building named Lucent College.", "* '''Hyderabad''' - in 2001, Lucent announced the closure of Bell Labs in India at the Bangalore and Hyderabad, India R&D locations.", "* '''Gurgaon''' - in 2001, Lucent announced the Bangalore and Hyderabad Bell Labs locations of India to close.", "The Gurgaon, India location was not in the August 2001 announcement and stated there were about 500 employees at the location supporting networking, marketing, and sales and not associated with the Bell Labs or R&D aspects.", "* '''Hilversum''' - in 2002, the Hilversum, Netherlands announced a closure of the facility.", "The closure would result in 300 employees in the Research and Development manufacturing sector.", "The Hilversum telecommunications operations were originally sold to AT&T from Philips in 1989.", "* '''Bangalore''' - in 2004, Lucent announced a Bell Research Center in Bangalore, India with development on data and networking management software.", "The scientists at Bell Labs Research would work on computer algorithms and switch architectures for wireless, optical, or data networking.=== Domestic manufacturing locations ===Many of the following manufacturing locations were transferred to other subsidiaries during Lucent's existence, closed, or sold years later.", "These facilities were established by Western Electric before the 1983 Bell System break-up.", "AT&T operated and managed these locations from 1984 until 1996.After the AT&T spin-off of Lucent, the telecommunications equipment being manufactured at these locations became products of Lucent Technologies.+NameLocationAddressEstablishedProductsNotesAllentown WorksAllentown, Pennsylvania555 Union Blvd.1948microelectronics1,036,000 sq.", "ft. /later Agere Systems.", "Agere Systems, Inc. and LSI Logic Corporation merged and operated under a new name LSI Corporation effective April 2, 2007.Closed, several buildings demolished of manufacturing, and sold historical building for charter school.", "Atlanta WorksNorcross, Georgia2000 Northeast Expressway1969undersea cables, later fiber-optic cables Lucent closed in 2001 the Optical Fiber Solutions (OFS) business and sold it to Furukawa Electric Co., Ltd. at $2.525 billion.", "Additionally, Corning Incorporated paid Lucent $225 million for Lucent Technologies Beijing Fiber Optic Cable Co., Ltd. and Lucent Technologies Shanghai Fiber Optic Co. Ltd. of China in this deal.Columbus WorksColumbus, Ohio6200 E. Broad St.1959switching equipment1,661,000 sq.", "ft./ Closed in 2010/2011 under Alcatel-Lucent, sold, and demolished by new owners.", "From 1957 Western Electric move-in until Bell Labs 1959 move-in, plant reached 3,100 employees.", "During Western Electric mid 1970s, plant reached 12,000 employees.", "Between 1984 and 1996, AT&T owned and managed the facility products.", "From 1996 until 2000, Lucent Technologies changed production with employees concerned of plant operations.", "About 5,500 employees were in 2000, then Lucent decided to sell in 2001 to Celestica the plant and employees, who did not take severance packages.", "In 2002 Lucent re-purchased the plant from Celestica.", "Shortly in 2003, with 1,470 employees in R&D mostly left, Lucent decided to sell the plant.", "Merger in 2006 with Alcatel-Lucent.", "In October 2007, Alcatel-Lucent to cease productions and release 230 positions.", "Alcatel-Lucent in 2009, had 700 employees in non-manufacturing activities.", "On October 17, 2012, new owners purchased the 84-acre property for $2.3 million and decided to demolish 943,000 square feet of manufacturing space.", "The historical administration office building later was used as offices.Dallas WorksMesquite, Texas3000 Skyline Drive1970electronic switches and power equipment/supplies Closed and sold.Denver WorksWestminster, Colorado12110 Pecos St.1972Dimension and Horizon business PBX systems Closed and sold.Greensboro ShopsGreensboro, North Carolina801 Merritt Dr.1950military equipment336,000 sq.", "ft./ Closed and sold.Indianapolis WorksIndianapolis, Indiana2525 Shadeland Ave.1950consumer telephone sets1,824,000 sq.", "ft. / Closed and sold.Kansas City WorksLee's Summit, Missouri777 N. Blue Pkwy1961electronics, switching equipment1,517,000 sq.", "ft./ Closed and sold.Merrimack Valley WorksNorth Andover, Massachusetts1600 Osgood St.1956transmission equipment1,565,000 sq.", "ft./ Closed and sold.Oklahoma City WorksOklahoma City, Oklahoma7725 W Reno Ave1961payphones, switching equipment Closed and sold.Omaha WorksOmaha, Nebraska132nd and L Streets1958crossbar, dial, and PBX equipment, cable, relays\"Two key buildings that were part of the original complex: Building 20 (the property’s iconic office building) and Building 30 (a former manufacturing/warehouse facility).\"", "were purchased upon the closure in November 2011.Closed and sold.Orlando WorksOrlando, Florida9701 and 9333 John Young Parkwayearly 1980smicroelectronics1,307,000 sq.", "ft. /later Agere Systems Closed 2005, demolished, and sold 2007.Phoenix WorksPhoenix, Arizona505 N. 51 Ave.1967cable and wire850,000 sq.", "ft./ Closed and sold.Reading WorksReading, Pennsylvania2525 North 12th St1962microelectronics1,214,000 sq.", "ft./later Agere Systems Closed and sold.Richmond WorksRichmond, Virginia4500 Laburnum Ave1973printed circuit technology400,000 sq.", "ft./ In 1979, Fortune Magazine designated as one of the 10 best-managed American factories.", "Sold in 1996 to Viasystems Group, Inc. and closed the circuit board plant.", "During Viasystems, the manufacturing operations ceased in June 2001 and the facility was idle up-to the sale on August 23, 2006.The new ownership, Laburnum Investments, LLC, planned the White Oak Village Shopping Center.", "Although, the site was sold, Lucent and Alcatel-Lucent were involved in the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) remediation of chemicals underground from Western Electric/AT&T operations.", "Afterwards, when the EPA ordered remediation clean-up in 1996 under Lucent, several companies were later created and responsibility for the cleanup was the following: Agere in 2001, LSI in 2007, Avago in 2014, and Broadcom in 2016.Shreveport WorksShreveport, Louisiana9595 Mansfield Rd1967business and consumer telephone sets, payphones1,206,000 sq.", "ft./Closed and sold.Winston-Salem WorksWinston-Salem, North Carolina3300 Lexington Rd.", "S.E.1954broadband carrier equipment, inbound signaling, telephone and telegraph repeaters, capacitors, thin film resistors, sealed contacts, magnetic apparatus, mainly military and wave guide equipment1,084,000/ Closed and sold.=== Awards ===*1997, the Primetime Engineering Emmy Awards from the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences for work done by formerly AT&T Bell Labs and Microelectronics Group on the Grand Alliance (HDTV) project for digital television.", "*1998.the Adjunct Physics Director at Lucent Bell Labs, Horst Stormer, received the Nobel Prize in Physics with former AT&T Bell Labs scientists Daniel C. Tsui and Robert B. Laughlin.", "Their research work was done on fractional quantum hall effect during their tenure at AT&T Bell Labs.", "*1998, Lucent received the INFORMS Prize, for its work in the companies operations research, presented by Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences.", "*1999.the Wireless Networks Group at the Mount Olive, New Jersey Product Realization Center, received the 1999 New Jersey Governor's Gold Award for Performance Excellence.", "*2000, the Shingo Prize for Excellence in Manufacturing was awarded at the Mount Olive Product Realization Center." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lupercalia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lupercalia''', also known as Lupercal, was a pastoral festival of Ancient Rome observed annually on February 15 to purify the city, promoting health and fertility.", "Lupercalia was also known as ''dies Februatus'', after the purification instruments called ''februa'', the basis for the month named ''Februarius''." ], [ "Name", "The festival was originally known as Februa (\"Purifications\" or \"Purgings\") after the '''' which was used on the day.", "It was also known as '''' and gave its name variously, as epithet to Juno Februalis, Februlis, or Februata in her role as patron deity of that month; to a supposed purification deity called Februus; and to February (''''), the month during which the festival occurred.", "Ovid connects '''' to an Etruscan word for \"purging\".The name ''Lupercalia'' was believed in antiquity to evince some connection with the Ancient Greek festival of the Arcadian Lykaia, a wolf festival (, ''lýkos''; ), and the worship of ''Lycaean Pan'', assumed to be a Greek equivalent to Faunus, as instituted by Evander.", "Justin describes a cult image of \"the Lycaean god, whom the Greeks call Pan and the Romans Lupercus\", as nude, save for a goatskin girdle.", "The statue stood in the Lupercal, the cave where tradition held that Romulus and Remus were suckled by the she-wolf (Lupa).", "The cave lay at the foot of the Palatine Hill, on which Romulus was thought to have founded Rome.", "The name of the festival most likely derives from ''lupus'', \"wolf\", though both the etymology and its significance are obscure.", "The wolf appellation may have to do with the fact that an animal predator plays a key role in male rites of passage.", "Despite Justin's assertion, no deity named \"Lupercus\" has been identified." ], [ "Rites", "===Locations===The rites were confined to the Lupercal cave, the Palatine Hill, and the Forum, all of which were central locations in Rome's foundation myth.", "Near the cave stood a sanctuary of Rumina, goddess of breastfeeding; and the wild fig-tree (''Ficus Ruminalis'') to which Romulus and Remus were brought by the divine intervention of the river-god Tiberinus; some Roman sources name the wild fig tree ''caprificus'', literally \"goat fig\".", "Like the cultivated fig, its fruit is pendulous, and the tree exudes a milky sap if cut, which makes it a good candidate for a cult of breastfeeding.===Priesthoods===''Lupercalia'' most likely derives from ''lupus'', \"wolf\", though both the etymology and its significance are obscure ''(bronze wolf's head, 1st century AD)''The Lupercalia had its own priesthood, the ''Luperci'' (\"brothers of the wolf\"), whose institution and rites were attributed either to the Arcadian culture-hero Evander, or to Romulus and Remus, erstwhile shepherds who had each established a group of followers.", "The ''Luperci'' were young men (''iuvenes''), usually between the ages of 20 and 40.They formed two religious ''collegia'' (associations) based on ancestry; the ''Quinctiliani'' (named after the ''gens'' Quinctia) and the ''Fabiani'' (named after the ''gens'' Fabia).", "Each college was headed by a ''magister''.In 44 BC, a third college, the ''Juliani'', was instituted in honor of Julius Caesar; its first ''magister'' was Mark Antony.", "The college of ''Juliani'' disbanded or lapsed following the Assassination of Julius Caesar, and was not re-established in the reforms of his successor, Augustus.", "In the Imperial era, membership of the two traditional ''collegia'' was opened to ''iuvenes'' of equestrian status.===Sacrifice===At the Lupercal altar, a male goat (or goats) and a dog were sacrificed by one or another of the ''Luperci'', under the supervision of the Flamen dialis, Jupiter's chief priest.", "An offering was also made of salted mealcakes, prepared by the Vestal Virgins.", "After the blood sacrifice, two ''Luperci'' approached the altar.", "Their foreheads were anointed with blood from the sacrificial knife, then wiped clean with wool soaked in milk, after which they were expected to laugh.The sacrificial feast followed, after which the Luperci cut thongs (known as '''') from the flayed skin of the animal, and ran with these, naked or near-naked, along the old Palatine boundary, in an anticlockwise direction around the hill.", "In Plutarch's description of the Lupercalia, written during the early Roman Empire,The ''Luperci'' completed their circuit of the Palatine, then returned to the ''Lupercal'' cave." ], [ "History", "circle of Adam Elsheimer, showing the Luperci dressed as dogs and goats, with Cupid and personifications of fertilityThe Februa was of ancient and possibly Sabine origin.", "After February was added to the Roman calendar, Februa occurred on its fifteenth day ('''').", "Of its various rituals, the most important came to be those of the Lupercalia.", "The Romans themselves attributed the instigation of the Lupercalia to Evander, a culture hero from Arcadia who was credited with bringing the Olympic pantheon, Greek laws and alphabet to Italy, where he founded the city of Pallantium on the future site of Rome, 60 years before the Trojan War.Lupercalia was celebrated in parts of Italy; ''Luperci'' are attested by inscriptions at Velitrae, Praeneste, Nemausus (modern Nîmes) and elsewhere.", "The ancient cult of the Hirpi Sorani (\"wolves of Soranus\", from Sabine ''hirpus'' \"wolf\"), who practiced at Mt.", "Soracte, north of Rome, had elements in common with the Roman Lupercalia.Descriptions of the Lupercalia festival of 44 BC attest to its continuity.", "During the festival, Julius Caesar publicly refused a golden crown offered to him by Mark Antony.", "The Lupercal cave was restored or rebuilt by Augustus, and has been speculated to be identical with a grotto discovered in 2007, below the remains of Augustus' residence; according to scholarly consensus, the grotto is a nymphaeum, not the Lupercal.", "The Lupercalia festival is marked on a calendar of 354 alongside traditional and Christian festivals.", "Despite the banning in 391 of all non-Christian cults and festivals, the Lupercalia was celebrated by the nominally Christian populace on a regular basis into the reign of the emperor Anastasius.", "Pope Gelasius I (494–96) claimed that only the \"vile rabble\" were involved in the festival and sought its forceful abolition; the Roman Senate protested that the Lupercalia was essential to Rome's safety and well-being.", "This prompted Gelasius' scornful suggestion that \"If you assert that this rite has salutary force, celebrate it yourselves in the ancestral fashion; run nude yourselves that you may properly carry out the mockery\".There is no contemporary evidence to support the popular notions that Gelasius abolished the Lupercalia, or that he, or any other prelate, replaced it with the Feast of the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary.", "A literary association between the Lupercalia and the romantic elements of Saint Valentine's Day dates back to Chaucer and poetic traditions of courtly love." ], [ "Legacy", "''Caesar Refuses the Diadem'' (1894), when it was offered by Mark Antony during the LupercaliaHorace's Ode III, 18 alludes to the Lupercalia.", "The festival or its associated rituals gave its name to the Roman month of February ('''') and thence to the modern month.", "The Roman god Februus personified both the month and purification, but seems to postdate both.William Shakespeare's play ''Julius Caesar'' begins during the Lupercalia.", "Mark Antony is instructed by Caesar to strike his wife Calpurnia, in the hope that she will be able to conceive.Research published in 2019 suggests that the word Leprechaun derives from ''Lupercus''." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===** *" ], [ "Further reading", "*Beard, Mary; North, John; Price, Simon.", "''Religions of Rome: A History.''", "Cambridge University Press, 1998, vol.", "1, limited preview online; search \"Lupercalia\".", "*Lincoln, Bruce.", "''Authority: Construction and Corrosion.''", "University of Chicago Press, 1994, pp.", "43–44 online on Julius Caesar and the politicizing of the Lupercalia; valuable list of sources pp. 182–183.", "*North, John.", "''Roman Religion''.", "The Classical Association, 2000, pp.", "47 online and 50 on the problems of interpreting evidence for the Lupercalia.", "*Markus, R.A. ''The End of Ancient Christianity.''", "Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp.", "131–134 online, on the continued celebration of the Lupercalia among \"uninhibited Christians\" into the 5th century, and the reasons for the \"brutal intervention\" by Pope Gelasius.", "*Vuković, K. ''Wolves of Rome: The Lupercalia from Roman and Comparative Perspectives.''", "Berlin, De Gruyter, 2023.", "*Wiseman, T.P.", "\"The Lupercalia\".", "In ''Remus: A Roman Myth''.", "Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp.", "77–88, limited preview online, discussion of the Lupercalia in the context of myth and ritual." ], [ "External links", "* William Smith, ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,'' 1875: Lupercalia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lists of atheists" ], [ "Introduction", "Atheism is, in a broad sense, the lack of belief in the existence of deities.", "In a narrower sense, atheism is simply the absence of belief that any deities exist.", "This is a compilation of the various '''lists of atheists''' with articles on Wikipedia by category.", "Living people in these lists are those whose atheism is relevant to their notable activities or public life, and who have publicly identified themselves as atheists." ], [ "Lists by country, territory, or people", "*List of atheist Americans*List of atheist Armenians*List of Dutch atheists*List of Jewish atheists and agnostics*List of South African atheists" ], [ "Lists by profession", "* List of atheist activists and educators* List of atheist authors* List of atheist philosophers* List of atheists in film, radio, television and theater* List of atheists in music* List of atheists in politics and law* List of atheists in science and technology* List of atheists (miscellaneous)" ], [ "Lists by surname", "* List of atheists (surnames A to B)* List of atheists (surnames C to D)* List of atheists (surnames E to G)* List of atheists (surnames H to K)* List of atheists (surnames L to M)* List of atheists (surnames N to Q)* List of atheists (surnames R to S)* List of atheists (surnames T to Z)" ], [ "See also", "* * List of nonreligious Nobel laureates* List of fictitious atheists and agnostics* Lists of people by belief (including non-beliefs)** List of agnostics** List of converts to nontheism** List of deists** List of former atheists and agnostics** List of humanists** List of Jewish atheists and agnostics** List of pantheists* List of secularist organizations* Lists about skepticism" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of Buddhists" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a '''list of notable Buddhists''', encompassing all the major branches of the religion (i.e.", "in Buddhism), and including interdenominational and eclectic Buddhist practitioners.", "This list includes both formal teachers of Buddhism, and people notable in other areas who are publicly Buddhist or who have espoused Buddhism." ], [ "Philosophers and founders of schools", "Individuals are grouped by nationality, except in cases where their influence was felt elsewhere.", "Gautama Buddha and his immediate disciples ('Buddhists') are listed separately from later Indian Buddhist thinkers, teachers and contemplatives.===Buddha's disciples and early Buddhists===Buddha and his disciples; the world's tallest walking statue of the Buddha, in Kandy, Sri Lanka* Gautama Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama;Clergy* Ānanda, the Buddha's cousin, personal attendant of the Buddha and a chief disciple* Aṅgulimāla, serial killer who attained to sainthood after renouncing wickedness* Anuruddhā, one of the ten principal disciples* Aśvajit, one of the first five disciples of the Buddha* Bharika, one of the first five disciples of the Buddha* Devadatta, another cousin of Siddhārtha and later rival who attempted to assassinate the Buddha* Gavāṃpati* Gayākāśyapa* Kālodayin* Maha Kapphina* Kātyāyana, foremost in explaining the Dharma* Kaundinya (also known as Kondañña or Ājñātakauṇḍinya), the first arhat and one of the first five disciples of the Buddha* Khemā, a chief of the women disciples* Kisā Gautamī* Koṣṭhila* Mahākāśyapa* Mahākauṣṭhila, foremost in eloquence* Mahānāman, one of the first five disciples of the Buddha* Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī, Buddha's aunt and foster mother, as well as the first woman to be ordained* Maudgalyāyana, one of two chief disciples of the Buddha* Nanda, younger half-brother of the Buddha* Nandika* Nadīkāśyapa* Paṭācārā* Pilindavatsa* Piṇḍola Bhāradvāja* Pūrṇamaitrāyaṇīputra, one of the ten principal disciples* Rāhula, son of Siddhārtha and Yasodharā* Revata* Śāriputra one of two chief disciples of the Buddha* Subhūti, one of the ten principal disciples* Śuddhipanthakena* Suvāhu* Sundarī Nandā, the Buddha's half-sister* Sunīta, a low-caste man who reached enlightenment* Upāli, foremost disciple in knowledge of the Vinaya* Utpalavarṇā* Uruvilvākāśyapa* Vāgīśa* Vakkula* Vāṣpa, one of the first five disciples of the Buddha* Yasodharā, Siddhārtha's wife before he renounced the palace life;Laity* Amrapali, royal courtesan* Anathapindika, wealthy merchant and banker* Ajātasattu, king of Magadha, son of Bimbisāra* Bimbisāra, king of Magadha* Chandaka, prince Siddhārtha's charioteer* Citta, wealthy merchant* Cunda Kammāraputta, a smith who gave the Buddha his last meal* Hastaka Āṭavika, saved by the Buddha from a demon* Kubjottarā, a chief woman disciple and servant of Queen Śyāmāvatī* Pasenadi, King of Kosala* Samavati, a queen of Kauśāmbī* Śuddhodana, the Buddha's father* Velukantakiyā* Viśākhā, an aristocratic woman and chief female patron===Later Indian Buddhists (after Buddha)===* Aryadeva, foremost disciple of Nagarjuna, continued the philosophical school of Madhyamaka* Aśvaghoṣa, Sarvāstivāda Buddhist philosopher, dramatist, poet and orator from India* Atiśa, holder of the \"mind training\" teachings, considered an indirect founder of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism* Bhāviveka, early expositor of the Svatantrika branch of the Madhyamaka school* Bodhidharma, founder of Chan Buddhism* Bodhiruci, patriarch of the Dilun (Chinese: ) school* Batuo, founding abbot and patriarch of the Shaolin Monastery* Buddhaghosa, Theravadin commentator* Buddhapālita, early expositor of the Prasaṅgika branch of the Madhyamaka school* Chandragomin, renowned grammarian* Candrakīrti, considered the greatest exponent of Prasaṅgika* Dharmakirti, famed logician, author of the ''Seven Treatises''; student of Dignāga's student, Īśvārasēna; said to have debated famed Hindu scholar Adi Shankara* Dignāga, famed logician* Kamalaśīla (8th century), author of important texts on meditation* Kumārajīva, Buddhist monk, scholar, missionary and translator from the Kingdom of Kucha, Central Asia* Luipa, one of the eighty-four tantric Mahasiddhas* Nagarjuna, founder of the Madhyamaka school, widely considered the most important Mahayana philosopher (with Asanga)* Nadapada (Tibetan: ''Naropa''), Tilopa's primary disciple, teacher of Marpa the Translator and Khungpo Nyaljor* Saraha, famed mahasiddha, forefather of the Kagyu lineage* Śāntarakṣita, abbot of Nalanda, founder of the Yogacara who helped Padmasambhava establish Buddhism in Tibet* Shantideva (8th century), author of the ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra''* Śīlabhadra, Buddhist monk and philosopher and erstwhile abbot of Nālandā University in India* Tilopa, recipient of four separate transmissions from Nagarjuna, Nagpopa, Luipa, and Khandro Kalpa Zangmo; Naropa's teacher===From Gandhara===* Asanga, founder of the Yogacara school, widely considered the most important Mahayana philosopher along with Nagarjuna* Garab Dorje, Indian founder of Dzogchen (Great Perfection) tradition* Vasubandhu, author of the ''Abhidharmakōśa'' and various Yogacara treatises; these may or may not be the same person* Padmasambhava (Tibetan: ''Guru Rinpoche''), Indian founder of Tibetan Buddhism===Indo-Greek===* Dharmaraksita (3rd century BCE), Greek Buddhist missionary sent by emperor Ashoka, and a teacher of the monk Nagasena* Mahadharmaraksita (2nd century BCE), Greek Buddhist master during the time of Menander* Nāgasena (2nd century BCE), Buddhist sage questioned about Buddhism by Milinda, the Indo-Greek king in the ''Milinda Pañha''===Central Asian===* An Shigao, Parthian monk and the first known Buddhist missionary to China, in 148 CE* Dharmarakṣa, Yuezhi monk, the first known translator of the Lotus Sutra into Chinese* Jñānagupta (561–592), monk and translator from Gandhara, Pakistan* Kumārajīva (c. 401), Kuchan monk and one of the most important translators* Lokaksema, Kushan monk from Gandhara, first translator of Mahayana scriptures into Chinese, around 180 CE*Prajñā (c. 810), monk and translator from Gandhara, who translated important texts into Chinese and educated the Japanese Kūkai in Sanskrit texts===Chinese===* Baizhang Huaihai, Zen Buddhist master of Tang dynasty* Bodhidharma, first patriarch of Chan Buddhism in China* Dahui Zonggao, 12th-century kōan master* Daman Hongren, fifth patriarch of Chan Buddhism in China* Dayi Daoxin, fourth patriarch of Chan Buddhism in China* Dazu Huike, second patriarch of Chan Buddhism in China* Faxian, translator and pilgrim* Fazang, the third of the five patriarchs of the Huayan school of Mahayana Buddhism, of which he is traditionally considered the founder.", "* Guifeng Zongmi, fifth patriarch of the Huayan school* Hong Yi, calligraphist, painter, master of seal carving* Huangbo Xiyun, 9th-century teacher of Linji Yixuan* Huineng, sixth and last patriarch of Chan Buddhism in China* Ingen, 17th-century Chinese Chan monk, founder of the Ōbaku sect of Zen* Ji Gong, Buddhist monk revered as a deity in Taoism* Jizang, founder of East Asian Mādhyamaka* Jnanayasas, translator* Linji Yixuan, 9th-century Chinese monk, founder of the Linji school of Chan Buddhism* Mazu Daoyi, 8th-century Chan master* Moheyan, 8th-century Chinese monk, advocate of \"sudden\" enlightenment* Sanghapala, 6th-century monk (Mon-Khmer?)", "who translated many texts to Chinese* Sengcan, third patriarch of Chan Buddhism in China* Wumen Huikai, author of the ''Gateless Gate''* Xuanzang, brought Yogacara to China to found the East Asian Yogācāra school; significant pilgrim, translator* Xueting Fuyu, 13th-century Shaolin Monastery abbot of the Caodong school* Yijing, pilgrim and translator* Yunmen Wenyan, founder of one of the five schools of Chan Buddhism* Yuquan Shenxiu, Tang dynasty, patriarch of \"Northern School\" sect of Chan Buddhism* Zhaozhou, 9th-century Chan master; noted for \"Mu\" koan* Zhiyi, founder of the Tiantai school===Tibetan===* Gampopa, student of Jetsun Milarepa and founder of the Karma Kagyu lineage of Tibetan Buddhism* Jigten Sumgön, founder of Drikung Kagyu Lineage* Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen, founder of the Jonang school and advocate of the shentong philosophy* Longchenpa, one of the greatest Nyingma philosophers* Mandarava, important female student and consort of Padmasambhava* Marpa Lotsawa, student of Naropa and a founder of the Kagyu lineage of Tibetan Buddhism* Milarepa, foremost student of Marpa Lotsawa* Padmasambhava, Gandharan founder of Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism* Karmapa, the founder of Karma Kagyu or Kamtsang Kagyu lineage of Tibetan Buddhism* Jamgon Kongtrul, Tibetan Buddhist scholar, artist, physician and polymath* Sakya Pandita, one of the greatest Sakya philosophers* Taranatha, important Jonang scholar* Je Tsongkhapa, 14th-century Tibetan monk, founder of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism, based upon the Kadam* Yeshe Tsogyal, important female student and consort of Padmasambhava* Rongzom Mahapandita, important Nyingma scholar and meditation master of Nyingma lineage of Tibetan Buddhism===Japanese===* Bankei Yōtaku (1622–1693), Zen master of the Rinzai school* Dōgen Zenji (1200–1253), founder of the Sōtō school of Zen, based upon the Caodong school* Eisai (1141–1215), travelled to China and returned to found the Rinzai school of Zen* Hakuin Ekaku (1686–1769), Rinzai school of Zen* Hōnen (1133–1212), founder of the Jōdo-shū school of Pure Land Buddhism* Ikkyū (1374–1481), Zen Buddhist monk and poet* Ippen (1234–1289), founder of the Ji-shū sect of Pure Land Buddhism* Kūkai (774–835), founder of Shingon Buddhism* Myōe (1173–1232), monk of Kegon and Shingon Buddhism, known for his propagation of the Mantra of Light* Nakahara Nantenbō (1839–1925), Zen master and artist* Nichiren (1222–1282), founder of Nichiren Buddhism* Nikkō (1246–1333), founder of Nichiren Shōshū* Rōben (689–773), invited Simsang to Japan and founded the Kegon tradition based upon the Korean Hwaeom school* Ryōkan (1758–1831), Zen monk and poet* Saichō (767–822), founded Tendai school in Japan, also known by the posthumous title Dengyō Daishi* Shinran (1173–1263), founder of the Jōdo Shinshū school of Pure Land Buddhism and disciple of Hōnen* Takuan Sōhō (1573–1645), Zen teacher, and, according to legend, mentor of the swordsman Miyamoto Musashi* Gempō Yamamoto (1866–1961), Zen master* Shinjō Itō (1906–1989), founder of Shinnyo-en===Korean===* Gihwa (1376–1433), Korean Seon monk; wrote commentaries on the Diamond Sutra and Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment* Jinul, Korean Seon monk (1158–1210); founder of modern Korean gong'an meditation system* Uisang (7th century), Korean monk, founder of Hwaeom tradition, based upon the Chinese Huayan school* Woncheuk* Wonhyo (617–668), Korean monk; prolific commentator on Mahayana sutras===Burmese===* Shin Arahan, primate of Pagan Kingdom, 1056–1115* Ledi Sayadaw, propagator of Vipassanā* Mahasi Sayadaw, propagator of Vipassanā* Sayadaw U Tejaniya, propagator of Vipassanā* Mogok Sayadaw, propagator of Vipassanā* Webu Sayadaw, propagator of Vipassanā* Panditarama Sayadaw, propagator of Vipassanā* Mingun Sayadaw, first monk in Myanmar to be awarded the title of Tipitakadhara, meaning Keeper and Guardian of the Tipitaka* Taunggwin Sayadaw, last Buddhist monk to hold the office as Thathanabaing of Burma* Maha Bodhi Ta Htaung Sayadaw, founder of Maha Bodhi Tahtaung* Thamanya Sayadaw, best known for his doctrinal emphasis on metta* Sunlun Sayadaw, popular meditation teacher among the monks and Vipassanā meditation master* Sitagu Sayadaw, founder and Supreme Head of the Sitagu Buddhist Academies* Ashin Nandamalabhivamsa, rector of International Theravada Buddhist Missionary University* Chanmyay Sayadaw, well-known monk and editor of the Buddhist Scriptures in Pali for reciting Buddhist scriptures at the Sixth Buddhist Council in Myanmar* Taung Galay Sayadaw, Karen Theravadin Buddhist monk, and also known as a prolific writer and a historian* Sayadaw U Narada, planted many thousands of Bodhi trees, built thousands of pagodas and Buddha statues* Sayadaw U Pannavamsa, prominent Buddhist monk, known for his missionary work, particularly in Sri Lanka and Malaysia* Ashin Sandadika, well-known monk* Sayagyi U Ba Khin, propagator of vipassana meditation in the Ledi tradition===Thai===* Somdet Phra Buddhacarya (1788–1872), monk who was the preceptor and teacher of King Rama IV* Ajahn Sao Kantasīlo (1861–1941), one of the pioneers of the Dhammayuttika Nikaya, mentor of Ajahn Mun * Ajahn Mun Bhūridatta (1870–1949), monk who established the Thai Forest Tradition or \"Kammaṭṭhāna tradition\"* Khruba Siwichai (1878–1939), best known for the building of many temples during his time, his charismatic and personalistic character* Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro (1884–1959), monk who founded the Dhammakaya Movement in the early 20th century* Luang Pu Waen Suciṇṇo (1887–1985), first-generation student of the Thai Forest Tradition* Somdet Phra Sangharaja Chao Krommaluang Jinavajiralongkorn (1897–1988), the 18th Supreme Patriarch of Thailand* Phra Ajaan Thate Desaransi (1902–1994), first-generation student of the Thai Forest Tradition and one of the founding teachers of the lineage* Buddhādasa Bhikkhu (1906–1993), famous and influential Thai ascetic-philosopher of the 20th century* Ajahn Lee Dhammadharo (1907–1961), regarded as one of the great teachers and meditation masters of the Thai Forest Tradition* Ajahn Maha Bua (1913–2011), well-known monk in the Thai Forest Tradition* Somdet Phra Sangharaja Chao Krommaluang Vajirañāṇasaṃvara (1913–2013), the 19th Supreme Patriarch of Thailand* Ajahn Fuang Jotiko (1915–1986), student of Ajahn Lee, well-known monk in the Thai Forest Tradition* Ajahn Chah (1918–1992), monk well-known for his students from all over the world* Ajahn Suwat Suvaco (1919–2002), student of Ajahn Funn and established four monasteries in the United States* Phra Chanda Thawaro (1922–2012), student of Ajahn Mun, one of the best known Thai Buddhist monks of the late 20th and early 21st centuries* Somdet Phra Ariyavongsagatanana IX (born 1927), the 20th and current Supreme Patriarch of Thailand, practitioner of the Thai Forest Tradition" ], [ "Rulers and monarchs", "* Anawrahta (1015–1078), founder of the Pagan Kingdom and credited with introducing Theravada Buddhism there and reintroducing it in Ceylon* Ashoka (304–232 BC), Mauryan Emperor of ancient India, and the first Buddhist ruler to send Buddhist missionaries outside of India throughout the Old World * Brihadratha Maurya, last ruler of the Maurya Empire* Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta (1516–1581), king of the Toungoo Dynasty, assembled the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia, viewed himself as the protector of Theravada Buddhism, and had long tried to promote and protect the religion in Ceylon, introduced more orthodox Theravada Buddhism to Upper Burma and the Shan states, prohibited all human and animal sacrifices throughout the kingdom* Harsha (606–648), Indian emperor who converted to Buddhism* Jayavarman VII (1181–1219), king of Cambodia* Kanishka the Great, ruler of the Kushan Empire* Kublai Khan, Mongol khagan and founder of the Yuan dynasty of China* Hulagu Khan, Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia, he converted to Buddhism on his deathbed, spending most of his life as a Nestorian Christian* Menander I (Pali: ), 2nd century BCE, a king of the Indo-Greek Kingdom of Northwestern India who questioned Nāgasena about Buddhism in the ''Milinda Pañha'' and is said to have become an arhat* Mindon Min (1808–1878), penultimate King of Burma and facilitator of the Fifth Buddhist council* Emperor Ming of Han (28–75), born Liu Yang and also known as Liu Zhuang and as Han Mingdi, the second emperor of China's Eastern Han dynasty.", "* Mongkut, king of Thailand and founder of the Dhammayuttika Nikaya* Prince Shōtoku (574–622), mythologized crown prince and regent of Japan* Theodorus (1st century BCE), Indo-Greek governor, author of a Buddhist dedication* Wu Zetian (625–705), only female Empress Regnant in Chinese history* Emperor Wu of Liang () (502–549) was the founding emperor of the Chinese Liang dynasty, during the Northern and Southern dynasties period.", "* Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura (307 BCE–267 BCE), King of Anuradhapura* Dutugamunu of Anuradhapura (161 BCE–131 BCE), King of Sri Lanka* Bimbisar (544–492 BC), founder of Haryanka dynasty* Ajātasattu (reign c. 492–460 BC), second emperor of Haryanka dynasty* Udayin (460–444 BC), third emperor of Haryanka dynasty* Pasenadi, King of Kosala" ], [ "Modern teachers", "=== Theravada teachers ===* Ajahn Amaro (born 1956)*Ajahn Buddhadasa Bhikkhu (1906–1993)* Ajahn Brahm (born 1951)* Ajahn Candasiri (born 1947)* Ajahn Chah (1918–1992)* Ajahn Anan (born 1954)* Ajahn Achalo (born 1972)* Ajahn Jayasaro (born 1958)* Ajahn Khemadhammo (born 1944)* Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta (1870–1949)* Ajahn Pasanno (born 1949)* Ajahn Sucitto (born 1949)* Ajahn Sumedho (born 1934)* Ajahn Sundara (born 1946)* Ajahn Viradhammo (born 1947)* Ayya Khema (1923–1997)* Balangoda Ananda Maitreya Thero (1896–1998)* Bhante Sujato (born 1966)* Bhikkhu Anālayo (born 1962)* Bhikkhu Bodhi (born 1944)* Bhikkhu Kiribathgoda Gnanananda (born 1961)* Bour Kry (born 1945)* Charles Henry Allan Bennett (1872–1923)* Dipa Ma (1911–1989)* Godwin Samararatne (1932–2000)* Hammalawa Saddhatissa (1914–1990)* Henepola Gunaratana (born 1927)* Jack Kornfield (born 1945)* K. L. Dhammajoti (born 1949)* K. Sri Dhammananda (1919–2006)* Kirinde Sri Dhammaratana (born 1948)* Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923)* Luangpor Thong (born 1939)* Mahasi Sayadaw (1904–1982)* Mother Sayamagyi (1925–2017)* Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu (1905–1960)* Nyānaponika Mahāthera (1901–1994)* Nyānatiloka Mahāthera (1878–1957)* Ñāṇavīra Thera (1920–1965)* Narada Maha Thera (1898–1983)* Phra Paisal Visalo (born 1957)* Piyadassi Maha Thera (1914–1998)* Preah Maha Ghosananda (1929–2007)* Sayagyi U Ba Khin (1899–1971)* S. N. Goenka (1924–2013)* Sharon Salzberg (born 1952)* Sujiva (born 1951)* Thanissaro Bhikkhu (born 1949)===Tibetan Buddhist teachers===* Anagarika Govinda (1898–1985)* B. Alan Wallace (born 1950)* Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche (1930–2002)* Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche (1940–1987)* Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche (born 1951)* Damba Ayusheev, the XXIV Pandito Khambo Lama in Russia (born 1962)* Dhardo Rimpoche (1917–1990)* Dilgo Khyentse (1910–1991)* Dudjom Jigdral Yeshe Dorje (1904–1987)* Gyaincain Norbu, the 11th Panchen Lama (controversial; born 1990)* Kalu Rinpoche (1905–1989)* Karma Thinley Rinpoche (born 1931)* Kelsang Gyatso (born 1931)* Matthieu Ricard (born 1946)* Ole Nydahl (born 1941)* Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapa (1924–1981)* Sakyong Mipham (born 1962)* 14th Dalai Lama (born 1935)* Tenzin Palmo (born 1943)* Thubten Yeshe (known as Lama Yeshe; 1935–1984), Tibetan lama who, while exiled in Nepal, co-founded Kopan Monastery (1969) and the Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition (1975).", "He followed the Gelug tradition.", "* Thubten Zopa Rinpoche* Trijang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso (1901–1981)* Tsoknyi Rinpoche (born 1966)* Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche (1920–1996), Dzogchen, Mahamudra and the Chokling Tersar* Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche (born 1975)* Gelek Rimpoche (born 1939)* Tsem Tulku Rinpoche (born 1965)* Dagyab Kyabgoen Rinpoche (born 1940)* Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche (born 1975)* Sakya Trizin* Thubten Chodron (born 1950)* Pema Chödrön (born 1936)* Robina Courtin (born 1944)* Robert Thurman (born 1941)* Mark Epstein (born 1953)===Dzogchen and Bon teachers===* Namkhai Norbu (1938–2018)* Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche (born 1961)===Zen teachers===;American* Adyashanti (born 1962)* Robert Baker Aitken (1917–2010)* Anne Hopkins Aitken (1911–1994)* Reb Anderson (born 1943)* Zentatsu Richard Baker (born 1936)* Joko Beck (1917–2011)* Sherry Chayat (born 1943)* Issan Dorsey (1933–1990)* Zoketsu Norman Fischer (born 1946)* James Ishmael Ford (born 1948)* Tetsugen Bernard Glassman (1939–2018)* Paul Haller* Cheri Huber (born 1944)* Soenghyang (Barbara Rhodes, born 1948)* Philip Kapleau (1912–2004)* Houn Jiyu-Kennett (1924–1996)* Bodhin Kjolhede (born 1948)* Jakusho Kwong (born 1935)* Taigen Dan Leighton (born 1950)* Frederick Lenz (1950–1998)* John Daido Loori (1931–2009)* Dai Bai Zan Cho Bo Zen Ji (born 1954)* Heng Sure (born 1949)* Bonnie Myotai Treace (born 1956)* Brad Warner (born 1964)* Robert J. Waldinger (born 1951);Chinese* Fayun (1933–2003)* Hsu Yun (1840–1959)* Hsuan Hua (1918–1995)* Nan Huai-Chin (1918–2012);European* John Crook (1930–2011)* U Dhammaloka (1856?–1914?", ")* John Garrie (1923–1998)* Muhō Noelke (born 1968);Japanese* Kōbun Chino Otogawa (1938–2002)* Taisen Deshimaru (1914–1982)* Hakuin Ekaku (1686–1769)* Keido Fukushima (1933–2011)* Jakushitsu Genkō (1290–1367)* Shodo Harada (born 1940)* Harada Daiun Sogaku (1871–1961)* Dainin Katagiri (1928–1990)* Musō Soseki (1275–1351)* Imakita Kosen (1816–1892)* Yamada Koun (1907–1989)* Taizan Maezumi (1931–1995)* Sōyū Matsuoka (?–1998)* Sōkō Morinaga (1925–1995)* Soen Nakagawa (1907–1984)* Gudō Wafu Nishijima (1919–2014)* Shōhaku Okumura (born 1948)* Kōdō Sawaki (1880–1965)* Nyogen Senzaki (1876–1958)* Oda Sessō (1901–1966)* Soyen Shaku (1859–1919)* Zenkei Shibayama (1894–1974)* Eido Tai Shimano (1932–2018)* Omori Sogen (1904–1994)* D. T. Suzuki (1870–1966)* Shunryū Suzuki (1904–1971)* Dai Bai Zan Cho Bo Zen Ji (born 1933)* Bassui Tokushō (1327–1387)* Sesshū Tōyō (1420–1506)* Sobin Yamada* Hakuun Yasutani (1885–1973)* Bankei Yōtaku (1622–1693)* Sesson Yūbai (1290–1348);Korean* Seongcheol (1912–1993)* Seungsahn (1927–2004)* Pomnyun (born 1953);Malaysian* Chi Chern (born 1955);Taiwanese* Guang Qin () (1892–1986), founder of Cheng Tian Temple () in Taiwan* Yin Shun () (1906–2005), founder of Humanistic Buddhism ()* Sheng-yen () (1931–2009), founder of Dharma Drum Mountain () in Taiwan* Cheng Yen () (born 1937), founder of Tzu Chi Foundation () in Taiwan* Hsing Yun () (born 1927), founder of Fo Guang Shan () in Taiwan* Wei Chueh () (born 1928), founder of Chung Tai Shan () in Taiwan;Vietnamese* Thích Nhất Hạnh (1926–2022)* Thích Chân Không (born 1938)* Thích Thiên-Ân (1926–1980)* Thích Thanh Từ (born 1924)" ], [ "Writers", "* Bhikkhu Analayo (born 1962), known for his comparative studies of early Buddhist texts as preserved by the various early Buddhist traditions* Buddhādasa Bhikkhu, his works take up an entire room in the National Library of Thailand, and inspired a group of Thai social activists and artists of the 20th century* Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu (1905–1960), remembered for his reliable translations from the Pali into English, remarkable command of the Pali language and a wide knowledge of the canonical scriptures* Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (born 1949), known for his translations of almost 1000 Sutta in all and providing the majority of the sutta translations in a website known as \"Access to Insight\"* Bhikkhu Bodhi (born 1944), second president of the Buddhist Publication Society and has edited and authored several publications grounded in the Theravada Buddhist tradition* Tara Brach (born 1953), American psychologist and author* Tanaka Chigaku (1861–1939)* John Crook (1930–2011), British ecologist, sociologist, and practitioner of both Ch'an and Tibetan Buddhism tradition* Ven.", "K. Sri Dhammananda (1919–2006), Buddhist monk and scholar.", "in Malaysia, wrote approximately 60 Buddhist works, ranging from small pamphlets to texts of over 700 pages* Phra Dhammavisuddhikavi (born 1936), ex-Vice Rector for Academic Affairs at Mahamakut Buddhist University and has written 70 books on Buddhism* Allen Ginsberg, poet (Tibetan Buddhism)* Joseph Goldstein (born 1944), one of the first American Vipassana teachers, contemporary author of numerous popular books on Buddhism* Nakamura Hajime (1911–1999)* Chittadhar Hridaya (1906–1982)* Hsuan Hua (1918–1995), Tripitaka Master; extensive English commentaries on the major Mahayana Sutras: Avatamsaka Sutra, Shurangama Sutra, Shurangama Mantra, Lotus Sutra, Diamond Sutra, and many others* Christmas Humphreys (1901–1983)* Daisaku Ikeda (born 1928), prolific writer of Nichiren Buddhism, society, peace and nuclear abolition, and President of the Soka Gakkai International* Nishitani Keiji (1900–1990)* Jack Kerouac, American novelist (Zen and Tibetan Buddhism; also the Catholic Church)* Nishida Kitaro (1870–1945)* Jack Kornfield (born 1945), American book writer, student of renowned forest monk Ajahn Chah, and teacher of Theravada Buddhism* Noah Levine (born 1971), American Buddhist teacher and author* Nyanatiloka Mahathera, (1878–1957), translated several important Theravadin Pali texts into German, also wrote a Pali grammar, an anthology, and a Buddhist dictionary* Tsunesaburo Makiguchi (1871–1944), Japanese educator and founder of the Soka Gakkai* Edward Salim Michael (1921–2006), composer and author* Achan Sobin S. Namto (born 1931), taught Vipassana meditation and Buddhist psychology in Southeast Asia and North America for over 50 years* Gudo Wafu Nishijima (1919–2014)* Henry Steel Olcott (1832–1907), major revivalist of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and a Buddhist modernist for his efforts in interpreting Buddhism through a Westernized lens* Kenneth Pai, Chinese-American writer* P. A. Payutto (born 1937), lectured and written extensively about a variety of topics related to Buddhism, awarded the 1994 UNESCO Prize for Peace Education* Sharon Salzberg (born 1953), teacher of Buddhist meditation practices in the West, and also a ''New York Times'' best-selling author* Sangharakshita (1925–2018), founder of the Triratna Buddhist community* Sheng-yen (1930–2009), religious scholar, one of the most respected teachers of Chinese Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism, and founder of spiritual and educational organization Dharma Drum Mountain* Yin Shun (1906–2005), brought forth the ideal of \"Humanistic\" (human-realm) Buddhism and regenerated the interests in the long-ignored Āgamas among Chinese Buddhists* Shunryū Suzuki (1904–1971), Sōtō Zen monk and teacher who helped popularize Zen Buddhism in the United States* Taixu (1890–1947), activist and thinker who advocated the reform and renewal of Chinese Buddhism* Nyanaponika Thera (1901–1994), co-founder of the Buddhist Publication Society, contemporary author of numerous seminal Theravada books* Robert Thurman (born 1941), American author, editor and translator of books on Tibetan Buddhism, Je Tsongkhapa professor of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist Studies at Columbia University and co-founder and president of Tibet House U.S.* Josei Toda (1900–1958), peace activist and second president of the Soka Gakkai* Phra Paisal Visalo, writing and editing books on environment and Buddhism, co-founder of Sekiyadhamma, a network of socially engaged monks in Thailand* Brad Warner (born 1964), American monk, writer, and musician* Alan Watts (1915–1973), English writer and lecturer* Robert Wright (born 1957), American journalist and author.", "(Zen)* Han Yong-un (1879–1944), Korean Buddhist reformer and poet== Politicians and activists=====Indian ===* B. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956), Indian nationalist, jurist, scholar, political leader, anthropologist, economist and architect of the Constitution of India* Prakash (Balasaheb) Ambedkar (born 1954), Indian politician, grandson of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar* Ramdas Athawale (born 1959), Indian politician* Udit Raj (born 1958), Indian politician and member of Indian National Congress.", "Raj, a Dalit, converted from Hinduism to Buddhism in 2001.", "* Kiren Rijiju (born 1971), Indian politician* Kanshi Ram Founder of Bahujan Samaj Party===Malaysian ===* Tan Cheng Lock (1883–1960), Malaysian nationalist, businessman and founder of Malaysian Chinese Association, key figure in the independence of Malaysia.=== Japanese ===* Morihiro Hosokawa, is a Japanese politician and noble who was Prime Minister of Japan from 1993 to 1994, leading a coalition government which was the first non-Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) government of Japan since 1955.===Burmese===* Aung San Suu Kyi (born 1945), Burmese opposition politician and chairperson of the National League for Democracy (NLD) in Burma; received the Rafto Prize and the Sakharov Prize in 1990 and the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991 (Theravada)* U Nu (1997–1995), Prime Minister of Burma and facilitator of Sixth Buddhist Council* U Thant (1909–1974), Burmese diplomat and third Secretary-General of the United Nations (1961–1971) (Theravada)* Win Ko Ko Latt (born 1982), Burmese ultranationalist===American===* Colleen Hanabusa (born 1951), U.S. Congresswoman and lawyer from Hawaii* Mazie Hirono (born 1947), U.S.", "Senator, U.S. Congresswoman from Hawaii; the nation's first Buddhist senator* David Ige (born 1957), American politician and the eighth governor of Hawaii* Hank Johnson (born 1954), U.S.", "Congressman from Georgia; one of the first two Buddhists to serve in the United States Congress (Soka Gakkai International)===English===* Eric Lubbock, 4th Baron Avebury (1928–2016), English politician; served as the Liberal Member of Parliament for Orpington and served in the House of Lords, having inherited the title of Baron Avebury in 1971.", "(Secular Buddhism)* Suella Braverman is a British barrister and politician who has served as Home Secretary since 25 October 2022.She previously held the position from 6 September to 19 October 2022 under Liz Truss.", "A member of the Conservative Party, she was chair of the European Research Group from 2017 to 2018 and Attorney General for England and Wales from 2020 to 2022.She has been the member of Parliament (MP) for Fareham in Hampshire since 2015.She took her oath of office on the ''Dhammapada''.===South Korean===* Jiyul (born 1957), Buddhist nun from South Korea who fasted to stop destruction of Korean salamander lands (Korean Seon)* Pomnyun (born 1953), South Korean Buddhist monk, Zen master, and peace activist who received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Peace and International Understanding in 2002 for his peace activism on the issue of Korean peninsula.", "(Korean Seon)===Vietnamese===* Thích Huyền Quang (1919–2008), Vietnamese Buddhist monk, dissident and activist; formerly the patriarch of the Unified Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam; in 2002, he was awarded the Homo Homini Award for his human rights activism by the Czech group People in Need* Thích Quảng Độ, Vietnamese Buddhist monk, current patriarch of the Unified Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam; awarded the Homo Homini Award for human rights activism by the Czech group People in Need in 2002; nine-time Nobel Peace Prize nominee* Thích Quảng Đức (1897–1963), Vietnamese Mahayana monk and self-martyr for freedom of religion; burned himself to death at a busy Saigon road intersection on 11 June 1963 (Mahayana)=== Sri Lankan ===* D. S. Senanayake (1883–1952), Prime Minister of Ceylon* S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike (1899–1959), Prime Minister of Ceylon* Sirimavo Bandaranaike (1916–2000), Prime Minister of Sri Lanka and first female Prime Minister in the world." ], [ "Film and television", "=== American ===* Dan Harris (born 1971), American meditation teacher and retired journalist* Jennifer Aniston (born 1965), American actress and producer (Zen)* John Astin (born 1930), American actor* Kate Bosworth, American actress (Soka Gakkai International)* Jeff Bridges (born 1949), American actor; he has elaborated that his Buddhism is more like a general calmness.", "(Zen)* Drew Carey (born 1958), American actor, comedian, game show host and photographer.", "(Theravada)* Peter Coyote (born 1941), American actor and author* Robert Downey Junior (born 1965), American Jewish Buddhist actor; he has said many times that Buddhism has helped him with his drug and alcohol addiction.", "(Theravada)* Patrick Duffy (born 1949), American actor and director.", "The actor was brought closer to the teachings of Buddhism by his late wife, the ballet dancer Carlyn Rosser (1939–2017).", "He has been practicing the religion for almost 50 years and describes it as an \"essential part\" of his life.", "(Soka Gakkai International)* Chris Evans (born 1981), American actor and a student of Indian Buddhism.", "He spent three weeks in Rishikesh in 2005 or 2006 at a Buddhist retreat and attends a Buddhism class in LA.", "(Theravada)* Richard Gere (born 1949), American actor (Tibetan Buddhism)* Ron Glass (1945–2016), American actor and comedian.", "* Kate Hudson (born 1979), American actress and businesswoman.", "(Zen)* Michael Imperioli (born 1966), American actor, writer, director and musician.", "In 2008, Imperioli became a Buddhist.", "* Chris Kattan (born 1970), American actor, comedian and author.", "(Tibetan Buddhism)* David Labrava (born 1962), actor, writer, tattoo artist, former member of the Hells Angels, and motorcycle enthusiast.", "(Zen)* Celeste Lecesne (born 1954), American actor, author, screenwriter, LGBT rights activist, founder of The Trevor Project (Soka Gakkai International)* Anthony Lee (1981–2000), American actor and playwright.", "(Soka Gakkai International)* Mandy Patinkin (born 1952), American actor and singer known for his work in musical theatre, television and film.", "* Elliot Page (born 1987), American-Canadian actor and activist.", "(Tibetan Buddhism)* Jeremy Piven (born 1965), American actor, comedian and producer.", "(Zen)* Steven Seagal (born 1952), American actor and aikido expert (Tibetan Buddhism)* Garry Shandling (1949–2016), American actor and comedian.", "(Zen)* Martin Starr (born 1983), American actor and comedian.", "(Theravada)* Oliver Stone, American film director* Sharon Stone, American actress, producer, and former fashion model* George Takei (born 1937), American actor and author (Zen)* Duncan Trusell (born 1974), American actor and stand-up comic (Tibetan Buddhism)* Marcia Wallace, American actress, voice artist, comedian (Soka Gakkai International)=== Brazilian ===* Edson Celulari (born 1958), Brazilian actor* Carmo Dalla Vecchia (born 1971), Brazilian actor.", "* João Vitti (born 1967), Brazilian theatre and telenovela actor.===British===* Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje (born 1967), British-Nigerian actor best known for his roles on television (Soka Gakkai International)* Alex Day (born 8 April 1989) is an English musician, vlogger and writer.", "Day has released seven studio albums, two EPs, and had three UK Top 40 hits.", "* Alex Ferns (born 13 October 1968) is a Scottish actor and television personality.", "His ''EastEnders'' role as Trevor Morgan was described as \"Britain's most-hated soap villain\", when he played the role between 2000 and 2002.", "* Tom Baker (born 1934), British actor and writer.", "* Orlando Bloom (born 1977), English actor known for his roles in film.", "(Soka Gakkai International)* John Garrie,(May 18, 1923 – September 22, 1998), was a British actor who later became a respected teacher of Zen Buddhism.", "* Russell Brand (born 1975), British comedian, actor, and television and radio host (Tibetan Buddhism)* Benedict Cumberbatch (born 1976), British actor (Theravada).", "* John Cleese (born 1939), British actor and comedian.", "* Gordon Hopkirk (20 April 1884 – 1966) was a British actor of the silent era.", "* Peter Dean (born 1939), British actor (Zen)* Chris Gascoyne (born 1968), English actor (Theravada)* Claudia Jessie, British actress (Soka Gakkai International) * Barry Letts (1925–2009), English actor, television director, writer and producer * Thandiwe Newton (born 1972), English actress.", "(Theravada) * Naomi Watts, British-Australian actress and film producer* Anulka Dziubinska, is an English actress and model.", "She was featured as ''Playboy'' magazine's Playmate of the Month in May 1973.", "* Zhang Tielin (born 15 June 1957) is a British actor and film director.", "He is best known for portraying the Qianlong Emperor in the first two seasons of the Chinese television series ''My Fair Princess''.", "* Laura Howard (born as Laura Simmons in Chiswick, London, 1977) is an English actress.", "* Rula Lenska (born 30 September 1947) is a British actress.", "She mainly appears in British stage and television productions and is known in the United States for a series of television advertisements in the 1970s and 1980s.=== Chinese ===* Chow Yun-fat, Chinese actor* Andy Lau, actor, singer-songwriter and film producer.", "He has been one of Hong Kong's most commercially successful film actors since the mid-1980s, performing in more than 160 films while maintaining a successful singing career at the same time.=== Danish ===* Anne Louise Hassing, Danish actress (Soka Gakkai International)=== Indian ===* Danny Denzongpa is an Indian actor, singer, and film director who primarily works in Hindi and occasionally in Bengali, Nepali, and Tamil films.", "* Kushal Badrike, actor, comedian* Tisca Chopra, Indian actress (Soka Gakkai International)* Bhalchandra Kadam (born 1970), actor, comedian* Shraddha Das, Indian actress and model (Theravada)* Ravi Dubey (born 1983), Indian Nichiren Buddhist actor, model and producer.", "He said, \"I started following Buddhism when I was going through a very rough patch in my life and I wanted some understanding of the chaos that was going on in one's life.", "I wanted to align myself and feel better about myself.", "So, when things went out of control, I started chanting at that time.\"", "(Nichiren Buddhism)* Manav Gohil (born 1974), Indian actor and producer.", "(Nichiren Buddhism).", "* Tusshar Kapoor (born 1976), Indian Bollywood actor and producer.", "(Nichiren Buddhism)* Ayushman Khurrana (born 1984), Indian film actor and activist.", "He and his wife Tahira Kashyap are followers of Nichiren Buddhism, which they state has helped them through a cancer diagnosis.", "(Niciren Buddhism)* Gagan Malik (born 1976), Indian actor.", "(Theravada)* Hansika Motwani, Indian actress.", "She has said in an interview, \"The best way to effectively de-stress for me is to chant- Nam Myo Ho Renge Kyo, as I strongly follow Buddhism.\"", "(Tibetan Buddhism)* Mandakini is an Indian former actress.", "She is best remembered for her lead role in the 1985 popular film Ram Teri Ganga Maili.", "* Meiyang Chang (born 6 October 1982) is an Indian actor, television host, singer and a dentist.", "* Abhijeet Sawant (born 1981), actor and singer=== Italian ===* Marco Columbro (born 1950), Italian actor and television host.", "(Tibetan Buddhism)* Manuel De Peppe (born 1970), Italian actor, producer and singer, converted to Buddhism in 2011.", "(Secular Buddhism)=== Malaysian ===* Michelle Yeoh, Malaysian actress=== Thai ===* Napapa Tantrakul (born 1986), Thai actress" ], [ "Billionaire", "=== American ===* Jack Dorsey (born 1976), American technological entrepreneur and philanthropist.", "(Theravada)* Steve Jobs (1955–2011), American businessman, entrepreneur, marketer, and inventor.", "(Zen)=== British===* Andy Puddicombe (born 23 September 1972) is a British author, public speaker and a teacher of meditation and mindfulness.", "He, alongside Richard Pierson, is the co-founder of Headspace, a digital health company that provides guided meditation training and mindfulness for its users.=== Chinese ===* Chen Feng, is a Chinese businessman and founder of business conglomerate HNA Group and Hainan Airlines.", "* Wang Jianlin, is a Chinese business magnate, investor and philanthropist.", "He is the chairman, founder, and majority shareholder of the Dalian Wanda Group, one of China's foremost conglomerate companies, which is also well known for being China's largest real estate development company and the world's largest movie theater operator.", "He previously owned 17% of the Spanish football club Atlético Madrid.==Music===== American ===* John Cage, American composer (Zen Buddhism)* Belinda Carlisle, American singer (Soka Gakkai International)* Philip Glass, American composer (Tibetan Buddhist)* Herbie Hancock, American pianist and composer (Soka Gakkai International)* Combat Jack (known professionally as Combat Jack; 1964–2017), Haitian-American hip hop music attorney, executive, journalist, editor and podcaster.", "* Courtney Love, American singer-songwriter (Soka Gakkai International)* Steven Sater, American playwright, lyricist and screenwriter (Soka Gakkai International)* Duncan Sheik (born 1969), American singer-songwriter and composer (Soka Gakkai International)* Earl Sweatshirt, American rapper, songwriter, and record producer.", "(Nichiren Buddhism)* Tina Turner, American singer-songwriter (Soka Gakkai International)* Buster Williams (born 1942), American jazz bassist* Adam Yauch (stage name MCA; 1964–2012), American rapper, bass player, filmmaker.", "* Wayne Shorter (1933-2023), American jazz saxophonist, composer and bandleader.=== Australian ===* Jimmy Barnes (born 1956), Australian singer=== British ===* Amazonica is a British rock singer and DJ.", "* Annabella Lwin (born 31 October 1966) is an Anglo-Burmese singer, songwriter and record producer best known as the lead vocalist of Bow Wow Wow.", "* David Bowie (1947–2016), English singer-songwriter and actor.", "* Boy George (born 1961), English singer, songwriter, DJ, fashion designer, mixed media artist, photographer and record producer (Soka Gakkai International)* Maxi Jazz (born 1957), British rapper* Gary Glitter, is an English former glam rock singer who achieved success in the 1970s and 1980s.During the 1980s Glitter became a Buddhist and a vegetarian.", "* Limahl, is an English pop singer.", "He was the lead singer of the pop group Kajagoogoo beginning in 1981, before embarking on a brief solo career, garnering the 1984 hit \"The NeverEnding Story\", the theme song for the film of the same name.", "* Howard Jones (born 1955), English musician, singer and songwriter* Nick Jago is an English musician, best known as the former drummer and founding member of Black Rebel Motorcycle Club.", "* Richard Batsford (born 25 October 1969) is an English pianist, composer and singer-songwriter.A further concert in 2010 at the Birmingham Buddhist Centre saw the same collaboration.", "* Sandie Shaw (born '''Sandra Ann Goodrich'''; 26 February 1947) is a retired English pop singer.", "One of the most successful British female singers of the 1960s, she had three UK number one singles with \"(There's) Always Something There to Remind Me\" (1964), \"Long Live Love\" (1965) and \"Puppet on a String\" (1967).=== Canadian ===* Beverly Glenn-Copeland (born 1944), U.S.-born Canadian musician, songwriter and singer (Soka Gakkai International)* Leonard Cohen, Canadian singer-songwriter/poet (Zen)* k.d.", "lang (born 1961), Canadian singer (Tibetan Buddhism)=== Chinese ===* Faye Wong (born 1969), Chinese singer and actress (Tibetan Buddhism)=== Hong Konger ===* Daniel Chan (born 1975), Hong Kong singer, songwriter, and actor.", "(Chan Buddhism)=== Indian ===* Vaishali Mhade (born 1984), singer* Shibani Kashyap, Indian singer* Abhijeet Kosambi, singer* Surekha Punekar, Indian folk artist* Adarsh Shinde (born 1988), singer, musician* Vitthal Umap (1931–2010), singer=== Italian ===* Carmen Consoli, Italian singer and songwriter" ], [ "Sport", "===Football===* Brett Kirk (born 1976), former Australian rules football player and current assistant coach.", "* Fabien Barthez (1994–2006), French goalkeeper (Zen).", "He is the first Buddhist footballer in the world to win a Football World Cup and Euro.", "* Josh Scobey (born December 11, 1979) is a former American football running back and kick returner who played seven seasons in the National Football League (NFL).", "* Kwak Hee-Ju (born 5 October 1981) is a South Korean footballer who plays as a defender who last played for Suwon Samsung Bluewings.", "* Kim Do-hoon,(born 21 July 1970) is a South Korean professional football manager and former player.", "He was most recently the manager of Singaporean club Lion City Sailors before his 11 August 2022 resignation.", "* Kim Eun-jung ,(born 8 April 1979) is a South Korean retired footballer who played as a striker.", "He is currently a coach at Tubize after joining the team in 2015 as a youth scout.", "* Mehmet Scholl German football manager and former player.", "* Park Ji-sung, is a South Korean former professional footballer who played as a midfielder.", "Park is the most successful Asian player in football history, having won 19 trophies in his career.", "He is the first Asian footballer to have won the UEFA Champions League, to play in a UEFA Champions League final, as well as the first Asian to have won the FIFA Club World Cup.", "* Shunsuke Nakamura (born 1978), Japanese soccer player* Sébastien Frey (born 1980), French former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper.", "Frey has credited former Fiorentina legend Roberto Baggio as one of his spiritual mentors.", "(Soka Gakkai International)* Roberto Baggio (1988–2004), Italian footballer (Soka Gakkai International) * Mario Balotelli Barwuah (born 1990), Italian professional footballer.", "He is studying Buddhism in a bid to find inner peace and has bought several copies of the dharma, the religion's teachings, and set up a quiet area with a statue of Buddha where he can meditate.", "(Pure Land Buddhism)*Mehmet Scholl (born 1970), German football manager and former player.", "(Theravada)* Wang Dalei, is a Chinese professional footballer who currently plays for Chinese Super League club Shandong Taishan and the China national team.===Cricket===* Asanka Gurusinha (born 16 September 1966) is a Sri Lankan Australian former international cricketer who had an 11-year international career, playing 41 Tests and 147 One Day Internationals for Sri Lanka.", "* Mahela Jayawardene (born 1977), Sri Lankan former cricketer and consultant coach.", "* Kumar Sangakkara (born 1977), Sri Lankan cricket commentator, former professional cricketer, and businessman.", "(Theravada)* Lasith Malinga (born 1981), Sri Lankan professional cricket player and Captain of T20 International cricket of Sri Lanka.", "(Theravada)* Sanath Jayasuriya (born 1969), Sri Lankan batter.", "* Tillakaratne Dilshan (born 1976), Sri Lankan cricket player who converted from Islam to Buddhism at the age of 16, previously known as Tuwan Muhammad Dilshan.", "(Theravada)* Tillakaratne Sampath (born 1982), Sri Lankan cricket player previously known as Tuwan Mohammad Nishan Sampath* Sumon Barua is a first-class and List A cricketer from Bangladesh.", "A right-handed batsman and right arm medium fast bowler, he played for Chittagong Division in 2001/02.", "* Suraj Randiv (born 1985), Sri Lankan cricket player.", "(Theravada)=== Basketball ===* Phil Jackson (born 1945), American former professional basketball player, coach, and executive.", "* Grant Hill (born 1972), American former professional basketball player, coach, and executive.=== Swimming ===* Anthony Ervin (born 1981), American gold medalist swimmer.", "(Zen)=== Rugby ===* Jonny Wilkinson (born 1979), English former rugby union player.", "(Thravada)* Ricky Evans (born 1960), Welsh former international rugby union player.=== Golf ===* Tiger Woods, American golfer (Theravada)* Grace Park (born 6 March 1979) is a retired South Korean professional golfer on the LPGA Tour.", "She was a member of the LPGA Tour from 2000 until her retirement in 2012 and won six LPGA Tour events, including one major championship, during her career.", "* Bae Sang-moon (1986- ), is a South Korean professional golfer who plays on the PGA Tour.=== Boxing ===* Lucia Rijker, Dutch boxer === Wrestlers ===* Jinsei Shinzaki, is currently signed to the Michinoku Pro Wrestling promotion where he is the promotion's president.", "Shinzaki is also known for his appearances with other Japanese promotions such as All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW), New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), and Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling (FMW).", "Shinzaki is perhaps most known for his stint in the United States based World Wrestling Federation (WWF).", "* Kim Hyeon-woo (born November 6, 1988, in Wonju, Gangwon-do) is a male wrestler from South Korea.", "In the 2012 Summer Olympics, Kim won the gold medal in the 66 kg Greco-Roman wrestling final.", "* Matt Sydal, is an American professional wrestler currently signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW).", "* Peter Thornley (born 19 October 1941) is an English retired professional wrestler who was best known for the ring character Kendo Nagasaki.=== Sumo wrestling ===* Hakuhō Shō" ], [ "Military", "=== American ===* Aidan Delgado, American attorney, author, and war veteran* George Lennon (1900 – 1991), American-Irish Republican Army leader during the Irish War of Independence and the Irish Civil War (Zen)* John David Provoo (1917 – 2001), United States Army staff sergeant.", "* Shiro Kashiwa (1912 – 1998), first Attorney General of Hawaii to be appointed after it became a state in 1959 (Jōdo Shinshū)* Ming Chang – rear admiral (upper half), U.S. Navy, retired.", "Department of Navy Inspector General, 1987–1990* Ellison Onizuka (1946–1986), U.S. Air Force Colonel and first Asian American astronaut of NASA (Pure Land Buddhism)=== British ===* Arthur Lillie (24 February 1831 – 28 November 1911), was a Buddhist, soldier in the British Indian Army, and a writer.", "* Neville Armstrong (20 October 1913 – September 2008) was a British soldier, literary agent, and publisher." ], [ "Buddhist practitioners notable in other fields", "* Penélope Cruz, Spanish actress and model* George Dvorsky, Transhumanist, Futurist and a director of Humanity+ (Secular Buddhism)* Jet Li, Chinese martial artist, Hollywood actor (Tibetan Buddhist)* Naima Mora, American fashion model and winner of ''America's Next Top Model'' (Soka Gakkai International)* Maya Soetoro-Ng, Indonesian American writer, university instructor and maternal half-sister of Barack Obama, the 44th President of the United States*Priscilla Chan, pediatrician and philanthropist, wife of Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg" ], [ "Fictional Buddhists", "===Anime and manga===*Gautama Buddha, protagonist from ''Saint Young Men''*The cast from ''Ah My Buddha''*Ikkyū, protagonist from ''Ikkyū-san''*The cast from ''Oseam''*Seishin Muroi, character from ''Shiki''*Yoh Asakura, protagonist of the anime/manga ''Shaman King''*Hanamaru Kunikida, character from ''Love Live!", "Sunshine''*Miroku, character from Japanese Anime ''Inuyasha''*Krillin, character from the ''Dragonball'' series*Kaname Asahina, Chiaki and Yūsei, characters from ''Brothers Conflict''*Chichiri, character from ''Fushigi Yūgi''*Yakumo Kokonoe, character from ''The Irregular at Magic High School''*Mayura Sōda, Miyuki Sagara, and Yukimasa Sagara, characters from ''RDG: Red Data Girl''*Keisei Tagami and Akasha Shishidō, characters from the ''Corpse Princess'' series*Anji Yūkyūzan, character from ''Rurouni Kenshin''*Enkai, character from ''Requiem from the Darkness''===Graphic novels===* Enigma, Marvel Comics superheroine* Xorn, Marvel Comics character and member of the X-Men* Green Lama, American pulp magazine hero* Green Arrow (Connor Hawke), DC Comics superhero===Literature===* Sun Wukong, Monkey King in Chinese epic novel ''Journey to the West'', and a fictional pupil of historical Chinese monk Xuanzang* Mary Elizabeth, character from the novel ''The Perks of Being a Wallflower''===Film and television===* Steve Jinks, character from ''Warehouse 13'', (Season 3, Episode 1) \"The New Guy\"* Daryl Dixon, character from ''The Walking Dead'', Episode 8 (Season 2, Episode 2) \"Bloodletting\"* Kahn Souphanousinphone, character from the cartoon ''King of the Hill''* Connie Souphanousinphone, character from the cartoon ''King of the Hill''* Dale Cooper, protagonist of the television series ''Twin Peaks''* Kyle Valenti, character from the television series ''Roswell''* Lisa Simpson, feminist and daughter of Homer and Marge Simpson, character from the cartoon ''The Simpsons'' Episode 275 (Season 13 Episode 6) \"She of Little Faith\"** Lenny and Carl and Carl Carlson, and Lenny Leonard* Trini Kwan, original Yellow Ranger of the ''Mighty Morphin Power Rangers''* Wendy Wu, protagonist of the Disney Channel Original Movie ''Wendy Wu: Homecoming Warrior''* Master Splinter, Zen sensei/teacher to the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles* Hiro Nakamura, protagonist character in TV series ''Heroes''* Gi, Planeteer able to wield the element water* Edina Monsoon (Eddy) from the ''Absolutely Fabulous'' TV sitcom* The God character in ''South Park'', episode \"Probably\"* Charlie Crews, Zen Buddhist, protagonist of television series ''Life''* Buddha, character from ''Air Buddies''* Satomi Ito, Alpha Werewolf and leader of Buddhist werewolf pack in the television series ''Teen Wolf (2011 TV series)''===Video games===* Liu Kang, character from the video game and later movie, ''Mortal Kombat''* Sage, a class of trainer from the ''Pokémon'' series===Misc===* 2D, lead singer and keyboardist of the British virtual band Gorillaz* Jeremy, from the popular web series ''Pure Pwnage''" ], [ "See also", "* Awgatha* Three Refuges* Five precepts* Dalit Buddhist movement* Jewish Buddhists* List of American Buddhists* List of Marathi Buddhists* List of converts to Buddhism* List of converts to Buddhism from Christianity* List of converts to Buddhism from Hinduism* Outline of Buddhism" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of agnostics" ], [ "Introduction", "AnthonyBorgesDuBoisHedayatKorczakSnowdenDunantAnnoBergmanBrahmsChaplinDalíGaimanLeeDavisMahlerMcCartneySchubertListed here are persons who have identified themselves as theologically agnostic.", "Also included are individuals who have expressed the view that the veracity of a god's existence is unknown or inherently unknowable." ], [ "List", "ConfuciusDemocritusEpicurusKantPopperRussellWittgensteinAngellDarrowIngersollBardeenBellBooleBoseCavendishCurieDarwinDiracEinsteinFermiFloreyHelmholtzHilbertThomas Huxley, coiner of the term ''agnostic''.LagrangeLaplaceMichelsonPayne-GaposchkinPoincaréPoissonRamanRayleighRotblatSaganSangerSzilárdTellerTyndallTysonUlamvon NeumannWeilWienerYang===Activists and authors===* Saul Alinsky (1909–1972): American community organizer and writer; ''Rules for Radicals''.", "* Poul Anderson (1926–2001): American science fiction author.", "* Piers Anthony (born 1934): English-American writer of science fiction and fantasy.", "* Susan B. Anthony (1820–1906): American civil rights leader who played a pivotal role in the 19th century women's rights movement to introduce women's suffrage into the United States; co-founder of the first Women's Temperance Movement with Elizabeth Cady Stanton as President.", "* Hannah Arendt (1906–1975): German American writer and political theorist.", "* Margaret Atwood (born 1939): Canadian poet, novelist, literary critic, essayist, teacher, environmental activist, and inventor.", "* Samuel Beckett (1906–1989): Irish avant-garde novelist, playwright, theatre director, and poet; awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1969.", "* Ambrose Bierce (1842 – c. 1914): American editorialist, journalist, short story writer, fabulist and satirist; known for his short story \"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge\" and his satirical lexicon ''The Devil's Dictionary''.", "* Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986): Argentine writer.", "* Henry Cadbury (1883–1974): American biblical scholar and Quaker who contributed to the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible.", "* Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881): Scottish satirical writer, essayist, historian and teacher during the Victorian era.", "* Ariel Dorfman (born 1942): Argentine/Chilean novelist, playwright, essayist, academic, and human rights activist.", "* Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930): Scottish physician and writer; known for his stories about the detective Sherlock Holmes; a prolific writer whose other works include science fiction stories, plays, romances, poetry, non-fiction and historical novels.", "* W.E.B.", "Du Bois (1868–1963): American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, Pan-Africanist, author and editor; co-founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.", "* Bart D. Ehrman (born 1955): American New Testament scholar and \"a happy agnostic\".", "* Edward FitzGerald (1809–1883): English poet and writer, best known as the poet of the first and most famous English translation of ''The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam''* Betty Friedan (1921–2006): American writer, activist and feminist; a leading figure in the women's movement in the United States; her 1963 book, ''The Feminine Mystique'', is often credited with sparking the \"second wave\" of American feminism in the 20th century.", "* Frederick James Furnivall (1825–1910): English second editor of the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.", "* John Galsworthy (1867–1933): English novelist and playwright; ''The Forsyte Saga'' (1906–1921) and its sequels, ''A Modern Comedy'' and ''End of the Chapter''; won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1932* Neil Gaiman (born 1960): English author of short fiction, novels, comic books, graphic novels, audio theatre and films including the comic book series ''The Sandman'' and novels ''Stardust'', ''American Gods'', ''Coraline'', and ''The Graveyard Book''.", "* Maxim Gorky (1868–1936): Russian and Soviet author who brought Socialist Realism to literature.", "* Thomas Hardy (1840–1928): English novelist and poet; while his works typically belong to the Naturalism movement, several poems display elements of the previous Romantic and Enlightenment periods of literature, such as his fascination with the supernatural.", "* Sadegh Hedayat (1903–1951): Iranian author and writer.", "* Robert A. Heinlein (1907–1988): American science fiction writer.", "* Joseph Heller (1923–1999): American satirical novelist, short story writer, and playwright; ''Catch-22''.", "* Alexander Herzen (1812–1870): Russian writer and thinker; the \"father of Russian socialism\"; one of the main fathers of agrarian populism.", "* Aldous Huxley (1894–1963): English writer of novels, such as ''Brave New World'', and wide-ranging essays.", "* A.J.", "Jacobs (born 1968): American author.", "* James Joyce (1882–1941): Irish novelist and poet, considered to be one of the most influential writers in the modernist avant-garde movement of the early 20th century; best known for his novel ''Ulysses''.", "* Franz Kafka (1883–1924): Czech-born Jewish writer.", "* John Keats (1795–1821): English Romantic poet.", "* Janusz Korczak (1878 or 1879–1942): Polish Jewish educator, children's author and pediatrician.", "After spending many years working as director of an orphanage in Warsaw, Korczak refused freedom and remained with the orphans as they were sent to Treblinka extermination camp during the Grossaktion Warsaw of 1942.", "* Stanisław Lem (1921–2006): Polish science fiction novelist and essayist.", "* H. P. Lovecraft (1890–1937): American writer of strange fiction and horror.", "* Lucretius (99 BC–55 BC): Roman poet and philosopher.", "* Bernard Malamud (1914–1986): American author of novels and short stories; one of the great American Jewish authors of the 20th century.", "* H. L. Mencken (1880–1956): German-American journalist, satirist, social critic, cynic and freethinker, known as the \"Sage of Baltimore\".", "* Thomas Mann (1875–1955): German novelist, short story writer, social critic, philanthropist, essayist, and 1929 Nobel Prize laureate, known for his series of highly symbolic and ironic epic novels and novellas, noted for their insight into the psychology of the artist and the intellectual.", "* Vladimir Nabokov (1899–1977): Russian novelist, poet and short story writer; known for his novel ''Lolita''.", "* Eugene O'Neill (1888–1953), American playwright; won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1936.", "* Larry Niven (born 1938): American science fiction author; ''Ringworld'' (1970).", "* Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935): Portuguese poet, writer, literary critic and translator, described as one of the most significant literary figures of the 20th century and one of the greatest poets in Portuguese.", "* Marcel Proust (1871–1922): French novelist, critic and essayist, known for his work ''In Search of Lost Time''.", "* Philip Pullman (born 1946): English children's author of the trilogy ''His Dark Materials''; has said that he is technically an agnostic, though he also calls himself an atheist.", "* Alexander Pushkin (1799–1837): Russian author of the Romantic era, considered by many to be the greatest Russian poet and the founder of modern Russian literature.", "* Edward Said (1935–2003): Palestinian-American literary theorist and advocate for Palestinian rights; university professor of English and Comparative Literature at Columbia University; a founding figure in postcolonialism.", "* Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. (1917–2007): American historian and Pulitzer Prize–winning writer.", "* Mary Shelley (1797–1851): English novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel ''Frankenstein'' (1818).", "* Edward Snowden (born 1983): American computer specialist, privacy activist and former CIA employee and NSA contractor; disclosed classified details of several top-secret United States and British government mass surveillance programs.", "* Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815–1902): American social activist, abolitionist, and leading figure of the early woman's movement.", "Her Declaration of Sentiments, presented at the Seneca Falls Convention held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, is often credited with initiating the first organized woman's rights and woman's suffrage movements in the United States.", "Late in life she led the effort to write the ''Woman's Bible'' to correct the injustices she perceived against women in the Bible.", "* Olaf Stapledon (1886–1950): English philosopher and author of several influential works of science fiction.", "* John Steinbeck (1902–1968): American writer known for novels such as ''The Grapes of Wrath'' and ''East of Eden''; won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1962* Stendhal (1783–1842) (a.k.a.", "Marie-Henri Beyle): French writer.", "* Boris Strugatsky (1925–2012): Soviet-Russian science fiction author who collaborated with his brother, Arkady Strugatsky, on various works; their novel ''Piknik na obochine'' was translated into English as ''Roadside Picnic'' in 1977 and was filmed by Andrei Tarkovsky under the title ''Stalker''.", "* Charles Templeton (1915–2001): Canadian evangelist; author of ''A Farewell to God''.", "* Thucydides (c. 460–c.", "395): Greek historian and author from Alimos.", "His ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' recounts the 5th-century BC war between Sparta and Athens to the year 411 BC.", "Thucydides has been dubbed the father of \"scientific history\", because of his strict standards of evidence-gathering and analysis in terms of cause and effect without reference to intervention by the gods, as outlined in his introduction to his work.", "* Ivan Turgenev (1818–1883): Russian novelist, short-story writer and playwright; author of ''A Sportsman's Sketches'' and of ''Fathers and Sons''.", "* Mark Twain (1835–1910): American humorist, satirist, lecturer and writer, most noted for his novels ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' and ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer''; has also been identified a deist.", "* Adam Bruno Ulam (1922–2000): Polish and American historian and political scientist at Harvard University; one of the world's foremost authorities on Russia and the Soviet Union, and the author of twenty books and many articles.", "* Ibn Warraq (born 1946): known for his books critical of Islam.", "* Hale White (1831–1913): British writer and civil servant.", "* Robert Anton Wilson (1932–2007): American author and futurologist* Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797): English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights.", "During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book.", "Wollstonecraft is best known for ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'' (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education.", "She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.", "* David Yallop (1937–2018): English true crime author.", "* Émile Zola (1840–1902): French writer; prominent figure in the literary school of naturalism; important contributor to the development of theatrical naturalism.===Business===* Leslie Alexander (born 1943): American sports owner, owner of the Houston Rockets* Warren Buffett (born 1930): American investor; identified himself as agnostic in response to Warren Allen Smith, who had asked him whether he believed in God* Henry Dunant (1828–1910): Swiss businessman and social activist; founder of International Committee of the Red Cross; in 1901 he received the first Nobel Peace Prize, together with Frédéric Passy* Elon Musk (born 1971): South African American inventor and entrepreneur best known for founding SpaceX and co-founding Tesla Motors and PayPal (originally X.com)* Ted Turner (born 1938): American founder of Turner Broadcasting System, now part of Time Warner===Media and arts===* John Adams (born 1947): American composer* Hideaki Anno (born 1960): Japanese animation and film director; known for his work on the popular anime series ''Neon Genesis Evangelion''* Simon Baker (born 1969): Australian television and movie actor* David Bazan (born 1976): American singer, songwriter, musician and former frontman of Pedro The Lion, an indie rock outfit associated with Christian rock that was controversial among Christians for their language and off-kilter views about religion; his solo career has been focused around his newfound agnosticism.", "* Monica Bellucci (born 1964): Italian actress and fashion model* Tom Bergeron (born 1955): American television personality and game show host; host of ''America's Funniest Home Videos'', ''Hollywood Squares'' and ''Dancing with the Stars''* Ingmar Bergman (1918–2007): Swedish director, writer and producer for film, stage and television* Irving Berlin (1888–1989): American composer and lyricist of Jewish heritage, widely considered one of the greatest songwriters in American history* Hector Berlioz (1803–1869): French Romantic composer* Gael García Bernal (born 1978): Mexican actor and director; claims to be \"culturally Catholic\" and \"spiritually agnostic\"* Lewis Black (born 1948): American stand-up comedian, author, playwright, social critic and actor* Johannes Brahms (1833–1897): German composer and pianist* Georges Brassens (1921–1981): French singer-songwriter and poet* Benjamin Britten (1913–1976): English composer, conductor, and pianist; a central figure of 20th-century British classical music* Gavin Bryars (born 1943): English composer and double bassist* Rose Byrne (born 1979), Australian actress* Dick Cavett (born 1936): American television talk show host* Charlie Chaplin (1889–1977): English comic actor, film director and composer best known for his work in the United States during the silent film era* Aaron Copland (1900–1990): American composer* Salvador Dalí (1904–1989): Spanish surrealist painter born in Figueres, Spain.", "Dalí, a skilled draftsman, became best known for the striking and bizarre images in his surrealist work.", "His painterly skills are often attributed to the influence of Renaissance masters.", "His arguably best-known work, ''The Persistence of Memory'', was completed in 1931.Dalí's expansive artistic repertoire included film, sculpture, and photography, in collaboration with a range of artists in a variety of media.", "He allegedly claimed to be both an agnostic and a Roman Catholic.", "* Miles Davis (1926–1991): American trumpeter, bandleader, and composer.", "* Daniel Day-Lewis (born 1957): English-Irish actor, three-time Academy Award for Best Actor winner* Leonardo DiCaprio (born 1974): American actor* Ronnie James Dio (1942–2010): American heavy metal singer (Elf, Rainbow, Black Sabbath, Dio, Heaven & Hell)* Richard Dreyfuss (born 1947): American actor* Thomas Eakins (1844–1916): American realist painter, photographer, sculptor, and fine arts educator; widely acknowledged to be one of the most important artists in American art history* Christopher Eccleston (born 1964): English actor* Zac Efron (born 1987): American actor, star of movies such as ''High School Musical'' and ''17 Again''; was raised agnostic (his paternal grandfather was Jewish)* Carrie Fisher (1956–2016): American actress, screenwriter and novelist* Gabriel Fauré (1845–1924): French composer, organist, pianist and teacher; one of the foremost French composers of his generation; his musical style influenced many 20th-century composers* Henry Fonda (1905–1982): American film and stage actor* Emilia Fox (born 1974): English actress* William Friedkin (1935–2023): American film and television director, producer and screenwriter, known for directing the action thriller film ''The French Connection'' and the supernatural horror film ''The Exorcist''.", "* Gilberto Gil (born 1942): Brazilian singer, guitarist, and songwriter, known for both his musical innovation and political commitment* Jean-Luc Godard (1930–2022): French-Swiss film director, screenwriter and film critic; often identified with the 1960s French film movement ''La Nouvelle Vague'', or \"New Wave\"* Matt Groening (born 1954): American creator of animated TV series ''The Simpsons'' and ''Futurama'', and the comic ''Life in Hell''* Bob Guccione (1930–2010): American founder and publisher of ''Penthouse'' magazine * Neil Patrick Harris (born 1973): American actor, producer, singer, and director; best known for ''Doogie Howser, M.D.''", "and ''How I Met Your Mother''; as a child, belonged to an Episcopal Church with his family, where he sang in choir, but has designated himself as an agnostic on his Myspace* Hergé (1907–1983): Belgian cartoonist; creator of ''The Adventures of Tintin''* Gustav Holst (1874–1934): English composer, arranger and teacher; best known for his orchestral suite ''The Planets''; composed a large number of works across a range of genres, although none achieved comparable success* John Humphrys (born 1943): English radio and television presenter who hosted a series of programmes interviewing religious leaders, ''Humphrys in Search of God''* Leoš Janáček (1854–1928): Czech composer* Gene Kelly (1912–1996): American dancer, actor, singer, film director and producer, and choreographer* Myles Kennedy (born 1969): American musician, singer, and songwriter; lead vocalist and guitarist of the rock band Alter Bridge* Larry King (1933–2021): host of ''Larry King Live''* Janez Lapajne (born 1967): Slovenian film director, producer, screenwriter, film editor and production designer* Cloris Leachman (1926–2021): American actress* Stan Lee (1922–2018) American comic book writer, editor, actor, producer, publisher, television personality; former president and chairman of Marvel Comics* Lemmy (1945–2015): English rock singer and bass guitarist; founder of the rock band Motörhead* Joe Lipari also known as J.R. Lipari, (born October 5, 1979) is an American comedian, artist, agnostic minister & yoga teacher.", "* James Hetfield (born 1963): American heavy metal singer and rhythm guitarist; co-founder of the heavy metal band Metallica* Annie Lennox (born 1954): Scottish recording artist* Andrew Lloyd Webber (born 1948): Lloyd Webber views Jesus as \"one of the great figures of history\" and wrote the rock opera ''Jesus Christ Superstar'' about him.", "The opera was controversial with conservative Christian groups.", "* René Magritte (1898–1967): Belgian surrealist artist* Gustav Mahler (1860–1911): Austrian Late-Romantic composer and conductor* Dave Matthews (born 1967): American musician and actor* Brian May (born 1947): English musician and astrophysicist most widely known as the guitarist, songwriter and occasional singer of the rock band Queen* Paul McCartney (born 1942): English musician, singer and composer* David Mitchell (born 1974): British actor, comedian and writer* Edvard Munch (1863–1944): Norwegian Symbolist painter, printmaker and an important forerunner of expressionist art; known for ''The Scream''* Ernest Newman (1868–1959): English music critic and musicologist* Conor Oberst (born 1980): American singer-songwriter; fronts the band Bright Eyes* Hubert Parry (1848–1918): English composer, teacher and historian of music* Neil Peart (1952–2020): Canadian drummer and lyricist for progressive rock band Rush; many Rush song lyrics criticize religion and theism* Sean Penn (born 1960): American actor, twice winner of the Academy Award for Best Actor* Brendan Perry (born 1959): English singer and multi-instrumentalist best known for his work as the male half of the duo Dead Can Dance with Lisa Gerrard* Chris Pine (born 1980): American actor* Brad Pitt (born 1963): American actor; stated that he did not believe in God, and that he was mostly agnostic* Sidney Poitier (1927–2022): Bahamian American actor, film director, author, and diplomat; his views are closer to deism* Hugo Riemann (1849–1919): German music theorist and composer* Joe Rogan (born 1967): American comedian, podcaster, social critic and UFC color commentator* Andy Rooney (1919–2011): American broadcast personality; specified that he was an agnostic and ''not'' an atheist, but also called himself an atheist* Tim Rice (born 1944): Wrote the rock opera ''Jesus Christ Superstar'' about Jesus.", "The opera was controversial with conservative Christians.", "* Larry Sanger (born 1968): American co-founder of Wikipedia.", "* Franz Schubert (1797–1828): Austrian composer* Robert Schumann (1810–1856): German composer and influential music critic; widely regarded as one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era* Ridley Scott (born 1937): English film director and producer; ''Alien'' (1979), ''Blade Runner''* Adrienne Shelly (1966–2006): American actor, screenwriter and director* Rogério Skylab (born 1956): Brazilian singer-songwriter, poet and essayist, notorious for the underground hit \"Matador de Passarinho\"* Richard Strauss (1864–1949): German composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras* Howard Stern (born 1954): American radio personality, television host, author, actor, and photographer* Sting (born 1951): English musician and lead singer of The Police* Matt Stone (born 1971): American co-creator of the cartoon series ''South Park''; considers himself an agnostic Jew (his mother is Jewish), though he has also denied the existence of God* Osamu Tezuka (1928–1989): Japanese cartoonist, manga artist, animator, producer, activist and medical doctor; creator of ''Astro Boy'', ''Kimba the White Lion'' and ''Black Jack''; often credited as the \"godfather of anime\", and is often considered the Japanese equivalent to Walt Disney* Jhonen Vasquez (born 1974): American comic book writer, and cartoonist; known for the animated series ''Invader Zim''* Giuseppe Verdi (1813–1901): Italian composer, one of the most influential of the 19th century* Montel Williams (born 1956): American television host, actor and motivational speaker.", "* Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958): British composer.", "Despite the variety of his works with religious connections, Vaughan Williams was decidedly not a believer.", "According to his classmate Bertrand Russell, Williams was an atheist while attending Cambridge.", "According to his widow, he later became an agnostic.", "* Billie Joe Armstrong (born 1972): American Musician and band member of Green Day===Philosophy=======Idealistic agnostics====* Confucius (551 BC–479 BC): Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history.", "The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity.", "His followers competed successfully with many other schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of the Legalists during the Qin Dynasty.", "Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, Confucius's thoughts received official sanction and were further developed into a Chinese religious system known as Confucianism.", "* Immanuel Kant (1724–1804): German philosopher; known for ''Critique of Pure Reason''* Laozi (born 604 BC): Chinese religious philosopher; author of the ''Tao Te Ching''; this association has led him to be traditionally considered the founder of philosophical religion Taoism====Unclassified philosophers-agnostics====* Isaiah Berlin (1909–1997): British social and political theorist, philosopher and historian of ideas of Russian-Jewish origin, thought by many to be the dominant scholar of his generation* Noam Chomsky (born 1928): American linguist, philosopher, political activist, author; lecturer, Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; credited with the creation of the theory of generative grammar* Democritus (460 BC – 370 BC): Ancient Greek philosopher; influential pre-Socratic philosopher and pupil of Leucippus, who formulated an atomic theory for the cosmos* John Dewey (1859–1952): American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer; his ideas have been influential in education and social reform* Epicurus (341 BCE–270 BCE): Ancient Greek philosopher and the founder of the school of philosophy called Epicureanism* Fred Edwords (born 1948): longtime Humanist activist; national director of the United Coalition of Reason* James Hall (born 1933): philosopher; describes himself as an agnostic Episcopalian* Sidney Hook (1902–1989): American philosopher of the Pragmatist school known for his contributions to the philosophy of history, the philosophy of education, political theory, and ethics* David Hume (1711–1776): Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and scepticism.", "He was one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment.", "Hume is often grouped with John Locke, George Berkeley, and a handful of others as a British Empiricist.", "* Edmund Husserl (1859–1938): German philosopher and mathematician and the founder of the 20th-century philosophical school of phenomenology* Harold Innis (1894–1952): Canadian political philosopher and professor of political economy at the University of Toronto; author of seminal works on media, communication theory and Canadian economic history* Anthony Kenny (born 1931): president of Royal Institute of Philosophy, wrote in his essay \"Why I'm not an atheist\" after justifying his agnostic position that \"a claim to knowledge needs to be substantiated; ignorance need only be confessed\".", "* Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996): American historian and philosopher of science whose controversial 1962 book ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' was deeply influential in both academic and popular circles, introducing the term \"paradigm shift,\" which has since become an English-language staple* G. E. Moore (1873–1958): English philosopher; one of the founders of the analytic tradition in philosophy* Karl R. Popper (1902–1994): Philosopher of science; promoted falsifiability as a necessary criterion of empirical statements in science* Protagoras (died 420 BCE): Greek Sophist; first major Humanist; wrote that the existence of the gods was unknowable* Pyrrho (360 BC – c. 270 BC): Greek philosopher of classical antiquity; credited as being the first Skeptic philosopher and the inspiration for the school known as Pyrrhonism, founded by Aenesidemus in the 1st century BC* Bertrand Russell (1872–1970): British philosopher and mathematician; considered himself a philosophical agnostic, but said that the label \"atheist\" conveyed a more accurate impression to \"the ordinary man in the street\"* Michael Schmidt-Salomon (born 1967): German philosopher, author and former editor of ''MIZ'' (''Contemporary Materials and Information: Political magazine for atheists and the irreligious'') Schmidt-Salomon has specified that he is not a \"''pure'' atheist, but actually an ''agnostic''.", "\"* Herbert Spencer (1820–1903): English philosopher, biologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era* Theophrastus (c. 371 BC – 287 BC): Greek philosopher; a native of Eresos in Lesbos; the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school.", "* Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891): Indian Bengali polymath; a key figure of the Bengal Renaissance* Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951): Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language.", "He is best known for his philosophical works like the ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'' and ''Philosophical Investigations''.===Politics and law===* Norman Angell (1872–1967): English lecturer, journalist, author, and politician; member of parliament for the Labour Party in England; awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1933* Winston Churchill (1874–1965): British politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1940-1945 and 1951-1955).", "* Nick Clegg (born 1967): British politician, Leader of the Liberal Democrats (2007-2015), Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (2010-2015).", "* Sajid Javid, (born 1969): British politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (2019-2020).", "* Jacinda Ardern (born 1980): New Zealand politician, Prime Minister of New Zealand, 2017-2023.", "* Clement Attlee (1883–1967): British politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, 1945–1951* James Callaghan (1912–2005): British politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, (1976-1979)* Harold Wilson (1916–1995): British politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, (1964-1970 and 1974-1976)* Michelle Bachelet (born 1951): Chilean politician, President of Chile, 2006–2010 and 2014–2018* Gabriel Boric (born 1986): Chilean politician, President of Chile* Vincent Bugliosi (1934–2015): former Los Angeles County Deputy District Attorney* Fernando Henrique Cardoso (born 1931): Brazilian politician, President of Brazil, 1995–2003* Helen Clark (born 1950): New Zealand politician, Prime Minister of New Zealand, 1999–2008* John Curtin (1885–1945): 14th Prime Minister of Australia* Clarence Darrow (1857–1938): American lawyer; defended John T. Scopes' right to teach Darwin's theory of evolution in the famous Tennessee \"Monkey Trial\"* Alan Dershowitz (born 1938): American lawyer, jurist and political commentator; author of ''Taking the Stand: My Life in the Law'' (2013)* Carlos Gaviria Díaz (1937–2015): Colombian politician; said \"I am an agnostic, like him Bertrand Russell\"* Willem Drees (1886–1988): Dutch politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands, 1948–1958* Heinz Fischer (born 1938): Austrian politician, President of Austria, 2004–2016* Eamon Gilmore (born 1955): Irish politician, Tánaiste (Deputy Prime Minister) of the Republic of Ireland* Boris van der Ham (born 1973): Dutch politician* Mariëtte Hamer (born 1958): Dutch politician* Bob Hawke (1929–2019): 23rd Prime Minister of Australia, 1983–1991* François Hollande (born 1954): 24th President of France, 2012–2017* Billy Hughes (1862–1952): 7th Prime Minister of Australia* Robert G. Ingersoll (1833–1899): American political leader and orator known as \"The Great Agnostic\"* Ivo Josipović (born 1957): Croatian politician and composer; third President of Croatia, 2010–2015* Bob Kerrey (born 1943): American politician, Governor of Nebraska (1983–1987) and United States Senator from Nebraska (1989–2001)* Wim Kok (1938–2018): Dutch politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands, 1994–2002* Bruno Kreisky (1911–1990): Austrian Federal Chancellor, 1970–1983* Aleksander Kwaśniewski (born 1954): President of Poland, 1995–2005* Ricardo Lagos (born 1938): First declared agnostic to be elected president of Chile* John Key (born 1961): New Zealand politician, Prime Minister of New Zealand, 2008–2016* Esther Ouwehand (born 1976): Dutch politician* Jan Marijnissen (born 1952): Dutch politician* François Mitterrand (1916–1996): President of France, 1981–1995* Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964): Indian freedom-fighter and the country's first Prime Minister, 1947–1964* Robert Owen (1771–1858): Welsh social reformer; a founder of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement* Susan Rice (born 1964): Former United States Ambassador to the United Nations* George Lincoln Rockwell (1918–1967): Founder of the American Nazi Party* Siddaramaiah (born 1948): Former Karnataka Deputy CM* Jens Stoltenberg (born 1959): Former Prime Minister of Norway; current Secretary General of NATO* Cenk Uygur (born 1970): Turkish American columnist, political commentator, activist, former MSNBC host, co-founder of the American liberal/progressive political and social internet commentary program ''The Young Turks'', founder of Wolf PAC* Joop den Uyl (1919–1987): Dutch politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands, 1973–1977* Gerdi Verbeet (born 1951): Dutch politician, President of the House of Representatives since 2006.", "* Geert Wilders (born 1963): Dutch politician, leader of the Party for Freedom* Gough Whitlam (1916–2014): Prime Minister of Australia, 1972–1975* Lee Kuan Yew (1923–2015): Employment lawyer, Prime Minister and Founding Father of Singapore* Gerrit Zalm (born 1952): Dutch politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands, 2003–2007* José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (born 1960): Former Prime Minister of Spain===Science and technology===* Haroon Ahmed (born 1936): British Pakistani scientist in the fields of microelectronics and electrical engineering* Hannes Alfvén (1908–1995): Swedish electrical engineer and plasma physicist; recipient of 1970 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on magnetohydrodynamics (MHD); known for describing the class of MHD waves now known as Alfvén waves* Ralph Alpher (1921–2007): American cosmologist; known for the seminal paper on Big Bang nucleosynthesis, the Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper* Michael Atiyah (1929–2015): British-Lebanese mathematician specialising in geometry.", "He was awarded the Fields Medal in 1966 and the Abel Prize in 2004.", "* Sir David Attenborough (born 1926): English natural history presenter and anthropologist* Hertha Marks Ayrton (1854–1923): English engineer, mathematician and inventor* John Logie Baird (1888–1946): Scottish engineer and inventor of the world's first practical, publicly demonstrated television system, and of the world's first fully electronic colour television tube* Róbert Bárány (1876–1936): Austro-Hungarian otologist; for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus of the ear, he received the 1914 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine* John Bardeen (1908–1991): American physicist and electrical engineer; the only person to have won the Nobel Prize in Physics twice: first in 1956 with William Shockley and Walter Brattain for the invention of the transistor; and again in 1972 with Leon N Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer for a fundamental theory of conventional superconductivity known as the BCS theory* Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922): Eminent scientist, inventor, engineer and innovator; credited with inventing the first practical telephone* Richard E. Bellman (1920–1984): American applied mathematician, celebrated for his invention of dynamic programming in 1953, and important contributions in other fields of mathematics* Emile Berliner (1851–1929): German-born American inventor; known for developing the disc record gramophone (phonograph in American English)* Claude Bernard (1813–1878): French physiologist; first to define the term ''milieu intérieur'' (now known as homeostasis, a term coined by Walter Bradford Cannon)* Nicolaas Bloembergen (1920–2017): Dutch-American physicist; shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics with Arthur Schawlow and Kai Siegbahn for their work in laser spectroscopy* David Bohm (1917–1992): American-born British quantum physicist who contributed to theoretical physics, philosophy of mind, neuropsychology* George Boole (1815–1864): English mathematician and logician; known for developing Boolean algebra; has also been labeled a deist* Robert Bosch (1861–1942): German industrialist, engineer and inventor, founder of Robert Bosch GmbH* Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858–1937): Indian polymath: physicist, biologist, botanist, archaeologist, early writer of science fiction; pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made very significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent; invented the crescograph* Jacob Bronowski (1908–1974): Polish-Jewish British mathematician, biologist, historian of science, theatre author, poet and inventor; presenter and writer of the 1973 BBC television documentary series ''The Ascent of Man'', and the accompanying boo* Frank Macfarlane Burnet (1899–1985): Australian virologist; known for his contributions to immunology; received the 1960 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for demonstrating acquired immune tolerance and developing the theory of clonal selection* Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934): Spanish pathologist, histologist, neuroscientist; considered by many to be the father of modern neuroscience; won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906* Wallace Carothers (1896–1937): American chemist and inventor; credited with the invention of nylon* Henry Cavendish (1731–1810): British scientist; noted for his discovery of hydrogen or what he called \"inflammable air\"; known for the Cavendish experiment, his measurement of the Earth's density, and early research into electricity* Francis Crick (1916–2004): Nobel-laureate co-discoverer of the structure of DNA; described himself as a skeptic and an agnostic with \"a strong inclination towards atheism\"* Marie Curie (1867–1934): Polish physicist and chemist; pioneer in the field of radioactivity; the first to win two Nobel Prizes in two different sciences: the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 and the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911* Heber Doust Curtis (1872–1942): American astronomer; known for his participation in the Great Debate with Harlow Shapley on the nature of nebulae and galaxies, and the size of the universe* Charles Darwin (1809–1882): Founder of the theory of evolution by natural selection; once described himself as being generally agnostic, though he was a member of the Anglican Church and attended Unitarian services* David Deutsch (born 1953): British physicist at the University of Oxford; pioneered the field of quantum computation by formulating a description for a quantum Turing machine, as well as specifying an algorithm designed to run on a quantum computer* Paul Dirac (1902–1984): British theoretical physicist; a founder of quantum mechanics; predicted the existence of antimatter; won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933* Eugène Dubois (1858–1940): Dutch paleoanthropologist and geologist; earned worldwide fame for his discovery of Pithecanthropus erectus (later redesignated Homo erectus), or 'Java Man'* Émile Durkheim (1858–1917): French sociologist; had a Jewish bar mitzvah at thirteen, was briefly interested in Catholicism after a mystical experience, but later became an agnostic* Freeman Dyson (1923–2020): British-born American theoretical physicist and mathematician, famous for his work in quantum electrodynamics, solid-state physics, astronomy and nuclear engineering* Albert Einstein (1879–1955): German theoretical physicist, best known for his theory of relativity and the mass–energy equivalence, * John Ericsson (1803–1889): Swedish-American inventor and mechanical engineer* Enrico Fermi (1901–1954): Italian-American physicist; known for his work on the development of the first nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, and for his contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics; awarded the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on induced radioactivity* Edmond H. Fischer (1920–2021): Swiss American biochemist; he and his collaborator Edwin G. Krebs were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1992 for describing how reversible phosphorylation works as a switch to activate proteins and regulate various cellular processes* Howard Florey (1898–1968): Australian pharmacologist and pathologist; shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Sir Ernst Boris Chain and Sir Alexander Fleming for his role in the making of penicillin* Lee de Forest (1863–1961): American inventor with over 180 patents to his credit; invented the Audion; considered to be one of the fathers of the \"electronic age\", as the Audion helped to usher in the widespread use of electronics; credited with one of the principal inventions that brought sound to motion pictures* Edward Frankland (1825–1899): British chemist; expert in water quality and analysis; originated the concept of combining power, or valence, in chemistry* Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958): British biophysicist and X-ray crystallographer; made critical contributions to the understanding of the fine molecular structures of DNA, RNA, viruses, coal and graphite* Jerome I. Friedman (born 1930): American physicist; Institute Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; in 1968–1969 he conducted experiments with Henry W. Kendall and Richard E. Taylor at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center which gave the first experimental evidence that protons had an internal structure, later known to be quarks; for this, they shared the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics* Milton Friedman (1912–2006): American economist, writer and public intellectual, winner of Nobel Prize in Economics* William Froude (1810–1879): English engineer, hydrodynamicist and naval architect; first to formulate reliable laws for the resistance that water offers to ships (such as the hull speed equation) and for predicting their stability* Dennis Gabor (1900–1979): Hungarian-British electrical engineer and inventor; known for his invention of holography and received the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physics* Francis Galton (1822–1911): English Victorian polymath: anthropologist, eugenicist, tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, psychometrician, and statistician; a cousin of Charles Darwin* Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (1900–1979): English-American astronomer who in 1925 was first to show that the Sun is mainly composed of hydrogen, contradicting accepted wisdom at the time* Roy J. Glauber (1925–2018): American theoretical physicist; awarded one half of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence\", with the other half shared by John L. Hall and Theodor W. Hänsch* Camillo Golgi (1843–1926): Italian physician, pathologist, scientist; along with Santiago Ramón y Cajal, he won the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their studies of the structure of the nervous system* David Gross (born 1941): American particle physicist and string theorist; with Frank Wilczek and David Politzer, he was awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of asymptotic freedom* John Gurdon (born 1933): British developmental biologist; known for his pioneering research in nuclear transplantation and cloning* Murray Gell-Mann (1929–2019): American physicist and linguist who received the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the theory of elementary particles* Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002): American paleontologist, Evolutionary biologist, science historian and popularizer; called himself a \"Jewish agnostic\"* Hans Hahn (1879–1934): Austrian mathematician who made contributions to functional analysis, topology, set theory, the calculus of variations, real analysis, and order theory.", "His most famous student was Kurt Gödel, whose PhD thesis was completed in 1929.", "* Alan Hale (born 1958): American astronomer, known for his co-discovery of the Comet Hale-Bopp.", "* William Stewart Halsted (1852–1922): American surgeon who emphasized strict aseptic technique during surgical procedures, was an early champion of newly discovered anesthetics, and introduced several new operations, including the radical mastectomy for breast cancer.", "* Theodor W. Hänsch (born 1941): German physicist.", "He received one fourth of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics for \"contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique\", sharing the prize with John L. Hall and Roy J.", "Glauber.", "* Friedrich Hayek (1899–1992): Austrian economist and philosopher.", "Best known for his defense of classical liberalism and free-market capitalism.", "Along with Gunnar Myrdal, Hayek shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1974.", "\"* Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894): German physician and physicist who made significant contributions to several widely varied areas of modern science.", "In physiology and psychology, he is known for his mathematics of the eye, theories of vision, ideas on the visual perception of space, color vision research, and on the sensation of tone, perception of sound, and empiricism.", "In physics, he is known for his theories on the conservation of energy, work in electrodynamics, chemical thermodynamics, and on a mechanical foundation of thermodynamics.", "As a philosopher, he is known for his philosophy of science, ideas on the relation between the laws of perception and the laws of nature, the science of aesthetics, and ideas on the civilizing power of science.", "* Gerhard Herzberg (1904–1999): German pioneering physicist and physical chemist, who won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1971.", "* David Hilbert (1862–1943): German mathematician, recognized as one of the most influential and universal mathematicians of the 19th and early 20th centuries.", "* Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861–1947): English biochemist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929, with Christiaan Eijkman, for the discovery of vitamins.", "He also discovered the amino acid tryptophan, in 1901.He was appointed President of the Royal Society from 1930 to 1935.", "* Gerard 't Hooft (born 1946): Dutch theoretical physicist.", "He shared the 1999 Nobel Prize in Physics with his thesis advisor Martinus J. G. Veltman \"for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions\".", "* Fred Hoyle (1915–2001): English astronomer and mathematician.", "* Edwin Hubble (1889–1953): American astronomer who played a crucial role in establishing the field of extragalactic astronomy and is generally regarded as the leading observational cosmologist of the 20th century.", "Hubble generally is known for Hubble's law.", "He is credited with the discovery of the existence of galaxies other than the Milky Way and his galactic red shift discovery that the loss in frequency—the redshift — observed in the spectra of light from other galaxies increased in proportion to a particular galaxy's distance from Earth.", "This relationship became known as Hubble's law.", "His findings fundamentally changed the scientific view of the universe.", "* Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859): German naturalist and explorer.", "His quantitative work on botanical geography laid the foundation for the field of biogeography.", "* Andrew Huxley (1917–2012): English physiologist and biophysicist.", "He (along with Alan Hodgkin) won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his experimental and mathematical work on the basis of nerve action potentials, the electrical impulses that enable the activity of an organism to be coordinated by a central nervous system.", "* Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895): English biologist and coiner of the term ''agnosticism''.", "* Robert Jastrow (1925–2008): American astronomer, physicist and cosmologist.", "* Edwin Thompson Jaynes (1922–1998): American physicist and statistician.", "He wrote extensively on statistical mechanics and on foundations of probability and statistical inference.", "He also pioneered the field of Digital physics.", "* James Hopwood Jeans (1877–1946): English physicist, astronomer and mathematician.", "* Jerome Karle (1918–2013): American physical chemist.", "Jointly with Herbert A. Hauptman, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1985, for the direct analysis of crystal structures using X-ray scattering techniques.", "* August Kekulé (1829–1896): German organic chemist.", "He was one of the most prominent chemists in Europe, especially in theoretical chemistry.", "He was the principal founder of the theory of chemical structure.", "* John Kendrew (1917–1997): English biochemist and crystallographer who shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Max Perutz; their group in the Cavendish Laboratory investigated the structure of heme-containing proteins.", "* John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946): British economist.", "His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics, as well as its various offshoots.", "* Michio Kaku (born 1947): American theoretical physicist.", "* Alfred Kastler (1902–1984): French physicist.", "He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1966.", "* Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736–1813): Italian-French mathematician and astronomer.", "He made significant contributions to all fields of analysis, number theory, and classical and celestial mechanics.", "* Irving Langmuir (1881–1957): American chemist and physicist.", "He was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in surface chemistry.", "* Anthony James Leggett (born 1938): English-American physicist.", "Professor Leggett is widely recognized as a world leader in the theory of low-temperature physics, and his pioneering work on superfluidity was recognized by the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics.", "* Joseph Leidy (1823–1891): American paleontologist.", "* Mario Livio (born 1945): Israeli-American astrophysicist.", "* Seth Lloyd (born 1960): American mechanical engineer.", "He is a professor of mechanical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.", "* James Lovelock (1919–2022): British scientist, environmentalist and futurologist.", "He is best known for proposing the Gaia hypothesis.", "* Percival Lowell (1855–1916): American businessman, author, mathematician, and astronomer who fueled speculation that there were canals on Mars, founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, and formed the beginning of the effort that led to the discovery of Pluto 14 years after his death.", "* Frank Malina (1912–1981): American aeronautical engineer and painter, especially known for becoming both a pioneer in the art world and the realm of scientific engineering.", "* Rudolph A. Marcus (born 1923): Canadian-born chemist who received the 1992 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his theory of electron transfer.", "* Lynn Margulis (1938–2011): American biologist.", "She is best known for her theory on the origin of eukaryotic organelles, and her contributions to the endosymbiotic theory, which is now generally accepted for how certain organelles were formed.", "She is also associated with the Gaia hypothesis, based on an idea developed by the English environmental scientist James Lovelock.", "* Dan McKenzie (geophysicist) (born 1942): British geophysicist.", "* Simon van der Meer (1925–2011): Dutch particle accelerator physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1984 with Carlo Rubbia for contributions to the CERN project which led to the discovery of the W and Z particles, two of the most fundamental constituents of matter.", "* Albert Abraham Michelson (1852–1931): American physicist known for his work on the measurement of the speed of light and especially for the Michelson–Morley experiment.", "In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics.", "* Ludwig von Mises (1881–1973): Austrian Economist and Philosopher.", "He was a prominent figure in the Austrian School of economic thought.", "* Ludwig Mond (1839–1909): German-born British chemist and industrialist.", "* Robert S. Mulliken (1896–1986): American physicist and chemist, primarily responsible for the early development of molecular orbital theory, i. e. the elaboration of the molecular orbital method of computing the structure of molecules.", "Dr. Mulliken received the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1966.", "* Nathan Myhrvold (born 1959): American computer scientist, technologist, mathematician, physicist, entrepreneur, nature and wildlife photographer, master chef.", "* David Nalin (born 1941): American physiologist.", "Nalin had the key insight that Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) would work if the volume of solution patients drank matched the volume of their fluid losses, and that this would drastically reduce or completely replace the only current treatment for cholera, intravenous therapy.", "Nalin's discoveries have been estimated to have saved over 50 million lives worldwide.", "* Fridtjof Nansen (1861–1930): Norwegian explorer, scientist, diplomat, humanitarian and Nobel Peace Prize laureate.", "In 1922, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work on behalf of the displaced victims of the First World War and related conflicts.", "* Erwin Neher (born 1944): German biophysicist.", "Along with Bert Sakmann, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1991.", "* Ronald George Wreyford Norrish (1897–1978): British chemist.", "As a result of the development of flash photolysis, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1967 along with Manfred Eigen and George Porter for their study of extremely fast chemical reactions.", "* Robert Noyce (1927–1990): American physicist, businessman, and inventor.", "He co-founded Fairchild Semiconductor in 1957 and Intel Corporation in 1968.He is also credited (along with Jack Kilby) with the invention of the integrated circuit or microchip which fueled the personal computer revolution.", "* Sherwin B. Nuland (1930–2014): American surgeon and author of How We Die.", "* Paul Nurse (born 1949): 2001 Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine, called himself an atheist, but specified that \"sceptical agnostic\" was a more \"philosophically correct\" term.", "* Bill Nye (born 1955): American science educator, comedian, television host, actor, mechanical engineer and scientist.", "Popularly known as \"Bill Nye the Science Guy\".", "* George Olah (1927–2017): 1994 Nobel Laureate in Chemistry, discoverer of superacids,* Mark Oliphant (1901–2000): Australian physicist and humanitarian.", "He played a fundamental role in the first experimental demonstration of nuclear fusion and also the development of the atomic bomb.", "* Karl Pearson (1857–1936): English mathematician who has been credited for establishing the discipline of mathematical statistics.", "* Saul Perlmutter (born 1959): American astrophysicist.", "He shared both the 2006 Shaw Prize in Astronomy and the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics with Brian P. Schmidt and Adam Riess for providing evidence that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.", "* Henri Poincaré (1854–1912): French mathematician, theoretical physicist, engineer, and a philosopher of science.", "He is often described as a polymath, and in mathematics as ''The Last Universalist'', since he excelled in all fields of the discipline as it existed during his lifetime.", "* Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840): French mathematician, geometer, and physicist.", "* George Pólya (1888–1985): Hungarian Jewish mathematician.", "He was a professor of mathematics from 1914 to 1940 at ETH Zürich and from 1940 to 1953 at Stanford University.", "He made fundamental contributions to combinatorics, number theory, numerical analysis and probability theory.", "He is also noted for his work in heuristics and mathematics education.", "* Carolyn Porco (born 1953): American planetary scientist.", "She is best known for her work in the exploration of the outer Solar System, beginning with her imaging work on the Voyager missions to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune in the 1980s.", "* Vladimir Prelog (1906–1998): Croatian organic chemist.", "He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1975.", "* Vilayanur S. Ramachandran (born 1951): Indian-American neuroscientist.", "Best known for his work in the fields of behavioral neurology and visual psychophysics.", "* C. V. Raman (1888–1970): Indian physicist whose work was influential in the growth of science in India.", "He was the recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930 for the discovery that when light traverses a transparent material, some of the light that is deflected changes in wavelength.", "This phenomenon is now called Raman scattering and is the result of the Raman effect.", "* Lisa Randall (born 1962): American theoretical physicist and a student of particle physics and cosmology.", "She works on several of the competing models of string theory in the quest to explain the fabric of the universe.", "Her best known contribution to the field is the Randall–Sundrum model, first published in 1999 with Raman Sundrum.", "* John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (1842–1919): English physicist who, with William Ramsay, discovered the element argon, an achievement for which he earned the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1904.He also discovered the phenomenon now called Rayleigh scattering, explaining why the sky is blue, and predicted the existence of the surface waves now known as Rayleigh waves.", "Rayleigh's textbook,'' The Theory of Sound'', is still referred to by acoustic engineers today.", "* Grote Reber (1911–2002): American amateur astronomer and pioneer of radio astronomy.", "He was instrumental in investigating and extending Karl Jansky's pioneering work, and conducted the first sky survey in the radio frequencies.", "His 1937 radio antenna was the second ever to be used for astronomical purposes and the first parabolic reflecting antenna to be used as a \"radio telescope\".", "* Robert Coleman Richardson (1937–2013): American experimental physicist.", "He, along with David Lee, as senior researchers, and then graduate student Douglas Osheroff, shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics for their 1972 discovery of the property of superfluidity in helium-3 atoms in the Cornell University Laboratory of Atomic and Solid State Physics.", "* Charles Richet (1850–1935): French physiologist, won the 1913 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on anaphylaxis.", "* Isaac Roberts (1829–1904): Welsh engineer and business man best known for his work as an amateur astronomer, pioneering the field of astrophotography of nebulae.", "* Richard J. Roberts (born 1943): British biochemist and molecular biologist.", "He was awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Phillip Allen Sharp for the discovery of introns in eukaryotic DNA and the mechanism of gene-splicing.", "* Józef Rotblat (1908–2005): Polish-British physicist.", "Along with the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995.", "* Carl Sagan (1934–1996): Astronomer and skeptic.", "* Frederick Sanger (1918–2013): English biochemist and a two-time Nobel Laureate in Chemistry.", "* Nicholas Saunderson (1682–1739): English scientist and mathematician.", "* Peter Schuster (born 1941): Professor of Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Vienna.", "* Harlow Shapley (1885–1972): American astronomer.", "Best known for determining the correct position of the Sun within the Milky Way galaxy.", "* Charles Scott Sherrington (1857–1952): English neurophysiologist, histologist, bacteriologist, and pathologist.", "He, along with Edgar Adrian, won the 1932 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.", "* George Gaylord Simpson (1902–1984): American paleontologist.", "He is considered to be one of the most influential paleontologist of the 20th century, and a major participant in the modern evolutionary synthesis.", "* Jens C. Skou (1918–2018): Danish chemist.", "In 1997 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (together with Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker) for his discovery of Na+, K+-ATPase.", "* Homer Smith (1895–1962): American physiologist.", "His research work focused on the kidney and he discovered inulin at the same time as A.N.", "Richards.", "* William Smith (geologist) (1769–1839): English geologist, credited with creating the first nationwide geological map.", "He is known as the \"Father of English Geology\" for collating the geological history of England and Wales into a single record, although recognition was very slow in coming.", "* George Smoot (born 1945): American astrophysicist, cosmologist, Nobel laureate, and $1 million TV quiz show prize winner (''Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?'').", "He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for his work on the Cosmic Background Explorer with John C. Mather that led to the measurement \"of the black body form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation.", "\"* Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865–1923): German-American mathematician and electrical engineer.", "* Piero Sraffa (1898–1983): Influential Italian economist whose book ''Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities'' is taken as founding the Neo-Ricardian school of Economics.", "* Albert Szent-Györgyi (1893–1986): Hungarian physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937.He is credited with discovering vitamin C and the components and reactions of the citric acid cycle.", "* Leo Szilard (1898–1964): Austro-Hungarian physicist and inventor.", "* Igor Tamm (1895–1971): Soviet physicist who received the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly with Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov and Ilya Frank, for their 1934 discovery of Cherenkov radiation.", "* Edward Teller (1908–2003): Hungarian-American theoretical physicist, known colloquially as \"the father of the hydrogen bomb\".", "Teller made numerous contributions to nuclear and molecular physics, spectroscopy (the Jahn–Teller and Renner–Teller effects), and surface physics.", "* Thorvald N. Thiele (1838–1910): Danish astronomer, actuary and mathematician, most notable for his work in statistics, interpolation and the three-body problem.", "He was the first to propose a mathematical theory of Brownian motion.", "Thiele introduced the cumulants and (in Danish) the likelihood function; these contributions were not credited to Thiele by Ronald A. Fisher, who nevertheless named Thiele to his (short) list of the greatest statisticians of all time on the strength of Thiele's other contributions.", "* E. Donnall Thomas (1920–2012): American physician, professor emeritus at the University of Washington, and director emeritus of the clinical research division at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center.", "In 1990 he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Joseph E. Murray for the development of cell and organ transplantation.", "Thomas developed bone marrow transplantation as a treatment for leukemia.", "* John Tyndall (1820–1893): Prominent 19th century experimental physicist.", "Known for producing a number of discoveries about processes in the atmosphere.", "* Neil deGrasse Tyson (born 1958): American astrophysicist, science communicator, the Frederick P. Rose Director of the Hayden Planetarium at the Rose Center for Earth and Space, and a Research Associate in the Department of Astrophysics at the American Museum of Natural History.", "* Stanislaw Ulam (1909–1984): Polish-Jewish mathematician.", "He participated in America's Manhattan Project, originated the Teller–Ulam design of thermonuclear weapons, invented the Monte Carlo method of computation, and suggested nuclear pulse propulsion.", "* Martinus J. G. Veltman (1931–2021): Dutch theoretical physicist.", "He shared the 1999 Nobel Prize in Physics with his former student Gerardus 't Hooft for their work on particle theory.", "* Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902): German doctor, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist and politician.", "Referred to as \"the father of modern pathology\", he is considered one of the founders of social medicine.", "* John von Neumann (1903–1957): Hungarian-American mathematician and polymath who made major contributions to a vast number of fields, including set theory, functional analysis, quantum mechanics, ergodic theory, geometry, fluid dynamics, economics, linear programming, game theory, computer science, numerical analysis, hydrodynamics, and statistics, as well as many other mathematical fields.", "It is indicated that he was an \"agnostic Catholic\" due to his agreement with Pascal's Wager.", "* Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913): British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist and biologist.", "He is best known for independently proposing a theory of evolution due to natural selection that prompted Charles Darwin to publish his own theory.", "* André Weil (1906–1998): French mathematician.", "He is especially known for his foundational work in number theory and algebraic geometry.", "* Walter Frank Raphael Weldon (1860–1906): English evolutionary biologist and a founder of biometry.", "He was the joint founding editor of Biometrika, with Francis Galton and Karl Pearson.", "* Norbert Wiener (1894–1964): American mathematician and child prodigy.", "He is regarded as the originator of cybernetics.", "* Eugene Wigner (1902–1995): Hungarian American theoretical physicist and mathematician.", "He received a share of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 \"for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles\"; the other half of the award was shared between Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen.", "Wigner is important for having laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics as well as for his research into the structure of the atomic nucleus.", "It was Eugene Wigner who first identified Xe-135 \"poisoning\" in nuclear reactors, and for this reason it is sometimes referred to as ''Wigner poisoning''.", "Wigner is also important for his work in pure mathematics, having authored a number of theorems.", "* Frank Wilczek (born 1951): American theoretical physicist.", "Along with David J.", "Gross and Hugh David Politzer, won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2004.", "* Steve Wozniak (born 1950): Co-founder of Apple Computer and inventor of the Apple I and Apple II.", "* Chen Ning Yang (born 1922): Chinese-born American physicist who works on statistical mechanics and particle physics.", "He and Tsung-dao Lee received the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on parity nonconservation of weak interaction.", "* Hubert Yockey (1916–2016): American physicist and information theorist.", "* Hans Zinsser (1878–1940): American bacteriologist and a prolific author.", "He is known for his work in isolating the typhus bacterium and developing a protective vaccine.===Celebrities and athletes===* Steve Austin (born 1964): American professional wrestler.", "* Kristy Hawkins (born 1980): American IFBB professional bodybuilder and scientist.", "* Edmund Hillary (1919–2008): New Zealand mountaineer, explorer and philanthropist.", "He along with Tenzing Norgay became the first climbers confirmed as having reached the summit of Mount Everest.", "* Pat Tillman (1976–2004): American professional football player and U.S. Army veteran.", "* Rafael Nadal (born 1986): Spanish professional tennis player.", "* Rob Van Dam (born 1970): American professional wrestler, winner of three separate major promotion world championships.", "* Mike Mentzer (1951–2001): American IFBB Professional bodybuilder, businessman, philosopher and author." ], [ "See also", "* Lists of atheists* List of secular humanists* Lists of lists of people by belief" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Agnostics in The Celebrity Atheist List* Famous Black Freethinkers* Famous Dead Nontheists" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Linked list" ], [ "Introduction", "A linked list is a sequence of nodes that contain two fields: data (an integer value here as an example) and a link to the next node.", "The last node is linked to a terminator used to signify the end of the list.In computer science, a '''linked list''' is a linear collection of data elements whose order is not given by their physical placement in memory.", "Instead, each element points to the next.", "It is a data structure consisting of a collection of nodes which together represent a sequence.", "In its most basic form, each node contains data, and a reference (in other words, a ''link'') to the next node in the sequence.", "This structure allows for efficient insertion or removal of elements from any position in the sequence during iteration.", "More complex variants add additional links, allowing more efficient insertion or removal of nodes at arbitrary positions.", "A drawback of linked lists is that data access time is linear in respect to the number of nodes in the list.", "Because nodes are serially linked, accessing any node requires that the prior node be accessed beforehand (which introduces difficulties in pipelining).", "Faster access, such as random access, is not feasible.", "Arrays have better cache locality compared to linked lists.Linked lists are among the simplest and most common data structures.", "They can be used to implement several other common abstract data types, including lists, stacks, queues, associative arrays, and S-expressions, though it is not uncommon to implement those data structures directly without using a linked list as the basis.The principal benefit of a linked list over a conventional array is that the list elements can be easily inserted or removed without reallocation or reorganization of the entire structure because the data items do not need to be stored contiguously in memory or on disk, while restructuring an array at run-time is a much more expensive operation.", "Linked lists allow insertion and removal of nodes at any point in the list, and allow doing so with a constant number of operations by keeping the link previous to the link being added or removed in memory during list traversal.On the other hand, since simple linked lists by themselves do not allow random access to the data or any form of efficient indexing, many basic operations—such as obtaining the last node of the list, finding a node that contains a given datum, or locating the place where a new node should be inserted—may require iterating through most or all of the list elements." ], [ "History", "Linked lists were developed in 1955–1956, by Allen Newell, Cliff Shaw and Herbert A. Simon at RAND Corporation and Carnegie Mellon University as the primary data structure for their Information Processing Language (IPL).", "IPL was used by the authors to develop several early artificial intelligence programs, including the Logic Theory Machine, the General Problem Solver, and a computer chess program.", "Reports on their work appeared in IRE Transactions on Information Theory in 1956, and several conference proceedings from 1957 to 1959, including Proceedings of the Western Joint Computer Conference in 1957 and 1958, and Information Processing (Proceedings of the first UNESCO International Conference on Information Processing) in 1959.The now-classic diagram consisting of blocks representing list nodes with arrows pointing to successive list nodes appears in \"Programming the Logic Theory Machine\" by Newell and Shaw in Proc.", "WJCC, February 1957.Newell and Simon were recognized with the ACM Turing Award in 1975 for having \"made basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing\".", "The problem of machine translation for natural language processing led Victor Yngve at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to use linked lists as data structures in his COMIT programming language for computer research in the field of linguistics.", "A report on this language entitled \"A programming language for mechanical translation\" appeared in Mechanical Translation in 1958.Another early appearance of linked lists was by Hans Peter Luhn who wrote an internal IBM memorandum in January 1953 that suggested the use of linked lists in chained hash tables.LISP, standing for list processor, was created by John McCarthy in 1958 while he was at MIT and in 1960 he published its design in a paper in the Communications of the ACM, entitled \"Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine, Part I\".", "One of LISP's major data structures is the linked list.By the early 1960s, the utility of both linked lists and languages which use these structures as their primary data representation was well established.", "Bert Green of the MIT Lincoln Laboratory published a review article entitled \"Computer languages for symbol manipulation\" in IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics in March 1961 which summarized the advantages of the linked list approach.", "A later review article, \"A Comparison of list-processing computer languages\" by Bobrow and Raphael, appeared in Communications of the ACM in April 1964.Several operating systems developed by Technical Systems Consultants (originally of West Lafayette Indiana, and later of Chapel Hill, North Carolina) used singly linked lists as file structures.", "A directory entry pointed to the first sector of a file, and succeeding portions of the file were located by traversing pointers.", "Systems using this technique included Flex (for the Motorola 6800 CPU), mini-Flex (same CPU), and Flex9 (for the Motorola 6809 CPU).", "A variant developed by TSC for and marketed by Smoke Signal Broadcasting in California, used doubly linked lists in the same manner.The TSS/360 operating system, developed by IBM for the System 360/370 machines, used a double linked list for their file system catalog.", "The directory structure was similar to Unix, where a directory could contain files and other directories and extend to any depth." ], [ "Basic concepts and nomenclature", "Each record of a linked list is often called an 'element' or 'node'.The field of each node that contains the address of the next node is usually called the 'next link' or 'next pointer'.", "The remaining fields are known as the 'data', 'information', 'value', 'cargo', or 'payload' fields.The 'head' of a list is its first node.", "The 'tail' of a list may refer either to the rest of the list after the head, or to the last node in the list.", "In Lisp and some derived languages, the next node may be called the 'cdr' (pronounced ) of the list, while the payload of the head node may be called the 'car'.===Singly linked list===Singly linked lists contain nodes which have a 'value' field as well as 'next' field, which points to the next node in line of nodes.", "Operations that can be performed on singly linked lists include insertion, deletion and traversal.A singly linked list whose nodes contain two fields: an integer value (data) and a link to the next nodeThe following C language code demonstrates how to add a new node with the \"value\" to the end of a singly linked list:// Each node in a linked list is a structure.", "The head node is the first node in the list.Node *addNodeToTail(Node *head, int value) { // declare Node pointer and initialize to point to the new Node (i.e., it will have the new Node's memory address) being added to the end of the list.", "Node *temp = malloc(sizeof *temp); /// 'malloc' in stdlib.", "temp->value = value; // Add data to the value field of the new Node.", "temp->next = NULL; // initialize invalid links to nil.", "if (head == NULL) { head = temp; // If the linked list is empty (i.e., the head node pointer is a null pointer), then have the head node pointer point to the new Node. }", "else { Node *p = head; // Assign the head node pointer to the Node pointer 'p'.", "while (p->next != NULL) { p = p->next; // Traverse the list until p is the last Node.", "The last Node always points to NULL. }", "p->next = temp; // Make the previously last Node point to the new Node. }", "return head; // Return the head node pointer.", "}===Doubly linked list===In a 'doubly linked list', each node contains, besides the next-node link, a second link field pointing to the 'previous' node in the sequence.", "The two links may be called 'forward('s') and 'backwards', or 'next' and 'prev'('previous').A doubly linked list whose nodes contain three fields: an integer value, the link forward to the next node, and the link backward to the previous nodeA technique known as XOR-linking allows a doubly linked list to be implemented using a single link field in each node.", "However, this technique requires the ability to do bit operations on addresses, and therefore may not be available in some high-level languages.Many modern operating systems use doubly linked lists to maintain references to active processes, threads, and other dynamic objects.", "A common strategy for rootkits to evade detection is to unlink themselves from these lists.===Multiply linked list===In a 'multiply linked list', each node contains two or more link fields, each field being used to connect the same set of data arranged in a different order (e.g., by name, by department, by date of birth, etc.).", "While a doubly linked list can be seen as a special case of multiply linked list, the fact that the two and more orders are opposite to each other leads to simpler and more efficient algorithms, so they are usually treated as a separate case.===Circular linked list===In the last node of a linked list, the link field often contains a null reference, a special value is used to indicate the lack of further nodes.", "A less common convention is to make it point to the first node of the list; in that case, the list is said to be 'circular' or 'circularly linked'; otherwise, it is said to be 'open' or 'linear'.", "It is a list where the last node pointer points to the first node (i.e., the \"next link\" pointer of the last node has the memory address of the first node).A circular linked listIn the case of a circular doubly linked list, the first node also points to the last node of the list.===Sentinel nodes===In some implementations an extra 'sentinel' or 'dummy' node may be added before the first data record or after the last one.", "This convention simplifies and accelerates some list-handling algorithms, by ensuring that all links can be safely dereferenced and that every list (even one that contains no data elements) always has a \"first\" and \"last\" node.===Empty lists===An empty list is a list that contains no data records.", "This is usually the same as saying that it has zero nodes.", "If sentinel nodes are being used, the list is usually said to be empty when it has only sentinel nodes.===Hash linking===The link fields need not be physically part of the nodes.", "If the data records are stored in an array and referenced by their indices, the link field may be stored in a separate array with the same indices as the data records.===List handles===Since a reference to the first node gives access to the whole list, that reference is often called the 'address', 'pointer', or 'handle' of the list.", "Algorithms that manipulate linked lists usually get such handles to the input lists and return the handles to the resulting lists.", "In fact, in the context of such algorithms, the word \"list\" often means \"list handle\".", "In some situations, however, it may be convenient to refer to a list by a handle that consists of two links, pointing to its first and last nodes.===Combining alternatives===The alternatives listed above may be arbitrarily combined in almost every way, so one may have circular doubly linked lists without sentinels, circular singly linked lists with sentinels, etc." ], [ "Tradeoffs", "As with most choices in computer programming and design, no method is well suited to all circumstances.", "A linked list data structure might work well in one case, but cause problems in another.", "This is a list of some of the common tradeoffs involving linked list structures.===Linked lists vs. dynamic arrays===A ''dynamic array'' is a data structure that allocates all elements contiguously in memory, and keeps a count of the current number of elements.", "If the space reserved for the dynamic array is exceeded, it is reallocated and (possibly) copied, which is an expensive operation.Linked lists have several advantages over dynamic arrays.", "Insertion or deletion of an element at a specific point of a list, assuming that we have indexed a pointer to the node (before the one to be removed, or before the insertion point) already, is a constant-time operation (otherwise without this reference it is O(n)), whereas insertion in a dynamic array at random locations will require moving half of the elements on average, and all the elements in the worst case.", "While one can \"delete\" an element from an array in constant time by somehow marking its slot as \"vacant\", this causes fragmentation that impedes the performance of iteration.Moreover, arbitrarily many elements may be inserted into a linked list, limited only by the total memory available; while a dynamic array will eventually fill up its underlying array data structure and will have to reallocate—an expensive operation, one that may not even be possible if memory is fragmented, although the cost of reallocation can be averaged over insertions, and the cost of an insertion due to reallocation would still be amortized O(1).", "This helps with appending elements at the array's end, but inserting into (or removing from) middle positions still carries prohibitive costs due to data moving to maintain contiguity.", "An array from which many elements are removed may also have to be resized in order to avoid wasting too much space.On the other hand, dynamic arrays (as well as fixed-size array data structures) allow constant-time random access, while linked lists allow only sequential access to elements.", "Singly linked lists, in fact, can be easily traversed in only one direction.", "This makes linked lists unsuitable for applications where it's useful to look up an element by its index quickly, such as heapsort.", "Sequential access on arrays and dynamic arrays is also faster than on linked lists on many machines, because they have optimal locality of reference and thus make good use of data caching.Another disadvantage of linked lists is the extra storage needed for references, which often makes them impractical for lists of small data items such as characters or Boolean values, because the storage overhead for the links may exceed by a factor of two or more the size of the data.", "In contrast, a dynamic array requires only the space for the data itself (and a very small amount of control data).", "It can also be slow, and with a naïve allocator, wasteful, to allocate memory separately for each new element, a problem generally solved using memory pools.Some hybrid solutions try to combine the advantages of the two representations.", "Unrolled linked lists store several elements in each list node, increasing cache performance while decreasing memory overhead for references.", "CDR coding does both these as well, by replacing references with the actual data referenced, which extends off the end of the referencing record.A good example that highlights the pros and cons of using dynamic arrays vs. linked lists is by implementing a program that resolves the Josephus problem.", "The Josephus problem is an election method that works by having a group of people stand in a circle.", "Starting at a predetermined person, one may count around the circle ''n'' times.", "Once the ''n''th person is reached, one should remove them from the circle and have the members close the circle.", "The process is repeated until only one person is left.", "That person wins the election.", "This shows the strengths and weaknesses of a linked list vs. a dynamic array, because if the people are viewed as connected nodes in a circular linked list, then it shows how easily the linked list is able to delete nodes (as it only has to rearrange the links to the different nodes).", "However, the linked list will be poor at finding the next person to remove and will need to search through the list until it finds that person.", "A dynamic array, on the other hand, will be poor at deleting nodes (or elements) as it cannot remove one node without individually shifting all the elements up the list by one.", "However, it is exceptionally easy to find the ''n''th person in the circle by directly referencing them by their position in the array.The list ranking problem concerns the efficient conversion of a linked list representation into an array.", "Although trivial for a conventional computer, solving this problem by a parallel algorithm is complicated and has been the subject of much research.A balanced tree has similar memory access patterns and space overhead to a linked list while permitting much more efficient indexing, taking O(log n) time instead of O(n) for a random access.", "However, insertion and deletion operations are more expensive due to the overhead of tree manipulations to maintain balance.", "Schemes exist for trees to automatically maintain themselves in a balanced state: AVL trees or red–black trees.===Singly linked linear lists vs. other lists===While doubly linked and circular lists have advantages over singly linked linear lists, linear lists offer some advantages that make them preferable in some situations.A singly linked linear list is a recursive data structure, because it contains a pointer to a ''smaller'' object of the same type.", "For that reason, many operations on singly linked linear lists (such as merging two lists, or enumerating the elements in reverse order) often have very simple recursive algorithms, much simpler than any solution using iterative commands.", "While those recursive solutions can be adapted for doubly linked and circularly linked lists, the procedures generally need extra arguments and more complicated base cases.Linear singly linked lists also allow tail-sharing, the use of a common final portion of sub-list as the terminal portion of two different lists.", "In particular, if a new node is added at the beginning of a list, the former list remains available as the tail of the new one—a simple example of a persistent data structure.", "Again, this is not true with the other variants: a node may never belong to two different circular or doubly linked lists.In particular, end-sentinel nodes can be shared among singly linked non-circular lists.", "The same end-sentinel node may be used for ''every'' such list.", "In Lisp, for example, every proper list ends with a link to a special node, denoted by nil or ().The advantages of the fancy variants are often limited to the complexity of the algorithms, not in their efficiency.", "A circular list, in particular, can usually be emulated by a linear list together with two variables that point to the first and last nodes, at no extra cost.===Doubly linked vs. singly linked===Double-linked lists require more space per node (unless one uses XOR-linking), and their elementary operations are more expensive; but they are often easier to manipulate because they allow fast and easy sequential access to the list in both directions.", "In a doubly linked list, one can insert or delete a node in a constant number of operations given only that node's address.", "To do the same in a singly linked list, one must have the ''address of the pointer'' to that node, which is either the handle for the whole list (in case of the first node) or the link field in the ''previous'' node.", "Some algorithms require access in both directions.", "On the other hand, doubly linked lists do not allow tail-sharing and cannot be used as persistent data structures.===Circularly linked vs. linearly linked===A circularly linked list may be a natural option to represent arrays that are naturally circular, e.g.", "the corners of a polygon, a pool of buffers that are used and released in FIFO (\"first in, first out\") order, or a set of processes that should be time-shared in round-robin order.", "In these applications, a pointer to any node serves as a handle to the whole list.With a circular list, a pointer to the last node gives easy access also to the first node, by following one link.", "Thus, in applications that require access to both ends of the list (e.g., in the implementation of a queue), a circular structure allows one to handle the structure by a single pointer, instead of two.A circular list can be split into two circular lists, in constant time, by giving the addresses of the last node of each piece.", "The operation consists in swapping the contents of the link fields of those two nodes.", "Applying the same operation to any two nodes in two distinct lists joins the two list into one.", "This property greatly simplifies some algorithms and data structures, such as the quad-edge and face-edge.The simplest representation for an empty ''circular'' list (when such a thing makes sense) is a null pointer, indicating that the list has no nodes.", "Without this choice, many algorithms have to test for this special case, and handle it separately.", "By contrast, the use of null to denote an empty ''linear'' list is more natural and often creates fewer special cases.For some applications, it can be useful to use singly linked lists that can vary between being circular and being linear, or even circular with a linear initial segment.", "Algorithms for searching or otherwise operating on these have to take precautions to avoid accidentally entering an endless loop.", "One well-known method is to have a second pointer walking the list at half or double the speed, and if both pointers meet at the same node, you know you found a cycle.===Using sentinel nodes===Sentinel node may simplify certain list operations, by ensuring that the next or previous nodes exist for every element, and that even empty lists have at least one node.", "One may also use a sentinel node at the end of the list, with an appropriate data field, to eliminate some end-of-list tests.", "For example, when scanning the list looking for a node with a given value ''x'', setting the sentinel's data field to ''x'' makes it unnecessary to test for end-of-list inside the loop.", "Another example is the merging two sorted lists: if their sentinels have data fields set to +∞, the choice of the next output node does not need special handling for empty lists.However, sentinel nodes use up extra space (especially in applications that use many short lists), and they may complicate other operations (such as the creation of a new empty list).However, if the circular list is used merely to simulate a linear list, one may avoid some of this complexity by adding a single sentinel node to every list, between the last and the first data nodes.", "With this convention, an empty list consists of the sentinel node alone, pointing to itself via the next-node link.", "The list handle should then be a pointer to the last data node, before the sentinel, if the list is not empty; or to the sentinel itself, if the list is empty.The same trick can be used to simplify the handling of a doubly linked linear list, by turning it into a circular doubly linked list with a single sentinel node.", "However, in this case, the handle should be a single pointer to the dummy node itself." ], [ "Linked list operations", "When manipulating linked lists in-place, care must be taken to not use values that you have invalidated in previous assignments.", "This makes algorithms for inserting or deleting linked list nodes somewhat subtle.", "This section gives pseudocode for adding or removing nodes from singly, doubly, and circularly linked lists in-place.", "Throughout we will use ''null'' to refer to an end-of-list marker or sentinel, which may be implemented in a number of ways.===Linearly linked lists=======Singly linked lists====Our node data structure will have two fields.", "We also keep a variable ''firstNode'' which always points to the first node in the list, or is ''null'' for an empty list.", "'''record''' ''Node'' { data; ''// The data being stored in the node'' ''Node'' next ''// A reference'' to the next node, null for last node'' } '''record''' ''List'' { ''Node'' firstNode ''// points to first node of list; null for empty list'' }Traversal of a singly linked list is simple, beginning at the first node and following each ''next'' link until we come to the end: node := list.firstNode '''while''' node not null ''(do something with node.data)'' node := node.nextThe following code inserts a node after an existing node in a singly linked list.", "The diagram shows how it works.", "Inserting a node before an existing one cannot be done directly; instead, one must keep track of the previous node and insert a node after it.", "Diagram of inserting a node into a singly linked list '''function''' insertAfter(''Node'' node, ''Node'' newNode) ''// insert newNode after node'' newNode.next := node.next node.next := newNodeInserting at the beginning of the list requires a separate function.", "This requires updating ''firstNode''.", "'''function''' insertBeginning(''List'' list, ''Node'' newNode) ''// insert node before current first node'' newNode.next := list.firstNode list.firstNode := newNodeSimilarly, we have functions for removing the node ''after'' a given node, and for removing a node from the beginning of the list.", "The diagram demonstrates the former.", "To find and remove a particular node, one must again keep track of the previous element.Diagram of deleting a node from a singly linked list '''function''' removeAfter(''Node'' node) ''// remove node past this one'' obsoleteNode := node.next node.next := node.next.next destroy obsoleteNode '''function''' removeBeginning(''List'' list) ''// remove first node'' obsoleteNode := list.firstNode list.firstNode := list.firstNode.next ''// point past deleted node'' destroy obsoleteNodeNotice that removeBeginning() sets list.firstNode to null when removing the last node in the list.Since we can't iterate backwards, efficient insertBefore or removeBefore operations are not possible.", "Inserting to a list before a specific node requires traversing the list, which would have a worst case running time of O(n).Appending one linked list to another can be inefficient unless a reference to the tail is kept as part of the List structure, because we must traverse the entire first list in order to find the tail, and then append the second list to this.", "Thus, if two linearly linked lists are each of length , list appending has asymptotic time complexity of .", "In the Lisp family of languages, list appending is provided by the append procedure.Many of the special cases of linked list operations can be eliminated by including a dummy element at the front of the list.", "This ensures that there are no special cases for the beginning of the list and renders both insertBeginning() and removeBeginning() unnecessary, i.e., every element or node is next to another node (even the first node is next to the dummy node).", "In this case, the first useful data in the list will be found at list.", "'''firstNode'''.next.===Circularly linked list===In a circularly linked list, all nodes are linked in a continuous circle, without using ''null.''", "For lists with a front and a back (such as a queue), one stores a reference to the last node in the list.", "The ''next'' node after the last node is the first node.", "Elements can be added to the back of the list and removed from the front in constant time.Circularly linked lists can be either singly or doubly linked.Both types of circularly linked lists benefit from the ability to traverse the full list beginning at any given node.", "This often allows us to avoid storing ''firstNode'' and ''lastNode'', although if the list may be empty we need a special representation for the empty list, such as a ''lastNode'' variable which points to some node in the list or is ''null'' if it's empty; we use such a ''lastNode'' here.", "This representation significantly simplifies adding and removing nodes with a non-empty list, but empty lists are then a special case.====Algorithms====Assuming that ''someNode'' is some node in a non-empty circular singly linked list, this code iterates through that list starting with ''someNode'': '''function''' iterate(someNode) '''if''' someNode ≠ '''null''' node := someNode '''do''' do something with node.value node := node.next '''while''' node ≠ someNodeNotice that the test \"'''while''' node ≠ someNode\" must be at the end of the loop.", "If the test was moved to the beginning of the loop, the procedure would fail whenever the list had only one node.This function inserts a node \"newNode\" into a circular linked list after a given node \"node\".", "If \"node\" is null, it assumes that the list is empty.", "'''function''' insertAfter(''Node'' node, ''Node'' newNode) '''if''' node = '''null''' // assume list is empty newNode.next := newNode '''else''' newNode.next := node.next node.next := newNode update ''lastNode'' variable if necessarySuppose that \"L\" is a variable pointing to the last node of a circular linked list (or null if the list is empty).", "To append \"newNode\" to the ''end'' of the list, one may do insertAfter(L, newNode) L := newNodeTo insert \"newNode\" at the ''beginning'' of the list, one may do insertAfter(L, newNode) '''if''' L = '''null''' L := newNodeThis function inserts a value \"newVal\" before a given node \"node\" in O(1) time.", "We create a new node between \"node\" and the next node, and then put the value of \"node\" into that new node, and put \"newVal\" in \"node\".", "Thus, a singly linked circularly linked list with only a ''firstNode'' variable can both insert to the front and back in O(1) time.", "'''function''' insertBefore(''Node'' node, newVal) '''if''' node = '''null''' // assume list is empty newNode := '''new''' Node(data:=newVal, next:=newNode) '''else''' newNode := '''new''' Node(data:=node.data, next:=node.next) node.data := newVal node.next := newNode update ''firstNode'' variable if necessaryThis function removes a non-null node from a list of size greater than 1 in O(1) time.", "It copies data from the next node into the node, and then sets the node's ''next'' pointer to skip over the next node.", "'''function''' remove(''Node'' node) '''if''' node ≠ '''null''' and size of list > 1 removedData := node.data node.data := node.next.data node.next = node.next.next '''return''' removedData=== Linked lists using arrays of nodes ===Languages that do not support any type of reference can still create links by replacing pointers with array indices.", "The approach is to keep an array of records, where each record has integer fields indicating the index of the next (and possibly previous) node in the array.", "Not all nodes in the array need be used.", "If records are also not supported, parallel arrays can often be used instead.As an example, consider the following linked list record that uses arrays instead of pointers: '''record''' ''Entry'' { ''integer'' next; ''// index of next entry in array'' ''integer'' prev; ''// previous entry (if double-linked)'' ''string'' name; ''real'' balance; }A linked list can be built by creating an array of these structures, and an integer variable to store the index of the first element.", "''integer'' listHead ''Entry'' Records1000Links between elements are formed by placing the array index of the next (or previous) cell into the Next or Prev field within a given element.", "For example: Index Next Prev Name Balance 0 1 4 Jones, John 123.45 1 −1 0 Smith, Joseph 234.56 2 (listHead) 4 −1 Adams, Adam 0.00 3 Ignore, Ignatius 999.99 4 0 2 Another, Anita 876.54 5 6 7 In the above example, ListHead would be set to 2, the location of the first entry in the list.", "Notice that entry 3 and 5 through 7 are not part of the list.", "These cells are available for any additions to the list.", "By creating a ListFree integer variable, a free list could be created to keep track of what cells are available.", "If all entries are in use, the size of the array would have to be increased or some elements would have to be deleted before new entries could be stored in the list.The following code would traverse the list and display names and account balance: i := listHead '''while''' i ≥ 0 ''// loop through the list'' print i, Recordsi.name, Recordsi.balance ''// print entry'' i := Recordsi.nextWhen faced with a choice, the advantages of this approach include:* The linked list is relocatable, meaning it can be moved about in memory at will, and it can also be quickly and directly serialized for storage on disk or transfer over a network.", "* Especially for a small list, array indexes can occupy significantly less space than a full pointer on many architectures.", "* Locality of reference can be improved by keeping the nodes together in memory and by periodically rearranging them, although this can also be done in a general store.", "* Naïve dynamic memory allocators can produce an excessive amount of overhead storage for each node allocated; almost no allocation overhead is incurred per node in this approach.", "* Seizing an entry from a pre-allocated array is faster than using dynamic memory allocation for each node, since dynamic memory allocation typically requires a search for a free memory block of the desired size.This approach has one main disadvantage, however: it creates and manages a private memory space for its nodes.", "This leads to the following issues:* It increases complexity of the implementation.", "* Growing a large array when it is full may be difficult or impossible, whereas finding space for a new linked list node in a large, general memory pool may be easier.", "* Adding elements to a dynamic array will occasionally (when it is full) unexpectedly take linear (O(n)) instead of constant time (although it's still an amortized constant).", "* Using a general memory pool leaves more memory for other data if the list is smaller than expected or if many nodes are freed.For these reasons, this approach is mainly used for languages that do not support dynamic memory allocation.", "These disadvantages are also mitigated if the maximum size of the list is known at the time the array is created." ], [ "Language support", "Many programming languages such as Lisp and Scheme have singly linked lists built in.", "In many functional languages, these lists are constructed from nodes, each called a ''cons'' or ''cons cell''.", "The cons has two fields: the ''car'', a reference to the data for that node, and the ''cdr'', a reference to the next node.", "Although cons cells can be used to build other data structures, this is their primary purpose.In languages that support abstract data types or templates, linked list ADTs or templates are available for building linked lists.", "In other languages, linked lists are typically built using references together with records." ], [ "Internal and external storage", "When constructing a linked list, one is faced with the choice of whether to store the data of the list directly in the linked list nodes, called ''internal storage'', or merely to store a reference to the data, called ''external storage''.", "Internal storage has the advantage of making access to the data more efficient, requiring less storage overall, having better locality of reference, and simplifying memory management for the list (its data is allocated and deallocated at the same time as the list nodes).External storage, on the other hand, has the advantage of being more generic, in that the same data structure and machine code can be used for a linked list no matter what the size of the data is.", "It also makes it easy to place the same data in multiple linked lists.", "Although with internal storage the same data can be placed in multiple lists by including multiple ''next'' references in the node data structure, it would then be necessary to create separate routines to add or delete cells based on each field.", "It is possible to create additional linked lists of elements that use internal storage by using external storage, and having the cells of the additional linked lists store references to the nodes of the linked list containing the data.In general, if a set of data structures needs to be included in linked lists, external storage is the best approach.", "If a set of data structures need to be included in only one linked list, then internal storage is slightly better, unless a generic linked list package using external storage is available.", "Likewise, if different sets of data that can be stored in the same data structure are to be included in a single linked list, then internal storage would be fine.Another approach that can be used with some languages involves having different data structures, but all have the initial fields, including the ''next'' (and ''prev'' if double linked list) references in the same location.", "After defining separate structures for each type of data, a generic structure can be defined that contains the minimum amount of data shared by all the other structures and contained at the top (beginning) of the structures.", "Then generic routines can be created that use the minimal structure to perform linked list type operations, but separate routines can then handle the specific data.", "This approach is often used in message parsing routines, where several types of messages are received, but all start with the same set of fields, usually including a field for message type.", "The generic routines are used to add new messages to a queue when they are received, and remove them from the queue in order to process the message.", "The message type field is then used to call the correct routine to process the specific type of message.===Example of internal and external storage===Suppose you wanted to create a linked list of families and their members.", "Using internal storage, the structure might look like the following: '''record''' ''member'' { ''// member of a family'' ''member'' next; ''string'' firstName; ''integer'' age; } '''record''' ''family'' { ''// the family itself'' ''family'' next; ''string'' lastName; ''string'' address; ''member'' members ''// head of list of members of this family'' }To print a complete list of families and their members using internal storage, we could write: aFamily := Families ''// start at head of families list'' '''while''' aFamily ≠ '''null''' ''// loop through list of families'' print information about family aMember := aFamily.members ''// get head of list of this family's members'' '''while''' aMember ≠ '''null''' ''// loop through list of members'' print information about member aMember := aMember.next aFamily := aFamily.nextUsing external storage, we would create the following structures: '''record''' ''node'' { ''// generic link structure'' ''node'' next; ''pointer'' data ''// generic pointer for data at node'' } '''record''' ''member'' { ''// structure for family member'' ''string'' firstName; ''integer'' age } '''record''' ''family'' { ''// structure for family'' ''string'' lastName; ''string'' address; ''node'' members ''// head of list of members of this family'' }To print a complete list of families and their members using external storage, we could write: famNode := Families ''// start at head of families list'' '''while''' famNode ≠ '''null''' ''// loop through list of families'' aFamily := (family) famNode.data ''// extract family from node'' print information about family memNode := aFamily.members ''// get list of family members'' '''while''' memNode ≠ '''null''' ''// loop through list of members'' aMember := (member)memNode.data ''// extract member from node'' print information about member memNode := memNode.next famNode := famNode.nextNotice that when using external storage, an extra step is needed to extract the record from the node and cast it into the proper data type.", "This is because both the list of families and the list of members within the family are stored in two linked lists using the same data structure (''node''), and this language does not have parametric types.As long as the number of families that a member can belong to is known at compile time, internal storage works fine.", "If, however, a member needed to be included in an arbitrary number of families, with the specific number known only at run time, external storage would be necessary.===Speeding up search===Finding a specific element in a linked list, even if it is sorted, normally requires O(''n'') time (linear search).", "This is one of the primary disadvantages of linked lists over other data structures.", "In addition to the variants discussed above, below are two simple ways to improve search time.In an unordered list, one simple heuristic for decreasing average search time is the ''move-to-front heuristic'', which simply moves an element to the beginning of the list once it is found.", "This scheme, handy for creating simple caches, ensures that the most recently used items are also the quickest to find again.Another common approach is to \"index\" a linked list using a more efficient external data structure.", "For example, one can build a red–black tree or hash table whose elements are references to the linked list nodes.", "Multiple such indexes can be built on a single list.", "The disadvantage is that these indexes may need to be updated each time a node is added or removed (or at least, before that index is used again).===Random-access lists===A random-access list is a list with support for fast random access to read or modify any element in the list.", "One possible implementation is a skew binary random-access list using the skew binary number system, which involves a list of trees with special properties; this allows worst-case constant time head/cons operations, and worst-case logarithmic time random access to an element by index.", "Random-access lists can be implemented as persistent data structures.Random-access lists can be viewed as immutable linked lists in that they likewise support the same O(1) head and tail operations.A simple extension to random-access lists is the min-list, which provides an additional operation that yields the minimum element in the entire list in constant time (without mutation complexities)." ], [ "Related data structures", "Both stacks and queues are often implemented using linked lists, and simply restrict the type of operations which are supported.The skip list is a linked list augmented with layers of pointers for quickly jumping over large numbers of elements, and then descending to the next layer.", "This process continues down to the bottom layer, which is the actual list.A binary tree can be seen as a type of linked list where the elements are themselves linked lists of the same nature.", "The result is that each node may include a reference to the first node of one or two other linked lists, which, together with their contents, form the subtrees below that node.An unrolled linked list is a linked list in which each node contains an array of data values.", "This leads to improved cache performance, since more list elements are contiguous in memory, and reduced memory overhead, because less metadata needs to be stored for each element of the list.A hash table may use linked lists to store the chains of items that hash to the same position in the hash table.A heap shares some of the ordering properties of a linked list, but is almost always implemented using an array.", "Instead of references from node to node, the next and previous data indexes are calculated using the current data's index.A self-organizing list rearranges its nodes based on some heuristic which reduces search times for data retrieval by keeping commonly accessed nodes at the head of the list." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "****************" ], [ "External links", "* Description from the Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures* Introduction to Linked Lists, Stanford University Computer Science Library* Linked List Problems, Stanford University Computer Science Library* Open Data Structures - Chapter 3 - Linked Lists, Pat Morin* Patent for the idea of having nodes which are in several linked lists simultaneously (note that this technique was widely used for many decades before the patent was granted)* Implementation of a singly linked list in C* Implementation of a singly linked list in C++* Implementation of a doubly linked list in C* Implementation of a doubly linked list in C++" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Logic gate" ], [ "Introduction", "carry lookahead binary adder design using only the AND, OR, and XOR logic gates.CMOS diagram of a NOT gate, also known as an inverter.", "MOSFETs are the most common way to make logic gates.A '''logic gate''' is a device that performs a Boolean function, a logical operation performed on one or more binary inputs that produces a single binary output.", "Depending on the context, the term may refer to an '''ideal logic gate''', one that has, for instance, zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to a non-ideal physical device (see ideal and real op-amps for comparison).The primary way of building logic gates uses diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches.", "Today, most logic gates are made from MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors).", "They can also be constructed using vacuum tubes, electromagnetic relays with relay logic, fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules, acoustics, or even mechanical or thermal elements.Logic gates can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic.", "'''Logic circuits''' include such devices as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and computer memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors, which may contain more than 100 million logic gates.Compound logic gates AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert (OAI) are often employed in circuit design because their construction using MOSFETs is simpler and more efficient than the sum of the individual gates." ], [ "Electronic gates", "A functionally complete logic system may be composed of relays, valves (vacuum tubes), or transistors.", "The simplest family of logic gates uses bipolar transistors, and is called resistor–transistor logic (RTL).", "Unlike simple diode logic gates (which do not have a gain element), RTL gates can be cascaded indefinitely to produce more complex logic functions.", "RTL gates were used in early integrated circuits.", "For higher speed and better density, the resistors used in RTL were replaced by diodes resulting in diode–transistor logic (DTL).", "Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) then supplanted DTL.", "As integrated circuits became more complex, bipolar transistors were replaced with smaller field-effect transistors (MOSFETs); see PMOS and NMOS.", "To reduce power consumption still further, most contemporary chip implementations of digital systems now use CMOS logic.", "CMOS uses complementary (both n-channel and p-channel) MOSFET devices to achieve a high speed with low power dissipation.For small-scale logic, designers now use prefabricated logic gates from families of devices such as the TTL 7400 series by Texas Instruments, the CMOS 4000 series by RCA, and their more recent descendants.", "Increasingly, these fixed-function logic gates are being replaced by programmable logic devices, which allow designers to pack many mixed logic gates into a single integrated circuit.", "The field-programmable nature of programmable logic devices such as FPGAs has reduced the 'hard' property of hardware; it is now possible to change the logic design of a hardware system by reprogramming some of its components, thus allowing the features or function of a hardware implementation of a logic system to be changed.", "Other types of logic gates include, but are not limited to:+ Logic family Abbreviation DescriptionDiode logic DL Tunnel diode logic TDL Exactly the same as diode logic but can perform at a higher speed.", "Neon logic NL Uses neon bulbs or 3-element neon trigger tubes to perform logic.", "Core diode logic CDL Performed by semiconductor diodes and small ferrite toroidal cores for moderate speed and moderate power level.", "4Layer Device Logic 4LDL Uses thyristors and SCRs to perform logic operations where high current and or high voltages are required.", "Direct-coupled transistor logic DCTL Uses transistors switching between saturated and cutoff states to perform logic.", "The transistors require carefully controlled parameters.", "Economical because few other components are needed, but tends to be susceptible to noise because of the lower voltage levels employed.", "Often considered to be the father to modern TTL logic.", "Metal–oxide–semiconductor logic MOS Uses MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors), the basis for most modern logic gates.", "The MOS logic family includes PMOS logic, NMOS logic, complementary MOS (CMOS), and BiCMOS (bipolar CMOS).", "Current-mode logic CML Uses transistors to perform logic but biasing is from constant current sources to prevent saturation and allow extremely fast switching.", "Has high noise immunity despite fairly low logic levels.Quantum-dot cellular automataQCAUses tunnelable q-bits for synthesizing the binary logic bits.", "The electrostatic repulsive force in between two electrons in the quantum dots assigns the electron configurations (that defines state 1 or state 0) under the suitably driven polarizations.", "This is a transistorless, currentless, junctionless binary logic synthesis technique allowing it to have very fast operation speeds.Electronic logic gates differ significantly from their relay-and-switch equivalents.", "They are much faster, consume much less power, and are much smaller (all by a factor of a million or more in most cases).", "Also, there is a fundamental structural difference.", "The switch circuit creates a continuous metallic path for current to flow (in either direction) between its input and its output.", "The semiconductor logic gate, on the other hand, acts as a high-gain voltage amplifier, which sinks a tiny current at its input and produces a low-impedance voltage at its output.", "It is not possible for current to flow between the output and the input of a semiconductor logic gate.Another important advantage of standardized integrated circuit logic families, such as the 7400 and 4000 families, is that they can be cascaded.", "This means that the output of one gate can be wired to the inputs of one or several other gates, and so on.", "Systems with varying degrees of complexity can be built without great concern of the designer for the internal workings of the gates, provided the limitations of each integrated circuit are considered.The output of one gate can only drive a finite number of inputs to other gates, a number called the 'fan-out limit'.", "Also, there is always a delay, called the 'propagation delay', from a change in input of a gate to the corresponding change in its output.", "When gates are cascaded, the total propagation delay is approximately the sum of the individual delays, an effect which can become a problem in high-speed synchronous circuits.", "Additional delay can be caused when many inputs are connected to an output, due to the distributed capacitance of all the inputs and wiring and the finite amount of current that each output can provide." ], [ "History and development", "The binary number system was refined by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (published in 1705), influenced by the ancient ''I Ching''s binary system.", "Leibniz established that using the binary system combined the principles of arithmetic and logic.In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits.", "Early electro-mechanical computers were constructed from switches and relay logic rather than the later innovations of vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) or transistors (from which later electronic computers were constructed).", "Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth table as proposition 5.101 of ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'' (1921).", "Walther Bothe, inventor of the coincidence circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924.Konrad Zuse designed and built electromechanical logic gates for his computer Z1 (from 1935 to 1938).From 1934 to 1936, NEC engineer Akira Nakashima, Claude Shannon and Victor Shestakov introduced switching circuit theory in a series of papers showing that two-valued Boolean algebra, which they discovered independently, can describe the operation of switching circuits.", "Using this property of electrical switches to implement logic is the fundamental concept that underlies all electronic digital computers.", "Switching circuit theory became the foundation of digital circuit design, as it became widely known in the electrical engineering community during and after World War II, with theoretical rigor superseding the ''ad hoc'' methods that had prevailed previously.Metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) devices in the forms of PMOS and NMOS were demonstrated by Bell Labs engineers Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1960.Both types were later combined and adapted into complementary MOS (CMOS) logic by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963.Active research is taking place in molecular logic gates." ], [ "Symbols <!--This section is linked from [[Schematic]]: do not rename heading without including an anchor to previous name ([[MOS:HEAD]])-->", "A synchronous 4-bit up/down decade counter symbol (74LS192) in accordance with ANSI/IEEE Std.", "91-1984 and IEC Publication 60617-12.There are two sets of symbols for elementary logic gates in common use, both defined in ANSI/IEEE Std 91-1984 and its supplement ANSI/IEEE Std 91a-1991.The \"distinctive shape\" set, based on traditional schematics, is used for simple drawings and derives from United States Military Standard MIL-STD-806 of the 1950s and 1960s.", "It is sometimes unofficially described as \"military\", reflecting its origin.", "The \"rectangular shape\" set, based on ANSI Y32.14 and other early industry standards as later refined by IEEE and IEC, has rectangular outlines for all types of gate and allows representation of a much wider range of devices than is possible with the traditional symbols.", "The IEC standard, IEC 60617-12, has been adopted by other standards, such as EN 60617-12:1999 in Europe, BS EN 60617-12:1999 in the United Kingdom, and DIN EN 60617-12:1998 in Germany.The mutual goal of IEEE Std 91-1984 and IEC 617-12 was to provide a uniform method of describing the complex logic functions of digital circuits with schematic symbols.", "These functions were more complex than simple AND and OR gates.", "They could be medium-scale circuits such as a 4-bit counter to a large-scale circuit such as a microprocessor.IEC 617-12 and its renumbered successor IEC 60617-12 do not explicitly show the \"distinctive shape\" symbols, but do not prohibit them.", "These are, however, shown in ANSI/IEEE Std 91 (and 91a) with this note: \"The distinctive-shape symbol is, according to IEC Publication 617, Part 12, not preferred, but is not considered to be in contradiction to that standard.\"", "IEC 60617-12 correspondingly contains the note (Section 2.1) \"Although non-preferred, the use of other symbols recognized by official national standards, that is distinctive shapes in place of symbols list of basic gates, shall not be considered to be in contradiction with this standard.", "Usage of these other symbols in combination to form complex symbols (for example, use as embedded symbols) is discouraged.\"", "This compromise was reached between the respective IEEE and IEC working groups to permit the IEEE and IEC standards to be in mutual compliance with one another.In the 1980s, schematics were the predominant method to design both circuit boards and custom ICs known as gate arrays.", "Today custom ICs and the field-programmable gate array are typically designed with Hardware Description Languages (HDL) such as Verilog or VHDL.", "Type Distinctive shape(IEEE Std 91/91a-1991) Rectangular shape(IEEE Std 91/91a-1991)(IEC 60617-12:1997) Boolean algebra between A and B Truth table Single-input gates '''Buffer'''Buffer symbolBuffer symbol '''Input''' '''Output''' A Q '''NOT'''(inverter)NOT symbolNOT symbol or '''Input''' '''Output''' A Q In electronics a NOT gate is more commonly called an inverter.", "The circle on the symbol is called a ''bubble'' and is used in logic diagrams to indicate a logic negation between the external logic state and the internal logic state (1 to 0 or vice versa).", "On a circuit diagram it must be accompanied by a statement asserting that the ''positive logic convention'' or ''negative logic convention'' is being used (high voltage level = 1 or low voltage level = 1, respectively).", "The ''wedge'' is used in circuit diagrams to directly indicate an active-low (low voltage level = 1) input or output without requiring a uniform convention throughout the circuit diagram.", "This is called ''Direct Polarity Indication''.", "See IEEE Std 91/91A and IEC 60617-12.Both the ''bubble'' and the ''wedge'' can be used on distinctive-shape and rectangular-shape symbols on circuit diagrams, depending on the logic convention used.", "On pure logic diagrams, only the ''bubble'' is meaningful.Conjunction and disjunction '''AND'''AND symbolAND symbol or '''Input''' '''Output''' A B Q '''OR'''OR symbolOR symbol or '''Input''' '''Output''' A B Q Alternative denial and joint denial '''NAND'''NAND symbolNAND symbol or '''Input''' '''Output''' A B Q '''NOR''' NOR symbol NOR symbol or '''Input''' '''Output''' A B Q Exclusive or and biconditional '''XOR''' XOR symbol XOR symbol or '''Input''' '''Output''' A B Q The output of a two input exclusive-OR is true only when the two input values are ''different'', and false if they are equal, regardless of the value.", "If there are more than two inputs, the output of the distinctive-shape symbol is undefined.", "The output of the rectangular-shaped symbol is true if the number of true inputs is exactly one or exactly the number following the \"=\" in the qualifying symbol.", "'''XNOR''' XNOR symbol XNOR symbol or '''Input''' '''Output''' A B Q" ], [ "Truth tables", "+ Output comparison of 1-input logic gates.", "'''Input''' '''Output''' A Buffer Inverter + Output comparison of 2-input logic gates.", "'''Input''' '''Output''' A B AND NAND OR NOR XOR XNOR" ], [ "Universal logic gates", "The 7400 chip, containing four NANDs.", "The two additional pins supply power (+5 V) and connect the ground.Charles Sanders Peirce (during 1880–1881) showed that NOR gates alone (or alternatively NAND gates alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other logic gates, but his work on it was unpublished until 1933.The first published proof was by Henry M. Sheffer in 1913, so the NAND logical operation is sometimes called ''Sheffer stroke''; the logical NOR is sometimes called ''Peirce's arrow''.", "Consequently, these gates are sometimes called ''universal logic gates''.+\ttypeNAND constructionNOR constructionNOTImage:NOT from NAND.svgFile:NOT from NOR.svgANDImage:AND from NAND.svgFile:AND from NOR.svgNANDImage:NAND ANSI Labelled.svg\tFile:NAND from NOR.svg\tORFile:OR from NAND.svgImage:OR from NOR.svgNOR\tFile:NOR from NAND.svg\tImage:NOR ANSI Labelled.svg\tXOR\tFile:XOR from NAND.svg\tFile:XOR from NOR.svg\tXNORFile:XNOR from NAND 2.svgFile:XNOR from NOR.svg" ], [ "De Morgan equivalent symbols", "By use of De Morgan's laws, an ''AND'' function is identical to an ''OR'' function with negated inputs and outputs.", "Likewise, an ''OR'' function is identical to an ''AND'' function with negated inputs and outputs.", "A NAND gate is equivalent to an OR gate with negated inputs, and a NOR gate is equivalent to an AND gate with negated inputs.This leads to an alternative set of symbols for basic gates that use the opposite core symbol (''AND'' or ''OR'') but with the inputs and outputs negated.", "Use of these alternative symbols can make logic circuit diagrams much clearer and help to show accidental connection of an active high output to an active low input or vice versa.", "Any connection that has logic negations at both ends can be replaced by a negationless connection and a suitable change of gate or vice versa.", "Any connection that has a negation at one end and no negation at the other can be made easier to interpret by instead using the De Morgan equivalent symbol at either of the two ends.", "When negation or polarity indicators on both ends of a connection match, there is no logic negation in that path (effectively, bubbles \"cancel\"), making it easier to follow logic states from one symbol to the next.", "This is commonly seen in real logic diagrams – thus the reader must not get into the habit of associating the shapes exclusively as OR or AND shapes, but also take into account the bubbles at both inputs and outputs in order to determine the \"true\" logic function indicated.A De Morgan symbol can show more clearly a gate's primary logical purpose and the polarity of its nodes that are considered in the \"signaled\" (active, on) state.", "Consider the simplified case where a two-input NAND gate is used to drive a motor when either of its inputs are brought low by a switch.", "The \"signaled\" state (motor on) occurs when either one OR the other switch is on.", "Unlike a regular NAND symbol, which suggests AND logic, the De Morgan version, a two negative-input OR gate, correctly shows that OR is of interest.", "The regular NAND symbol has a bubble at the output and none at the inputs (the opposite of the states that will turn the motor on), but the De Morgan symbol shows both inputs and output in the polarity that will drive the motor.De Morgan's theorem is most commonly used to implement logic gates as combinations of only NAND gates, or as combinations of only NOR gates, for economic reasons." ], [ "Data storage and sequential logic", "Animation of how an SR NOR gate latch works.Logic gates can also be used to hold a state, allowing data storage.", "A storage element can be constructed by connecting several gates in a \"latch\" circuit.", "Latching circuitry is used in static random-access memory.", "More complicated designs that use clock signals and that change only on a rising or falling edge of the clock are called edge-triggered \"flip-flops\".", "Formally, a flip-flop is called a bistable circuit, because it has two stable states which it can maintain indefinitely.", "The combination of multiple flip-flops in parallel, to store a multiple-bit value, is known as a register.", "When using any of these gate setups the overall system has memory; it is then called a sequential logic system since its output can be influenced by its previous state(s), i.e.", "by the ''sequence'' of input states.", "In contrast, the output from combinational logic is purely a combination of its present inputs, unaffected by the previous input and output states.These logic circuits are used in computer memory.", "They vary in performance, based on factors of speed, complexity, and reliability of storage, and many different types of designs are used based on the application." ], [ "Three-state logic gates", "A tristate buffer can be thought of as a switch.", "If ''B'' is on, the switch is closed.", "If B is off, the switch is open.A three-state logic gate is a type of logic gate that can have three different outputs: high (H), low (L) and high-impedance (Z).", "The high-impedance state plays no role in the logic, which is strictly binary.", "These devices are used on buses of the CPU to allow multiple chips to send data.", "A group of three-states driving a line with a suitable control circuit is basically equivalent to a multiplexer, which may be physically distributed over separate devices or plug-in cards.In electronics, a high output would mean the output is sourcing current from the positive power terminal (positive voltage).", "A low output would mean the output is sinking current to the negative power terminal (zero voltage).", "High impedance would mean that the output is effectively disconnected from the circuit." ], [ "Manufacturing", "Since the 1990s, most logic gates are made in CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) technology that uses both NMOS and PMOS transistors.", "Often millions of logic gates are packaged in a single integrated circuit.=== Non-electronic logic gates ===Non-electronic implementations are varied, though few of them are used in practical applications.", "Many early electromechanical digital computers, such as the Harvard Mark I, were built from relay logic gates, using electro-mechanical relays.", "Logic gates can be made using pneumatic devices, such as the Sorteberg relay or mechanical logic gates, including on a molecular scale.", "Various types of fundamental logic gates have been constructed using molecules (molecular logic gates), which are based on chemical inputs and spectroscopic outputs.", "Logic gates have been made out of DNA (see DNA nanotechnology) and used to create a computer called MAYA (see MAYA-II).", "Logic gates can be made from quantum mechanical effects, see quantum logic gate.", "Photonic logic gates use nonlinear optical effects.In principle any method that leads to a gate that is functionally complete (for example, either a NOR or a NAND gate) can be used to make any kind of digital logic circuit.", "Note that the use of 3-state logic for bus systems is not needed, and can be replaced by digital multiplexers, which can be built using only simple logic gates (such as NAND gates, NOR gates, or AND and OR gates).=== Logic families ===There are several logic families with different characteristics (power consumption, speed, cost, size) such as: RDL (resistor–diode logic), RTL (resistor-transistor logic), DTL (diode–transistor logic), TTL (transistor–transistor logic) and CMOS.", "There are also sub-variants, e.g.", "standard CMOS logic vs. advanced types using still CMOS technology, but with some optimizations for avoiding loss of speed due to slower PMOS transistors." ], [ "See also", "* And-inverter graph* Boolean algebra topics* Boolean function* Depletion-load NMOS logic* Digital circuit* Espresso heuristic logic minimizer* Emitter-coupled logic* Fan-out* Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)* Flip-flop (electronics)* Functional completeness* Karnaugh map* Combinational logic* List of 4000 series integrated circuits* List of 7400 series integrated circuits* Logic family* Logic level* Logical graph* NMOS logic* Processor design* Programmable logic controller (PLC)* Programmable logic device (PLD)* Propositional calculus* Quantum logic gate* Race hazard* Reversible computing* Truth table" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Linear search" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer science, '''linear search''' or '''sequential search''' is a method for finding an element within a list.", "It sequentially checks each element of the list until a match is found or the whole list has been searched.A linear search runs in at worst linear time and makes at most comparisons, where is the length of the list.", "If each element is equally likely to be searched, then linear search has an average case of comparisons, but the average case can be affected if the search probabilities for each element vary.", "Linear search is rarely practical because other search algorithms and schemes, such as the binary search algorithm and hash tables, allow significantly faster searching for all but short lists." ], [ "Algorithm", "A linear search sequentially checks each element of the list until it finds an element that matches the target value.", "If the algorithm reaches the end of the list, the search terminates unsuccessfully.===Basic algorithm===Given a list of elements with values or records , and target value , the following subroutine uses linear search to find the index of the target in .# Set to 0.# If , the search terminates successfully; return .# Increase by 1.# If , go to step 2.Otherwise, the search terminates unsuccessfully.===With a sentinel===The basic algorithm above makes two comparisons per iteration: one to check if equals ''T'', and the other to check if still points to a valid index of the list.", "By adding an extra record to the list (a sentinel value) that equals the target, the second comparison can be eliminated until the end of the search, making the algorithm faster.", "The search will reach the sentinel if the target is not contained within the list.# Set to 0.# If , go to step 4.# Increase by 1 and go to step 2.# If , the search terminates successfully; return .", "Else, the search terminates unsuccessfully.===In an ordered table===If the list is ordered such that , the search can establish the absence of the target more quickly by concluding the search once exceeds the target.", "This variation requires a sentinel that is greater than the target.# Set to 0.# If , go to step 4.# Increase by 1 and go to step 2.# If , the search terminates successfully; return .", "Else, the search terminates unsuccessfully." ], [ "Analysis", "For a list with ''n'' items, the best case is when the value is equal to the first element of the list, in which case only one comparison is needed.", "The worst case is when the value is not in the list (or occurs only once at the end of the list), in which case ''n'' comparisons are needed.If the value being sought occurs ''k'' times in the list, and all orderings of the list are equally likely, the expected number of comparisons is:For example, if the value being sought occurs once in the list, and all orderings of the list are equally likely, the expected number of comparisons is .", "However, if it is ''known'' that it occurs once, then at most ''n'' - 1 comparisons are needed, and the expected number of comparisons is :(for example, for ''n'' = 2 this is 1, corresponding to a single if-then-else construct).Either way, asymptotically the worst-case cost and the expected cost of linear search are both O(''n'').===Non-uniform probabilities===The performance of linear search improves if the desired value is more likely to be near the beginning of the list than to its end.", "Therefore, if some values are much more likely to be searched than others, it is desirable to place them at the beginning of the list.In particular, when the list items are arranged in order of decreasing probability, and these probabilities are geometrically distributed, the cost of linear search is only O(1)." ], [ "Application", "Linear search is usually very simple to implement, and is practical when the list has only a few elements, or when performing a single search in an un-ordered list.When many values have to be searched in the same list, it often pays to pre-process the list in order to use a faster method.", "For example, one may sort the list and use binary search, or build an efficient search data structure from it.", "Should the content of the list change frequently, repeated re-organization may be more trouble than it is worth.As a result, even though in theory other search algorithms may be faster than linear search (for instance binary search), in practice even on medium-sized arrays (around 100 items or less) it might be infeasible to use anything else.", "On larger arrays, it only makes sense to use other, faster search methods if the data is large enough, because the initial time to prepare (sort) the data is comparable to many linear searches." ], [ "See also", "* Ternary search* Hash table* Linear search problem" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Works===*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Land mine" ], [ "Introduction", "Examples of anti-personnel mines.", "Center: Valmara 69 (a bounding mine); right: VS-50Swedish FFV 028 anti-tank-mines of the German Bundeswehr (inert versions)A '''land mine''', or '''landmine''', is an explosive weapon concealed under or camouflaged on the ground, and designed to destroy or disable enemy targets, ranging from combatants to vehicles and tanks, as they pass over or near it.Such a device is typically detonated automatically by way of pressure when a target steps on it or drives over it, although other detonation mechanisms are also sometimes used.", "A land mine may cause damage by direct blast effect, by fragments that are thrown by the blast, or by both.", "Land mines are typically laid throughout an area, creating a ''minefield'' which is dangerous to cross.The use of land mines is controversial because of their potential as indiscriminate weapons.", "They can remain dangerous many years after a conflict has ended, harming civilians and the economy.", "Seventy-eight countries are contaminated with land mines and 15,000–20,000 people are killed every year while many more are injured.", "Approximately 80% of land mine casualties are civilians, with children as the most affected age group.", "Most killings occur in times of peace.", "With pressure from a number of campaign groups organised through the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, a global movement to prohibit their use led to the 1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, also known as the ''Ottawa Treaty''.", "To date, 164 nations have signed the treaty, but these do not include China, the Russian Federation, or the United States." ], [ "Definition", "In the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention (also known as the \"Ottawa Treaty\") and the \"Protocol on Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices\", a ''mine'' is defined as a \"munition designed to be placed under, on or near the ground or other surface area and to be exploded by the presence, proximity or contact of a person or vehicle\".", "Similar in function is the ''booby-trap'', which the protocol defines as \"any device or material which is designed, constructed or adapted to kill or injure and which functions unexpectedly when a person disturbs or approaches an apparently harmless object or performs an apparently safe act\".", "Such actions might include opening a door or picking up an object.", "Normally, mines are mass-produced and placed in groups, while booby traps are improvised and deployed one at a time.", "Also, booby traps can be non-explosive devices such as punji sticks.", "Overlapping both categories is the ''improvised explosive device'' (IED), which is \"a device placed or fabricated in an improvised manner incorporating explosive material, destructive, lethal, noxious, incendiary, pyrotechnic materials or chemicals designed to destroy, disfigure, distract or harass.", "They may incorporate military stores, but are normally devised from non-military components.\"", "Some meet the definition of mines or booby traps and are also referred to as \"improvised\", \"artisanal\" or \"locally manufactured\" mines.", "Other types of IED are remotely activated, so are not considered mines.", "''Remotely delivered mines'' are dropped from aircraft or carried by devices such as artillery shells or rockets.", "Another type of remotely delivered explosive is the ''cluster munition'', a device that releases several sub munitions (\"bomblets\") over a large area.", "The use, transfer, production, and stockpiling of cluster munitions is prohibited by the international CCM treaty.", "If bomblets do not explode, they are referred to as ''unexploded ordnance'' (UXO), along with unexploded artillery shells and other explosive devices that were not manually placed (that is, mines and booby traps are not UXOs).", "''Explosive remnants of war'' (ERW) include UXOs and ''abandoned explosive ordnance'' (AXO), devices that were never used and were left behind after a conflict.Land mines are divided into two types: anti-tank mines, which are designed to disable tanks or other vehicles; and anti-personnel mines, which are designed to injure or kill people." ], [ "History", "The history of land mines can be divided into three main phases: In the ancient world, buried spikes provided many of the same functions as modern mines.", "Mines using gunpowder as the explosive were used from the Ming dynasty to the American Civil War.", "Subsequently, high explosives were developed for use in land mines.===Before explosives===Roman caltropSome fortifications in the Roman Empire were surrounded by a series of hazards buried in the ground.", "These included ''goads'', pieces of wood with iron hooks on their ends; ''lilia'' (lilies, so named after their appearance), which were pits in which sharpened logs were arranged in a five-point pattern; and ''abatis'', fallen trees with sharpened branches facing outwards.", "As with modern land mines, they were \"victim-operated\", often concealed, and formed zones that were wide enough so that the enemy could not do much harm from outside, but were under fire (from spear throws, in this case) if they attempted to remove the obstacles.", "A notable use of these defenses was by Julius Caesar in the Battle of Alesia.", "His forces were besieging Vercingetorix, the leader of the Gauls, but Vercingetorix managed to send for reinforcements.", "To maintain the siege and defend against the reinforcements, Caesar formed a line of fortifications on both sides, and they played an important role in his victory.", "Lilies were also used by Scots against the English at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, and by Germans at the Battle of Passchendaele in the First World War.A more easily deployed defense used by the Romans was the caltrop, a weapon 12–15 cm across with four sharp spikes that are oriented so that when it is thrown on the ground, one spike always points up.", "As with modern antipersonnel mines, caltrops are designed to disable soldiers rather than kill them; they are also more effective in stopping mounted forces, who lack the advantage of being able to carefully scrutinize each step they take (though forcing foot-mounted forces to take the time to do so has benefits in and of itself).", "They were used by the Jin dynasty in China at the Battle of Zhongdu to slow down the advance of Genghis Khan's army; Joan of Arc was wounded by one in the Siege of Orléans; in Japan they are known as ''tetsu-bishu'' and were used by ninjas from the fourteenth century onward.", "Caltrops are still strung together and used as roadblocks in some modern conflicts.===Gunpowder=======East Asia====Illustration of the \"self-tripped trespass land mine\" from the ''Huolongjing'''Underground sky soaring thunder', land mines connected to weapons above ground, from the ''Wubei Zhi''Gunpowder, an explosive mixture of sulfur, charcoal and potassium nitrate was invented in China by the 10th century and was used in warfare soon after.", "An \"enormous bomb\", credited to Lou Qianxia, was used in 1277 by the Chinese at the Battle of Zhongdu.A 14th-century military treatise, the ''Huolongjing'' (fire dragon manual), describes hollow cast iron cannonball shells filled with gunpowder.", "The wad of the mine was made of hard wood, carrying three different fuses in case of defective connection to the touch hole.", "These fuses were long and lit by hand, so they required carefully timed calculations of enemy movements.The ''Huolongjing'' also describes land mines that were set off by enemy movement.", "A length of bamboo was waterproofed by wrapping it in cowhide and covering it with oil.", "It was filled with compressed gunpowder and lead or iron pellets, sealed with wax and concealed in a trench.", "The triggering mechanism was not fully described until the early 17th century.", "When the enemy stepped onto hidden boards, they dislodged a pin, causing a weight to fall.", "A cord attached to the weight was wrapped around a drum attached to two steel wheels; when the weight fell, the wheels struck sparks against flint, igniting a set of fuses leading to multiple mines.", "A similar mechanism was used in the first wheellock musket in Europe as sketched by Leonardo da Vinci around 1500 AD.Another victim-operated device was the \"underground sky-soaring thunder\", which lured bounty hunters with halberds, pikes, and lances planted in the ground.", "If they pulled on one of these weapons, the butt end disturbed a bowl underneath and a slow-burning incandescent material in the bowl ignited the fuses.====Western World====At Augsburg in 1573, three centuries after the Chinese invented the first pressure-operated mine, a German military engineer by the name of Samuel Zimmermann invented the ''Fladdermine'' (flying mine).", "It consisted of a few pounds of black powder buried near the surface and was activated by stepping on it or tripping a wire that made a flintlock fire.", "Such mines were deployed on the slope in front of a fort.", "They were used during the Franco-Prussian War, but were probably not very effective because a flintlock does not work for long when left untended.Another device, the fougasse, was not victim-operated or mass-produced, but it was a precursor of modern fragmentation mines and the claymore mine.", "It consisted of a cone-shape hole with gunpowder at the bottom, covered either by rocks and scrap iron (''stone fougasse'') or mortar shells, similar to large black powder hand grenades (''shell fougasse'').", "It was triggered by a flintlock connected to a tripwire on the surface.", "It could sometimes cause heavy casualties but required high maintenance due to the susceptibility of black powder to dampness.", "Consequently, it was mainly employed in the defenses of major fortifications, in which role it used in several European wars of the eighteenth century and the American Revolution.One of the greatest limitations of early land mines was the unreliable fuses and their susceptibility to dampness.", "This changed with the invention of the safety fuse.", "Later, ''command initiation'', the ability to detonate a charge immediately instead of waiting several minutes for a fuse to burn, became possible after electricity was developed.", "An electric current sent down a wire could ignite the charge with a spark.", "The Russians claim first use of this technology in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, and with it the fougasse remained useful until it was superseded by the claymore in the 1960s.Victim-activated mines were also unreliable because they relied on a flintlock to ignite the explosive.", "The percussion cap, developed in the early 19th century, made them much more reliable, and pressure-operated mines were deployed on land and sea in the Crimean War (1853–1856).During the American Civil War, the Confederate brigadier general Gabriel J.", "Rains deployed thousands of \"torpedoes\" consisting of artillery shells with pressure caps, beginning with the Battle of Yorktown in 1862.As a captain, Rains had earlier employed explosive booby traps during the Seminole Wars in Florida in 1840.Over the course of the war, mines only caused a few hundred casualties, but they had a large effect on morale and slowed down the advance of Union troops.", "Many on both sides considered the use of mines barbaric, and in response, generals in the Union Army forced Confederate prisoners to remove the mines.=== High explosives ===Starting in the 19th century, more powerful explosives than gunpowder were developed, often for non-military reasons such as blasting train tunnels in the Alps and Rockies.", "Guncotton, up to four times more powerful than gunpowder, was invented by Christian Schonbein in 1846.It was dangerous to make until Frederick Augustus Abel developed a safe method in 1865.From the 1870s to the First World War, it was the standard explosive used by the British military.In 1847, Ascanio Sobrero invented nitroglycerine to treat angina pectoris and it turned out to be a much more powerful explosive than guncotton.", "It was very dangerous to use until Alfred Nobel found a way to incorporate it in a solid mixture called dynamite and developed a safe detonator.", "Even then, dynamite needed to be stored carefully or it could form crystals that detonated easily.", "Thus, the military still preferred guncotton.In 1863, the German chemical industry developed trinitrotoluene (TNT).", "This had the advantage that it was difficult to detonate, so it could withstand the shock of firing by artillery pieces.", "It was also advantageous for land mines for several reasons: it was not detonated by the shock of shells landing nearby; it was lightweight, unaffected by damp, and stable under a wide range of conditions; it could be melted to fill a container of any shape, and it was cheap to make.", "Thus, it became the standard explosive in mines after the First World War.==== Between the American Civil War and the First World War ====The British used mines in the Siege of Khartoum.", "A Sudanese Mahdist force much larger than British strength was held off for ten months, but the town was ultimately taken and the British massacred.", "In the Boer War (1899–1903), they succeeded in holding Mafeking against Boer forces with the help of a mixture of real and fake minefields; and they laid mines alongside railroad tracks to discourage sabotage.In the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, both sides used land and sea mines, although the effect on land mainly affected morale.", "The naval mines were far more effective, destroying several battleships.==== First World War ====Cutaway diagram of the S-mineOne sign of the increasing power of explosives used in land mines was that, by the First World War, they burst into about 1,000 high-velocity fragments; in the Franco-Prussian War (1870), it had only been 20 to 30 fragments.", "Nevertheless, antipersonnel mines were not a big factor in the war because machine guns, barbed wire and rapid-fire artillery were far more effective defenses.", "An exception was in Africa (now Tanzania and Namibia) where the warfare was much more mobile.Towards the end of the war, the British started to use tanks to break through trench defenses.", "The Germans responded with anti-tank guns and mines.", "Improvised mines gave way to mass-produced mines consisting of wooden boxes filled with guncotton, and minefields were standardized to stop masses of tanks from advancing.Between world wars, the future Allies did little work on land mines, but the Germans developed a series of anti-tank mines, the ''Tellermines'' (plate mines).", "They also developed the ''Schrapnell mine'' (also known as the S-mine), the first bounding mine.", "When triggered, this jumped up to about waist height and exploded, sending thousands of steel balls in all directions.", "Triggered by pressure, trip wires or electronics, it could harm soldiers within an area of about 2,800 square feet.==== Second World War ====The ''Schu-mine 42'', the most common mine used in the Second World WarTens of millions of mines were laid in the Second World War, particularly in the deserts of North Africa and the steppes of Eastern Europe, where the open ground favored tanks.", "However, the first country to use them was Finland.", "They were defending against a much larger Soviet force with over 6,000 tanks, twenty times the number the Finns had; but they had terrain that was broken up by lakes and forests, so tank movement was restricted to roads and tracks.", "Their defensive line, the Mannerheim Line, integrated these natural defenses with mines, including simple fragmentation mines mounted on stakes.While the Germans were advancing rapidly using ''blitzkrieg'' tactics, they did not make much use of mines.", "After 1942, however, they were on the defensive and became the most inventive and systematic users of mines.", "Their production shot up and they began inventing new types of mines as the Allies found ways to counter the existing ones.", "To make it more difficult to remove antitank mines, they surrounded them with S-mines and added anti-handling devices that would explode when soldiers tried to lift them.", "They also took a formal approach to laying mines and they kept detailed records of the locations of mines.In the Second Battle of El Alamein in 1942, the Germans prepared for an Allied attack by laying about half a million mines in two fields running across the entire battlefield and five miles deep.", "Nicknamed the \"Devil's gardens\", they were covered by 88 mm anti-tank guns and small-arms fire.", "The Allies prevailed, but at the cost of over half their tanks; 20 percent of the losses were caused by mines.The Soviets learned the value of mines from their war with Finland, and when Germany invaded they made heavy use of them, manufacturing over 67 million.", "At the Battle of Kursk, which put an end to the German advance, they laid over a million mines in eight belts with an overall depth of 35 kilometres.Mines forced tanks to slow down and wait for soldiers to go ahead and remove the mines.", "The main method of breaching minefields involved prodding the dirt with a bayonet or stick at an angle of 30 degrees (to avoid putting pressure on the top of the mine and detonating it).", "Since all mines at the beginning of the war had metal casings, metal detectors could be used to speed up the locating of mines.", "A Polish officer, Józef Kosacki, developed a portable mine detector known as the Polish mine detector.", "To counter the detector, Germans developed mines with wooden casings, the Schu-mine 42 (antipersonnel) and Holzmine 42 (anti-tank).", "Effective, cheap and easy to make, the ''schu'' mine became the most common mine in the war.", "Mine casings were also made of glass, concrete and clay.", "The Russians developed a mine with a pressed-cardboard casing, the PMK40, and the Italians made an anti-tank mine out of bakelite.", "In 1944, the Germans created the Topfmine, an entirely non-metallic mine.", "They ensured that they could detect their own mines by covering them with radioactive sand; the Allies did not find this out until after the war.Several mechanical methods for clearing mines were tried.", "Heavy rollers were attached to tanks or cargo trucks, but they did not last long and their weight made the tanks considerably slower.", "Tanks and bulldozers pushed ploughs that pushed aside any mines to a depth of 30 cm.", "The Bangalore torpedo, a long thin tube filled with explosives, was invented in 1912 and used to clear barbed wire; larger versions such as the Snake and the Conger were developed for clearing mines, but were not very effective.", "One of the best options was the flail, which had weights attached by chains to rotating drums.", "The first version, the Scorpion, was attached to the Matilda tank and used in the Second Battle of El Alamein.", "The Crab, attached to the Sherman tank, was faster, at 2 kilometers per hour; it was used during D-Day and the aftermath.==== Cold War ====Claymore mine with firing device and electric blasting cap assemblyDuring the Cold War, the members of NATO were concerned about massive armored attacks by the Soviet Union.", "They planned for a minefield stretching across the entire West German border, and developed new types of mines.", "The British designed an anti-tank mine, the Mark 7, to defeat rollers by detonating the second time it was pressed.", "It also had a 0.7-second delay so the tank would be directly over the mine.", "They also developed the first scatterable mine, the No.", "7 (\"Dingbat\").", "The Americans used the M6 antitank mine and tripwire-operated bounding antipersonnel mines such as the M2 and M16.In the Korean War, land mine use was dictated by the steep terrain, narrow valleys, forest cover and lack of developed roads.", "This made tanks less effective and more easily stopped by mines.", "However, mines laid near roads were often easy to spot.", "In response to this problem, the US developed the M24, a mine that was placed off to the side of the road.", "When triggered by a tripwire, it fired a rocket.", "However, the mine was not available until after the war.The Chinese had a lot of success with massed infantry attacks.", "The extensive forest cover limited the range of machine guns, but anti-personnel mines were effective.", "However, mines were poorly recorded and marked, often becoming as much a hazard to allies as enemies.", "Tripwire-operated mines were not defended by pressure mines; the Chinese were often able to disable them and reuse them against UN forces.Looking for more destructive mines, the Americans developed the Claymore, a directional fragmentation mine that hurls steel balls in a 60-degree arc at a lethal speed of 1,200 metres per second.", "They also developed a pressure-operated mine, the M14 (\"toe-popper\").", "These, too, were ready too late for the Korean war.An L9 Bar MineIn 1948, the British developed the No.", "6 antipersonnel mine, a minimum-metal mine with a narrow diameter, making it difficult to detect with metal detectors or prodding.", "Its three-pronged pressure piece inspired the nickname \"carrot mine\".", "However, it was unreliable in wet conditions.", "In the 1960s the Canadians developed a similar, but more reliable mine, the C3A1 (\"Elsie\") and the British army adopted it.", "The British also developed the L9 bar mine, a wide anti-tank mine with a rectangular shape, which covered more area, allowing a minefield to be laid four times as fast as previous mines.", "They also upgraded the Dingbat to the Ranger, a plastic mine that was fired from a truck-mounted discharger that could fire 72 mines at a time.In the 1950s, the US Operation Doan Brook studied the feasibility of delivering mines by air.", "This led to three types of air-delivered mine.", "''Wide area anti-personnel mines'' (''WAAPMs'') were small steel spheres that discharged tripwires when they hit the ground; each dispenser held 540 mines.", "The BLU-43 Dragontooth was small and had a flattened ''W'' shape to slow its descent, while the gravel mine was larger.", "Both were packed by the thousand into bombs.", "All three were designed to inactivate after a period of time, but any that failed to activate presented a safety challenge.", "Over 37 million Gravel mines were produced between 1967 and 1968, and when they were dropped in places like Vietnam their locations were unmarked and unrecorded.", "A similar problem was presented by unexploded cluster munitions.The next generation of scatterable mines arose in response to the increasing mobility of war.", "The Germans developed the Skorpion system, which scattered AT2 mines from a tracked vehicle.", "The Italians developed a helicopter delivery system that could rapidly switch between SB-33 anti-personnel mines and SB-81 anti-tank mines.", "The US developed a range of systems called the Family of Scatterable Mines (FASCAM) that could deliver mines by fast jet, artillery, helicopter and ground launcher.==== Middle eastern conflicts ====Example of casualty caused by make-shift anti-personnel mine, War in Afghanistan (2001–2021).", "The Iraq-Iran War, the Gulf War, and the Islamic State have all contributed to land mine saturation in Iraq from the 1980s through 2020.In 2019, Iraq was the most saturated country in the world with land mines.", "Countries that provided land mines during the Iran-Iraq War included Belgium, Canada, Chile, China, Egypt, France, Italy, Romania, Singapore, the former Soviet Union and the U.S., and were concentrated in the Kurdish areas in the northern area of Iraq.", "During the Gulf War, the U.S. deployed 117,634 mines, with 27,967 being anti-personnel mines and 89,667 being anti-vehicle mines.", "The U.S. did not use land mines during the Iraq War.Landmines and other unexploded battlefield ordnances, contaminate at least 724 million square meters of land in Afghanistan.", "Only two of Afghanistan's twenty-nine provinces are believed to be free of landmines.", "The most heavily mined provinces are Herat and Kandahar.", "Since 1989, nearly 44,000 Afghan civilians have been recorded to have been killed or injured by landmines and explosive remnants of war (ERW) averaging to around 110 people per month.", "Improvised mines (IM) and ERW from armed clashes caused nearly 99 percent of the casualties recorded in 2021.==== Invasion of Ukraine ====During the 2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine, both Russian and Ukrainian forces have used land mines.", "Ukrainian officials claim Russian forces planted thousands of land mines or other explosive devices during their withdrawal from Ukrainian cities, including in civilian areas.", "Russian forces have also utilized remotely delivered anti-personnel mines such as the POM-3=== Chemical and nuclear ===In the First World War, the Germans developed a device, nicknamed the \"Yperite Mine\" by the British, that they left behind in abandoned trenches and bunkers.", "It was detonated by a delayed charge, spreading mustard gas (\"Yperite\").", "In the Second World War they developed a modern chemical mine, the Sprüh-Büchse 37 (Bounding Gas Mine 37), but never used it.", "The United States developed the M1 chemical mine , which used mustard gas, in 1939; and the M23 chemical mine, which used the VX nerve agent, in 1960.The Soviets developed the KhF, a \"bounding chemical mine\".", "The French had chemical mines and the Iraqis were believed to have them before the invasion of Kuwait.", "In 1997, the Chemical Weapons Convention came into force, prohibiting the use of chemical weapons and mandating their destruction.", "By July 2023 all declared stockpiles of chemical weapons were destroyed.For a few decades during the Cold War, the U.S. developed atomic demolition munitions, often referred to as nuclear land mines.", "These were portable nuclear bombs that could be placed by hand, and could be detonated remotely or with a timer.", "Some of these were deployed in Europe.", "Governments in West Germany, Turkey and Greece wanted to have nuclear minefields as a defense against attack from the Warsaw Pact.", "However, such weapons were politically and tactically infeasible, and by 1989 the last of these munitions was retired.", "The British also had a project, codenamed Blue Peacock, to develop nuclear mines to be buried in Germany; the project was cancelled in 1958." ], [ "Characteristics and function", "booster charge, and the secondary fuze well on the side of the mine designed for an anti-handling deviceDiagram of componentsA conventional land mine consists of a casing that is mostly filled with the main charge.", "It has a firing mechanism such as a pressure plate; this triggers a detonator or igniter, which in turn sets off a booster charge.", "There may be additional firing mechanisms in anti-handling devices.===Firing mechanisms and initiating actions===A land mine can be triggered by a number of things including pressure, movement, sound, magnetism and vibration.", "Anti-personnel mines commonly use the pressure of a person's foot as a trigger, but tripwires are also frequently employed.", "Most modern anti-vehicle mines use a magnetic trigger to enable it to detonate even if the tires or tracks did not touch it.", "Advanced mines are able to sense the difference between friendly and enemy types of vehicles by way of a built-in signature catalog.", "This will theoretically enable friendly forces to use the mined area while denying the enemy access.Many mines combine the main trigger with a touch or tilt trigger to prevent enemy engineers from defusing it.", "Land mine designs tend to use as little metal as possible to make searching with a metal detector more difficult; land mines made mostly of plastic have the added advantage of being very inexpensive.Some types of modern mines are designed to self-destruct, or chemically render themselves inert after a period of weeks or months to reduce the likelihood of civilian casualties at the conflict's end.", "These self-destruct mechanisms are not absolutely reliable, and most land mines laid historically are not equipped in this manner.There is a common misperception that a landmine is armed by stepping on it and only triggered by stepping off, providing tension in movies.", "In fact the initial pressure trigger will detonate the mine, as they are designed to kill or maim, not to make someone stand very still until it can be disarmed.There are mines that are armed by stepping on them and exploding after you step off - The MS3 is a pressure-release mine or booby-trap similar in appearance to the PMN anti-personnel mine.", "It has been found in Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Ukraine.", "===Anti-handling devices===Examples of anti-handling devicesAnti-handling devices detonate the mine if someone attempts to lift, shift or disarm it.", "The intention is to hinder deminers by discouraging any attempts to clear minefields.", "There is a degree of overlap between the function of a boobytrap and an anti-handling device insofar as some mines have optional fuze pockets into which standard pull or pressure-release boobytrap firing devices can be screwed.", "Alternatively, some mines may mimic a standard design, but actually be specifically intended to kill deminers, such as the MC-3 and PMN-3 variants of the PMN mine.", "Anti-handling devices can be found on both anti-personnel mines and anti-tank mines, either as an integral part of their design or as improvised add-ons.", "For this reason, the standard render safe procedure for mines is often to destroy them on site without attempting to lift them.===Smart mines===\"Smart mines\" utilize a number of advanced technologies developed in the late 20th and early 21st century.", "Most commonly, this includes mechanisms to deactivate or self-destruct the mine after a preset period of time.", "This is intended to reduce civilian casualties and simplify demining.", "Other innovations include \"self-healing\" minefields, which detect gaps in the field and can direct the mines to rearrange their positions and eliminate it." ], [ "Anti-tank mines", "Anti-tank mines were created not long after the invention of the tank in the First World War.", "At first improvised, purpose-built designs were developed.", "Set off when a tank passes, they attack the tank at one of its weaker areas – the tracks.", "They are designed to immobilize or destroy vehicles and their occupants.", "In U.S. military terminology destroying the vehicles is referred to as a catastrophic kill while only disabling its movement is referred to as a mobility kill.Anti-tank mines are typically larger than anti-personnel mines and require more pressure to detonate.", "The high trigger pressure, normally requiring prevents them from being set off by infantry or smaller vehicles of lesser importance.", "More modern anti-tank mines use shaped charges to focus and increase the armor penetration of the explosives." ], [ "Anti-personnel mines", "Anti personnel mine in CambodiaAnti-personnel mines are designed primarily to kill or injure people, as opposed to vehicles.", "They are often designed to injure rather than kill to increase the logistical support (evacuation, medical) burden on the opposing force.", "Some types of anti-personnel mines can also damage the tracks or wheels of armored vehicles.In the asymmetric warfare conflicts and civil wars of the 21st century, improvised explosives, known as IEDs, have partially supplanted conventional land mines as the source of injury to dismounted (pedestrian) soldiers and civilians.", "IEDs are used mainly by insurgents and terrorists against regular armed forces and civilians.", "The injuries from the anti-personnel IED were recently reported in BMJ Open to be far worse than with landmines resulting in multiple limb amputations and lower body mutilation." ], [ "Warfare", "A U.S. Army Explosive Ordnance Disposal technician removing the fuze from a Russian-made mine to clear a minefield outside of Fallujah, Iraq1982; clearance inhibited by boggy terrainLand mines were designed for two main uses:* To create defensive tactical barriers, channelling attacking forces into predetermined fire zones or slowing an invading force's progress to allow reinforcements to arrive.", "* To act as passive area-denial weapons (to deny the enemy use of valuable terrain, resources or facilities when active defense of the area is not desirable or possible).Land mines are currently used in large quantities mostly for this first purpose, thus their widespread use in the demilitarized zones (DMZs) of likely flashpoints such as Cyprus, Afghanistan and Korea.", "Syria has used land mines in its civil war.", "Since 2021, land mine use has risen in Myanmar during its internal conflict.", "As of 2023, both Russia and Ukraine have deployed land mines.", "In military science, minefields are considered a defensive or harassing weapon, used to slow the enemy down, to help deny certain terrain to the enemy, to focus enemy movement into kill zones, or to reduce morale by randomly attacking material and personnel.", "In some engagements during World War II, anti-tank mines accounted for half of all vehicles disabled.Since combat engineers with mine-clearing equipment can clear a path through a minefield relatively quickly, mines are usually considered effective only if covered by fire.The extents of minefields are often marked with warning signs and cloth tape, to prevent friendly troops and non-combatants from entering them.", "Of course, sometimes terrain can be denied using dummy minefields.", "Most forces carefully record the location and disposition of their own minefields, because warning signs can be destroyed or removed, and minefields should eventually be cleared.", "Minefields may also have marked or unmarked safe routes to allow friendly movement through them.Placing minefields without marking and recording them for later removal is considered a war crime under Protocol II of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, which is itself an annex to the Geneva Conventions.Artillery and aircraft scatterable mines allow minefields to be placed in front of moving formations of enemy units, including the reinforcement of minefields or other obstacles that have been breached by enemy engineers.", "They can also be used to cover the retreat of forces disengaging from the enemy, or for interdiction of supporting units to isolate front line units from resupply.", "In most cases these minefields consist of a combination of anti-tank and anti-personnel mines, with the anti-personnel mines making removal of the anti-tank mines more difficult.", "Mines of this type used by the United States are designed to self-destruct after a preset period of time, reducing the requirement for mine clearing to only those mines whose self-destruct system did not function.", "Some designs of these scatterable mines require an electrical charge (capacitor or battery) to detonate.", "After a certain period of time, either the charge dissipates, leaving them effectively inert or the circuitry is designed such that upon reaching a low level, the device is triggered, thus destroying the mine.===Guerrilla warfare===None of the conventional tactics and norms of mine warfare applies when they are employed in a guerrilla role:* The mines are not used in defensive roles (for specific position or area).", "* Mined areas are not marked.", "* Mines are usually placed singly and not in groups covering an area.", "* Mines are often left unattended (not covered by fire).Land mines were commonly deployed by insurgents during the South African Border War, leading directly to the development of the first dedicated mine-protected armoured vehicles in South Africa.", "Namibian insurgents used anti-tank mines to throw South African military convoys into disarray before attacking them.", "To discourage detection and removal efforts, they also laid anti-personnel mines directly parallel to the anti-tank mines.", "This initially resulted in heavy South African military and police casualties, as the vast distances of road network vulnerable to insurgent sappers every day made comprehensive detection and clearance efforts impractical.", "The only other viable option was the adoption of mine-protected vehicles which could remain mobile on the roads with little risk to their passengers even if a mine was detonated.", "South Africa is widely credited with inventing the v-hull, a vee-shaped hull for armoured vehicles which deflects mine blasts away from the passenger compartment.During the ongoing Syrian Civil War, Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017) and Yemeni Civil War (2015–present) land mines have been used for both defensive and guerrilla purposes.===Laying mines===Minefield warning on the Golan Heights, still valid more than 40 years after creation of the field by the Syrian armyMinefields may be laid by several means.", "The preferred, but most labour-intensive, way is to have engineers bury the mines, since this will make the mines practically invisible and reduce the number of mines needed to deny the enemy an area.", "Mines can be laid by specialized mine-laying vehicles.", "Mine-scattering shells may be fired by artillery from a distance of several tens of kilometers.Mines may be dropped from helicopters or airplanes, or ejected from cluster bombs or cruise missiles.Anti-tank minefields can be scattered with anti-personnel mines to make clearing them manually more time-consuming; and anti-personnel minefields are scattered with anti-tank mines to prevent the use of armored vehicles to clear them quickly.", "Some anti-tank mine types are also able to be triggered by infantry, giving them a dual purpose even though their main and official intention is to work as anti-tank weapons.Some minefields are specifically booby-trapped to make clearing them more dangerous.", "Mixed anti-personnel and anti-tank minefields, anti-personnel mines ''under'' anti-tank mines, and fuses separated from mines have all been used for this purpose.", "Often, single mines are backed by a secondary device, designed to kill or maim personnel tasked with clearing the mine.Multiple anti-tank mines have been buried in stacks of two or three with the bottom mine fuzed, to multiply the penetrating power.", "Since the mines are buried, the ground directs the energy of the blast in a single direction—through the bottom of the target vehicle or on the track.Another specific use is to mine an aircraft runway immediately after it has been bombed to delay or discourage repair.", "Some cluster bombs combine these functions.", "One example was the British JP233 cluster bomb which includes munitions to damage (crater) the runway as well as anti-personnel mines in the same cluster bomb.", "As a result of the anti-personnel mine ban it was withdrawn from British Royal Air Force service, and the last stockpiles of the mine were destroyed on October 19, 1999." ], [ "Demining", "Karabakh educating children on mines and UXOBritish Royal Engineers practice mine clearanceMetal detectors were first used for demining, after their invention by the Polish officer Józef Kosacki.", "His invention, known as the Polish mine detector, was used by the Allies alongside mechanical methods, to clear the German mine fields during the Second Battle of El Alamein when 500 units were shipped to Field Marshal Montgomery's Eighth Army.The Nazis used captured civilians who were chased across minefields to detonate the explosives.", "According to Laurence Rees \"Curt von Gottberg, the SS-Obergruppenführer who, during 1943, conducted another huge anti-partisan action called Operation Kottbus on the eastern border of Belarus, reported that 'approximately two to three thousand local people were blown up in the clearing of the minefields'.", "\"Whereas the placing and arming of mines is relatively inexpensive and simple, the process of detecting and removing them is typically expensive, slow, and dangerous.", "This is especially true of irregular warfare where mines were used on an ad hoc basis in unmarked and undocumented areas.", "Anti-personnel mines are most difficult to find, due to their small size and many being made almost entirely of non-metallic materials specifically to evade metal detectors.Manual clearing remains the most effective technique for clearing mine fields, although hybrid techniques involving the use of animals and robots are being developed.", "Many animals are desirable due to having a strong sense of smell capable of detecting a land mine.", "Animals such as rats and dogs can be trained to detect the explosive agent.Other techniques involve the use of geolocation technologies.", "a joint team of researchers at the University of New South Wales and Ohio State University was working to develop a system based on multi-sensor integration.", "Furthermore, defence firms have been increasingly competing on the creation of unmanned demining systems.", "In addition to conventional remote control mine defusing robots that operate either through precise mechanical dismantling, electronic destabilization and kinetic triggering methods, fully autonomous methods are in development.", "Notably, these autonomous methods utilize unmanned ground systems, or more recently subterranean systems such as the EMC Operations Termite, using either outward pressure differentials along system bodies, or corkscrew mechanisms.The laying of land mines has inadvertently led to a positive development in the Falkland Islands.", "Minefields laid near the sea during the Falklands War have become favorite places for penguins, which do not weigh enough to detonate the mines.", "Therefore, they can breed safely, free of human intrusion.", "These odd sanctuaries have proven so popular and lucrative for ecotourism that efforts existed to prevent removal of the mines, but the area has since been demined." ], [ "International treaties", "Party states to the Ottawa Treaty (in blue)The use of land mines is controversial because they are indiscriminate weapons, harming soldier and civilian alike.", "They remain dangerous after the conflict in which they were deployed has ended, killing and injuring civilians and rendering land impassable and unusable for decades.", "To make matters worse, many factions have not kept accurate records (or any at all) of the exact locations of their minefields, making removal efforts painstakingly slow.", "These facts pose serious difficulties in many developing nations where the presence of mines hampers resettlement, agriculture, and tourism.", "The International Campaign to Ban Landmines campaigned successfully to prohibit their use, culminating in the 1997 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, known informally as the Ottawa Treaty.The Treaty came into force on March 1, 1999.The treaty was the result of the leadership of the Governments of Canada, Norway, South Africa and Mozambique working with the ''International Campaign to Ban Landmines'', launched in 1992.The campaign and its leader, Jody Williams, won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997 for its efforts.The treaty does not include anti-tank mines, cluster bombs or claymore-type mines operated in command mode and focuses specifically on anti-personnel mines, because these pose the greatest long term (post-conflict) risk to humans and animals since they are typically designed to be triggered by any movement or pressure of only a few kilograms, whereas anti-tank mines require much more weight (or a combination of factors that would exclude humans).", "Existing stocks must be destroyed within four years of signing the treaty.Signatories of the Ottawa Treaty agree that they will not use, produce, stockpile or trade in anti-personnel land mines.", "In 1997, there were 122 signatories; as of early 2016, 162 countries have joined the Treaty.", "Thirty-six countries, including the People's Republic of China, the Russian Federation and the United States, which together may hold tens of millions of stockpiled antipersonnel mines, are not party to the Convention.", "Another 34 have yet to sign on.", "The United States did not sign because the treaty lacks an exception for the Korean Demilitarized Zone.There is a clause in the treaty, Article 3, which permits countries to retain land mines for use in training or development of countermeasures.", "Sixty-four countries have taken this option.As an alternative to an outright ban, 10 countries follow regulations that are contained in a 1996 amendment of Protocol II of the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW).", "The countries are China, Finland, India, Israel, Morocco, Pakistan, South Korea and the United States.", "Sri Lanka, which had adhered to this regulation, announced in 2016 that it would join the Ottawa Treaty.Submunitions and Unexploded ordnance from cluster munitions can also function as land mines, in that they continue to kill and maim indiscriminately long after conflicts have ended.", "The Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM) is an international treaty that prohibits the use, distribution, or manufacture of cluster munitions.", "The CCM entered into force in 2010, and has been ratified by over 100 countries." ], [ "Manufacturers", "Before the Ottawa Treaty was adopted, the Arms Project of Human Rights Watch identified \"almost 100 companies and government agencies in 48 countries\" that had manufactured \"more than 340 types of antipersonnel land mines in recent decades\".", "Five to ten million mines were produced per year with a value of $50 to $200 million.", "The largest producers were probably China, Italy and the Soviet Union.", "The companies involved included giants such as Daimler-Benz, the Fiat Group, the Daewoo Group, RCA and General Electric.As of 2017, the ''Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor'' identified four countries that were \"likely to be actively producing\" land mines: India, Myanmar, Pakistan and South Korea.", "Another seven states reserved the right to make them but were probably not doing so: China, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Russia, Singapore, and Vietnam.In recent years, arms industry manufacturers have been utilizing non-static mines that can be specifically targeted in order to remove the imprecision of antipersonnel devices, promoting the use of movable underground systems, movable above ground systems and systems that can be expired (automatically or manually via strategic operators.", ")Development of systems such as Termite, by arms firm EMC Operations has led to criticism from proponents of past multilateral agreements against the placement of land mines and submunitions due to expectations of similar long-dormancy period issues after systems break or fail after it was announced that vehicles would likely be armed to destroy static targets, rather than focus purely on demining efforts." ], [ "Impacts", "Throughout the world there are millions of hectares that are contaminated with land mines.=== Casualties ===From 1999 to 2017, the ''Landmine Monitor'' has recorded over 120,000 casualties from mines, IEDs and explosive remnants of war; it estimates that another 1,000 per year go unrecorded.", "The estimate for all time is over half a million.", "In 2017, at least 2,793 were killed and 4,431 injured.", "87% of the casualties were civilians and 47% were children (less than 18 years old).", "The largest numbers of casualties were in Afghanistan (2,300), Syria (1,906), and Ukraine (429).=== Environmental ===Natural disasters can have a significant impact on efforts to demine areas of land.", "For example, the floods that occurred in Mozambique in 1999 and 2000 may have displaced hundreds of thousands of land mines left from the war.", "Uncertainty about their locations delayed recovery efforts.=== Land degradation ===From a study by Asmeret Asefaw Berhe, land degradation caused by land mines \"can be classified into five groups: access denial, loss of biodiversity, micro-relief disruption, chemical composition, and loss of productivity\".", "The effects of an explosion depend on: \"(i) the objectives and methodological approaches of the investigation; (ii) concentration of mines in a unit area; (iii) chemical composition and toxicity of the mines; (iv) previous uses of the land and (v) alternatives that are available for the affected populations\".==== Access denial ====The most prominent ecological issue associated with land mines (or fear of them) is denial of access to vital resources (where \"access\" refers to the ability to use resources, in contrast to \"property\", the right to use them).", "The presence and fear of presence of even a single land mine can discourage access for agriculture, water supplies and possibly conservation measures.", "Reconstruction and development of important structures such as schools and hospitals are likely to be delayed, and populations may shift to urban areas, increasing overcrowding and the risk of spreading diseases.Access denial can have positive effects on the environment.", "When a mined area becomes a \"no-man's land\", plants and vegetation have a chance to grow and recover.", "For example, formerly arable lands in Nicaragua returned to forests and remained undisturbed after the establishment of land mines.", "Similarly, the penguins of the Falkland Islands have benefited because they are not heavy enough to trigger the mines present.", "However, these benefits can only last as long as animals, tree limbs, etc.", "do not detonate the mines.", "In addition, long idle periods could \"potentially end up creating or exacerbating loss of productivity\", particularly within land of low quality.==== Loss of biodiversity ====Land mines can threaten biodiversity by wiping out vegetation and wildlife during explosions or demining.", "This extra burden can push threatened and endangered species to extinction.", "They have also been used by poachers to target endangered species.", "Displace people refugees hunt animals for food and destroy habitat by making shelters.Shrapnel, or abrasions of bark or roots caused by detonated mines, can cause the slow death of trees and provide entry sites for wood-rotting fungi.", "When land mines make land unavailable for farming, residents resort to the forests to meet all of their survival needs.", "This exploitation furthers the loss of biodiversity.==== Chemical contamination ====Near mines that have exploded or decayed, soils tend to be contaminated, particularly with heavy metals.", "Products produced from the explosives, both organic and inorganic substances, are most likely to be \"long lasting, water-soluble and toxic even in small amounts\".", "They can be implemented either \"directly or indirectly into soil, water bodies, microorganisms and plants with drinking water, food products or during respiration\".Toxic compounds can also find their way into bodies of water and accumulate in land animals, fish and plants.", "They can act \"as a nerve poison to hamper growth\", with deadly effect." ], [ "See also", "* Countermine System* Demolition belt* Mine Protected Vehicle* Unexploded ordnance (UXO)* Improvised explosive device*Convention on Cluster Munitions* TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook;Mines* Anti-personnel mine* ARGES mine* Blast resistant mine* Intelligent Munitions System* List of land mines* LPZ mine* Minimum metal mine* PFM-1* Smart mine* Wooden box mine* Bulgarian anti-helicopter minesBomb disposal Advanced Bomb Suit;Places* Land mines in Central America* Land mines in Cambodia* Landmines in Israel* Land mines in North Africa* Uzbek-Tajikistan border minefields;Organisations* Mines Advisory Group (MAG)* Mine clearance agencies" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ICBL: International Campaign to Ban Landmines * Landmines and international humanitarian law, ICRC* Detector Spots Buried Mines 1943, Popular Science article on the \"Polish\" mine detector.", "* \"How Axis Land Mines Work\", April 1944 detailed article on types of land mines* E-Mine Electronic Mine Information Network by United Nations Mine Action Services* Detecting Land Mines: New Technology, by Paul Grad.", "Published by ''Asian Surveying and Mapping''* Ken Rutherford, \"Landmines: A Survivor's Tale\" – Journal of Mine Action" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of libertarian political parties" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Active parties by country", "NameFoundedCountryIdeologyMembershipLa Libertad Avanza 2021 Libertarian conservatismRight-libertarianismLibertarianismRight-wing PopulismNational Conservatism Partido Libertario 2019 Libertarian conservatismMinarchism Movimiento Libertario Paleolibertarianism Frente Despertar 2018 Classical liberalismEconomic liberalism Voice Libertarian Conservative Party 2021 Libertarian conservatism Liberal Democratic Party 2001 Classical liberalism International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesInterlibertariansReason Party 2017 Civil libertarianism Parti libertarien 2012 Classical liberalismMinarchism International Alliance of Libertarian Parties (founding member)InterlibertariansLibertair, Direct, Democratisch 2007 Conservative liberalismEuroscepticismRight-wing populism European Conservatives and Reformists PartyEuropean Conservatives and ReformistsLibertarian Party 2009 Anarcho-capitalism InterlibertariansNew Party 2011 Classical liberalismRight-libertarianism League for Democracy Party 2006 Civil libertarianismSocial liberalism British Columbia Libertarian Party 1986 Libertarian conservatism Libertarian Party of Canada 1973 Classical liberalism International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesInterlibertariansPeople's Party of Canada 2018 Classical liberalismLibertarian conservatismRight-wing populism Ontario Libertarian Party 1975 Libertarian conservatism InterlibertariansFreedom Party of Ontario 1984 ''Laissez-faire''Objectivism Pauper Party of Ontario 2011 PopulismSocial credit Atlantica Party 2016 Libertarian conservatism Freedom Party InternationalManitoba First 2016 Right-libertarianism Conservative Party of Quebec 2009 Fiscal conservatismQuebec federalismQuebec nationalism Buffalo Party of Saskatchewan 2020 Right-libertarianismRight-wing populismWestern Canadian separatism Humanist Action 2020 Universal humanismLibertarian socialism Humanist Party 1984 Universal humanismLibertarian socialism Libertarian Left 1999 Left-libertarianismLibertarian socialism Partido Libertario Right-libertarianismClassical liberalism Social Convergence 2018 Autonomist MarxismLibertarian socialism Libertario Minarchism International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesPartido Movimiento Libertario 1994 Libertarian conservatism Liberal Democrats Classical liberalism InterlibertariansSvobodní 2009 Right-libertarianismClassical liberalismEuroscepticism International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesInterlibertariansUrza.cz 2021 Anarcho-capitalismRight-libertarianismLibertarian Party Classical liberalism InterlibertariansLiberal Alliance 2007 Classical liberalism European Party for Individual Liberty 2013 Classical liberalism InterlibertariansParti libéralMouvement des libertariensParti libertarien 2013 Classical liberalismMinarchism International Alliance of Libertarian Parties (founding member as Mouvement des libertariens, 2013–2016, and latest name since 2020)Pirate Party 2006 Civil libertarianismEdemocracyPirate politics Pirate Parties InternationalGirchi 2015 LibertarianismClassical liberalismPro-Europeanism Girchi - More Freedom 2021 LibertarianismClassical liberalismPro-Europeanism Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for EuropeParty of Reason 2009 Classical liberalism International Alliance of Libertarian Parties (founding member)InterlibertariansEuropean Party for Individual LibertyLiberal Alliance 2007 Classical liberalism Libertarian Party 2022 Classical liberalism Libertarian Society of Iceland 2002 Classical liberalism Liberal Democratic Party 2020 Classical liberalismEuroscepticism Swarna Bharat Party Classical liberalism Kurdistan Free Life Party 2004 Democratic confederalism Kurdistan Communities UnionKurdistan Democratic Solution Party 2002 Democratic confederalism Kurdistan Communities UnionZehut 2015 Classical liberalismMinarchismZionism Love Party 1991 Free loveLibertarianism Pannella List 1992 LiberalismLibertarianism Italian Radicals 2001 Civil libertarianismLiberalism Liberal InternationalAlliance of Liberals and Democrats for EuropeLibertarian Movement 2005 Anarcho-capitalism International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesInterlibertariansGo Tax Evaders!", "Anarcho-capitalism InterlibertariansPower to the People 2017 Democratic socialismLibertarian socialism North-East Project 2004 FederalismVenetian nationalism 2011 Classical liberalism International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesDemocratic Choice of Kazakhstan 2017 Civil libertarianism 2015 Classical liberalism Libertarische Partij 1993 Classical liberalism International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesInterlibertariansEuropean Party for Individual LibertyACT New Zealand 1994 Classical liberalism Capitalist Party 2014 Classical liberalism International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesProgress Party 1973 Conservative liberalismRight-libertarianismRight-wing populism Congress of the New Right2011 Right-libertarianismRight-wing populismNew Hope2015Libertarian conservatismPaleolibertarianismRight-wing populismHard Euroscepticism Confederation Liberty and Independence (founding member)International Alliance of Libertarian Parties (founding member)Libertarianie2020MinarchismRight-libertarianismClassical liberalismIniciativa Liberal 2017 Classical liberalismPro-EuropeanismRight-libertarianism Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe PartyLibertarian Party of Russia 2008 Anarcho-capitalismMinarchism International Alliance of Libertarian Parties (founding member)InterlibertariansFreedom and Solidarity 2009 Civil libertarianismClassical liberalism European Conservatives and Reformists PartyFree Democrats 2019 Libertarianism Libertarian Party of South Africa 2013 Classical liberalism International Alliance of Libertarian Parties (founding member)InterlibertariansCapitalist Party of South Africa 2019 Classical liberalism Libertarian Party Anarcho-capitalism Dawn of Liberty Party 2018 National conservatismRight-libertarianismRight-wing populism Partido Libertario 2009 Anarcho-capitalism International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesInterlibertariansEuropean Party for Individual LibertyUnitarian Candidacy of WorkersLibertarian socialismLiberala partiet 2004 Classical liberalism International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesLibertarian Party of Geneva Classical liberalism Libertarian Party 2014 Classical liberalism International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesI Liberisti Ticinesi Classical liberalism InterlibertariansDemocratic Union PartyDemocratic confederalismKurdistan Communities UnionSyrian National Democratic AllianceDemocratic confederalismKurdistan Workers' PartyDemocratic confederalismLibertarian socialismKurdistan Communities UnionLiberal Democratic Party 1994 Classical liberalism InterlibertariansPirate Party Turkey 2021 Pirate politics 5.10 2014 Classical liberalism InterlibertariansLibertarian Party 2007 Classical liberalismEuroscepticism International Alliance of Libertarian Parties (founding member)InterlibertariansScottish Libertarian Party 2012 Classical liberalismEuroscepticismScottish independence International Alliance of Libertarian PartiesAlaskan Independence Party1984 Alaskan nationalismLibertarian conservatismIndependent Party of Delaware2000 Fiscal conservatism''Laissez-faire''Libertarian Party 1971 LibertarianismClassical liberalismCultural liberalismNon-interventionismLibertarian socialism (faction) International Alliance of Libertarian Parties (founding member)InterlibertariansGreen Party of the United States2001 Green politicsEco-socialismLibertarian socialism Global GreensU.S.", "Marijuana Party2002 Cannabis legalizationCivil libertarianismUnited States Pirate Party 2006 Civil libertarianismDirect democracyPirate politics Pirate Parties InternationalTranshumanist Party 2014 Libertarian transhumanism Transhumanist Party GlobalNatural Law Party1992 Civil libertarianismEnvironmentalismLibertarian Liberal Party Classical liberalism Interlibertarians" ], [ "Defunct parties by country", "NameActiveCountryIdeologyMembershipLiberal Libertarian Party2009–2014Classical liberalismInterlibertariansWikiLeaks Party 2013–2015 Anti-authoritarianism Anderz 2014 Libertarian socialism Freedom Party of Manitoba 1980s–2000s Objectivism Freedom Party InternationalLiberal Alternative 2006–2011 Classical liberalism Liberal Democratic Party 2008–2019 Classical liberalism European Party for Individual LibertyLe az adók 75%-ával Párt(Down with 75% of Taxes Party) 2019-2022 Classical liberalism Right-Green People's Party 2010–2016 EuroscepticismGreen conservatismRight-libertarianism Swatantra Party 1959–1974 Classical liberalism Liberal Reformers 2005–2009 Classical liberalism Pannella List 1989–1996 Civil libertarianismRadicalism Libertarianz 1995–2014 Objectivism Liberal People's Party 1992–2017 Classical liberalism''Laissez-faire''Objectivism Libertarian Party 2015–2020 Anarcho-capitalismMinarchism Real Politics Union 1990–2011 Classical liberalismEuroscepticism Russian Libertarian Movement 2003–2006 Classical liberalism Libertarian Municipal People 1954–2011 Left-libertarianismSyndicalism Pirate Party UK 2009–2020 Civil libertarianismPirate politics Personal Choice Party 2004–2006 Classical liberalism Boston Tea Party 2006–2012 Classical liberalism Interlibertarians" ], [ "Organizations associated with Libertarian parties", "NameFoundedAssociationCountryIdeology Libertarian Platform 2008 Free Democratic PartyAnarcho-capitalismClassical liberalism Libertarian Movement 2022 Libertarian PartyAnarcho-capitalismMinarchismClassical liberalismCollege LibertariansLibertarian PartyLibertarianismLibertarians for Life1976Libertarian PartyPro-life libertarianismLPRadicals1975?/2006Libertarian PartyAnarcho-capitalismOutright Libertarians1998Libertarian Party|LGBT libertarianismRepublican Liberty Caucus1991Republican Party|Libertarian conservatism" ], [ "See also", "* Liberal parties by country* List of libertarian organizations* Lists of political parties* Outline of libertarianism" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lwa" ], [ "Introduction", "A painting of the lwa Damballa, a serpent, by Haitian artist Hector Hyppolite.", "'''''', also called '''loa''', are spirits in the African diasporic religion of Haitian Vodou.", "They have also been incorporated into some revivalist forms of Louisiana Voodoo.", "Many of the lwa derive their identities in part from deities venerated in the traditional religions of West Africa, especially those of the Fon and Yoruba.In Haitian Vodou, the lwa serve as intermediaries between humanity and Bondye, a transcendent creator divinity.", "Vodouists believe that over a thousand lwa exist, the names of at least 232 of which are recorded.", "Each lwa has its own personality and is associated with specific colors and objects.", "Many of them are equated with specific Roman Catholic saints on the basis of similar characteristics or shared symbols.", "The lwa are divided into different groups, known as ''nanchon'' (nations), the most notable of which are the Petwo and the Rada.", "According to Vodou belief, the lwa communicate with humans through dreams and divination, and in turn are given offerings, including sacrificed animals.", "Vodou teaches that during ceremonies, the lwa possess specific practitioners, who during the possession are considered the ''chwal'' (horse) of the lwa.", "Through possessing an individual, Vodouists believe, the lwa can communicate with other humans, offering advice, admonishment, or healing.", "During the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 19th centuries, enslaved West Africans brought their traditional religions with them.", "In the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which became the republic of Haiti in the early 19th century, the diasporic religion of Vodou emerged amid the mixing of different West African traditional religions and the influence of the French colonists' Roman Catholicism.", "From at least the 19th century, Haitian migrants took their religion to Louisiana, by that point part of the United States, where they contributed to the formation of Louisiana Voodoo, a religion that largely died out in the early 20th century.", "In the latter part of that century, Voodoo revivalist groups emerged in Louisiana, often incorporating both the lwa spirits of Haitian Vodou and the oricha spirits of Cuban Santería into their practices." ], [ "Etymology", "Modern linguists trace the etymology of ''lwa'' to a family of Yoruba language words which include '''' (god) and ''babalawo'' (diviner or priest).", "The alternate spelling of the word, ''loa'', means \"to bewitch\" in the Setswana language of Botswana.The term ''lwa'' is phonetically identical to both a French term for law, ''loi'', and a Haitian Creole term for law, ''lwa''.", "The early 20th-century writer Jean Price-Mars pondered if the term ''lwa'', used in reference to Vodou spirits, emerged from their popular identification with the laws of the Roman Catholic Church.", "In the early 21st century, the historian Kate Ramsey agreed that the phonetic similarity between the terms for the law and the Vodou spirits may not be \"mere linguistic coincidence\" but could reflect the complex interactions of African and French colonial cultures in Haiti.Several spelling for ''lwa'' have been used.", "Early 20th-century writers on Haitian religion, such as Price-Mars, usually spelled the term ''loi''.", "During that century, writers like the American anthropologist Melville Herskovits favored the spelling ''loa'', although in 2008 the historian Jeffrey E. Anderson wrote that the spelling ''loa'' was typically found in older works on the topic, having fallen out of favor with scholarly writers.", "The spelling ''lwa'' has been favored by more recent scholarly writers including Anderson, Ramsey, the anthropologist Karen McCarthy Brown, the scholar of religious studies Leslie Desmangles, and the Hispanic studies scholars Margarite Fernández Olmos and Lizabeth Paravisini-Gebert." ], [ "Theology", "Vodou teaches that there are over a thousand lwa.", "They are regarded as the intermediaries of Bondyé, the supreme creator deity in Vodou.", "Desmangles argued that by learning about the various lwas, practitioners come to understand the different facets of Bondyé.", "Much as Vodouists often identify Bondyé with the Christian God, the lwa are sometimes equated with the angels of Christian cosmology.", "The lwa are also known as the ''mystères'', ''anges'', ''saints'', and ''les invisibles''.The lwa can offer help, protection, and counsel to humans, in return for ritual service.", "They are thought of as having wisdom that is useful for humans, although they are not seen as moral exemplars which practitioners should imitate.", "Each lwa has its own personality, and is associated with specific colors, days of the week, and objects.", "The lwa can be either loyal or capricious in their dealings with their devotees; Vodouists believe that the lwa are easily offended, for instance if offered food that they dislike.", "When angered, the lwa are believed to remove their protection from their devotees, or to inflict misfortune, illness, or madness on an individual.The ''veve'' of the lwa Baron SamediAlthough there are exceptions, most lwa names derive from the Fon and Yoruba languages.", "New lwa are nevertheless added to those brought from Africa; practitioners believe that some Vodou priests and priestesses became lwa after death, or that certain talismans become lwa.", "Vodouists often refer to the lwa residing in \"Guinea\", but this is not intended as a precise geographical location.", "Many lwa are also understood to live under the water, at the bottom of the sea or in rivers.", "Vodouists believe that the lwa communicate with humans through dreams and through the possession of human beings.During rituals, the lwa are summoned through designs known as ''veve''.", "These are sketched out on the floor of the ceremonial space using cornmeal, ash, coffee grounds, or powdered eggshells.The lwa are associated with specific Roman Catholic saints.", "For instance, Azaka, the lwa of agriculture, is associated with Saint Isidore the farmer.", "Similarly, because he is understood as the \"key\" to the spirit world, Papa Legba is typically associated with Saint Peter, who is visually depicted holding keys in traditional Roman Catholic imagery.", "The lwa of love and luxury, Ezili Freda, is associated with Mater Dolorosa.", "Damballa, who is a serpent, is often equated with Saint Patrick, who is traditionally depicted in a scene with snakes; alternatively he is often associated with Moses.", "The Marasa, or sacred twins, are typically equated with the twin saints Cosmos and Damian." ], [ "Nanchon", "A cross in the cemetery at Port-au-Prince, Haiti; this symbolizes the lwa Baron Samedi.In Haitian Vodou, the lwa are divided into ''nanchon'' or \"nations\".", "This classificatory system derives from the way in which enslaved West Africans were divided into \"nations\" upon their arrival in Haiti, usually based on their African port of departure rather than their ethno-cultural identity.", "The nanchons are nevertheless not groupings based in the geographical origins of specific lwas.", "The term ''fanmi'' (family) is sometimes used synonymously with \"nation\" or alternatively as a sub-division of the latter category.", "It is often claimed that there are 17 nanchon, although few Haitians could name all of them.", "Each is deemed to have its own characteristic ethos.Among the more commonly known nanchon are the Wangol, Ginen, Kongo, Nago (or Anago), Ibo, Rada, and Petwo.", "Of these, the Rada and the Petwo are the largest and most dominant.", "The Rada derive their name from Arada, a city in the Dahomey kingdom of West Africa.", "The Rada lwa are usually regarded as ''dous'' or ''doux'', meaning that they are sweet-tempered.", "The Petwo lwa are conversely seen as ''lwa chaud'' (''lwa cho''), indicating that they can be forceful or violent and are associated with fire; they are generally regarded as being socially transgressive and subversive.", "The Rada lwa are seen as being 'cool'; the Petwo lwa as 'hot'.The Rada lwa are generally regarded as righteous, whereas their Petwo counterparts are thought of as being more morally ambiguous, associated with issues like money.", "At the same time, the Rada lwa are regarded as being less effective or powerful than those of the Petwo nation.", "The Petwo lwa derive from various backgrounds, including Creole, Kongo, and Dahomeyan.", "In various cases, certain lwa can be absorbed from one nanchon into another; various Kongo and Ibo lwa have been incorporated into the Petwo nanchon.", "Many lwa exist ''andezo'' or ''en deux eaux'', meaning that they are \"in two waters\" and are served in both Rada and Petwo rituals.", "Various lwas are understood to have direct counterparts in different nanchon; several Rada lwas for instance have Petwo counterparts whose names bear epithets like ''Flangbo'' (afire), ''Je-Rouge'' (Red-Eye), or ''Zarenyen'' (spider).", "One example is the Rada lwa Ezili, who is associated with love, but who has a Petwo parallel known as Ezili Je-Rouge, who is regarded as dangerous and prone to causing harm.", "Another is the Rada lwa Legba, who directs human destiny, and who is paralleled in the Petwo pantheon by Kafou Legba, a trickster who causes accidents that alter a person's destiny.The Gede (also ''Ghede'' or ''Guede'') family of lwa are associated with the realm of the dead.", "The head of the family is Baron Samedi (\"Baron Saturday\").", "His consort is Grand Brigitte; she has authority over cemeteries and is regarded as the mother of many of the other Gede.", "When the Gede are believed to have arrived at a Vodou ceremony they are usually greeted with joy because they bring merriment.", "Those possessed by the Gede at these ceremonies are known for making sexual innuendos; the Gede's symbol is an erect penis, while the ''banda'' dance associated with them involves sexual-style thrusting." ], [ "Ritual", "===Offerings and animal sacrifice===A large sequined Vodou \"drapo\" or flag by the artist George Valris, depicting the veve of the lwa Loko Atison.Feeding the lwa is of great importance in Vodou, with rites often termed ''mangers-lwa'' (\"feeding the lwa\").", "Offering food and drink to the lwa is the most common ritual within the religion, conducted both communally and in the home.", "An ''oungan'' (priest) or ''manbo'' (priestess) will also organize an annual feast for their congregation in which animal sacrifices to various lwa will be made.", "The choice of food and drink offered varies depending on the lwa in question, with different lwa believed to favour different foodstuffs.", "Damballa for instance requires white foods, especially eggs.", "Foods offered to Legba, whether meat, tubers, or vegetables, need to be grilled on a fire.", "The lwa of the Ogu and Nago nations prefer raw rum or clairin as an offering.A ''mange sèc'' (dry meal) is an offering of grains, fruit, and vegetables that often precedes a simple ceremony; it takes its name from the absence of blood.", "Species used for sacrifice include chickens, goats, and bulls, with pigs often favored for petwo lwa.", "The animal may be washed, dressed in the color of the specific lwa, and marked with food or water.", "Often, the animal's throat will be cut and the blood collected in a calabash.", "Chickens are often killed by the pulling off of their heads; their limbs may be broken beforehand.", "The organs are removed and placed on the altar or vèvè.", "The flesh will be cooked and placed on the altar, subsequently often being buried.Maya Deren wrote that: \"The intent and emphasis of sacrifice is not upon the death of the animal, it is upon the transfusion of its life to the lwa; for the understanding is that flesh and blood are of the essence of life and vigor, and these will restore the divine energy of the god.\"", "Because Agwé is believed to reside in the sea, rituals devoted to him often take place beside a large body of water such as a lake, river, or sea.", "His devotees sometimes sail out to Trois Ilets, drumming and singing, where they throw a white sheep overboard as a sacrifice to him.The food is typically offered when it is cool; it remains there for a while before humans can then eat it.", "The food is often placed within a ''kwi'', a calabash shell bowl.", "Once selected, the food is placed on special calabashes known as ''assiettes de Guinée'' which are located on the altar.", "Offerings not consumed by the celebrants are then often buried or left at a crossroads.", "Libations might be poured into the ground.", "Vodouists believe that the lwa then consume the essence of the food.", "Certain foods are also offered in the belief that they are intrinsically virtuous, such as grilled maize, peanuts, and cassava.", "These are sometimes sprinkled over animals that are about to be sacrificed or piled upon the ''vèvè'' designs on the floor of the ''peristil''.===Possession===A drummer in a Vodou ceremony in Brooklyn, New York City during the early 1980sPossession by the lwa constitutes an important element of Vodou.", "It lies the heart of many of its rituals; these typically take place in a temple called an ''ounfò'', specifically in a room termed the ''peristil'' or ''peristyle''.", "The person being possessed is referred to as the ''chwal'' or ''chual'' (horse); the act of possession is called \"mounting a horse\".", "Vodou teaches that a lwa can possess an individual regardless of gender; both male and female lwa can possess either men or women.", "Although children are often present at these ceremonies, they are rarely possessed as it is considered too dangerous.", "While the specific drums and songs used are designed to encourage a specific lwa to possess someone, sometimes an unexpected lwa appears and takes possession instead.", "In some instances a succession of lwa possess the same individual, one after the other.The trance of possession is known as the ''crise de lwa''.", "Vodouists believe that during this process, the lwa enters the head of the chwal and displaces their ''gwo bon anj'', which is one of the two halves of a person's soul.", "This displacement is believed to cause the chwal to tremble and convulse; Maya Deren described a look of \"anguish, ordeal and blind terror\" on the faces of those as they became possessed.", "Because their consciousness has been removed from their head during the possession, Vodouists believe that the chwal will have no memory of what occurs during the incident.", "The length of the possession varies, often lasting a few hours but sometimes several days.", "It may end with the chwal collapsing in a semi-conscious state; they are typically left physically exhausted.", "Some individuals attending the dance will put a certain item, often wax, in their hair or headgear to prevent possession.Once the lwa possesses an individual, the congregation greet it with a burst of song and dance.", "The chwal will typically bow before the officiating priest or priestess and prostrate before the ''poto mitan'', a central pillar within the temple.", "The chwal is often escorted into an adjacent room where they are dressed in clothing associated with the possessing lwa.", "Alternatively, the clothes are brought out and they are dressed in the peristil itself.", "Once the chwal has been dressed, congregants kiss the floor before them.", "These costumes and props help the chwal take on the appearance of the lwa.", "Many ounfo have a large wooden phallus on hand which is used by those possessed by Ghede lwa during their dances.A Vodou ceremony taking place in an ounfò in Jacmel, HaitiThe chwal takes on the behaviour and expressions of the possessing lwa; their performance can be very theatrical.", "Those believing themselves possessed by the serpent Damballa, for instance, often slither on the floor, dart out their tongue, and climb the posts of the peristil.", "Those possessed by Zaka, lwa of agriculture, will dress as a peasant in a straw hat with a clay pipe and will often speak in a rustic accent.", "The chwal will often then join in with the dances, dancing with anyone whom they wish to, or sometimes eating and drinking.", "Sometimes the lwa, through the chwal, will engage in financial transactions with members of the congregation, for instance by selling them food that has been given as an offering or lending them money.Possession facilitates direct communication between the lwa and its followers; through the chwal, the lwa communicates with their devotees, offering counsel, chastisement, blessings, warnings about the future, and healing.", "Lwa possession has a healing function, with the possessed individual expected to reveal possible cures to the ailments of those assembled.", "Clothing that the chwal touches is regarded as bringing luck.", "The lwa may also offer advice to the individual they are possessing; because the latter is not believed to retain any memory of the events, it is expected that other members of the congregation will pass along the lwa's message.", "In some instances, practitioners have reported being possessed at other times of ordinary life, such as when someone is in the middle of the market, or when they are asleep." ], [ "History", "During the closing decades of the 20th century, attempts were made to revive Louisiana Voodoo, often by individuals drawing heavily on Haitian Vodou and Cuban Santería in doing so.", "Among those drawing on both Vodou lwa and Santería oricha to create a new Voodoo was the African American Miriam Chamani, who established the Voodoo Spiritual Temple in the French Quarter of New Orleans in 1990.Another initiate of Haitian Vodou, the Ukrainian-Jewish American Sallie Ann Glassman, launched an alternative group, La Source Ancienne, in the city's Bywater neighborhood.", "A further Haitian Vodou initiate, the Louisiana Creole Ava Kay Jones, also began promoting a form of Louisiana Voodoo." ], [ "List", "Vodouisants will sometimes comment that there are over a thousand lwas, most of whom are not known to humans.", "Of these, the names of at least 232 have been recorded.", "The large number of lwas found in Vodou contrasts with the Cuban religion of Santería, where only 15 orichas (spirits) have gained prominence among its followers.", "* Adjassou-Linguetor* Adjinakou* Adya Houn'tò* Agaou* Agassou* Agwé* Anaisa Pye* Anmino* Ayida-Weddo* Ayizan* Azaka-Tonnerre* Bacalou* Badessy* Baron Samedi* Baron Criminel* Belie Belcan* Bossou Ashadeh* Boum'ba Maza* Brize* Bugid Y Aiba* Captain Debas* Captain Zombi* Clermeil* Congo* Damballa* Dan Petro* Dan Wédo* Demeplait* Dereyale* Diable Tonnere* Diejuste* Dinclinsin* Erzulie* Filomez* Gede* Gede Doub* Gede L'Orage* Gede-Linto* Gede Nibo* Grand Bois* Jean Zombi* Joseph Danger* Joumalonge* Kalfu (''Maître Carrefour'', ''Mait' Carrefour'', ''Mèt Kalfou'', ''Kafou'')* Klemezin Klemay* Lemba* L'inglesou* La Sirène* Limba* Loco* Lovana* Mademoiselle Charlotte* Maîtresse Délai* Maîtresse Hounon'gon* Maman Brigitte* Marassa* Marinette* Maroule* Mombu* Manze Marie* Mounanchou* Nago Shango* Nanan-bouclou* Ogoun* Papa Legba* Pie* Silibo* Simbi* Sobo* Sousson-Pannan* Senegal* Ti Kita* Ti Jean Quinto* Ti Malice* Ti Jean Petro* Trois Carrefours (''Kalfou Twa'')* Wawe" ], [ "In culture", "* Governor General Michaëlle Jean of Canada, who was born in Haiti, bears two loa serpents as supporters on her coat of arms." ], [ "See also", "* Haitian mythology* Kami* Tuatha Dé Danann" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===** * * * *** ** ** * ** *" ], [ "Further reading", "===Primary sources===*" ], [ "External links", "* Descriptions of Various Loa of Voodoo, Spring 1990, by Jan Chatland (Webster.edu)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Labour economics" ], [ "Introduction", "A \"help wanted\" sign seeks available workers for jobs.", "'''Labour economics''', or '''labor economics''', seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labour.", "Labour is a commodity that is supplied by labourers, usually in exchange for a wage paid by demanding firms.", "Because these labourers exist as parts of a social, institutional, or political system, labour economics must also account for social, cultural and political variables.", "'''Labour markets''' or '''job markets''' function through the interaction of workers and employers.", "Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers) and the demanders of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income.", "These patterns exist because each individual in the market is presumed to make rational choices based on the information that they know regarding wage, desire to provide labour, and desire for leisure.", "Labour markets are normally geographically bounded, but the rise of the internet has brought about a 'planetary labour market' in some sectors.Labour is a measure of the work done by human beings.", "It is conventionally contrasted with other factors of production, such as land and capital.", "Some theories focus on human capital, or entrepreneurship, (which refers to the skills that workers possess and not necessarily the actual work that they produce).", "Labour is unique to study because it is a special type of good that cannot be separated from the owner (i.e.", "the work cannot be separated from the person who does it).", "A labour market is also different from other markets in that workers are the suppliers and firms are the demanders." ], [ "Macro and micro analysis of labour markets", "There are two sides to labour economics.", "Labour economics can generally be seen as the application of microeconomic or macroeconomic techniques to the labour market.", "Microeconomic techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the labour market.", "Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the labour market, the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market.", "It looks at how these interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income and gross domestic product." ], [ "Macroeconomics of labour markets", "Job advertisement board in ShenzhenThe '''labour market in macroeconomic theory''' shows that the supply of labour exceeds demand, which has been proven by salary growth that lags productivity growth.", "When labour supply exceeds demand, salary faces downward pressure due to an employer's ability to pick from a labour pool that exceeds the jobs pool.", "However, if the demand for labour is larger than the supply, salary increases, as employee have more bargaining power while employers have to compete for scarce labour.The Labour force (LF) is defined as the number of people of working age, who are either employed or actively looking for work (unemployed).", "The '''labour force participation rate''' ('''LFPR''') is the number of people in the labour force divided by the size of the adult civilian noninstitutional population (or by the population of working age that is not institutionalized), LFPR = LF/Population.The '''non-labour force''' includes those who are not looking for work, those who are institutionalized (such as in prisons or psychiatric wards), stay-at-home spouses, children not of working age, and those serving in the military.", "The '''unemployment level''' is defined as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed.", "The '''unemployment rate''' is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force.", "The '''employment rate''' is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the adult population (or by the population of working age).", "In these statistics, self-employed people are counted as employed.The labour market has the ability to create a higher derivative efficiency of labour, especially on a national and international level, compared to simpler forms of labour distribution, leading to a higher financial GDP growth and output.", "An efficient labor market is important for the private sector as it drives up derivative income through the reduction of relative costs of labour.", "This presupposes that division of labour is used as a method to attain cost efficiency.Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and unfilled vacancies are called '''stock variables''' because they measure a quantity at a point in time.", "They can be contrasted with '''flow variables''' which measure a quantity over a duration of time.", "Changes in the labour force are due to flow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants, and retirements.", "Changes in unemployment depend on inflows (non-employed people starting to look for jobs and employed people who lose their jobs that are looking for new ones) and outflows (people who find new employment and people who stop looking for employment).", "When looking at the overall macroeconomy, several types of unemployment have been identified, which can be separated into two categories of natural and unnatural unemployment.", "''Natural Unemployment''* '''Frictional unemployment''' – This reflects the fact that it takes time for people to find and settle into new jobs that they feel are appropriate for them and their skill set.", "Technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment; for example, internet search engines have reduced the cost and time associated with locating employment or personnel selection.", "* '''Structural unemployment''' – The number of jobs available in an industry are not sufficient enough to provide jobs to all persons who are interested in working or qualified to work in that industry.", "This can be due to the changes in industries prevalent in a country or because wages for the industry are too high, causing people to want to supply their labour to that industry.", "* '''Natural rate of unemployment''' (also known as '''full employment''') – This is the summation of frictional and structural unemployment, that excludes cyclical contributions of unemployment (e.g.", "recessions) and seasonal unemployment.", "It is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can expect to achieve, given that some frictional and structural unemployment is inevitable.", "Economists do not agree on the level of the natural rate, with estimates ranging from 1% to 5%, or on its meaning – some associate it with \"non-accelerating inflation\".", "The estimated rate varies between countries and across time.", "''Unnatural Unemployment''* '''Demand deficient unemployment''' (also known as '''cyclical unemployment''') – In Keynesian economics, any level of unemployment beyond the natural rate is probably due to insufficient goods demand in the overall economy.", "During a recession, aggregate expenditure is deficient causing the underutilisation of inputs (including labour).", "Aggregate expenditure (AE) can be increased, according to Keynes, by increasing consumption spending (C), increasing investment spending (I), increasing government spending (G), or increasing the net of exports minus imports (X−M), since AE = C + I + G + (X−M).", "* '''Seasonal unemployment''' – Unemployment due to seasonal fluctuations of demand for workers across industries, such as in the retail industry after holidays that involve a lot of shopping are over." ], [ "Neoclassical microeconomics", "Neoclassical economists view the labour market as similar to other markets in that the forces of supply and demand jointly determine the price (in this case the wage rate) and quantity (in this case the number of people employed).However, the labour market differs from other markets (like the markets for goods or the financial market) in several ways.", "In particular, the labour market may act as a non-clearing market.", "While according to neoclassical theory most markets quickly attain a point of equilibrium without excess supply or demand, this may not be true of the labour market: it may have a persistent level of unemployment.", "Contrasting the labour market to other markets also reveals persistent compensating differentials among similar workers.Models that assume perfect competition in the labour market, as discussed below, conclude that workers earn their marginal product of labour.===Neoclassical supply===The neoclassical model analyzes the trade-off between leisure hours and working hours.Railroad workHouseholds are suppliers of labour.", "In microeconomic theory, people are assumed to be rational and seeking to maximize their utility function.", "In the labour market model, their utility function expresses trade-offs in preference between leisure time and income from time used for labour.", "However, they are constrained by the hours available to them.Let ''w'' denote the hourly wage, ''k'' denote total hours available for labour and leisure, ''L'' denote the chosen number of working hours, π denote income from non-labour sources, and ''A'' denote leisure hours chosen.", "The individual's problem is to maximise utility ''U'', which depends on total income available for spending on consumption and also depends on the time spent in leisure, subject to a time constraint, with respect to the choices of labour time and leisure time::This is shown in the graph below, which illustrates the trade-off between allocating time to leisure activities and allocating it to income-generating activities.", "The linear constraint indicates that every additional hour of leisure undertaken requires the loss of an hour of labour and thus of the fixed amount of goods that that labour's income could purchase.", "Individuals must choose how much time to allocate to leisure activities and how much to working.", "This allocation decision is informed by the indifference curve labelled IC1.The curve indicates the combinations of leisure and work that will give the individual a specific level of utility.", "The point where the highest indifference curve is just tangent to the constraint line (point A), illustrates the optimum for this supplier of labour services.If consumption is measured by the value of income obtained, this diagram can be used to show a variety of interesting effects.", "This is because the absolute value of the slope of the budget constraint is the wage rate.", "The point of optimisation (point A) reflects the equivalency between the wage rate and the marginal rate of substitution of leisure for income (the absolute value of the slope of the indifference curve).", "Because the marginal rate of substitution of leisure for income is also the ratio of the marginal utility of leisure (MUL) to the marginal utility of income (MUY), one can conclude::where ''Y'' is total income and the right side is the wage rate.Effects of a wage increase''Effects of a wage increase''If the wage rate increases, this individual's constraint line pivots up from X,Y1 to X,Y2.He/she can now purchase more goods and services.", "His/her utility will increase from point A on IC1 to point B on IC2.To understand what effect this might have on the decision of how many hours to work, one must look at the income effect and substitution effect.The wage increase shown in the previous diagram can be decomposed into two separate effects.", "The pure income effect is shown as the movement from point A to point C in the next diagram.", "Consumption increases from YA to YC and – since the diagram assumes that leisure is a normal good – leisure time increases from XA to XC.", "(Employment time decreases by the same amount as leisure increases.", ")The Income and Substitution effects of a wage increase''The Income and Substitution effects of a wage increase''But that is only part of the picture.", "As the wage rate rises, the worker will substitute away from leisure and into the provision of labour—that is, will work more hours to take advantage of the higher wage rate, or in other words substitute away from leisure because of its higher opportunity cost.", "This substitution effect is represented by the shift from point C to point B.", "The net impact of these two effects is shown by the shift from point A to point B.", "The relative magnitude of the two effects depends on the circumstances.", "In some cases, such as the one shown, the substitution effect is greater than the income effect (in which case more time will be allocated to working), but in other cases, the income effect will be greater than the substitution effect (in which case less time is allocated to working).", "The intuition behind this latter case is that the individual decides that the higher earnings on the previous amount of labour can be \"spent\" by purchasing more leisure.The Labour Supply curve''The Labour Supply curve''If the substitution effect is greater than the income effect, an individual's supply of labour services will increase as the wage rate rises, which is represented by a positive slope in the '''labour supply curve''' (as at point E in the adjacent diagram, which exhibits a positive wage elasticity).", "This positive relationship is increasing until point F, beyond which the income effect dominates the substitution effect and the individual starts to reduce the number of labour hours he supplies (point G) as wage increases; in other words, the wage elasticity is now negative.The direction of the slope may change more than once for some individuals, and the labour supply curve is different for different individuals.Other variables that affect the labour supply decision, and can be readily incorporated into the model, include taxation, welfare, work environment, and income as a signal of ability or social contribution.===Neoclassical demand===A firm's labour demand is based on its marginal physical product of labour (MPPL).", "This is defined as the additional output (or physical product) that results from an increase of one unit of labour (or from an infinitesimal increase in labour).", "(See also Production theory basics.", ")Labour demand is a derived demand; that is, hiring labour is not desired for its own sake but rather because it aids in producing output, which contributes to an employer's revenue and hence profits.", "The demand for an additional amount of labour depends on the Marginal Revenue Product (MRP) and the marginal cost (MC) of the worker.", "With a perfectly competitive goods market, the MRP is calculated by multiplying the price of the end product or service by the Marginal Physical Product of the worker.", "If the MRP is greater than a firm's Marginal Cost, then the firm will employ the worker since doing so will increase profit.", "The firm only employs however up to the point where MRP=MC, and not beyond, in neoclassical economic theory.The MRP of the worker is affected by other inputs to production with which the worker can work (e.g.", "machinery), often aggregated under the term \"capital\".", "It is typical in economic models for greater availability of capital for a firm to increase the MRP of the worker, all else equal.", "Education and training are counted as \"human capital\".", "Since the amount of physical capital affects MRP, and since financial capital flows can affect the amount of physical capital available, MRP and thus wages can be affected by financial capital flows within and between countries, and the degree of capital mobility within and between countries.According to neoclassical theory, over the relevant range of outputs, the marginal physical product of labour is declining (law of diminishing returns).", "That is, as more and more units of labour are employed, their additional output begins to decline.Additionally, although the MRP is a good way of expressing an employer's demand, other factors such as social group formation can the demand, as well as the labour supply.", "This constantly restructures exactly what a labour market is, and leads way to cause problems for theories of inflation.===Equilibrium===alt=A firm's labour demand in the short run (D) and a horizontal supply curve (S)''A firm's labour demand in the short run (D) and a horizontal supply curve (S)''The marginal revenue product of labour can be used as the demand for labour curve for this firm in the short run.", "In competitive markets, a firm faces a perfectly elastic supply of labour which corresponds with the wage rate and the marginal resource cost of labour (W = SL = MFCL).", "In imperfect markets, the diagram would have to be adjusted because MFCL would then be equal to the wage rate divided by marginal costs.", "Because optimum resource allocation requires that marginal factor costs equal marginal revenue product, this firm would demand L units of labour as shown in the diagram.The demand for labour of this firm can be summed with the demand for labour of all other firms in the economy to obtain the aggregate demand for labour.", "Likewise, the supply curves of all the individual workers (mentioned above) can be summed to obtain the aggregate supply of labour.", "These supply and demand curves can be analysed in the same way as any other industry demand and supply curves to determine equilibrium wage and employment levels.Wage differences exist, particularly in mixed and fully/partly flexible labour markets.", "For example, the wages of a doctor and a port cleaner, both employed by the NHS, differ greatly.", "There are various factors concerning this phenomenon.", "This includes the MRP of the worker.", "A doctor's MRP is far greater than that of the port cleaner.", "In addition, the barriers to becoming a doctor are far greater than that of becoming a port cleaner.", "To become a doctor takes a lot of education and training which is costly, and only those who excel in academia can succeed in becoming doctors.", "The port cleaner, however, requires relatively less training.", "The supply of doctors is therefore significantly less elastic than that of port cleaners.", "Demand is also inelastic as there is a high demand for doctors and medical care is a necessity, so the NHS will pay higher wage rates to attract the profession." ], [ "Monopsony", "Some labour markets have a single employer and thus do not satisfy the perfect competition assumption of the neoclassical model above.", "The model of a monopsonistic labour market gives a lower quantity of employment and a lower equilibrium wage rate than does the competitive model." ], [ "Asymmetric information", "An advertisement for labour from Sabah and Sarawak, seen in Jalan Petaling, Kuala LumpurIn many real-life situations, the assumption of perfect information is unrealistic.", "An employer does not necessarily know how hard workers are working or how productive they are.", "This provides an incentive for workers to shirk from providing their full effort, called moral hazard.", "Since it is difficult for the employer to identify the hard-working and the shirking employees, there is no incentive to work hard and productivity falls overall, leading to the hiring of more workers and a lower unemployment rate.One solution that is used to avoid a moral hazard is stock options that grant employees the chance to benefit directly from a firm's success.", "However, this solution has attracted criticism as executives with large stock-option packages have been suspected of acting to over-inflate share values to the detriment of the long-run welfare of the firm.", "Another solution, foreshadowed by the rise of temporary workers in Japan and the firing of many of these workers in response to the financial crisis of 2008, is more flexible job- contracts and -terms that encourage employees to work less than full-time by partially compensating for the loss of hours, relying on workers to adapt their working time in response to job requirements and economic conditions instead of the employer trying to determine how much work is needed to complete a given task and overestimating.Another aspect of uncertainty results from the firm's imperfect knowledge about worker ability.", "If a firm is unsure about a worker's ability, it pays a wage assuming that the worker's ability is the average of similar workers.", "This wage under compensates high-ability workers which may drive them away from the labour market as well as at the same time attracting low-ability workers.", "Such a phenomenon, called adverse selection, can sometimes lead to market collapse.One way to combat adverse selection, firms will try to use signalling, pioneered by Michael Spence, whereby employers could use various characteristics of applicants differentiate between high-ability or low-ability workers.", "One common signal used is education, whereby employers assume that high-ability workers will have higher levels of education.", "Employers can then compensate high-ability workers with higher wages.", "However, signalling does not always work, and it may appear to an external observer that education has raised the marginal product of labour, without this necessarily being true.=== Search models ===One of the major research achievements of the 1990–2010 period was the development of a framework with dynamic search, matching, and bargaining." ], [ "Personnel economics: hiring and incentives", "At the micro level, one sub-discipline eliciting increased attention in recent decades is analysis of internal labour markets, that is, ''within'' firms (or other organisations), studied in personnel economics from the perspective of personnel management.", "By contrast, external labour markets \"imply that workers move somewhat fluidly between firms and wages are determined by some aggregate process where firms do not have significant discretion over wage setting.\"", "The focus is on \"how firms establish, maintain, and end employment relationships and on how firms provide incentives to employees,\" including models and empirical work on incentive systems and as constrained by economic efficiency and risk/incentive tradeoffs relating to personnel compensation.=== Discrimination and inequality ===Inequality and discrimination in the workplace can have many effects on workers.In the context of labour economics, inequality is usually referring to the unequal distribution of earning between households.", "Inequality is commonly measured by economists using the Gini coefficient.", "This coefficient does not have a concrete meaning but is more used as a way to compare inequality across regions.", "The higher the Gini coefficient is calculated to be the larger inequality exists in a region.", "Over time, inequality has, on average, been increasing.", "This is due to numerous factors including labour supply and demand shifts as well as institutional changes in the labour market.", "On the shifts in labour supply and demand, factors include demand for skilled workers going up more than the supply of skilled workers and relative to unskilled workers as well as technological changes that increase productivity; all of these things cause wages to go up for skilled labour while unskilled worker wages stay the same or decline.", "As for the institutional changes, a decrease in union power and a declining real minimum wage, which both reduce unskilled workers wages, and tax cuts for the wealthy all increase the inequality gap between groups of earners.As for discrimination, it is the difference in pay that can be attributed to the demographic differences between people, such as gender, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, etc, even though these factors do not affect the productivity of the worker.", "Many regions and countries have enacted government policies to combat discrimination, including discrimination in the workplace.", "Discrimination can be modelled and measured in numerous ways.", "The Oaxaca decomposition is a common method used to calculate the amount of discrimination that exists when wages differ between groups of people.", "This decomposition aims to calculate the difference in wages that occurs because of differences in skills versus the returns to those skills.", "A way of modelling discrimination in the workplace when dealing with wages are Gary Becker's taste models.", "Using taste models, employer discrimination can be thought of as the employer not hiring the minority worker because of their perceived cost of hiring that worker is higher than that of the cost of hiring a non-minority worker, which causes less hiring of the minority.", "Another taste model is for employee discrimination, which does not cause a decline in the hiring of minorities, but instead causes a more segregated workforce because the prejudiced worker feels that they should be paid more to work next to the worker they are prejudiced against or that they are not paid an equal amount as the worker they are prejudiced against.", "One more taste model involves customer discrimination, whereby the employers themselves are not prejudiced but believe that their customers might be, so therefore the employer is less likely to hire the minority worker if they are going to interact with customers that are prejudiced.", "There are many other taste models other than these that Gary Becker has made to explain discrimination that causes differences in hiring in wages in the labour market." ], [ "Criticisms", "Many sociologists, political economists, and heterodox economists claim that labour economics tends to lose sight of the complexity of individual employment decisions.", "These decisions, particularly on the supply side, are often loaded with considerable emotional baggage and a purely numerical analysis can miss important dimensions of the process, such as social benefits of a high income or wage rate regardless of the marginal utility from increased consumption or specific economic goals.From the perspective of mainstream economics, neoclassical models are not meant to serve as a full description of the psychological and subjective factors that go into a given individual's employment relations, but as a useful approximation of human behaviour in the aggregate, which can be fleshed out further by the use of concepts such as information asymmetry, transaction costs, contract theory etc.Also missing from most labour market analyses is the role of unpaid labour such as unpaid internships where workers with little or no experience are allowed to work a job without pay so that they can gain experience in a particular profession.", "Even though this type of labour is unpaid it can nevertheless play an important part in society if not abused by employers.", "The most dramatic example is child raising.", "However, over the past 25 years an increasing literature, usually designated as the economics of the family, has sought to study within household decision making, including joint labour supply, fertility, child-raising, as well as other areas of what is generally referred to as home production.===Wage slavery===The labour market, as institutionalised under today's market economic systems, has been criticised, especially by both mainstream socialists and anarcho-syndicalists, who utilise the term wage slavery as a pejorative for wage labour.", "Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labour as a commodity and slavery.", "Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels.According to Noam Chomsky, analysis of the psychological implications of wage slavery goes back to the Enlightenment era.", "In his 1791 book ''On the Limits of State Action'', classical liberal thinker Wilhelm von Humboldt explained how \"whatever does not spring from a man's free choice, or is only the result of instruction and guidance, does not enter into his very nature; he does not perform it with truly human energies, but merely with mechanical exactness\" and so when the labourer works under external control, \"we may admire what he does, but we despise what he is.\"", "Both the Milgram and Stanford experiments have been found useful in the psychological study of wage-based workplace relations.The American philosopher John Dewey posited that until \"industrial feudalism\" is replaced by \"industrial democracy\", politics will be \"the shadow cast on society by big business\".", "Thomas Ferguson has postulated in his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state.As per anthropologist David Graeber, the earliest wage labour contracts we know about were in fact contracts for the rental of chattel slaves (usually the owner would receive a share of the money, and the slave, another, with which to maintain his or her living expenses.)", "Such arrangements, according to Graeber, were quite common in New World slavery as well, whether in the United States or Brazil.", "C. L. R. James argued that most of the techniques of human organisation employed on factory workers during the industrial revolution were first developed on slave plantations.Additionally, Marxists posit that labour-as-commodity, which is how they regard wage labour, provides an absolutely fundamental point of attack against capitalism.", "\"It can be persuasively argued\", noted one concerned philosopher, \"that the conception of the worker's labour as a commodity confirms Marx's stigmatisation of the wage system of private capitalism as 'wage-slavery;' that is, as an instrument of the capitalist's for reducing the worker's condition to that of a slave, if not below it.\"" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Richard Blundell and Thomas MaCurdy, 2008.", "\"labour supply,\" ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition* Freeman, R.B., 1987.", "\"Labour economics,\" ''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'', v. 3, pp. 72–76.", "* John R. Hicks, 1932, 2nd ed., 1963.", "''The Theory of Wages''.", "London, Macmillan.", "* ''Handbook of Labor Economics''.", "Elsevier.", "Amsterdam: North-Holland.", "Links to one-page chapter previews for each volume::Orley C. Ashenfelter and Richard Layard, ed., 1986, v. 1 & 2;:Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, ed., 1999, v. 3A, 3B, and 3C: Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, ed., 2011, v. 4A & 4B.", "* Mark R. Killingsworth, 1983.", "''Labour Supply''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge Surveys of Economic Literature.", "* Jacob Mincer, 1974.", "''Schooling, Experience, and Earnings''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "* Anindya Bakrie & Morendy Octora, 2002.", "''Schooling, Experience, and Earnings''.", "New York, Singapore National University : Columbia University Press.", "* * * * * Simon Head, ''The New Ruthless Economy.", "Work and Power in the Digital Age'', Oxford UP 2005, * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Ageing workers EU-OSHA* The Labour Economics Gateway – Collection of Internet sites that are of interest to labour economists* Labour & Worklife Program at Harvard Law School, Changing Labour Markets Project* W.E.", "Upjohn Institute for Employment Research* ILO: ''Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM).''", "2007* LabourFair Resources – Link to Fair Labour Practices* Labour Research Network – Labour research programme treating various fields* Labour Research Department – Independent labour economics research organisation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lammas" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lammas''' (from Old English ''hlāfmæsse'', \"loaf-mass\"), also known as '''Loaf Mass Day''', is a Christian holiday celebrated in some English-speaking countries in the Northern Hemisphere on 1 August.", "The name originates from the word \"loaf\" in reference to bread and \"Mass\" in reference to the Eucharist.", "It is a festival in the liturgical calendar to mark the blessing of the First Fruits of harvest, with a loaf of bread being brought to the church for this purpose.", "'''Lammastide''' falls at the halfway point between the summer solstice and the autumn equinox.", "Christians also have church processions to bakeries, where those working therein are blessed by Christian clergy.While Lammas is traditionally a Christian holy day, some neopagans have adopted the name and date for one of their harvest festivals in their Wheel of the Year.", "It is also the same date as the Gaelic harvest festival Lughnasadh." ], [ "Name", "The name 'Lammas' comes from Old English meaning \"loaf mass\".", "Several antiquarians suggested that the name 'Lammas' came from 'lamb mass'.", "John Brady supposed that tenants of the Cathedral of York, dedicated to St Peter in Chains, of which this is the feast, were required to bring a live lamb to the church.Another name for the feast in the Middle Ages was the 'Gule of August'.", "It has been suggested, following the 18th-century Welsh clerical antiquary John Pettingall, that this is an anglicisation of '''', Welsh for \"feast of August\"." ], [ "History", "parish church to be blessed by a Christian cleric.In Christianity, the offering of first fruits to God has a history, as in the Old Testament, \"when the harvest ripened the priest went into the field and gathered a sheath of first-ripened grain.", "Then he took that sheath into the temple and waved it before the Lord.\"", "The Didache of the early Church enjoined firstfruits be given of \"money, clothes, and all of your possessions\" (13:7).In Anglo-Saxon England Lammas was the name for the first day of August and was described in Old English literature as \"the feast of first fruits\", being mentioned often in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''.", "It was probably the day when loaves baked from the first of the wheat harvest were blessed at church.", "The loaves might then have been used in protective rituals: a book of Anglo-Saxon charms directed that the Lammas loaf be broken into four parts, which were to be placed at the four corners of the barn, to protect the grain.For many villeins, the wheat must have run low in the days before Lammas, and the new harvest began a season of plenty, of hard work and company in the fields, reaping in teams.", "In the medieval agricultural year, Lammas also marked the end of the hay harvest that had begun after Midsummer.", "At the end of hay-making a sheep would be loosed in the meadow among the mowers, for him to keep who could catch it.Historian Ronald Hutton writes \"the time that the first of the harvest could be gathered would have been a natural point for celebration in an agrarian society\".", "He says it is likely \"that a pre-Christian festival had existed among the Anglo-Saxons on that date\".", "Folklorist Máire MacNeill linked Lammas with the Insular Celtic harvest festival Lughnasadh, held on the same date, and suggested the Anglo-Saxons adopted it from the Celtic Britons.", "She highlighted the apparent lack of a Continental Germanic festival on 1 August, and the apparent borrowing of the Welsh name ''Gŵyl Awst'', 'Gule of August'.", "However, Hutton says that \"MacNeill's thesis of a pan-Celtic seasonal ritual, like her reconstruction of pagan rites, is so far un-proven\" and to prove it \"would involve a detailed knowledge of the religious calendar of the Anglo-Saxons before they arrived in England, which is impossible\".Lammas Day was one of the traditional Scottish quarter days before 1886.Lammas also coincided with the feast of St Peter in Chains, commemorating Saint Peter's miraculous deliverance from prison, but in the liturgical reform of 1969 the feast of St Alphonsus Liguori was transferred to this day.Ann Lewin explains the Christian feast of Lammas (Loaf Mass Day) and its importance in the liturgical year: Today, in the Church of England, the mother church of the Anglican Communion, during the celebration of Holy Communion, \"The Lammas loaf, or part of it, may be used as the bread of the Eucharist, or the Lammas loaf and the eucharistic bread may be kept separate.\"", "''Common Worship'' specifies: Christians also have church processions to bakeries, where those working therein are blessed by Christian clergy.In Shakespeare's ''Romeo and Juliet'' (1.3.19) it is observed of Juliet, \"Come Lammas Eve at night shall she Juliet be fourteen.\"", "Another well-known cultural reference is the opening of ''The Battle of Otterburn'': \"It fell about the Lammas tide when the muir-men win their hay.\"" ], [ "Other uses", "Exeter's Lammas Fair glove in 2015===Neopaganism===Some neopagans have adopted the name and date of Lammas, making it one of the harvest festivals in their Wheel of the Year.", "Other neopagans use the Gaelic name ''Lughnasa''.", "It is the first of the three autumn festivals, the others being the autumn equinox and Samhain.", "In the Northern Hemisphere it takes place around 1 August, while in the Southern Hemisphere it is celebrated around 1 February.===Horticulture===''Lammas leaves'' or ''Lammas growth'' refers to a second crop of leaves produced in high summer by some species of trees in temperate countries to replace those lost to insect damage.", "They often differ slightly in shape, texture and/or hairiness from the earlier leaves.", "Exeter in Devon is one of the few towns in England that still celebrates its Lammas Fair and has a processional custom which stretches back over 900 years, led by the Lord Mayor.", "During the fair a white glove on a pole decorated with garlands is raised above the Guildhall.", "The fair now takes place on the first Thursday in July.A low-impact development project at Tir y Gafel, Glandwr, Pembrokeshire, Lammas Ecovillage, is a collective initiative for nine self-built homes.", "It was the first such project to obtain planning permission based on a predecessor of what is now the sixth national planning guidance for sustainable rural communities originally proposed by the One Planet Council.===In popular culture===In the ''Inspector Morse'' episode \"Day of the Devil\", Lammas Day is presented as a Satanic (un)holy day, \"the Devil's day\"." ], [ "See also", "* Leyton Marshes* Ould Lammas Fair* Shavuot" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Lammastide - The Church of England* The God in the Bread: A Sermon for Lammas - Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America* Lammas-tide by Leigh Hatts - Walking the Pilgrims' Way* \"A Little History of Lammas\" - A Clerk of Oxford" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Longmeadow, Massachusetts" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Longmeadow''' is a town in Hampden County, Massachusetts, in the United States.", "The population was 15,853 at the 2020 census." ], [ "History", "Longmeadow was first settled in 1644, and officially incorporated October 17, 1783.The town was originally farmland within the limits of Springfield.", "It remained relatively pastoral until the street railway was built , when the population tripled over a fifteen-year period.", "After Interstate 91 was built in the wetlands on the west side of town, population tripled again between 1960 and 1975.During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Longmeadow was best known as the site from which Longmeadow brownstone was mined.", "Several famous American buildings, including Princeton University's Neo-Gothic library, are made of Longmeadow brownstone.", "In 1894, the more populous and industrialized \"East Village\" portion of the town containing the brownstone quarries split off to become East Longmeadow.Designed by famed golf course architect Donald Ross in 1922, the Longmeadow Country Club was the proving ground for golf equipment designed and manufactured by the Spalding Co. of Chicopee.", "Bobby Jones, a consultant for Spalding, was a member in standing at LCC and made a number of his instructional films at LCC in the 1930s." ], [ "Geography", "Longmeadow is located in the western part of the state, just south of the city of Springfield, and is bordered on the west by the Connecticut River and Agawam, to the east by East Longmeadow, and to the south by Enfield, Connecticut.", "It extends approximately north to south and east to west.", "It is approximately north of Hartford.More than 30% of the town is permanent open space.", "Conservation areas on the west side of town include more than bordering the Connecticut River.", "The area supports a wide range of wildlife including deer, beaver, wild turkeys, foxes, and eagles.", "Springfield's Forest Park, which at is the largest city park in New England, forms the northern border of the town.", "The private Twin Hills and public Franconia golf courses, plus town athletic fields and conservation land, cover nearly 2/3 of the eastern border of the town.", "Two large public parks, the Longmeadow Country Club, and three conservation areas account for the bulk of the remaining formal open space.", "Almost 20% of the houses in town are in proximity to a \"dingle\", a tree-lined steep-sided sandy ravine with a wetland at the bottom that provides a privacy barrier between yards.Longmeadow has a town common, commonly referred to as \"The Green\" , located along U.S. Route 5 on the west side of town.", "It is about long.", "Roughly 100 houses date back before 1900, most of which are in the historic district, are located near the town green.", "Longmeadow's Town Green is a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places, and it is surrounded by a number of buildings dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries.", "Longmeadow is unique as the town green has maintained its residential purpose and has resisted commercial pressure.", "The current function as listed by the National Register of Historic Places is domestic and landscape.", "The current sub-function as listed by the National Register of Historic Places is park and single dwelling.", "Houses along the photogenic main street (Longmeadow Street) are set back farther than in most towns of similar residential density.The town has three recently remodeled elementary schools, two secondary schools, and one high school.", "The commercial center of town is an area called \"The Longmeadow Shops\" , including restaurants and clothing stores.According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which are land and , or 5.34%, are water." ], [ "Demographics", "As of the census of 2000, there were 15,633 people, 5,734 households, and 4,432 families residing in the town.", "The population density was .", "There were 5,879 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the town was 95.42% White, 0.69% African American, 0.05% Native American, 2.90% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.26% from other races, and 0.62% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.09% of the population.There were 5,734 households, out of which 37.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.1% were married couples living together, 6.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.7% were non-families.", "20.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.09.In the town, the population was spread out, with 26.8% under the age of 18, 4.6% from 18 to 24, 22.0% from 25 to 44, 28.7% from 45 to 64, and 17.8% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 43 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 87.7 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.0 males.", "The median income for a household in the town was $109,586, and the median income for a family was $115,578.Males had a median income of $68,238 versus $40,890 for females.", "The per capita income for the town was $48,949.About 1.0% of families and 2.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 0.3% of those under age 18 and 8.3% of those age 65 or over ." ], [ "Government", "The town is chartered as an Open Town Meeting form of government.", "The town government also consists of a Select Board with five members, elected by the town.", "The public school system is governed by the School Committee.", "The School Committee is made up of seven voting members elected by the town, the superintendent of schools, two assistant-superintendents, a secretary, and a student representative." ], [ "Education", "The Longmeadow public school system operates six schools.", "Blueberry Hill School, Center School, and Wolf Swamp Road School are K−5 elementary schools.", "Williams Middle School and Glenbrook Middle School serve grades 6–8.Longmeadow High School serves all students in the town between grades 9 and 12.The town's elementary schools have been recently rebuilt, statements of interest for improvements to the two middle schools and Longmeadow High School were filed with the Massachusetts School Building Authority in 2007.In 2010, the voters of Longmeadow approved a 2.5% budget override to support the construction of a new $78 million high school.", "The town received an estimated $34 million in state funds to be used towards the new construction The new High School was completed and opened to students on February 26, 2013.After students and faculty had moved into the new school, the demolition of the old school was begun.", "The demolition was completed by June 2013.The school had its grand opening in September 2013 with both the brand new school and renovated business & administration wing open.Longmeadow also hosts two private parochial schools, the Lubavitcher Yeshiva Academy (LYA) and St. Mary's Academy.", "LYA was established in 1946 in response to the Greater Springfield Jewish community's need for a quality Jewish day school.", "In 1999, LYA became the first Jewish day school to be accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges (NEASC).", "The more than 90 students that the school serves each year from across the spectrum of Jewish life include orthodox, conservative, reform, and unaffiliated families.", "St. Mary's Academy, located behind St. Mary's Church, serves Catholic students grades Pre-K through Grade 8.Approximately 50% of the students at Longmeadow High School participate in the music program.", "The choruses have won numerous gold medals at the MICCA competition.", "The jazz ensemble has won numerous gold medals as well, but no longer competes.", "The honors chorus \"Lyrics\" has won numerous awards and has traveled to many places around the world on tours, such as Italy and Sweden.", "The wind ensemble and symphony orchestra have had the honor of performing in Indianapolis, Boston (Boston Symphony Hall), and New York (Carnegie Hall).", "In 2010, Longmeadow was awarded The American Prize in Orchestral Performance.", "The music program's crowning achievement has been receiving three national Grammy Awards based on the high level of excellence maintained throughout all groups in the music program.Longmeadow is home to the primary campus of Bay Path University, a private undergraduate and graduate institution founded in 1897." ], [ "Notable people", "* Terri Alden, fictional nurse* Barry Almeida, professional hockey player* Erinn Bartlett, actress (''Deep Blue Sea'', ''The In Crowd'')* Mary Ann Booth, microscopist* Kingman Brewster Jr. (1919–1988), President of Yale University and Ambassador* Craig E. Campbell, Alaska's 10th lieutenant governor and retired Alaska National Guard lieutenant general* Brynn Cartelli, winner of the 14th season of The Voice* John Chapman (Johnny Appleseed), pioneer nurseryman who introduced apple trees to large parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois* David Cohen (1917–2020), a member of the US Army, a liberator of the Ohrdruf concentration camp, and a schoolteacher* J. H. Colton, leading 19th Century cartographer* Bianca D'Agostino, former soccer player* John Deluca, actor (Butchy in ''Teen Beach Movie'')* Damien Fahey, MTV VJ and host of ''Total Request Live''* Meghann Fahy, Sutton on Freeform's ''The Bold Type'', ''One Life to Live'' character Hannah, Natalie on Broadway's ''Next to Normal''* Paul Fenton, Former NHL GM for the Minnesota Wild and scout* Jonathan Green, British author and journalist* Jay Heaps, former player and manager for New England Revolution of Major League Soccer* Nathan Cooley Keep, pioneer in field of dentistry, founding dean of Harvard School of Dental Medicine* Eric Lesser, former Massachusetts State Senator* Aaron Lewis, guitarist and vocalist for band Staind* Chirlane McCray, African-American writer and activist, wife of NYC mayor Bill de Blasio* Bridget Moynahan, model and actress, star of films and TV series ''Blue Bloods''* Joe Philbin, NFL coach, former head coach of Miami Dolphins* Joey Santiago, lead guitarist for influential alternative rock band Pixies* Anita Shreve, award-winning writer* Jim Sleeper, author and journalist* Michael Tougias, author and speaker" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Town of Longmeadow official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Body relative direction" ], [ "Introduction", "A non-flipped image of a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system, illustrating the ''x'' (right-left), ''y'' (forward-backward) and ''z'' (up-down) axes relative to a human being.", "'''Body relative directions''' (also known as '''egocentric coordinates''') are geometrical orientations relative to a body such as a human person's body.The most common ones are: '''left''' and '''right'''; '''forward'''('''s''') and '''backward'''('''s'''); '''up''' and '''down'''.They form three pairs of orthogonal axes." ], [ "Traditions and conventions", "Since definitions of left and right based on the geometry of the natural environment are unwieldy, in practice, the meaning of relative direction words is conveyed through tradition, acculturation, education, and direct reference.", "One common definition of up and down uses gravity and the planet Earth as a frame of reference.", "Since there is a very noticeable force of gravity acting between the Earth and any other nearby object, down is defined as that direction which an object moves in reference to the Earth when the object is allowed to fall freely.", "Up is then defined as the opposite direction of down.", "Another common definition uses a human body, standing upright, as a frame of reference.", "In that case, up is defined as the direction from feet to head, perpendicular to the surface of the Earth.", "In most cases, up is a directionally oriented position generally opposite to that of the pull of gravity.This statue holds a sword in its proper right handIn situations where a common frame of reference is needed, it is most common to use an egocentric view.", "A simple example is road signage.", "Another example is stage blocking, where \"stage left\" \"stage right\" are, by convention, defined from the point of view of actors facing the audience.", "\"Upstage\" and \"downstage\" do not follow gravity but by convention mean away from and towards the audience.", "An example of a non-egocentric view is page layout, where the relative terms \"upper half\" \"left margin,\" etc.", "are defined in terms of the observer but employed in reverse for a type compositor, returning to an egocentric view.", "In medicine and science, where precise definitions are crucial, relative directions (left and right) are the sides of the organism, not those of the observer.", "The same is true in heraldry, where left and right in a coat of arms is treated as if the shield were being held by the armiger.", "To avoid confusion, Latin terminology is employed: ''dexter'' and ''sinister'' for right and left.", "Proper right and proper left are terms mainly used to describe artistic images, and overcome the potential confusion that a figure's \"own\" right or \"proper right\" hand is on the left hand as the viewer sees it from the front.Forward and backward may be defined by referring to an object's or person's motion.", "Forward is defined as the direction in which the object is moving.", "Backward is then defined as the opposite direction to forward.", "Alternatively, 'forward' may be the direction pointed by the observer's nose, defining 'backward' as the direction from the nose to the sagittal border in the observer's skull.", "With respect to a ship 'forward' would indicate the relative position of any object lying in the direction the ship is pointing.", "For symmetrical objects, it is also necessary to define forward and backward in terms of expected direction.", "Many mass transit trains are built symmetrically with paired control booths, and definitions of forward, backward, left, and right are temporary.Given significant distance from the magnetic poles, one can figure which hand is which using a magnetic compass and the sun.", "Facing the sun, before noon, the north pointer of the compass points to the \"left\" hand.", "After noon, it points to the \"right\"." ], [ "Geometry of the natural environment", "Type compositing A right-hand rule is one common way to relate three principal directions.", "For many years a fundamental question in physics was whether a left-hand rule would be equivalent.", "Many natural structures, including human bodies, follow a certain \"handedness\", but it was widely assumed that nature did not distinguish the two possibilities.", "This changed with the discovery of parity violations in particle physics.", "If a sample of cobalt-60 atoms is magnetized so that they spin counterclockwise around some axis, the beta radiation resulting from their nuclear decay will be preferentially directed opposite that axis.", "Since counter-clockwise may be defined in terms of up, forward, and right, this experiment unambiguously differentiates left from right using only natural elements: if they were reversed, or the atoms spun clockwise, the radiation would follow the spin axis instead of being opposite to it." ], [ "Nautical terminology", "Bow, stern, port, starboard, fore and aft are nautical terms that convey an impersonal relative direction in the context of the moving frame of persons aboard a ship.", "The need for impersonal terms is most clearly seen in a rowing shell where the majority of the crew face aft (\"backwards\"), hence the oars to their right are actually on the port side of the boat.", "Rowers eschew the terms left, right, port and starboard in favor of stroke-side and bow-side.", "The usage derives from the tradition of having the stroke (the rower closest to the stern of the boat) oar on the port side of the boat." ], [ "Cultures without relative directions", "Most human cultures use relative directions for reference, but there are exceptions.", "Some Australian Aboriginal languages like Guugu Yimithirr, Kayardild and Kuuk Thaayorre have no words denoting the egocentric directions; instead, speakers exclusively refer to cardinal directions, even when describing small-scale spaces.", "For instance, if they wanted someone to move over on the car seat to make room, they might say \"move a bit to the east\".", "To tell someone where exactly they left something in their house, they might say, \"I left it on the southern edge of the western table.\"", "Or they might warn a person to \"look out for that big ant just north of your foot\".", "Other peoples \"from Polynesia to Mexico and from Namibia to Bali\" similarly have predominantly \"geographic languages\".", "American Sign Language makes heavy use of geographical direction through absolute orientation." ], [ "{{anchor|Left/right confusion}}Left-right discrimination and left-right confusion" ], [ "See also", "* Anatomical terms of location* Bias against left-handed people* Cardinal direction* Cerebral hemisphere* Clock position* Dexter and sinister* Direction determination* Horizontal direction* Dextral and sinistral* Handedness* List of international common standards* Orientation (geometry)* Port and starboard* Rotation* Sense of direction* Slant direction* Topographical disorientation* Visuospatial dysgnosia* Windward and leeward" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lizard" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lizard''' is the common name used for all squamate reptiles other than snakes (and to a lesser extent amphisbaenians), encompassing over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains.", "The grouping is paraphyletic as some lizards are more closely related to snakes than they are to other lizards.", "Lizards range in size from chameleons and geckos a few centimeters long to the 3-meter-long Komodo dragon.Most lizards are quadrupedal, running with a strong side-to-side motion.", "Some lineages (known as \"legless lizards\"), have secondarily lost their legs, and have long snake-like bodies.", "Some lizards, such as the forest-dwelling ''Draco'', are able to glide.", "They are often territorial, the males fighting off other males and signalling, often with bright colours, to attract mates and to intimidate rivals.", "Lizards are mainly carnivorous, often being sit-and-wait predators; many smaller species eat insects, while the Komodo eats mammals as big as water buffalo.Lizards make use of a variety of antipredator adaptations, including venom, camouflage, reflex bleeding, and the ability to sacrifice and regrow their tails." ], [ "Anatomy", "=== Largest and smallest ===The adult length of species within the suborder ranges from a few centimeters for chameleons such as ''Brookesia micra'' and geckos such as ''Sphaerodactylus ariasae'' to nearly in the case of the largest living varanid lizard, the Komodo dragon.", "Most lizards are fairly small animals.=== Distinguishing features ===Skin of ''Lacerta agilis'', showing overlapping scales made of keratinA young Mediterranean house gecko in the process of moulting.|300pxLizards typically have rounded torsos, elevated heads on short necks, four limbs and long tails, although some are legless.", "Lizards and snakes share a movable quadrate bone, distinguishing them from the rhynchocephalians, which have more rigid diapsid skulls.", "Some lizards such as chameleons have prehensile tails, assisting them in climbing among vegetation.As in other reptiles, the skin of lizards is covered in overlapping scales made of keratin.", "This provides protection from the environment and reduces water loss through evaporation.", "This adaptation enables lizards to thrive in some of the driest deserts on earth.", "The skin is tough and leathery, and is shed (sloughed) as the animal grows.", "Unlike snakes which shed the skin in a single piece, lizards slough their skin in several pieces.", "The scales may be modified into spines for display or protection, and some species have bone osteoderms underneath the scales.Red tegu (''Tupinambis rufescens'') skull, showing teeth of differing typesThe dentitions of lizards reflect their wide range of diets, including carnivorous, insectivorous, omnivorous, herbivorous, nectivorous, and molluscivorous.", "Species typically have uniform teeth suited to their diet, but several species have variable teeth, such as cutting teeth in the front of the jaws and crushing teeth in the rear.", "Most species are pleurodont, though agamids and chameleons are acrodont.The tongue can be extended outside the mouth, and is often long.", "In the beaded lizards, whiptails and monitor lizards, the tongue is forked and used mainly or exclusively to sense the environment, continually flicking out to sample the environment, and back to transfer molecules to the vomeronasal organ responsible for chemosensation, analogous to but different from smell or taste.", "In geckos, the tongue is used to lick the eyes clean: they have no eyelids.", "Chameleons have very long sticky tongues which can be extended rapidly to catch their insect prey.Three lineages, the geckos, anoles, and chameleons, have modified the scales under their toes to form adhesive pads, highly prominent in the first two groups.", "The pads are composed of millions of tiny setae (hair-like structures) which fit closely to the substrate to adhere using van der Waals forces; no liquid adhesive is needed.", "In addition, the toes of chameleons are divided into two opposed groups on each foot (zygodactyly), enabling them to perch on branches as birds do." ], [ "Physiology", "===Locomotion===Adhesive pads enable geckos to climb vertically.Aside from legless lizards, most lizards are quadrupedal and move using gaits with alternating movement of the right and left limbs with substantial body bending.", "This body bending prevents significant respiration during movement, limiting their endurance, in a mechanism called Carrier's constraint.", "Several species can run bipedally, and a few can prop themselves up on their hindlimbs and tail while stationary.", "Several small species such as those in the genus ''Draco'' can glide: some can attain a distance of , losing in height.", "Some species, like geckos and chameleons, adhere to vertical surfaces including glass and ceilings.", "Some species, like the common basilisk, can run across water.===Senses===Lizards make use of their senses of sight, touch, olfaction and hearing like other vertebrates.", "The balance of these varies with the habitat of different species; for instance, skinks that live largely covered by loose soil rely heavily on olfaction and touch, while geckos depend largely on acute vision for their ability to hunt and to evaluate the distance to their prey before striking.", "Monitor lizards have acute vision, hearing, and olfactory senses.", "Some lizards make unusual use of their sense organs: chameleons can steer their eyes in different directions, sometimes providing non-overlapping fields of view, such as forwards and backwards at once.", "Lizards lack external ears, having instead a circular opening in which the tympanic membrane (eardrum) can be seen.", "Many species rely on hearing for early warning of predators, and flee at the slightest sound.Nile monitor using its tongue for smellAs in snakes and many mammals, all lizards have a specialised olfactory system, the vomeronasal organ, used to detect pheromones.", "Monitor lizards transfer scent from the tip of their tongue to the organ; the tongue is used only for this information-gathering purpose, and is not involved in manipulating food.Skeleton of bearded dragon (pogona sp.)", "on display at the Museum of Osteology.Some lizards, particularly iguanas, have retained a photosensory organ on the top of their heads called the parietal eye, a basal (\"primitive\") feature also present in the tuatara.", "This \"eye\" has only a rudimentary retina and lens and cannot form images, but is sensitive to changes in light and dark and can detect movement.", "This helps them detect predators stalking it from above.===Venom===Some lizards including the Gila monster are venomous.Until 2006 it was thought that the Gila monster and the Mexican beaded lizard were the only venomous lizards.", "However, several species of monitor lizards, including the Komodo dragon, produce powerful venom in their oral glands.", "Lace monitor venom, for instance, causes swift loss of consciousness and extensive bleeding through its pharmacological effects, both lowering blood pressure and preventing blood clotting.", "Nine classes of toxin known from snakes are produced by lizards.", "The range of actions provides the potential for new medicinal drugs based on lizard venom proteins.Genes associated with venom toxins have been found in the salivary glands of a wide range of lizards, including species traditionally thought of as non-venomous, such as iguanas and bearded dragons.", "This suggests that these genes evolved in the common ancestor of lizards and snakes, some 200 million years ago (forming a single clade, the Toxicofera).", "However, most of these putative venom genes were \"housekeeping genes\" found in all cells and tissues, including skin and cloacal scent glands.", "The genes in question may thus be evolutionary precursors of venom genes.===Respiration===Recent studies (2013 and 2014) on the lung anatomy of the savannah monitor and green iguana found them to have a unidirectional airflow system, which involves the air moving in a loop through the lungs when breathing.", "This was previously thought to only exist in the archosaurs (crocodilians and birds).", "This may be evidence that unidirectional airflow is an ancestral trait in diapsids.===Reproduction and life cycle===''Trachylepis maculilabris'' skinks matingAs with all amniotes, lizards rely on internal fertilisation and copulation involves the male inserting one of his hemipenes into the female's cloaca.", "The majority of species are oviparous (egg laying).", "The female deposits the eggs in a protective structure like a nest or crevice or simply on the ground.", "Depending on the species, clutch size can vary from 4–5 percent of the females body weight to 40–50 percent and clutches range from one or a few large eggs to dozens of small ones.", "Two pictures of an eastern fence lizard egg layered onto one image.In most lizards, the eggs have leathery shells to allow for the exchange of water, although more arid-living species have calcified shells to retain water.", "Inside the eggs, the embryos use nutrients from the yolk.", "Parental care is uncommon and the female usually abandons the eggs after laying them.", "Brooding and protection of eggs do occur in some species.", "The female prairie skink uses respiratory water loss to maintain the humidity of the eggs which facilitates embryonic development.", "In lace monitors, the young hatch close to 300 days, and the female returns to help them escape the termite mound where the eggs were laid.Around 20 percent of lizard species reproduce via viviparity (live birth).", "This is particularly common in Anguimorphs.", "Viviparous species give birth to relatively developed young which look like miniature adults.", "Embryos are nourished via a placenta-like structure.", "A minority of lizards have parthenogenesis (reproduction from unfertilised eggs).", "These species consist of all females who reproduce asexually with no need for males.", "This is known to occur in various species of whiptail lizards.", "Parthenogenesis was also recorded in species that normally reproduce sexually.", "A captive female Komodo dragon produced a clutch of eggs, despite being separated from males for over two years.Sex determination in lizards can be temperature-dependent.", "The temperature of the eggs' micro-environment can determine the sex of the hatched young: low temperature incubation produces more females while higher temperatures produce more males.", "However, some lizards have sex chromosomes and both male heterogamety (XY and XXY) and female heterogamety (ZW) occur." ], [ "Behaviour", "===Diurnality and thermoregulation===The majority of lizard species are active during the day, though some are active at night, notably geckos.", "As ectotherms, lizards have a limited ability to regulate their body temperature, and must seek out and bask in sunlight to gain enough heat to become fully active.", "Thermoregulation behavior can be beneficial in the short term for lizards as it allows the ability to buffer environmental variation and endure climate warming.In high altitudes, the ''Podarcis hispaniscus'' responds to higher temperature with a darker dorsal coloration to prevent UV-radiation and background matching.", "Their thermoregulatory mechanisms also allow the lizard to maintain their ideal body temperature for optimal mobility.===Territoriality===Fighting male sand lizardsMost social interactions among lizards are between breeding individuals.", "Territoriality is common and is correlated with species that use sit-and-wait hunting strategies.", "Males establish and maintain territories that contain resources that attract females and which they defend from other males.", "Important resources include basking, feeding, and nesting sites as well as refuges from predators.", "The habitat of a species affects the structure of territories, for example, rock lizards have territories atop rocky outcrops.", "Some species may aggregate in groups, enhancing vigilance and lessening the risk of predation for individuals, particularly for juveniles.", "Agonistic behaviour typically occurs between sexually mature males over territory or mates and may involve displays, posturing, chasing, grappling and biting.===Communication===A green anole (''Anolis carolinensis'') signalling with its extended dewlapLizards signal both to attract mates and to intimidate rivals.", "Visual displays include body postures and inflation, push-ups, bright colours, mouth gapings and tail waggings.", "Male anoles and iguanas have dewlaps or skin flaps which come in various sizes, colours and patterns and the expansion of the dewlap as well as head-bobs and body movements add to the visual signals.", "Some species have deep blue dewlaps and communicate with ultraviolet signals.", "Blue-tongued skinks will flash their tongues as a threat display.", "Chameleons are known to change their complex colour patterns when communicating, particularly during agonistic encounters.", "They tend to show brighter colours when displaying aggression and darker colours when they submit or \"give up\".Several gecko species are brightly coloured; some species tilt their bodies to display their coloration.", "In certain species, brightly coloured males turn dull when not in the presence of rivals or females.", "While it is usually males that display, in some species females also use such communication.", "In the bronze anole, head-bobs are a common form of communication among females, the speed and frequency varying with age and territorial status.", "Chemical cues or pheromones are also important in communication.", "Males typically direct signals at rivals, while females direct them at potential mates.", "Lizards may be able to recognise individuals of the same species by their scent.Acoustic communication is less common in lizards.", "Hissing, a typical reptilian sound, is mostly produced by larger species as part of a threat display, accompanying gaping jaws.", "Some groups, particularly geckos, snake-lizards, and some iguanids, can produce more complex sounds and vocal apparatuses have independently evolved in different groups.", "These sounds are used for courtship, territorial defense and in distress, and include clicks, squeaks, barks and growls.", "The mating call of the male tokay gecko is heard as \"tokay-tokay!\".", "Tactile communication involves individuals rubbing against each other, either in courtship or in aggression.", "Some chameleon species communicate with one another by vibrating the substrate that they are standing on, such as a tree branch or leaf." ], [ "Ecology", "Lizard in tree.", "Many species are tree-dwellingThar desert===Distribution and habitat===Lizards are found worldwide, excluding the far north and Antarctica, and some islands.", "They can be found in elevations from sea level to .", "They prefer warmer, tropical climates but are adaptable and can live in all but the most extreme environments.", "Lizards also exploit a number of habitats; most primarily live on the ground, but others may live in rocks, on trees, underground and even in water.", "The marine iguana is adapted for life in the sea.===Diet===Western green lizard ambushes its grasshopper prey.The majority of lizard species are predatory and the most common prey items are small, terrestrial invertebrates, particularly insects.", "Many species are sit-and-wait predators though others may be more active foragers.", "Chameleons prey on numerous insect species, such as beetles, grasshoppers and winged termites as well as spiders.", "They rely on persistence and ambush to capture these prey.", "An individual perches on a branch and stays perfectly still, with only its eyes moving.", "When an insect lands, the chameleon focuses its eyes on the target and slowly moves toward it before projecting its long sticky tongue which, when hauled back, brings the attached prey with it.", "Geckos feed on crickets, beetles, termites and moths.Termites are an important part of the diets of some species of Autarchoglossa, since, as social insects, they can be found in large numbers in one spot.", "Ants may form a prominent part of the diet of some lizards, particularly among the lacertas.", "Horned lizards are also well known for specializing on ants.", "Due to their small size and indigestible chitin, ants must be consumed in large amounts, and ant-eating lizards have larger stomachs than even herbivorous ones.", "Species of skink and alligator lizards eat snails and their power jaws and molar-like teeth are adapted for breaking the shells.Young Komodo dragon feeding on a water buffalo carcassMarine iguana foraging under water at Galápagos Islands, Ecuador.Larger species, such as monitor lizards, can feed on larger prey including fish, frogs, birds, mammals and other reptiles.", "Prey may be swallowed whole and torn into smaller pieces.", "Both bird and reptile eggs may also be consumed as well.", "Gila monsters and beaded lizards climb trees to reach both the eggs and young of birds.", "Despite being venomous, these species rely on their strong jaws to kill prey.", "Mammalian prey typically consists of rodents and leporids; the Komodo dragon can kill prey as large as water buffalo.", "Dragons are prolific scavengers, and a single decaying carcass can attract several from away.", "A dragon is capable of consuming a carcass in 17 minutes.Around 2 percent of lizard species, including many iguanids, are herbivores.", "Adults of these species eat plant parts like flowers, leaves, stems and fruit, while juveniles eat more insects.", "Plant parts can be hard to digest, and, as they get closer to adulthood, juvenile iguanas eat faeces from adults to acquire the microflora necessary for their transition to a plant-based diet.", "Perhaps the most herbivorous species is the marine iguana which dives to forage for algae, kelp and other marine plants.", "Some non-herbivorous species supplement their insect diet with fruit, which is easily digested.===Antipredator adaptations===frilled-neck lizard with fully extended frill.", "The frilled neck serves to make it look bigger than it actually is.Lizards have a variety of antipredator adaptations, including running and climbing, venom, camouflage, tail autotomy, and reflex bleeding.====Camouflage====The flat-tail horned lizard's body is flattened and fringed to minimise its shadow.Lizards exploit a variety of different camouflage methods.", "Many lizards are disruptively patterned.", "In some species, such as Aegean wall lizards, individuals vary in colour, and select rocks which best match their own colour to minimise the risk of being detected by predators.", "The Moorish gecko is able to change colour for camouflage: when a light-coloured gecko is placed on a dark surface, it darkens within an hour to match the environment.", "The chameleons in general use their ability to change their coloration for signalling rather than camouflage, but some species such as Smith's dwarf chameleon do use active colour change for camouflage purposes.The flat-tail horned lizard's body is coloured like its desert background, and is flattened and fringed with white scales to minimise its shadow.====Autotomy====A skink tail continuing to move after autotomyMany lizards, including geckos and skinks, are capable of shedding their tails (autotomy).", "The detached tail, sometimes brilliantly coloured, continues to writhe after detaching, distracting the predator's attention from the fleeing prey.", "Lizards partially regenerate their tails over a period of weeks.", "Some 326 genes are involved in regenerating lizard tails.", "The fish-scale gecko ''Geckolepis megalepis '' sheds patches of skin and scales if grabbed.====Escape, playing dead, reflex bleeding====Many lizards attempt to escape from danger by running to a place of safety; for example, wall lizards can run up walls and hide in holes or cracks.", "Horned lizards adopt differing defences for specific predators.", "They may play dead to deceive a predator that has caught them; attempt to outrun the rattlesnake, which does not pursue prey; but stay still, relying on their cryptic coloration, for ''Masticophis'' whip snakes which can catch even swift prey.", "If caught, some species such as the greater short-horned lizard puff themselves up, making their bodies hard for a narrow-mouthed predator like a whip snake to swallow.", "Finally, horned lizards can squirt blood at cat and dog predators from a pouch beneath its eyes, to a distance of about ; the blood tastes foul to these attackers." ], [ "Evolution", "===Fossil history===Dalinghosaurus longidigitus'', Early Cretaceous, ChinaThe closest living relatives of lizards are rhynchocephalians, a once diverse order of reptiles, of which is there is now only one living species, the tuatara of New Zealand.", "Some reptiles from the Early and Middle Triassic, like ''Sophineta'' and ''Megachirella'', are suggested to be stem-group squamates, more closely related to modern lizards than rhynchocephalians, however, their position is disputed, with some studies recovering them as less closely related to squamates than rhynchocephalians are.", "The oldest undisputed lizards date to the Middle Jurassic, from remains found In Europe, Asia and North Africa.", "Lizard morphological and ecological diversity substantially increased over the course of the Cretaceous.Mosasaurs likely evolved from an extinct group of aquatic lizards known as aigialosaurs in the Early Cretaceous.", "Dolichosauridae is a family of Late Cretaceous aquatic varanoid lizards closely related to the mosasaurs.===Phylogeny=======External====The position of the lizards and other Squamata among the reptiles was studied using fossil evidence by Rainer Schoch and Hans-Dieter Sues in 2015.Lizards form about 60% of the extant non-avian reptiles.====Internal====Both the snakes and the Amphisbaenia (worm lizards) are clades deep within the Squamata (the smallest clade that contains all the lizards), so \"lizard\" is paraphyletic.The cladogram is based on genomic analysis by Wiens and colleagues in 2012 and 2016.Excluded taxa are shown in upper case on the cladogram.===Taxonomy===Artistic restoration of a mosasaur, ''Prognathodon''In the 13th century, lizards were recognized in Europe as part of a broad category of ''reptiles'' that consisted of a miscellany of egg-laying creatures, including \"snakes, various fantastic monsters, …, assorted amphibians, and worms\", as recorded by Vincent of Beauvais in his ''Mirror of Nature''.", "The seventeenth century saw changes in this loose description.", "The name Sauria was coined by James Macartney (1802); it was the Latinisation of the French name ''Sauriens'', coined by Alexandre Brongniart (1800) for an order of reptiles in the classification proposed by the author, containing lizards and crocodilians, later discovered not to be each other's closest relatives.", "Later authors used the term \"Sauria\" in a more restricted sense, i.e.", "as a synonym of Lacertilia, a suborder of Squamata that includes all lizards but excludes snakes.", "This classification is rarely used today because Sauria so-defined is a paraphyletic group.", "It was defined as a clade by Jacques Gauthier, Arnold G. Kluge and Timothy Rowe (1988) as the group containing the most recent common ancestor of archosaurs and lepidosaurs (the groups containing crocodiles and lizards, as per Mcartney's original definition) and all its descendants.", "A different definition was formulated by Michael deBraga and Olivier Rieppel (1997), who defined Sauria as the clade containing the most recent common ancestor of Choristodera, Archosauromorpha, Lepidosauromorpha and all their descendants.", "However, these uses have not gained wide acceptance among specialists.Suborder Lacertilia (Sauria) – (lizards) * Family †Bavarisauridae* Family †Eichstaettisauridae* Infraorder Iguanomorpha** Family †Arretosauridae** Family †Euposauridae** Family Corytophanidae (casquehead lizards)** Family Iguanidae (iguanas and spinytail iguanas)** Family Phrynosomatidae (earless, spiny, tree, side-blotched and horned lizards)** Family Polychrotidae (anoles)*** Family Leiosauridae (see Polychrotinae)** Family Tropiduridae (neotropical ground lizards)*** Family Liolaemidae (see Tropidurinae)*** Family Leiocephalidae (see Tropidurinae)** Family Crotaphytidae (collared and leopard lizards)** Family Opluridae (Madagascar iguanids)** Family Hoplocercidae (wood lizards, clubtails)** Family †Priscagamidae** Family †Isodontosauridae** Family Agamidae (agamas, frilled lizards)** Family Chamaeleonidae (chameleons)* Infraorder Gekkota** Family Gekkonidae (geckos)** Family Pygopodidae (legless geckos)** Family Dibamidae (blind lizards)* Infraorder Scincomorpha** Family †Paramacellodidae** Family †Slavoiidae** Family Scincidae (skinks)** Family Cordylidae (spinytail lizards)** Family Gerrhosauridae (plated lizards)** Family Xantusiidae (night lizards)** Family Lacertidae (wall lizards or true lizards)** Family †Mongolochamopidae** Family †Adamisauridae** Family Teiidae (tegus and whiptails)** Family Gymnophthalmidae (spectacled lizards)* Infraorder Diploglossa** Family Anguidae (slowworms, glass lizards)** Family Anniellidae (American legless lizards)** Family Xenosauridae (knob-scaled lizards)* Infraorder Platynota (Varanoidea)** Family Varanidae (monitor lizards)** Family Lanthanotidae (earless monitor lizards)** Family Helodermatidae (Gila monsters and beaded lizards)** Family †Mosasauridae (marine lizards)The slowworms, ''Anguis'', are among over twenty groups of lizards that have convergently evolved a legless body plan.===Convergence===Lizards have frequently evolved convergently, with multiple groups independently developing similar morphology and ecological niches.", "''Anolis'' ecomorphs have become a model system in evolutionary biology for studying convergence.", "Limbs have been lost or reduced independently over two dozen times across lizard evolution, including in the Anniellidae, Anguidae, Cordylidae, Dibamidae, Gymnophthalmidae, Pygopodidae, and Scincidae; snakes are just the most famous and species-rich group of Squamata to have followed this path." ], [ "Relationship with humans", "=== Interactions and uses by humans ===Most lizard species are harmless to humans.", "Only the largest lizard species, the Komodo dragon, which reaches in length and weighs up to , has been known to stalk, attack, and, on occasion, kill humans.", "An eight-year-old Indonesian boy died from blood loss after an attack in 2007.Green iguanas (''Iguana iguana''), are popular pets.Numerous species of lizard are kept as pets, including bearded dragons, iguanas, anoles, and geckos (such as the popular leopard gecko).Monitor lizards such as the savannah monitor and tegus such as the Argentine tegu and red tegu are also kept.Green iguanas are eaten in Central America, where they are sometimes referred to as \"chicken of the tree\" after their habit of resting in trees and their supposedly chicken-like taste, while spiny-tailed lizards are eaten in Africa.", "In North Africa, ''Uromastyx'' species are considered ''dhaab'' or 'fish of the desert' and eaten by nomadic tribes.Red tegu drinking water out of a dispenser.Lizards such as the Gila monster produce toxins with medical applications.", "Gila toxin reduces plasma glucose; the substance is now synthesized for use in the anti-diabetes drug exenatide (Byetta).", "Another toxin from Gila monster saliva has been studied for use as an anti-Alzheimer's drug.=== In culture ===Lizards appear in myths and folktales around the world.", "In Australian Aboriginal mythology, Tarrotarro, the lizard god, split the human race into male and female, and gave people the ability to express themselves in art.", "A lizard king named Mo'o features in Hawaii and other cultures in Polynesia.", "In the Amazon, the lizard is the king of beasts, while among the Bantu of Africa, the god UNkulunkulu sent a chameleon to tell humans they would live forever, but the chameleon was held up, and another lizard brought a different message, that the time of humanity was limited.", "A popular legend in Maharashtra tells the tale of how a common Indian monitor, with ropes attached, was used to scale the walls of the fort in the Battle of Sinhagad.", "In the Bhojpuri speaking region of India and Nepal, there is a belief among children that, on touching skink's tail three (or five) time with the shortest finger gives money.Lizards in many cultures share the symbolism of snakes, especially as an emblem of resurrection.", "This may have derived from their regular molting.", "The motif of lizards on Christian candle holders probably alludes to the same symbolism.", "According to Jack Tresidder, in Egypt and the Classical world, they were beneficial emblems, linked with wisdom.", "In African, Aboriginal and Melanesian folklore they are linked to cultural heroes or ancestral figures." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===General sources===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of deists" ], [ "Introduction", "Carl Friedrich GaussCharles Sanders PeirceDmitri MendeleevHermann WeylHumphry DavyJames WattJules VerneLudwig BoltzmannMax BornMax PlanckMikhail LomonosovNeil ArmstrongThomas JeffersonThomas PaineVoltaireWolfgang PauliThis is a partial list of people who have been categorized as Deists, the belief in a deity based on natural religion only, or belief in religious truths discovered by people through a process of reasoning, independent of any revelation through scriptures or prophets.", "They have been selected for their influence on Deism or for their notability in other areas." ], [ "Born before 1700", "* Anaxagoras (c. 500–428 BC), Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher.", "* Al-Maʿarri (973–1058), was a blind Arab philosopher, poet and writer, and a controversial rationalist.", "* Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Italian Renaissance polymath: painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer.", "Described as a deist by some sources, most historians have deemed him a Roman Catholic.", "* Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury (1583–1648), British soldier, diplomat, historian, poet and religious philosopher* Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716), German mathematician and philosopher.", "He is best known for developing infinitesimal calculus independently of Isaac Newton, and his mathematical notation has been widely used ever since it was published.", "He has also been labeled a Christian as well.", "* Matthew Tindal (1657–1733), controversial English author whose works were influential on Enlightenment thinking* Voltaire (1694–1778), French Enlightenment writer and philosopher* William Hogarth (1697–1764), English painter, visual artist and pioneering cartoonist* Colin Maclaurin (1698–1746), Scottish mathematician who made important contributions to geometry and algebra.", "The Maclaurin series, a special case of the Taylor series, are named after him." ], [ "Born 1700–1800", "* Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), American polymath; one of the Founding Fathers of the United States* Émilie du Châtelet (1706–1749), French mathematician, physicist, and author during the Age of Enlightenment.", "Her crowning achievement is considered to be her translation and commentary on Isaac Newton's work ''Principia Mathematica''.", "* Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), Russian polymath, scientist and writer, who made important contributions to literature, education, and science.", "Among his discoveries was the atmosphere of Venus.", "His spheres of science were natural science, chemistry, physics, mineralogy, history, art, philology, optical devices and others.", "Lomonosov was also a poet and influenced the formation of the modern Russian literary language.", "* Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783), French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist.", "He was also co-editor with Denis Diderot of the ''Encyclopédie''.", "* Adam Smith (1723–1790), Scottish philosopher and economist; considered the father of modern economics* James Hutton (1726–1797), Scottish physician, geologist, naturalist, chemical manufacturer and experimental agriculturalist.", "His work helped to establish the basis of modern geology.", "His theories of geology and geologic time, also called deep time, came to be included in theories which were called plutonism and uniformitarianism.", "* Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781), German writer, philosopher, dramatist, publicist, and art critic* Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1796), German philosopher influential in the Jewish Haskalah* George Washington (1732–1799), American soldier, statesman, and Founding Father, who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797.", "* James Watt (1736–1819), Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer whose improvements to the Newcomen steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world.", "* Thomas Paine (1737–1809), English pamphleteer, revolutionary, radical, inventor, and intellectual, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States* Ethan Allen (1738–89), early American revolutionary and guerrilla leader* Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), author of the Jefferson Bible, an American Founding Father, the principal author of the U.S.", "Declaration of Independence, and the third President of the United States.", "* Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), French naturalist.", "He was a soldier, biologist, academic, and an early proponent of the idea that evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws.", "* Johann Adam Weishaupt (1748–1830), Bavarian philosopher, canon law professor and founder of the Illuminati* James Madison (1751–1836), \"Father of the United States Constitution\", one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, and the 4th President of the United States* James Monroe (1758–1831), Founding Father of the United States and fifth president of the United States; held various other roles in the government of the United States.", "Monroe almost never discussed religion but used Deist language in speeches and was a Freemason, who were largely Deists at the time.", "* Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805), German poet, philosopher, historian, and playwright.", "* Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794), French revolutionary and lawyer* Elihu Palmer (1764–1806), American author and advocate of deism* Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), German mathematician and physical scientist who contributed significantly to many fields, including number theory, statistics, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics, electrostatics, astronomy and optics.", "* Humphry Davy (1778–1829), British chemist and inventor.", "* Charles Lyell (1797–1875), British lawyer and the foremost geologist of his day.", "He is best known as the author of ''Principles of Geology'', which popularised James Hutton's concepts of uniformitarianism." ], [ "Born 1800–1900", "* Victor Hugo (1802–1885), French writer, artist, activist and statesman* William Lloyd Garrison (1805–1879), American abolitionist, journalist, and social reformer.", "He is best known as the editor of the abolitionist newspaper ''The Liberator'', and was one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society, he promoted \"immediate emancipation\" of slaves in the United States.", "* Lysander Spooner (1808–1887), American anarchist, philosopher and abolitionist* Henrik Wergeland (1808–1845), Norwegian poet and theologist (by self-definition).", "* Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865), sixteenth president of the United States of America.", "He never joined any church and has been described as a \"Christian deist\".", "As a young man, he was religiously skeptical and sometimes ridiculed revivalists.", "During his early years, Lincoln enjoyed reading the works of deists such as Thomas Paine and Voltaire.", "He drafted a pamphlet incorporating such ideas but did not publish it.", "After charges of hostility to Christianity almost cost him a congressional bid, he kept his unorthodox beliefs private.", "James Adams labelled Lincoln as a deist.", "In 1834, he reportedly wrote a manuscript essay challenging Christianity modelled on Paine's book ''The Age of Reason'', which a friend supposedly burned to protect him from ridicule.", "He seemed to believe in an all-powerful God, who shaped events and, by 1865, was expressing those beliefs in major speeches.", "* Jules Verne (1828–1905), French author who pioneered the science fiction genre in Europe.", "He is best known for his novels ''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea'', ''Journey to the Center of the Earth'', and ''Around the World in Eighty Days''.", "* Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907), Russian chemist and inventor.", "He is credited as being the creator of the first version of the periodic table of elements.", "* Simon Newcomb (1835–1909), Canadian-American astronomer and mathematician.", "* Mark Twain (1835–1910), American author and humorist* Alfred M. Mayer (1836–1897), American physicist.", "* Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), American philosopher, logician, mathematician, and scientist, sometimes known as \"the father of pragmatism\".", "He was educated as a chemist and employed as a scientist for 30 years.", "Today he is appreciated largely for his contributions to logic, mathematics, philosophy, scientific methodology, and semiotics, and for his founding of pragmatism.", "* Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906), Austrian physicist famous for his founding contributions in the fields of statistical mechanics and statistical thermodynamics.", "* Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931), American inventor and businessman.", "* Max Planck (1858–1947), German physicist, regarded as the founder of quantum theory.", "* José Rizal (1861–1896), a Filipino patriot, philosopher, medical doctor, poet, journalist, novelist, political scientist, painter and polyglot.", "Considered to be one of the Philippines' most important heroes and martyrs whose writings and execution contributed to the igniting of the Philippine Revolution.", "He is also considered as Asia's first modern non-violent proponent of freedom.", "* Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937), New Zealand chemist and \"father\" of nuclear physics, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 \"for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances\".", "* Max Born (1882–1970), German-British physicist and mathematician who was instrumental in the development of quantum mechanics.", "He also made contributions to solid-state physics and optics and supervised the work of a number of notable physicists in the 1920s and 30s.", "Born won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Walther Bothe).", "* Hermann Weyl (1885–1955), German mathematician and theoretical physicist." ], [ "Born after 1900", "* Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958), Austrian theoretical physicist.", "In 1945, he received the Nobel Prize in Physics.", "He is best known for his work on Pauli principle and spin theory.", "* Luis Walter Alvarez (1911–1988), American experimental physicist and inventor, who spent nearly all of his long professional career on the faculty of the University of California, Berkeley.", "He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1968, and took out over 40 patents, some of which led to commercial products.", "* Martin Gardner (1914–2010), American popular mathematics and science writer specializing in recreational mathematics, but with interests encompassing micromagic, stage magic, literature (especially the writings of Lewis Carroll and G. K. Chesterton), philosophy, scientific skepticism, and religion.", "* Antony Flew (1923–2010), British analytic philosopher and prominent former atheist; during his last years he openly made an allegiance to Deism and stated to have acknowledged the existence of an Intelligent Creator of the universe, the Aristotelian God.", "* Walter Kohn (1923–2016), Austrian-born American theoretical physicist.", "He was awarded, with John Pople, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1998.", "* Harish-Chandra (1923–1983), Indian mathematician, who did fundamental work in representation theory, especially Harmonic analysis on semisimple Lie groups.", "* Neil Armstrong (1930–2012), American NASA astronaut, test pilot, aerospace engineer, university professor, United States Naval Aviator, and the first person to set foot upon the Moon.", "* James Heckman (born 1944), American economist who shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2000 for his pioneering work in econometrics and microeconomics.", "* Rodrigo Duterte (born 1945), 16th President of the Philippines.", "* Paul Davies (born 1946), British physicist and science writer and broadcaster* Nick Cave (born 1957), Australian musician, songwriter, poet, author and actor.", "* Brett Gurewitz (born 1962), guitarist and songwriter for the American punk rock band Bad Religion* Tammy Duckworth (born 1968), United States Senator for Illinois, member of United States House of Representatives, Army National Guard lieutenant colonel* Harmony Korine (born 1973), American film director, producer, screenwriter, and author.", "* Rosalia (Born 1992) Spanish singer." ], [ "See also", "* List of people by belief" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Book of Leviticus" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Book of''' '''Leviticus''' (, from , ; , , 'And He called'; ) is the third book of the Torah (the Pentateuch) and of the Old Testament, also known as the '''Third Book of Moses'''.", "Many hypotheses presented by scholars as to its origins agree that it developed over a long period of time, reaching its present form during the Persian Period, from 538 to 332 BC, although this is disputed.Most of its chapters (1–7, 11–27) consist of Yahweh's speeches to Moses, which he tells Moses to repeat to the Israelites.", "This takes place within the story of the Israelites' Exodus after they escaped Egypt and reached Mount Sinai (Exodus 19:1).", "The Book of Exodus narrates how Moses led the Israelites in building the Tabernacle (Exodus 35–40) with God's instructions (Exodus 25–31).", "In Leviticus, God tells the Israelites and their priests, Aaron and his sons, how to make offerings in the Tabernacle and how to conduct themselves while camped around the holy tent sanctuary.", "Leviticus takes place during the month or month-and-a-half between the completion of the Tabernacle (Exodus 40:17) and the Israelites' departure from Sinai (Numbers 1:1, 10:11).The instructions of Leviticus emphasize ritual, legal, and moral practices rather than beliefs.", "Nevertheless, they reflect the world view of the creation story in Genesis 1 that God wishes to live with humans.", "The book teaches that faithful performance of the sanctuary rituals can make that possible, so long as the people avoid sin and impurity whenever possible.", "The rituals, especially the sin and guilt offerings, provide the means to gain forgiveness for sins (Leviticus 4–5) and purification from impurities (Leviticus 11–16) so that God can continue to live in the Tabernacle in the midst of the people." ], [ "Title", "4Q120, a Greek manuscript of Leviticus from the 1st century BCEThe English name Leviticus comes from the Latin , which is in turn from the (), referring to the priestly tribe of the Israelites, 'Levi'.", "The Greek expression is in turn a variant of the rabbinic Hebrew , 'law of priests', as many of its laws relate to priests.In Hebrew the book is called (), from the opening of the book, \"And He God called.\"" ], [ "Structure", "The outlines from commentaries are similar, though not identical; compare those of Wenham, Hartley, Milgrom, and Watts.", "*Laws on sacrifice (chapters 1:1–7:38)**Instructions for the laity on bringing offerings (1:1–6:7)***The types of offering: burnt, cereal, peace, purification, reparation (or sin) offerings (chapters 1–5)**Instructions for the priests (6:1–7:38)***The various offerings, with the addition of the priests' cereal offering (6:1–7:36)***Summary (7:37–38)*Institution of the priesthood (8:1–10:20)**Ordination of Aaron and his sons (chapter 8)**Aaron makes the first sacrifices (chapter 9)**Judgement on Nadab and Abihu (chapter 10)*Uncleanliness and its treatment (11:1–15:33)**Unclean animals (chapter 11)**Childbirth as a source of uncleanliness (chapter 12)**Unclean diseases (chapter 13)**Cleansing of diseases (chapter 14)**Unclean discharges (chapter 15)*Day of Atonement: purification of the tabernacle from the effects of uncleanliness and sin (chapter 16)*Prescriptions for practical holiness (the Holiness Code, chapters 17–26)**Sacrifice and food (chapter 17)**Sexual behaviour (chapter 18)**Neighbourliness (chapter 19)**Grave crimes (chapter 20)**Rules for priests (chapter 21) **Rules for eating sacrifices (chapter 22)**Festivals (chapter 23)**Rules for the tabernacle (chapter 24:1–9)**Blasphemy (chapter 24:10–23)**Sabbatical and Jubilee years (chapter 25)**Exhortation to obey the law: blessing and curse (chapter 26)*Redemption of votive gifts (chapter 27)" ], [ "Summary", "Vaikro – Book of Leviticus, Warsaw edition, 1860, page 1Chapters 1–5 describe the various sacrifices from the sacrificers' point of view, although the priests are essential for handling the blood.", "Chapters 6–7 go over much the same ground, but from the point of view of the priest, who, as the one actually carrying out the sacrifice and dividing the \"portions\", needs to know how to do it.", "Sacrifices are between God, the priest, and the offers, although in some cases the entire sacrifice is a single portion to God—i.e., burnt to ashes.Chapters 8–10 describe how Moses consecrates Aaron and his sons as the first priests, the first sacrifices, and God's destruction of two of Aaron's sons for ritual offenses.", "The purpose is to underline the character of altar priesthood (i.e., those priests with power to offer sacrifices to God) as an Aaronite privilege, and the responsibilities and dangers of their position.With sacrifice and priesthood established, chapters 11–15 instruct the lay people on purity (or cleanliness).", "Eating certain animals produces uncleanliness, as does giving birth; certain skin diseases (but not all) are unclean, as are certain conditions affecting walls and clothing (mildew and similar conditions); and unusual bodily discharges, including female menses and male emissions (gonorrhea), are unclean.", "The reasoning behind the food rules are obscure; for the rest the guiding principle seems to be that all these conditions involve a loss of \"life force\", usually but not always blood.Chapter 16 concerns the Day of Atonement (though that phrase appears first in 23:27).", "This is the only day on which the High Priest is to enter the holiest part of the sanctuary, the holy of holies.", "He is to sacrifice a bull for the sins of the priests, and a goat for the sins of the laypeople.", "The priest is to send a second goat into the desert to \"Azazel\", bearing the sins of the whole people.", "Azazel's identity is unknown, with some Christian tradition linking him to a fallen angel, older English Bible translations like the King James Version translating it as \"a scapegoat\".Chapters 17–26 are the Holiness code.", "It begins with a prohibition on all ritual slaughter of animals, and then prohibits a long list of sexual contacts and also child sacrifice.", "The \"holiness\" injunctions which give the code its name begin with the next section: there are penalties for the worship of Molech, consulting mediums and wizards, cursing one's parents and engaging in unlawful sex.", "Priests receive instruction on mourning rituals and acceptable bodily defects.", "The punishment for blasphemy is death, and there is the setting of rules for eating sacrifices; there is an explanation of the calendar, and there are rules for sabbatical and Jubilee years; there are rules for oil lamps and bread in the sanctuary; and there are rules for slavery.", "The code ends by telling the Israelites they must choose between the law and prosperity on the one hand, or, on the other, horrible punishments, the worst of which will be expulsion from the land.Chapter 27 is a disparate and probably late addition telling about persons and things serving as dedication to the Lord and how one can redeem, instead of fulfill, vows." ], [ "Composition", "The Tabernacle and the Camp (19th-century drawing)The majority of scholars have concluded that the Pentateuch received its final form during the Persian period (538–332 BC).", "Nevertheless, Leviticus had a long period of growth before reaching that form.The entire composition of the book of Leviticus is Priestly literature.", "Most scholars see chapters 1–16 (the Priestly code) and chapters 17–26 (the Holiness code) as the work of two related schools, but while the Holiness material employs the same technical terms as the Priestly code, it broadens their meaning from pure ritual to the theological and moral, turning the ritual of the Priestly code into a model for the relationship of Israel to Yahweh: as the tabernacle, which is apart from uncleanliness, becomes holy by the presence of Yahweh, so he will dwell among Israel when Israel receives purification (becomes holy) and separates from other peoples.", "The ritual instructions in the Priestly code apparently grew from priests giving instruction and answering questions about ritual matters; the Holiness code (or H) used to be a separate document, later becoming part of Leviticus, but it seems better to think of the Holiness authors as editors who worked with the Priestly code and actually produced Leviticus as is now extant." ], [ "Themes", "===Sacrifice and ritual===Many scholars argue that the rituals of Leviticus have a theological meaning concerning Israel's relationship with its God.", "Jacob Milgrom was especially influential in spreading this view.", "He maintained that the priestly regulations in Leviticus expressed a rational system of theological thought.", "The writers expected them to be put into practice in Israel's temple, so the rituals would express this theology as well, as well as ethical concern for the poor.", "Milgrom also argued that the book's purity regulations (chapters 11–15) have a basis in ethical thinking.", "Many other interpreters have followed Milgrom in exploring the theological and ethical implications of Leviticus's regulations (e.g., Marx, Balentine), though some have questioned how systematic they really are.", "Ritual, therefore, is not taking a series of actions for their own sake, but a means of maintaining the relationship between God, the world, and humankind.===Kehuna (Jewish priesthood)===The main function of the priests is service at the altar, and only the sons of Aaron are priests in the full sense.", "(Ezekiel also distinguishes between altar-priests and lower Levites, but in Ezekiel the altar-priests are sons of Zadok instead of sons of Aaron; many scholars see this as a remnant of struggles between different priestly factions in First Temple times, finding resolution by the Second Temple into a hierarchy of Aaronite altar-priests and lower-level Levites, including singers, gatekeepers and the like.", ")In chapter 10, God kills Nadab and Abihu, the oldest sons of Aaron, for offering \"strange incense\".", "Aaron has two sons left.", "Commentators have read various messages in the incident: a reflection of struggles between priestly factions in the post-Exilic period (Gerstenberger); or a warning against offering incense outside the Temple, where there might be the risk of invoking strange gods (Milgrom).", "In any case, there has been a pollution of the sanctuary by the bodies of the two dead priests, leading into the next theme, holiness.===Uncleanliness and purity===Ritual purity is essential for an Israelite to be able to approach Yahweh and remain part of the community.", "Uncleanliness threatens holiness; chapters 11–15 review the various causes of uncleanliness and describe the rituals which will restore cleanliness; one is to maintain cleanliness through observation of the rules on sexual behaviour, family relations, land ownership, worship, sacrifice, and observance of holy days.Yahweh dwells with Israel in the Tabernacle.", "All of the priestly ritual focuses on Yahweh and the construction and maintenance of a holy space, but sin generates impurity, as do everyday events such as childbirth and menstruation; impurity pollutes the holy dwelling place.", "Failure to purify the sacred space ritually could result in God's leaving, which would be disastrous.=== Infectious diseases in chapter 13 ===In chapter 13, God instructs Moses and Aaron on how to identify infectious diseases and deal with them accordingly.", "The translators and interpreters of the Hebrew Bible in various languages have never reached a consensus on these infectious diseases, or (), and the translation and interpretation of the scriptures are not known for certain.", "The most common translation is that these infectious diseases are leprosy; however, what is described in chapter 13 does not represent a typical manifestation of leprosy.", "Modern dermatology shows that many of the infectious diseases in chapter 13 were likely dermatophytoses, a group of highly contagious skin diseases.The infectious disease of the chin described in verses 29–37 seems to be Tinea barbae in men or Tinea faciei in women; the infectious disease described in verses 29–37 (as resulting in hair loss and eventual baldness) seems to be Tinea capitis (Favus).", "Verses 1–17 seem to describe Tinea corporis.The Hebrew word in verses 38–39 is translated as 'tetter' or 'freckles', likely because translators did not know what it meant at the time, and thus, translated it incorrectly.", "Later translations identify it as talking about vitiligo; however, vitiligo is not an infectious disease.", "The disease, described as healing itself and leaving white patches after infection, is likely to be pityriasis versicolor (tinea versicolor).", "''Tetter'' originally referred to an outbreak, which later evolved meaning ringworm-like lesions.", "Therefore, a common name for Tinea pedis (athlete's foot) was Cantlie's foot tetter.", "In addition, verses 18–23 describe infections after scald, and verses 24–28 describe infections after burn.===Atonement===The Scapegoat'' (1854 painting by William Holman Hunt)Through sacrifice, the priest \"makes atonement\" for sin and the offeror receives forgiveness (but only if Yahweh accepts the sacrifice).", "Atonement rituals involve the pouring or sprinkling of blood as the symbol of the life of the victim: the blood has the power to wipe out or absorb the sin.", "The two-part division of the book structurally reflects the role of atonement: chapters 1–16 call for the establishment of the institution for atonement, and chapters 17–27 call for the life of the atoned community in holiness.===Holiness===The consistent theme of chapters 17–26 is in the repetition of the phrase, \"Be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy.\"", "Holiness in ancient Israel and the Hebrew Bible had a different meaning than in contemporary usage: it might have been regarded as the essence of Yahweh, an invisible but physical and potentially dangerous force.", "Specific objects, or even days, can be holy, but they derive holiness from being connected with Yahweh—the seventh day, the tabernacle, and the priests all derive their holiness from him.", "As a result, Israel had to maintain its own holiness in order to live safely alongside God.The need for holiness is for the possession of the Promised Land (Canaan), where the Jews will become a holy people: \"You shall not do as they do in the land of Egypt where you dwelt, and you shall not do as they do in the land of Canaan to which I am bringing you... You shall do my ordinances and keep my statutes...", "I am the Lord, your God.\"", "(Leviticus 18:3)." ], [ "Subsequent tradition", "Portion of the Temple ScrollLeviticus, as part of the Torah, became the law book of Jerusalem's Second Temple as well as of the Samaritan temple.", "Its influence is evident among the Dead Sea Scrolls, which included fragments of seventeen manuscripts of Leviticus dating from the 3rd to the 1st centuries BC.", "Many other Qumran scrolls cite the book, especially the Temple Scroll and 4QMMT.Jews and Christians have not observed Leviticus's instructions for animal offerings since the 1st century AD, following the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 AD.", "As there was no longer a Temple at which to offer animal sacrifices, Judaism pivoted towards prayer and the study of the Torah, eventually giving rise to Rabbinic Judaism.", "Nevertheless, Leviticus constitutes a major source of Jewish law and is traditionally the first book children learn in the Rabbinic system of education.", "There are two main Midrashim on Leviticus—the halakhic one (Sifra) and a more aggadic one (Vayikra Rabbah).The New Testament, particularly the Epistle to the Hebrews, uses ideas and images from Leviticus to describe Jesus as the high priest who offers his own blood as a sin offering.", "Therefore, Christians do not make animal offerings either, because as Gordon Wenham summarized: \"With the death of Christ the only sufficient 'burnt offering' was offered once and for all, and therefore the animal sacrifices which foreshadowed Christ's sacrifice were made obsolete.", "\"Christians generally have the view that the New Covenant supersedes the Old Testament's ritual laws, which includes some of the rules in Leviticus.", "Christians, therefore, do not usually follow Leviticus' rules regarding diet, purity, and agriculture.", "Christian teachings have differed, however, as to where to draw the line between ritual and moral regulations.", "In ''Homilies on Leviticus'', the third century theologian, Origen, expounded on the qualities of priests as models for Christians to be perfect in everything, strict, wise and to examine themselves individually, forgive sins, and convert sinners (by words and by doctrine)." ], [ "Judaism's weekly Torah portions in the Book of Leviticus", "A Torah scroll and silver pointer () used in readingFor detailed contents, see:* ''Vayikra'', on Leviticus 1–5: Laws of the sacrifices* ''Tzav'', on Leviticus 6–8: Sacrifices, ordination of the priests* ''Shemini'', on Leviticus 9–11: Concecration of tabernacle, alien fire, dietary laws* ''Tazria'', on Leviticus 12–13: Childbirth, skin disease, clothing* ''Metzora'', on Leviticus 14–15: Skin disease, unclean houses, genital discharges* ''Acharei Mot'', on Leviticus 16–18: Yom Kippur, centralized offerings, sexual practices* ''Kedoshim'', on Leviticus 19–20: Holiness, penalties for transgressions* ''Emor'', on Leviticus 21–24: Rules for priests, holy days, lights and bread, a blasphemer* ''Behar'', on Leviticus 25–25: Sabbatical year, debt servitude limited* ''Bechukotai'', on Leviticus 26–27: Blessings and curses, payment of vows" ], [ "See also", "* 613 commandments* En-Gedi Scroll* Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll* Liberty Bell – inscribed with a quotation from Leviticus" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Translations of Leviticus===* Leviticus at Bible gateway===Commentaries on Leviticus===**Bamberger, Bernard Jacob The Torah: A Modern Commentary (1981), ***********===General===************************" ], [ "External links", "Online versions of Leviticus:*Hebrew:** Leviticus at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation)** Leviticus (The Living Torah) Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's translation and commentary at Ort.org** Vayikra–Levitichius (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org** ויקרא ''Vayikra''–Leviticus (Hebrew–English at Mechon-Mamre.org)* Christian translations:** The Book of Leviticus, Douay Rheims Version, with Bishop Challoner Commentaries** ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org (King James Version)** ''Online Audio and Classic Bible'' at Bible-Book.org (King James Version)** ''oremus Bible Browser'' (New Revised Standard Version)** ''oremus Bible Browser'' (''Anglicized'' New Revised Standard Version)** Various versionsRelated article:* Book of Leviticus article (Jewish Encyclopedia)* The Literary Structure of Leviticus (chaver.com)Brief introduction* Leviticus" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "L. Frank Baum" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lyman Frank Baum''' (; May 15, 1856 – May 6, 1919) was an American author best known for his children's fantasy books, particularly ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'', part of a series.", "In addition to the 14 ''Oz'' books, Baum penned 41 other novels (not including four lost, unpublished novels), 83 short stories, over 200 poems, and at least 42 scripts.", "He made numerous attempts to bring his works to the stage and screen; the 1939 adaptation of the first ''Oz'' book became a landmark of 20th-century cinema.Born and raised in upstate New York, Baum moved west after an unsuccessful stint as a theater producer and playwright.", "He and his wife opened a store in South Dakota and he edited and published a newspaper.", "They then moved to Chicago, where he worked as a newspaper reporter and published children's literature, coming out with the first ''Oz'' book in 1900.While continuing his writing, among his final projects he sought to establish a film studio focused on children's films in Los Angeles, California.His works anticipated such later commonplaces as television, augmented reality, laptop computers (''The Master Key''), wireless telephones (''Tik-Tok of Oz''), women in high-risk and action-heavy occupations (''Mary Louise in the Country''), and the ubiquity of clothes advertising (''Aunt Jane's Nieces at Work'')." ], [ "Childhood and early life", "Baum was born in Chittenango, New York, in 1856 into a devout Methodist family.", "He had German, Scots-Irish, and English ancestry.", "He was the seventh of nine children of Cynthia Ann (née Stanton) and Benjamin Ward Baum, only five of whom survived into adulthood.", "\"Lyman\" was the name of his father's brother, but he always disliked it and preferred his middle name \"Frank\".Young Baum in the Peekskill Military AcademyHis father succeeded in many businesses, including barrel-making, oil drilling in Pennsylvania, and real estate.", "Baum grew up on his parents' expansive estate called Rose Lawn, which he fondly recalled as a sort of paradise.", "Rose Lawn was located in Mattydale, New York.", "Frank was a sickly, dreamy child, tutored at home with his siblings.", "From the age of 12, he spent two miserable years at Peekskill Military Academy, but after being severely disciplined for daydreaming, he had a possibly psychogenic heart attack and was allowed to return home.Baum started writing early in life, possibly prompted by his father buying him a cheap printing press.", "He had always been close to his younger brother Henry (Harry) Clay Baum, who helped in the production of ''The Rose Lawn Home Journal''.", "The brothers published several issues of the journal, including advertisements from local businesses, which they gave to family and friends for free.", "By the age of 17, Baum established a second amateur journal called ''The Stamp Collector'', printed an 11-page pamphlet called ''Baum's Complete Stamp Dealers' Directory'', and started a stamp dealership with friends.At 20, Baum took on the national craze of breeding fancy poultry.", "He specialized in raising the Hamburg chicken.", "In March 1880, he established a monthly trade journal, ''The Poultry Record'', and in 1886, when Baum was 30 years old, his first book was published: ''The Book of the Hamburgs: A Brief Treatise upon the Mating, Rearing, and Management of the Different Varieties of Hamburgs''.Baum had a flair for being the spotlight of fun in the household, including during times of financial difficulties.", "His selling of fireworks made the Fourth of July memorable.", "His skyrockets, Roman candles, and fireworks filled the sky, while many people around the neighborhood would gather in front of the house to watch the displays.", "Christmas was even more festive.", "Baum dressed as Santa Claus for the family.", "His father would place the Christmas tree behind a curtain in the front parlor so that Baum could talk to everyone while he decorated the tree without people managing to see him.", "He maintained this tradition all his life." ], [ "Career", "===Theater===Baum embarked on his lifetime infatuation—and wavering financial success—with the theater.", "A local theatrical company duped him into replenishing their stock of costumes on the promise of leading roles coming his way.", "Disillusioned, Baum left the theater—temporarily—and went to work as a clerk in his brother-in-law's dry goods company in Syracuse.", "This experience may have influenced his story \"The Suicide of Kiaros\", first published in the literary journal ''The White Elephant''.", "A fellow clerk one day had been found locked in a store room dead, probably from suicide.Baum could never stay away long from the stage.", "He performed in plays under the stage names of Louis F. Baum and George Brooks.", "In 1880, his father built him a theater in Richburg, New York, and Baum set about writing plays and gathering a company to act in them.", "''The Maid of Arran'' proved a modest success, a melodrama with songs based on William Black's novel ''A Princess of Thule''.", "Baum wrote the play and composed songs for it (making it a prototypical musical, as its songs relate to the narrative), and acted in the leading role.", "His aunt Katharine Gray played his character's aunt.", "She was the founder of Syracuse Oratory School, and Baum advertised his services in her catalog to teach theater, including stage business, play writing, directing, translating (French, German, and Italian), revision, and operettas.On November 9, 1882, Baum married Maud Gage, a daughter of Matilda Joslyn Gage, a famous women's suffrage and feminist activist.", "A local newspaper reported that their ceremony was \"one of equality\" and that their marriage vows were \"precisely the same.\"", "While Baum was touring with ''The Maid of Arran'', the theater in Richburg caught fire during a production of Baum's ironically titled parlor drama ''Matches'', destroying the theater as well as the only known copies of many of Baum's scripts, including ''Matches'', as well as costumes.===The South Dakota years===In July 1888, Baum and his wife moved to Aberdeen, Dakota Territory where he opened a store called \"Baum's Bazaar\".", "His habit of giving out wares on credit led to the eventual bankrupting of the store, so Baum turned to editing the local newspaper ''The Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer'' where he wrote the column ''Our Landlady''.", "Following the death of Sitting Bull at the hands of Indian agency police, Baum recommended the wholesale extermination of all America's native peoples in a column that he wrote on December 20, 1890 (full text below).", "It is unclear whether Baum meant it as a satire or not, especially since his mother-in-law Matilda Joslyn Gage received an honorary adoption into the Wolf Clan of the Mohawk Nation and was a fierce defender of Native American rights, but on January 3, 1891, he returned to the subject in an editorial response to the Wounded Knee Massacre:The Pioneer has before declared that our only safety depends upon the total extirmination of the Indians.", "Having wronged them for centuries, we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth.Baum's description of Kansas in ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'' is based on his experiences in drought-ridden South Dakota.", "During much of this time, his mother-in-law was living in the Baum household.", "While Baum was in South Dakota, he sang in a quartet which included James Kyle, who became one of the first Populist (People's Party) senators in the U.S.===Writing===Promotional Poster for Baum's \"Popular Books For Children\", Baum's newspaper failed in 1891, and he, Maud, and their four sons moved to the Humboldt Park section of Chicago, where Baum took a job reporting for the ''Evening Post''.", "Beginning in 1897, he founded and edited a magazine called ''The Show Window'', later known as the ''Merchants Record and Show Window'', which focused on store window displays, retail strategies and visual merchandising.", "The major department stores of the time created elaborate Christmas time fantasies, using clockwork mechanisms that made people and animals appear to move.", "The former ''Show Window'' magazine is still currently in operation, now known as ''VMSD'' magazine (visual merchandising + store design), based in Cincinnati.", "In 1900, Baum published a book about window displays in which he stressed the importance of mannequins in drawing customers.", "He also had to work as a traveling salesman.Denslow in 1900In 1897, he wrote and published ''Mother Goose in Prose'', a collection of Mother Goose rhymes written as prose stories and illustrated by Maxfield Parrish.", "''Mother Goose'' was a moderate success and allowed Baum to quit his sales job (which had had a negative impact on his health).", "In 1899, Baum partnered with illustrator W. W. Denslow to publish ''Father Goose, His Book'', a collection of nonsense poetry.", "The book was a success, becoming the best-selling children's book of the year.", "The Baum–Parrish Mother Goose used to promote a breakfast cereal (part 1 of 12 as a free premium)====''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz''====In 1900, Baum and Denslow (with whom he shared the copyright) published ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'' to much critical acclaim and financial success.", "The book was the best-selling children's book for two years after its initial publication.", "Baum went on to write thirteen more novels based on the places and people of the Land of Oz.====''The Wizard of Oz: Fred R. Hamlin's Musical Extravaganza''====1903 poster of Dave Montgomery as the Tin Man in Hamlin's musical stage version.Two years after ''Wizard'' publication, Baum and Denslow teamed up with composer Paul Tietjens and director Julian Mitchell to produce a musical stage version of the book under Fred R. Hamlin.", "Baum and Tietjens had worked on a musical of ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'' in 1901 and based closely upon the book, but it was rejected.", "This stage version opened in Chicago in 1902 (the first to use the shortened title \"The Wizard of Oz\"), then ran on Broadway for 293 stage nights from January to October 1903.It returned to Broadway in 1904, where it played from March to May and again from November to December.", "It successfully toured the United States with much of the same cast, as was done in those days, until 1911, and then became available for amateur use.", "The stage version starred Anna Laughlin as Dorothy Gale, alongside David C. Montgomery and Fred Stone as the Tin Woodman and Scarecrow respectively, which shot the pair to instant fame.The stage version differed quite a bit from the book, and was aimed primarily at adults.", "Toto was replaced with Imogene the Cow, and Tryxie Tryfle (a waitress) and Pastoria (a streetcar operator) were added as fellow cyclone victims.", "The Wicked Witch of the West was eliminated entirely in the script, and the plot became about how the four friends were allied with the usurping Wizard and were hunted as traitors to Pastoria II, the rightful King of Oz.", "It is unclear how much control or influence Baum had on the script; it appears that many of the changes were written by Baum against his wishes due to contractual requirements with Hamlin.", "Jokes in the script, mostly written by Glen MacDonough, called for explicit references to President Theodore Roosevelt, Senator Mark Hanna, Rev.", "Andrew Danquer, and oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller.", "Although use of the script was rather free-form, the line about Hanna was ordered dropped as soon as Hamlin got word of his death in 1904.Beginning with the success of the stage version, most subsequent versions of the story, including newer editions of the novel, have been titled \"The Wizard of Oz\", rather than using the full, original title.", "In more recent years, restoring the full title has become increasingly common, particularly to distinguish the novel from the Hollywood film.Baum wrote a new Oz book, ''The Marvelous Land of Oz'', with a view to making it into a stage production, which was titled ''The Woggle-Bug'', but Montgomery and Stone balked at appearing when the original was still running.", "The Scarecrow and Tin Woodman were then omitted from this adaptation, which was seen as a self-rip-off by critics and proved to be a major flop before it could reach Broadway.", "He also worked for years on a musical version of ''Ozma of Oz'', which eventually became ''The Tik-Tok Man of Oz''.", "This did fairly well in Los Angeles, but not well enough to convince producer Oliver Morosco to mount a production in New York.", "He also began a stage version of ''The Patchwork Girl of Oz'', but this was ultimately realized as a film''." ], [ "Later life and work", "With the success of ''Wizard'' on page and stage, Baum and Denslow hoped for further success and published ''Dot and Tot of Merryland'' in 1901.The book was one of Baum's weakest, and its failure further strained his faltering relationship with Denslow.", "It was their last collaboration.", "Baum worked primarily with John R. Neill on his fantasy work beginning in 1904, but Baum met Neill few times (all before he moved to California) and often found Neill's art not humorous enough for his liking.", "He was particularly offended when Neill published ''The Oz Toy Book: Cut-outs for the Kiddies'' without authorization.Baum reportedly designed the chandeliers in the Crown Room of the Hotel del Coronado; however, that attribution has yet to be corroborated.", "Several times during the development of the Oz series, Baum declared that he had written his last Oz book and devoted himself to other works of fantasy fiction based in other magical lands, including ''The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus'' and ''Queen Zixi of Ix''.", "However, he returned to the series each time, persuaded by popular demand, letters from children, and the failure of his new books.", "Even so, his other works remained very popular after his death, with ''The Master Key'' appearing on ''St.", "Nicholas Magazine'''s survey of readers' favorite books well into the 1920s.In 1905, Baum declared plans for an Oz amusement park.", "In an interview, he mentioned buying \"Pedloe Island\" off the coast of California to turn it into an Oz park.", "However, there is no evidence that he purchased such an island, and no one has ever been able to find any island whose name even resembles Pedloe in that area.", "Nevertheless, Baum stated to the press that he had discovered a Pedloe Island off the coast of California and that he had purchased it to be \"the Marvelous Land of Oz,\" intending it to be \"a fairy paradise for children.\"", "Eleven-year-old Dorothy Talbot of San Francisco was reported to be ascendant to the throne on March 1, 1906, when the Palace of Oz was expected to be completed.", "Baum planned to live on the island, with administrative duties handled by the princess and her all-child advisers.", "Plans included statues of the Scarecrow, Tin Woodman, Jack Pumpkinhead, and H.M. Woggle-Bug, T.E.", "Baum abandoned his Oz park project after the failure of ''The Woggle-Bug'', which was playing at the Garrick Theatre in 1905.Baum surrounded by the characters in ''The Fairylogue and Radio-Plays''Because of his lifelong love of theatre, he financed elaborate musicals, often to his financial detriment.", "One of Baum's worst financial endeavors was his ''The Fairylogue and Radio-Plays'' (1908), which combined a slideshow, film, and live actors with a lecture by Baum as if he were giving a travelogue to Oz.", "However, Baum ran into trouble and could not pay his debts to the company who produced the films.", "He did not get back to a stable financial situation for several years, after he sold the royalty rights to many of his earlier works, including ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz''.", "This resulted in the M.A.", "Donahue Company publishing cheap editions of his early works with advertising which purported that Baum's newer output was inferior to the less expensive books that they were releasing.", "He claimed bankruptcy in August 1911.However, Baum had shrewdly transferred most of his property into Maud's name, except for his clothing, his typewriter, and his library (mostly of children's books, such as the fairy tales of Andrew Lang, whose portrait he kept in his study)—all of which, he successfully argued, were essential to his occupation.", "Maud handled the finances anyway, and thus Baum lost much less than he could have.Baum made use of several pseudonyms for some of his other non-Oz books.", "They include:* Edith Van Dyne (the ''Aunt Jane's Nieces'' series)* Laura Bancroft (''The Twinkle Tales'', ''Policeman Bluejay'')* Floyd Akers (''The Boy Fortune Hunters'' series, continuing the ''Sam Steele'' series)* Suzanne Metcalf (''Annabel'')* Schuyler Staunton (''The Fate of a Crown'', ''Daughters of Destiny'')* John Estes Cooke (''Tamawaca Folks'')* Capt.", "Hugh Fitzgerald (the ''Sam Steele'' series)Baum also anonymously wrote ''The Last Egyptian: A Romance of the Nile''.", "He continued theatrical work with Harry Marston Haldeman's men's social group The Uplifters, for which he wrote several plays for various celebrations.", "He also wrote the group's parodic by-laws.", "The group also included Will Rogers, but was proud to have had Baum as a member and posthumously revived many of his works despite their ephemeral intent.", "Many of these play's titles are known, but only ''The Uplift of Lucifer'' is known to survive (it was published in a limited edition in the 1960s).", "Prior to that, his last produced play was ''The Tik-Tok Man of Oz'' (based on ''Ozma of Oz'' and the basis for ''Tik-Tok of Oz''), a modest success in Hollywood that producer Oliver Morosco decided did not do well enough to take to Broadway.", "Morosco, incidentally, quickly turned to film production, as did Baum.In 1914, Baum started his own film production company The Oz Film Manufacturing Company, which came as an outgrowth of the Uplifters.", "He served as its president and principal producer and screenwriter.", "The rest of the board consisted of Louis F. Gottschalk, Harry Marston Haldeman, and Clarence R. Rundel.", "The films were directed by J. Farrell MacDonald, with casts that included Violet MacMillan, Vivian Reed, Mildred Harris, Juanita Hansen, Pierre Couderc, Mai Welles, Louise Emmons, J. Charles Haydon, and early appearances by Harold Lloyd and Hal Roach.", "Silent film actor Richard Rosson appeared in one of the films (Rosson's younger brother Harold Rosson was the cinematographer on ''The Wizard of Oz'', released in 1939).", "After little success probing the unrealized children's film market, Baum acknowledged his authorship of ''The Last Egyptian'' and made a film of it (portions of which are included in ''Decasia''), but the Oz name had become box office poison for the time being, and even a name change to Dramatic Feature Films and transfer of ownership to Frank Joslyn Baum did not help.", "Baum invested none of his own money in the venture, unlike ''The Fairylogue and Radio-Plays'', but the stress probably took its toll on his health." ], [ "Death", "Baum's grave at Forest Lawn Cemetery in Glendale, California, in 2011On May 5, 1919, Baum suffered a stroke, slipped into a coma and died the following day, at the age of 62, about 9 days before his 63rd birthday.", "His last words were spoken to his wife during a brief period of lucidity: \"Now we can cross the Shifting Sands.\"", "He was buried in Glendale's Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery.His final Oz book, ''Glinda of Oz'', was published on July 10, 1920, a year after his death.", "The Oz series was continued long after his death by other authors, notably Ruth Plumly Thompson, who wrote an additional twenty-one Oz books." ], [ "Baum's beliefs", "===Literary===Baum's avowed intentions with the Oz books and his other fairy tales was to retell tales such as those which are found in the works of the Brothers Grimm and Hans Christian Andersen, remake them in an American vein, update them, omit stereotypical characters such as dwarfs or genies, and remove the association of violence and moral teachings.", "His first Oz books contained a fair amount of violence, but the amount of it decreased as the series progressed; in ''The Emerald City of Oz'', Ozma objects to the use of violence, even to the use of violence against the Nomes who threaten Oz with invasion.", "His introduction is often cited as the beginning of the sanitization of children's stories, although he did not do a great deal more than eliminate harsh moral lessons.Another traditional element that Baum intentionally omitted was the emphasis on romance.", "He considered romantic love to be uninteresting to young children, as well as largely incomprehensible.", "In ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'', the only elements of romance lay in the background of the Tin Woodman and his love for Nimmie Amee, which explains his condition but does not affect the tale in any other way, and the background of Gayelette and the enchantment of the winged monkeys.", "The only other stories with such elements were ''The Scarecrow of Oz'' and ''Tik-Tok of Oz'', both of them were based on dramatizations, which Baum regarded warily until his readers accepted them.===Political=======Women's suffrage advocate====When Baum lived in Aberdeen, South Dakota, where he was secretary of its Equal Suffrage Club, much of the politics in the Republican ''Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer'' dealt with trying to convince the populace to vote for women's suffrage.", "Susan B. Anthony visited Aberdeen and stayed with the Baums.", "Nancy Tystad Koupal notes an apparent loss of interest in editorializing after Aberdeen failed to pass the bill for women's enfranchisement.Sally Roesch Wagner of The Matilda Joslyn Gage Foundation published ''The Wonderful Mother of Oz'', describing how Matilda Gage's feminist politics were sympathetically channeled by Baum into his Oz books.", "Some of Baum's contacts with suffragists of his day seem to have inspired much of ''The Marvelous Land of Oz''.", "In this story, General Jinjur leads the girls and women of Oz in a revolt, armed with knitting needles; they succeed and make the men do the household chores.", "Jinjur proves to be an incompetent ruler, but Princess Ozma, who advocates gender equality, is ultimately placed on the throne.", "Charlotte Perkins Gilman's 1915 classic of feminist science fiction, ''Herland'', bears strong similarities to ''The Emerald City of Oz'' (1910); the link between Baum and Gilman is considered to be Gage.", "Baum's stories outside of Oz also contain feminist or egalitarian themes.", "His Edith Van Dyne stories depict girls and young women engaging in traditionally masculine activities, including ''Aunt Jane's Nieces'' and ''The Flying Girl'' and its sequel.", "The Bluebird Books feature a girl sleuth.====Racial views====During the period surrounding the 1890 Ghost Dance movement and Wounded Knee Massacre, Baum wrote two editorials asserting that the safety of white settlers depended on the wholesale genocide of American Indians.", "These editorials were re-published in 1990 by sociologist Robert Venables of Cornell University, who argues that Baum was not using sarcasm.", "American historian Camilla Townsend, the editor of ''American Indian History: A Documentary Reader'', argued that the editorial was \"Against character\", as he had earlier published a piece that criticized the idea of white people fearing Native Americans; Townsend stated that she failed to find evidence that Baum was using sarcasm.The first piece was published on December 20, 1890, five days after the killing of the Lakota Sioux holy man, Sitting Bull.", "The piece opined that with Sitting Bull's death, \"the nobility of the Redskin\" had been extinguished, and the safety of the frontier would not be established until there was \"total annihilation\" of the remaining Native Americans, who, he claimed, lived as \"miserable wretches.\"", "Baum said that their extermination should not be regretted, and their elimination would \"do justice to the manly characteristics\" of their ancestors.The Wounded Knee Massacre occurred nine days later; the second editorial was published on January 3, 1891.Baum alleged that General Nelson A.", "Miles' weak rule of the Native Americans had caused American soldiers to suffer a \"terrible loss of blood\", in a \"battle\" which had been a disgrace to the Department of War.", "He found that the \"disaster\" could have easily been prevented with proper preparations.", "Baum reiterated that he believed, due to the history of mistreatment of Native Americans, that the extermination of the \"untamed and untamable\" tribes was necessary to protect American settlers.", "Baum ended the editorial with the following anecdote: \"An eastern contemporary, with a grain of wisdom in its wit, says that 'when the whites win a fight, it is a victory, and when the Indians win it, it is a massacre.", "'\"In 2006, two descendants of Baum apologized to the Sioux nation for any hurt that their ancestor had caused.The short story \"The Enchanted Buffalo\" claims to be a legend about a tribe of bison, and it states that a key element of it made it into the legends of Native American tribes.", "Baum mentions his characters' distaste for a Hopi snake dance in ''Aunt Jane's Nieces and Uncle John'', but he also deplores the horrible situation which exists on Indian reservations.", "''Aunt Jane's Nieces on the Ranch'' features a hard-working Mexican in order to disprove Anglo stereotypes which portray Mexicans as lazy.", "Baum's mother-in-law and woman's suffrage leader Matilda Joslyn Gage strongly influenced his views.", "Gage was initiated into the Wolf Clan and admitted into the Iroquois Council of Matrons in recognition of her outspoken respect and sympathy for Native American people.====Political imagery in ''The Wizard of Oz''====Numerous political references to the \"Wizard\" appeared early in the 20th century.", "Henry Littlefield, an upstate New York high school history teacher, wrote a scholarly article in 1964, the first full-fledged interpretation of the novel as an extended metaphor of the politics and characters of the 1890s.", "He paid special attention to the Populist metaphors and debates over silver and gold.", "Baum was a Republican and avid supporter of women's suffrage, and it is thought that he did not support the political ideals of either the Populist movement of 1890–1892 or the Bryanite silver crusade of 1896–1900.He published a poem in support of William McKinley.Since 1964, many scholars, economists, and historians have expanded on Littlefield's interpretation, pointing to multiple similarities between the characters (especially as depicted in Denslow's illustrations) and stock figures from editorial cartoons of the period.", "Littlefield wrote to ''The New York Times'' letters to the editor section spelling out that his theory had no basis in fact, but that his original point was \"not to label Baum, or to lessen any of his magic, but rather, as a history teacher at Mount Vernon High School, to invest turn-of-the-century America with the imagery and wonder I have always found in his stories.", "\"Baum's newspaper had addressed politics in the 1890s, and Denslow was an editorial cartoonist as well as an illustrator of children's books.", "A series of political references is included in the 1902 stage version, such as references to the President, to a powerful senator, and to John D. Rockefeller for providing the oil needed by the Tin Woodman.", "Scholars have found few political references in Baum's Oz books after 1902.Baum was asked whether his stories had hidden meanings, but he always replied that they were written to \"please children\".===Religion===Baum was originally a Methodist, but he joined the Episcopal Church in Aberdeen in order to participate in community theatricals.", "Later, he and his wife were encouraged to become members of the Theosophical Society in 1892 by Matilda Joslyn Gage.", "Baum's beliefs are frequently reflected in his writings; however, the only mention of a church in his Oz books is the porcelain one which the Cowardly Lion breaks in the Dainty China Country in ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz''.", "The Baums sent their older sons to \"Ethical Culture Sunday School\" in Chicago, which taught morality, not religion.Writers including Evan I. Schwartz among others have suggested that Baum intentionally used allegory and symbolism in ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'' to convey concepts that are central to spiritual teachings such as Theosophy and Buddhism.", "They postulate that the main characters’ experiences in Oz represent the soul’s journey toward enlightenment.", "Schwartz specifically states that key plot elements of the book take “the reader on a journey guided by Eastern philosophy” (Schwartz, p. 265).", "An article in BBC Culture lists several allegorical interpretations of the book including that it may be viewed as a parable of Theosophy.", "The article cites various symbols and their possible meanings, for example the Yellow Brick Road representing the ‘Golden Path’ in Buddhism, along which the soul travels to a state of spiritual realization.Baum’s own writing suggests he believed the story may have been divinely inspired: “It was pure inspiration.", "It came to me right out of the blue.", "I think that sometimes the Great Author had a message to get across and He was to use the instrument at hand”." ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "Works", "* ''Mother Goose in Prose'' (1897)* ''By the Candelabra's Glare'' (1898)* ''Father Goose: His Book'' (1899)* ''A New Wonderland'' (1900), revised as ''The Magical Monarch of Mo'' (1903)* ''The Army Alphabet'' (1900)* ''The Navy Alphabet'' (1900)* ''American Fairy Tales'' (1901)* ''The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus'' (1902)* ''The Enchanted Island of Yew'' (1903)* ''John Dough and the Cherub'' (1906) * ''Boy Fortune Hunters'' book series (1908-1911)* ''The Sea Fairies'' (1911)* ''Sky Island'' (1912)* ''Queen Zixi of Ix'' (1905) * ''The Fate of a Crown'' (1905) * ''Sam Steele's Adventures on Land and Sea'' (1906) * ''Daughters of Destiny (novel)'' (1906) * ''The Last Egyptian'' (1907)===Land of Oz works===*''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'' (1900)*''The Marvelous Land of Oz'' (1904)*''Queer Visitors from the Marvelous Land of Oz'' (1905, comic strip depicting 27 stories)*''The Woggle-Bug Book'' (1905)*''Ozma of Oz'' (1907)*''Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz'' (1908)*''The Road to Oz'' (1909)*''The Emerald City of Oz'' (1910)*''The Patchwork Girl of Oz'' (1913)*''Little Wizard Stories of Oz'' (1913, collection of 6 short stories)*''Tik-Tok of Oz'' (1914)*''The Scarecrow of Oz'' (1915)*''Rinkitink in Oz'' (1916)*''The Lost Princess of Oz'' (1917)*''The Tin Woodman of Oz'' (1918)*''The Magic of Oz'' (1919, posthumously published)*''Glinda of Oz'' (1920, posthumously published)1921's ''The Royal Book of Oz'' was posthumously attributed to Baum but was entirely the work of Ruth Plumly Thompson." ], [ "Popular culture and legacy", "* A 1970 episode of the long-running American Western anthology series ''Death Valley Days'' presents a highly romanticized portrayal of Baum's time in South Dakota.", "The comedic teleplay, titled \"The Wizard of Aberdeen\", stars Conlan Carter as Baum and Beverlee McKinsey as Maud.", "Although the 30-minute presentation touches on Baum's family life and his struggles in Aberdeen as a newspaper editor, it focuses principally on his storytelling to local children about characters in a distant land he initially refers to as \"Ooz\".", "*John Ritter portrayed Baum in the television film ''The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story'' (1990).", "*Jeffrey Combs portrays a highly fictionalized L. Frank Baum, depicted as a farmer from Kansas in the 1890s, in a flashback subplot in ''Dorothy and the Witches of Oz'' (2011).", "*Zach Braff plays Frank Baum, part owner of Oscar Diggs' circus in 1905, in ''Oz the Great and Powerful'' (2013).", "While named in tribute to the author, the character is not actually meant to be him.", "* The theme park Storybook Land, located in Aberdeen, South Dakota, features the Land of Oz, with characters and attractions from the books.", "*In 2013, Baum was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame.", "* ''The Woodsman'', a 2012 stage play by Edward W. Hardy, tells the backstory of the Tin Man, using puppetry, movement, and music.", "The play has received multiple Off-Broadway productions, critical praise for Hardy's music, and won a 2016 Obie Award for Ortiz's puppet design.", "* ''Rusting Tin Man'', a song about how Nick Chopper becomes the Tin Man, is a track from '' The Woodsman (Original Off-Broadway Solo Recording)'' by Edward W. Hardy." ], [ "See also", "* Ruth Plumly Thompson" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Algeo, John. \"", "A Notable Theosophist: L. Frank Baum. \"", "''American Theosophist'', Vol.", "74 (August–September 1986), pp. 270–3.", "*Attebery, Brian.", "''The Fantasy Tradition in American Literature''.", "Bloomington, IN, Indiana University Press, 1980.", "*Baum, Frank Joslyn, and Russell P. Macfall.", "''To Please a Child''.", "Chicago, Reilly & Lee, 1961.", "*Baum, L. Frank.", "''The Annotated Wizard of Oz''.", "Edited with an Introduction and Notes by Michael Patrick Hearn.", "New York, Clarkson N. Potter, 1973.Revised 2000.New York, W.W. Norton, 2000.", "*Ford, Alla T. ''The High-Jinks of L. Frank Baum''.", "Hong Kong, Ford Press, 1969.", "*Ford, Alla T. ''The Musical Fantasies of L. Frank Baum''.", "Lake Worth, FL, Ford Press, 1969.", "*Gardner, Martin, and Russel B. Nye.", "''The Wizard of Oz and Who He Was''.", "East Lansing, MI, Michigan State University Press, 1957.Revised 1994.", "*Hearn, Michael Patrick.", "''The Critical Heritage Edition of the Wizard of Oz''.", "New York, Schocken, 1986.", "*Koupal, Nancy Tystad.", "''Baum's Road to Oz: The Dakota Years''.", "Pierre, SD, South Dakota State Historical Society, 2000.", "*Koupal, Nancy Tystad.", "''Our Landlady''.", "Lawrence, KS, University of Nebraska Press, 1986.", "* Parker, David B.", "''The Rise and Fall of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz as a \"Parable on Populism\" ''Journal of the Georgia Association of Historians, vol.", "15 (1994), pp.", "49–63.", "*Reneau, Reneau H. \"Misanthropology: A Florilegium of Bahumbuggery\" Inglewood, CA, donlazaro translations, 2004, pp.", "155–164*Reneau, Reneau H. \"A Newer Testament: Misanthropology Unleashed\" Inglewood, CA, donlazaro translations, 2008, pp.", "129–147*Riley, Michael O.", "''Oz and Beyond: The Fantasy World of L. Frank Baum''.", "Lawrence, KS, University of Kansas Press, 1997.", "*Rogers, Katharine M. ''L.", "Frank Baum, Creator of Oz: A Biography''.", "New York, St. Martin's Press, 2002.", "*Sale, Roger.", "''Fairy Tales and After: From Snow White to E. B.", "White''.", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University press, 1978.", "*Schwartz, Evan I.", "''Finding Oz: How L. Frank Baum Discovered the Great American Story''.", "New York, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009 *Wagner, Sally Roesch.", "''The Wonderful Mother of Oz''.", "Fayetteville, NY: The Matilda Joslyn Gage Foundation, 2003.", "*Wilgus, Neal.", "\"Classic American Fairy Tales: The Fantasies of L. Frank Baum\" in Darrell Schweitzer (ed) ''Discovering Classic Fantasy Fiction'', Gillette NJ: Wildside Press, 1996, pp. 113–121.", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * The Complete Oz Works* * L. Frank Baum Papers at Syracuse University* Bibliography (Baum and Oz)* The International Wizard of Oz Club, Inc.* * Wonderful Wizard of Oz Website* * Copyright Registration Application from Claimant L. Frank Baum for The wonderful Wizard of Oz From the Collections at the Library of Congress* Finding aid to Roland Orvil Baughman collection about L. Frank Baum at Columbia University, Rare Book & Manuscript Library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lake Ladoga" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lake Ladoga''' (; , or , ; earlier in Finnish ''Nevajärvi''; ; ) is a freshwater lake located in the Republic of Karelia and Leningrad Oblast in northwestern Russia, in the vicinity of Saint Petersburg.It is the largest lake located entirely in Europe, the second largest lake after Baikal in Russia, and the 14th largest freshwater lake by area in the world.", "It is comparable in size to Lake Ontario.", "''Ladoga Lacus'', a methane lake on Saturn's moon Titan, is named after the lake." ], [ "Etymology", "In one of Nestor's chronicles from the 12th century a lake called \"the Great Nevo\" is mentioned, a clear link to the Neva River and possibly further to Finnish ''nevo'' 'sea' or ''neva'' 'bog, quagmire'.Ancient Norse sagas and Hanseatic treaties both mention a city made of lakes named Old Norse ''Aldeigja'' or ''Aldoga''.", "Since the beginning of the 14th century this hydronym was commonly known as ''Ladoga''.", "According to T. N. Jackson, it can be taken \"almost for granted that the name of Ladoga first referred to the river, then the city, and only then the lake\".", "Therefore, he considers the primary hydronym Ladoga to originate in the eponymous inflow to the lower reaches of the Volkhov River whose early Finnic name was ''Alodejoki'' (corresponding to modern ) 'river of the lowlands'.The Germanic toponym (''Aldeigja'' ~ ''Aldoga'') was soon borrowed by the Slavic population and transformed by means of the Old East Slavic metathesis ''ald- → lad-'' to .", "The Old Norse intermediary word between Finnish and Old East Slavic word is fully supported by archeology, since the Scandinavians first appeared in Ladoga in the early 750s, that is, a couple of decades before the Slavs.Other hypotheses about the origin of the name derive it from 'wave' and 'wavy', or from the Russian dialectal word алодь, meaning 'open lake, extensive water field'.", "Eugene Helimski by contrast, offers an etymology rooted in German.", "In his opinion, the primary name of the lake was 'old source', associated to the open sea, in contrast to the name of the Neva River (flowing from Lake Ladoga) which would derive from the German expression for 'the new'.", "Through the intermediate form ''*Aldaugja'', came about, referring to the city of Ladoga." ], [ "Geography", "Lake Ladoga, as illustrated in the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (1890—1907)The lake has an average surface area of 17,891 km2 (excluding the islands), slightly larger than Kuwait.", "Its north-to-south length is 219 km and its average width is 83 km; the average depth is 47 m, although it reaches a maximum of 230 m in the north-western part.", "Basin area: 276,000 km2, volume: 837 km3 (earlier estimated as 908 km3).", "There are around 660 islands, with a total area of about 435 km2.Ladoga is, on average, 5 m above sea level.", "Most of the islands, including the famous Valaam archipelago, Kilpola and Konevets, are situated in the northwest of the lake.Separated from the Baltic Sea by the Karelian Isthmus, it drains into the Gulf of Finland via the Neva River.Lake Ladoga is navigable, being a part of the Volga–Baltic Waterway connecting the Baltic Sea with the Volga River.", "The Ladoga Canal bypasses the lake in the south, connecting the Neva to the Svir.The basin of Lake Ladoga includes about 50,000 lakes and 3,500 rivers longer than 10 km.", "About 85% of the water inflow is due to tributaries, 13% is due to precipitation, and 2% is due to underground waters." ], [ "Geological history", "Ancylus Lake around 7,000 BC.Geologically, the Lake Ladoga depression is a graben and syncline structure of Proterozoic age (Precambrian).", "This \"Ladoga–Pasha structure\", as it is known, hosts Jotnian sediments.", "During the Pleistocene glaciations the depression was partially stripped of its sedimentary rock fill by glacial overdeepening.", "During the Last Glacial Maximum, about 17,000 years BP, the lake served likely as a channel that concentrated ice of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet into an ice stream that fed glacier lobes further east.Deglaciation following the Weichselian glaciation took place in the Lake Ladoga basin between 12,500 and 11,500 radiocarbon years BP.", "Lake Ladoga was initially part of the Baltic Ice Lake (70–80 m. above present sea level), a historical freshwater stage of Baltic Sea.", "It is possible, though not certain, that Ladoga was isolated from it during regression of the subsequent Yoldia Sea brackish stage (10,200–9,500 BP).", "The isolation threshold should be at Heinjoki to the east of Vyborg, where the Baltic Sea and Ladoga were connected by a strait or a river outlet at least until the formation of the River Neva, and possibly even much later, until the 12th century AD or so.At 9,500 BP, Lake Onega, previously draining into the White Sea, started emptying into Ladoga via the River Svir.", "Between 9,500 and 9,100 BP, during the transgression of Ancylus Lake, the next freshwater stage of the Baltic, Ladoga certainly became part of it, even if they hadn't been connected immediately before.", "During the Ancylus Lake subsequent regression, around 8,800 BP Ladoga became isolated.Ladoga slowly transgressed in its southern part due to uplift of the Baltic Shield in the north.", "It has been hypothesized, but not proven, that waters of the Litorina Sea, the next brackish-water stage of the Baltic, occasionally invaded Ladoga between 7,000 and 5,000 BP.", "Around 5,000 BP the waters of the Saimaa Lake penetrated Salpausselkä and formed a new outlet, River Vuoksi, entering Lake Ladoga in the northwestern corner and raising its level by 1–2 m.The River Neva originated when the Ladoga waters at last broke through the threshold at Porogi into the lower portions of Izhora River, then a tributary of the Gulf of Finland, between 4,000 and 2,000 BP.", "Dating of some sediments in the northwestern part of Lake Ladoga suggests it happened at 3,100 radiocarbon years BP (3,410–3,250 calendar years BP).File:Lake Ladoga as part of Baltic Ice Lake.jpg|Lake Ladoga as part of the Baltic Ice Lake (between 11200 and 10500 yr BP).", "The light blue line marks the margin of the ice sheet by 13300 cal yr BP.", "File:Lake Ladoga as part of Ancylus Lake.jpg|Lake Ladoga as part of the Ancylus Lake (between 9300 and 9200 yr BP).", "The dark green line marks the southern shoreline of Lake Ladoga during the Yoldia stage of the Baltic basin." ], [ "Wildlife", "The Ladoga is rich with fish.", "48 forms (species and infra specific taxa) of fish have been encountered in the lake, including roach, carp bream, zander, European perch, ruffe, endemic variety of smelt, two varieties of ''Coregonus albula'' (vendace), eight varieties of ''Coregonus lavaretus'', a number of other Salmonidae as well as, albeit rarely, endangered Atlantic sturgeon (formerly confused with European sea sturgeon).", "Commercial fishing was once a major industry but has been hurt by overfishing.", "After the war, between 1945 and 1954, the total annual catch increased and reached a maximum of 4,900 tonnes.", "However, unbalanced fishery led to the drastic decrease of catch in 1955–1963, sometimes to 1,600 tonnes per year.", "Trawling has been forbidden in Lake Ladoga since 1956 and some other restrictions were imposed.", "The situation gradually recovered, and in 1971–1990 the catch ranged between 4,900 and 6,900 tonnes per year, about the same level as the total catch in 1938.Fish farms and recreational fishing are developing.It has its own endemic ringed seal subspecies known as the Ladoga seal.Since the beginning of the 1960s Ladoga has become considerably eutrophicated.Nizhnesvirsky Natural Reserve is situated along the shore of Lake Ladoga immediately to the north of the mouth of the River Svir.The Ladoga has a population of Arctic char that is genetically close to the chars of Lake Sommen and Lake Vättern in southern Sweden." ], [ "History", "Konevsky monasteryIn the Middle Ages, the lake formed a vital part of the trade route from the Varangians to the Eastern Roman Empire, with the Norse emporium at Staraya Ladoga defending the mouth of the Volkhov since the 8th century.", "In the course of the Swedish–Novgorodian Wars, the area was disputed between the Novgorod Republic and Sweden.", "In the early 14th century, the fortresses of Korela (Kexholm) and Oreshek (Nöteborg) were established along the banks of the lake.The ancient Valaam Monastery was founded on the island of Valaam, the largest in Lake Ladoga, abandoned between 1611 and 1715, restored in the 18th century, and evacuated to Finland during the Winter War in 1940.In 1989 the monastic activities in the Valaam were resumed.", "Other historic cloisters in the vicinity are the Konevets Monastery, which sits on the Konevets island, and the Alexander-Svirsky Monastery, which preserves samples of medieval Muscovite architecture.During the Ingrian War, a fraction of the Ladoga coast was occupied by Sweden.", "In 1617, by the Treaty of Stolbovo, the northern and western coast was ceded by Russia to Sweden.", "In 1721, after the Great Northern War, it was restitutioned to Russia by the Treaty of Nystad.", "In the 18th century, the Ladoga Canal was built to bypass the lake which was prone to winds and storms that destroyed hundreds of cargo ships.Later, from around 1812–1940 the lake was shared between Finland and Russia.", "According to the conditions of the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty militarization of the lake was severely restricted.", "However, both Soviet Russia and Finland had flotillas in Ladoga (see also Finnish Ladoga Naval Detachment).", "After the Winter War (1939–40) according to the Moscow Peace Treaty, Ladoga, previously shared with Finland, became an internal basin of the Soviet Union.During World War II not only Finnish and Soviet, but also German and Italian vessels operated there (see also Naval Detachment K and Regia Marina).", "Under these circumstances, during much of the Siege of Leningrad (1941–44), Lake Ladoga provided the only access to the besieged city as a section of the eastern shore remained in Soviet hands.", "Supplies were transported into Leningrad with trucks on winter roads over the ice, the \"Road of Life\", and by boat in the summer.", "After World War II, Finland lost the Karelia region again to the USSR, and all Finnish citizens were evacuated from the ceded territory.", "Ladoga became an internal Soviet basin once again.", "The northern shore, Ladoga Karelia with the town of Sortavala, is now part of the Republic of Karelia.", "The western shore, Karelian Isthmus, became part of Leningrad Oblast." ], [ "Lists", "===Tributaries===:''(incomplete list)''* Svir River from Lake Onega (south-east, discharge: 790 m3/s);* Volkhov River from Lake Ilmen (south, discharge: 580 m3/s);* Vuoksi River (and Burnaya River) from Lake Saimaa in Finland (west, discharge: 540 m3/s).", "* Syas River (south, discharge: 53 m3/s).", "* Olonka River from Lake Utozero===Towns upon the lake===* Shlisselburg (at )* Novaya Ladoga (at )* Syasstroy (at )* Pitkyaranta (at )* Sortavala (at )* Lakhdenpokhya (at )* Priozersk (at )" ], [ "Image gallery", "File:Ладожское озеро.", "Мыс Рихиниеми.jpg|Rocky shoreFile: The archipelago in Ladoga Lake with the Monastery of the Transfiguration of the Saviour..jpg|The archipelago in Ladoga Lake with the Monastery of the Transfiguration of the SaviourFile:Gorskii 04417u.jpg|Rafts on the Peter the Great Canal.", "City of ShlisselburgImage:Konevets Sand beach.JPG|Konevets IslandFile:Sortavala harbour.jpg|Sortavala harbour, KareliaFile: St. Nicholas Skete on island Valaam on Ladoga lake and little ship..jpg|Saint Nicholas Skete on island Valaam on Ladoga lake and little shipImage:Priroda Valaamskogo arhipelaga.jpg|Valaam ArchipelagoFile:Валун у Видлицы.jpg|Boulder on Vidlitsa, west shoreImage:JbLLjT4260k.jpg|Iron whale on Lake LadogaImage:Lake Ladoga - superior mirage 2.jpg|Superior mirage on Lake LadogaImage:Shlisselburg.jpg|Oreshek Fortress on Ladoga shore in ShlisselburgFile:Sortavalan saaristoa-2.jpg|View" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Simola, Heikki et al.", "(eds), Proceeding of The First International Lake Ladoga Symposium.", "Special issue of ''Hydrobiologia''.", "Vol.", "322, Issues 1–3./ April 1996.", "* Ladoga Lake (photos) * War on Lake Ladoga, 1941–1944* Maps" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Language family" ], [ "Introduction", "Distribution of languages on Earth'' for greater detail.A '''language family''' is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family.", "The term \"family\" reflects the tree model of language origination in historical linguistics, which makes use of a metaphor comparing languages to people in a biological family tree, or in a subsequent modification, to species in a phylogenetic tree of evolutionary taxonomy.", "Linguists therefore describe the ''daughter languages'' within a language family as being ''genetically related''.", "The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, with different regional dialects of the proto-language spoken by different speech communities undergoing different language changes and thus becoming distinct languages from each other.The language families with the most speakers are the Indo-European family, which includes many widely spoken languages native to Europe (such as English and Spanish) and South Asia (such as Hindi, Urdu and Bengali); and the Sino-Tibetan family, mainly due to the many speakers of Mandarin Chinese in China.", "A language family may contain any number of languages: some families, such as the Austronesian and Niger-Congo families, contain hundreds of different languages, while some languages, termed isolates, are not known to be related to any other languages and therefore constitute a family consisting of only one language.Membership of languages in a language family is established by research in comparative linguistics.", "Genealogically related languages can be identified by their shared retentions; that is, they share systematic similarities that cannot be explained as due to chance, or to effects of language contact (such as borrowing or convergence), and therefore must be features inherited from their shared common ancestor.", "However, some sets of languages may in fact be derived from a common ancestor but have diverged enough from each other that their relationship is no longer detectable; and some languages have not been studied in enough detail to be classified, and therefore their family membership is unknown." ], [ "Major language families", "Estimates of the number of language families in the world may vary widely.", "According to ''Ethnologue'' there are 7,151 living human languages distributed in 142 different language families.", "Lyle Campbell (2019) identifies a total of 406 independent language families, including isolates.", "''Ethnologue'' 24 (2021) lists the following families that contain at least 1% of the 7,139 known languages in the world:#Niger–Congo (1,542 languages) (21.7%)#Austronesian (1,257 languages) (17.7%)#Trans–New Guinea (482 languages) (6.8%)#Sino-Tibetan (455 languages) (6.4%)#Indo-European (448 languages) (6.3%)#Australian (381 languages) (5.4%)#Afro-Asiatic (377 languages) (5.3%)#Nilo-Saharan (206 languages) (2.9%)#Oto-Manguean (178 languages) (2.5%)#Austroasiatic (167 languages) (2.3%)#Tai–Kadai (91 languages) (1.3%)#Dravidian (86 languages) (1.2%)#Tupian (76 languages) (1.1%)''Glottolog'' 4.7 (2022) lists the following as the largest families, of 8,565 languages (other than sign languages, pidgins, and unclassifiable languages):# Atlantic–Congo (1,408 languages) # Austronesian (1,273 languages) # Indo-European (584 languages) # Sino-Tibetan (501 languages)# Afro-Asiatic (379 languages)# Nuclear Trans–New Guinea (317 languages) # Pama–Nyungan (250 languages)# Oto-Manguean (181 languages)# Austroasiatic (158 languages)# Tai–Kadai (95 languages)# Dravidian (82 languages)# Arawakan (77 languages)# Mande (75 languages)# Tupian (71 languages)Language counts can vary significantly depending on what is considered a dialect; for example Lyle Campbell counts only 27 Otomanguean languages, although he, ''Ethnologue'' and ''Glottolog'' also disagree as to which languages belong in the family." ], [ "Genetic relationship", "Two languages have a genetic relationship, and belong to the same language family, if both are descended from a common ancestor through the process of language change, or one is descended from the other.The term and the process of language evolution are independent of, and not reliant on, the terminology, understanding, and theories related to genetics in the biological sense, so, to avoid confusion, some linguists prefer the term genealogical relationship.An example of linguistic genetic relationship would be among the Romance languages, such as Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian and many others, all descended from the spoken Latin of ancient Rome.There is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically.", "Languages interpreted in terms of the putative phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically (by ancestry) as opposed to horizontally (by spatial diffusion).===Establishment===In some cases, the shared derivation of a group of related languages from a common ancestor is directly attested in the historical record.", "For example, this is the case for the Romance language family, wherein Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and French are all descended from Latin, as well as for the North Germanic language family, including Danish, Swedish, Norwegian and Icelandic, which have shared descent from Ancient Norse.", "Latin and ancient Norse are both attested in written records, as are many intermediate stages between those ancestral languages and their modern descendants.In other cases, genetic relationships between languages are not directly attested.", "For instance, the Romance languages and the North Germanic languages are also related to each other, being subfamilies of the Indo-European language family, since both Latin and Old Norse are believed to be descended from an even more ancient language, Proto-Indo-European; however, no direct evidence of Proto-Indo-European or its divergence into its descendant languages survives.", "In cases such as these, genetic relationships are established through use of the comparative method of linguistic analysis.In order to test the hypothesis that two languages are related, the comparative method begins with the collection of pairs of words that are hypothesized to be cognates: i.e., words in related languages that are derived from the same word in the shared ancestral language.", "Pairs of words that have similar pronunciations and meanings in the two languages are often good candidates for hypothetical cognates.", "The researcher must rule out the possibility that the two words are similar merely due to chance, or due to one having borrowed the words from the other (or from a language related to the other).", "Chance resemblance is ruled out by the existence of large collections of pairs of words between the two languages showing similar patterns of phonetic similarity.", "Once coincidental similarity and borrowing have been eliminated as possible explanations for similarities in sound and meaning of words, the remaining explanation is common origin: it is inferred that the similarities occurred due to descent from a common ancestor, and the words are actually cognates, implying the languages must be related.====Linguistic interference and borrowing====When languages are in contact with one another, either of them may influence the other through linguistic interference such as borrowing.", "For example, French has influenced English, Arabic has influenced Persian, Sanskrit has influenced Tamil, and Chinese has influenced Japanese in this way.", "However, such influence does not constitute (and is not a measure of) a genetic relationship between the languages concerned.", "Linguistic interference can occur between languages that are genetically closely related, between languages that are distantly related (like English and French, which are distantly related Indo-European languages) and between languages that have no genetic relationship.===Complications===Some exceptions to the simple genetic relationship model of languages include language isolates and mixed, pidgin and creole languages.", "Mixed languages, pidgins and creole languages constitute special genetic types of languages.", "They do not descend linearly or directly from a single language and have no single ancestor.", "Isolates are languages that cannot be proven to be genealogically related to any other modern language.", "As a corollary, every language isolate also forms its own language family — a genetic family which happens to consist of just one language.", "One often cited example is Basque, which forms a language family on its own; but there are many other examples outside Europe.", "On the global scale, the site Glottolog counts a total of 427 language families in the world, including 182 isolates.===Monogenesis===One controversial theory concerning the genetic relationships among languages is monogenesis, the idea that all known languages, with the exceptions of creoles, pidgins and sign languages, are descendant from a single ancestral language.", "If that is true, it would mean all languages (other than pidgins, creoles, and sign languages) are genetically related, but in many cases, the relationships may be too remote to be detectable.", "Alternative explanations for some basic observed commonalities between languages include developmental theories, related to the biological development of the capacity for language as the child grows from newborn." ], [ "Structure of a family", "A language family is a monophyletic unit; all its members derive from a common ancestor, and all descendants of that ancestor are included in the family.", "Thus, the term ''family'' is analogous to the biological term ''clade''.", "Language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, sometimes referred to as \"branches\" or \"subfamilies\" of the family; for instance, the Germanic languages are a subfamily of the Indo-European family.", "Subfamilies share a more recent common ancestor than the common ancestor of the larger family; Proto-Germanic, the common ancestor of the Germanic subfamily, was itself a descendant of Proto-Indo-European, the common ancestor of the Indo-European family.", "Within a large family, subfamilies can be identified through \"shared innovations\": members of a subfamily will share features that represent retentions from their more recent common ancestor, but were not present in the overall proto-language of the larger family.Some taxonomists restrict the term ''family'' to a certain level, but there is little consensus on how to do so.", "Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into ''groups'', and groups into ''complexes''.", "A top-level (i.e., the largest) family is often called a ''phylum'' or ''stock''.", "The closer the branches are to each other, the more closely the languages will be related.", "This means if a branch of a proto-language is four branches down and there is also a sister language to that fourth branch, then the two sister languages are more closely related to each other than to that common ancestral proto-language.The term ''macrofamily'' or ''superfamily'' is sometimes applied to proposed groupings of language families whose status as phylogenetic units is generally considered to be unsubstantiated by accepted historical linguistic methods.=== Dialect continua ===Some close-knit language families, and many branches within larger families, take the form of dialect continua in which there are no clear-cut borders that make it possible to unequivocally identify, define, or count individual languages within the family.", "However, when the differences between the speech of different regions at the extremes of the continuum are so great that there is no mutual intelligibility between them, as occurs in Arabic, the continuum cannot meaningfully be seen as a single language.A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations.", "Thus, different sources, especially over time, can give wildly different numbers of languages within a certain family.", "Classifications of the Japonic family, for example, range from one language (a language isolate with dialects) to nearly twenty—until the classification of Ryukyuan as separate languages within a Japonic language family rather than dialects of Japanese, the Japanese language itself was considered a language isolate and therefore the only language in its family.=== Isolates ===Most of the world's languages are known to be related to others.", "Those that have no known relatives (or for which family relationships are only tentatively proposed) are called language isolates, essentially language families consisting of a single language.", "There are an estimated 129 language isolates known today.", "An example is Basque.", "In general, it is assumed that language isolates have relatives or had relatives at some point in their history but at a time depth too great for linguistic comparison to recover them.A language isolate is classified based on the fact that enough is known about the isolate to compare it genetically to other languages but no common ancestry or relationship is found with any other known language.A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as Albanian and Armenian within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate, but the meaning of the word \"isolate\" in such cases is usually clarified with a modifier.", "For instance, Albanian and Armenian may be referred to as an \"Indo-European isolate\".", "By contrast, so far as is known, the Basque language is an absolute isolate: it has not been shown to be related to any other modern language despite numerous attempts.", "Another well-known isolate is Mapudungun, the Mapuche language from the Araucanían language family in Chile.", "A language may be said to be an isolate currently but not historically if related but now extinct relatives are attested.", "The Aquitanian language, spoken in Roman times, may have been an ancestor of Basque, but it could also have been a sister language to the ancestor of Basque.", "In the latter case, Basque and Aquitanian would form a small family together.", "Ancestors are not considered to be distinct members of a family.=== Proto-languages ===A proto-language can be thought of as a mother language (not to be confused with a mother tongue) being the root from which all languages in the family stem.", "The common ancestor of a language family is seldom known directly since most languages have a relatively short recorded history.", "However, it is possible to recover many features of a proto-language by applying the comparative method, a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th century linguist August Schleicher.", "This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families in the list of language families.", "For example, the reconstructible common ancestor of the Indo-European language family is called ''Proto-Indo-European''.", "Proto-Indo-European is not attested by written records and so is conjectured to have been spoken before the invention of writing." ], [ "Visual representation", "An example of a language tree, containing the Mayan languagesA common visual representation of a language family is given by a genetic language tree.", "The tree model is sometimes termed a dendrogram or phylogeny.", "The family tree shows the relationship of the languages within a family, much as a family tree of an individual shows their relationship with their relatives.", "There are criticisms to the family tree model.", "Critics focus mainly on the claim that the internal structure of the trees is subject to variation based on the criteria of classification.", "Even among those who support the family tree model, there are debates over which languages should be included in a language family.", "For example, within the dubious Altaic language family, there are debates over whether the Japonic and Koreanic languages should be included or not.The wave model has been proposed as an alternative to the tree model.", "The wave model uses isoglosses to group language varieties; unlike in the tree model, these groups can overlap.", "While the tree model implies a lack of contact between languages after derivation from an ancestral form, the wave model emphasizes the relationship between languages that remain in contact, which is more realistic.", "Historical glottometry is an application of the wave model, meant to identify and evaluate genetic relations in linguistic linkages." ], [ "Other classifications of languages", "=== Sprachbund ===A sprachbund is a geographic area having several languages that feature common linguistic structures.", "The similarities between those languages are caused by language contact, not by chance or common origin, and are not recognized as criteria that define a language family.", "An example of a sprachbund would be the Indian subcontinent.Shared innovations, acquired by borrowing or other means, are not considered genetic and have no bearing with the language family concept.", "It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.)", "might well be \"areal features\".", "However, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as \"areal\", either, since English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area).", "In a similar vein, there are many similar unique innovations in Germanic, Baltic and Slavic that are far more likely to be areal features than traceable to a common proto-language.", "But legitimate uncertainty about whether shared innovations are areal features, coincidence, or inheritance from a common ancestor, leads to disagreement over the proper subdivisions of any large language family.=== Contact languages ===The concept of language families is based on the historical observation that languages develop dialects, which over time may diverge into distinct languages.", "However, linguistic ancestry is less clear-cut than familiar biological ancestry, in which species do not crossbreed.", "It is more like the evolution of microbes, with extensive lateral gene transfer.", "Quite distantly related languages may affect each other through language contact, which in extreme cases may lead to languages with no single ancestor, whether they be creoles or mixed languages.", "In addition, a number of sign languages have developed in isolation and appear to have no relatives at all.", "Nonetheless, such cases are relatively rare and most well-attested languages can be unambiguously classified as belonging to one language family or another, even if this family's relation to other families is not known.Language contact can lead to the development of new languages from the mixture of two or more languages for the purposes of interactions between two groups who speak different languages.", "Languages that arise in order for two groups to communicate with each other to engage in commercial trade or that appeared as a result of colonialism are called pidgin.", "Pidgins are an example of linguistic and cultural expansion caused by language contact.", "However, language contact can also lead to cultural divisions.", "In some cases, two different language speaking groups can feel territorial towards their language and do not want any changes to be made to it.", "This causes language boundaries and groups in contact are not willing to make any compromises to accommodate the other language." ], [ "See also", "* Comparative linguistics* Constructed language* Endangered language* Extinct language* Language death* Language isolate* List of revived languages* Global language system* ISO 639-5* Linguist List * List of language families* List of languages by number of native speakers* Origin of language* Proto-language* Proto-Human language* Sprachbund* Tree model* Unclassified language* Father Tongue hypothesis* Farming/language dispersal hypothesis" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Boas, Franz.", "(1922).", "''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol.", "2).", "Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40.Washington, D.C.: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).", "* Boas, Franz.", "(1933).", "''Handbook of American Indian languages'' (Vol.", "3).", "Native American legal materials collection, title 1227.Glückstadt: J.J.", "Augustin.", "* Campbell, Lyle.", "(1997).", "''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.).", "(1979).", "''The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment''.", "Austin: University of Texas Press.", "* Goddard, Ives (Ed.).", "(1996).", "''Languages''.", "Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.)", "(Vol.", "17).", "Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.", ".", "* Goddard, Ives.", "(1999).", "''Native languages and language families of North America'' (rev.", "and enlarged ed.", "with additions and corrections).", "Map.", "Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution).", "(Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996).", ".", "* Gordon, Raymond G., Jr.", "(Ed.).", "(2005).", "''Ethnologue: Languages of the world'' (15th ed.).", "Dallas, TX: SIL International.", ".", "(Online version: Ethnologue: Languages of the World).", "* Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966).", "''The Languages of Africa'' (2nd ed.).", "Bloomington: Indiana University.", "* Harrison, K. David.", "(2007) ''When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge''.", "New York and London: Oxford University Press.", "* Mithun, Marianne.", "(1999).", "''The languages of Native North America''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "(hbk); .", "* Ross, Malcolm.", "(2005). \"", "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages \".", "In: Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds, ''Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples'' (PDF)* Ruhlen, Merritt.", "(1987).", "''A guide to the world's languages''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press.", "* Sturtevant, William C.", "(Ed.).", "(1978–present).", "''Handbook of North American Indians'' (Vol.", "1–20).", "Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.", "(Vols.", "1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).", "* Voegelin, C. F. & Voegelin, F. M. (1977).", "''Classification and index of the world's languages''.", "New York: Elsevier." ], [ "External links", "* Linguistic maps (from Muturzikin)* Ethnologue* The Multitree Project* Lenguas del mundo (World Languages)* Comparative Swadesh list tables of various language families (from Wiktionary)* Most similar languages" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Looe Island" ], [ "Introduction", "Looe Island, Cornwall'''Looe Island''' (, meaning ''Island of the Monk's Enclosure''), also known as '''St George's Island''', and historically '''St Michael's Island''' is a small island nature reserve a mile from the mainland town of Looe off Cornwall, England.According to local legend, Joseph of Arimathea landed here with the Christ Child.", "Some scholars, including Glyn S. Lewis, suggest the island could be Ictis, the location described by Diodorus Siculus as a centre for the tin trade in pre-Roman Britain.The island is now owned and managed by the Cornwall Wildlife Trust charity where access (including landing on the foreshore and flying of drones over the island) is carefully managed for the benefit of wildlife and landing is only possible via the Cornwall Wildlife Trust authorized boatman.", "The waters around the island are a marine nature reserve and form part of the Looe Voluntary Marine Conservation Area (VMCA).", "First established in 1995, the Looe VCMA covers nearly 5 km of coastline and aims to protect the coastal and marine wildlife around Looe." ], [ "History", "Trelawny armsPeople have been living on Looe Island since the Iron Age.", "Evidence of early habitation includes pieces of Roman amphorae as well as stone boat anchors and Roman coins.", "A number of late prehistoric or Romano-British finds have been made in the vicinity of the island, including a large bronze ingot found by divers south of Looe Island, which has led a number of people to suggest the island is possibly Ictis, the tin trading island seen by Pytheas in the 4th century BC and recalled by Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC.", "A small hoard of eight late Roman coins was recovered in 2008.These coins were recovered from one of the shallow ditches forming a 'pear shaped enclosure' which encompassed the top of Looe Island and the later Christian chapel site.", "All eight coins date to the late 3rd or early 4th century AD.In the Dark Ages, the island was used a seat of early Christian settlement.", "The child Jesus was believed to have visited the Island with his uncle, Joseph of Arimathea, who traded with the Cornish tin traders.", "Looe Island was already a place of pilgrimage for early Christians before the creation of this story and a small thatched roofed chapel was built there during this time.In the later medieval period, the island came under the overall control of Glastonbury Abbey, with the Prior of Lammana being directly responsible for its governance; the island's chapel was under the care of two Benedictine monks until 1289 when the property was sold to a local landowner.", "The priory was replaced by a domestic chapel served by a secular priest until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536 when it became property of the Crown.", "From the 13th to the 16th centuries it was known as St Michael's Island but after the dissolution of the monasteries, it was rededicated in 1594 as St George's Island.Through the 17th and 18th centuries the island was used by smugglers to avoid the British Government's revenue cutters out of Plymouth and Falmouth.", "The Guildhall Museum in Looe holds information and research about the smuggling families of Looe Island and information is also available in the more recent publications about the island.During the Second World War, Looe Island was for a time renamed as 'H.M.S St. George', following the dropping of a probable parachute mine which resulted in a large crater in the summit.", "It was believed the island was mistaken for an Allied ship.", "The incident was recorded in ''The Cornish Times'' under the headline \"H.M.S St. George.", "Nazi Airman's Direct Hit Off Looe – Another 'Success' for the Luftwaffe\".", "The article continued \"H.M.S St. George is still riding peacefully at her anchorage in Looe Bay, after being bombed recently by a Nazi air-raider in what would seem to have been an attempt to sink her.", "Although St. George has occupied the same berth for millennia, and is as well-known to inhabitants and visitors to Looe as the palms of their hands, no one has determined to what particular class of battleship she belongs, indeed all are familiar with the shapely hulk lying seaward of Hannafore as Looe Island (or, cartographically St. Georges Island)\".In 1965 the island was bought for £25,000 () by two sisters, Babs and Evelyn Atkins.", "They wrote two books chronicling their purchase and subsequent life on Looe; ''We Bought An Island'' and its sequel ''Tales From Our Cornish Island''.", "Evelyn died in 1997 at the age of 87; Babs continued to live on the island until her death in 2004, at the age of 86.On her death, the island was bequeathed to the Cornwall Wildlife Trust; it will be preserved as a nature reserve in perpetuity.", "Today the wardens for Cornwall Wildlife Trust live on the island and manage it for the benefit of wildlife.", "The adjoining islet, formerly known as Little Island, now renamed '''Trelawny Island''' and connected by a small bridge, was bequeathed by Miss Atkins back to the Trelawny family, who previously owned Looe Island from 1743 to 1921." ], [ "Geography", "Situated in the English Channel, about one mile from East Looe in the direction of Polperro, it is about in area and a mile (1.6 km) in circumference.", "Its highest point is above sea level.", "Looe Island, like much of south west England, has a mild climate with frost and snow being rare.The island is owned and managed by the Cornwall Wildlife Trust.", "This is a non-profit-making venture, the landing fees and other income being devoted to conserving the island's natural environment and providing facilities.", "The island is open during the summer to day visitors arriving by the Trust's boat.", "After a short welcome talk visitors are directed to the small visitor centre from where they can pick up a copy of the self-guided trail.", "Visitors have some two hours on the island and all trips are subject to tides and weather/sea state.", "While it is normally accessible only by the Cornwall Wildlife Trust's boat, at extremely low spring tides it is possible for the journey to be made by foot across the slippery, seaweed-covered rocky sea floor.", "However you have to remain on the beach and promptly head back to the mainland." ], [ "Media appearances", "In 2008, Channel 4's archaeology series ''Time Team'' visited the island to carry out an investigation into its early Christian history.", "They excavated the sites of Christian chapels built on both the island and on the mainland opposite.", "During their dig they found the remains of a Benedictine chapel that was built in c.1139 by monks from Glastonbury Abbey, a reliquary, graves and the remains of much earlier Anglo-Romano places of worship built of wood with dating evidence suggesting use by Christians before the reign of Constantine the Great.In 1994/95 Andrew Hugill composed ''Island Symphony'', an electro-acoustic piece utilising sampled sounds sourced over the net plus recorded natural sounds from the island itself." ], [ "See also", "* St Michael's Mount* Mont Saint-Michel* List of monastic houses in Cornwall" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Looe Island Then and Now'': Carolyn Clarke 2014 United P. C Publisher * '' The Looe Island Story: an Illustrated History of St George's Island'', Mike Dunn, 2006, Polperro Heritage Press, * '' Island Life: A History of Looe Island'', David Clensy, 2006 * '' We Bought an Island'': Evelyn E Atkins 1976 * '' Tales from our Cornish Island'': Evelyn E Atkins 0-340-22688-9" ], [ "External links", "* Cornwall Wildlife Trust* Smuggling history* Looe Marine Conservation Group" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "LaTeX" ], [ "Introduction", "'''LaTeX''' ( or , often stylized as ) is a software system for typesetting documents.", "LaTeX markup describes the content and layout of the document, as opposed to the formatted text found in WYSIWYG word processors like Microsoft Word, LibreOffice Writer and Apple Pages.", "The writer uses markup tagging conventions to define the general structure of a document, to stylise text throughout a document (such as bold and italics), and to add citations and cross-references.", "A TeX distribution such as TeX Live or MiKTeX is used to produce an output file (such as PDF or DVI) suitable for printing or digital distribution.LaTeX is widely used in academia for the communication and publication of scientific documents in many fields.", "It also has a prominent role in the preparation and publication of books and articles that contain complex multilingual materials, such as Arabic and Greek.", "LaTeX uses the TeX typesetting program for formatting its output, and is itself written in the TeX macro language.LaTeX can be used as a standalone document preparation system, or as an intermediate format.", "In the latter role, for example, it is sometimes used as part of a pipeline for translating DocBook and other XML-based formats to PDF.", "The typesetting system offers programmable desktop publishing features and extensive facilities for automating most aspects of typesetting and desktop publishing, including numbering and cross-referencing of tables and figures, chapter and section headings, graphics, page layout, indexing and bibliographies.Like TeX, LaTeX started as a writing tool for mathematicians and computer scientists, but even from early in its development, it has also been taken up by scholars who needed to write documents that include complex math expressions or non-Latin scripts, such as Arabic, Devanagari and Chinese.LaTeX is intended to provide a high-level, descriptive markup language that accesses the power of TeX in an easier way for writers.", "In essence, TeX handles the layout side, while LaTeX handles the content side for document processing.", "LaTeX comprises a collection of TeX macros and a program to process LaTeX documents, and because the plain TeX formatting commands are elementary, it provides authors with ready-made commands for formatting and layout requirements such as chapter headings, footnotes, cross-references and bibliographies.LaTeX was originally written in the early 1980s by Leslie Lamport at SRI International.", "The current version is LaTeX2e (stylised as ), first released in 1994 but incrementally updated starting in 2015.This update policy replaced earlier plans for a separate release of LaTeX3 (), which had been in development since 1989.LaTeX is free software and is distributed under the LaTeX Project Public License (LPPL)." ], [ "History", "LaTeX was created in the early 1980s by Leslie Lamport when he was working at Stanford Research Institute (SRI).", "He needed to write TeX macros for his own use and thought that with a little extra effort, he could make a general package usable by others.", "Peter Gordon, an editor at Addison-Wesley, convinced him to write a LaTeX user's manual for publication (Lamport was initially skeptical that anyone would pay money for it); it came out in 1986 and sold hundreds of thousands of copies.", "Meanwhile, Lamport released versions of his LaTeX macros in 1984 and 1985.On 21 August 1989, at a TeX Users Group (TUG) meeting at Stanford, Lamport agreed to turn over maintenance and development of LaTeX to Frank Mittelbach.", "Frank Mittelbach, along with Chris Rowley and Rainer Schöpf, formed the LaTeX3 team; in 1994, they released LaTeX2e, the current standard version.", "LaTeX3 has since been cancelled with features intended for that version being back-ported to LaTeX2e since 2018." ], [ "Typesetting system", "LaTeX attempts to follow the design philosophy of separating presentation from content, so that authors can focus on the content of what they are writing without attending simultaneously to its visual appearance.", "In preparing a LaTeX document, the author specifies the logical structure using simple, familiar concepts such as ''chapter'', ''section'', ''table'', ''figure'', etc., and lets the LaTeX system handle the formatting and layout of these structures.", "As a result, it encourages the separation of the layout from the content — while still allowing manual typesetting adjustments whenever needed.", "This concept is similar to the mechanism by which many word processors allow styles to be defined globally for an entire document, or the use of Cascading Style Sheets in styling HyperText Markup Language (HTML) documents.The LaTeX system is a markup language that handles typesetting and rendering, and can be arbitrarily extended by using the underlying macro language to develop custom macros such as new environments and commands.", "Such macros are often collected into ''packages,'' which could then be made available to address some specific typesetting needs such as the formatting of complex mathematical expressions or graphics (e.g., the use of the align environment provided by the amsmath package to produce aligned equations).To create a document in LaTeX, a user first creates a file, such as document.tex, typically using a text editor.", "The user then gives their document.tex file as input to the TeX program (with the LaTeX macros loaded), which prompts TeX to write out a file suitable for onscreen viewing or printing.", "This write-format-preview cycle is one of the chief ways in which working with LaTeX differs from the What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get (WYSIWYG) style of document editing.", "It is similar to the code-compile-execute cycle known to computer programmers.", "Today, many LaTeX-aware editing programs make this cycle a simple matter through the pressing of a single key, while showing the output preview on the screen beside the input window.", "Some online LaTeX editors even automatically refresh the preview, while other online tools provide incremental editing in-place, mixed in with the preview in a streamlined single window." ], [ "How it works", "The example below shows the input to LaTeX and the corresponding output from the system: Input Output \\documentclass{article} % Starts an article\\usepackage{amsmath} % Imports amsmath\\title{\\LaTeX} % Title\\begin{document} % Begins a document \\maketitle \\LaTeX{} is a document preparation system for the \\TeX{} typesetting program.", "It offers programmable desktop publishing features and extensive facilities for automating most aspects of typesetting and desktop publishing, including numbering and cross-referencing, tables and figures, page layout, bibliographies, and much more.", "\\LaTeX{} was originally written in 1984 by Leslie Lamport and has become the dominant method for using \\TeX; few people write in plain \\TeX{} anymore.", "The current version is \\LaTeXe.", "% This is a comment, not shown in final output.", "% The following shows typesetting power of LaTeX: \\begin{align} E_0 &= mc^2 \\\\ E &= \\frac{mc^2}{\\sqrt{1-\\frac{v^2}{c^2}}} \\end{align} \\end{document} 500px" ], [ "Pronouncing and writing \"LaTeX\"", "The LaTeX wordmark, typeset with LaTeX's \\LaTeX macroThe characters 'T', 'E', and 'X' in the name come from the Greek capital letters tau, epsilon, and chi, as the name of TeX derives from the ('skill', 'art', 'technique'); for this reason, TeX's creator Donald Knuth promotes its pronunciation as () (that is, with a voiceless velar fricative as in Modern Greek, similar to the ch in loch).", "Lamport remarks that \"TeX is usually pronounced ''tech'', making ''lah''-tech, lah-''tech'', and ''lay''-tech the logical choices; but language is not always logical, so ''lay-tecks'' is also possible.", "\"The name is printed in running text with a typographical logo: .In media where the logo cannot be precisely reproduced in running text, the word is typically given the unique capitalization ''LaTeX''.", "Alternatively, the TeX, LaTeX and XeTeX logos can also be rendered via pure CSS and XHTML for use in graphical web browsers — by following the specifications of the internal \\LaTeX macro." ], [ "Related software", "As a macro package, LaTeX provides a set of macros for TeX to interpret.", "There are many other macro packages for TeX, including Plain TeX, GNU Texinfo, AMSTeX, and ConTeXt.When TeX \"compiles\" a document, it follows (from the user's point of view) the following processing sequence: Macros → TeX → Driver → Output.", "Different implementations of each of these steps are typically available in TeX distributions.", "Traditional TeX will output a DVI file, which is usually converted to a PostScript file.", "2000, Hàn Thế Thành and others have written a new implementation of TeX called pdfTeX, which also outputs to PDF and takes advantage of features available in that format.", "The XeTeX engine developed by Jonathan Kew, on the other hand, merges modern font technologies and Unicode with TeX.", "LuaTeX is an extended version of pdfTeX using Lua as an embedded scripting language.There are also many editors for LaTeX, some of which are offline, source-code-based while others are online, partial-WYSIWYG-based.", "For more, see Comparison of TeX editors." ], [ "Compatibility and converters", "LaTeX documents (*.tex) can be opened with any text editor.", "They consist of plain text and contain no hidden formatting codes or binary instructions.", "Also, TeX documents can be shared by rendering the LaTeX file to Rich Text Format (*.rtf), XML, or the container format.", "This can be done using the free software programs LaTeX2RTF or TeX4ht.", "LaTeX can also be rendered to PDF files using the LaTeX extension pdfLaTeX.", "LaTeX files containing Unicode text can be processed into PDFs with the inputenc package, or by the TeX extensions XeLaTeX and LuaLaTeX.", "* HeVeA is a converter written in OCaml that converts LaTeX documents to HTML5.It is licensed under the Q Public License.", "* LaTeX2HTML is a converter written in Perl that converts LaTeX documents to HTML.", "This way, e.g., scientific papers, primarily typeset for printing, can be placed on the World Wide Web for online viewing.", "It is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) v2.The latest updates are available from Comprehensive TeX Archive Network (CTAN).", "*LaTeXML is a free, public domain software written in Perl, which converts LaTeX documents to a variety of structured formats, including HTML5 (with MathML), epub (encapsulation of HTML), jats, and tei.", "* Pandoc is a 'universal document converter' able to transform LaTeX into many different file formats, including HTML5, epub, rtf and docx.", "It is licensed under GNU GPL v2.LaTeX has become the de facto standard to typeset mathematical expression in scientific documents.", "Hence, there are several conversion tools focusing on mathematical LaTeX expressions, such as converters to MathML or Computer Algebra System.", "* MathJax is a JavaScript library for converting LaTeX to MathML, picture formats, or HTML.", "** The Wikimedia Foundation uses it to build Mathoid, a web-service converter using Node.js that converts math inputs, such as LaTeX, to MathML and picture formats, including SVG and PNG.", "Mathoid is used in Wikipedia to render math.", "* KaTeX is a JavaScript library for converting LaTeX to HTML and MathML.", "It is developed by Khan Academy, and is among the fastest LaTeX to HTML converters." ], [ "Licensing", "LaTeX is typically distributed along with plain TeX under a free software license: the LaTeX Project Public License (LPPL).", "The LPPL is not compatible with the GNU General Public License, as it requires that modified files must be clearly differentiable from their originals (usually by changing the filename); this was done to ensure that files that depend on other files will produce the expected behavior and avoid dependency hell.", "The LPPL is Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG) compliant as of version 1.3.As free software, LaTeX is available on most operating systems, which include Unix (Solaris, HP-UX, AIX), BSD (FreeBSD, macOS, NetBSD, OpenBSD), Linux (Red Hat, Debian, Arch, Gentoo), Windows, DOS, RISC OS, AmigaOS, and Plan 9." ], [ "Versions", "LaTeX2e is the current version of LaTeX, since it replaced LaTeX 2.09 in 1994., LaTeX3, which started in the early 1990s, is under a long-term development project.", "Planned features include improved syntax (separation of content from styling), hyperlink support, a new user interface, access to arbitrary fonts and a new documentation.", "Some LaTeX3 features are available in LaTeX2e using packages, and by 2020 many features have been enabled in LaTeX2e by default for a gradual transition.There are many commercial implementations of the entire TeX system.", "System vendors may add extra features like added typefaces and telephone support.", "LyX is a free software, WYSIWYM visual document processor that uses LaTeX for a back-end.", "TeXmacs is a free, WYSIWYG editor with similar functionalities as LaTeX, but with a different typesetting engine.", "Other WYSIWYG editors that produce LaTeX include Scientific Word on Windows, and BaKoMa TeX on Windows, Mac and Linux.Many community-supported TeX distributions are available." ], [ "See also", "* BibTeX – reference management software usually used with LaTeX* Formula editor* Help:Displaying a formula* KaTeX* List of document markup languages* List of TeX extensions* Lout (software)* MathJax* xdvi – software to view DVI files while using Unix" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of saints" ], [ "Introduction", "This sortable '''list of Christian saints''' includes—where known—a surname, location, and personal attribute (or those attributes included as part of the historical name)." ], [ "Listed", "Canonized Roman Catholic saints have been through a formal institutional process resulting in their canonization.", "There have been thousands of canonizations.", "Pope John Paul II alone canonized 110 individuals, as well as many group canonizations such as 110 martyr saints of China, 103 Korean martyrs, 117 Vietnamese martyrs, the Mexican Martyrs, Spanish martyrs and French revolutionary martyrs.", "Note that 78 popes are considered saints.Among the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Communions, the numbers may be even higher, since there is no fixed process of \"canonization\" and each individual jurisdiction within the two Orthodox communions independently maintains parallel lists of saints that have only partial overlap.", "The Anglican Communion recognizes pre-Reformation saints, as does the United Methodist Church.", "Persons who have led lives of celebrated sanctity or missionary zeal are included in the Calendar of the Prayer Book \"...without thereby enrolling or commending such persons as saints of the Church...\" Similarly, any individuals commemorated in the Lutheran calendar of saints will be listed.", "Other denominations maintain their own Calendars of Saints." ], [ "Christian saints since AD 300", " Saint Date of birth Date of death Date ofcanonization Tradition Anglican Oriental Orthodox Eastern Orthodox Roman Catholic Total '''A'''bakuh Yes Yes 2 Abamun of Tarnut 371 Yes Yes 3 Abaskhayroun Yes 1 Abban of Magheranoidhe Yes 1 Abban of New Ross Yes Yes 2 Abban the Hermit Yes Yes 2 Abbo of Fleury 945 1004 Yes 1 Abdas of Susa Yes Yes Yes 3 Abel of Reims 764 Yes Yes Yes 3 Abib Yes 1 Abo of Tiflis 786 Yes 1 Abraham the Coptic Yes 1 Abraham of Scetes 399 Yes 1 Abraham of Smolensk 1150 1222 1549 Yes Yes 2 Abraam, Bishop of Fayoum 1829 1964 Yes 1 Abraham the Syrian 978 Yes 1 Abuna Aregawi Yes 1 Abundius 469 Yes 1 Acacius of Amida 425 Yes 1 Acca of Hexham Yes Yes 2 Achilleus Kewanuka 1869 1886 Yes 1 Adalbert of Prague 956 997 Yes 1 Adalgar 909 Yes 1 Adalgott 1165 Yes 1 Adamo Abate Yes 1 Adelaide of Italy 931 999 Yes 1 Adelaide, Abbess of Vilich 970 1015 Yes 1 Adelin (Adelhelm) of Séez Yes 1 Pope Adeodatus I 618 Yes Yes 2 Adomnán 624 704 Yes 1 Pope Adrian III 885 Yes 1 Afan Yes Yes Yes 3 Pope Agapitus I 536 Yes Yes 2 Agapetus of Pechersk Yes 1 Agatha of Sicily 231 Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 Agatho of Alexandria 677 Yes 1 Agathon of Egypt Yes 1 Pope Agatho 681 Yes Yes 2 Agnes 1197 1753 Yes Yes Yes 3 Agnes 1211 1282 Yes 1 Aidan 651 Yes Yes Yes 3 Alban Yes Yes Yes 3 Alberic 1108 Yes 1 Alberic of Utrecht 784 Yes 1 Alberto Hurtado Yes 1 Albertus Magnus 1200 1280 Yes 1 Alda Yes 1 Alcuin 804 Yes Yes Yes 3 Pope Alexander of Alexandria 328 Yes 1 Alexander Schmorell 1917 1943 Yes 1 Alexandra of Hesse 1872 1918 Yes 1 Alexei of Russia Yes 1 Alexis Falconieri 1200 1310 Yes 1 Alexis of Wilkes-Barre 1853 1909 Yes 1 Alice of Schaerbeek 1204 1250 Yes 1 Alypius the Stylite 522 640 Yes Yes Yes 3 Alipy of the Caves Yes 1 Aloysius Gonzaga 1568 1591 Yes 1 Alphege 953 1012 Yes Yes Yes 3 Alphonsa Muttathupandathu Yes 1 Alphonsus Liguori Yes 1 Amand 675 Yes 1 Ambrose of Alexandria 250 Yes 1Ammonas of EgyptYesYes2 Ammon 357 Yes 1 Amphilochius of Pochayiv Yes 1 Anastasius of Alexandria 616 Yes 1 Andronicus of Alexandria 622 Yes 1 Pope Anianus 82 Yes 1 Anastasia of Russia 1901 1918 Yes 1 Anastasia the Patrician 576 Yes Yes Yes 3 Anastasius Sinaita Yes Yes 2 André Bessette Yes 1 Andrei the Iconographer Yes 1 Andrew Bobola 1591 1657 Yes 1 Andrew of Constantinople 936 Yes 1 Andrew of Crete Yes Yes 2 Andrew Dung-Lac 1795 1839 Yes 1 Angela Merici 1474 1540 Yes 1 Angelus of Jerusalem 1185 1220 1459 Yes 1 Anna Yes 1 Anne Line 1563 1601 Yes 1Anoub of Scetis YesYes2 Anselm of Canterbury 1109 Yes Yes 2 Ansgar 865 Yes Yes Yes 3 Anthony 1347 Yes Yes 2 Anthony the Great 251 356 Yes Yes Yes 3 Anthony of Kiev 1073 Yes 1 Anthony of Lisbon or of Padua Yes 1 Anthony Galvão 1739 1822 Yes 1 Anthony Mary Claret 1807 Yes 1 Antoine Daniel 1648 Yes 1 Aphrahat Yes Yes Yes 3 Aphrodisius 65 Yes Yes 2 Apollo Yes 1 Apollonia 249 Yes 1 Apollos Yes 1 Aprax Yes 1 Arnold Janssen 1909 Yes 1 Arnulf of Metz 640 Yes 1 Artémides Zatti Yes 1 Athanasius of Alexandria 373 Yes Yes Yes 3 Augustine of Canterbury Yes Yes Yes 3 Augustine of Hippo Yes Yes Yes Yes 4Ava of Denain845 ADApril 29Yes Avoye Yes1 Avitus of Vienne 523 Yes 1 Avilius of Alexandria 95 Yes 1 '''B'''aldred of Tyninghame 757 Yes Yes 2 Barbatus of Benevento 682 Yes Yes 2 Barsanuphius of Palestine 540 Yes 1 Basil the Great 329 Yes Yes Yes 3 Basil the Fool for Christ Yes 1 Basil of Ostrog 1671 Yes 1 Beatrix d'Este 1262 Yes 1 The Venerable Bede 735 Yes Yes Yes 3 Benedetta Cambiagio Frassinello 1791 1858 Yes 1 Benedict of Aniane 747 Yes Yes 2 Benedict of Nursia Yes Yes Yes 3 Benedict of Jesus 1934 Yes 1 Pope Benedict II 685 Yes Yes 2 Benedict the Moor 1526 Yes 1 Benedict Joseph Labre Yes 1 Berlinda of Meerbeke 702 Yes 1 Bernadette Soubirous Yes 1 Bernard of Clairvaux Yes Yes 2 Bernard Due Van Vo 1838 Yes 1 Bernard of Menthon 1008 Yes 1 Bernardo Tolomei 1348 Yes 1 Bernardino of Siena Yes 1 Birinus 649 Yes Yes Yes 3 Bonaventure of Bagnoregio 1274 Yes 1 Boniface 675 Yes Yes Yes 3 Pope Boniface IV 608 Yes Yes 2 Boris I Yes 1 Botolph 680 Yes Yes 2 Brendan of Birr Yes Yes 2 Brendan the Navigator Yes Yes 2 Bridget of Sweden Yes4 Yes 2 Brigid of Kildare 525 Yes4 Yes Yes 3 Brioc Yes 1 Bruno of Cologne 1101 Yes 1 Bruno of Querfurt 1009 Yes Yes 2 Bruno of Segni 1123 Yes 1 Budoc of Dol Yes Yes 2 '''C'''aesarius of Arles 542 Yes 1 Constantine the Great 272 337 Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 Cajetan 1547 Yes 1 Camillus de Lellis 1614 Yes 1 Candidus 287 Yes 1 Canute IV of Denmark 1086 Yes 1 Carantoc Yes Yes 2 Casimir 1484 Yes 1 Catald Yes 1 Catherine of Alexandria 305 Yes Yes 1 Catherine of Bologna 1463 Yes 1 Catherine of Genoa 1510 Yes 1 Catherine Laboure Yes 1 Catherine of Ricci 1590 Yes 1 Catherine of Siena Yes Yes 2 Cedd 664 Yes Yes 2 Celadion of Alexandria 166 Yes 1 Celestine V 1296 Yes 1 Cettin Yes 1 Chad of Mercia 672 Yes Yes Yes 3 Charbel Makhluf Yes 1 King Charles the Martyr 1649 Yes 1 Charles of Mount Argus 1821 1893 Yes 1 Christopher Yes Yes 2 Chrysostomos of Smyrna Yes 1 Christina the Astonishing 1224 Yes 1 Chrysanthus 283 Yes 1 Ciarán of Clonmacnoise 546 Yes Yes 2 Ciarán of Saighir Yes 1 Clare of Assisi 1253 Yes Yes 2 Clare of Montefalco 1308 Yes 1 Claudus Corrius II 1253 Yes Yes 2 Clement of Alexandria 215 Yes 1 Clement of Ohrid Yes 1 Cleopatra 327 Yes 1 Clodoald Yes 1 Clotilde 545 Yes 1 Colette 1447 Yes 1 Columba Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 Columbanus 615 Yes Yes 2 Comgall Yes Yes 2 Congar 520 Yes Yes 2 Conrad of Parzham Yes 1 Conrad of Piacenza 1351 Yes 1 Constantine of Murom 1129 Yes 1 Pope Cosmas 730 Yes 1 Pope Cosmas II 858 Yes 1 Pope Cosmas III 933 Yes 1 Cosmas of Maiuma Yes Yes 2 Cristóbal Magallanes Jara Yes 1 Cunigunde of Luxemburg 1033 Yes 1 Cuthbert of Lindisfarne 634 687 Yes Yes Yes 3 Cuthbert Mayne 1577 Yes 1 Cynllo Yes Yes 2 Cyriacus the Anchorite 557 Yes 1 Cyrus the Coptic 304 Yes 1 Cyril, teacher of the Slavs 869 Yes Yes Yes 3 Pope Cyril I the Pillar of Faith 444 Yes Yes Yes 3 Pope Cyril II 1092 Yes 1 Pope Cyril III 1243 Yes 1 Pope Cyril IV 1861 Yes 1 Pope Cyril V 1824 Yes 1 Pope Cyril VI the Great Yes 1 King '''D'''agobert II 679 Yes 1 Damien of Molokai Yes 1 Dasya Yes 1 Daydara Yes 1 Daniel Comboni 1881 Yes 1 Danilo II Yes 1 David (Dewi) of Wales 1120 Yes Yes Yes 3 David Lewis 1679 Yes 1 Declan Yes Yes 2 Pope Demetrius 232 Yes 1 Demiana the Great 302 Yes 1 Denis of Paris Yes Yes Yes 3 Desiderius of Fontenelle Yes 1 Desiderius of Vienne 607 Yes 1 Deusdedit of Canterbury 664 Yes Yes 2 Didier (Desiderius) of Cahors 655 Yes 1 Didymus the Blind 398 Yes Yes 2 Dietrich Bonhoeffer Yes 1 Dimitry of Rostov 1651 1709 Yes 1 Pope Dioscorus 454 Yes 1 Dionysius of Alexandria 250 Yes 1 Doherty 579 Yes Yes 2 Dominic de Guzman Yes Yes 2 Dominic de la Calzada 1109 Yes 1 Dominic Loricatus 1060 Yes 1 Dominic Savio Yes 1 Dorothea of Alexandria 320 Yes 1 Dorotheus of Gaza 505 565 Yes Yes 2 Douai Martyrs Yes 1 Drogo of Sebourg 1105 Yes 1 Dunstan 988 Yes Yes Yes 3 Dymphna Yes Yes 2 '''E'''uphrasia Eluvathingal Yes1 Eanflæd 704 Yes 1 Eanswith 640 Yes Yes Yes 3 Edburga of Bicester Yes Yes 2 Edburga of Minster-in-Thanet Yes 1 Edith Stein Yes 1 Editha 961 Yes Yes 2 Edmund Arrowsmith 1628 Yes 1 Edmund Campion 1581 Yes 1 Edmund of East Anglia 869 Yes Yes Yes 3 Edward the Confessor 1003 Yes Yes Yes 3 Edward the Martyr Yes Yes Yes 3 Edwin of Northumbria 633 Yes Yes Yes 3 Egbert of Northumbria 729 Yes Yes Yes 3 Eligius Yes Yes 2 Elisabeth of Hungary 1231 Yes Yes 2 Elizabeth of Portugal 1270 Yes 1 Elizabeth of Russia 1864 1918 Yes 1 Elizabeth Ann Seton 1821 Yes 1 Emeric of Hungary 1031 Yes 1 Emma of Lesum 1038 Yes 1 Emma of Ludger 1050 Yes Yes 2 Emmeram of Regensburg 652 Yes 1 Emmelia 375 Yes 1 Enda of Aran 530 Yes 1 Engelbert of Cologne 1225 Yes 1 Erbin Yes 1 Erentrude 710 Yes 1 Ermengol 1035 Yes 1 Ermenilda of Ely Yes 1 Æthelberht of Kent 616 Yes Yes 2 Etheldreda of Ely 679 Yes Yes Yes 3 Pope Eugene I 657 Yes Yes Yes 3 Eugene de Mazenod 1861 Yes 1 Eulogius of Alexandria 608 Yes Yes Yes 3 Eulogius of Córdoba 859 Yes 1 Pope Eumenes 141 Yes 1 Euphemia 303 Yes Yes Yes 3 Euphrosyne of Alexandria Yes 1 Euphrosyne of Polatsk 1173 Yes Yes 2 Eustace of Luxeuil Yes 1 Eustadiola 594 684 Yes 1 Eustase Yes 1 Eustathius 1347 Yes Yes 2 Eustochia Smeralda Calafato 1485 Yes 1 Euthymius the Great 473 Yes Yes 2 Eysteinn Erlendsson 1188 Yes 1 '''F'''achanan Yes 1 Faro 675 Yes 1 Faustina Yes 1 Faustus 250 Yes 1 Feichin Yes Yes 2 Felix 286 Yes 1 Pope Felix III 492 Yes Yes 2 Pope Felix IV 530 Yes Yes 2 Ferdinand III of Castile 1252 Yes 1 Ferréol of Uzès 581 Yes Yes 2 Fiacre Yes 1 Fidelis of Sigmarengen 1622 Yes 1 Filan Yes Yes 2 Finbarr 620 Yes Yes 2 Florentina Yes 1 Franca Visalta 1218 Yes 1 Frances Cabrini 1850 1917 Yes 1 Frances of Rome 1440 Yes 1 Francis of Assisi 1181 Yes Yes 2 Francis Caracciolo 1608 Yes 1 Francis of Paola 1507 Yes 1 Francis de Sales Yes Yes 2 Francis Xavier Yes4 Yes 2 Francisco de Jesus Marto Yes 1 Frei Galvão 1739 1822 Yes 1 Frideswide Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 Fructuosus of Braga 665 Yes 1 Fulgentius of Cartagena Yes 1 Pope '''G'''abriel I 921 Yes 1 Pope Gabriel II 1145 Yes 1 Pope Gabriel III 1270 Yes 1 Pope Gabriel IV 1378 Yes 1 Pope Gabriel V 1427 Yes 1 Pope Gabriel VI 1475 Yes 1 Pope Gabriel VII 1569 Yes 1 Pope Gabriel VIII 1603 Yes 1 Gaetano Errico 1860 Yes 1 Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows 1862 Yes 1 Gal I, Bishop of Clermont Yes 1 Gall Yes Yes 2 Gallicanus 363 Yes 1 Gaspar del Bufalo 1837 Yes 1 Gaudentius of Ossero 1044 Yes Yes 2 Pope Gelasius I Yes Yes Yes 3 Gelert Yes Yes 2 Gemma Galgani 1878 Yes 1 Genesius of Clermont Yes 1 Genevieve 419 512 Yes Yes 2 George the Great 303 Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 George Preca Yes 1 George El Mozahem 969 Yes 1 Gerard Majella Yes 1 Gerard of Lunel 1298 Yes 1 Gerasimus of Jordan Yes Yes 2 Gereon 304 Yes 1 Gerulfus 740 Yes 1 Gianna Beretta Molla Yes 1 Ghislain 680 Yes 1 Gilbert of Sempringham 1083 Yes 1 Gilbert de Moravia 1245 Yes 1 Gilbert of Meaux 1015 Yes 1 Giovanni da Capistrano 1456 Yes 1 Giovanni Battista Scalabrini Yes 1 Goar of Aquitaine Yes 1 Godric of Finchale 1170 Yes 1 Godelieve of Gistel 1084 Yes1 Gonsalo Garcia 1597 Yes 1 Godehard (Gotthard) of Hildesheim 1038 Yes Yes 2 Gratus of Aosta Yes 1 Gregorio Barbarigo 1697 Yes 1 Gregory Palamas 1359 Yes Yes6 1.5 Gregory of Tours 594 Yes Yes Yes 3 Pope Gregory I 604 Yes Yes Yes 3 Pope Gregory II 669 Yes Yes 2 Pope Gregory III Yes Yes 2 Pope Gregory VII Yes 1 Grellan Yes 1 Gunther of Bohemia 1045 Yes 1 '''H'''allvard Vebjørnsson 1043 Yes 1Hazeka 1261 Yes 1 Heahmund YesYes2 Hedwig of Andechs 1243 Yes 1 Helena of Constantinople 246 330 Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 Helena of Skövde Yes 1 Helier 555 Yes Yes Yes 3 Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor 1024 Yes 1 Herman of Valaam Yes 1 Herman of Alaska Yes 1 Hervé 556 Yes 1 Hidulf (Hiduiphus, Hidulphus, Hydulphe) 707 Yes Yes 2 Pope Hilarius 468 Yes Yes Yes 3 Hilda of Whitby 680 Yes Yes Yes 3 Hildebrand 1085 Yes 1 Hildegard of Bingen 1179 Yes Yes 2 Pope Hormisdas 523 Yes Yes Yes 3 Hubertus 727 Yes Yes 2 Hugh Latimer, Bishop of Worcester 1487 1555 Yes 1 Hugh of Lincoln 1200 Yes Yes 2 Hyacinth 1257 Yes 1 Hyacintha Mariscotti 1640 Yes 1 '''I'''oann of Russia 1886 1918 Yes 1 Illuminata 320 0 Ignatius Loyola Yes4 Yes 2 Innocent of Alaska Yes 1 Innocencio of Mary Immaculate Yes 1 Ignatius of Laconi 1781 Yes 1 Igor of Russia 1894 1918 Yes 1 Irene of Lesvos 1463 Yes 1 Isaac Jogues 1646 Yes Yes Yes 3 Isaac of Nineveh 700 Yes 1 Isabel of France 1270 Yes 1 Isfrid of Ratzeburg 1204 Yes 1 Isidore of Seville 1598 Yes 1 Isidore the Laborer 1130 Yes 1 Íte of Killeedy 570 Yes Yes 2 Ivo of Kermartin 1303 Yes 1 '''J'''acinta de Jesus Marto Yes 1 Jacobo Kyushei Tomonaga 1633 Yes 1 Jadwiga of Poland 1399 Yes 1 James of the Marches 1476 Yes 1 Jean de Brebeuf 1649 Yes 1 Joan of Arc 1412 1431 16 May 1920 Yes 1 Joaquina Vedruna de Mas 1854 Yes 1 Job of Pochayiv 1651 Yes 1 John 1347 Yes Yes 2 Pope John I 526 Yes Yes 2 Pope John XXIII Yes 1 John Baptist de La Salle Yes 1 John of Ávila Yes 1 John Bosco Yes 1John Calvin, reformer 1509 1564 Yes 1 John Cantius 1473 Yes 1 John Climacus 606 Yes Yes Yes 3 John of the Cross 1591 Yes Yes 2 John of Damascus 675 Yes4 Yes Yes Yes 4 John Fisher Yes 1 John Macias 1645 Yes 1 John Maron 707 Yes 1 John of Matha 1213 Yes 1 John of Nepomuk 1393 Yes 1 John Henry Newman Yes Yes 2 John Nepomucene Neumann Yes 1 John Ogilvie 1615 Yes 1 Pope John Paul II Yes 1 John Rigby 1600 Yes 1 John of Shanghai and San Francisco Yes 1 John of Tobolsk 1715 Yes 1 John Vianney Yes 1 John Wesley, founder of Methodism 1703 1791 Yes 1 Johannes Karhapää Yes 1 Josaphat Kuntsevych 1623 Yes 1 Josemaría Escrivá Yes 1 Józef Bilczewski 1860 1923 Yes 1 Joseph Freinademetz Yes 1 Joseph of Anchieta 1534 1597 2014 Yes 1 Joseph of Cupertino 1663 Yes 1 Joseph Marchand 1835 Yes 1 Joseph Pignatelli 1811 Yes 1Joseph Vaz Yes 1 Josephine Bakhita Yes 1 Josse (Judoc) Yes Yes 2 Juan Diego 1548 Yes 1 Judoc (Josse) Yes Yes 2 Juliana of Lazarevo 1604 Yes 1 Juliana of Nicomedia 304 Yes Yes 2 Julian of Norwich Yes Yes 2 Juliana Falconieri 1270 Yes 1 Juliana of Cornillon 1193 Yes 1 Julie Billiart 1816 Yes 1 Justin de Jacobis 1800 Yes 1 Jutta of Kulmsee 1260 Yes 1 '''K'''assia 867 Yes 1 Katharine Drexel Yes 1 Kea Yes Yes 2 Kessog 520 Yes Yes 2 Kevin of Glendalough 1903 Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 Kinga of Poland 1292 Yes 1 Kirill of Beloozero 1427 Yes 1 Konstantin of Russia 1891 1918 Yes 1 Kuriakose Elias Chavara YesYes2 '''L'''adislaus of Hungary 1095 Yes 1 Lambert of Maastricht 700 Yes 1 Laura of Cordoba 864 Yes 1 Laura of Saint Catherine of Siena Yes 1 Laurent-Marie-Joseph Imbert 1818 Yes 1 Lawrence 258 Yes Yes Yes 3 Lazar of Serbia 1389 Yes 1 Leander of Seville Yes 1 Leo the Great 461 Yes Yes Yes 3 Pope Leo II Yes Yes 2 Pope Leo III Yes Yes 2 Pope Leo IV 855 Yes Yes 2 Pope Leo IX Yes 1 Leodegar of Autun 679 Yes Yes 2 Leopold Mandić Yes 1 Lidwina of Schiedam Yes 1 Livinus of Ghent 657 Yes 1 Lorcán Ua Tuathail 1180 Yes 1 Lorenzo Ruiz Yes Yes 2 Lot of Egypt Yes 1 Louis 1270 Yes 1 Louise de Marillac 1660 Yes 1 Lucy Filippini Yes 1 Lucy Yi Zhenmei Yes 1 Lucy of Syracuse 304 Yes Yes Yes 3 Ludmila of Bohemia Yes Yes 2 Ludolph of Ratzeburg 1250 Yes 1 Luke the Evangelist 84 Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 Lupus of Sens 623 Yes 1 Lutgardis 1246 Yes 1 '''M'''achar Yes Yes 2 Magdalen of Canossa 1835 Yes 1 Magdalene of Nagasaki 1611 Yes Yes 2 Malachy 1148 Yes 1 Malo 621 Yes 1 Marcellin Champagnat 1840 Yes 1 Marcouf 588 Yes 1 Margaret the Barefooted 1395 Yes 1 Margaret Clitherow 1586 Yes 1 Margaret of Cortona 1297 Yes 1 Margaret of Hungary Yes 1 Margaret of Scotland (Queen) Yes Yes 2 Margaret Ward 1588 Yes 1 Marguerite D'Youville 1771 Yes 1 Marguerite Marie Alacoque 1690 Yes 1 Maria Bernarda Bütler Yes 1 Maria Crocifissa di Rosa 1855 Yes 1 Maria Goretti Yes 1 Maria Domenica Mazzarello 1881 Yes 1 Maria of Russia 1899 1918 Yes 1 Marianita de Jésus Yes 1 Marie-Eugénie de Jésus Yes 1 Mark of Ephesus 1444 Yes 1 Martin Luther, reformer 1483 1546 Yes 1 Martin de Porres 1639 Yes 1 Pope Martin I 655 Yes Yes Yes 3 Martyr Saints of China Yes 1 21 Coptic Martyrs of Libya Yes Yes 2 Martyrs of Thailand Yes 1 Mary of the Gael 525 Yes Yes 2 Mary of the Cross Yes 1 Matthew I of Alexandria 1408 Yes 1 Maurontius of Douai Yes 1 Maximilian Kolbe Yes Yes 2 Maximus of Turin 465 8 Yes 2 Matthias the Apostle ca.", "80 AD 11th century in calendar Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 Maximus the Confessor 662 Yes Yes 2 Maximus the Greek 1556 Yes 1 Methodius of Thessaloniki 885 Yes Yes Yes 3 Melania the Younger Yes 1 Michael Dinh-Hy Ho 1857 Yes 1 Michael de Sanctis 1625 Yes 1 Miguel Febres Cordero 1910 Yes 1 Milburga of Wenlock 715 Yes 8 Yes 3 Modwen 0 Moninne 518 Yes9 Yes 2 Moses the Hungarian Yes 1 Mother Maria Yes Yes 2 '''N'''arcisa de Jesus Martillo Moran 1869 Yes 1 Neagoe Basarab 1459 Yes 1 Nectarios of Aegina Yes Yes 2 Naum of Preslav Yes 1 Nectan of Hartland Yes Yes 2 Neot 8 Yes 2 Nicephorus of Constantinople 828 Yes Yes 2 Pope Nicholas I 867 Yes Yes 2 Nicholas of Flüe 1487 Yes 1 Nicholas of Japan 1970 Yes 1 Nicholas of Lesvos 1463 Yes 1 Nicholas Owen Yes 1 Nicholas Pieck Yes 1 Nicholas Ridley, Bishop of London and Westminster Yes 1 Nicholas of Tolentino 1500 1555 Yes 1 Tsar Nicholas II Yes 1 Nikola Tavelic 1391 Yes 1 Nikolai of Žica Yes 1 Nil Sorsky 1508 Yes 1 Nilus the Younger 1005 Yes Yes 2 Nimattullah Kassab Al-Hardini 1808 Yes 1 Noël Chabanel 1649 Yes 1 Norbert of Xanten 1134 Yes 1 Nothelm of Canterbury 739 Yes 8 Yes 3 Nuno de Santa Maria Álvares Pereira 1431 Yes 1 '''O'''dile 720 8 Yes 2 Odo of Cluny 942 8 Yes 2 Olaf II of Norway 1030 Yes 1 Olga of Kiev YesYes 2 Olga of Russia Yes 1 Opportuna of Montreuil 770 Yes 1 Or of Nitria Yes Yes 2 Oswald of Northumbria 642 Yes 8 Yes 3 Osyth 653 8 Yes 2 Ouen (Dado) 686 8 Yes 2 Oliver Plunkett Yes 1 '''Peter''' and Fevronia of Murom 1547 Yes Yes 2 Pope Paul VI Yes 1 Paraskeva the Younger Yes 1 Philomena Yes Yes 2 Pope Paschal I 824 Yes 1 Paschal Baylon 1592 Yes 1 Patrick 493 Yes Yes 8 Yes 4 Pope Paul I Yes 1 Paul Chong Hasang 1839 Yes 1 Paul Miki 1597 Yes 1 Paul of the Cross 1775 Yes 1 Paulina Yes 1 Paulinus of York 584 Yes 8 Yes 3 Pavel of Taganrog Yes 1 Pedro Calungsod Yes 1 Peregrine Laziosi 1260 1345 1726 Yes 1 Petar I Petrović-Njegoš 1748 Yes 1 Peter Canisius 1597 Yes 1 Peter Chanel 1841 Yes 1 Peter Claver 1654 Yes 1 Peter Damian 1072-1073 Yes 1 Peter Fourier 1897 Yes 1 Peter Igneus Yes 1 Peter Julian Eymard 1868 Yes 1 Peter of Alcantara 1499 Yes 1 Peter of Capitolias 715 Yes Yes 2 Peter of Moscow Yes 1 Peter of Pappacarbone Yes 1 Peter of Saint Joseph de Betancur 1626 1667 2002 Yes 1 Peter the Aleut 1980 Yes 1 Peter the Patrician 797-802 Yes 1 Peter the Wonderworker Yes Yes 2 Petroc 564 Yes 8 Yes 3 Petrus Canisius 1597 Yes 1 Philip of Agira 8 Yes 2 Philip Benizi de Damiani 1285 Yes 1 Philothei 1589 Yes 1 Photios of Constantinople 893 Yes 1 Pierre Borie 1838 Yes 1 Pio of Pietrelcina Yes 1 Piran 8 Yes 2Pitirim of PorphyryYes1 Pope Pius I 154 Yes 1 Pope Pius V Yes 1 Pope Pius X Yes 1 Praejectus 676 8 Yes 2 Prætextatus (Bishop of Rouen) 586 Yes 1 Prokopios Lazaridis of Iconium 1859 1923 1992 Yes 1 Pyr Yes 1 '''Q'''uinidius 579 Yes 1 Quintian Yes 1 '''R'''abanus Maurus 856 Yes 1 Rainerius Yes 1 Ralph Sherwin Yes 1 Raphael of Lesvos 1463 Yes 1 Rafqa Pietra Choboq Ar-Rayès Yes 1 Raphael Kalinowski 1907 Yes 1 Raphael of Brooklyn 1915 Yes 1 Raymond of Penafort 1275 Yes 1 Remigius of Reims (or Remy, Remi) 533 8 Yes 2 Remigius of Rouen 771 Yes 1 René Goupil 1642 Yes 1 Richard of Chichester 1253 Yes Yes 2 Rictrude 688 Yes 1 Rimbert of Turholt 888 Yes 1 Rita of Cascia 1457 Yes 1 Robert Bellarmine 1621 Yes 1 Roch 1376 Yes Yes 2 Roger of Cannae 1129 Yes 1 Rognvald Kali Kolsson 1158 Yes 1 Romuald 1027 8 Yes 2 Roque González de Santa Cruz 1628 Yes 1 Rosalia 1166 Yes 1 Rose of Lima 1617 Yes 1 Rose Venerini 1728 Yes 1 '''S'''aturius of Soria 493 568 1628 Yes 1 Sabbas the Sanctified Yes Yes 2 Sadalberga 665 Yes 1 Saethryth Yes 1 Salonius Yes 1 Salvius Yes 1 Samson of Dol Yes 1 Sava of Serbia 1236 Yes Yes Yes 3 Scholastica 543 8 Yes 2 Seaxburh of Ely Yes Yes 2 Seraphina 1253 Yes 1 Seraphim of Sarov Yes 1 Serapion of Nitria YesYes2 Sergei, Grand Duke of Russia 1869 1918 Yes 1 Pope Sergius I 701 Yes 8 Yes 3 Sergius of Valaam Yes 1 Sergius of Radonezh 1392 Yes Yes Yes 3 Severinus of Noricum 482 Yes 1Severus of Vienne 455 Yes Sigeberht of East Anglia 634 Yes Yes Yes 3 Pope Silverius 537 Yes 8 Yes 3 Simeon Mirotocivi 1199 Yes 1 Simeon Stylites 459 Yes Yes Yes 3 Simon the Tanner Yes 1 Pope Simplicius 483 8 Yes 2 Sophia of Slutsk 1612 Yes 1 Sophronius of Jerusalem 638 Yes 1 Stephen of Hungary 1038 Yes (from 2000) Yes 2 Stephen of Piperi 1697 Yes 1 Stephen III of Moldavia Yes 1 Stylianos of Paphlagonia Yes 1 Swithun of Winchester 862 Yes 8 Yes 3 Sylvester Gozzolini Yes1 Symeon Metaphrastes Yes Yes 2 Symeon the New Theologian 1022 Yes 1 Pope Symmachus 514 Yes 8 Yes 3 '''T'''ekle Haymanot Yes 1 Tarasios of Constantinople 806 Yes Yes 2 Tathan 0 Tatiana of Russia Yes 1 Teresa of Avila 1582 Yes Yes 2 Teresa de los Andes Yes 1 (Mother) Teresa of Calcutta Yes 1 Théodore Guérin Yes 1 Theodore Romzha Yes 1 Theodore the Studite 826 Yes Yes Yes 3 Theodosius of Kiev Yes 1 Theophan the Recluse 1894 Yes 1 Theophanes the Confessor Yes Yes 2 Thérèse of Lisieux 1873 1897 Yes 1 Thomas Aquinas 1274 Yes Yes 2 Thomas Becket 1170 Yes Yes 2Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury 1489 1556 Yes 1 Thomas More Yes4 Yes 2 Thomas Ryzkov Yes1 Thomas of Tolentino 1321 Yes 1 Thorlak Thorhallsson (Þorlákur Þórhallsson) Yes 1 Tikhon of Moscow Yes 1 Turibius of Mongrovejo 1606 Yes 1 Tydfil Yes Yes 2 '''U'''bald 1160 Yes 1 Ulrich of Augsburg 890 8 Yes 2 Urbicius Yes 1 Ursicinus of Saint-Ursanne 625 Yes 1 Ursmar 713 Yes 1 Ursula Julia Ledochowska Yes 1 '''V'''arghese Payyappilly Palakkappilly Yes 1 Varvara Yakovleva 1918 Yes7 0.5 Venantius Fortunatus Yes 1 Veranus of Cavaillon (Véran) 590 Yes 1 Veronica of Milan Yes 1 Vicelinus 1154 Yes 1 Vicente Liem de la Paz 1732 Yes 1 Vincent Ferrer 1419 Yes 1 Vincent de Paul 1660 Yes Yes 2 Vergilius of Salzburg 784 Yes 1 Virginia Centurione Bracelli 1651 Yes 1 Pope Vitalian 672 8 Yes 2 Vietnamese Martyrs Yes 1 Vitalis of Assisi 1370 Yes 1 Vitonus 525 Yes 1 Vladimir of Kiev 1015 Yes Yes Yes 3 Vladimir Paley 1896 1918 Yes 1 '''W'''aningus 683 Yes 1 Wenceslaus 935 Yes 1 Werburgh 699 8 Yes 2 Wiborada 926 Yes 1 Wilfrid of Ripon 709 Yes 8 Yes 3 Willehad of Bremen 789 Yes Yes 2 William of Perth 1201 Yes 1 William of York 1154 Yes 1 William Tyndale 1494 1494 Yes 1 Willibrord Yes Yes 8 Yes 4 Wiro of Roermond Yes 1 Wolfeius Yes Yes 8 Yes 4 Wolfgang of Regensburg 994 8 Yes 2 Wolfhelm of Brauweiler 1091 Yes 1 Wulfram of Sens 703 Yes Yes 2 '''X'''enia the Righteous of Rome Yes 1 Xenia of Saint Petersburg Yes7 0.5 Xenophon of Robika 1262 Yes 1 '''Y'''aropolk Izyaslavich 1087 Yes 1 Yegor Chekryakovsky 2000 Yes 1 Yrieix 591 8 Yes 2 Pope '''Z'''achary 752 Yes Yes 2 Zdislava Berka 1252 Yes 1 Zita 1272 Yes 1 Zofia Szydlowiecka 1551 Yes 1 Zosimas of Palestine 560 Yes Yes 2 Zygmunt Gorazdowski Yes 1" ], [ "Notes on saints list", "4 ''Common Worship'' has \"Commemoration\".6 Eastern Rite Catholic Churches only.", "7 Russian Orthodox Church only.", "8 9 Ukrainian Orthodox Church." ], [ "Catholic known canonizations", " Saint Date of birth Date of death Date ofcanonization Pope reigning Pope Nicholas I 867 Adrian II Ulrich of Augsburg 973 John XV Adalbert of Prague 997 Gregory V Simeon of Mantua (Simeon of Polirone) 1016 1016 Benedict VIII Adalard of Corbie 751 827 1024 John XIX Bononio 1026 1026 John XIX John of Beverley 721 1037 Benedict IX Symeon of Trier 1035 1042 Benedict IX Wiborada of Saint Gall (St Gallen or 'Sankt-Gall') 926 Clement II Deodatus of Nevers 1049 Leo IX Gervase Leo IX Floribert of Liège 746 Leo IX Romaric 653 Leo IX Ame 627 Leo IX Adelphus Leo IX Gerard of Toul 935 994 Leo IX Wolfgang of Regensburg 994 1052 Leo IX Erhard of Regensburg Leo IX William of Gellone 755 812 or 814 1066 Alexander II Acarius 1067 Alexander II Robert de Turlande 1070 Alexander II Theobald of Provins 1033 1066 1073 Alexander II Paschasius Radbertus 785 865 1073 Gregory VII Heribert of Cologne c.970 1021 1075 Gregory VII Ælfheah of Canterbury (Alphege of Winchester) c.953 1012 1078 Gregory VII Pope Leo IX 1002 1054 1082 Gregory VII Gerard of Csanád (Gerard Sagredo, OSB) 980 1046 1083 Gregory VII Stephen I of Hungary 975 1038 1083 Gregory VII Emeric of Hungary 1031 Gregory VII Andrew Zorard c.980 1085 Gregory VII Benedict of Szkalka 1085 Gregory VII Anselm of Lucca 1036 1086 1087 Victor III Godelina 1070 1084 Urban II Erlembald 1075 Urban II Attilanus 937 1007 1095 Urban II Adelaide of Italy 931 999 1097 Urban II Nicholas the Pilgrim 1075 1098 Urban II Angilbert 814 1100 Urban II Canute IV of Denmark 1086 Paschal II Peter of Anagni 1105 Paschal II Gerard of Potenza 1118 1119 Callixtus II Arnold of Soissons 1087 Callixtus II Hugh of Cluny a.k.a.", "Saint Hugh the Great Callixtus II Conrad of Constance 975 1123 Callixtus II Gotthard of Hildesheim 960 1038 Innocent II Hugh of Châteauneuf 1053 1132 Innocent II Sturmius 779 Innocent II Bernard degli Uberti 1133 Innocent II Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor 973 1024 Eugene III Famianus of Compostela '''disputed''',see explanation above.", "1154 Adrian IV Henry of Uppsala 1158 Adrian IV Sigfrid of Sweden 1045 Adrian IV Guarinus of Palestrina 1158 1159 Alexander III Edward the Confessor 1003 1066 Alexander III Anselm of Canterbury 1109 Alexander III Helena of Skövde 1160 1164 Alexander III Canute Lavard 1096 1131 Alexander III John of Meda (John of Como) 1100 1159 Alexander III Thomas Becket 1170 Alexander III Bernard of Clairvaux 1090 1153 Alexander III Rainerius 1160 Alexander III Bruno of Segni, '''disputed''',see explanation above.", "1123 Lucius III Silaus of Lucca 1183 Lucius III Galgano Guidotti 1148 1181 1185 Lucius III Anno II (Anno II of Cologne), '''disputed''',see explanation above.", "1075 Lucius III Saint Ketil, '''disputed''',see explanation above.", "1188 Clement III Stephen of Muret 1045 1124 Clement III Otto of Bamberg 1139 Clement III Malachy O'More 1095 1148 Clement III Peter of Tarentaise 1102 1174 1191 Celestine III Ubald Baldassini of Gubbio 1160 Celestine III Ladislaus I of Hungary 1095 Celestine III Rögnvald Kali Kolsson (Ronald) 1158 1192 Celestine III Bernward of Hildesheim 1022 Celestine III John Gualbert 985 or 995 1073 Celestine III Gaucherius 1060 1140 1194 Celestine III Rudesind 907 977 1195 Celestine III Gerald of Sauve-Majeure 1095 Celestine III Homobonus of Cremona 1197 Innocent III Cunigunde of Luxembourg, OSB 1040 Innocent III Jón Helgi Ögmundarson 1052 1124 1201 Innocent III Gilbert of Sempringham, CRSA 1190 1202 Innocent III William of Maleval 1157 Innocent III Belina 1136 1203 Innocent III Wulstan 1095 Innocent III Procopius of Sázava 1053 Innocent III William de Donjeon 1209 Honorius III Hugh of Lincoln 1135-40 1200 Honorius III Benedict of Nursia 543 1220 Honorius III Bertrand of Comminges, beatified '''disputed''',see explanation above; canonized in 1309.1050 1126 1220 Honorius III Robert of Molesme 1028 1111 Honorius III William of Roskilde (da) 1073-1074 Honorius III Lorcán Ua Tuathail (a.k.a.", "Lawrence O’Toole) 1128 1180 Honorius III William Fitzherbert 1154 Honorius III Raynerius of Aquila Honorius III Francis of Assisi 1181-1182 1226 Gregory IX Anthony of Padua 1195 1231 Gregory IX Vergilius of Salzburg 784 Gregory IX Dominic de Guzman, OP 1170 1221 Gregory IX Elizabeth of Hungary 1207 1231 Gregory IX Edmund Rich 1175 1240 Innocent IV William Pinchon 1175 1234 Innocent IV Margaret of Scotland 1093 1250 Innocent IV George of Vienne 1251 Innocent IV Peter of Verona, OP(a.k.a.", "Peter, \"Martyr\" of Verona) 1206 1252 Innocent IV Stanislaus of Szczepanów 1030 1079 Innocent IV Clare of Assisi 1194 1253 Alexander IV William of Perth 1256 Alexander IV Íñigo of Oña 1057 Alexander IV Richard de Wych 1197 1253 Urban IV Felix of Valois 1127 1212 Urban IV Hedwig of Silesia 1174 1243 Clement IV Franca Visalta 1170 1218 Gregory X Benvenutus Scotivoli 1282 1284 Martin IV Louis IX 1214 1270 Boniface VIII Pope Celestine V (a.k.a.", "Peter Celestine) 1215 1296 Clement V Louis of Toulouse 1274 1297 John XXII Thomas de Cantilupe 1282 John XXII Thomas Aquinas, OP 1225 1274 John XXII Ivo of Kermartin, TOSF 1253 1303 Clement VI Robert de Turlande Clement VI Elzéar of Sabran 1285 1323 Urban V Calamanda of Calaf Urban V Mildred of Thanet 1388 Urban VI Bridget of Sweden 1303 1373 Boniface IX John Twenge 1319 1379 1401 Boniface IX Sebald Martin V Honorius of Buzançais 1444 Eugene IV Nicholas of Tolentino 1305 Eugene IV Bellinus Eugene IV Bernardino of Siena 1380 1444 Nicholas V Vincent Ferrer, OP 1350 1419 Callixtus III Osmund 1099 Callixtus III Albert of Trapani 1306-1307 Callixtus III Rose of Viterbo, TOSF 1251 1457 Callixtus III Catherine of Siena 1347 1380 Pius II" ], [ "See also", "*Calendar of saints** Calendar of saints (Church of England)** Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)** Calendar of saints (Anglican Church of Southern Africa)** Calendar of saints (Lutheran)** Coptic Orthodox calendar of saints*Chronological list of saints and blesseds*Doctor of the church*Martyrology*On the Resting-Places of the Saints (list from 11th century England)*Patron saint*Roman Martyrology*Saint symbology*Saints in Anglicanism*Saints in Methodism*'''Additional Lists:'''**List of blesseds**List of Catholic saints**List of Coptic saints**List of early Christian saints**List of patron saints by occupation and activity**List of saints of India**List of Russian saints**List of saints by pope**List of saints of Ireland**List of saints of the Society of Jesus**List of servants of God (Roman Catholic Church)**List of venerable people (Roman Catholic)**List of venerable people (Eastern Orthodox)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "** Canonizations before 1588.Retrieved 2008-05-15." ], [ "External links", "* Extensive categorized lists of Catholic Saints* Hagiographies, hymnography, and icons for many Orthodox saints from the website of the Orthodox Church in America.", "* Canonizations 1982–2010* Hagiography Circle" ] ]
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[ [ "Lebesgue measure" ], [ "Introduction", "In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the '''Lebesgue measure''', named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean ''n''-spaces.", "For lower dimensions ''n'' = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume.", "In general, it is also called '''''n''-dimensional volume''', '''''n''-volume''', '''hypervolume''', or simply '''volume'''.", "It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration.", "Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called '''Lebesgue-measurable'''; the measure of the Lebesgue-measurable set ''A'' is here denoted by ''λ''(''A'').Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral.", "Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902." ], [ "Definition", "For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length.", "For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum:The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows.For any rectangular cuboid which is a product of open intervals, let denote its volume.For any subset ,:Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,:The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue-measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: .", "The set of all such forms a ''σ''-algebra.", "A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue-measurable.", "ZFC proves that non-measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets.=== Intuition ===The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals.", "Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains .", "The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in .", "The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets.", "Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap.That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure.", "Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition.", "This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and .", "These partitions of are subject to the outer measure.", "If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure.", "Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a \"mask\" to \"clip\" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure.", "(Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue-measurable.)" ], [ "Examples", "* Any closed interval of real numbers is Lebesgue-measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length .", "The open interval has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points ''a'' and ''b'', which each have measure zero.", "* Any Cartesian product of intervals and is Lebesgue-measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is , the area of the corresponding rectangle.", "* Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue-measurable.", "However, there are Lebesgue-measurable sets which are not Borel sets.", "* Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0.In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in .", "* The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0.", "* If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue-measurable.", "Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice.", "* Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure.", "Their existence relies on the axiom of choice.", "* Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction).", "The dragon curve is another unusual example.", "* Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure.", "In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space.", "* The volume of an ''n''-ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function." ], [ "Properties", "Translation invariance: The Lebesgue measure of and are the same.The Lebesgue measure on '''R'''''n'' has the following properties:# If ''A'' is a cartesian product of intervals ''I''1 × ''I''2 × ⋯ × ''I''''n'', then ''A'' is Lebesgue-measurable and # If ''A'' is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue-measurable sets, then ''A'' is itself Lebesgue-measurable and ''λ''(''A'') is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets.# If ''A'' is Lebesgue-measurable, then so is its complement.# ''λ''(''A'') ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue-measurable set ''A''.# If ''A'' and ''B'' are Lebesgue-measurable and ''A'' is a subset of ''B'', then ''λ''(''A'') ≤ ''λ''(''B'').", "(A consequence of 2.", ")# Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue-measurable sets are Lebesgue-measurable.", "(Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .", ")# If ''A'' is an open or closed subset of '''R'''''n'' (or even Borel set, see metric space), then ''A'' is Lebesgue-measurable.# If ''A'' is a Lebesgue-measurable set, then it is \"approximately open\" and \"approximately closed\" in the sense of Lebesgue measure.", "# A Lebesgue-measurable set can be \"squeezed\" between a containing open set and a contained closed set.", "This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability.", "More precisely, is Lebesgue-measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and .# A Lebesgue-measurable set can be \"squeezed\" between a containing G''δ'' set and a contained F''σ''.", "I.e, if ''A'' is Lebesgue-measurable then there exist a G''δ'' set ''G'' and an F''σ'' ''F'' such that ''G'' ⊇ ''A'' ⊇ ''F'' and ''λ''(''G'' \\ ''A'') = ''λ''(''A'' \\ ''F'') = 0.# Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure.# Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non-empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of '''R'''''n''.# If ''A'' is a Lebesgue-measurable set with ''λ(''A'') = 0 (a null set), then every subset of ''A'' is also a null set.", "A fortiori, every subset of ''A'' is measurable.# If ''A'' is Lebesgue-measurable and ''x'' is an element of '''R'''''n'', then the ''translation of ''A'' by x'', defined by ''A'' + ''x'' = {''a'' + ''x'' : ''a'' ∈ ''A''}, is also Lebesgue-measurable and has the same measure as ''A''.# If ''A'' is Lebesgue-measurable and , then the ''dilation of by '' defined by is also Lebesgue-measurable and has measure # More generally, if ''T'' is a linear transformation and ''A'' is a measurable subset of '''R'''''n'', then ''T''(''A'') is also Lebesgue-measurable and has the measure .All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non-trivially linked to the following):: The Lebesgue-measurable sets form a ''σ''-algebra containing all products of intervals, and ''λ'' is the unique complete translation-invariant measure on that σ-algebra with The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being ''σ''-finite." ], [ "Null sets", "A subset of '''R'''''n'' is a ''null set'' if, for every ε > 0, it can be covered with countably many products of ''n'' intervals whose total volume is at most ε.", "All countable sets are null sets.If a subset of '''R'''''n'' has Hausdorff dimension less than ''n'' then it is a null set with respect to ''n''-dimensional Lebesgue measure.", "Here Hausdorff dimension is relative to the Euclidean metric on '''R'''''n'' (or any metric Lipschitz equivalent to it).", "On the other hand, a set may have topological dimension less than ''n'' and have positive ''n''-dimensional Lebesgue measure.", "An example of this is the Smith–Volterra–Cantor set which has topological dimension 0 yet has positive 1-dimensional Lebesgue measure.In order to show that a given set ''A'' is Lebesgue-measurable, one usually tries to find a \"nicer\" set ''B'' which differs from ''A'' only by a null set (in the sense that the symmetric difference (''A'' − ''B'') ∪ (''B'' − ''A'') is a null set) and then show that ''B'' can be generated using countable unions and intersections from open or closed sets." ], [ "Construction of the Lebesgue measure", "The modern construction of the Lebesgue measure is an application of Carathéodory's extension theorem.", "It proceeds as follows.Fix .", "A '''box''' in '''R'''''n'' is a set of the form:where , and the product symbol here represents a Cartesian product.", "The volume of this box is defined to be:For ''any'' subset ''A'' of '''R'''''n'', we can define its outer measure ''λ''*(''A'') by::We then define the set ''A'' to be Lebesgue-measurable if for every subset ''S'' of '''R'''''n'',:These Lebesgue-measurable sets form a ''σ''-algebra, and the Lebesgue measure is defined by for any Lebesgue-measurable set ''A''.The existence of sets that are not Lebesgue-measurable is a consequence of the set-theoretical axiom of choice, which is independent from many of the conventional systems of axioms for set theory.", "The Vitali theorem, which follows from the axiom, states that there exist subsets of '''R''' that are not Lebesgue-measurable.", "Assuming the axiom of choice, non-measurable sets with many surprising properties have been demonstrated, such as those of the Banach–Tarski paradox.In 1970, Robert M. Solovay showed that the existence of sets that are not Lebesgue-measurable is not provable within the framework of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory in the absence of the axiom of choice (see Solovay's model)." ], [ "Relation to other measures", "The Borel measure agrees with the Lebesgue measure on those sets for which it is defined; however, there are many more Lebesgue-measurable sets than there are Borel measurable sets.", "The Borel measure is translation-invariant, but not complete.The Haar measure can be defined on any locally compact group and is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure ('''R'''''n'' with addition is a locally compact group).The Hausdorff measure is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure that is useful for measuring the subsets of '''R'''''n'' of lower dimensions than ''n'', like submanifolds, for example, surfaces or curves in '''R'''3 and fractal sets.", "The Hausdorff measure is not to be confused with the notion of Hausdorff dimension.It can be shown that there is no infinite-dimensional analogue of Lebesgue measure." ], [ "See also", "* 4-volume* Edison Farah* Lebesgue's density theorem* Lebesgue measure of the set of Liouville numbers* Non-measurable set** Vitali set* Peano–Jordan measure" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Lake Champlain" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lake Champlain''' ( ; ) is a natural freshwater lake in North America.", "It mostly lies between the US states of New York and Vermont, but also extends north into the Canadian province of Quebec.The New York portion of the Champlain Valley includes the eastern portions of Clinton County and Essex County.", "Most of this area is part of the Adirondack Park.", "There are recreational facilities in the park and along the relatively undeveloped coastline of the lake.", "The cities of Plattsburgh, New York, and Burlington, Vermont, are on the lake's western and eastern shores, respectively, and the town of Ticonderoga, New York, is in the region's southern part.", "The Quebec portion is in the regional county municipalities of Le Haut-Richelieu and Brome-Missisquoi.", "There are a number of islands in the lake; the largest include Grand Isle, Isle La Motte and North Hero: all part of Grand Isle County, Vermont.Because of Lake Champlain's connections both to the St. Lawrence Seaway via the Richelieu River, and to the Hudson River via the Champlain Canal, Lake Champlain is sometimes referred to as \"The Sixth Great Lake.\"" ], [ "Geology", "Sentinel-2 satellite photoThe Champlain Valley is the northernmost unit of a landform system known as the Great Appalachian Valley, which stretches between Quebec, Canada, to the north, and Alabama, US, to the south.", "The Champlain Valley is a physiographic section of the larger Saint Lawrence Valley, which in turn is part of the larger Appalachian physiographic division.Lake Champlain is one of numerous large lakes scattered in an arc through Labrador, in Canada, the northern United States, and the Northwest Territories of Canada.", "It is the thirteenth-largest lake by area in the US.", "Approximately in area, the lake is long and across at its widest point, and has a maximum depth of approximately .", "The lake varies seasonally from about above mean sea level.===Hydrology===Lake Champlain in Burlington Harbor during sunset on May 27, 2012Lake Champlain is in the Lake Champlain Valley between the Green Mountains of Vermont and the Adirondack Mountains of New York, drained northward by the Richelieu River into the St. Lawrence River at Sorel-Tracy, Quebec, northeast and downstream of Montreal.", "The Champlain basin collects waters from the northwestern slopes of the Green Mountains and the eastern portion of the Adirondack Mountains, reaching as far south as the Lake George in New York.", "Lake Champlain drains nearly half of Vermont, and approximately 250,000 people get their drinking water from the lake.The lake is fed in Vermont by the LaPlatte, Lamoille, Missisquoi, Poultney and Winooski rivers, along with Lewis Creek, Little Otter Creek and Otter Creek.", "In New York, it is fed by the Ausable, Boquet, Great Chazy, La Chute, Little Ausable, Little Chazy, Salmon and Saranac rivers, along with Putnam Creek.", "In Quebec, it is fed by the Pike River.It is connected to the Hudson River by the Champlain Canal.Parts of the lake freeze each winter, and in some winters the entire lake surface freezes, referred to as \"closing\".", "In July and August, the lake temperature reaches an average of .===Chazy Reef===The Chazy Reef is an extensive Ordovician carbonate rock formation that extends from Tennessee to Quebec and Newfoundland.", "The oldest reefs are around \"The Head\" of the south end of Isle La Motte; slightly younger reefs are found at the Fisk Quarry, and the youngest (the famous coral reefs) are in fields to the north." ], [ "History", "Brooklyn Museum – Green Mountains, Lake Champlain – Winckworth Allan Gay – overallThe lake has long acted as a border between indigenous nations, much as it is today between the states of New York and Vermont.", "The lake is located at the frontier between Abenaki and Mohawk (Iroquois Confederacy) traditional territories.", "The official toponym for the lake, according to the orthography established by the Grand Council of Wanab-aki Nation, is '''Pitawbagok''' (alternative orthographies include Petonbowk and Bitawbagok), meaning \"middle lake\", \"lake in between\" or \"double lake\".The Mohawk name in modern orthography, as standardized in 1993, is '''Kaniatarakwà:ronte''', meaning \"a bulged lake\" or \"lake with a bulge in it\".", "An alternate name is '''Kaniá:tare tsi kahnhokà:ronte''' (phonetic English spelling ''Caniaderi Guarunte''), meaning \"door of the country\" or \"lake to the country\".", "The lake is an important eastern gateway to Iroquois Confederacy lands.The lake was named after the French explorer Samuel de Champlain, who encountered it in July 1609.While the ports of Burlington, Vermont, Port Henry, New York, and Plattsburgh, New York, today are primarily used by small craft, ferries and lake cruise ships, they were of substantial commercial and military importance in the 18th and 19th centuries.===Colonial America and the Revolutionary War===Cadastral map showing concessions and ''seigneuries'' on the coasts of the lake according to 1739 surveying.New France allocated concessions all along Lake Champlain to French settlers and built forts to defend the waterways.", "In colonial times, Lake Champlain was used as a water (or, in winter, ice) passage between the Saint Lawrence and Hudson valleys.", "Travelers found it easier to journey by boats and sledges on the lake rather than go overland on unpaved and frequently mud-bound roads.", "The lake's northern tip at Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec (known as St. John in colonial times under British rule) is just from Montreal, Quebec.", "The southern tip at Whitehall (Skenesborough in revolutionary times) is north of Glens Falls on the Hudson River and north of Albany, New York.Forts were built at Ticonderoga and Crown Point (Fort St. Frederic) to control passage on the lake in colonial times.", "Important battles were fought at Ticonderoga in 1758 and 1775.During the Revolutionary War, the British and Americans conducted a frenetic shipbuilding race through the spring and summer of 1776, at opposite ends of the lake, and fought a significant naval engagement on October 11 at the Battle of Valcour Island.", "While it was a tactical defeat for the Americans, and the small fleet led by Benedict Arnold was almost destroyed, the Americans gained a strategic victory; the British invasion was delayed long enough so the approach of winter prevented the fall of these forts until the following year.", "In this period, the Continental Army gained strength and was victorious at Saratoga.====Beginning of the Revolutionary War====At the start of the Revolutionary War, British forces occupied the Champlain Valley.", "However, it did not take long for rebel leaders to realize the importance of controlling Lake Champlain.", "Early in the war, the colonial militias attempted to expel the British from Boston; however, this undertaking could not be achieved without heavy artillery.", "The British forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, were known to have ample supplies of artillery and were weakly-manned by the British.", "Thus, the colonial militias devised a plan to take control of the two forts and bring the guns back to the fight in Boston.Charlotte Ferry, Lake ChamplainThe necessity of controlling the two forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point placed Lake Champlain as a strategic arena during the Revolutionary War.", "By taking control of these forts, Americans not only gained heavy artillery, but control of a vast water highway as well: Lake Champlain provided a direct invasion route to British Canada.", "However, had the British controlled the lake, they could have divided the colonies of New England and further depleted the Continental Army.The Continental Army's first offensive action took place in May 1775, three weeks after the Battles of Lexington and Concord.", "Ethan Allen, accompanied by 200 Green Mountain Boys, was ordered to capture Fort Ticonderoga and retrieve supplies for the fight in Boston.", "Benedict Arnold shared the command with Allen, and, in early May 1775, they captured Fort Ticonderoga, Crown Point and the southern Loyalist settlement of Skenesborough.", "As a result of Allen's offensive attack on the Champlain Valley in 1775, the American forces controlled the Lake Champlain waterway.====Siege of Quebec: 1775–1776====The Continental Army realized the strategic advantage of controlling Lake Champlain, as it leads directly to the heart of Quebec.", "Immediately after taking Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, the Americans began planning an attack on British Canada.", "The American siege of Quebec was a two-pronged assault and occurred throughout the winter of 1775–1776.Brigadier General Richard Montgomery led the first assault up the Champlain Valley into Canada, while Benedict Arnold led a second army to Quebec via the Maine wilderness.Despite the strategic advantage of controlling a direct route to Quebec by way of the Champlain Valley, the American siege of British Canada during the winter of 1775 failed.", "The Continental Army mistakenly assumed that it would receive support from the Canadians upon their arrival at Quebec.", "This was not the case, and the rebel army struggled to take Quebec with diminishing supplies, support, and harsh northern winter weather.The Continental Army was forced to camp outside Quebec's walls for the winter, with reinforcements from New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Connecticut allowing the soldiers to maintain their siege of the city.", "The reinforcements traveled hundreds of miles up the frozen Lake Champlain and St. Lawrence River, but were too late and too few to influence a successful siege of Quebec.", "In May 1776, with the arrival of a British convoy carrying 10,000 British and Hessian troops to Canada, the Continental forces retreated back down the Champlain Valley to reevaluate their strategy.The Champlain Valley as seen from Camel's Hump\"I know of no better method than to secure the important posts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and by building a number of armed vessels to command the lakes, otherwise the forces now in Canada will be brought down upon us as quick as possible, having nothing to oppose them...They will doubtless try to construct some armed vessels and then endeavor to penetrate the country toward New York.\"", "(Brigadier General John Sullivan to George Washington, June 24, 1776).Both British and American forces spent the summer of 1776 building their naval fleets, at opposite ends of Lake Champlain.", "By the October 1776, the Continental Army had 16 operating naval vessels on Lake Champlain: a great increase to the four small ships they had at the beginning of the summer.", "General Benedict Arnold commanded the American naval fleet on Lake Champlain, which was composed of volunteers and soldiers drafted from the Northern Army.", "With great contrast to the Continental navy, experienced Royal Navy officers, British seamen and Hessian artillerymen manned the British fleet on Lake Champlain.", "By the end of the summer of 1776, the opposing armies were prepared to battle over the strategic advantage of controlling Lake Champlain.====Battle of Valcour Island====On October 11, 1776, the British and American naval fleets met on the western side of Valcour Island, on Lake Champlain.", "American General Benedict Arnold established the location, as it provided the Continental fleet with a natural defensive position.", "The British and American vessels engaged in combat for much of the day, only stopping due to impending nightfall.After a long day of combat, the American fleet was in worse shape than the experienced British Navy.", "Upon ceasefire, Arnold called a council of war with his fellow officers, proposing to escape the British fleet via rowboats under the cover of night.", "As the British burned Arnold's flagship, the ''Royal Savage'', to the east, the Americans rowed past the British lines.The following morning, the British learned of the Americans' escape and set out after the fleeing Continental vessels.", "On October 13, the British fleet caught up to the struggling American ships near Split Rock Mountain.", "With no hope of fighting off the powerful British navy, Arnold ordered his men to run their five vessels aground in Ferris Bay, Panton, Vermont.", "The depleted Continental army escaped on land back to Fort Ticonderoga and Mount Independence; however, they no longer controlled the Lake Champlain waterway.The approaching winter of 1776–1777 restricted British movement along the recently controlled Lake Champlain.", "As the British abandoned Crown Point and returned to Canada for the winter, the Americans reduced their garrisons in the Champlain Valley from 13,000 to 2,500 soldiers.====General Burgoyne's Campaign====Lake Champlain, Charlotte, VermontIn early 1777, British General John Burgoyne led 8,000 troops from Canada, down Lake Champlain and into the Champlain Valley.", "The goal of this invasion was to divide the New England colonies, thus forcing the Continental Army into a separated fight on multiple fronts.", "Lake Champlain provided Burgoyne with protected passage deep into the American colonies.", "Burgoyne's army reached Fort Ticonderoga and Mount Independence in late June, 1777.During the night of July 5, the American forces fled Ticonderoga as the British took control of the fort.", "However, Burgoyne's southern campaign did not go uncontested.On October 7, 1777, American General Horatio Gates, who occupied Bemis Heights, met Burgoyne's army at the Second Battle of Freeman's Farm.", "At Freeman's Farm, Burgoyne's army suffered its final defeat and ended its invasion south into the colonies.", "Ten days later, on October 17, 1777, British General Burgoyne surrendered his army at Saratoga.", "This defeat was instrumental to the momentum of the Revolutionary War, as the defeat of the British army along the Champlain-Hudson waterway convinced France to ally with the American army.====Aftermath of 1777====Following the failed British campaign led by General Burgoyne, the British still maintained control over the Champlain waterway for the duration of the Revolutionary War.", "The British used the Champlain waterway to supply raids across the Champlain Valley from 1778 to 1780, and Lake Champlain permitted direct transportation of supplies from the British posts at the northern end of the lake.With the end of the Revolutionary War in 1783, the British naval fleet on Lake Champlain retreated up to St. John's.", "However, British troops garrisoned at Fort Dutchman's Point (North Hero, Vermont) and Fort au Fer (Champlain, New York), on Lake Champlain, did not leave until the 1796 Jay Treaty.====Post-Revolutionary War period====Dutton House, Shelburne MuseumStagecoach Inn, Shelburne MuseumSawmill, Shelburne MuseumEager to take back control of Lake Champlain following the end of the Revolutionary War, Americans flocked to settle the Champlain Valley.", "Many individuals emigrated from Massachusetts and other New England colonies, such as Salmon Dutton, a settler of Cavendish, Vermont.", "Dutton emigrated in 1782 and worked as a surveyor, town official and toll-road owner.", "His home had a dooryard garden, typical of mid-19th century New England village homes, and his experience settling in the Champlain Valley depicts the industries and lifestyles surrounding Lake Champlain following the Revolutionary War.Similar to the experience of Salmon Dutton, former colonial militia Captain Hezekiah Barnes settled in Charlotte, Vermont, in 1787.Following the war, Barnes worked as a road surveyor; he also established an inn and trading post in Charlotte, along the main trade route from Montreal down Lake Champlain.", "Barnes' stagecoach inn was built in traditional Georgian style, with 10 fireplaces, a ballroom on the interior and a wraparound porch on the outside.", "In 1800, Continental Army Captain Benjamin Harrington established a distillery business in Shelburne, Vermont, which supplied his nearby inn.", "These individual accounts shed light on the significance of Lake Champlain during the post-Revolutionary War period.===War of 1812===During the War of 1812, British and American forces faced each other in the Battle of Lake Champlain, also known as the Battle of Plattsburgh, fought on September 11, 1814.This ended the final British invasion of the northern states during the War of 1812.It was fought just prior to the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, and the American victory denied the British any leverage to demand exclusive control over the Great Lakes or territorial gains against the New England states.Three US Naval ships have been named after this battle: , and a cargo ship used during World War I.Following the War of 1812, the U.S. Army began construction on \"Fort Blunder\": an unnamed fortification built at the northernmost end of Lake Champlain to protect against attacks from British Canada.", "Its nickname came from a surveying error: the initial phase of construction on the fort turned out to be taking place on a point north of the Canada–U.S.", "border.", "Once this error was spotted, construction was abandoned.", "Locals scavenged materials used in the abandoned fort for use in their homes and public buildings.By the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842, the Canada–U.S.", "border was adjusted northward to include the strategically important site of \"Fort Blunder\" on the US side.", "In 1844, work was begun to replace the remains of the 1812-era fort with a massive new Third System masonry fortification, known as Fort Montgomery.", "Portions of this fort are still standing.===Modern history===A 1902 photograph of Fort Henry at Lake ChamplainIn the early 19th century, the construction of the Champlain Canal connected Lake Champlain to the Hudson River system, allowing north–south commerce by water from New York City to Montreal and Atlantic Canada.In 1909, 65,000 people celebrated the 300th anniversary of the French discovery of the lake.", "Attending dignitaries included President William Howard Taft, along with representatives from France, Canada and the United Kingdom.In 1929, then-New York Governor Franklin Roosevelt and Vermont Governor John Weeks dedicated the first bridge to span the lake, built from Crown Point to Chimney Point.", "This bridge lasted until December 2009.Severe deterioration was found, and the bridge was demolished and replaced with the Lake Champlain Bridge, which opened in November 2011.On February 19, 1932, boats were able to sail on Lake Champlain.", "It was the first time that the lake was known to be free of ice during the winter at that time.Lake Champlain briefly became the nation's sixth Great Lake on March 6, 1998, when President Clinton signed Senate Bill 927.This bill, which was led by U.S.", "Senator Patrick Leahy of Vermont and reauthorized the National Sea Grant Program, contained a line declaring Lake Champlain to be a Great Lake.", "This status enabled its neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources.", "However, following a small uproar, the Great Lake status was rescinded on March 24 (although New York and Vermont universities continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake).===\"Champ\", Lake Champlain monster===In 1609, Samuel de Champlain wrote that he saw a lake monster long, as thick as a man's thigh, with silver-gray scales a dagger could not penetrate.", "The alleged monster had jaws with sharp and dangerous teeth.", "Native Americans claimed to have seen similar monsters long.", "This mysterious creature is likely the original Lake Champlain monster.", "The monster has been memorialized in sports teams' names and mascots, i.e., the Vermont Lake Monsters and Champ, the mascot of the state's minor league baseball team.", "A Vermont Historical Society publication recounts the story and offers possible explanations for accounts of the so-called monster: \"floating logs, schools of large sturgeon diving in a row, or flocks of blackbirds flying close to the water\".", "In 2022, it was reported that a feature dramatic film, ''Lucy and the Lake Monster'', was in the works about a young orphan girl and her grandfather looking for Champ.===Ecology===A pollution prevention, control and restoration plan for Lake Champlain was first endorsed in October 1996 by the governors of New York and Vermont and the regional administrators of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).", "In April 2003, the plan was updated, and Quebec signed on to it.", "The plan is being implemented by the Lake Champlain Basin Program and its partners at the state, provincial, federal and local levels.", "Renowned as a model for interstate and international cooperation, its primary goals are to reduce phosphorus inputs to Lake Champlain, reduce toxic contamination, minimize the risks to humans from water-related health hazards and control the introduction, spread, and impact of non-native nuisance species to preserve the integrity of the Lake Champlain ecosystem.Senior staff who helped organize the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 recall that International Paper was one of the first companies to call upon the brand-new agency, because it was being pressured by both New York and Vermont with regard to a discharge of pollution into Lake Champlain.Agricultural and urban runoff from the watershed or drainage basin is the primary source of excess phosphorus, which exacerbates algae blooms in Lake Champlain.", "The most problematic blooms have been cyanobacteria, commonly called blue-green algae, in the northeastern part of the lake: primarily Missisquoi Bay.To reduce phosphorus runoff to this part of the lake, Vermont and Quebec agreed to reduce their inputs by 60% and 40%, respectively, by an agreement signed in 2002.While agricultural sources (manure and fertilizers) are the primary sources of phosphorus (about 70%) in the Missisquoi basin, runoff from developed land and suburbs is estimated to contribute about 46% of the phosphorus runoff basin-wide to Lake Champlain, and agricultural lands contributed about 38%.In 2002, the cleanup plan noted that the lake had the capacity to absorb of phosphorus each year.", "In 2009, a judge noted that were still flowing in annually: more than twice what the lake could handle.", "Sixty municipal and industrial sewage plants discharge processed waste from the Vermont side.In 2008, the EPA expressed concerns to the State of Vermont that the lake's cleanup was not progressing fast enough to meet the original cleanup goal of 2016.The state, however, cites its Clean and Clear Action Plan as a model that will produce positive results for Lake Champlain.In 2007, Vermont banned phosphates for dishwasher use starting in 2010.This will prevent an estimated from flowing into the lake.", "While this represents 0.6% of the phosphate pollution, it took US$1.9 million to remove the pollutant from treated wastewater: an EPA requirement.Despite concerns about pollution, Lake Champlain is safe for swimming, fishing and boating.", "It is considered a world-class fishery for salmonid species (lake trout and Atlantic salmon) and bass.", "About 81 fish species live in the lake, and more than 300 bird species rely on it for habitat and as a resource during migrations.By 2008, at least seven institutions were monitoring lake water health:#Conservation Law Foundation, which in 2002 appointed a \"lakekeeper\" who reviews the state's pollution controls#Friends of Missisquoi Bay, formed in 2003#Lake Champlain Committee#Vermont Water Resources Board, which hired a water quality expert in 2008 to write water quality standards and create wetland protection rules#Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, which in 2007 appointed a \"lake czar\" to oversee pollution control#Clean and Clear, an agency of the Vermont state government, established in 2004#The Nature Conservancy, a non-profit group which focuses on biodiversity and ecosystem health.In 2001, scientists estimated that farming contributed 38% of the phosphorus runoff.", "By 2010, results of environmentally-conscious farming practices, enforced by law, had made a positive contribution to lake cleanliness.", "A federally-funded study was started to analyze this problem and to arrive at a solution.Biologists have been trying to control lampreys in the lake since 1985 or earlier.", "Lampreys are native to the area, but have expanded in population to such an extent that they wounded nearly all lake trout in 2006, and 70–80% of salmon.", "The use of pesticides against the lamprey has reduced their damage to other fish to 35% of salmon and 31% of lake trout.", "The goal was 15% of salmon and 25% of lake trout.The federal and state governments originally budgeted US$18 million for lake programs for 2010.This was later supplemented by an additional US$6.5 million from the federal government." ], [ "Natural history", "In 2010, the estimate of cormorant population, now classified as a nuisance species because they take so much of the lake fish, ranged from 14,000 to 16,000.A Fish and Wildlife commissioner said that the ideal population would be about 3,300, amounting to .", "Cormorants had disappeared from the lake (and all northern lakes) due to the use of DDT in the 1940s and 1950s, which made their eggs more fragile and reduced breeding populations.Ring-billed gulls are also considered a nuisance, and measures have been taken to reduce their population.", "Authorities are trying to encourage the return of black-crowned night herons, cattle egrets and great blue herons, which disappeared during the time DDT was being widely used.In 1989, UNESCO designated the area around Lake Champlain as the Champlain-Adirondack Biosphere Reserve." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Lake crossings===The Alburgh Peninsula (also known as the Alburgh Tongue), extending south from the Quebec shore of the lake into Vermont, and Province Point, the southernmost tip of a small promontory approximately in size a few miles to the northeast of the community of East Alburgh, Vermont, are connected by land to the rest of the state only via Canada.", "This is a distinction shared with the state of Alaska, Point Roberts, Washington, and the Northwest Angle in Minnesota.", "All of these are practical exclaves of the United States contiguous with Canada.", "Unlike the other cases, highway bridges across the lake provide direct access to the Alburgh peninsula from within the United States (from three directions), but Province Point is still accessible by land only through Canada.Champlain Bridge between New York and Vermont, demolished in December 2009====Road====Three roadways cross the lake, two connecting New York and Vermont and one connecting two towns in New York:*Since November 2011, the Lake Champlain Bridge has crossed the lake's southern part, connecting Chimney Point in Vermont with Crown Point, New York.", "It replaced the Champlain Bridge, which was closed in 2009 because of severe structural problems that could have resulted in a collapse.", ":In 2009, the bridge had been used by 3,400 drivers per day, and driving around the southern end of the lake added two hours to the trip.", "Ferry service was re-established to take some of the traffic burden.", "On December 28, 2009, the bridge was destroyed by a controlled demolition.", "A new bridge was rapidly constructed by a joint state commitment, opening on November 7, 2011.", "*To the north, US 2 runs from Rouses Point, New York, to Grand Isle County, Vermont, in the town of Alburgh, before continuing south along a chain of islands toward Burlington.", "To the east, Vermont Route 78 runs from an intersection with US 2 in Alburgh through East Alburgh to Swanton.", "The US 2-VT 78 route technically runs from the New York mainland to an extension of the mainland between two arms of the lake and then to the Vermont mainland, but it provides a direct route across the two main arms of the lake's northern part.", "*In the southern section of the lake, New York State Route 22 crosses the South Bay connecting Whitehall, NY and Dresden, Washington County, New York====Ferry====LCTC ferry slip at Grand Isle, VermontNorth of Ticonderoga, New York, the lake widens appreciably; ferry service is operated by the Lake Champlain Transportation Company at:*Charlotte, Vermont, to Essex, New York (may not travel when the lake is frozen)*Burlington, Vermont, to Port Kent, New York (seasonal)*Grand Isle, Vermont, to Cumberland Head, part of Plattsburgh, New York (year-round icebreaking service)While the old bridge was being demolished and the new one constructed, Lake Champlain Transportation Company operated a free, 24-hour ferry from just south of the bridge to Chimney Point, Vermont, at the expense of the states of New York and Vermont, at a cost to the states of about $10 per car.The most southerly crossing is the Fort Ticonderoga Ferry, connecting Ticonderoga, New York, with Shoreham, Vermont, just north of the historic fort.====Railroad====Four significant railroad crossings were built over the lake.", "As of 2021, only one remains.", "*The \"floating\" rail trestle from Larabees Point, Vermont, to Ticonderoga, New York, was operated by the Addison Branch of the Rutland Railroad.", "It was abandoned in 1918, due to a number of accidents which resulted in locomotives and rail cars falling into the lake.", "*The Island Line Causeway, a marble tailings and granite rock landfill causeway that stretched from Colchester (on the mainland) north and west to South Hero, Vermont.", "Two breaks in the causeway were spanned by a fixed iron trestle and a swing bridge that could be opened to allow boats to pass.", "The Rutland Railroad (later Rutland Railway) operated trains over this causeway from 1901 to 1961, with the last passenger train operating in 1953.The railroad was officially abandoned in 1963, with tracks and trestles removed over the course of the ten years that followed.", "The marble tailings and granite rock causeway still remains, as does the fixed iron trestle that bridges the lesser of the two gaps.", "The swing bridge over the navigation channel was removed in the early 1970s.The Swanton-Alburgh trestle spans Lake Champlain between the two Vermont towns: a distance of about .", ":Now called Colchester Park, the main causeway has been adapted and preserved as a recreation area for cyclists, runners and anglers.", "Two smaller marble tailings and granite rock landfill causeways were also erected as part of this line that connected Grand Isle to North Hero, and spanned from North Hero to Alburgh.", "*The Alburgh, Vermont – Rouses Point, New York, rail trestle.", "From sometime in the late 19th century until 1964, this wooden trestle carried two railroads (the Rutland Railroad and the Central Vermont Railroad) over the lake just south of the US 2 vehicular bridge.", "The iron swing bridge at the center (over the navigation channel) has been removed.", "Most of the wooden pilings remain, greatly deteriorated, and can be seen looking south from the US 2 bridge.", "Part of the trestle on the Rouses Point side has been converted for use as an access pier associated with the local marina.", "*The Swanton – Alburgh, Vermont rail trestle.", "Built in the same manner as at Rouses Point, it crosses the lake just south of Missisquoi Bay and the Canada–U.S.", "border, within yards south of the Vermont Route 78 bridge.", "It is still in use by the New England Central Railroad.===Waterways===Lake Champlain has been connected to the Erie Canal via the Champlain Canal since the canal's official opening on September 9, 1823, the same day as the opening of the Erie Canal from Rochester on Lake Ontario to Albany.", "It connects to the St. Lawrence River via the Richelieu River, with the Chambly Canal bypassing rapids on the river since 1843.Together with these waterways, the lake is part of the Lakes to Locks Passage.", "The Lake Champlain Seaway, a project to use the lake to bring ocean-going ships from New York City to Montreal, was proposed in the late 19th century and considered as late as the 1960s, but rejected for various reasons.", "The lake is also part of the Northern Forest Canoe Trail, which begins in Old Forge, New York, and ends in Fort Kent, Maine." ], [ "Surroundings", "===Major cities===Burlington, Vermont (pop.", "44,743, 2020 census) is the largest city on the lake.", "The second and third most-populated cities/towns are Plattsburgh, New York, and South Burlington, Vermont, respectively.", "The fourth-largest community is the town of Colchester.===Islands===At sunset, looking west from Grand Isle to Plattsburgh and Crab IslandLake Champlain contains roughly 80 islands, three of which comprise four entire Vermont towns (most of Grand Isle County).", "The largest islands:*South Hero Island, the largest, containing the towns of Grand Isle and South Hero, Vermont*North Hero Island, containing the town of North Hero, Vermont*Isle La Motte, containing the town of Isle La Motte, Vermont*Valcour Island, New York*Juniper Island*Three Sisters*Four Brothers*Savage Island*Burton Island (State Park)*Cloak Island*Garden Island (Gunboat Island)*Crab Island*Dameas Island*Hen Island*Butler's Island*Carleton's Prize*Young Island *Providence Island*Stave Island*Sunset Island===Lighthouses===The lighthouse in Lake Champlain at dusk, as seen from Burlington*Bluff Point Lighthouse, on Valcour Island near the New York shore, was built in 1871; it was manned by a full-time lightkeeper until 1930, making it one of the last lighthouses to be manned on the Lake*Cumberland Head Light, which operated until 1934, is an historic stone lighthouse located on Cumberland Head which is privately owned*Isle La Motte Light, on the northern end of the island, was originally red, but faded to pink over time; it is privately owned*Juniper Island Light is a cast-iron lighthouse that dates from 1846; in 1954, it was deactivated and replaced by a steel tower; it is privately owned*On Point Au Roche, part of Beekmantown, New York, there is a privately owned, historic lighthouse*Split Rock Lighthouse is located south of Essex, New York, near a natural boundary of the territory between the Mohawk and Algonquin tribes===Aids to navigation===USCG, Burlington, Vermont – main installationAll active navigational aids on the American portion of the lake are maintained by Coast Guard Station Burlington, along with those on international Lake Memphremagog to the east.Aids to navigation on the Canadian portion of the lake are maintained by the Canadian Coast Guard.===Parks===There are a number of parks in the Lake Champlain region, in both New York and Vermont.Those on the New York side of the lake include Point Au Roche State Park, which park grounds have hiking and cross country skiing trails and a public beach; and Ausable Point Campground within the Adirondack Park.", "Cumberland Bay State Park is located on Cumberland Head, with a campground, city beach and sports fields.There are various parks along the lake on the Vermont side, including Sand Bar State Park in Milton, featuring a natural sand beach, swimming, canoe and kayak rentals, food concession, picnic grounds and a play area.", "At , Grand Isle State Park contains camping facilities, a sand volleyball court, a nature walk trail, a horseshoe pit and a play area.", "Button Bay State Park in Ferrisburgh features campsites, picnic areas, a nature center and a swimming pool.", "Burlington's Waterfront Park is a revitalized industrial area." ], [ "Public safety", "ECHO AquariumCoast Guard Station Burlington provides \"Search and Rescue, Law Enforcement and Ice Rescue services 24 hours a day, 365 days a year\".", "Services are also provided by local, state and federal governments bordering on the lake, including the U.S. Border Patrol, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Vermont State Police, New York State Police Marine Detail, and Vermont Fish and Wildlife wardens." ], [ "See also", "*Champlain Sea, post-glacial predecessor to Lake Champlain*Île aux Noix*List of lakes of Vermont*List of New York rivers*List of rivers of Quebec*List of rivers of Vermont*Odziozo" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ''Bloom: the Plight of Lake Champlain'' (PBS film series)* ''Champlain: The Lake Between'' Documentary produced by Vermont Public Television* ECHO, Leahy Center for Lake Champlain* Ethan Allen Homestead Museum* Lake Champlain Community Sailing Center* Lake Champlain Basin Atlas* Lake Champlain Basin Program* Lake Champlain Maritime Museum* Lake Champlain Quadricentennial * International flood study* Shelburne Museum* Lake Champlain United* Lake Champlain International" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lambda calculus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lambda calculus''' (also written as '''''λ''-calculus''') is a formal system in mathematical logic for expressing computation based on function abstraction and application using variable binding and substitution.", "It is a universal model of computation that can be used to simulate any Turing machine.", "It was introduced by the mathematician Alonzo Church in the 1930s as part of his research into the foundations of mathematics.Lambda calculus consists of constructing lambda terms and performing reduction operations on them.", "In the simplest form of lambda calculus, terms are built using only the following rules:# : A variable is a character or string representing a parameter.# : A lambda abstraction is a function definition, taking as input the bound variable (between the λ and the punctum/dot '''.''')", "and returning the body .# : An application, applying a function to an argument .", "Both and are lambda terms.The reduction operations include:* : α-conversion, renaming the bound variables in the expression.", "Used to avoid name collisions.", "* : β-reduction, replacing the bound variables with the argument expression in the body of the abstraction.If De Bruijn indexing is used, then α-conversion is no longer required as there will be no name collisions.", "If repeated application of the reduction steps eventually terminates, then by the Church–Rosser theorem it will produce a β-normal form.Variable names are not needed if using a universal lambda function, such as Iota and Jot, which can create any function behavior by calling it on itself in various combinations." ], [ "Explanation and applications", "Lambda calculus is Turing complete, that is, it is a universal model of computation that can be used to simulate any Turing machine.", "Its namesake, the Greek letter lambda (λ), is used in lambda expressions and lambda terms to denote binding a variable in a function.Lambda calculus may be ''untyped'' or ''typed''.", "In typed lambda calculus, functions can be applied only if they are capable of accepting the given input's \"type\" of data.", "Typed lambda calculi are ''weaker'' than the untyped lambda calculus, which is the primary subject of this article, in the sense that ''typed lambda calculi can express less'' than the untyped calculus can.", "On the other hand, typed lambda calculi allow more things to be proven.", "For example, in the simply typed lambda calculus it is a theorem that every evaluation strategy terminates for every simply typed lambda-term, whereas evaluation of untyped lambda-terms need not terminate (see below).", "One reason there are many different typed lambda calculi has been the desire to do more (of what the untyped calculus can do) without giving up on being able to prove strong theorems about the calculus.Lambda calculus has applications in many different areas in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science.", "Lambda calculus has played an important role in the development of the theory of programming languages.", "Functional programming languages implement lambda calculus.", "Lambda calculus is also a current research topic in category theory." ], [ "History", "The lambda calculus was introduced by mathematician Alonzo Church in the 1930s as part of an investigation into the foundations of mathematics.", "The original system was shown to be logically inconsistent in 1935 when Stephen Kleene and J.", "B. Rosser developed the Kleene–Rosser paradox.Subsequently, in 1936 Church isolated and published just the portion relevant to computation, what is now called the untyped lambda calculus.", "In 1940, he also introduced a computationally weaker, but logically consistent system, known as the simply typed lambda calculus.Until the 1960s when its relation to programming languages was clarified, the lambda calculus was only a formalism.", "Thanks to Richard Montague and other linguists' applications in the semantics of natural language, the lambda calculus has begun to enjoy a respectable place in both linguistics and computer science.=== Origin of the ''λ'' symbol ===There is some uncertainty over the reason for Church's use of the Greek letter lambda (λ) as the notation for function-abstraction in the lambda calculus, perhaps in part due to conflicting explanations by Church himself.", "According to Cardone and Hindley (2006):By the way, why did Church choose the notation “λ”?", "In an unpublished 1964 letter to Harald Dickson he stated clearly that it came from the notation “” used for class-abstraction by Whitehead and Russell, by first modifying “” to “” to distinguish function-abstraction from class-abstraction, and then changing “” to “λ” for ease of printing.This origin was also reported in Rosser, 1984, p.338.On the other hand, in his later years Church told two enquirers that the choice was more accidental: a symbol was needed and λ just happened to be chosen.Dana Scott has also addressed this question in various public lectures.Scott recounts that he once posed a question about the origin of the lambda symbol to Church's former student and son-in-law John W. Addison Jr., who then wrote his father-in-law a postcard:Dear Professor Church,Russell had the iota operator, Hilbert had the epsilon operator.", "Why did you choose lambda for your operator?According to Scott, Church's entire response consisted of returning the postcard with the following annotation: \"eeny, meeny, miny, moe\"." ], [ "Informal description", "=== Motivation ===Computable functions are a fundamental concept within computer science and mathematics.", "The lambda calculus provides simple semantics for computation which are useful for formally studying properties of computation.", "The lambda calculus incorporates two simplifications that make its semantics simple.The first simplification is that the lambda calculus treats functions \"anonymously;\" it does not give them explicit names.", "For example, the function: can be rewritten in ''anonymous form'' as: (which is read as \"a tuple of and is mapped to \").", "Similarly, the function: can be rewritten in anonymous form as: where the input is simply mapped to itself.The second simplification is that the lambda calculus only uses functions of a single input.", "An ordinary function that requires two inputs, for instance the function, can be reworked into an equivalent function that accepts a single input, and as output returns ''another'' function, that in turn accepts a single input.", "For example,: can be reworked into: This method, known as currying, transforms a function that takes multiple arguments into a chain of functions each with a single argument.Function application of the function to the arguments (5, 2), yields at once: : : ,whereas evaluation of the curried version requires one more step: : // the definition of has been used with in the inner expression.", "This is like β-reduction.", ": // the definition of has been used with .", "Again, similar to β-reduction.", ": to arrive at the same result.=== The lambda calculus ===The lambda calculus consists of a language of ''lambda terms'', that are defined by a certain formal syntax, and a set of transformation rules for manipulating the lambda terms.", "These transformation rules can be viewed as an equational theory or as an operational definition.As described above, having no names, all functions in the lambda calculus are anonymous functions.", "They only accept one input variable, so currying is used to implement functions of several variables.==== Lambda terms ====The syntax of the lambda calculus defines some expressions as valid lambda calculus expressions and some as invalid, just as some strings of characters are valid C programs and some are not.", "A valid lambda calculus expression is called a \"'''lambda term'''\".The following three rules give an inductive definition that can be applied to build all syntactically valid lambda terms:* variable is itself a valid lambda term.", "*if is a lambda term, and is a variable, then is a lambda term (called an ''abstraction'');*if and are lambda terms, then   is a lambda term (called an ''application'').Nothing else is a lambda term.", "Thus a lambda term is valid if and only if it can be obtained by repeated application of these three rules.", "However, some parentheses can be omitted according to certain rules.", "For example, the outermost parentheses are usually not written.", "''See §Notation, below for when to include parentheses'' An ''abstraction'' denotes an § anonymous function that takes a single input and returns .", "For example, is an abstraction for the function using the term for .", "The name is superfluous when using abstraction.", "binds the variable in the term .", "The definition of a function with an abstraction merely \"sets up\" the function but does not invoke it.", "''See §Notation below for usage of parentheses'' An ''application''   represents the application of a function to an input , that is, it represents the act of calling function on input to produce .There is no concept in lambda calculus of variable declaration.", "In a definition such as (i.e.", "), in lambda calculus is a variable that is not yet defined.", "The abstraction is syntactically valid, and represents a function that adds its input to the yet-unknown .Parentheses may be used and might be needed to disambiguate terms.", "For example, # which is of form  — an abstraction, and # which is of form    — an application.The examples 1 and 2 denote different terms; except for the scope of the parentheses they would be the same.", "But example 1 is a function definition, while example 2 is function application.", "Lambda variable is a placeholder in both examples.Here, example 1 ''defines'' a function , where is , an anonymous function , with input ; while example 2,  , is M applied to N, where is the lambda term being applied to the input which is .", "Both examples 1 and 2 would evaluate to the identity function .==== Functions that operate on functions ====In lambda calculus, functions are taken to be 'first class values', so functions may be used as the inputs, or be returned as outputs from other functions.For example, the lambda term represents the identity function, .", "Further, represents the ''constant function'' , the function that always returns , no matter the input.", "As an example of a function operating on functions, the function composition can be defined as .There are several notions of \"equivalence\" and \"reduction\" that allow lambda terms to be \"reduced\" to \"equivalent\" lambda terms.==== Alpha equivalence ====A basic form of equivalence, definable on lambda terms, is alpha equivalence.", "It captures the intuition that the particular choice of a bound variable, in an abstraction, does not (usually) matter.For instance, and are alpha-equivalent lambda terms, and they both represent the same function (the identity function).The terms and are not alpha-equivalent, because they are not bound in an abstraction.In many presentations, it is usual to identify alpha-equivalent lambda terms.The following definitions are necessary in order to be able to define β-reduction:==== Free variables ====The ''free variables'' of a term are those variables not bound by an abstraction.", "The set of free variables of an expression is defined inductively:* The free variables of are just * The set of free variables of is the set of free variables of , but with removed* The set of free variables of is the union of the set of free variables of and the set of free variables of .For example, the lambda term representing the identity has no free variables, but the function has a single free variable, .==== Capture-avoiding substitutions ====Suppose , and are lambda terms, and and are variables.The notation indicates substitution of for in in a ''capture-avoiding'' manner.", "This is defined so that:* ; with substituted for , becomes * if ; with substituted for , (which is not ) remains * ; substitution distributes to both sides of an application* ; a variable bound by an abstraction is not subject to substitution; substituting such variable leaves the abstraction unchanged* if and does not appear among the free variables of ( is said to be \"fresh\" for ) ; substituting a variable which is not bound by an abstraction proceeds in the abstraction's body, provided that the abstracted variable is \"fresh\" for the substitution term .For example, , and .The freshness condition (requiring that is not in the free variables of ) is crucial in order to ensure that substitution does not change the meaning of functions.For example, a substitution that ignores the freshness condition could lead to errors: .", "This erroneous substitution would turn the constant function into the identity .In general, failure to meet the freshness condition can be remedied by alpha-renaming first, with a suitable fresh variable.For example, switching back to our correct notion of substitution, in the abstraction can be renamed with a fresh variable , to obtain , and the meaning of the function is preserved by substitution.==== β-reduction ====The β-reduction rule states that an application of the form reduces to the term .", "The notation is used to indicate that β-reduces to .For example, for every , .", "This demonstrates that really is the identity.Similarly, , which demonstrates that is a constant function.The lambda calculus may be seen as an idealized version of a functional programming language, like Haskell or Standard ML.", "Under this view, β-reduction corresponds to a computational step.", "This step can be repeated by additional β-reductions until there are no more applications left to reduce.", "In the untyped lambda calculus, as presented here, this reduction process may not terminate.", "For instance, consider the term .Here .That is, the term reduces to itself in a single β-reduction, and therefore the reduction process will never terminate.Another aspect of the untyped lambda calculus is that it does not distinguish between different kinds of data.", "For instance, it may be desirable to write a function that only operates on numbers.", "However, in the untyped lambda calculus, there is no way to prevent a function from being applied to truth values, strings, or other non-number objects." ], [ "Formal definition", "=== Definition ===Lambda expressions are composed of:* variables ''v''1, ''v''2, ...;* the abstraction symbols λ (lambda) and .", "(dot);* parentheses ().The set of lambda expressions, , can be defined inductively:# If ''x'' is a variable, then # If ''x'' is a variable and then # If then Instances of rule 2 are known as ''abstractions'' and instances of rule 3 are known as ''applications''.=== Notation ===To keep the notation of lambda expressions uncluttered, the following conventions are usually applied:* Outermost parentheses are dropped: ''M'' ''N'' instead of (''M'' ''N'').", "* Applications are assumed to be left associative: ''M'' ''N'' ''P'' may be written instead of ((''M'' ''N'') ''P'').", "* When all variables are single-letter, the space in applications may be omitted: ''MNP'' instead of ''M'' ''N'' ''P''.", "* The body of an abstraction extends as far right as possible: λ''x''.", "''M N'' means λ''x''.", "(''M N'') and not (λ''x''.", "''M'') ''N''.", "* A sequence of abstractions is contracted: λ''x''.λ''y''.λ''z''.", "''N'' is abbreviated as λ''xyz''.", "''N''.=== Free and bound variables ===The abstraction operator, λ, is said to bind its variable wherever it occurs in the body of the abstraction.", "Variables that fall within the scope of an abstraction are said to be ''bound''.", "In an expression λ''x''.", "''M'', the part λ''x'' is often called ''binder'', as a hint that the variable ''x'' is getting bound by prepending λ''x'' to ''M''.", "All other variables are called ''free''.", "For example, in the expression λ''y''.", "''x x y'', ''y'' is a bound variable and ''x'' is a free variable.", "Also a variable is bound by its nearest abstraction.", "In the following example the single occurrence of ''x'' in the expression is bound by the second lambda: λ''x''.", "''y'' (λ''x''.", "''z x'').The set of ''free variables'' of a lambda expression, ''M'', is denoted as FV(''M'') and is defined by recursion on the structure of the terms, as follows:# FV(''x'') = {''x''}, where ''x'' is a variable.# FV(λ''x''.", "''M'') = FV(''M'') \\ {''x''}.# An expression that contains no free variables is said to be ''closed''.", "Closed lambda expressions are also known as ''combinators'' and are equivalent to terms in combinatory logic." ], [ "Reduction", "The meaning of lambda expressions is defined by how expressions can be reduced.There are three kinds of reduction:* ''α-conversion'': changing bound variables;* ''β-reduction'': applying functions to their arguments;* ''η-reduction'': which captures a notion of extensionality.We also speak of the resulting equivalences: two expressions are ''α-equivalent'', if they can be α-converted into the same expression.", "β-equivalence and η-equivalence are defined similarly.The term ''redex'', short for ''reducible expression'', refers to subterms that can be reduced by one of the reduction rules.", "For example, (λ''x''.", "''M'') ''N'' is a β-redex in expressing the substitution of ''N'' for ''x'' in ''M''.", "The expression to which a redex reduces is called its ''reduct''; the reduct of (λ''x''.", "''M'') ''N'' is ''M''''x'' := ''N''.If ''x'' is not free in ''M'', λ''x''.", "''M x'' is also an η-redex, with a reduct of ''M''.=== α-conversion ==='''α-conversion''' (alpha-conversion), sometimes known as α-renaming, allows bound variable names to be changed.", "For example, α-conversion of λ''x''.", "''x'' might yield λ''y''.''y''.", "Terms that differ only by α-conversion are called ''α-equivalent''.", "Frequently, in uses of lambda calculus, α-equivalent terms are considered to be equivalent.The precise rules for α-conversion are not completely trivial.", "First, when α-converting an abstraction, the only variable occurrences that are renamed are those that are bound to the same abstraction.", "For example, an α-conversion of λ''x''.λ''x''.", "''x'' could result in λ''y''.λ''x''.", "''x'', but it could ''not'' result in λ''y''.λ''x''.''y''.", "The latter has a different meaning from the original.", "This is analogous to the programming notion of variable shadowing.Second, α-conversion is not possible if it would result in a variable getting captured by a different abstraction.", "For example, if we replace ''x'' with ''y'' in λ''x''.λ''y''.", "''x'', we get λ''y''.λ''y''.", "''y'', which is not at all the same.In programming languages with static scope, α-conversion can be used to make name resolution simpler by ensuring that no variable name masks a name in a containing scope (see α-renaming to make name resolution trivial).In the De Bruijn index notation, any two α-equivalent terms are syntactically identical.==== Substitution ====Substitution, written ''M''''x'' := ''N'', is the process of replacing all ''free'' occurrences of the variable ''x'' in the expression ''M'' with expression ''N''.", "Substitution on terms of the lambda calculus is defined by recursion on the structure of terms, as follows (note: x and y are only variables while M and N are any lambda expression):: ''x''''x'' := ''N'' = ''N'': ''y''''x'' := ''N'' = ''y'', if ''x'' ≠ ''y'': (''M''1 ''M''2)''x'' := ''N'' = ''M''1''x'' := ''N'' ''M''2''x'' := ''N'': (λ''x''.", "''M'')''x'' := ''N'' = λ''x''.", "''M'': (λ''y''.", "''M'')''x'' := ''N'' = λ''y''.", "(''M''''x'' := ''N''), if ''x'' ≠ ''y'' and ''y'' ∉ FV(''N'') ''See above for the FV''To substitute into an abstraction, it is sometimes necessary to α-convert the expression.", "For example, it is not correct for (λ''x''.", "''y'')''y'' := ''x'' to result in λ''x''.", "''x'', because the substituted ''x'' was supposed to be free but ended up being bound.", "The correct substitution in this case is λ''z''.", "''x'', up to α-equivalence.", "Substitution is defined uniquely up to α-equivalence.", "''See Capture-avoiding substitutions above''=== β-reduction ==='''β-reduction''' (beta reduction) captures the idea of function application.", "β-reduction is defined in terms of substitution: the β-reduction of (λ''x''.", "''M'') ''N'' is ''M''''x'' := ''N''.For example, assuming some encoding of 2, 7, ×, we have the following β-reduction: (λ''n''.", "''n'' × 2) 7 → 7 × 2.β-reduction can be seen to be the same as the concept of ''local reducibility'' in natural deduction, via the Curry–Howard isomorphism.=== η-reduction ==='''η-reduction''' (eta reduction) expresses the idea of extensionality, which in this context is that two functions are the same if and only if they give the same result for all arguments.", "η-reduction converts between λ''x''.", "''f'' ''x'' and ''f'' whenever ''x'' does not appear free in ''f''.η-reduction can be seen to be the same as the concept of ''local completeness'' in natural deduction, via the Curry–Howard isomorphism." ], [ "Normal forms and confluence", "For the untyped lambda calculus, β-reduction as a rewriting rule is neither strongly normalising nor weakly normalising.However, it can be shown that β-reduction is confluent when working up to α-conversion (i.e.", "we consider two normal forms to be equal if it is possible to α-convert one into the other).Therefore, both strongly normalising terms and weakly normalising terms have a unique normal form.", "For strongly normalising terms, any reduction strategy is guaranteed to yield the normal form, whereas for weakly normalising terms, some reduction strategies may fail to find it." ], [ "Encoding datatypes", "The basic lambda calculus may be used to model arithmetic, booleans, data structures, and recursion, as illustrated in the following sub-sections ''i'', ''ii'', ''iii'', and ''§ iv''.=== Arithmetic in lambda calculus ===There are several possible ways to define the natural numbers in lambda calculus, but by far the most common are the Church numerals, which can be defined as follows:: : : : and so on.", "Or using the alternative syntax presented above in ''Notation'':: : : : A Church numeral is a higher-order function—it takes a single-argument function , and returns another single-argument function.", "The Church numeral is a function that takes a function as argument and returns the -th composition of , i.e.", "the function composed with itself times.", "This is denoted and is in fact the -th power of (considered as an operator); is defined to be the identity function.", "Such repeated compositions (of a single function ) obey the laws of exponents, which is why these numerals can be used for arithmetic.", "(In Church's original lambda calculus, the formal parameter of a lambda expression was required to occur at least once in the function body, which made the above definition of impossible.", ")One way of thinking about the Church numeral , which is often useful when analysing programs, is as an instruction 'repeat ''n'' times'.", "For example, using the and functions defined below, one can define a function that constructs a (linked) list of ''n'' elements all equal to ''x'' by repeating 'prepend another ''x'' element' ''n'' times, starting from an empty list.", "The lambda term is: By varying what is being repeated, and varying what argument that function being repeated is applied to, a great many different effects can be achieved.We can define a successor function, which takes a Church numeral and returns by adding another application of , where '(mf)x' means the function 'f' is applied 'm' times on 'x':: Because the -th composition of composed with the -th composition of gives the -th composition of , addition can be defined as follows:: can be thought of as a function taking two natural numbers as arguments and returning a natural number; it can be verified that: and: are β-equivalent lambda expressions.", "Since adding to a number can be accomplished by adding 1 times, an alternative definition is:: Similarly, multiplication can be defined as: Alternatively: since multiplying and is the same as repeating the add function times and then applying it to zero.Exponentiation has a rather simple rendering in Church numerals, namely: The predecessor function defined by for a positive integer and is considerably more difficult.", "The formula: can be validated by showing inductively that if ''T'' denotes , then for .", "Two other definitions of are given below, one using conditionals and the other using pairs.", "With the predecessor function, subtraction is straightforward.", "Defining: , yields when and otherwise.=== Logic and predicates ===By convention, the following two definitions (known as Church booleans) are used for the boolean values and :: : Then, with these two lambda terms, we can define some logic operators (these are just possible formulations; other expressions could be equally correct):: : : : We are now able to compute some logic functions, for example:: :: :: and we see that is equivalent to .A ''predicate'' is a function that returns a boolean value.", "The most fundamental predicate is , which returns if its argument is the Church numeral , but if its argument were any other Church numeral:: The following predicate tests whether the first argument is less-than-or-equal-to the second:: ,and since , if and , it is straightforward to build a predicate for numerical equality.The availability of predicates and the above definition of and make it convenient to write \"if-then-else\" expressions in lambda calculus.", "For example, the predecessor function can be defined as:: which can be verified by showing inductively that is the add − 1 function for > 0.=== Pairs ===A pair (2-tuple) can be defined in terms of and , by using the Church encoding for pairs.", "For example, encapsulates the pair (,), returns the first element of the pair, and returns the second.", ": : : : : A linked list can be defined as either NIL for the empty list, or the of an element and a smaller list.", "The predicate tests for the value .", "(Alternatively, with , the construct obviates the need for an explicit NULL test).As an example of the use of pairs, the shift-and-increment function that maps to can be defined as: which allows us to give perhaps the most transparent version of the predecessor function::" ], [ "Additional programming techniques", "There is a considerable body of programming idioms for lambda calculus.", "Many of these were originally developed in the context of using lambda calculus as a foundation for programming language semantics, effectively using lambda calculus as a low-level programming language.", "Because several programming languages include the lambda calculus (or something very similar) as a fragment, these techniques also see use in practical programming, but may then be perceived as obscure or foreign.=== Named constants ===In lambda calculus, a library would take the form of a collection of previously defined functions, which as lambda-terms are merely particular constants.", "The pure lambda calculus does not have a concept of named constants since all atomic lambda-terms are variables, but one can emulate having named constants by setting aside a variable as the name of the constant, using abstraction to bind that variable in the main body, and apply that abstraction to the intended definition.", "Thus to use to mean ''N'' (some explicit lambda-term) in ''M'' (another lambda-term, the \"main program\"), one can say: ''M'' ''N''Authors often introduce syntactic sugar, such as , to permit writing the above in the more intuitive order: ''N''''M''By chaining such definitions, one can write a lambda calculus \"program\" as zero or more function definitions, followed by one lambda-term using those functions that constitutes the main body of the program.A notable restriction of this is that the name be not defined in ''N'', for ''N'' to be outside the scope of the abstraction binding ; this means a recursive function definition cannot be used as the ''N'' with .", "The construction would allow writing recursive function definitions.=== Recursion and fixed points ===Recursion is the definition of a function using the function itself.", "A definition containing itself inside itself, by value, leads to the whole value being of infinite size.", "Other notations which support recursion natively overcome this by referring to the function definition ''by name''.", "Lambda calculus cannot express this: all functions are anonymous in lambda calculus, so we can't refer by name to a value which is yet to be defined, inside the lambda term defining that same value.", "However, a lambda expression can receive itself as its own argument, for example in  .", "Here ''E'' should be an abstraction, applying its parameter to a value to express recursion.Consider the factorial function recursively defined by: .In the lambda expression which is to represent this function, a ''parameter'' (typically the first one) will be assumed to receive the lambda expression itself as its value, so that calling it – applying it to an argument – will amount to recursion.", "Thus to achieve recursion, the intended-as-self-referencing argument (called here) must always be passed to itself within the function body, at a call point:: ::: with   to hold, so   and: The self-application achieves replication here, passing the function's lambda expression on to the next invocation as an argument value, making it available to be referenced and called there.This solves it but requires re-writing each recursive call as self-application.", "We would like to have a generic solution, without a need for any re-writes:: ::: with   to hold, so   and:  where  ::: so that  Given a lambda term with first argument representing recursive call (e.g.", "here), the ''fixed-point'' combinator will return a self-replicating lambda expression representing the recursive function (here, ).", "The function does not need to be explicitly passed to itself at any point, for the self-replication is arranged in advance, when it is created, to be done each time it is called.", "Thus the original lambda expression is re-created inside itself, at call-point, achieving self-reference.In fact, there are many possible definitions for this operator, the simplest of them being:: In the lambda calculus,   is a fixed-point of , as it expands to:: : : : : Now, to perform our recursive call to the factorial function, we would simply call ,  where ''n'' is the number we are calculating the factorial of.", "Given ''n'' = 4, for example, this gives:: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Every recursively defined function can be seen as a fixed point of some suitably defined function closing over the recursive call with an extra argument, and therefore, using , every recursively defined function can be expressed as a lambda expression.", "In particular, we can now cleanly define the subtraction, multiplication and comparison predicate of natural numbers recursively.=== Standard terms ===Certain terms have commonly accepted names:: : : : : : : : is the identity function.", "and form complete combinator calculus systems that can express any lambda term - see the next section.", "is , the smallest term that has no normal form.", "is another such term.", "is standard and defined above, and can also be defined as , so that .", "and defined above are commonly abbreviated as and .=== Abstraction elimination ===If ''N'' is a lambda-term without abstraction, but possibly containing named constants (combinators), then there exists a lambda-term ''T''(,''N'') which is equivalent to ''N'' but lacks abstraction (except as part of the named constants, if these are considered non-atomic).", "This can also be viewed as anonymising variables, as ''T''(,''N'') removes all occurrences of from ''N'', while still allowing argument values to be substituted into the positions where ''N'' contains an .", "The conversion function ''T'' can be defined by:: ''T''(, ) := '''I''': ''T''(, ''N'') := '''K''' ''N'' if is not free in ''N''.", ": ''T''(, ''M'' ''N'') := '''S''' ''T''(, ''M'') ''T''(, ''N'')In either case, a term of the form ''T''(,''N'') ''P'' can reduce by having the initial combinator '''I''', '''K''', or '''S''' grab the argument ''P'', just like β-reduction of ''N'' ''P'' would do.", "'''I''' returns that argument.", "'''K''' throws the argument away, just like ''N'' would do if has no free occurrence in ''N''.", "'''S''' passes the argument on to both subterms of the application, and then applies the result of the first to the result of the second.The combinators '''B''' and '''C''' are similar to '''S''', but pass the argument on to only one subterm of an application ('''B''' to the \"argument\" subterm and '''C''' to the \"function\" subterm), thus saving a subsequent '''K''' if there is no occurrence of in one subterm.", "In comparison to '''B''' and '''C''', the '''S''' combinator actually conflates two functionalities: rearranging arguments, and duplicating an argument so that it may be used in two places.", "The '''W''' combinator does only the latter, yielding the B, C, K, W system as an alternative to SKI combinator calculus." ], [ "Typed lambda calculus", "A ''typed lambda calculus'' is a typed formalism that uses the lambda-symbol () to denote anonymous function abstraction.", "In this context, types are usually objects of a syntactic nature that are assigned to lambda terms; the exact nature of a type depends on the calculus considered (see Kinds of typed lambda calculi).", "From a certain point of view, typed lambda calculi can be seen as refinements of the untyped lambda calculus but from another point of view, they can also be considered the more fundamental theory and ''untyped lambda calculus'' a special case with only one type.Typed lambda calculi are foundational programming languages and are the base of typed functional programming languages such as ML and Haskell and, more indirectly, typed imperative programming languages.", "Typed lambda calculi play an important role in the design of type systems for programming languages; here typability usually captures desirable properties of the program, e.g.", "the program will not cause a memory access violation.Typed lambda calculi are closely related to mathematical logic and proof theory via the Curry–Howard isomorphism and they can be considered as the internal language of classes of categories, e.g.", "the simply typed lambda calculus is the language of Cartesian closed categories (CCCs)." ], [ "Reduction strategies", "Whether a term is normalising or not, and how much work needs to be done in normalising it if it is, depends to a large extent on the reduction strategy used.", "Common lambda calculus reduction strategies include:; Normal order: The leftmost, outermost redex is always reduced first.", "That is, whenever possible the arguments are substituted into the body of an abstraction before the arguments are reduced.", "; Applicative order: The leftmost, innermost redex is always reduced first.", "Intuitively this means a function's arguments are always reduced before the function itself.", "Applicative order always attempts to apply functions to normal forms, even when this is not possible.", "; Full β-reductions: Any redex can be reduced at any time.", "This means essentially the lack of any particular reduction strategy—with regard to reducibility, \"all bets are off\".Weak reduction strategies do not reduce under lambda abstractions:; Call by value: A redex is reduced only when its right hand side has reduced to a value (variable or abstraction).", "Only the outermost redexes are reduced.", "; Call by name: As normal order, but no reductions are performed inside abstractions.", "For example, is in normal form according to this strategy, although it contains the redex .Strategies with sharing reduce computations that are \"the same\" in parallel:; Optimal reduction: As normal order, but computations that have the same label are reduced simultaneously.", "; Call by need: As call by name (hence weak), but function applications that would duplicate terms instead name the argument, which is then reduced only \"when it is needed\"." ], [ "Computability", "There is no algorithm that takes as input any two lambda expressions and outputs or depending on whether one expression reduces to the other.", "More precisely, no computable function can decide the question.", "This was historically the first problem for which undecidability could be proven.", "As usual for such a proof, ''computable'' means computable by any model of computation that is Turing complete.", "In fact computability can itself be defined via the lambda calculus: a function ''F'': '''N''' → '''N''' of natural numbers is a computable function if and only if there exists a lambda expression ''f'' such that for every pair of ''x'', ''y'' in '''N''', ''F''(''x'')=''y'' if and only if ''f''  =β ,  where and are the Church numerals corresponding to ''x'' and ''y'', respectively and =β meaning equivalence with β-reduction.", "See the Church–Turing thesis for other approaches to defining computability and their equivalence.Church's proof of uncomputability first reduces the problem to determining whether a given lambda expression has a normal form.", "Then he assumes that this predicate is computable, and can hence be expressed in lambda calculus.", "Building on earlier work by Kleene and constructing a Gödel numbering for lambda expressions, he constructs a lambda expression that closely follows the proof of Gödel's first incompleteness theorem.", "If is applied to its own Gödel number, a contradiction results." ], [ "Complexity", "The notion of computational complexity for the lambda calculus is a bit tricky, because the cost of a β-reduction may vary depending on how it is implemented.", "To be precise, one must somehow find the location of all of the occurrences of the bound variable in the expression , implying a time cost, or one must keep track of the locations of free variables in some way, implying a space cost.", "A naïve search for the locations of in is ''O''(''n'') in the length ''n'' of .", "Director strings were an early approach that traded this time cost for a quadratic space usage.", "More generally this has led to the study of systems that use explicit substitution.In 2014, it was shown that the number of β-reduction steps taken by normal order reduction to reduce a term is a ''reasonable'' time cost model, that is, the reduction can be simulated on a Turing machine in time polynomially proportional to the number of steps.", "This was a long-standing open problem, due to ''size explosion'', the existence of lambda terms which grow exponentially in size for each β-reduction.", "The result gets around this by working with a compact shared representation.", "The result makes clear that the amount of space needed to evaluate a lambda term is not proportional to the size of the term during reduction.", "It is not currently known what a good measure of space complexity would be.An unreasonable model does not necessarily mean inefficient.", "Optimal reduction reduces all computations with the same label in one step, avoiding duplicated work, but the number of parallel β-reduction steps to reduce a given term to normal form is approximately linear in the size of the term.", "This is far too small to be a reasonable cost measure, as any Turing machine may be encoded in the lambda calculus in size linearly proportional to the size of the Turing machine.", "The true cost of reducing lambda terms is not due to β-reduction per se but rather the handling of the duplication of redexes during β-reduction.", "It is not known if optimal reduction implementations are reasonable when measured with respect to a reasonable cost model such as the number of leftmost-outermost steps to normal form, but it has been shown for fragments of the lambda calculus that the optimal reduction algorithm is efficient and has at most a quadratic overhead compared to leftmost-outermost.", "In addition the BOHM prototype implementation of optimal reduction outperformed both Caml Light and Haskell on pure lambda terms." ], [ "Lambda calculus and programming languages", "As pointed out by Peter Landin's 1965 paper \"A Correspondence between ALGOL 60 and Church's Lambda-notation\", sequential procedural programming languages can be understood in terms of the lambda calculus, which provides the basic mechanisms for procedural abstraction and procedure (subprogram) application.=== Anonymous functions ===For example, in Python the \"square\" function can be expressed as a lambda expression as follows:(lambda x: x**2)The above example is an expression that evaluates to a first-class function.", "The symbol lambda creates an anonymous function, given a list of parameter names, x – just a single argument in this case, and an expression that is evaluated as the body of the function, x**2.Anonymous functions are sometimes called lambda expressions.For example, Pascal and many other imperative languages have long supported passing subprograms as arguments to other subprograms through the mechanism of function pointers.", "However, function pointers are not a sufficient condition for functions to be first class datatypes, because a function is a first class datatype if and only if new instances of the function can be created at run-time.", "And this run-time creation of functions is supported in Smalltalk, JavaScript and Wolfram Language, and more recently in Scala, Eiffel (\"agents\"), C# (\"delegates\") and C++11, among others.=== Parallelism and concurrency ===The Church–Rosser property of the lambda calculus means that evaluation (β-reduction) can be carried out in ''any order'', even in parallel.", "This means that various nondeterministic evaluation strategies are relevant.", "However, the lambda calculus does not offer any explicit constructs for parallelism.", "One can add constructs such as Futures to the lambda calculus.", "Other process calculi have been developed for describing communication and concurrency." ], [ "Semantics", "The fact that lambda calculus terms act as functions on other lambda calculus terms, and even on themselves, led to questions about the semantics of the lambda calculus.", "Could a sensible meaning be assigned to lambda calculus terms?", "The natural semantics was to find a set ''D'' isomorphic to the function space ''D'' → ''D'', of functions on itself.", "However, no nontrivial such ''D'' can exist, by cardinality constraints because the set of all functions from ''D'' to ''D'' has greater cardinality than ''D'', unless ''D'' is a singleton set.In the 1970s, Dana Scott showed that if only continuous functions were considered, a set or domain ''D'' with the required property could be found, thus providing a model for the lambda calculus.This work also formed the basis for the denotational semantics of programming languages." ], [ "Variations and extensions", "These extensions are in the lambda cube:* Typed lambda calculus – Lambda calculus with typed variables (and functions)* System F – A typed lambda calculus with type-variables* Calculus of constructions – A typed lambda calculus with types as first-class valuesThese formal systems are extensions of lambda calculus that are not in the lambda cube:* Binary lambda calculus – A version of lambda calculus with binary I/O, a binary encoding of terms, and a designated universal machine.", "* Lambda-mu calculus – An extension of the lambda calculus for treating classical logicThese formal systems are variations of lambda calculus:* Kappa calculus – A first-order analogue of lambda calculusThese formal systems are related to lambda calculus:* Combinatory logic – A notation for mathematical logic without variables* SKI combinator calculus – A computational system based on the '''S''', '''K''' and '''I''' combinators, equivalent to lambda calculus, but reducible without variable substitutions" ], [ "See also", "* Applicative computing systems – Treatment of objects in the style of the lambda calculus* Cartesian closed category – A setting for lambda calculus in category theory* Categorical abstract machine – A model of computation applicable to lambda calculus* Clojure, programming language* Curry–Howard isomorphism – The formal correspondence between programs and proofs* De Bruijn index – notation disambiguating alpha conversions* De Bruijn notation – notation using postfix modification functions* Deductive lambda calculus – The consideration of the problems associated with considering lambda calculus as a Deductive system.", "* Domain theory – Study of certain posets giving denotational semantics for lambda calculus* Evaluation strategy – Rules for the evaluation of expressions in programming languages* Explicit substitution – The theory of substitution, as used in β-reduction* Functional programming* Harrop formula – A kind of constructive logical formula such that proofs are lambda terms* Interaction nets* Kleene–Rosser paradox – A demonstration that some form of lambda calculus is inconsistent* Knights of the Lambda Calculus – A semi-fictional organization of LISP and Scheme hackers* Krivine machine – An abstract machine to interpret call-by-name in lambda calculus* Lambda calculus definition – Formal definition of the lambda calculus.", "* Let expression – An expression closely related to an abstraction.", "* Minimalism (computing)* Rewriting – Transformation of formulæ in formal systems* SECD machine – A virtual machine designed for the lambda calculus* Scott–Curry theorem – A theorem about sets of lambda terms* ''To Mock a Mockingbird'' – An introduction to combinatory logic* Universal Turing machine – A formal computing machine that is equivalent to lambda calculus* Unlambda – An esoteric functional programming language based on combinatory logic" ], [ "Further reading", "* Abelson, Harold & Gerald Jay Sussman.", "Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs.", "The MIT Press.", ".", "* Barendregt, Hendrik Pieter ''Introduction to Lambda Calculus''.", "* Barendregt, Hendrik Pieter, The Impact of the Lambda Calculus in Logic and Computer Science.", "The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic, Volume 3, Number 2, June 1997.", "* Barendregt, Hendrik Pieter, ''The Type Free Lambda Calculus'' pp1091–1132 of ''Handbook of Mathematical Logic'', North-Holland (1977) * Cardone and Hindley, 2006.History of Lambda-calculus and Combinatory Logic.", "In Gabbay and Woods (eds.", "), ''Handbook of the History of Logic'', vol.", "5.Elsevier.", "* Church, Alonzo, ''An unsolvable problem of elementary number theory'', American Journal of Mathematics, 58 (1936), pp.", "345–363.This paper contains the proof that the equivalence of lambda expressions is in general not decidable.", "* ()* * Kleene, Stephen, ''A theory of positive integers in formal logic'', American Journal of Mathematics, 57 (1935), pp.", "153–173 and 219–244.Contains the lambda calculus definitions of several familiar functions.", "* Landin, Peter, ''A Correspondence Between ALGOL 60 and Church's Lambda-Notation'', Communications of the ACM, vol.", "8, no.", "2 (1965), pages 89–101.Available from the ACM site.", "A classic paper highlighting the importance of lambda calculus as a basis for programming languages.", "* Larson, Jim, ''An Introduction to Lambda Calculus and Scheme''.", "A gentle introduction for programmers.", "** Schalk, A. and Simmons, H. (2005) '' An introduction to λ-calculi and arithmetic with a decent selection of exercises.", "Notes for a course in the Mathematical Logic MSc at Manchester University.", "* A paper giving a formal underpinning to the idea of 'meaning-is-use' which, even if based on proofs, it is different from proof-theoretic semantics as in the Dummett–Prawitz tradition since it takes reduction as the rules giving meaning.", "* Hankin, Chris, ''An Introduction to Lambda Calculi for Computer Scientists,'' ;Monographs/textbooks for graduate students:* Sørensen, Morten Heine and Urzyczyn, Paweł (2006), ''Lectures on the Curry–Howard isomorphism'', Elsevier, is a recent monograph that covers the main topics of lambda calculus from the type-free variety, to most typed lambda calculi, including more recent developments like pure type systems and the lambda cube.", "It does not cover subtyping extensions.", "* covers lambda calculi from a practical type system perspective; some topics like dependent types are only mentioned, but subtyping is an important topic.", ";Documents* '' A Short Introduction to the Lambda Calculus''-(PDF) by Achim Jung* '' A timeline of lambda calculus''-(PDF) by Dana Scott* '' A Tutorial Introduction to the Lambda Calculus''-(PDF) by Raúl Rojas* '' Lecture Notes on the Lambda Calculus''-(PDF) by Peter Selinger* ''Graphic lambda calculus'' by Marius Buliga* ''Lambda Calculus as a Workflow Model'' by Peter Kelly, Paul Coddington, and Andrew Wendelborn; mentions graph reduction as a common means of evaluating lambda expressions and discusses the applicability of lambda calculus for distributed computing (due to the Church–Rosser property, which enables parallel graph reduction for lambda expressions)." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "''Some parts of this article are based on material from FOLDOC, used with permission.''" ], [ "External links", "* Graham Hutton, Lambda Calculus, a short (12 minutes) Computerphile video on the Lambda Calculus* Helmut Brandl, '' Step by Step Introduction to Lambda Calculus''* * David C. Keenan, '' To Dissect a Mockingbird: A Graphical Notation for the Lambda Calculus with Animated Reduction''* L. Allison, '' Some executable λ-calculus examples''* Georg P. Loczewski, ''The Lambda Calculus and A++''* Bret Victor, '' Alligator Eggs: A Puzzle Game Based on Lambda Calculus''* '' Lambda Calculus '' on Safalra's Website * LCI Lambda Interpreter a simple yet powerful pure calculus interpreter* Lambda Calculus links on Lambda-the-Ultimate* Mike Thyer, Lambda Animator, a graphical Java applet demonstrating alternative reduction strategies.", "* Implementing the Lambda calculus using C++ Templates* Shane Steinert-Threlkeld, \"Lambda Calculi\", ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* Anton Salikhmetov, ''Macro Lambda Calculus''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lossy compression" ], [ "Introduction", "In information technology, '''lossy compression''' or '''irreversible compression''' is the class of data compression methods that uses inexact approximations and partial data discarding to represent the content.", "These techniques are used to reduce data size for storing, handling, and transmitting content.", "The different versions of the photo of the cat on this page show how higher degrees of approximation create coarser images as more details are removed.", "This is opposed to lossless data compression (reversible data compression) which does not degrade the data.", "The amount of data reduction possible using lossy compression is much higher than using lossless techniques.Well-designed lossy compression technology often reduces file sizes significantly before degradation is noticed by the end-user.", "Even when noticeable by the user, further data reduction may be desirable (e.g., for real-time communication or to reduce transmission times or storage needs).", "The most widely used lossy compression algorithm is the discrete cosine transform (DCT), first published by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974.Lossy compression is most commonly used to compress multimedia data (audio, video, and images), especially in applications such as streaming media and internet telephony.", "By contrast, lossless compression is typically required for text and data files, such as bank records and text articles.", "It can be advantageous to make a master lossless file which can then be used to produce additional copies from.", "This allows one to avoid basing new compressed copies off of a lossy source file, which would yield additional artifacts and further unnecessary information loss." ], [ "Types", "It is possible to compress many types of digital data in a way that reduces the size of a computer file needed to store it, or the bandwidth needed to transmit it, with no loss of the full information contained in the original file.", "A picture, for example, is converted to a digital file by considering it to be an array of dots and specifying the color and brightness of each dot.", "If the picture contains an area of the same color, it can be compressed without loss by saying \"200 red dots\" instead of \"red dot, red dot, ...(197 more times)..., red dot.", "\"The original data contains a certain amount of information, and there is a lower limit to the size of file that can carry all the information.", "Basic information theory says that there is an absolute limit in reducing the size of this data.", "When data is compressed, its entropy increases, and it cannot increase indefinitely.", "For example, a compressed ZIP file is smaller than its original, but repeatedly compressing the same file will not reduce the size to nothing.", "Most compression algorithms can recognize when further compression would be pointless and would in fact increase the size of the data.In many cases, files or data streams contain more information than is needed.", "For example, a picture may have more detail than the eye can distinguish when reproduced at the largest size intended; likewise, an audio file does not need a lot of fine detail during a very loud passage.", "Developing lossy compression techniques as closely matched to human perception as possible is a complex task.", "Sometimes the ideal is a file that provides exactly the same perception as the original, with as much digital information as possible removed; other times, perceptible loss of quality is considered a valid tradeoff.The terms \"irreversible\" and \"reversible\" are preferred over \"lossy\" and \"lossless\" respectively for some applications, such as medical image compression, to circumvent the negative implications of \"loss\".", "The type and amount of loss can affect the utility of the images.", "Artifacts or undesirable effects of compression may be clearly discernible yet the result still useful for the intended purpose.", "Or lossy compressed images may be 'visually lossless', or in the case of medical images, so-called diagnostically acceptable irreversible compression (DAIC) may have been applied." ], [ "Transform coding", "Some forms of lossy compression can be thought of as an application of transform coding, which is a type of data compression used for digital images, digital audio signals, and digital video.", "The transformation is typically used to enable better (more targeted) quantization.", "Knowledge of the application is used to choose information to discard, thereby lowering its bandwidth.", "The remaining information can then be compressed via a variety of methods.", "When the output is decoded, the result may not be identical to the original input, but is expected to be close enough for the purpose of the application.The most common form of lossy compression is a transform coding method, the discrete cosine transform (DCT), which was first published by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974.DCT is the most widely used form of lossy compression, for popular image compression formats (such as JPEG), video coding standards (such as MPEG and H.264/AVC) and audio compression formats (such as MP3 and AAC).In the case of audio data, a popular form of transform coding is perceptual coding, which transforms the raw data to a domain that more accurately reflects the information content.", "For example, rather than expressing a sound file as the amplitude levels over time, one may express it as the frequency spectrum over time, which corresponds more accurately to human audio perception.", "While data reduction (compression, be it lossy or lossless) is a main goal of transform coding, it also allows other goals: one may represent data more accurately for the original amount of space – for example, in principle, if one starts with an analog or high-resolution digital master, an MP3 file of a given size should provide a better representation than a raw uncompressed audio in WAV or AIFF file of the same size.", "This is because uncompressed audio can only reduce file size by lowering bit rate or depth, whereas compressing audio can reduce size while maintaining bit rate and depth.", "This compression becomes a selective loss of the least significant data, rather than losing data across the board.", "Further, a transform coding may provide a better domain for manipulating or otherwise editing the data – for example, equalization of audio is most naturally expressed in the frequency domain (boost the bass, for instance) rather than in the raw time domain.From this point of view, perceptual encoding is not essentially about ''discarding'' data, but rather about a ''better representation'' of data.", "Another use is for backward compatibility and graceful degradation: in color television, encoding color via a luminance-chrominance transform domain (such as YUV) means that black-and-white sets display the luminance, while ignoring the color information.", "Another example is chroma subsampling: the use of color spaces such as YIQ, used in NTSC, allow one to reduce the resolution on the components to accord with human perception – humans have highest resolution for black-and-white (luma), lower resolution for mid-spectrum colors like yellow and green, and lowest for red and blues – thus NTSC displays approximately 350 pixels of luma per scanline, 150 pixels of yellow vs. green, and 50 pixels of blue vs. red, which are proportional to human sensitivity to each component." ], [ "Information loss", "Lossy compression formats suffer from generation loss: repeatedly compressing and decompressing the file will cause it to progressively lose quality.", "This is in contrast with lossless data compression, where data will not be lost via the use of such a procedure.", "Information-theoretical foundations for lossy data compression are provided by rate-distortion theory.", "Much like the use of probability in optimal coding theory, rate-distortion theory heavily draws on Bayesian estimation and decision theory in order to model perceptual distortion and even aesthetic judgment.There are two basic lossy compression schemes:* In ''lossy transform codecs'', samples of picture or sound are taken, chopped into small segments, transformed into a new basis space, and quantized.", "The resulting quantized values are then entropy coded.", "* In ''lossy predictive codecs'', previous and/or subsequent decoded data is used to predict the current sound sample or image frame.", "The error between the predicted data and the real data, together with any extra information needed to reproduce the prediction, is then quantized and coded.In some systems the two techniques are combined, with transform codecs being used to compress the error signals generated by the predictive stage." ], [ "Comparison", "The advantage of lossy methods over lossless methods is that in some cases a lossy method can produce a much smaller compressed file than any lossless method, while still meeting the requirements of the application.", "Lossy methods are most often used for compressing sound, images or videos.", "This is because these types of data are intended for human interpretation where the mind can easily \"fill in the blanks\" or see past very minor errors or inconsistencies – ideally lossy compression is transparent (imperceptible), which can be verified via an ABX test.", "Data files using lossy compression are smaller in size and thus cost less to store and to transmit over the Internet, a crucial consideration for streaming video services such as Netflix and streaming audio services such as Spotify.===Emotional effects===A study conducted by the Audio Engineering Library concluded that lower bit rate (112 kbps) lossy compression formats such as MP3s have distinct effects on timbral and emotional characteristics, tending to strengthen negative emotional qualities and weaken positive ones.", "The study further noted that the trumpet is the instrument most affected by compression, while the horn is least.===Transparency===When a user acquires a lossily compressed file, (for example, to reduce download time) the retrieved file can be quite different from the original at the bit level while being indistinguishable to the human ear or eye for most practical purposes.", "Many compression methods focus on the idiosyncrasies of human physiology, taking into account, for instance, that the human eye can see only certain wavelengths of light.", "The psychoacoustic model describes how sound can be highly compressed without degrading perceived quality.", "Flaws caused by lossy compression that are noticeable to the human eye or ear are known as compression artifacts.===Compression ratio===The compression ratio (that is, the size of the compressed file compared to that of the uncompressed file) of lossy video codecs is nearly always far superior to that of the audio and still-image equivalents.", "* Video can be compressed immensely (e.g., 100:1) with little visible quality loss* Audio can often be compressed at 10:1 with almost imperceptible loss of quality* Still images are often lossily compressed at 10:1, as with audio, but the quality loss is more noticeable, especially on closer inspection." ], [ "Transcoding and editing", "An important caveat about lossy compression (formally transcoding), is that editing lossily compressed files causes digital generation loss from the re-encoding.", "This can be avoided by only producing lossy files from (lossless) originals and only editing (copies of) original files, such as images in raw image format instead of JPEG.", "If data which has been compressed lossily is decoded and compressed losslessly, the size of the result can be comparable with the size of the data before lossy compression, but the data already lost cannot be recovered.", "When deciding to use lossy conversion without keeping the original, format conversion may be needed in the future to achieve compatibility with software or devices (format shifting), or to avoid paying patent royalties for decoding or distribution of compressed files.===Editing of lossy files===By modifying the compressed data directly without decoding and re-encoding, some editing of lossily compressed files without degradation of quality is possible.", "Editing which reduces the file size as if it had been compressed to a greater degree, but without more loss than this, is sometimes also possible.====JPEG====The primary programs for lossless editing of JPEGs are jpegtran, and the derived exiftran (which also preserves Exif information), and Jpegcrop (which provides a Windows interface).These allow the image to be cropped, rotated, flipped, and flopped, or even converted to grayscale (by dropping the chrominance channel).", "While unwanted information is destroyed, the quality of the remaining portion is unchanged.Some other transforms are possible to some extent, such as joining images with the same encoding (composing side by side, as on a grid) or pasting images such as logos onto existing images (both via Jpegjoin), or scaling.Some changes can be made to the compression without re-encoding:* Optimizing the compression (to reduce size without change to the decoded image)* Converting between progressive and non-progressive encoding.The freeware Windows-only IrfanView has some lossless JPEG operations in its JPG_TRANSFORM plugin.====Metadata====Metadata, such as ID3 tags, Vorbis comments, or Exif information, can usually be modified or removed without modifying the underlying data.====Downsampling/compressed representation scalability====One may wish to downsample or otherwise decrease the resolution of the represented source signal and the quantity of data used for its compressed representation without re-encoding, as in bitrate peeling, but this functionality is not supported in all designs, as not all codecs encode data in a form that allows less important detail to simply be dropped.", "Some well-known designs that have this capability include JPEG 2000 for still images and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC based Scalable Video Coding for video.", "Such schemes have also been standardized for older designs as well, such as JPEG images with progressive encoding, and MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 Part 2 video, although those prior schemes had limited success in terms of adoption into real-world common usage.", "Without this capacity, which is often the case in practice, to produce a representation with lower resolution or lower fidelity than a given one, one needs to start with the original source signal and encode, or start with a compressed representation and then decompress and re-encode it (transcoding), though the latter tends to cause digital generation loss.Another approach is to encode the original signal at several different bitrates, and then either choose which to use (as when streaming over the internet – as in RealNetworks' \"SureStream\" – or offering varying downloads, as at Apple's iTunes Store), or broadcast several, where the best that is successfully received is used, as in various implementations of hierarchical modulation.", "Similar techniques are used in mipmaps, pyramid representations, and more sophisticated scale space methods.", "Some audio formats feature a combination of a lossy format and a lossless correction which when combined reproduce the original signal; the correction can be stripped, leaving a smaller, lossily compressed, file.", "Such formats include MPEG-4 SLS (Scalable to Lossless), WavPack, OptimFROG DualStream, and DTS-HD Master Audio in lossless (XLL) mode)." ], [ "Methods", "===Graphics=======Image====* Discrete cosine transform (DCT)** JPEG** WebP (high-density lossless or lossy compression of RGB and RGBA images)** High Efficiency Image Format (HEIF)** Better Portable Graphics (BPG) (lossless or lossy compression)** JPEG XR, a successor of JPEG with support for high-dynamic range, wide gamut pixel formats (lossless or lossy compression)* Wavelet compression** JPEG 2000, JPEG's successor format that uses wavelets (lossless or lossy compression)** DjVu** ICER, used by the Mars Rovers, related to JPEG 2000 in its use of wavelets** PGF, Progressive Graphics File (lossless or lossy compression)* Cartesian Perceptual Compression, also known as CPC* Fractal compression* JBIG2 (lossless or lossy compression)* S3TC texture compression for 3D computer graphics hardware====3D computer graphics====* glTF====Video====* Discrete cosine transform (DCT)** H.261** Motion JPEG** MPEG-1 Part 2** MPEG-2 Part 2 (H.262)** MPEG-4 Part 2 (H.263)** Advanced Video Coding (AVC / H.264 / MPEG-4 AVC) (may also be lossless, even in certain video sections)** High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC / H.265)** Ogg Theora (noted for its lack of patent restrictions)** VC-1* Wavelet compression** Motion JPEG 2000** Dirac* Sorenson video codec===Audio=======General====* Modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT)** Dolby Digital (AC-3)** Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding (ATRAC)** MPEG Layer III (MP3)** Advanced Audio Coding (AAC / MP4 Audio)** Vorbis** Windows Media Audio (WMA) (Standard and Pro profiles are lossy.", "WMA Lossless is also available.", ")** LDAC** Opus (Notable for lack of patent restrictions, low delay, and high quality speech and general audio.", ")* Adaptive differential pulse-code modulation (ADPCM)** Master Quality Authenticated (MQA)* MPEG-1 Audio Layer II (MP2)* Musepack (based on Musicam)* aptX/ aptX-HD====Speech====* Linear predictive coding (LPC)** Adaptive predictive coding (APC)** Code-excited linear prediction (CELP)** Algebraic code-excited linear prediction (ACELP)** Relaxed code-excited linear prediction (RCELP)** Low-delay CELP (LD-CELP)** Adaptive Multi-Rate (used in GSM and 3GPP)** Codec2 (noted for its lack of patent restrictions)** Speex (noted for its lack of patent restrictions)* Modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT)** AAC-LD** Constrained Energy Lapped Transform (CELT)** Opus (mostly for real-time applications)===Other data===Researchers have performed lossy compression on text by either using a thesaurus to substitute short words for long ones, or generative text techniques, although these sometimes fall into the related category of lossy data conversion." ], [ "Lowering resolution", "A general kind of lossy compression is to lower the resolution of an image, as in image scaling, particularly decimation.", "One may also remove less \"lower information\" parts of an image, such as by seam carving.", "Many media transforms, such as Gaussian blur, are, like lossy compression, irreversible: the original signal cannot be reconstructed from the transformed signal.", "However, in general these will have the same size as the original, and are not a form of compression.", "Lowering resolution has practical uses, as the NASA New Horizons craft transmitted thumbnails of its encounter with Pluto-Charon before it sent the higher resolution images.", "Another solution for slow connections is the usage of Image interlacing which progressively defines the image.", "Thus a partial transmission is enough to preview the final image, in a lower resolution version, without creating a scaled and a full version too." ], [ "See also", "* Compression artifact* Data compression* Image scaling* Lenna* List of codecs* Lossless compression* Rate–distortion theory* Seam carving* Transcoding" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Lossy audio formats, comparing the speed and compression strength of five lossy audio formats.", "* Data compression basics, including chapters on lossy compression of images, audio and video.", "* * Using lossy GIF/PNG compression for the web (article)* JPG for Archiving, comparing the suitability of JPG and lossless compression for image archives* JPG Image Compression, Jpg, Png compressor tool" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lossless compression" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lossless compression''' is a class of data compression that allows the original data to be perfectly reconstructed from the compressed data with no loss of information.", "Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data exhibits statistical redundancy.", "By contrast, lossy compression permits reconstruction only of an approximation of the original data, though usually with greatly improved compression rates (and therefore reduced media sizes).By operation of the pigeonhole principle, no lossless compression algorithm can shrink the size of all possible data: Some data will get longer by at least one symbol or byte.Compression algorithms are usually effective for human- and machine-readable documents and cannot shrink the size of random data that contain no redundancy.", "Different algorithms exist that are designed either with a specific type of input data in mind or with specific assumptions about what kinds of redundancy the uncompressed data are likely to contain.Lossless data compression is used in many applications.", "For example, it is used in the ZIP file format and in the GNU tool gzip.", "It is also often used as a component within lossy data compression technologies (e.g.", "lossless mid/side joint stereo preprocessing by MP3 encoders and other lossy audio encoders).Lossless compression is used in cases where it is important that the original and the decompressed data be identical, or where deviations from the original data would be unfavourable.", "Common examples are executable programs, text documents, and source code.", "Some image file formats, like PNG or GIF, use only lossless compression, while others like TIFF and MNG may use either lossless or lossy methods.", "Lossless audio formats are most often used for archiving or production purposes, while smaller lossy audio files are typically used on portable players and in other cases where storage space is limited or exact replication of the audio is unnecessary." ], [ "Techniques", "Most lossless compression programs do two things in sequence: the first step generates a ''statistical model'' for the input data, and the second step uses this model to map input data to bit sequences in such a way that \"probable\" (i.e.", "frequently encountered) data will produce shorter output than \"improbable\" data.The primary encoding algorithms used to produce bit sequences are Huffman coding (also used by the deflate algorithm) and arithmetic coding.", "Arithmetic coding achieves compression rates close to the best possible for a particular statistical model, which is given by the information entropy, whereas Huffman compression is simpler and faster but produces poor results for models that deal with symbol probabilities close to 1.There are two primary ways of constructing statistical models: in a ''static'' model, the data is analyzed and a model is constructed, then this model is stored with the compressed data.", "This approach is simple and modular, but has the disadvantage that the model itself can be expensive to store, and also that it forces using a single model for all data being compressed, and so performs poorly on files that contain heterogeneous data.", "''Adaptive'' models dynamically update the model as the data is compressed.", "Both the encoder and decoder begin with a trivial model, yielding poor compression of initial data, but as they learn more about the data, performance improves.", "Most popular types of compression used in practice now use adaptive coders.Lossless compression methods may be categorized according to the type of data they are designed to compress.", "While, in principle, any general-purpose lossless compression algorithm (''general-purpose'' meaning that they can accept any bitstring) can be used on any type of data, many are unable to achieve significant compression on data that are not of the form for which they were designed to compress.", "Many of the lossless compression techniques used for text also work reasonably well for indexed images.=== Multimedia ===These techniques take advantage of the specific characteristics of images such as the common phenomenon of contiguous 2-D areas of similar tones.Every pixel but the first is replaced by the difference to its left neighbor.", "This leads to small values having a much higher probability than large values.This is often also applied to sound files, and can compress files that contain mostly low frequencies and low volumes.For images, this step can be repeated by taking the difference to the top pixel, and then in videos, the difference to the pixel in the next frame can be taken.A hierarchical version of this technique takes neighboring pairs of data points, stores their difference and sum, and on a higher level with lower resolution continues with the sums.", "This is called discrete wavelet transform.", "JPEG2000 additionally uses data points from other pairs and multiplication factors to mix them into the difference.", "These factors must be integers, so that the result is an integer under all circumstances.", "So the values are increased, increasing file size, but hopefully the distribution of values is more peaked.", "The adaptive encoding uses the probabilities from the previous sample in sound encoding, from the left and upper pixel in image encoding, and additionally from the previous frame in video encoding.", "In the wavelet transformation, the probabilities are also passed through the hierarchy.=== Historical legal issues ===Many of these methods are implemented in open-source and proprietary tools, particularly LZW and its variants.", "Some algorithms are patented in the United States and other countries and their legal usage requires licensing by the patent holder.", "Because of patents on certain kinds of LZW compression, and in particular licensing practices by patent holder Unisys that many developers considered abusive, some open source proponents encouraged people to avoid using the Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) for compressing still image files in favor of Portable Network Graphics (PNG), which combines the LZ77-based deflate algorithm with a selection of domain-specific prediction filters.", "However, the patents on LZW expired on June 20, 2003.Many of the lossless compression techniques used for text also work reasonably well for indexed images, but there are other techniques that do not work for typical text that are useful for some images (particularly simple bitmaps), and other techniques that take advantage of the specific characteristics of images (such as the common phenomenon of contiguous 2-D areas of similar tones, and the fact that color images usually have a preponderance of a limited range of colors out of those representable in the color space).As mentioned previously, lossless sound compression is a somewhat specialized area.", "Lossless sound compression algorithms can take advantage of the repeating patterns shown by the wave-like nature of the essentially using autoregressive models to predict the \"next\" value and encoding the (hopefully small) difference between the expected value and the actual data.", "If the difference between the predicted and the actual data (called the ''error'') tends to be small, then certain difference values (like 0, +1, −1 etc.", "on sample values) become very frequent, which can be exploited by encoding them in few output bits.It is sometimes beneficial to compress only the differences between two versions of a file (or, in video compression, of successive images within a sequence).", "This is called delta encoding (from the Greek letter Δ, which in mathematics, denotes a difference), but the term is typically only used if both versions are meaningful outside compression and decompression.", "For example, while the process of compressing the error in the above-mentioned lossless audio compression scheme could be described as delta encoding from the approximated sound wave to the original sound wave, the approximated version of the sound wave is not meaningful in any other context." ], [ "Methods", "No lossless compression algorithm can efficiently compress all possible data .", "For this reason, many different algorithms exist that are designed either with a specific type of input data in mind or with specific assumptions about what kinds of redundancy the uncompressed data are likely to contain.Some of the most common lossless compression algorithms are listed below.===General purpose===* ANS – Entropy encoding, used by LZFSE and Zstandard* Arithmetic coding – Entropy encoding* Burrows–Wheeler transform reversible transform for making textual data more compressible, used by bzip2* Huffman coding – Entropy encoding, pairs well with other algorithms* Lempel-Ziv compression (LZ77 and LZ78) – Dictionary-based algorithm that forms the basis for many other algorithms** Lempel–Ziv–Markov chain algorithm (LZMA) – Very high compression ratio, used by 7zip and xz** Lempel–Ziv–Storer–Szymanski (LZSS) – Used by WinRAR in tandem with Huffman coding*** Deflate – Combines LZ77 compression with Huffman coding, used by ZIP, gzip, and PNG images** Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) – Used by GIF images and Unix's compress utility* Prediction by partial matching (PPM) – Optimized for compressing plain text* Run-length encoding (RLE) – Simple scheme that provides good compression of data containing many runs of the same value=== Audio ===* Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding (ATRAC)* Apple Lossless (ALAC – Apple Lossless Audio Codec)* Audio Lossless Coding (also known as MPEG-4 ALS)* Direct Stream Transfer (DST)* Dolby TrueHD* DTS-HD Master Audio* Free Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC)* Meridian Lossless Packing (MLP)* Monkey's Audio (Monkey's Audio APE)* MPEG-4 SLS (also known as HD-AAC)* OptimFROG* Original Sound Quality (OSQ)* RealPlayer (RealAudio Lossless)* Shorten (SHN)* TTA (True Audio Lossless)* WavPack (WavPack lossless)* WMA Lossless (Windows Media Lossless)=== Raster graphics ===* AVIF – AV1 Image File Format* FLIF – Free Lossless Image Format* HEIF – High Efficiency Image File Format (lossless or lossy compression, using HEVC)* ILBM – (lossless RLE compression of Amiga IFF images)* JBIG2 – (lossless or lossy compression of B&W images)* JPEG 2000 – (includes lossless compression method via Le Gall–Tabatabai 5/3 reversible integer wavelet transform)* JPEG-LS – (lossless/near-lossless compression standard)* JPEG XL – (lossless or lossy compression)* JPEG XR – formerly ''WMPhoto'' and ''HD Photo'', includes a lossless compression method* LDCT – Lossless Discrete Cosine Transform* PCX – PiCture eXchange* PDF – Portable Document Format (lossless or lossy compression)* QOI – Quite OK Image Format* PNG – Portable Network Graphics* TGA – Truevision TGA* TIFF – Tag Image File Format (lossless or lossy compression)* WebP – (lossless or lossy compression of RGB and RGBA images)=== 3D Graphics ===* OpenCTM – Lossless compression of 3D triangle meshes=== Video ===See list of lossless video codecs===Cryptography===Cryptosystems often compress data (the \"plaintext\") ''before'' encryption for added security.", "When properly implemented, compression greatly increases the unicity distance by removing patterns that might facilitate cryptanalysis.", "However, many ordinary lossless compression algorithms produce headers, wrappers, tables, or other predictable output that might instead make cryptanalysis easier.", "Thus, cryptosystems must utilize compression algorithms whose output does not contain these predictable patterns.===Genetics and Genomics ===Genetics compression algorithms (not to be confused with genetic algorithms) are the latest generation of lossless algorithms that compress data (typically sequences of nucleotides) using both conventional compression algorithms and specific algorithms adapted to genetic data.", "In 2012, a team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University published the first genetic compression algorithm that does not rely on external genetic databases for compression.", "HAPZIPPER was tailored for HapMap data and achieves over 20-fold compression (95% reduction in file size), providing 2- to 4-fold better compression much faster than leading general-purpose compression utilities.Genomic sequence compression algorithms, also known as DNA sequence compressors, explore the fact that DNA sequences have characteristic properties, such as inverted repeats.", "The most successful compressors are XM and GeCo.", "For eukaryotes XM is slightly better in compression ratio, though for sequences larger than 100 MB its computational requirements are impractical.===Executables===Self-extracting executables contain a compressed application and a decompressor.", "When executed, the decompressor transparently decompresses and runs the original application.", "This is especially often used in demo coding, where competitions are held for demos with strict size limits, as small as 1k.This type of compression is not strictly limited to binary executables, but can also be applied to scripts, such as JavaScript." ], [ "Benchmarks", "Lossless compression algorithms and their implementations are routinely tested in head-to-head benchmarks.", "There are a number of better-known compression benchmarks.", "Some benchmarks cover only the data compression ratio, so winners in these benchmarks may be unsuitable for everyday use due to the slow speed of the top performers.", "Another drawback of some benchmarks is that their data files are known, so some program writers may optimize their programs for best performance on a particular data set.", "The winners on these benchmarks often come from the class of context-mixing compression software.Matt Mahoney, in his February 2010 edition of the free booklet ''Data Compression Explained'', additionally lists the following:* The Calgary Corpus dating back to 1987 is no longer widely used due to its small size.", "Matt Mahoney maintained the Calgary Compression Challenge, created and maintained from May 21, 1996, through May 21, 2016, by Leonid A.", "Broukhis.", "* The Large Text Compression Benchmark and the similar Hutter Prize both use a trimmed Wikipedia XML UTF-8 data set.", "* The Generic Compression Benchmark, maintained by Matt Mahoney, tests compression of data generated by random Turing machines.", "* Sami Runsas (the author of NanoZip) maintained Compression Ratings, a benchmark similar to Maximum Compression multiple file test, but with minimum speed requirements.", "It offered the calculator that allowed the user to weight the importance of speed and compression ratio.", "The top programs were fairly different due to the speed requirement.", "In January 2010, the top program was NanoZip followed by FreeArc, CCM, flashzip, and 7-Zip.", "* The Monster of Compression benchmark by Nania Francesco Antonio tested compression on 1Gb of public data with a 40-minute time limit.", "In December 2009, the top ranked archiver was NanoZip 0.07a and the top ranked single file compressor was ccmx 1.30c.The Compression Ratings website published a chart summary of the \"frontier\" in compression ratio and time.The Compression Analysis Tool is a Windows application that enables end users to benchmark the performance characteristics of streaming implementations of LZF4, Deflate, ZLIB, GZIP, BZIP2 and LZMA using their own data.", "It produces measurements and charts with which users can compare the compression speed, decompression speed and compression ratio of the different compression methods and to examine how the compression level, buffer size and flushing operations affect the results." ], [ "Limitations", "Lossless data compression algorithms cannot guarantee compression for all input data sets.", "In other words, for any lossless data compression algorithm, there will be an input data set that does not get smaller when processed by the algorithm, and for any lossless data compression algorithm that makes at least one file smaller, there will be at least one file that it makes larger.", "This is easily proven with elementary mathematics using a counting argument called the pigeonhole principle, as follows:* Assume that each file is represented as a string of bits of some arbitrary length.", "* Suppose that there is a compression algorithm that transforms every file into an output file that is no longer than the original file, and that at least one file will be compressed into an output file that is shorter than the original file.", "* Let ''M'' be the least number such that there is a file ''F'' with length ''M'' bits that compresses to something shorter.", "Let ''N'' be the length (in bits) of the compressed version of ''F''.", "* Because ''N''''N'' such files possible.", "Together with ''F'', this makes 2''N''+1 files that all compress into one of the 2''N'' files of length ''N''.", "* But 2''N'' is smaller than 2''N''+1, so by the pigeonhole principle there must be some file of length ''N'' that is simultaneously the output of the compression function on two different inputs.", "That file cannot be decompressed reliably (which of the two originals should that yield?", "), which contradicts the assumption that the algorithm was lossless.", "* We must therefore conclude that our original hypothesis (that the compression function makes no file longer) is necessarily untrue.Most practical compression algorithms provide an \"escape\" facility that can turn off the normal coding for files that would become longer by being encoded.", "In theory, only a single additional bit is required to tell the decoder that the normal coding has been turned off for the entire input; however, most encoding algorithms use at least one full byte (and typically more than one) for this purpose.", "For example, deflate compressed files never need to grow by more than 5 bytes per 65,535 bytes of input.In fact, if we consider files of length N, if all files were equally probable, then for any lossless compression that reduces the size of some file, the expected length of a compressed file (averaged over all possible files of length N) must necessarily be ''greater'' than N. So if we know nothing about the properties of the data we are compressing, we might as well not compress it at all.", "A lossless compression algorithm is useful only when we are more likely to compress certain types of files than others; then the algorithm could be designed to compress those types of data better.Thus, the main lesson from the argument is not that one risks big losses, but merely that one cannot always win.", "To choose an algorithm always means implicitly to select a ''subset'' of all files that will become usefully shorter.", "This is the theoretical reason why we need to have different compression algorithms for different kinds of files: there cannot be any algorithm that is good for all kinds of data.The \"trick\" that allows lossless compression algorithms, used on the type of data they were designed for, to consistently compress such files to a shorter form is that the files the algorithms are designed to act on all have some form of easily modeled redundancy that the algorithm is designed to remove, and thus belong to the subset of files that that algorithm can make shorter, whereas other files would not get compressed or even get bigger.", "Algorithms are generally quite specifically tuned to a particular type of file: for example, lossless audio compression programs do not work well on text files, and vice versa.In particular, files of random data cannot be consistently compressed by any conceivable lossless data compression algorithm; indeed, this result is used to ''define'' the concept of randomness in Kolmogorov complexity.It is provably impossible to create an algorithm that can losslessly compress any data.", "While there have been many claims through the years of companies achieving \"perfect compression\" where an arbitrary number ''N'' of random bits can always be compressed to ''N'' − 1 bits, these kinds of claims can be safely discarded without even looking at any further details regarding the purported compression scheme.", "Such an algorithm contradicts fundamental laws of mathematics because, if it existed, it could be applied repeatedly to losslessly reduce any file to length 1.On the other hand, it has also been proven that there is no algorithm to determine whether a file is incompressible in the sense of Kolmogorov complexity.", "Hence it is possible that any particular file, even if it appears random, may be significantly compressed, even including the size of the decompressor.", "An example is the digits of the mathematical constant ''pi'', which appear random but can be generated by a very small program.", "However, even though it cannot be determined whether a particular file is incompressible, a simple theorem about incompressible strings shows that over 99% of files of any given length cannot be compressed by more than one byte (including the size of the decompressor).=== Mathematical background ===Abstractly, a compression algorithm can be viewed as a function on sequences (normally of octets).", "Compression is successful if the resulting sequence is shorter than the original sequence (and the instructions for the decompression map).", "For a compression algorithm to be lossless, the compression map must form an injection from \"plain\" to \"compressed\" bit sequences.", "The pigeonhole principle prohibits a bijection between the collection of sequences of length ''N'' and any subset of the collection of sequences of length ''N''−1.Therefore, it is not possible to produce a lossless algorithm that reduces the size of every possible input sequence.=== Points of application in real compression theory ===Real compression algorithm designers accept that streams of high information entropy cannot be compressed, and accordingly, include facilities for detecting and handling this condition.", "An obvious way of detection is applying a raw compression algorithm and testing if its output is smaller than its input.", "Sometimes, detection is made by heuristics; for example, a compression application may consider files whose names end in \".zip\", \".arj\" or \".lha\" uncompressible without any more sophisticated detection.", "A common way of handling this situation is quoting input, or uncompressible parts of the input in the output, minimizing the compression overhead.", "For example, the zip data format specifies the 'compression method' of 'Stored' for input files that have been copied into the archive verbatim.=== The Million Random Digit Challenge ===Mark Nelson, in response to claims of \"magic\" compression algorithms appearing in comp.compression, has constructed a 415,241 byte binary file of highly entropic content, and issued a public challenge of $100 to anyone to write a program that, together with its input, would be smaller than his provided binary data yet be able to reconstitute it without error.A similar challenge, with $5,000 as reward, was issued by Mike Goldman." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of file archivers* Data compression* David A. Huffman* Entropy (information theory)* Grammar-based code* Hutter Prize* Information theory* Kolmogorov complexity* List of codecs* Lossless Transform Audio Compression (LTAC)* Lossy compression* Normal number* Universal code (data compression)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* (790 pages)* (488 pages)" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * overview of ** US patent #7,096,360 , \"an \"Frequency-Time Based Data Compression Method\" supporting the compression, encryption, decompression, and decryption and persistence of many binary digits through frequencies where each frequency represents many bits.\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Larry Niven" ], [ "Introduction", " Niven at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, 2007'''Laurence van Cott Niven''' (; born April 30, 1938) is an American science fiction writer.", "His 1970 novel ''Ringworld'' won the Hugo, Locus, Ditmar, and Nebula awards.", "With Jerry Pournelle he wrote ''The Mote in God's Eye'' (1974) and ''Lucifer's Hammer'' (1977).", "The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America gave him the 2015 Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award.", "His work is primarily hard science fiction, using big science concepts and theoretical physics.", "It also often includes elements of detective fiction and adventure stories.", "His fantasy includes the series ''The Magic Goes Away'', works of rational fantasy dealing with magic as a non-renewable resource." ], [ "Biography", "Niven was born in Los Angeles.", "He is a great-grandson of Edward L. Doheny, an oil tycoon who drilled the first successful well in the Los Angeles City Oil Field in 1892, and also was subsequently implicated in the Teapot Dome scandal.", "Niven briefly attended the California Institute of Technology and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in mathematics (with a minor in psychology) from Washburn University in Topeka, Kansas in 1962.He also completed a year of graduate work in mathematics at the University of California, Los Angeles.", "On September 6, 1969, he married Marilyn Wisowaty, a science fiction and Regency literature fan." ], [ "Work", "Niven is the author of numerous science fiction short stories and novels, beginning with his 1964 story \"The Coldest Place\".", "In this story, the coldest place concerned is the dark side of Mercury, which at the time the story was written was thought to be tidally locked with the Sun (it was found to rotate in a 2:3 resonance after Niven received payment for the story, but before it was published).Algis Budrys said in 1968 that Niven becoming a top writer despite the New Wave was evidence that \"trends are for second-raters\".", "In addition to the Nebula Award in 1970 and the Hugo and Locus awards in 1971 for ''Ringworld'', Niven won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story for \"Neutron Star\" in 1967.He won the same award in 1972, for \"Inconstant Moon\", and in 1975 for \"The Hole Man\".", "In 1976, he won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette for \"The Borderland of Sol\".Niven frequently collaborated with Jerry Pournelle; they wrote nine novels together, including ''The Mote in God's Eye'', ''Lucifer's Hammer'' and ''Footfall''.", "Niven at Stanford University in 2006Niven has written scripts for two science fiction television series: the original ''Land of the Lost'' series and ''Star Trek: The Animated Series'', for which he adapted his early story \"The Soft Weapon.\"", "For ''The Outer Limits'', his story \"Inconstant Moon\" was adapted into an episode of the same name by Brad Wright.Niven has also written for the DC Comics character Green Lantern, including in his stories hard science fiction concepts such as universal entropy and the redshift effect.Several of his stories predicted the black market in transplant organs (\"organlegging\").Many of Niven's stories—sometimes called the Tales of Known Space—take place in his Known Space universe, in which humanity shares the several habitable star systems nearest to the Sun with over a dozen alien species, including the aggressive feline Kzinti and the very intelligent but cowardly Pierson's Puppeteers, which are frequently central characters.", "The ''Ringworld'' series is part of the Tales of Known Space, and Niven has shared the setting with other writers since a 1988 anthology, ''The Man-Kzin Wars'' (Baen Books, jointly edited with Jerry Pournelle and Dean Ing).", "There have been several volumes of short stories and novellas.Niven has also written a logical fantasy series ''The Magic Goes Away'', which utilizes an exhaustible resource called ''mana'' to power a rule-based \"technological\" magic.", "''The Draco Tavern'' series of short stories take place in a more light-hearted science fiction universe, and are told from the point of view of the proprietor of an omni-species bar.", "The whimsical ''Svetz'' series consists of a collection of short stories, ''The Flight of the Horse'', and a novel, ''Rainbow Mars'', which involve a nominal time machine sent back to retrieve long-extinct animals, but which travels, in fact, into alternative realities and brings back mythical creatures such as a roc and a unicorn.", "Much of his writing since the 1970s has been in collaboration, particularly with Jerry Pournelle and Steven Barnes, but also Brenda Cooper and Edward M. Lerner.One of Niven's best known humorous works is \"Man of Steel, Woman of Kleenex\", in which he uses real-world physics to underline the difficulties of Superman and a human woman (Lois Lane or Lana Lang) mating." ], [ "Influence", "RingworldIn the ''Magic: The Gathering'' trading card game, the card Nevinyrral's Disk uses his name, spelled backwards.", "This tribute was paid because the game's system where mana from lands is used to power spells was inspired by his book ''The Magic Goes Away''.", "The card Nevinyrral, Urborg Tyrant was added in Commander Legends, adding the Niven's namesake character fully to the game." ], [ "Politics", "According to author Michael Moorcock, in 1967, Niven, despite being a staunch conservative, voiced opposition to the Vietnam War.", "In 1968 Niven signed an advertisement in ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' in support for continued US involvement in the Vietnam War.Niven was an adviser to Ronald Reagan on the creation of the Strategic Defense Initiative antimissile policy, as part of the Citizens' Advisory Council on National Space Policy—as covered in the BBC documentary ''Pandora's Box'' by Adam Curtis.In 2007, Niven, in conjunction with a think tank of science fiction writers known as SIGMA, founded and led by Arlan Andrews, began advising the U.S. Department of Homeland Security as to future trends affecting terror policy and other topics.", "Among those topics was reducing costs for hospitals to which Niven offered the solution to spread rumors in Latino communities that organs were being harvested illegally in hospitals." ], [ "Niven's laws", "Larry Niven is also known in science fiction fandom for \"Niven's Law\": \"There is no cause so right that one cannot find a fool following it.\"", "Over the course of his career Niven has added to this first law a list of Niven's Laws which he describes as \"how the Universe works\" as far as he can tell." ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "===Bibliography and works===* with bibliography* * * * Larry Niven at Fantastic Fiction* * ===Interviews===* Audio interview with Larry Niven*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Linux distribution" ], [ "Introduction", "upright=1.5A '''Linux distribution''' (often abbreviated as '''distro''') is an operating system made from a software collection that includes the Linux kernel and often a package management system.", "Linux users usually obtain their operating system by downloading one of the Linux distributions, which are available for a wide variety of systems ranging from embedded devices (for example, OpenWrt) and personal computers (for example, Linux Mint) to powerful supercomputers (for example, Rocks Cluster Distribution).A typical Linux distribution comprises a Linux kernel, an init system (such as systemd, OpenRC, or runit), GNU tools and libraries, documentation, and many other types of software (such as IP network configuration utilities and the getty TTY setup program, among others).", "Optionally, to provide a desktop experience (most commonly the Mesa userspace graphics drivers) a display server (the most common being the X.org Server, or, more recently, a Wayland compositor such as Sway, KDE's KWin, or GNOME's Mutter), a desktop environment, a sound server (usually either PulseAudio or more recently PipeWire), and other related programs may be included with the distribution or are installable by the user.Most of the included software is free and open-source software made available both as compiled binaries and in source code form, allowing modifications to the original software.", "Usually, Linux distributions optionally include some proprietary software that may not be available in source code form, such as binary blobs required for some device drivers.A Linux distribution may also be described as a particular assortment of application and utility software (various GNU tools and libraries, for example), packaged with the Linux kernel in such a way that its capabilities meet many users' needs.", "The software is usually adapted to the distribution and then combined into software packages by the distribution's maintainers.", "The software packages are available online in repositories, which are storage locations usually distributed around the world.", "Beside \"glue\" components, such as the distribution installers (for example, Debian-Installer and Anaconda) and the package management systems, very few packages are actually written by a distribution's maintainers.Almost one thousand Linux distributions exist.", "Because of the huge availability of software, distributions have taken a wide variety of forms, including those suitable for use on desktops, servers, laptops, netbooks, mobile phones and tablets, as well as in minimal environments typically for use in embedded systems.", "There are commercially backed distributions, such as Fedora Linux (Red Hat), openSUSE (SUSE) and Ubuntu (Canonical Ltd.); and entirely community-driven distributions, such as Debian, Slackware, Gentoo and Arch Linux.", "Most distributions come ready-to-use and precompiled for a specific instruction set, while some (such as Gentoo) are distributed mostly in source code form and must be compiled locally for installation." ], [ "History", "5.25-inch floppy disks holding a very early version of LinuxTimeline of the development of main Linux distributionsLinus Torvalds developed the Linux kernel and distributed its first version, 0.01, in 1991.Linux was initially distributed as source code only, and later as a pair of downloadable floppy disk images: one bootable and containing the Linux kernel itself, and the other with a set of GNU utilities and tools for setting up a file system.", "Since the installation procedure was complicated, especially in the face of growing amounts of available software, distributions sprang up to simplify it.Early distributions included:* Torvalds's \"Boot-Root\" images, later maintained by Jim Winstead Jr., the aforementioned disk image pair with the kernel and the absolute minimal tools to get started (4 November 1991)* MCC Interim Linux (3 March 1992)* Softlanding Linux System (SLS) which included the X Window System and was the most comprehensive distribution for a short time (15 August 1992)* H.J.", "Lu's \"bootable rootdisks\" (23 September 1992), and \"Linux Base System\" (5 October 1992)* Yggdrasil Linux/GNU/X, a commercial distribution (8 December 1992)The two oldest, still active distribution projects started in 1993.The SLS distribution was not well maintained, so in July 1993 a new SLS-based distribution, Slackware, was released by Patrick Volkerding.", "Also dissatisfied with SLS, Ian Murdock set to create a free distribution by founding Debian in August 1993, with first public BETA released in January 1994 and first stable version in June 1996.Users were attracted to Linux distributions as alternatives to the DOS and Microsoft Windows operating systems on IBM PC compatible computers, Mac OS on the Apple Macintosh, and proprietary versions of Unix.", "Most early adopters were familiar with Unix from work or school.", "They embraced Linux distributions for their low (or absent) cost, and the availability of the source code for most or all of their software.As of 2017, Linux has become more popular in server and embedded-devices markets than in the desktop market.", "It is used on over 50% of web servers; its current operating system market share is about 1,8%." ], [ "Components", "A Linux distribution is usually built around a package management system, which puts together the Linux kernel, free and open-source software, and occasionally some proprietary software.Many Linux distributions provide an installation system akin to that provided with other modern operating systems.", "Other distributions, including Gentoo Linux, provide only the binaries of a basic kernel, compilation tools, and an installer; the installer compiles all the requested software for the specific architecture of the user's computer, using these tools and the software's source code.===Package management===Distributions are normally segmented into ''packages''.", "Each package contains a specific application or service.", "Examples of packages are a library for handling the PNG image format, a collection of fonts, and a web browser.The package is typically provided as compiled code, with installation and removal of packages handled by a package management system (PMS) rather than a simple file archiver.", "Each package intended for such a PMS contains meta-information such as its description, version number, and its dependencies (other packages it requires to run).", "The package management system evaluates this meta-information to allow package searches, perform automatic upgrades to newer versions, and to check that all dependencies of a package are present (and either notify the user to install them, or install them automatically).", "The package can also be provided as source code to be compiled on the system.Most distributions install packages, including the kernel and other core operating system components, in a predetermined configuration.", "A few now require or permit configuration adjustments at first install time.", "This makes installation less daunting, particularly for new users, but is not always acceptable.", "For specific requirements, much software must be carefully configured to be useful, to work correctly with other software, or to be secure, and local administrators are often obliged to spend time reviewing and reconfiguring it.Some (but not all) distributions go to considerable lengths to adjust and customize the software they include, and some provide configuration tools to help users do so.By obtaining and installing ''everything'' normally provided in a distribution, an administrator may create a \"distributionless\" installation.", "It is possible to build such systems from scratch, avoiding distributions altogether.", "One needs a way to generate the first binaries until the system is ''self-hosting''.", "This can be done via compilation on another system capable of building binaries for the intended target (possibly by cross-compilation).", "For example, see Linux From Scratch." ], [ "Types and trends", "In broad terms, Linux distributions may be:* Commercial or non-commercial* Designed for enterprise users, power users, or for home users* Supported on multiple types of hardware, or platform-specific, even to the extent of certification by the platform vendor* Designed for servers, desktops, or embedded devices* General purpose or highly specialized toward specific machine functionalities (e.g.", "firewalls, network routers, and computer clusters)* Targeted at specific user groups, for example through language internationalization and localization, or through inclusion of many music production or scientific computing packages* Built primarily for security, usability, portability, or comprehensiveness* Standard release or rolling release, see below.The diversity of Linux distributions is due to technical, organizational, and philosophical variation among vendors and users.", "The permissive licensing of free software means that users with sufficient knowledge and interest can customize any existing distribution, or design one to suit their own needs.===Rolling distributions versus standard releases===Rolling Linux distributions are kept current using small and frequent updates.", "The terms ''partially rolling'' and ''partly rolling'' (along with synonyms ''semi-rolling'' and ''half-rolling''), ''fully rolling'', ''truly rolling'' and ''optionally rolling'' are sometimes used by software developers and users.Repositories of '''rolling distributions''' usually contain very recent software releases—often the latest stable versions available.", "They have pseudo-releases and installation media that are simply snapshots of the distribution at the time of the installation image's release.", "Typically, a rolling-release OS installed from older installation medium can be fully updated after it is installed.Depending on the usage case, there can be pros and cons to both standard release and rolling release software development methodologies.In terms of the software development process, '''standard releases''' require significant development effort to keep old versions up-to-date by propagating bug fixes back to the newest branch, versus focusing on the newest development branch.", "Also, unlike rolling releases, standard releases require more than one code branch to be developed and maintained, which increases the workload of the software developers and maintainers.On the other hand, software features and technology planning are easier in standard releases due to a better understanding of upcoming features in the next version(s).", "Software release cycles can also be synchronized with those of major upstream software projects, such as desktop environments.As far as the user experience, standard releases are often viewed as more stable and bug-free since software conflicts can be more easily addressed and the software stack more thoroughly tested and evaluated, during the software development cycle.", "For this reason, they tend to be the preferred choice in enterprise environments and mission-critical tasks.However, rolling releases offer more current software which can also provide increased stability and fewer software bugs along with the additional benefits of new features, greater functionality, faster running speeds, and improved system and application security.", "Regarding software security, the rolling release model can have advantages in timely security updates, fixing system or application security bugs and vulnerabilities, that standard releases may have to wait till the next release for or patch in various versions.", "In a rolling release distribution, where the user has ''chosen'' to run it as a highly dynamic system, the constant flux of software packages can introduce new unintended vulnerabilities." ], [ "Installation-free distributions (live CD/USB)", "A \"live\" distribution is a Linux distribution that can be booted from removable storage media such as optical discs or USB flash drives, instead of being installed on and booted from a hard disk drive.", "The portability of installation-free distributions makes them advantageous for applications such as demonstrations, borrowing someone else's computer, rescue operations, or as installation media for a standard distribution.When the operating system is booted from a read-only medium such as a CD or DVD, any user data that needs to be retained between sessions cannot be stored on the boot device but must be written to another storage device, such as a USB flash drive or a hard disk drive.Many Linux distributions provide a \"live\" form in addition to their conventional form, which is a network-based or removable-media image intended to be used only for installation; such distributions include SUSE, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, MEPIS and Fedora Linux.", "Some distributions, including Knoppix, Puppy Linux, Devil-Linux, SuperGamer, SliTaz GNU/Linux and dyne:bolic, are designed primarily for live use.", "Additionally, some minimal distributions can be run directly from as little space as one floppy disk without the need to change the contents of the system's hard disk drive." ], [ "Examples", "The website DistroWatch lists many Linux distributions and displays some of the ones that have the most web traffic on the site.", "The Wikimedia Foundation released an analysis of the browser User Agents of visitors to WMF websites until 2015, which includes details of the most popular Operating System identifiers, including some Linux distributions.", "Many of the popular distributions are listed below.===Widely used GNU-based or GNU-compatible distributions===* Debian, a non-commercial distribution and one of the earliest, maintained by a volunteer developer community with a strong commitment to free software principles and democratic project management.", "** Ubuntu, a desktop and server distribution derived from Debian, maintained by British company Canonical Ltd.*** There are several distributions based on Ubuntu that mainly replace the GNOME stock desktop environment, like: Kubuntu based on KDE, Lubuntu based on LXQT, Xubuntu based on XFCE, Ubuntu MATE based on MATE, Ubuntu Budgie based on Budgie.", "Other official forks have specific uses like: Ubuntu Kylin for Chinese-speaking users, or Ubuntu Studio for media content creators.", "*** Linux Mint, a distribution based on and compatible with Ubuntu.", "Supports multiple desktop environments, among others GNOME Shell fork Cinnamon and GNOME 2 fork MATE.", "* Fedora Linux, a community distribution sponsored by American company Red Hat and the successor to the company's previous offering, Red Hat Linux.", "It aims to be a technology testbed for Red Hat's commercial Linux offering, where new open-source software is prototyped, developed, and tested in a communal setting before maturing into Red Hat Enterprise Linux.", "** Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), a derivative of Fedora Linux, maintained and commercially supported by Red Hat.", "It seeks to provide tested, secure, and stable Linux server and workstation support to businesses.", "* openSUSE, a community distribution mainly sponsored by German company SUSE.", "** SUSE Linux Enterprise, derived from openSUSE, maintained and commercially supported by SUSE* Arch Linux, a rolling release distribution targeted at experienced Linux users and maintained by a volunteer community, offers official binary packages and a wide range of unofficial user-submitted source packages.", "Packages are usually defined by a single PKGBUILD text file.", "** Manjaro Linux, a derivative of Arch Linux that includes a graphical installer and other ease-of-use features for less experienced Linux users.", "* Gentoo, a distribution targeted at power users, known for its FreeBSD Ports-like automated system for compiling applications from source code===Linux kernel based operating systems===* Android, Google's commercial operating system based on Android OSP that runs on many devices such as smartphones, smart TVs, set-top boxes.", "* ChromeOS, Google's commercial operating system based on ChromiumOS that only runs on Chromebooks, Chromeboxes and tablet computers.", "Like Android, it has the Google Play Store and other Google apps.", "Support for applications that require GNU compatibility is available through a virtual machine called Crostini and referred to by Google as Linux support, see .Whether the above operating systems count as a \"Linux distribution\" is a controversial topic.", "They use the Linux kernel, so the Linux Foundation and Chris DiBona, Google's open-source chief, agree that Android is a Linux distribution; others, such as Google engineer Patrick Brady, disagree by noting the lack of support for many GNU tools in Android, including glibc.Other Linux kernel based operating systems include Cyanogenmod, its fork LineageOS, Android-x86 and recently Tizen, Mer/Sailfish OS and KaiOS.===Lightweight distributions===Lightweight Linux distributions are those that have been designed with support for older hardware in mind, allowing older hardware to still be used productively, or, for maximum possible speed in newer hardware by leaving more resources available for use by applications.", "Examples include Tiny Core Linux, Puppy Linux and Slitaz.===Niche distributions===Other distributions target specific niches, such as:* Routers for example OpenWrt* Microcontrollers without a memory management unit (MMU) for example μClinux* Internet of things for example, targeted by Ubuntu Core and Microsoft's Azure Sphere* Home theater PCs for example, targeted by KnoppMyth, Kodi (former XBMC) and Mythbuntu* Specific platforms for example, Raspberry Pi OS targets the Raspberry Pi platform* Education examples are Edubuntu and Karoshi, server systems based on PCLinuxOS* Scientific computer servers and workstations for example, targeted by Scientific Linux* Digital audio workstations for music production for example, targeted by Ubuntu Studio* Computer security, digital forensics and penetration testing examples are Kali Linux and Parrot Security OS* Privacy and anonymity for example, targeted by Tails, Whonix, Qubes, and FreedomBox* Offline use for example, Endless OS * Gaming for example, SteamOS" ], [ "Interdistribution issues", "The Free Standards Group is an organization formed by major software and hardware vendors that aims to improve interoperability between different distributions.", "Among their proposed standards are the Linux Standard Base, which defines a common ABI and packaging system for Linux, and the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard which recommends a standard filenaming chart, notably the basic directory names found on the root of the tree of any Linux filesystem.", "Those standards, however, see limited use, even among the distributions developed by members of the organization.The diversity of Linux distributions means that not all software runs on all distributions, depending on what libraries and other system attributes are required.", "Packaged software and software repositories are usually specific to a particular distribution, though cross-installation is sometimes possible on closely related distributions." ], [ "Installation", "There are several ways to install a Linux distribution.", "The most common method of installing Linux is by booting from a live USB memory stick, which can be created by using a USB image writer application and the ISO image, which can be downloaded from various Linux distribution websites.", "DVD disks, CD disks, network installations and even other hard drives can also be used as \"installation media\".In the 1990s Linux distributions were installed using sets of floppies but this has been abandoned by all major distributions.", "By the 2000s many distributions offered CD and DVD sets with the vital packages on the first disc and less important packages on later ones.", "Some distributions, such as Debian also enabled installation over a network after booting from either a set of floppies or a CD with only a small amount of data on it.New users tend to begin by partitioning a hard drive in order to keep their previously installed operating system.", "The Linux distribution can then be installed on its own separate partition without affecting previously saved data.In a Live CD setup, the computer boots the entire operating system from CD without first installing it on the computer's hard disk.", "Many distributions have a Live CD ''installer'', where the computer boots the operating system from the disk, and it can then be installed on the computer's hard disk, providing a seamless transition from the OS running from the CD to the OS running from the hard disk.Both servers and personal computers that come with Linux already installed are available from vendors including Hewlett-Packard, Dell and System76.On embedded devices, Linux is typically held in the device's firmware and may or may not be consumer-accessible.Anaconda, one of the more popular installers, is used by Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Fedora (which uses the Fedora Media Writer) and other distributions to simplify the installation process.", "Debian, Ubuntu and many others use Debian-Installer.The process of constantly switching between distributions is often referred to as \"distro hopping\".", "Virtual machine software such as VirtualBox and VMware Workstation virtualize hardware allowing users to test live media on a virtual machine without installing to the real system.", "Some websites like DistroWatch offer lists of distributions, and link to screenshots of operating systems as a way to get a first impression of various distributions.===Installation via an existing operating system===Some distributions let the user install Linux on top of their current system, such as WinLinux or coLinux.", "Linux is installed to the Windows hard disk partition, and can be started from inside Windows itself.Virtual machines (such as VirtualBox or VMware) also make it possible for Linux to be run inside another OS.", "The VM software simulates a separate computer onto which the Linux system is installed.", "After installation, the virtual machine can be booted as if it were an independent computer.Various tools are also available to perform full dual-boot installations from existing platforms without a CD, most notably:* The (now deprecated) Wubi installer, which allows Windows users to download and install Ubuntu or its derivatives into a FAT32 or an NTFS partition without an installation CD, allowing users to easily dual boot between either operating system on the same hard drive without losing data.", "Replaced by Ubiquity.", "* Win32-loader, which is in the process of being integrated in official Debian CDs/DVDs, and allows Windows users to install Debian without a CD, though it performs a network installation and thereby requires repartitioning* UNetbootin, which allows Windows and Linux users to perform similar no-CD network installations for a wide variety of Linux distributions and additionally provides live USB creation support" ], [ "Proprietary software", "Some specific proprietary software products are not available in any form for Linux.", "As of September 2015, the Steam gaming service has over 1,500 games available on Linux, compared to 2,323 games for Mac and 6,500 Windows games.", "Emulation and API-translation projects like Wine and CrossOver make it possible to run non-Linux-based software on Linux systems, either by emulating a proprietary operating system or by translating proprietary API calls (e.g., calls to Microsoft's Win32 or DirectX APIs) into native Linux API calls.", "A virtual machine can also be used to run a proprietary OS (like Microsoft Windows) on top of Linux." ], [ "OEM contracts", "Computer hardware is usually sold with an operating system other than Linux already installed by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM).", "In the case of IBM PC compatibles, the OS is usually Microsoft Windows; in the case of Apple's Mac computers, it has always been macOS; Sun Microsystems sold SPARC hardware with the Solaris installed; video game consoles such as the Xbox, PlayStation, Wii, and the Nintendo Switch each have their own proprietary OS.", "This limits Linux's market share: consumers are unaware that an alternative exists, they must make a conscious effort to use a different operating system, and they must either perform the actual installation themselves, or depend on support from a friend, relative, or computer professional.However, it is possible to buy hardware with Linux already installed.", "Lenovo, Hewlett-Packard, Dell, Affordy, Purism, Pine64 and System76 all sell general-purpose Linux laptops.", "Custom-order PC manufacturers will also build Linux systems, but possibly with the Windows key on the keyboard.", "Fixstars Solutions (formerly Terra Soft) sells Macintosh computers and PlayStation 3 consoles with Yellow Dog Linux installed.It is more common to find embedded devices sold with Linux as the default manufacturer-supported OS, including the Linksys NSLU2 NAS device, TiVo's line of personal video recorders, and Linux-based cellphones (including Android smartphones), PDAs, and portable music players.The current Microsoft Windows license lets the manufacturer determine the refund policy.", "With previous versions of Windows, it was possible to obtain a refund if the manufacturer failed to provide the refund by litigation in the small claims courts.", "On February 15, 1999, a group of Linux users in Orange County, California held a \"Windows Refund Day\" protest in an attempt to pressure Microsoft into issuing them refunds.", "In France, the Linuxfrench and AFUL (French speaking Libre Software Users' Association) organizations along with free software activist Roberto Di Cosmo started a \"Windows Detax\" movement, which led to a 2006 petition against \"racketiciels\" (translation: Racketware) with 39,415 signatories and the DGCCRF branch of the French government filing several complaints against bundled software.", "On March 24, 2014, a new international petition was launched by AFUL on the Avaaz platform, translated into several languages and supported by many organizations around the world." ], [ "Statistics", "There are no official figures on the popularity, adoption, downloads or installed base of Linux distributions.There are also no official figures for the total number of Linux systems, partly due to the difficulty of quantifying the number of PCs running Linux (see Desktop Linux adoption), since many users download Linux distributions.", "Hence, the sales figures for Linux systems and commercial Linux distributions indicate a much lower number of Linux systems and level of Linux adoption than is the case; this is mainly due to Linux being free and open-source software that can be downloaded free of charge.", "A Linux Counter Project had kept track of a running guesstimate of the number of Linux systems, but did not distinguish between rolling release and standard release distributions.", "It ceased operation in August 2018, though a few related blog posts were created through October 2018.Desktop usage statistical reports for particular Linux distributions have been collected and published since July 2014 by the Linux Hardware Project." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of Linux distributions* Light-weight Linux distribution* List of Linux distributions" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The LWN.net Linux Distribution List – a categorized list with information about each entry* List of GNU/Linux distributions considered free by the Free Software Foundation* Google's approach to a large-scale live upgrading between two widely different Linux distributions: presentation and text version, LinuxCon 2013, by Marc Merlin* Rolling release vs. fixed release Linux, ZDNet, February 3, 2015, by Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Los Angeles Dodgers" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Los Angeles Dodgers''' are an American professional baseball team based in Los Angeles.", "The Dodgers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) West division.", "Established in 1883 in the city of Brooklyn, which in 1898 became a borough of New York City, the team joined the NL in 1890 as the '''Brooklyn Bridegrooms''' and assumed several other monikers before finally settling on the name '''Dodgers''' in 1932.From the 1940s through the mid-1950s, the Dodgers developed a fierce crosstown rivalry with the New York Yankees as the two clubs faced each other in the World Series seven times, with the Dodgers losing the first five matchups before defeating them to win the franchise's first title in 1955.It was also during this period that the Dodgers made history by breaking the baseball color line in 1947 with the debut of Jackie Robinson, the first African American to play in the Major Leagues since 1884.Another major milestone was reached in 1956 when Don Newcombe became the first player ever to win both the Cy Young Award and the NL MVP in the same season.After 68 seasons in Brooklyn, Dodgers owner and president Walter O'Malley relocated the franchise to Los Angeles before the 1958 season.", "The team played their first four seasons at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum before moving to their current home of Dodger Stadium in 1962.The Dodgers found immediate success in Los Angeles by winning the 1959 World Series, representing the franchise's first championship since moving to Los Angeles.", "Success continued into the 1960s with their one-two punch ace pitchers Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale being the cornerstones of two more titles in 1963 and 1965.During the 1980s, Mexican phenom pitcher Fernando Valenzuela quickly became a sensation—affectionately referred to as \"Fernandomania\"—when he led the team as a rookie to another championship in 1981.Valenzuela became the first and, to date, the only player to ever win the Cy Young and Rookie of the Year awards in the same season.", "The Dodgers were once again victorious in 1988, upsetting their heavily favored opponent in each series and becoming the first and only franchise to win multiple titles in the 1980s.", "After a 32-year drought, which included 12 postseason appearances in a 17-year span and eight consecutive division titles from 2013 to 2020, the Dodgers won the 2020 World Series.One of the most successful and storied franchises in MLB, the Dodgers have won seven World Series championships and a record 24 National League pennants.", "Eleven NL MVP award winners have played for the Dodgers, winning a total of 14.Eight Cy Young Award winners have pitched for the club, winning a total of 12—by far the most of any Major League franchise.", "Additionally, the Dodgers boast 18 Rookie of the Year Award winners—twice as many as the next club.", "This includes four consecutive Rookies of the Year from 1979 to 1982 and five consecutive from 1992 to 1996.From 1884 through 2023, the Dodgers' all-time record is ().", "Since moving to Los Angeles in 1958, the Dodgers have an overall win–loss record of 5,710–4,724–6 () through the end of 2023.Today, the Dodgers are among the most popular MLB teams, enjoying large fan support both at home and on the road; they are widely seen as one of the most dominant teams in the National League in the present day.", "They maintain a fierce rivalry with the San Francisco Giants dating back to when the two clubs were based in New York City, as well as a more recent rivalry with the American League's Houston Astros due to the controversey over the Astros' sign stealing scandal in the 2017 World Series.", "As of 2022, ''Forbes'' ranked the Dodgers second in MLB franchise valuation at $4.075 billion." ], [ "History", "Jackie Robinson, a Pasadena, California native, broke baseball's color barrier in 1947 with the Brooklyn DodgersAlthough the team had no official nickname until 1932, they were informally nicknamed the Bridegrooms in the team's earliest years, then the Superbas around the turn of the century and then the Robins (named after manager Wilbert Robinson).", "In the early 1900s, sportswriter Charles Dryden nicknamed the team the Trolley Dodgers after the Brooklyn pedestrians who dodged streetcars in the city, and the Dodgers nickname was used contemporaneously with Superbas and Robins.", "In 1932, the team allowed the Brooklyn baseball writers to select a permanent name, and the writers chose Dodgers on January 22, 1932.The only other nickname seriously considered by the writers was Kings.In 1941, the Dodgers captured their third National League pennant, only to lose to the New York Yankees.", "This marked the onset of the Dodgers–Yankees rivalry, as the Dodgers would face them in their next six World Series appearances.", "Led by Jackie Robinson, the first black Major League Baseball player of the modern era; and three-time National League Most Valuable Player Roy Campanella, also signed out of the Negro leagues, the Dodgers captured their first World Series title in 1955 by defeating the Yankees for the first time, a story notably described in the 1972 book ''The Boys of Summer''.Fernando ValenzuelaFollowing the 1957 season the team left Brooklyn.", "In just their second season in Los Angeles, the Dodgers won their second World Series title, beating the Chicago White Sox in six games in 1959.Spearheaded by the dominant pitching style of Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale, the Dodgers captured three pennants in the 1960s and won two more World Series titles, sweeping the Yankees in four games in 1963, and edging the Minnesota Twins in seven in 1965.The 1963 sweep was their second victory against the Yankees, and their first against them as a Los Angeles team.", "The Dodgers won four more pennants in 1966, 1974, 1977 and 1978, but lost in each World Series appearance.", "They went on to win the World Series again in 1981, thanks in part to pitching sensation Fernando Valenzuela.The early 1980s were affectionately dubbed \"Fernandomania\".", "In 1988, another pitching hero, Orel Hershiser, again led them to a World Series victory, aided by one of the most memorable home runs of all time by their star outfielder Kirk Gibson coming off the bench, despite having injuries to both knees, to pinch-hit with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning of game 1, in his only appearance of the series.", "The Dodgers won the pennant in 2017 for the first time since their world series victory in 1988, aided by a Justin Turner walk-off home run on the same night of Gibson's iconic walk-off home run 29 years earlier.", "They went on to face the Houston Astros and lose in 7 games; however, the series became embroiled in controversy due to the Houston Astros sign stealing scandal.", "The Dodgers won the pennant in 2018 for a second year in a row, moving on to lose to the Boston Red Sox in 5 games.", "They went on to win the World Series again in 2020 by defeating the Tampa Bay Rays in 6 games, after playing a season shortened to 60 games due to the COVID-19 pandemic.The Dodgers share a fierce rivalry with the San Francisco Giants, dating back to when the two franchises played in New York City.", "Both teams moved west for the 1958 season.", "The Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have appeared in the World Series 21 times, while the New York/San Francisco Giants have appeared in the World Series 20 times.", "The Giants have won one more World Series (8); when the two teams were based in New York, the Giants won five World Series championships, and the Dodgers one.", "After the move to California, the Dodgers have won six World Series while the Giants have won three.In Brooklyn, the Dodgers won the NL pennant twelve times (1890, 1899, 1900, 1916, 1920, 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956) and the World Series in 1955.After moving to Los Angeles, the team won National League pennants in 1959, 1963, 1965, 1966, 1974, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1988, 2017, 2018 and 2020, with World Series championships in 1959, 1963, 1965, 1981, 1988 and 2020.In all, the Dodgers have appeared in 21 World Series: nine in Brooklyn and twelve in Los Angeles." ], [ "Team history", "===Brooklyn Dodgers===The Dodgers were founded in 1883 as the '''Brooklyn Atlantics''', borrowing the name of a defunct team that had played in Brooklyn before them.", "The team joined the American Association in 1884 and won the AA championship in 1889 before joining the National League in 1890.They promptly won the NL Championship their first year in the League.", "The team was known alternatively as the '''Bridegrooms''', ''' Grooms, Superbas, Robins''' and '''Trolley Dodgers''', before officially becoming the '''Brooklyn Dodgers''' in the 1930s.===Jackie Robinson===For most of the first half of the 20th century, no Major League Baseball team employed an African American player.", "Jackie Robinson became the first African American to play for a Major League Baseball team when he played his first major league game on April 15, 1947, as a member of the Brooklyn Dodgers.", "This was mainly due to general manager Branch Rickey's efforts.", "The deeply religious Rickey's motivation appears to have been primarily moral, although business considerations were also a factor.", "Rickey was a member of The Methodist Church, the antecedent denomination to The United Methodist Church of today, which was a strong advocate for social justice and active later in the American Civil Rights Movement.This event was the harbinger of the integration of professional sports in the United States, the concomitant demise of the Negro leagues, and is regarded as a key moment in the history of the American Civil Rights Movement.", "Robinson was an exceptional player, a speedy runner who sparked the team with his intensity.", "He was the inaugural recipient of the Rookie of the Year award, which is now named the Jackie Robinson Award in his honor.", "The Dodgers' willingness to integrate, when most other teams refused to, was a key factor in their 1947–1956 success.", "They won six pennants in those 10 years with the help of Robinson, three-time MVP Roy Campanella, Cy Young Award winner Don Newcombe, Jim Gilliam and Joe Black.", "Robinson would eventually go on to become the first African-American elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.===Move to California===PCL's Hollywood Stars (logo, ''pictured'') and Angels played in L.A. before the arrival of the Dodgers in 1958Former Dodger greats who played in both Brooklyn and Los Angeles adorn the exterior of Dodger Stadium.Real estate investor Walter O'Malley acquired majority ownership of the Dodgers in 1950, when he bought the 25 percent share of co-owner Branch Rickey and became allied with the widow of another equal partner, Mrs. John L. Smith.", "Shortly afterwards, he was working to buy new land in Brooklyn to build a more accessible and profitable ballpark than the aging Ebbets Field.", "Beloved as it was, Ebbets Field was no longer well-served by its aging infrastructure and the Dodgers could no longer sell out the park even in the heat of a pennant race, despite largely dominating the National League from 1946 to 1957.O'Malley wanted to build a new, state-of-the-art stadium in Brooklyn.", "But City Planner Robert Moses and New York politicians refused to grant him the eminent domain authority required to build pursuant to O'Malley's plans.", "To put pressure on the city, during the 1955 season, O'Malley announced that the team would play seven regular-season games and one exhibition game at Jersey City's Roosevelt Stadium in 1956.Moses and the City considered this an empty threat, and did not believe O'Malley would go through with moving the team from New York City.After teams began to travel to and from games by air instead of train, it became possible to include locations in the far west.", "Los Angeles officials attended the 1956 World Series looking to the Washington Senators to move to the West Coast.", "When O'Malley heard that LA was looking for a club, he sent word to the Los Angeles officials that he was interested in talking.", "LA offered him what New York would not: a chance to buy land suitable for building a ballpark, and own that ballpark, giving him complete control over all revenue streams.", "When the news came out, NYC Mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. and Moses made an offer to build a ballpark on the World's Fair Grounds in Queens that would be shared by the Giants and Dodgers.", "However, O'Malley was interested in his park under only his conditions, and the plans for a new stadium in Brooklyn seemed like a pipe dream.", "O'Malley decided to move the Dodgers to California, convincing Giants owner Horace Stoneham to move to San Francisco instead of Minneapolis to keep the Giants-Dodgers rivalry alive on the West Coast.", "They were the first MLB teams both west and south of St. Louis.The Dodgers played their final game at Ebbets Field on September 24, 1957, which the Dodgers won 2–0 over the Pittsburgh Pirates.New York remained a one-team town with the New York Yankees until 1962, when Joan Payson founded the New York Mets and brought National League baseball back to the city.", "The blue background used by the Dodgers was adopted by the Mets, honoring their New York NL forebears with a blend of Dodgers blue and Giants orange.===Los Angeles Dodgers===The Dodgers were the first Major League Baseball team to ever play in Los Angeles.", "On April 18, 1958, the Dodgers played their first LA game, defeating the former New York and now new San Francisco Giants, 6–5, before 78,672 fans at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum.", "Catcher Roy Campanella, left partially paralyzed in an off-season accident, was never able to play in Los Angeles.The 1959 World Series was played partially at the Los Angeles Coliseum while Dodger Stadium was being built.Construction on Dodger Stadium was completed in time for Opening Day 1962.With its clean, simple lines and its picturesque setting amid hills and palm trees, the ballpark quickly became an icon of the Dodgers and their new California lifestyle.", "O'Malley was determined that there would not be a bad seat in the house, achieving this by cantilevered grandstands that have since been widely imitated.", "More importantly for the team, the stadium's spacious dimensions, along with other factors, gave defense an advantage over offense and the Dodgers moved to take advantage of this by assembling a team that would excel with its pitching.Since moving to Los Angeles, the Dodgers have won twelve more National League Championships and six more World Series rings.In-game action at Dodger Stadium, 1978" ], [ "Other historical notes", "===Historical records and firsts===*First baseball team to win championships in different leagues in consecutive years (1889–1890)*First television broadcast (1939)*First use of batting helmets (1941)*First MLB team to employ and start an African-American player in the 20th century (Jackie Robinson, 1947)*First MLB team to have numbers on the front of their uniforms (1952)*First West Coast team (1958) – along with the San Francisco Giants*First Western team to win a World Series (1959)*First MLB team to allow a female sports journalist into a locker room (Anita Martini, 1974)*First MLB team to establish a baseball academy in the Dominican Republic when they opened the doors to Campo Las Palmas (1987)*Largest home-opener attendance: 78,672 (1958) (since broken by the Colorado Rockies in 1993)*Largest single game attendance: 93,103 (1959) and 115,300 (2008) *World Record*First MLB team to open an office in Asia (1998)*Longest MLB record for home start going 13–0 (2009)*North American record for the buying of a sports team ($2 billion, 2012)*Most no-hitters (26)*Most Cy Young award winners (12)*First MLB team to employ a female lead trainer (Sue Falsone, 2012)*11,000 franchise wins 8-30-2020 (vs Texas)*Most runs scored in a single inning of a postseason game (11 runs in 2020 NLCS Game 3, 2020)*Most Rookie of the Year awards (18) *First team to draw 3 million fans*First team to have a pair of two-slam games in a season (2021)===Origin of the nickname===The Dodgers' official history reports that the term \"Trolley Dodgers\" was attached to the Brooklyn ballclub due to the complex maze of trolley cars that weaved its way through the borough of Brooklyn.In 1892, the city of Brooklyn (Brooklyn was an independent city until annexed by New York City in 1898) began replacing its slow-moving, horse-drawn trolley lines with the faster, more powerful electric trolley lines.", "Within less than three years, by the end of 1895, electric trolley accidents in Brooklyn had resulted in more than 130 deaths and maimed well over 500 people.", "Brooklyn's high profile, the significant number of widely reported accidents, and a trolley strike in early 1895, combined to create a strong association in the public's mind between Brooklyn and trolley dodging.Sportswriters started using the name \"Trolley Dodgers\" to refer to the Brooklyn team early in the 1895 season.", "The name was shortened to, on occasion, the \"Brooklyn Dodgers\" as early as 1898.Sportswriters in the early 20th century began referring to the Dodgers as the \"Bums\", in reference to the team's fans and possibly because of the \"street character\" nature of Jack Dawkins, the \"Artful Dodger\" in Charles Dickens' ''Oliver Twist''.", "Newspaper cartoonist Willard Mullin used a drawing of famous clown Emmett Kelly to depict \"Dem Bums\": the team would later use \"Weary Willie\" in promotional images, and Kelly himself was a club mascot during the 1950s.Other team names used by the franchise were the Atlantics, Grays, Grooms, Bridegrooms, Superbas and Robins.", "All of these nicknames were used by fans and sportswriters to describe the team, but not in any official capacity.", "The team's legal name was the Brooklyn Base Ball Club.", "However, the Trolley Dodger nickname was used throughout this period, simultaneously with these other nicknames, by fans and sportswriters of the day.", "The team did not use the name in any formal sense until 1932, when the word \"Dodgers\" appeared on team jerseys.", "The \"conclusive shift\" came in 1933, when both home and road jerseys for the team bore the name \"Dodgers\".Examples of how the many popularized names of the team were used are available from newspaper articles before 1932.A New York Times article describing a game in 1916 starts out: \"Jimmy Callahan, pilot of the Pirates, did his best to wreck the hopes the Dodgers have of gaining the National League pennant\", but then goes on to comment: \"the only thing that saved the Superbas from being toppled from first place was that the Phillies lost one of the two games played\".", "What is interesting about the use of these two nicknames is that most baseball statistics sites and baseball historians generally now refer to the pennant-winning 1916 Brooklyn team as the Robins.", "A 1918 New York Times article uses the nickname in its title: \"Buccaneers Take Last From Robins\", but the subtitle of the article reads: \"Subdue The Superbas By 11 To 4, Making Series An Even Break\".Another example of the use of the many nicknames is found on the program issued at Ebbets Field for the 1920 World Series, which identifies the matchup in the series as \"Dodgers vs. Indians\" despite the fact that the Robins nickname had been in consistent use for around six years.", "The \"Robins\" nickname was derived from the name of their Hall of Fame manager, Wilbert Robinson, who led the team from 1914 to 1931.===Uniforms===The Dodgers' home uniform has remained relatively unchanged for 80 years.The Dodgers' uniform has remained relatively unchanged since the 1930s.", "The home jersey is white with \"Dodgers\" written in script across the chest in royal.", "The road jersey is gray with \"Los Angeles\" written in script across the chest in royal.", "The word \"Dodgers\" was first used on the front of the team's home jersey in 1933; the uniform was then white with red pinstripes and a stylized \"B\" on the left shoulder.", "The Dodgers also wore green outlined uniforms and green caps throughout the 1937 season but reverted to blue the following year.The Dodgers current script on a Dodger Blue backgroundThe current design was created in 1939, and has remained the same ever since with only cosmetic changes.", "Originally intended for the 1951 World Series for which the ballclub failed to qualify, red numbers under the \"Dodgers\" script were added to the home uniform in 1952.The road jersey also has a red uniform number under the script.", "When the franchise moved from Brooklyn to Los Angeles, the city name on the road jersey changed, and the stylized \"B\" was replaced with the interlocking \"LA\" on the caps in 1958.In 1970, the Dodgers removed the city name from the road jerseys and had \"Dodgers\" on both the home and away uniforms.", "The city script returned to the road jerseys in 1999, and the tradition-rich Dodgers flirted with an alternate uniform for the first time since 1944 (when all-blue satin uniforms were introduced).", "These 1999 alternate jerseys had a royal top with the \"Dodgers\" script in white across the chest, and the red number on the front.", "These were worn with white pants and a new cap with silver brim, top button and Dodger logo.", "These alternates proved unpopular and the team abandoned them after only one season.", "In 2014, the Dodgers introduced an alternate road jersey: a gray version with the \"Dodgers\" script instead of the city name.", "Since its introduction, however, the road jersey with the \"Dodgers\" script was used more often than the road jersey with the \"Los Angeles\" script, so much that the team now considers it as a primary road uniform.", "In 2018, the Dodgers wore their 60th anniversary patch to honor the 60 years of being in Los Angeles.In 2021, the Dodgers again unveiled a blue alternate uniform, this time as part of the \"City Connect\" series in collaboration with Nike.", "This uniform was similar to the blue alternates they wore in 1999, but with the script \"Los Dodgers\" in homage to Los Angeles' Latino community.", "The uniform is also worn with blue pants, and black stripes are added to the sleeves.", "Initially, the Dodgers wore a special blue cap with the \"Los Dodgers\" script, but switched in 2022 to a blue interlocking \"LA\" cap with black brim.", "The \"Los Dodgers\" script was then relocated to the right side.", "In 2023, white pants with blue piping replaced the blue pants previously worn with the \"City Connect\" uniform.===Asian players===Chan Ho ParkThe Dodgers have been groundbreaking in their signing of players from Asia; mainly Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.", "Former owner Peter O'Malley began reaching out in 1980 by starting clinics in China and South Korea, building baseball fields in two Chinese cities, and in 1998 becoming the first major league team to open an office in Asia.", "The Dodgers were the second team to start a Japanese player (first in nearly 30 years), pitcher Hideo Nomo, the first team to start a South Korean player, pitcher Chan Ho Park and the first Taiwanese player, Chin-Feng Chen.", "In addition, they were the first team to send out three Asian pitchers, from different Asian countries, in one game: Park, Hong-Chih Kuo of Taiwan, and Takashi Saito of Japan.", "In the 2008 season, the Dodgers had the most Asian players on its roster of any major league team with five.", "They included Japanese pitchers Takashi Saito and Hiroki Kuroda; South Korean pitcher Chan Ho Park; and Taiwanese pitcher Hong-Chih Kuo and infielder Chin-Lung Hu.", "In 2005, the Dodgers' Hee Seop Choi became the first Asian player to compete in the Home Run Derby.", "For the 2013 season, the Dodgers signed starting pitcher Hyun-Jin Ryu with a six-year, $36 million contract, after posting a bid of nearly $27 million to acquire him from the KBO's Hanhwa Eagles.", "For the 2016 season, the Dodgers signed starting pitcher Kenta Maeda with an eight-year, $25 million contract, after posting a bid of $20 million to acquire him from the NPB's Hiroshima Toyo Carp.", "For the 2024 season, the Dodgers signed free agent two-way player Shohei Ohtani with a 10-year, $700 million contract, the largest ever in professional sports history." ], [ "Rivalries", "The Dodgers' rivalry with the San Francisco Giants dates back to the 19th century, when the two teams were based in New York; the rivalry with the New York Yankees took place when the Dodgers were based in New York, but was revived with their East Coast/West Coast World Series battles in 1963, 1977, 1978, and 1981.The Dodgers' rivalries with the Philadelphia Phillies and St. Louis Cardinals also dates back to their days in New York, but were most fierce during the 1970s, 1980s and 2000s.", "The Dodgers also shared a heated rivalry with the Cincinnati Reds during the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s.", "The Dodgers' had even shared a rather volatile rivalry with divisional foes; the Arizona Diamondbacks during most of the 2010s.", "Their intra-city rivalry with the Los Angeles Angels dates back to the Angels' inaugural season in 1961.The Dodgers have recently revived an old Southern California based rivalry with the San Diego Padres dating back to the Padres' inaugural season in 1969.Most recently; the Dodgers have also regrown a heated rivalry against the former divisional foe Houston Astros after their relocation to the American League, due in no small part to the controversy of the 2017 World Series.===San Francisco Giants===The Dodgers–Giants rivalry is one of the longest-standing rivalries in U.S. baseball.The feud between the Dodgers and the San Francisco Giants began in the late 19th century when both clubs were based in New York City, with the Dodgers playing in Brooklyn and the Giants playing at the Polo Grounds in Manhattan.", "After the 1957 season, Dodgers owner Walter O'Malley moved the team to Los Angeles for financial and other reasons.", "Along the way, he managed to convince Giants owner Horace Stoneham—who was considering moving his team to Minnesota—to preserve the rivalry by bringing his team to California as well.", "New York baseball fans were stunned and heartbroken by the move.", "Given that the cities of Los Angeles and San Francisco have been bitter rivals in economic, cultural, and political arenas for over a century and a half, the new venue in California became fertile ground for its transplantation.Each team's ability to endure for over a century while moving across an entire continent, as well as the rivalry's leap from a cross-city to a cross-state engagement, have led to the rivalry being considered one of the greatest in American sports history.Unlike many other historic baseball match-ups in which one team remains dominant for most of their history, the Dodgers–Giants rivalry has exhibited a persistent balance in the respective successes of the two teams.", "While the Giants have more wins in franchise history, the Dodgers have the most National League pennants at 24, with the Giants following close behind at 23.The Giants have won eight World Series titles, while the Dodgers have won seven.", "The 2010 World Series was the Giants' first championship since moving to California, while the Dodgers had won six World Series titles since their move, their last title coming in the 2020 World Series.In 2021, the Dodgers and Giants both finished the regular season with over 100 wins, with the latter clinching the division with a record of 107–55.The Dodgers were one game behind with a record of 106–56, relegating them to the NL Wild Card Game, in which they defeated the St. Louis Cardinals.", "This resulted in the first postseason matchup between Dodgers and Giants in the NLDS.", "With a combined 213 regular season wins, this is the most number of regular season wins between competing teams in any MLB postseason series.", "The Dodgers ultimately won in the decisive Game 5, but would lose in the NLCS to the eventual World Series champions: Atlanta Braves.=== Los Angeles Angels ===This rivalry refers to a series of games played with the Los Angeles Angels.", "The Freeway Series takes its name from the massive freeway system in the greater Los Angeles metropolitan area, the home of both teams; one could travel from one team's stadium to the other simply by traveling along Interstate 5.The term is akin to ''Subway Series'' which refers to meetings between New York City baseball teams.", "The term \"''Freeway Series''\" also inspired the official name of the region's NHL rivalry: the ''Freeway Face-Off.", "''Animosity between the team's fanbases grew stronger in 2005, when the Angels' new team owner Arte Moreno changed the name of his ball club from the 'Anaheim Angels', to the 'Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim'.", "Since the city of Anaheim is located roughly 30 miles from Downtown Los Angeles, the Angels franchise was ridiculed throughout the league for the contradictory nature surrounding the name, especially by Dodgers owner Frank McCourt, who filed a formal complaint to commissioner Bud Selig.", "Once the complaint was denied, McCourt devised a t-shirt mocking the crosstown rivals reading 'The Los Angeles Dodgers of Los Angeles', which remains popular amongst the fanbase to this day.=== San Diego Padres ===The '''Padres-Dodgers''' rivalry has often been lopsided in favor of the Dodgers; however, recent growth between the two teams in competition has added intensity on top of proximity between Los Angeles and San Diego.", "San Diego fans have often harbored animosity towards Los Angeles due in small part to San Diego being an unstable home for their sports teams as both the Chargers and the Clippers both relocated to Los Angeles after being unable to find a secure future in San Diego.The Dodgers currently lead the series 518—419, with the two teams meeting in the playoffs twice.", "The Dodgers swept the Padres in the 2020 NLDS, and the Padres won in four games in the 2022 NLDS.=== Arizona Diamondbacks ===The rivalry between the Dodgers and the Arizona Diamondbacks was one of the fiercest divisional matchups for multiple years, particularly during the 2010s as both teams were in regular contention for control of the division.", "In addition to the elevated competition, animosity rose immensely between both sides resulting in multiple incidents involving either team throwing pitches at one another, occasionally escalating into several bench-clearing brawls.", "Famously; after eliminating the Diamondbacks and clinching the division on September 19, 2013; multiple Dodgers' players celebrated the win by jumping into the pool at Chase Field.", "rather ironically on December 8, 2015; Zack Greinke would sign a six-year, $206.5 million contract with the Diamondbacks in free agency.", "Both teams met during the 2017 National League Division Series as the Diamondbacks were no match for LA as they were swept 3—0 by the Dodgers en route to their appearance in the World Series.", "The teams rematched in the 2023 National League Division Series, with the Diamondbacks returning the favor with a 3—0 sweep of their own as they eventually reached the World Series.", "The Dodgers lead the series 259—193, with the teams tied 3—3 in the postseason.=== St. Louis Cardinals ===Primarily a playoff rivalry; since 1892, The Dodgers and St. Louis Cardinals have met six times in the postseason, with two meetings in the NLCS falling in favor of the Cardinals.", "Both teams have recently grown a history of animosity towards one another since the late 2000s, as both teams often met frequently in the postseason.", "The Dodgers have not fared as well against the Cardinals in the postseason.", "In five prior postseason series matchups, the Cardinals have won four, with the Dodgers winning only the 2009 NLDS and the 2021 National League Wild Card Game.=== New York Yankees ===The Dodgers' rivalry with the New York Yankees is one of the most well-known rivalries in Major League Baseball.", "The two teams have met eleven times in the World Series, more times than any other two teams from the American and National Leagues.", "The initial significance was embodied in the two teams' proximity in New York City, when the Dodgers initially played in Brooklyn.", "After the Dodgers moved to Los Angeles in 1958, the rivalry retained its significance as the two teams represented the two most dominant cities on opposite sides of the United States since the 1980s.Although the rivalry's significance arose from the two teams' numerous World Series meetings, the Yankees and Dodgers have not met in the World Series since .", "They would not play each other in a non-exhibition game until 2004, when they played a three-game interleague series.", "Their last meeting was in June 2023, when the Yankees won two out of three games in Los Angeles." ], [ "Fan support", "A fan waves a rally towel during the 2008 National League Championship Series (NLCS).In 2012, a ''Bleacher Report'' article referred to Dodgers fans as the best sports fanbase in Los Angeles.", "Following the team's relocation to California, attendance had gone from eleventh during their final season in Brooklyn to second in their first season in Los Angeles.", "Initially during construction of Dodger Stadium, Walter O'Malley feared the size of the ballpark would prove to be too difficult to fill on a regular basis once completed in 1962.This proved not to be the case as the Dodgers led the league in attendance by a sizeable margin for the 1962 season, nearly doubling that of the New York Yankees.=== Attendance records ===In 1978 the Dodgers became the first MLB team to attract more than three million fans in a season, and repeated the feat six more times before any other franchise reached three million fans overall.", "The Dodgers drew at least three million fans for 15 consecutive seasons from 1996 to 2010, the longest such streak among all MLB teams.", "The team's largest fan club, Pantone 294 (a reference to the Pantone code of Dodger blue), regularly travels to away games to cheer for the Dodgers.", "The Dodgers have regularly placed in the top three in attendance, or have led the league numerous times since 2000, excluding the 2020 season; the Dodgers have recently led the league in attendance for nine straight seasons going back to 2013.On July 3, 2007, Dodgers management announced that total franchise attendance, dating back to 1901, had reached 175 million, a record for all professional sports.", "In 2007, the Dodgers set a franchise record for single-season attendance, attracting over 3.8 million fans.", "On March 28, 2008, the Dodgers set the world record for the largest attendance for a single baseball game during an exhibition game against the Boston Red Sox at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in honor of the Dodgers' 50th anniversary, with 115,300 fans in attendance.", "In 2009, the Dodgers led MLB in total attendance.", "The Dodger baseball cap is consistently in the top three in sales.Primarily, Dodgers fans originate from most of southern or central California and also parts of southern Nevada.", "The fanbase has also extended out to states across the southwest such as Arizona, New Mexico and even western Texas.", "In 2015, Vivid Seats reported that the Dodgers were the most popular MLB team in Utah based on ticket sales.", "Dodgers' away games throughout the US will usually attract substantial numbers of expats and traveling fans.Given the team's proximity to Hollywood, numerous celebrities can often be seen attending home games at Dodger Stadium.", "Celebrities such as co-owner Magic Johnson, Flea, Mary Hart, DaBaby, Larry King, Tiger Woods, Alyssa Milano, Shia LaBeouf, Lana Del Rey, Mila Kunis and Ashton Kutcher are known to frequently attend Dodger games, with some sitting at field box seats behind home plate where they sign autographs for fellow Dodger fans.", "Actor Bryan Cranston is a lifelong Dodger fan.=== International ===Abroad; the Dodgers have a strongly devoted following in Mexico due to the impact of Mexican players such as Fernando Valenzuela, Ismael Valdéz, or more recently; Julio Urias.", "The impact of the Dodgers' extensive fanbase across Mexico, and among the Mexican-American community is ever present, as an estimated 54% of fans in home attendance are of Mexican descent.", "Notably; Mel Almada, the first Mexican-born player in league history, was also a southern California native, he played for the Dodgers near the tail end of his career in 1939.The fanbase is also present throughout Asian countries such as South Korea, Taiwan, and Japan due to the impacts of Japanese players such as Hideo Nomo, Hiroki Kuroda, Kenta Maeda or Yu Darvish.", "The Dodgers grew fan attention in South Korea, as they became the first MLB team to sign the first South Korean-born player in league history: Chan Ho Park in 1994.The Dodgers had also strengthened their ties with their recruitment of South Korean players, following the signing of All-Star pitcher Hyun Jin Ryu in 2013.The team partnered with the Korean communities of Los Angeles and began hosting an annual Korean Heritage night since 2016.The Dodgers made history for signing the first Taiwanese player in MLB, Chin-Feng Chen in 2002; other Taiwanese players such as Chin-Lung Hu and Chin-Hui Tsao would also eventually sign with the Dodgers, largely growing fan support from the country." ], [ "Radio and television", "Hall of Fame Dodgers broadcaster Vin ScullyAs of 2023, the primary play-by-play announcers on television and radio, respectively, are Joe Davis and Charley Steiner, with Orel Hershiser (TV) and Rick Monday (radio) working as the primary color commentators.", "On some games, Stephen Nelson would fill in for Davis during his national assignments with Fox Sports, with Davis typically working as the lead voice of the MLB on Fox and as one of the play-by-play voices of the NFL on Fox.", "Nomar Garciaparra, Eric Karros, Dontrelle Willis and Jessica Mendoza often fill in for Hershiser on select games.", "On the radio side, Tim Neverett works play-by-play on select games, and also fills in for Davis on television broadcasts.From 1950 to 2016, almost all Dodger games were called by Vin Scully.", "His longtime partners were Jerry Doggett (1956–1987) and Ross Porter (1977–2004).", "In 1976, he was selected by Dodgers fans as the Most Memorable Personality (on the field or off) in the team's history.", "He is also a recipient of the Baseball Hall of Fame's Ford C. Frick Award for broadcasters (inducted in 1982).", "Unlike the modern style in which multiple sportscasters have an on-air conversation (usually with one functioning as play-by-play announcer and the others as color commentator), Scully, Doggett and Porter generally called games solo, trading with each other inning-by-inning.", "In the 1980s and 1990s, Scully would call the entire radio broadcast except for the third and seventh inning, allowing the other Dodger commentators to broadcast an inning.", "Fans and critics alike frequently praised Scully due in large part for his longevity with the team, and his ability to provide peculiar details about multiple players appearing onfield.", "Despite his longevity and a strong relationship with the team and fanbase, Scully was also praised for his relatively unbiased view of any game he called, often referring to the listeners as 'friends' instead of 'fans'.When Doggett retired after the 1987 season, he was replaced by Hall-of-Fame Dodgers pitcher Don Drysdale, who previously broadcast games for the California Angels and Chicago White Sox.", "Drysdale died in his hotel room following a heart attack before a game in Montreal in 1993.This was a difficult broadcast for Scully and Porter who could not mention it on-air until Drysdale's family had been notified and the official announcement made.", "He was replaced by former Dodgers outfielder Rick Monday.", "Porter's tenure ended after the 2004 season, after which the format of play-by-play announcers and color commentators was installed, led by Monday and newcomer Charley Steiner.", "Scully, however, continued to announce solo.Scully called roughly 100 games per season (all home games and road games in California and Arizona) for both flagship radio station KLAC and on television for Spectrum SportsNet LA.", "Scully was simulcast for the first three innings of each of his appearances, then announced only for the TV audience.", "If Scully was calling the game, Steiner took over play-by-play on radio beginning with the fourth inning, with Monday as color commentator.", "If Scully was not calling the game, Steiner and Orel Hershiser called the entire game on television while Monday and Kevin Kennedy did the same on radio.", "In the event the Dodgers were in post-season play, Scully called the first three and last three innings of the radio broadcast alone and Steiner and Monday handled the middle innings.", "Vin Scully retired from calling games in 2016.His tenure with the Dodgers was the longest with any single sports team at 67 years.", "Youthful announcer Joe Davis was selected in 2017 by Dodgers management to handle play by play on television with Orel Hershiser as his colorman.The Dodgers also broadcast on radio in two other languages, Spanish and Korean.", "Upon moving to Los Angeles in 1958, the Dodgers became the first MLB team with a Spanish-language flagship station, KWKW (), with a broadcast team that included René Cárdenas.", "From 1959 to 2022, the Spanish play-by-play is voiced by another Frick Award winner, Jaime Jarrín.", "The color analyst for some games is former Dodger pitcher Fernando Valenzuela, for whom Jarrin once translated post-game interviews.", "Since 2023, Valuenzuela is joined on the Spanish booth by Pepe Yñiguez and José Mota, son of Dodger legend Manny Mota.", "The Spanish-language radio flagship station is KTNQ.", "Meanwhile, the Dodgers' Korean broadcast began in 2013 through KMPC." ], [ "Management", "*'''Owner''': Guggenheim Baseball Management**'''Chairman/Controlling Partner''': Mark Walter**'''Partner''': Earvin \"Magic\" Johnson**'''Partner''': Peter Guber**'''Partner''': Todd Boehly** '''Partner''': Billie Jean King**'''Partner''': Ilana Kloss**'''Partner''': Robert \"Bobby\" Patton, Jr.**'''Partner''': Alan Smolinisky**'''Partner''': Robert L. Plummer*'''President/chief executive officer''': Stan Kasten*'''President of Baseball Operations''': Andrew Friedman*'''General Manager:''' Brandon Gomes" ], [ "Achievements", "===Baseball Hall of Famers===Hall of Fame Manager Walter Alston (1954–1976)Hall of Fame C Roy Campanella (1948–1957)Hall of Fame P Don Drysdale (1956–1969), attended Van Nuys High School in Los Angeles10× All-Star 1B Steve Garvey, named NL MVP in 1974Pedro GuerreroHall of Fame P Sandy Koufax (1955–1966)Hall of Fame SS Pee Wee Reese (1940–1942, 1946–1958)Hall of Fame OF Duke Snider (1947–1962), a native of Compton, CaliforniaHall of Fame P Don Sutton (1966–1980)Hall of Fame OF Zack Wheat (1909–1926)SS Maury Wills, 1962 NL MVP, and 6× NL stolen base leader===Ford C. Frick Award recipients======Team captains===* Leo Durocher 1938–1941* Pee Wee Reese 1950–1958* Duke Snider 1962* Maury Wills 1963–1966* Davey Lopes 1978–1979===Retired numbers===Koufax, Campanella, and Robinson were the first Dodgers to have their numbers retired, in a ceremony at Dodger Stadium on June 4, 1972.This was the year in which Koufax was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame; Robinson and Campanella were already Hall-of-Famers.Alston's number was retired in the year following his retirement as the Dodgers manager, six years before he was inducted into the Hall of Fame.Gilliam died suddenly in 1978 after a 28-year career with the Dodgers organization.", "The Dodgers retired his number two days after his death, prior to Game 1 of the 1978 World Series.", "As of 2018, he is the only non-Hall-of-Famer to have his number retired by the Dodgers (Alston's number was retired before he was elected to the Hall of Fame).Beginning in 1980, the Dodgers have retired the numbers of longtime Dodgers (Snider, Reese, Drysdale, Lasorda, Sutton, and Hodges) during the seasons in which each was inducted into the Hall of Fame.In 1997, 50 years after he broke the color barrier and 25 years after the Dodgers retired his number, Robinson's No.", "42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball.", "Robinson is the only major league baseball player to have this honor bestowed upon him.", "Starting in the 2007 season, Jackie Robinson Day (April 15, commemorating Opening Day of Robinson's rookie season of 1947) has featured many or all players and coaches wearing the number 42 as a tribute to Robinson.In 2017, the Dodgers honored broadcaster Vin Scully with a microphone displayed alongside the team's retired numbers.In 2018, Spanish language broadcaster Jaime Jarrín was honored with a microphone displayed alongside the team's retired numbers.===Legends of Dodger Baseball===In 2019, the Dodgers established \"Legends of Dodger Baseball\", which is to meant honor Dodger greats.", "The program honors those who made an \"impact on the franchise, both on and off the field.\"", "Recipients are recognized with plaques at Dodger Stadium.", "*Steve Garvey (2019)*Don Newcombe (2019)*Fernando Valenzuela (2019)*Maury Wills (2022)* Kirk Gibson (2022)* Orel Hershiser (2023)* Manny Mota (2023)===Awards======= Most Valuable Player (NL)====* '''Brooklyn'''** – Jake Daubert**1924 – Dazzy Vance**1941 – Dolph Camilli**1949 – Jackie Robinson**1951 – Roy Campanella**1953 – Roy Campanella**1955 – Roy Campanella**1956 – Don Newcombe* '''Los Angeles'''**1962 – Maury Wills**1963 – Sandy Koufax**1974 – Steve Garvey**1988 – Kirk Gibson**2014 – Clayton Kershaw**2019 – Cody Bellinger==== World Series Most Valuable Player ====*1955 – Johnny Podres*1959 – Larry Sherry*1963 – Sandy Koufax*1965 – Sandy Koufax*1981 – Ron Cey, Pedro Guerrero and Steve Yeager*1988 – Orel Hershiser*2020 – Corey Seager==== Cy Young Award (NL) ====* '''Brooklyn'''**1956 – Don Newcombe (MLB)* '''Los Angeles'''**1962 – Don Drysdale (MLB)**1963 – Sandy Koufax (MLB)**1965 – Sandy Koufax (MLB)**1966 – Sandy Koufax (MLB)**1974 – Mike Marshall**1981 – Fernando Valenzuela**1988 – Orel Hershiser**2003 – Éric Gagné**2011 – Clayton Kershaw**2013 – Clayton Kershaw**2014 – Clayton Kershaw==== Triple Crown ====* '''Brooklyn'''**1924 – Dazzy Vance* '''Los Angeles'''**1963 – Sandy Koufax**1965 – Sandy Koufax**1966 – Sandy Koufax**2011 – Clayton Kershaw==== Rookie of the Year Award (NL)====* '''Brooklyn'''**1947 – Jackie Robinson (MLB)**1949 – Don Newcombe**1952 – Joe Black**1953 – Jim Gilliam* '''Los Angeles'''**1960 – Frank Howard**1965 – Jim Lefebvre**1969 – Ted Sizemore**1979 – Rick Sutcliffe**1980 – Steve Howe**1981 – Fernando Valenzuela**1982 – Steve Sax**1992 – Eric Karros**1993 – Mike Piazza**1994 – Raúl Mondesi**1995 – Hideo Nomo**1996 – Todd Hollandsworth**2016 – Corey Seager**2017 – Cody Bellinger===Team records===" ], [ "Personnel", "===Current roster======Presidents===*Charlie Byrne (1883–1897)*Charles Ebbets (1898–1925)*Edward McKeever (1925, interim)*Wilbert Robinson (1925–1929)*Frank B. York (1930–1932)*Stephen McKeever (1933–1938)*Larry MacPhail (1939–1942)*Branch Rickey (1943–1950)*Walter O'Malley (1950–1970)*Peter O'Malley (1970–1997)*Bob Graziano (1998–2004)*Jamie McCourt (2004–2009)*Dennis Mannion (2009–2010)*Stan Kasten (2012–present)===Managers===Since 1884, the Dodgers have used a total of 31 Managers, the most current being Dave Roberts, who was appointed following the 2015 postseason, after the departure of Don Mattingly.Tommy LasordaOver the nearly 43 years from 1954 to mid-1996, the Dodgers employed only two managers, Walter Alston and Tommy Lasorda, both of whom are in the Hall of Fame.", "During this entire time period of extraordinary stability, the Dodgers were family-owned by Walter O'Malley and then his son Peter O'Malley.", "It was during this era that the Dodgers won 11 of their 24 pennants, and their first six World Series championships.The managers of the Los Angeles Dodgers (1958–present) are as follows:*Walter Alston (1958–1976) (in Brooklyn since 1954)*Tommy Lasorda (1976–1996)*Bill Russell (1996–1998)*Glenn Hoffman (1998)*Davey Johnson (1999–2000)*Jim Tracy (2001–2005)*Grady Little (2006–2007)*Joe Torre (2008–2010)*Don Mattingly (2011–2015)*Dave Roberts (2016–present)===General Managers===*Larry MacPhail (1938–1942)*Branch Rickey (1943–1950)*Buzzie Bavasi (1950–1968)*Fresco Thompson (1968)*Al Campanis (1968–1987)*Fred Claire (1987–1998)*Tommy Lasorda (1998)*Kevin Malone (1999–2001)*Dave Wallace (2001)*Dan Evans (2001–2004)*Paul DePodesta (2004–2005)*Ned Colletti (2005–2014)*Farhan Zaidi (2014–2018)*Brandon Gomes (2022–present)===Public address announcers/organists===From the Dodgers' move to Los Angeles from Brooklyn in 1958, the Dodgers employed a handful of well-known public address announcers; the most famous of which was John Ramsey, who served as the PA voice of the Dodgers from 1958 until his retirement in 1982; he was also well known for announcing at other venerable Los Angeles venues, including the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and Sports Arena, and the Forum.", "Ramsey died in 1990.From 1958 to 1982, Doug Moore, Philip Petty, and Dennis Packer served as back-up voices for John Ramsey for the Dodgers, California Angels, Los Angeles Chargers, USC football and Los Angeles Rams.", "Packer was Ramsey's primary backup for the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Kings until Ramsey's retirement from the Forum in 1978.Thereafter, Packer became the public address announcer for the Lakers, Kings, indoor soccer and indoor tennis events at the Forum.Nick Nickson, a radio broadcaster for the Los Angeles Kings, replaced John Ramsey as the Dodger Stadium public address announcer in 1983 and served in that capacity through the 1989 season to work with the Kings full-time.Dennis Packer and Pete Arbogast were emulators of John Ramsey, using the same stentorian style of announcing Ramsey was famous for.", "Packer and Arbogast shared the stadium announcing chores for the 1994 FIFA World Cup matches at the Rose Bowl.", "Arbogast won the Dodgers job on the day that Ramsey died on January 25, 1990, by doing a verbatim imitation of Ramsey's opening and closing remarks that were standard at each game.", "His replacement, in 1994 was Mike Carlucci, who remained as the Dodgers' PA voice announcer until he resigned in 2002 to concentrate on his voiceover and acting career along with his Olympics announcing duties.From 2003 to 2014, the Dodgers public address announcer was Eric Smith, who also announces for the Los Angeles Clippers and USC Trojans.On April 3, 2015, the Dodgers announced that former radio broadcaster Todd Leitz was hired to become their new public address announcer.", "Leitz was an anchor and news reporter in Los Angeles at KNX 1070 AM for 10 years, and a news reporter at KABC 790 for two years.From 1988 to 2015, Nancy Bea enjoyed popularity behind the Dodger Stadium keyboard similar to Gladys Goodding.", "Since retirement in 2015, Bea's replacement and current organist is Dieter Ruehle, who also plays at Staples Center for Los Angeles Kings games.===Other===Vin Scully is permanently honored in the Baseball Hall of Fame's \"Scribes & Mikemen\" exhibit as a result of winning the Ford C. Frick Award in 1982.Frick Award recipients are not official members of the Hall.Sue Falsone, was the first female physical therapist in Major League baseball, and from 2012 to 2013, was the first female head athletic trainer." ], [ "Minor league affiliations", "The Los Angeles Dodgers farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates.ClassTeamLeagueLocationBallparkAffiliated Triple-A Oklahoma City Baseball Club Pacific Coast League Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Chickasaw Bricktown Ballpark 2015 Double-A Tulsa Drillers Texas League Tulsa, Oklahoma Oneok Field 2015 High-A Great Lakes Loons Midwest League Midland, Michigan Dow Diamond 2007 Single-A Rancho Cucamonga Quakes California League Rancho Cucamonga, California LoanMart Field 2011 Rookie ACL Dodgers Arizona Complex League Phoenix, Arizona Camelback Ranch 2021 DSL Dodgers Bautista Dominican Summer League Santo Domingo, Distrito Nacional Las Palmas Complex 2019 DSL Dodgers Mega 2022" ], [ "See also", "*1994 in baseball*Dodger Dog*List of Los Angeles Dodgers broadcasters*List of Los Angeles Dodgers managers*List of Los Angeles Dodgers seasons*Los Angeles Dodgers all-time roster*Los Angeles Dodgers minor league players*Roy Campanella Award" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Red Barber, ''Rhubarb in the Catbird Seat''*Stanley Cohen, ''Dodgers!", "The First 100 Years''*Robert W. Creamer, ''Stengel: His Life and Times''* *Steve Delsohn, '' True Blue: The Dramatic History of the Los Angeles Dodgers, Told By the Men Who Lived It''*Carl Erskine and Vin Scully, ''Tales From the Dodger Dugout: Extra Innings''*Harvey Froemmer, ''New York City Baseball''*Steve Garvey, \"My Bat Boy Days: Lessons I Learned from the Boys of Summer\"*Cliff Gewecke, ''Day by Day in Dodgers History''*Andrew Goldblatt, ''The Giants and the Dodgers: Four Cities, Two Teams, One Rivalry''*Richard Goldstein, ''Superstars and Screwballs: 100 Years of Brooklyn Baseball''*Peter Golenbock, ''Bums: An Oral History of the Brooklyn Dodgers''*Doris Kearns Goodwin, ''Wait Till Next Year: A Memoir''*Frank Graham, ''The Brooklyn Dodgers: An Informal History''*Orel Hershiser with Jerry B. Jenkins, ''Out of the Blue''*Donald Honig, ''The Los Angeles Dodgers: Their First quarter Century''*Roger Kahn, ''The Boys of Summer''*Roger Kahn, ''The Era 1947–1957: When the Yankees, the Giants and the Dodgers Ruled the World''*Mark Langill, ''The Los Angeles Dodgers''*Tommy Lasorda with David Fisher, ''The Artful Dodger''*Jane Leavy, ''Sandy Koufax: A Lefty's Legacy''*Joseph McCauley, ''Ebbets Field: Brooklyn's Baseball Shrine''*William McNeil, ''The Dodgers Encyclopedia''*Tom Meany (editor), ''The Artful Dodgers''*Andrew Paul Mele, ''A Brooklyn Dodgers Reader''*John J. Monteleone (editor), ''Branch Rickey's Little Blue Book''*Thomas Oliphant, ''Praying for Gil Hodges: A Memoir of the 1955 World Series and One Family's Love of the Brooklyn Dodgers''*David Plaut, ''Chasing October: The Dodgers-Giants Pennant Race of 1962''*Carl E. Prince, ''Brooklyn's Dodgers: The Bums, The Borough and The Best of Baseball''*Jackie Robinson, ''I Never Had It Made''*Gene Schoor, ''The Complete Dodgers Record Book''*Gene Schoor, ''The Pee Wee Reese Story''*Duke Snider with Bill Gilbert, ''The Duke of Flatbush''*Michael Shapiro, ''The Last Good Season: Brooklyn, The Dodgers, and Their Final Pennant Race Together''*Glen Stout, ''The Dodgers: 120 Years of Dodgers Baseball''*Neil J. Sullivan, ''The Dodgers Move West''*Jules Tygiel, ''Baseball's Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy''*John Weaver, ''Los Angeles: The Enormous Village, 1781–1981''" ], [ "External links", "** Los Angeles Dodgers Baseball Reference.com* \"The 1960s Dodgers: Two Parts Patience, One Part Creative Insanity\" by Steve Treder, November 10, 2004.Article on the 1960s Los Angeles Dodgers in ''The Hardball Times''." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Louis Andriessen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Louis Joseph Andriessen''' (; 6 June 1939 – 1 July 2021) was a Dutch composer, pianist and academic teacher.", "Considered the most influential Dutch composer of his generation, he was a central proponent of The Hague school of composition.", "Although his music was initially dominated by neoclassicism and serialism, his style gradually shifted to a synthesis of American minimalism, jazz and the manner of Stravinsky.Born in Utrecht into a musical family, Andriessen studied with his father, the composer Hendrik Andriessen as well as composers Kees van Baaren and Luciano Berio.", "Andriessen taught at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague from 1974 to 2012, influencing notable composers.", "His opera ''La Commedia'', based on Dante's ''Divine Comedy'', won the 2011 Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition and was selected in 2019 by critics at ''The Guardian'' as one of the most outstanding compositions of the 21st century." ], [ "Life and career", "Andriessen was born in Utrecht on 6 June 1939 to a musical family, the son of the composer Hendrik Andriessen and Johanna Justina Anschütz (1898–1975).", "His father was professor of composition at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague, and later its director.", "His siblings are composers Jurriaan Andriessen and Caecilia Andriessen (1931–2019), and he is the nephew of Willem Andriessen (1887–1964).Andriessen originally studied with his father and Kees van Baaren at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague, graduating in 1961 with a first prize, before embarking upon two years of study with Italian composer Luciano Berio in Milan and Berlin.", "His father introduced him to the works of Francis Poulenc and Eric Satie which he came to love.", "From 1961–65, Andriessen wrote for the daily ''De Volkskrant'', and for ''De Gids'' magazine from 1966–69.Andriessen lived in Amsterdam starting in 1965.In 1969, he was part of a group of protesters at a concert of the Concertgebouw Orchestra.", "They disrupted the concert with nutcrackers and bicycle horns, handing out leaflets on the dismal representation of Dutch new music in the orchestra's programming.", "The next year, he and the other \"Nutcrackers\" were given one-week prison sentences, and yet their protest sparked something of a social reform in the Dutch music scene.Andriessen was internationally recognised as a composer with his 1976 ''De Staat'' which included texts from Plato's ''Republic''.", "He was one of the founders of the Hague School, an avant-garde and minimalist movement from the second half of the 20th century.", "In later decades, he accepted commissions from major orchestras, including the San Francisco Symphony, the Los Angeles Philharmonic, the BBC Symphony Orchestra and the New York Philharmonic.", "Andriessen was the focus of festivals in Tanglewood (1994), London (1994; 2002), Tokyo (2000), Brisbane (2001) and New York (2004).", "In 2008, he was elected an honorary member of the International Society for Contemporary Music ISCM.", "He held the Richard and Barbara Debs Composer's Chair at Carnegie Hall during the 2009–10 season.=== Ensembles ===Andriessen at the Roundhouse in Vancouver (2009)In 1969, Andriessen co-founded Studio voor Elektro-Instrumentale Muziek STEIM in Amsterdam.", "In opposition to the classical orchestra, a structure seen as \"hierarchical\", he also helped founding the instrumental groups Orkest de Volharding and Hoketus, both of which performed compositions of the same names, formed by classical, jazz and pop musicians.", "He later became closely involved with the Schonberg and Asko ensembles and inspired the formation of the British ensemble Icebreaker.=== Teaching ===Andriessen joined the faculty of the Royal Conservatory in 1974.He taught instrumentation from 1974 to 1978 and taught composition there from 1978 to 2012, where he influenced notable students including Michel van der Aa, Richard Ayres and Steve Martland.", "Yale University invited him in 1987 to lecture on theory and composition, he was also guest lecturer at New York State University, Buffalo (1989) and Princeton (1996).", "The arts faculty of the University of Leiden appointed him professor in 2004.One of his students was Raminta Šerkšnytė, a lithuanian pianist and composer.=== Personal life ===Andriessen was married to guitarist Jeanette Yanikian (1935–2008).", "They were a couple for over 40 years, and were married in 1996.", "''La Commedia'' is dedicated to Yanikian.", "He was married in 2012 a second time to violinist Monica Germino, for whom he wrote several works.", "In December 2020, she announced that the composer was suffering from dementia.", "He died on 1 July 2021 in Weesp at age 82.Louis Andriessen has one son, Lodewijk Torenbos-Andriessen, with dancer and theatre director Betsy Torenbos." ], [ "Style and notable works<!--linked from 'Cultural influence of Plato's Republic'-->", "Andriessen began in the style of an intentionally dry neoclassicism, but then turned into a strict serialist.", "His early works show experimentation with various contemporary trends: post-war serialism (''Series'', 1958), pastiche (''Anachronie I'', 1966–67), and tape (''Il Duce'', 1973).", "His reaction to what he perceived as the conservatism of much of the Dutch contemporary music scene quickly moved him to form a radically alternative musical aesthetic of his own.", "From the early 1970s on he refused to write for conventional symphony orchestras and instead opted to write for his own idiosyncratic instrumental combinations, which often retain some traditional orchestral instruments alongside electric guitars, electric basses, and congas.", "Andriessen repeatedly used his music for political confessions and messages, but he also referred to painting and philosophy.", "His range of inspiration was wide, from the music of Charles Ives in ''Anachronie I'', the art of Mondriaan in ''De Stijl'', and medieval poetic visions in ''Hadewijch'', to writings on shipbuilding and atomic theory in ''De Materie'' Part I.Andriessen's later style is a unique blend of American sounds and European forms.", "His mature music combines the influences of jazz, American minimalism, Igor Stravinsky, and Claude Vivier.", "The music consists of minimalist polyrhythms, lyrical melodic fragments, predominantly consonant harmonies disrupted by explosive blocks of concentrated dissonance.", "Andriessen's music thus departs from post-war European serialism and its offshoots.", "By the 21st century he was widely regarded as Europe's most important minimalist composer.His notable works include ''Workers Union'' (1975), a melodically indeterminate piece \"for any loud sounding group of instruments\" whose score specifies rhythm and contour but not exact pitch; ''Mausoleum'' (1979) for two baritones and large ensemble; ''De Tijd'' (''Time'', 1979–81) for female singers and ensemble; ''De Snelheid'' (''Velocity'', 1982–83), for three amplified ensembles; ''De Materie'' (''Matter'', 1984–88), a large four-part work for voices and ensemble; collaborations with filmmaker and librettist Peter Greenaway on the film ''M is for Man, Music, Mozart'' and the operas ''Rosa: A Horse Drama'' (1994) and ''Writing to Vermeer'' (1998); and ''La Passione'' (2000–02) for female voice, violin and ensemble.", "His opera ''La Commedia'', based on Dante's ''Divine Comedy'', is particularly renowned; it won the 2011 Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition and was selected in 2019 by critics at ''The Guardian'' as No 7 of the then most outstanding compositions of the 21st century." ], [ "Awards and honours", "* 1959 Gaudeamus International Composers Award* 1977 Matthijs Vermeulen Award for ''De Staat''* 1977 UNESCO International Rostrum of Composers in Paris* 1992 Matthijs Vermeulen Award for M. is for Man, Music and Mozart; Facing Death, Dances, Hout en Lacrimosa* 1993 Edison Award* 2010 Honorary doctorate from the Birmingham City University* 2011 Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition for the multimedia opera ''La Commedia'' (2004–2008).", "* 2016 Marie-Josée Kravis Prize for New Music* 2019 Honorary doctorate from the University of Amsterdam" ], [ "Works", "Andriessen's primary publishers are Boosey & Hawkes and Donemus.Complete list of works:* ''Rondo Barbaro'' (1954) for piano* ''Sonata'' (1956) for flute and piano (dedicated to Lucas van Regteren Altena)* ''Elegy'' (1957) for cello and piano* ''Elegy'' (1957) for double bass and piano (arrangement by Quirijn van Regteren Altena)* ''Nuit d'été'' (1957) for piano four hands* ''Quartet in two movements'' (1957) for string quartet* ''Séries'' (1958) for 2 pianos* ''Nocturnen'' (1959) (text by the composer) for 2 sopranos, orchestra (dedicated to Jeanette Yanikian)* ''Percosse'' (1959) for flute, trumpet, bassoon and percussion* ''Prospettive e Retrospettive'' (1959) for piano* ''Trois Pièces'' (1961) for piano left hand* ''Aanloop en sprongen'' (1961) (Rincorsa e salti) for flute, oboe and clarinet in Bb* ''Ittrospezione I'' (1961) for piano 4 hands* ''Joli commentaire'' (1961) for piano 4 hands* ''Paintings'' (1961) for one flutist (or recorder player) and one pianist* ''Étude pour les timbres'' (1962) for piano* ''Triplum'' (1962) for guitar (dedicated to Jeanette Yanikian)* ''Canzone 3 (Utinam)'' (1962) for voice and piano* ''Constructions for a Ballet'' (1962, revision 2009) for orchestra, including ''Ondine, timbres voor orkest''* ''Plein-chant'' (1963) for flute and harp (dedicated to Eugenie van des Grinten and Veronica Reyns)* ''Ittrospezione II'' (1963) for large orchestra* ''Sweet'' (1964) for alto (treble) recorder (dedicated to Frans Brüggen)* ''Registers'' (1963) for piano* ''A flower song II'' (1964) for oboe solo* ''A flower song III'' (1964) for violoncello solo* ''Ittrospezione III (Concept I)'' (1964) for 2 pianos and 3 instrumental groups* ''Double'' (1965) for clarinet and piano (dedicated to George Pieterson and Tan Crone)* ''Ittrospezione III (Concept II)'' – Fragment (1965) tenor saxophone ad libitum, 2 pianos (section of Ittrospezione III Concept II; may be performed separately)* ''Beatles Songs'' (1966) (satirical arrangements of four Beatles songs) for female voice and piano* ''Souvenirs d'enfance'' (1954–1966) for piano.", "Including amongst others: Nocturne, Ricercare, Allegro Marcato, As you like it, Blokken, Strawinsky, Rondo opus 1, Étude pour les timbres, dotted quarter note = 70* ''Rage, rage against the dying of the light'' (1966) for 4 trombones* ''Anachronie I'' (1966–67) for large orchestra* ''The Garden of Ryoan-gi'' (1967) for 3 electronic organs* ''Worum es ging und worum es geht'' (1967) (with Misha Mengelberg) for orchestra* ''Contra tempus'' (1967–1968) for large ensemble* ''Choralvorspiele'' (1969) for barrel organ* ''Anachronie II'' (1969) for oboe, small orchestra (4 horns, harp, piano, strings)* ''Hoe het is'' (1969) for 52 strings and live electronics* ''Sonate op.", "2 nr.", "1'' (1969) for piano with interruptions from string quartet (based on Piano Sonata No.", "1 by Ludwig van Beethoven)* '''' (1969) (with Reinbert de Leeuw, Misha Mengelberg, Peter Schat, Jan van Vlijmen; libretto by Hugo Claus, Harry Mulisch) Morality opera for soloists, 3 mixed choruses (4 voices each), orchestra (11 winds, 7 brass, 2 guitars, 11 keyboards, 10 strings), live electronics* ''De negen symfonieën van Beethoven'' (1970) for ice cream bell, orchestra* ''Spektakel'' (1970) for improvisational ensemble (saxophone + bass clarinet, viola, bass guitar, electronic organ + piano, percussion or other instruments), small orchestra (12 winds, 4 horns, 6 percussion)* ''Vergeet mij niet'' (1970) (Forget me not) for oboe* ''Le voile du bonheur'' (1966–1971) for violin and piano* ''een, twee'' (1971) for organ, 10 instrumentalists and piano* ''In Memoriam'' (1971) for tape* ''Volkslied'' (1971) for an unlimited number and kinds of instruments (in all octaves) (based on the Dutch national anthem ''Wilhelmus van Nassouwe'' and on The Internationale)* ''De Volharding'' (1972) (Perseverance) for piano and wind instruments (written for Orkest de Volharding)* ''Dat gebeurt in Vietnam'' (1972) (That's going on in Vietnam) for wind ensemble* ''Arrangement of Solidaritätslied by Hanns Eisler'' (1972) for wind ensemble* ''Arrangement of Streikslied by Hanns Eisler'' (1972) for wind ensemble* ''Arrangement of In C by Terry Riley'' (1972) for wind ensemble* ''Arrangement of Bereits sprach der Welt by Hanns Eisler'' (1972) for wind ensemble* ''Arrangement of Tango by Igor Stravinsky'' (1972) for wind ensemble* ''Arrangement of La création du monde by Darius Milhaud'' (1972) for wind ensemble* ''Thanh Hoa'' (1972) (text by Nguyen Thai Mao) for voice and piano* ''Canzone 3: Utinam'' (1972) (text from the Book of Job) for soprano, piano, 1962; Thanh Hoa (text by Nguyen Thay Mao), voice, piano* ''On Jimmy Yancey'' (1973) for 9 winds, piano and double bass (written for Orkest de Volharding)* ''Voor Sater'' (1973) for wind ensemble* ''Amsterdam Vrij'' (1973) for wind ensemble* ''Il Duce'' (1973) for tape* ''The family'' (1973) for ensemble (film music)* ''Melodie'' (1972–1974) for alto recorder (or other flute) and piano* ''Arrangement of Ipanema and Gavea from Saudades do Brasil by Darius Milhaud'' (1974) for wind ensemble* ''Il Principe'' (1974) (text by Niccolò Machiavelli) for 2 mixed choruses, 8 winds, 3 horns, tuba, bass guitar, piano* ''Wals'' (1974) for piano* ''Symfonieën der Nederlanden'' (1974) for 2 or more symphonic bands (minimum 32 players)* ''Nederland, let op uw schoonheyt'' (1975) for symphonic band* ''Workers Union'' (1975) for any loud-sounding group of instruments* ''De Staat'' (1972–76) (text by Plato) for 2 sopranos, 2 mezzo-sopranos, 4 oboes (3rd, 4th + English horn), 4 horns, 4 trumpets, 3 trombones, bass trombone, 2 harps, 2 electric guitars, 4 violas, bass guitar, 2 pianos (also transcribed for two pianos in 1992 by Cees van Zeeland and Gerard Bouwhuis)* ''Mattheus passie'' (1976) (text by Louis Ferron) Music theatre work for 8 mixed voices, 2 oboes (both + English horn), Hammond organ, string quartet, double bass* ''Hoketus'' (1975–76) for 2 panpipes, 2 alto saxophones ad libitum, 2 bass guitars, 2 pianos, 2 electric pianos, 2 congas* ''Orpheus'' (1977) (text by Lodewijk de Boer) Music theatre work for 8 mixed voices, lyricon, electric guitar, bass guitar, synthesizer, percussion* ''Symphonie voor losse snaren'' (1978) for 12 strings* ''Laat toch vrij die straat'' (1978) (text by Jaap van der Merwe) for voice and piano* ''Hymn to the Memory of Darius Milhaud'' (1978) (version of chamber work)* ''Felicitatie'' (1979) for 3 trumpets* ''Toespraak'' (1979) for speaker who also plays trombone* ''Mausoleum'' (1979 rev.", "1981) (texts by Mikhail Bakunin, Arthur Arnould) for 2 high baritones, orchestra (12 brass, 2 harps, cimbalom, 2 pianos, 2 percussion, minimum 10 strings, bass guitar)* ''Music for the film The Alien'' (1980) (Rudolf van den Berg)* ''George Sand'' (1980) (text by Mia Meyer) Music theatre work for 8 mixed voices, 4 pianos* ''Un beau baiser'' (1980) for mixed chorus* ''Messe des pauvres by Erik Satie'', arrangement by Louis Andriessen for choir, 15 solo strings, accordion, contrabass clarinet and harp (1980)* ''Ende'' (1981) for 2 alto recorders (1 player) (dedicated to Frans Brüggen)* ''Anfang'' (1981) for sopranino recorder and piano* ''De Tijd'' (1979–81) (text by St. Augustine of Hippo) for female chorus, percussion ensemble, orchestra (6 flutes, 2 alto flutes, 3 clarinets, contrabass clarinet, 6 trumpets, 2 harps, 2 pianos, Hammond organ, strings, 2 bass guitars)* ''Commentaar'' (1981) (text by Wilhelm Schön) for voice and piano* ''La voce'' (1981) (to a text by Cesare Pavese) for cello and voice* ''Disco'' (1982) for violin and piano* ''Overture to Orpheus'' (1982) for harpsichord* ''De Snelheid'' (1982–83 rev.", "1984) for 3 amplified ensembles* ''Y después'' (1983) (text by Federico García Lorca) for voice and piano* ''Menuet voor Marianne'' (1983) for piano* ''Trepidus'' (1983) for piano* ''Doctor Nero'' (1984) Music theatre work* ''Berceuse voor Annie van Os'' (1985) for piano* ''De Lijn'' (1986) for 3 flutes* ''Dubbelspoor'' (1986 rev.", "1994) Ballet music for piano, harpsichord, celesta, glockenspiel* ''De Materie'' (1984–88) (texts from the Plakkaat van Verlatinge, Nicolaes Witsen, David Gorlaeus, Hadewijch, M.H.J.", "Schoenmaekers, Madame van Domselaer-Middelkoop, Willem Kloos, Marie Curie, Françoise Giroud).", "Music theatre work for soprano, tenor, 2 female speakers, 8 amplified mixed voices, amplified orchestra (15 winds, 13 brass, harp, 2 electric guitars, 2 pianos one + electric piano, off-stage upright piano, celesta, 2 synthesizers, 6 percussion, minimum 9 strings, bass guitar.", "Two of its four sections may be performed separately as concert works: 2 Hadewijch, 3 De Stijl* ''De Toren'' (1988, rev.", "2000) for carillon* ''Nietzsche redet'' (1989) (text by Friedrich Nietzsche) for speaker, alto flute, English horn, clarinet, bass clarinet, bassoon, 2 violins, viola, 2 celli, double bass, 2 pianos* ''Flora Tristan'' (1990) for mixed choir a cappella (text by Fleur Bourgonje)* ''Facing Death'' (1990) for amplified string quartet* ''Facing Death'' (1990) for saxophone quartet (arrangement by Aurelia Saxophone Quartet)* ''Dances'' (1991) (text by Joan Grant, choreography by Bianca van Dillen) For soprano, small orchestra (amplified harp, amplified piano, percussion, strings).", "May be performed as a concert work.", "* ''M is for Man, Music, Mozart'' (1991) (texts by the composer, Jeroen van der Linden, Peter Greenaway) for female jazz voice, flute (+ piccolo), soprano saxophone, alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, horn, 3 trumpets, 2 trombones, bass trombone, double bass, piano (TV score; may be performed as a concert work with one additional song)* ''Lacrimosa'' (1991) for 2 bassoons* ''Lacrimosa'' (1991) for 2 flutes (arrangement by Manuel Zurria)* ''Hout'' (1991) for tenor saxophone, electric guitar, piano and marimba (+ woodblocks)* ''Romance voor Caecilia'' (1991) for piano* ''Nadir en Zenit'' (1992) improvisations on poems by Sybren Polet for voice and piano (+ synthesizer)* ''...not being sundered'' (1992) (text by Rainer Maria Rilke) for soprano, flute, cello* ''Song Lines'' (1992) for 3–6 saxophones* ''Deuxième chorale'' (1992) for music box* ''The Memory of Roses'' (1992) for piano (+ toy piano)* ''Chorale'' (1992) for piano* ''M is Muziek, Monoloog en Moord'' (1993) (text by Lodewijk de Boer) Music theatre work* ''Lied'' (1993) for piano* ''Rosa – A Horse Drama: The Death of a Composer'' (1993–94) (libretto by Peter Greenaway) Opera for 2 sopranos, tenor, 2 baritones, female speaker, 8 mixed voices, orchestra.", "* ''Een lied van de zee'' (1994) (text by Hélène Swarth) for female voice* ''Zilver'' (1994) for flute, clarinet, violin, cello, piano, vibraphone and marimba* ''Base'' (1994) for piano left hand* ''Odysseus' Women'' (1995) (text by Homer, choreography by Beppie Blankert) for 2 sopranos, 2 altos, sampler* ''De komst van Willibrord'' (1995) for carillon* ''To Pauline O'' (1995) for oboe* ''Machmes Wos'' (1996) for voice, piano* ''Trilogie van de Laatste Dag'' (1996–97) (each of its three sections may be performed separately: (i) The Last Day (texts by Lucebert, folksong A Woman and Her Lass) for boy soprano, 4 male voices, orchestra; (ii) TAO (texts by Laozi, Kotaro Takamura) for 4 female voices, piano + voice, koto, small orchestra 5 winds, 2 horns, harp, piano (+ celesta), 2 percussion, minimum 14 strings; (iii) Dancing on the Bones (text by the composer) for children's chorus, orchestra, 1997)* ''De herauten'' (1997) for 3 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani* ''Not an Anfang'' (1997) for piano* ''De eerste minnaar'' (1998) (text by Toon Tellegen) for boy soprano, organ, 1998 (section of music theatre work Oldenbarneveldt; may be performed as a concert work)* ''Tuin van Zink'' (1998) for viola and live electronics* ''Writing to Vermeer'' (1997–99) (libretto by Peter Greenaway) Opera for 2 children's voices, 2 sopranos, mezzo-soprano, female chorus, orchestra (7 winds, 2 horns, 2 trumpets 2nd + bass trumpet, 2 harps, 2 electric guitars, cimbalom, 2 pianos, on-stage harpsichord, 2 percussion, minimum 22 strings), CD (music by Michel van der Aa)* ''Woodpecker'' (1999) for percussion* ''Image de Moreau'' (1999) for piano* ''Dirck Sweelinck Missed the Prince'' (1999) for harpsichord* ''Passeggiata in tram in America e ritorno'' (1999) (text by Dino Campana) for female Italian voice, violin and piano* ''What Shall I Buy You, Son?''", "(2000) for voice, piano* ''Boodschappenlijstje van een gifmengster'' (2000) (text by the composer) for vocalist (also writes), voice (may be performed as Shopping List of a Poisoner translated by Nicoline Gatehouse* ''Inanna's Descent'' (2000) for mezzo-soprano, piccolo, oboe, violin, piano, 2 percussion ensembles (4–12 total players)* ''The New Math(s)'' (2000) (text by Hal Hartley) for soprano, transverse flute, violin, marimba, CD (music by Michel van der Aa), 2000 (film score; may be performed as a concert work)* ''Feli-citazione'' (2000) for piano* ''Passeggiata in tram in America e ritorno'' (2001) (text by Dino Campana) for female Italian voice, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, electric guitar, electric violin, double bass, piano, percussion, 1998 (also version for voice, flute, horn, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, amplified violin, double bass, piano* ''De vleugels van de herinnering'' (2001) (text by Larissa Tiginachvili Dutch translation) for voice, piano* ''Fanfare om te beginnen'' (2001) for 6 groups of horns* ''La Passione'' (2000–02) (text by Dino Campana) for female jazz voice, violin, small orchestra (7 winds, 7 brass, electric guitar, cimbalom, 2 pianos, synthesizer, 2 percussion, 3 violins, bass guitar)* ''Very Sharp Trumpet Sonata'' (2002) for trumpet* ''Tuin van Eros'' (Garden of Eros) (2002) for string quartet* ''Klokken voor Haarlem'' (Bells for Haarlem) (2002) for piano, celesta, synthesizer, vibraphone (+ glockenspiel)* ''Pupazzetti'' by Alfredo Casella, arranged by Louis Andriessen for ensemble in 2002–2003* ''Inanna'' (2003) texts by Hal Hartley, Theo J.H.", "Krispijn) for 4 voices, 3 actors, mixed chorus, contrabass clarinet, 4 saxophones, violin, film (by Hal Hartley)* ''Letter from Cathy'' (2003) (text from a letter by Cathy Berberian to the composer) for female jazz voice, harp, violin, double bass, piano, percussion* ''Tuin van Eros'' (2003) for violin and piano* ''RUTTMANN Opus II, III, IV'' (2003) for flute, 3 saxophones, horn, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, double bass, piano (film music for a film of Walter Ruttman, written for the Filmmuseum Biennale 2003)* ''Haags Hakkûh'' (The Hague Hacking) (2003) for 2 pianos.", "Renamed to Haags Hakkûh Stukje (The Hague Hacking Scrap) in 2008.", "* ''Racconto dall'inferno'' (2004) (text by Dante Alighieri) for female jazz voice, small orchestra (8 winds, 6 brass, guitar, cimbalom, 2 pianos, 2 percussion, minimum 8 strings, bass guitar).", "Part II of La Commedia (2004–08).", "* ''De Opening'' (2005) for ensemble (combined Orkest de Volharding, ASKO Ensemble, Schoenberg Ensemble)* ''Vermeer Pictures'' (2005) concert suite for orchestra from ''Writing to Vermeer'' (arrangement by Clark Rundell)* ''XENIA'' (2005) for violin* ''Hymn to the memory of Darius Milhaud'' for ensemble (1974/2006)* ''Hellende Fanfare'' (Inclined fanfare; Fanfara inclinata) (2006) for voice and ensemble (Text by Dino Campana)* ''Raadsels'' (Riddle) (2006) for solo violin* ''Johann Sebastian Bach's Prelude in b minor from the Well-Tempered Clavier BWV 866'', arranged for string quartet with the first six bars augmented with a viola part by Igor Stravinsky, completed by Louis Andriessen (2006)* ''..miserere...'' (2006–07) for string quartet* ''The City of Dis or: The Ship of Fools'' (2007) for voices and ensemble.", "Part I of La Commedia (2004–08).", "* ''La Commedia'' (2004–08).", "Film opera in five parts (texts by Dante and Vondel and from the Old Testament)* ''Haags Hakkûh'' (The Hague Hacking) (2008) for two pianos and large ensemble* ''Christiaan Andriessens uitzicht op de Amstel'' (Christiaan Andriessen's view on the river Amstel) (2009) for ensemble* ''Life'' (2009) for ensemble, with film by Marijke van Warmerdam* ''Anaïs Nin'' (2009/10) for singer, ensemble and film*''La Girò'' (2011), for violin solo and ensemble* ''Mysteriën'' (2013), for orchestra* ''Tapdance'' (2013), concerto for percussion and large ensemble* ''Two way ticket'' (2014), for piano* ''Theatre of the World'' (2013–15), a 'grotesque stagework' in nine scenes (Libretto by Helmut Krausser)* ''Mach's mit mir, Gott'' (Do unto me, God) (2016), for organ* ''Signs and Symbols'' (2016), for wind ensemble and percussion* ''Ahania Weeping'' (2016), for mixed chorus* ''De goddelijke routine'' (The divine routine) (2017), for organ* ''Rimsky or La Monte Young'' (2017), for piano* ''Agamemnon'' (2017), for speaker and large orchestra* ''Searching for unison'' (étude) (2018), for piano* ''The Only One'' (2018), song cycle for female jazz singer and large ensemble, dedicated to Nora Fischer, who premiered the work at The Proms 2019* ''May'' (2019), for choir and orchestra" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Adlington, Robert: ''De Staat''.", "Hants.", "(UK): Ashgate (2004).", "* Andriessen, Louis and Elmer Schonberger (trans.", "Jeff Hamburg): ''The Apollonian Clockwork: On Stravinsky'' Amsterdam: Amsterdam UP (reprint, 2006).", "* Everett, Yayoi Uno.", "''The Music of Louis Andriessen''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2006).", ".", "* Zegers, Mirjam (ed.", "): Trans.", "Clare Yates.", "''The Art of Stealing Time''.", "Arc Publications.", "." ], [ "External links", "* * * Louis Andriessen / 1939 – 2021 ( biography, works list, recordings and performance search) Boosey and Hawkes 2021** ''Andriessen on Andriessen'' (documentary)* Louis Andriessen Nonesuch Records* Robert Davidson: Louis Andriessen interview topologymusic.com 2001* Composer's entry on IRCAM's database" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Leonard Peltier" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leonard Peltier''' (born September 12, 1944) is a Native American activist and a member of the American Indian Movement (AIM) who, following a controversial trial, was convicted of two counts of first-degree murder in the deaths of two Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents in a June 26, 1975, shooting on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota.", "He was sentenced to two consecutive terms of life imprisonment and has been imprisoned since 1977 (currently ).", "Peltier became eligible for parole in 1993., Peltier is incarcerated at the United States Penitentiary, Coleman in Florida.In his 1999 memoir ''Prison Writings: My Life Is My Sun Dance'', Peltier admitted to participating in the shootout but said he did not kill the FBI agents.", "Human rights watchdogs, such as Amnesty International, and political figures including Nelson Mandela, Mother Teresa, and the 14th Dalai Lama, have campaigned for clemency for Peltier.", "On January 18, 2017, it was announced that President Barack Obama denied Peltier's application for clemency.At the time of the shootout, Peltier was an active member of the AIM, an Indigenous rights advocacy group that worked to combat the racism and police brutality experienced by American Indians.", "Peltier ran for president of the United States in 2004, winning the nomination of the Peace and Freedom Party, and receiving 27,607 votes, limited to the ballot in California.", "He ran for vice president of the United States in 2020 on the Party for Socialism and Liberation ticket with Gloria La Riva as the presidential candidate, as well as tickets for other left-wing parties and on the ballot of the Peace and Freedom Party.", "For health reasons, Peltier withdrew from those tickets on August 1, 2020.He is of Lakota, Dakota, and Anishinaabe descent, and was raised among the Turtle Mountain Chippewa and Fort Totten Sioux Nations of North Dakota." ], [ "Early life and education", "Peltier was born on September 12, 1944, at the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation of the Turtle Mountain Chippewa near Belcourt, North Dakota, in a family of 13 children.", "Peltier's parents divorced when he was four years old.", "Leonard and his sister Betty Ann lived with their paternal grandparents Alex and Mary Dubois-Peltier in the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation.", "In September 1953, at the age of nine, Leonard was enrolled at the Wahpeton Indian School in Wahpeton, North Dakota, an Indian boarding school run by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA).", "Leonard remained away from his home at Wahpeton Indian School through the ninth grade; the school forced assimilation to white American culture by requiring the children to use English and forbidding the inclusion of Native American culture.", "He graduated from Wahpeton in May 1957, and attended the Flandreau Indian School in Flandreau, South Dakota.", "After finishing the ninth grade, he returned to the Turtle Mountain Reservation to live with his father.", "Peltier later obtained a general equivalency degree (GED)." ], [ "Career and activism", "In 1965, Peltier relocated to Seattle, Washington.", "Peltier worked as a welder, a construction worker, and as the co-owner of an auto shop in Seattle in his twenties.", "The co-owners used the upper level of the building as a stopping place, or halfway house, for American Indians who had alcohol addiction issues or had recently finished their prison sentences and were re-entering society.", "However, the halfway house took a financial toll on the shop, so they closed it.In Seattle, Peltier became involved in a variety of causes championing Native American civil rights.", "In the early 1970s, he learned about the factional tensions at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota between supporters of Richard Wilson, elected tribal chairman in 1972, and traditionalist members of the Lakota tribe.", "It was Dennis Banks who first invited Leonard Peltier to join AIM.", "Consequently, Peltier became an official member of the American Indian Movement (AIM) in 1972, which was founded by urban Indians in Minneapolis in 1968, at a time of rising Indian activism for civil rights.Wilson had created a private militia, known as the Guardians of the Oglala Nation (GOON), whose members were reputed to have attacked political opponents.", "Protests over a failed impeachment hearing of Wilson contributed to the AIM and Lakota armed takeover of Wounded Knee at the reservation in February 1973.Federal forces reacted, conducting a 71-day siege, which became known as the Wounded Knee incident.", "They demanded the resignation of Wilson.", "Peltier, however, spent most of the occupation in a Milwaukee, Wisconsin jail charged with attempted murder related to a different protest.", "When Peltier secured bail at the end of April, he took part in an AIM protest outside the federal building in Milwaukee and was on his way to Wounded Knee with the group to deliver supplies when the incident ended.In 1975, Peltier traveled as a member of AIM to the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation to help reduce violence among political opponents.", "At the time, he was a fugitive, with an arrest warrant having been issued in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.", "It charged him with unlawful flight to avoid prosecution for the attempted murder of an off-duty Milwaukee police officer.", "(He was acquitted of the attempted murder charge in February 1978.", ")During this period, Peltier had seven children from two marriages and adopted two children." ], [ "Shootout at Pine Ridge South Dakota", "On June 26, 1975, Special Agents Ronald Arthur Williams and Jack Ross Coler of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) returned to the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation to continue searching for a young man named Jimmy Eagle, who was wanted for questioning in connection with the recent assault of two local ranch hands and theft of a pair of cowboy boots.Sometime after 11:00 a.m., Williams and Coler, driving two separate unmarked cars, spotted, reported, and followed what was variously described as a red pick-up truck or van, but was in fact a white over orange Chevy Suburban Carryall carrying Leonard Peltier, Norman Charles, and Joe Stuntz.", "Peltier had an outstanding federal warrant for attempted murder of a Milwaukee WI police officer - although Williams and Coler were not aware of this.", "Charles had met with Williams and Coler the evening before, when the agents explained to Charles they were looking for Jimmy Eagle.", "Stuntz was found wearing Coler's FBI jacket after he had been shot and killed by a BIA agent later that day.", "After turning off of US Hwy 18 into the Jumping Bull Ranch (), where the Jumping Bull family had allowed AIM to encamp, the occupants of the Suburban stopped, exited the vehicle, and began firing at Williams and Coler.Between 11:45 and 11:50 a.m.Williams radioed to a local dispatch that he and Coler had come under fire from the vehicle's occupants.", "Williams radioed that they would be killed if reinforcements did not arrive.", "He next radioed that they both had been shot.", "FBI Special Agent Gary Adams was the first to respond to Williams' call for assistance from twelve miles away.", "But he and the other responding BIA officers also came under gunfire.", "They were unable to reach Coler and Williams in time, as both agents died within the first ten minutes of gunfire.", "It wasn't until about 4:25 p.m. that authorities were able to recover the bodies of Williams and Coler from Coler's vehicle.", "Norman Charles fired at the agents with a stolen British .308 rifle.", "Peltier had an AR-15 rifle.", "The two agents had fired a total of five shots: two from Williams' handgun, one from Coler's handgun, one from Coler's rifle, and one from Coler's shotgun.", "In total, 125 bullet holes were found in the agents' vehicles, many from a .223 Remington AR-15 rifle.The FBI reported that Williams received a defensive wound to his right hand (as he attempted to shield his face) from a bullet that passed through his hand into his head.", "Williams received two gunshot injuries, to his body and foot, before the contact shot to the head that killed him.Coler, incapacitated from earlier bullet wounds, was shot twice in the head.Williams' car was driven into the AIM camp further south on the Jumping Bull property and stripped.", "The four guns belonging to the agents were stolen.", "Allegedly, Darrelle Butler took Williams' handgun, Peltier took Coler's handgun, and Robideau took Coler's .308 rifle and shotgun.=== Aftermath ===At least three men were arrested in connection with the shooting: Peltier, Robert Robideau, and Darrelle \"Dino\" Butler, all AIM members who were present at the Jumping Bull compound at the time of the shootings.Leonard Peltier provided numerous alibis to several people about his activities on the morning of the attacks.", "In an interview with the author Peter Matthiessen (''In the Spirit of Crazy Horse'', 1983), Peltier described working on a car in Oglala, claiming to have driven back to the Jumping Bull Compound about an hour before the shooting started.", "In an interview with Lee Hill, he described being awakened in the tent city at the ranch by the sound of gunshots.", "To Harvey Arden, for ''Prison Writings'', he described enjoying a beautiful morning before he heard the firing.On September 5, 1975, Butler was arrested; Agent Williams's handgun and rounds of ammunition were recovered from an automobile in the vicinity of Butler's arrest location.On September 9, 1975, Peltier purchased a station wagon.", "The following day, AIM member Robideau, Norman Charles and Michael Anderson were injured in the accidental explosion of ammunition from Peltier's station wagon on the Kansas Turnpike close to Wichita.", "Agent Coler's .308 rifle and an AR-15 rifle were found in the burned vehicle.", "The FBI forwarded a description of a recreational vehicle (RV) and the Plymouth station wagon recently purchased by Peltier to law enforcement during the hunt for the suspects.", "The RV was stopped by an Oregon State Trooper, but the driver, later discovered to be Peltier, fled on foot following a small shootout.", "Peltier's thumbprint and Agent Coler's handgun were discovered under the RV's front seat." ], [ "Trial", " FBI wanted poster for Leonard PeltierOn December 22, 1975, Peltier was named to the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list.", "On February 6, 1976, Peltier was arrested along with Frank Blackhorse, by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in Hinton, Alberta, Canada at the Smallboy's Reserve/Smallboy Camp, transported to Calgary, Alberta and taken to the Oakalla Prison Farm in Vancouver, British Columbia.In December 1976, Peltier was extradited from Canada based on documents submitted by the FBI.", "Warren Allmand, Canada's Solicitor General at the time, later stated that these documents contained false information.", "(Blackhorse was also extradited to the United States, but charges against him related to the reservation shootout were dropped.)", "One of the documents relied on in Peltier's extradition was an affidavit signed by Myrtle Poor Bear, a Native American woman local to the area near Pine Ridge Reservation.", "While Poor Bear stated that she was Peltier's girlfriend during that time and watched the killings, Peltier and others at the scene said that Poor Bear did not know Peltier and was not present during the murders.", "Poor Bear later admitted to lying to the FBI, but said that the agents interviewing her had coerced her into making the claims.", "When Poor Bear tried to testify against the FBI, the judge barred her testimony because of mental incompetence.Peltier fought extradition to the United States.", "Robideau and Butler were acquitted on grounds of self-defense by a federal jury in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.", "Peltier returned too late to be tried with Robideau and Butler, and he was subsequently tried separately.Peltier's trial was held in Fargo, North Dakota, where a jury convicted him of the murders of Coler and Williams.", "Unlike the testimony in the trial for Butler and Robideau, the jury was informed that the two FBI agents were killed by close-range shots to their heads, when they were already defenseless due to previous gunshot wounds.", "Consequently, Peltier could not submit a self-defense testimony that might have resulted in an acquittal.", "The jury was also shown autopsy and crime scene photographs of the two agents, which had not been shown to the jury at Cedar Rapids.", "In April 1977, Peltier was convicted and sentenced to two consecutive life sentences.=== Inconsistencies in the prosecution's case ===Numerous doubts have been raised over Peltier's guilt and the fairness of his trial, based on allegations and inconsistencies in the FBI and prosecution's handling of the case.", "Several key witnesses in the initial trial have recanted their statements and stated they were made under duress at the hands of the FBI.", "At least one witness was given immunity from prosecution in exchange for testimony against Peltier.==== Recanted witness statements ====Peltier was convicted in 1977 largely on the evidence presented by three witness affidavits, all signed by Myrtle Poor Bear, that placed him at the scene of the shootout and contended that Peltier planned his crimes.", "Poor Bear claimed to be Peltier's girlfriend at the time, but later admitted that she never knew him personally.", "Moreover, Poor Bear was known to be mentally unstable.", "This was confirmed when the FBI deemed her unfit to testify in court.", "But her testimony, as put forth in her previous affidavits, remained a key part of the prosecution's case against Peltier.", "Two other witnesses whose testimony was used to place Peltier at the scene of the crime also later recanted.", "They alleged that the FBI had coerced and threatened them by tying them to chairs, denying them their right to talk to their attorney, and otherwise intimidating them.==== Discrepancies in material evidence ====FBI radio intercepts indicated that the two FBI agents Williams and Coler had entered the Pine Ridge Reservation in pursuit of a suspected thief in a red pickup truck.", "The FBI confirmed this claim the day after the shootout, but red pickup trucks near the reservation had been stopped for weeks, and Leonard Peltier did not drive a red pickup truck.", "Evidence was given that Peltier was driving a Chevrolet Suburban; a large sport utility vehicle-style vehicle built on a pickup truck chassis, with an enclosed rear section.", "Peltier's vehicle was orange with a white roof—not a red, open-bed pickup truck with no white paint.At Peltier's trial, the FBI changed their previous statements that they had been in search of a red pickup truck and instead said that they were looking for an orange and white van, similar to the one Peltier drove.", "This contradictory statement by the FBI was a highly contentious matter of evidence in the trials.Though the FBI's investigation indicated that an AR-15 was used to kill the agents, several different AR-15s were in the area at the time of the shootout.", "Also, no other cartridge cases or evidence about them were offered by the prosecutor's office, although other bullets were fired at the crime scene.", "During the trial, all the bullets and bullet fragments found at the scene were provided as evidence and detailed by Cortland Cunningham, FBI firearms expert, in testimony (Ref ''US v. Leonard Peltier'', Vol 9).", "Years later, in 2004, a request under the Freedom of Information Act prompted another examination of the FBI ballistics report used to convict Peltier.", "An impartial expert evaluated the firing pin linked to the gun that shot Williams and Coler and concluded that the cartridge case from the scene of the crime did not come from the rifle tied to Peltier.", "This evidence negated a key facet of the prosecution's case against Peltier.", "The court did not allow the defense to present the Fargo jury with information about other cases in which the FBI had been rebuked for tampering with evidence and witnesses.", "In some similar prosecutions against AIM leaders at the time, defense attorneys did present such evidence to the juries.=== 1979 prison escape ===Peltier began serving his sentences in 1977.On July 20, 1979, he and two other inmates escaped from Federal Correctional Institution, Lompoc.", "One inmate was shot dead by a guard outside the prison and the other was captured 90 minutes later, approximately away.", "Peltier remained at large until he was captured by a search party three days later near Santa Maria, California, after a farmer alerted authorities that Peltier, armed with a Ruger Mini-14 rifle, had consumed some of his crops and stolen his shoes, wallet, and pickup truck key.", "Peltier attempted to drive the truck away at high speeds down the rough gravel road, resulting in a broken transmission, after which he again fled on foot.", "Peltier was later apprehended without incident.", "After a six-week trial held in Los Angeles before Judge Lawrence T. Lydick, Peltier was convicted and sentenced to serve a five-year sentence for escape and a two-year sentence for being a felon in possession of a firearm, in addition to his preexisting two life sentences." ], [ "Clemency appeals", "=== Support for clemency ===Peltier's conviction sparked great controversy and has drawn criticism from a number of prominent figures across a wide range of disciplines.", "In 1999, Peltier asserted on CNN that he did not commit the murders and that he has no knowledge who shot the FBI agents nor knowledge implicating others in the crime.", "Peltier has described himself as a political prisoner.", "Numerous public and legal appeals have been filed on his behalf; however, due to the consistent objection of the FBI, none of the resulting rulings has been made in his favor.", "His appeals for clemency received support from world famous civil rights advocates including Nelson Mandela, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, and Rev.", "Jesse Jackson, Tenzin Gyatso (the 14th Dalai Lama), Nobel Peace Prize Laureate and activist Rigoberta Menchú, and Mother Teresa.", "International government entities such as the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner on Human Rights, the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations, the European Parliament, the Belgian Parliament, and the Italian Parliament have all passed resolutions in favor of Peltier's clemency.", "Moreover, several human rights groups including The International Federation of Human Rights and Amnesty International have launched campaigns advocating for Peltier's clemency.", "In the United States, the Kennedy Memorial Center for Human Rights, the Committee of Concerned Scientists, Inc., the National Lawyers Guild, and the American Association of Jurists are all active supporters of clemency for Peltier.", "Free Leonard Peltier sign, March 2009The police officer who arrested Peltier, Bob Newbrook, is convinced that he \"was extradited illegally and that he didn't get a fair trial in the United States.", "\"On June 7, 2022, The United Nations Human Rights Council's Working Group on Arbitrary Detention released a seventeen-page analysis of Peltier's detention, rendering the opinion that it contravenes \"articles 2, 7, and 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and articles 2 (1), 9 and 26 of theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, is arbitrary and falls withincategories III and V.\" The Working Group urged a \"full and independent investigation\" surrounding his detention and requested that the US government remedy his situation \"without delay and bring it into conformity with the relevant international norms.", "\"=== Denial of clemency ===In 1999, Peltier filed a ''habeas corpus'' petition, but it was rejected by the 10th Circuit Court on November 4, 2003.Near the end of the Clinton administration in 2001, rumors began circulating that Bill Clinton was considering granting Peltier clemency.", "Opponents of Peltier campaigned against his possible clemency; about 500 FBI agents and families protested outside the White House, and FBI director Louis Freeh sent a letter opposing Peltier's clemency to the White House.", "Clinton did not grant Peltier clemency.", "In 2002, Peltier filed a civil rights lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia against the FBI, Louis Freeh and FBI agents who had participated in the campaign against his clemency petition, alleging that they \"engaged in a systematic and officially sanctioned campaign of misinformation and disinformation.\"", "On March 22, 2004, the suit was dismissed.", "In January 2009, President George W. Bush denied Peltier's clemency petition before leaving office.In 2016, Peltier's attorney's filed a clemency application with the White House's Office of the Pardon Attorney, and his supporters organized a campaign to convince President Barack Obama to commute Peltier's sentence, a campaign which included an appeal by Pope Francis, as well as James Reynolds, a senior attorney and former US Attorney who supervised the prosecution against Peltier in the appeal period following his initial trial.", "In a letter to the United States Department of Justice, Reynolds wrote that clemency was \"in the best interest of justice in considering the totality of all matters involved\".", "In a subsequent letter to the ''Chicago Tribune'', Reynolds added that the case against Peltier \"was a very thin case that likely would not be upheld by courts today.", "It is a gross overstatement to label Peltier a 'cold-blooded murderer' on the basis of the minimal proof that survived the appeals in his case.\"", "On January 18, 2017, two days before President Obama left office, the Office of the Pardon Attorney announced that Obama had denied Peltier's application for clemency.", "On June 8, 2018, KFGO Radio in Fargo, N.D., reported that Peltier filed a formal clemency request with President Trump.", "KFGO obtained and published a letter that was sent by Peltier's attorney to the White House.=== Current plea for clemency ===On 6 February 2023, Leonard Peltier again made a plea for clemency.=== Remaining questions ===In the documentary film ''Incident at Oglala'' (1992), AIM activist Robert Robideau said that the FBI agents had been shot by a 'Mr X'.", "When Peltier was interviewed about 'Mr X', he said he knew who the man was.", "Dino Butler, in a 1995 interview with E.K.", "Caldwell of ''News From Indian Country'', said that 'Mr X' was a creation of Peltier's supporters and had been named as the murderer in an attempt to gain Peltier's release from prison.", "In a 2001 interview with ''News From Indian Country'', Bernie Lafferty said that she had witnessed Peltier's referring to his murder of one of the agents." ], [ "Later developments", "=== 2002 editorial about deaths of agents and Aquash ===In January 2002 in the ''News from Indian Country'', publisher Paul DeMain wrote an editorial that an \"unnamed delegation\" told him that Peltier had murdered the FBI agents.", "DeMain described the delegation as \"grandfathers and grandmothers, AIM activists, pipe carriers and others who have carried a heavy unhealthy burden within them that has taken its toll.\"", "DeMain said he was also told that the motive for the execution-style murder of high-ranking AIM activist Anna Mae Aquash in December 1975 at Pine Ridge \"allegedly was her knowledge that Leonard Peltier had shot the two agents, as he was convicted.", "\"DeMain did not accuse Peltier of participation in the Aquash murder.", "In 2003 two Native American men were indicted and later convicted of the murder.On May 1, 2003, Peltier sued DeMain for libel for similar statements about the case published on March 10, 2003, in ''News from Indian Country''.", "On May 25, 2004, Peltier withdrew the suit after he and DeMain settled the case.", "DeMain issued a statement saying he did not think Peltier was given a fair trial for the two murder convictions, nor did he think Peltier was connected to Aquash's death.", "DeMain stated he did not retract his allegations that Peltier was guilty of the murders of the FBI agents and that the motive for Aquash's murder was the fear that she might inform on the activist.===Indictments and trials for the murder of Aquash===In 2003, there were federal grand jury hearings on charges against Arlo Looking Cloud and John Graham for the murder of Anna Mae Aquash.", "Bruce Ellison, Leonard Peltier's lawyer since the 1970s, was subpoenaed and invoked his Fifth Amendment rights against self-incrimination, refusing to testify.", "He also refused to testify, on the same grounds, at Looking Cloud's trial in 2004.During the trial, the federal prosecutor named Ellison as a co-conspirator in the Aquash case.", "Witnesses said that Ellison participated in interrogating Aquash about being an FBI informant on December 11, 1975, shortly before her murder.In February 2004, Fritz Arlo Looking Cloud, an Oglala Sioux, was tried and convicted of the murder of Aquash.", "In Looking Cloud's trial, the prosecution argued that AIM's suspicion of Aquash stemmed from her having heard Peltier admit to the murders of the FBI agents.", "Darlene \"Kamook\" Nichols, former wife of the AIM leader Dennis Banks, testified that in late 1975, Peltier told of shooting the FBI agents.", "He was talking to a small group of AIM activists who were fugitives from law enforcement.", "They included Nichols, her sister Bernie Nichols (later Lafferty), Nichols' husband Dennis Banks, and Aquash, among several others.", "Nichols testified that Peltier said, \"The motherfucker was begging for his life, but I shot him anyway.\"", "Bernie Nichols-Lafferty gave the same account of Peltier's statement.", "At the time, all were fleeing law enforcement after the Pine Ridge shootout.Earlier in 1975, AIM member Douglass Durham had been revealed to be an undercover FBI agent and dismissed from the organization.", "AIM leaders were fearful of infiltration.", "Other witnesses have testified that, when Aquash was suspected of being an informant, Peltier interrogated her while holding a gun to her head.", "Peltier and David Hill were said to have Aquash participate in bomb-making so that her fingerprints would be on the bombs.", "Prosecutors alleged in court documents that the trio planted these bombs at two power plants on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation on Columbus Day 1975.During the trial, Nichols acknowledged receiving $42,000 from the FBI in connection with her cooperation on the case.", "She said it was compensation for travel expenses to collect evidence and moving expenses to be farther from her ex-husband Dennis Banks, whom she feared because she had implicated him as a witness.", "Peltier has claimed that Kamook Nichols committed perjury with her testimony.No investigation has been opened into the allegedly perjured testimony of Kamook Nichols, now married to a former FBI Chief Agent and living under the name Darlene Ecoffey.", "During the Looking Cloud trial, the Honorable Lawrence L. Piersol admitted the testimony with the following statement: \"The requested testimony is hearsay, but I am going to admit it for a limited purpose only.", "This is a limiting instruction.", "It isn't admitted nor received for the truth of the matter stated.", "In other words, whether the rumor is true or not.", "It is simply received as to what the rumor was.", "So it is limited to what the rumor was, it is not admitted for the truth of the statement as to whether the rumor was true or not.", "\"On June 26, 2007, the Supreme Court of British Columbia ordered the extradition of John Graham to the United States to stand trial for his alleged role in the murder of Aquash.", "He was eventually tried by the state of South Dakota in 2010.During Graham's trial, Darlene \"Kamook\" Ecoffey said Peltier told both her and Aquash that he had killed the FBI agents in 1975.Ecoffey testified under oath, \"He (Peltier) held his hand like this\", she said, pointing her index finger like a gun, \"and he said 'that (expletive) was begging for his life but I shot him anyway.'\"", "Graham was convicted of murdering Aquash and sentenced to life in prison.===Presidential politics===Peltier was the candidate for the Peace and Freedom Party in the 2004 election for President of the United States.", "While numerous states have laws that prohibit prison inmates convicted of felonies from voting (Maine and Vermont are exceptions), the United States Constitution has no prohibition against felons being elected to federal offices, including President.", "The Peace and Freedom Party secured ballot status for Peltier only in California.", "His presidential candidacy received 27,607 votes, approximately 0.2% of the vote in that state.In 2020 he ran as the vice-presidential running mate of Gloria La Riva, on the ticket of the Party for Socialism and Liberation in the presidential campaign.", "He was forced to resign from the ticket for health reasons in early August 2020, and was replaced with Sunil Freeman.===Ruling on FBI documents===In a February 27, 2006, decision, U.S. District Judge William Skretny ruled that the FBI did not have to release five of 812 documents relating to Peltier and held at their Buffalo field office.", "He ruled that the particular documents were exempted on the grounds of \"national security and FBI agent/informant protection\".", "In his opinion, Judge Skretny wrote, \"Plaintiff has not established the existence of bad faith or provided any evidence contradicting (the FBI's) claim that the release of these documents would endanger national security or would impair this country's relationship with a foreign government.\"", "In response, Michael Kuzma, a member of Peltier's defense team, said, \"We're appealing.", "It's incredible that it took him 254 days to render a decision.\"", "Kuzma further said, \"The pages we were most intrigued about revolved around a teletype from Buffalo ... a three-page document that seems to indicate that a confidential source was being advised by the FBI not to engage in conduct that would compromise attorney-client privilege.\"", "Peltier's supporters have tried to obtain more than 100,000 pages of documents from FBI field offices, claiming that the files should have been turned over at the time of his trial or following a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request filed soon after.===Victim of prison violence===On January 13, 2009, Peltier was beaten by inmates at the United States Penitentiary, Canaan, where he had been transferred from USP Lewisburg.", "He was sent back to Lewisburg, where he remained until the fall of 2011, when he was transferred to a federal penitentiary in Florida.", "As of 2016, Leonard Peltier is housed at Coleman Federal Correctional Complex in Coleman, Florida." ], [ "In popular culture", "===Books===* ===Sculpture===In 2016, a statue of Peltier, based on a self portrait he made in prison, was created by artist Rigo 23 and installed on the grounds of American University in Washington, D.C.. After the university received complaints from the FBI Agents Association, the statue was removed and relocated to the Main Museum in Los Angeles.===Films===* ''Incident at Oglala: The Leonard Peltier Story'' (1992) is a documentary by Michael Apted about Peltier and narrated by Robert Redford.", "The film argues in favour of the assertion that the government's prosecution of Peltier was unjust and politically motivated.", "* ''Thunderheart'' (1992) is a fictional movie by Michael Apted, partly based on Peltier's case but with no pretense to accuracy.", "* ''Warrior, The Life of Leonard Peltier'' (1992) is a feature documentary film about Peltier's life, the American Indian Movement, and his trial directed by Suzie Baer.", "The film argues that the government's prosecution of Peltier was unjust and motivated by the hugely profitable energy interests in the area.===Music===* Free Salamander Exhibit released the song \"Undestroyed\" on December 13, 2016.The lyrics are drawn nearly verbatim from Peltier's book, ''Prison Writings: My Life Is My Sun Dance''.", "* Little Steven released the song \"Leonard Peltier\" on his 1989 album ''Revolution''.", "The song discusses Peltier's case and the struggle of the Native Americans.", "* The Indigo Girls popularized Buffy St. Marie's song, \"Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee\", with a cover on their 1995 live album ''1200 Curfews''.", "The song mentions Peltier, saying, \"the bullets don't match the gun.", "\"* Sixteen Canadian artists contributed to ''Pine Ridge: An Open Letter to Allan Rock – Songs for Leonard Peltier'', a benefit CD released in 1996 by ''What Magazine''.", "* Toad the Wet Sprocket reference Peltier, as well as the conflict at Pine Ridge and the Wounded Knee massacre, in their song \"Crazy Life\" on their album ''Coil'' (1997)* Anal Cunt released the song \"Laughing While Lennard Peltier Gets Raped In Prison\" as a part of their album ''It Just Gets Worse''.", "* U2 recorded the song \"Native Son\" about Peltier.", "It was later reworked into their hit song \"Vertigo\" on their album, ''How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb'' (2004).", "Five years later, \"Native Son\" was released on their digital album ''Unreleased and Rare'' (2009).", "* ''Bring Leonard Peltier Home in 2012'' was a concert that took place at the Beacon Theatre in New York City.", "The concert featured Pete Seeger, Harry Belafonte, Jackson Browne, Common, Mos Def, Michael Moore, Danny Glover, Rubin \"Hurricane\" Carter, Bruce Cockburn, Margo Thunderbird, Silent Bear, Bill Miller, etc.", "all standing up for the immediate release of Leonard Peltier.", "* Rage Against The Machine's 1994 \"Freedom\" video clip shows footage of the case and ends with a picture of Peltier in prison and the phrase \"justice has not been done\".", "* \"Sacrifice\" from ''Contact from the Underworld of Redboy'', the 1998 music recording by Robbie Robertson (formerly of The Band), features voice recordings of Peltier throughout the song, and surrounded with melody and vocals.", "The song ends with Peltier alone sayin, \"I've gone too far now to start backing down.", "I don't give up.", "Not 'til my people are free will I give up and if I have to sacrifice some more, then I sacrifice some more.", "\"* French singer Renaud released a song called \"Leonard's Song\" in his 2006 album ''Rouge Sang''.", "It supports Peltier and Native American rights, comparing in its lyrics the foundation of America to conducting an equivalent of The Holocaust against the Native American people.", "* Alternative hip-hop trio The Goats mention Peltier several times on their 1992 debut album ''Tricks of the Shade'': in a track entitled \"Leonard Peltier in a Cage\", and in the song \"Do the Digs Dug\" (which also mentions activist Annie Mae Aquash – lyrics referencing them are \"Leonard Peltier Leonard Peltier Who da hell is that, why the f*** should ya care?", "In jail, in jail, in jail like a dealer F*** George Bush says my T-Shirt squeeler Please oh please set Leonard P. free Cause ya wiped out his race like an ant colony Whatcha afraid of, Annie Mae Aquash?", "Found her lying in the ditch with no place for a watch\")*Political hip-hop duo Dead Prez reference Peltier in their song \"I Have A Dream, Too\" from their 2004 album ''RBG: Revolutionary but Gangsta''.", "*In 2010 a hip-hop artists compilation was released Free Leonard Peltier: Hip Hop's Contribution To The Freedom Campaign including music from Mama Wisdom, Immortal Technique, Rakaa of Dilated Peoples, 2Mex, Dee Skee, T-Kash, Buggin Malone, The Dime, Eseibio, Bicasso & DJ Fresh.", "*Alternative hip-hop band Flobots known for criticizing US politics and calls for action referenced Peltier in their song \"Same Thing\" from their 2007 debut album Fight With Tools.", "The song mentions many people and topics but the line that references Peltier also references Mumia Abu-Jamal it reads \"Free Mumia and Leonard Peltier\")Ryan Bingham's song “Sunshine,” is about Leonard Peltier.===Other===* It was reported by Joseph Corré that the last words of his father, Malcolm McLaren (1946–2010), were \"Free Leonard Peltier\"." ], [ "Publications", "* Arden, Harvey (& Leonard Peltier).", "\"Have You Thought of Leonard Peltier Lately?\"", "HYT Publishing, 2004..* Peltier, Leonard.", "''Prison Writings: My Life Is My Sun Dance''.", "New York, 1999.." ], [ "See also", "* List of memoirs of political prisoners* List of longest prison sentences served* Category:Native American activists* Lapu Lapu* Omar Mukhtar* Chino Roces" ], [ "Endnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Churchill, Ward and Jim Vander Wall: ''Agents of Repression: The FBI's Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement''.", "South End Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1988, 2002..* Anderson, Scott.", "\"The Martyrdom of Leonard Peltier\", ''Outside Magazine'', July 1995.", "* \"Writer Sues Peltier\", ''Kansas City Star'', July 3, 1992.", "* Churchill, Ward and Jim Vander Wall: ''The COINTELPRO Papers: Documents from the FBI's Secret Wars Against Dissent in the United States''.", "South End Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1990, 2002..* Matthiessen, Peter (1983).", "''In the Spirit of Crazy Horse''.", "Penguin.", ".", "* Messerschmidt, Jim or also known as James W. Messerschmidt.", "''The Trial of Leonard Peltier''.", "South End Press, Boston, Massachusetts, 1983.." ], [ "External links", "* Leonard Peltier's official committee* Native American Activist Leonard Peltier's Jailhouse Plea for Long-Denied Clemency, an interview with Peter Coyote on ''Democracy Now!", "'', December 13, 2012* The Leonard Peltier Trial (Documents)* Interview with Leonard Peltier from jail in 2000 by ''Democracy Now!", "''* Federal Bureau of Investigation, Minneapolis Division: Leonard Peltier Case* Leonard Peltier Memorial Bridge* Leonard Peltier on Earth Liberation Prisoners Support Network* No Parole Peltier Association* International Leonard Peltier Defense Committee (archived)* Leonard Peltier at the American Indian Movement (A.I.M.", ")* Parole Hearing to Be Held Tuesday for Imprisoned Native American Activist Leonard Peltier – video report by ''Democracy Now!", "'', July 27, 2009* Official International Leonard Peltier Defense Committee – LP-DOC (since May 2008)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "LambdaMOO" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''LambdaMOO''''' is an online community of the variety called a MOO.", "It is the oldest MOO today.", "''LambdaMOO'' was founded in 1990 by Pavel Curtis at Xerox PARC.", "Now hosted in the state of Washington, it is operated and administered entirely on a volunteer basis.", "Guests are allowed, and membership is free to anyone with an e-mail address.", "''LambdaMOO'' gained some notoriety when Julian Dibbell wrote a book called ''My Tiny Life'' describing his experiences there.", "Over its history, ''LambdaMOO'' has been highly influential in the examination of virtual-world social issues." ], [ "History", "LambdaMOO has its roots in the 1978–1980 work by Roy Trubshaw and Richard Bartle to create and expand the concept of Multi-User Dungeon (MUD) – virtual communities.", "Around 1987–1988, the expansion of the global internet allowed more users to experience the MUD.", "Pavel Curtis at Xerox Parc noted that they were \"almost exclusively for recreational purposes.\"", "Curtis determined to explore whether the MUD could be non-recreational.", "He developed ''LambdaMOO'' software to run on the LambdaMOO server, which implements the MOO programming language.", "This software was subsequently made available to the public.", "Several starter databases, known as cores, are available for MOOs; ''LambdaMOO'' itself uses the LambdaCore database.", "The \"Lambda\" name is from Curtis's own username on earlier MUD systems.LambdaMOO can refer to the software, the server, or the community of users." ], [ "Geography", "''LambdaMOO'' central geography was based on Pavel Curtis's California home.", "New players and guests traditionally connected in \"The Coat Closet\", but a second area, \"The Linen Closet\" (specially programmed as a silent area) was later added as an alternative connection point.", "The coat closet opens onto the center of the house in The Living Room, a common hangout and place for conversation; its fixtures include a fireplace (where things can be roasted), The Living Room Couch (which periodically causes players' objects to 'fall through' to underneath the couch), and a pet Cockatoo who repeats overheard phrases (which is sometimes found with its beak gagged).", "Occasionally, the Cockatoo is replaced with a more seasonal creature: a Turkey near Thanksgiving, a Raven near Halloween, et cetera.To the north of the Living Room is the Entrance Hall, the Front Yard, and a limited residential area along LambdaStreet.", "There is an extensive subterranean complex located down the manhole, including a sewage system.", "Players walking to the far west along LambdaStreet may be given the option to 'jump off the edge of the world', which disables access to their account for three months.To the south of the Living Room is a pool deck, a hot tub, and some of the extensive grounds of the mansion, featuring gardens, hot air balloon landing pads, open fields, fishing holes, and the like.To the northwest of the living room are the laundry room, garage, dining room, smoking room, drawing room, housekeeper's quarters, and kitchen.To the east of the entry hall, hallways provide access to some individual rooms, the Linen Closet, and to the eastern wing of the house.", "In the eastern wing can be found the Library of online books, the Museum of generic objects (which account-holders may create instances of), and an extensive area for the ''LambdaMOO'' RPG.Since the creation of the original LambdaMOO map, many users have expanded the MOO by making additional rooms with the command \"@dig.\"" ], [ "Politics", "While most MOOs are run by administrative fiat, in summer of 1993 ''LambdaMOO'' implemented a petition/ballot mechanism, allowing the community to propose and vote on new policies and other administrative actions.", "A petition may be created by anyone eligible to participate in politics (those who have maintained accounts at the MOO for at least 30 days), can be signed by other players, and may then be submitted for administrative 'vetting'.", "Once vetted, the petition has a limited time to collect enough signatures to become valid and be made into a ballot.", "Ballots are subsequently voted on; those with a 66% approval rating are passed and will be implemented.", "This system suffered quite a lot of evolution and eventually passed into a state where wizards took back the power they'd passed into the hands of the people, but still maintain the ballot system as a way for the community to express its opinions." ], [ "Demographics", "The population of ''LambdaMOO'' numbered close to 10,000 around 1994, with over 300 actively connected at any time." ], [ "See also", "*\"A Rape in Cyberspace\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Home page* Status blog* LiveJournal community" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lorica segmentata" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''lorica segmentata''''' (), also called '''''lorica lamminata''''', or '''''banded armour''''' is a type of personal armour that was used by soldiers of the Roman army, consisting of metal strips fashioned into circular bands, fastened to internal leather straps.The ''lorica segmentata'' has come to be viewed as symbolic of the Roman legions in popular culture.Remains and recreation of ''lorica segmentata'', from the Corbridge Hoard." ], [ "Name", "Roman legionaries marching across a pontoon bridge, a relief scene from the column of Emperor Trajan (r. 98-117 AD) in Rome, Italy (monochrome photographs by Conrad Cichorius)In Latin, the name ''lorica segmentata'' translates to \"segmented cuirass.\"", "However, this name was not given to the armor by the Romans.", "Instead, it was given by scholars in the 16th century.", "Despite the lack of knowledge on the Roman name for the armor, scholars can make educated guesses on the Roman name.", "It is obvious the name had the word ''lorica'' in its name.", "However, the following part of the name is unknown.", "Some scholars believe that the name was ''lorica lamminata''.", "This theory is based on the Romans referring to sheets of metal as lamina, although no firm evidence for any theory regarding the name of the armor currently exists." ], [ "History", "Roman legionaries as depicted in relief on the column of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 AD) in Rome, ItalyDespite the armor being commonly associated with the Romans, it was used by other civilizations before the Romans.", "The armor was originally used by the Parthians and possibly the Dacians, Scythians, or Sarmatians before the Romans used it.", "Some sets of armor similar to the ''lorica segmentata'' dating back to the 4th century BC have been found in archaeological sites located in the steppe.", "Although the exact time at which the Romans adopted the armor remains unknown, it is possible that the ''lorica segmentata'' was introduced after Crassus' defeat at Carrhae in 53 BC.", "Another possibility is that the armor was adopted in 21 AD after the Revolt of Julius Sacrovir and Julius Florus.", "One form of the armor was used as early as 9 AD.", "Because the soldiers at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest wore the ''lorica segmentata'', it must have been in use before 9 AD.", "Around the middle of the third century the ''lorica segmentata'' fell out of favor with the Roman army, although it did remain in use during the Late Roman Empire.", "Soldiers wearing the ''lorica segmentata'' were depicted on the Arch of Constantine, a monument erected in 315.However, it has been argued that these depictions are from an earlier monument by Marcus Aurelius, from which Constantine incorporated portions into his Arch.", "The latest known use of the armor was in the 4th century.Over time the type of ''lorica segmentata'' would change.", "From 9 BC to 43 AD the Roman soldier wore the Dangstetten-Kalkriese-Vindonissa types, from 69 to 100 the Corbridge-Carnuntum type was used.", "From 164 to 180, the Newstead type was used.", "The time the armors were used overlapped.", "It is possible that there was a fourth type, covering the body with segmented armor joined to scale shoulder defenses.", "However, this is only known from one badly damaged statue originating at Alba Iulia in Romania.", "This armor was used from about 14 BC to the late 3rd century AD.", "The ''lorica segmentata's'' use in the Roman army was geographically widespread, but the mail armor ''lorica hamata'' may have been more common at all times." ], [ "Construction", "The plates in the ''lorica segmentata'' armor were made by overlapping ferrous plates that were then riveted to straps made from leather.", "It is unknown what animal was used to make the leather and if it was tanned or tawed.", "The plates were made of soft iron on the inside and rolled mild steel on the outside.", "This made the plates hardened against damage without making them brittle.", "This case hardening was done by packing organic matter tightly around them and heating them in a forge, transferring carbon from the burnt materials into the surface of the metal.", "The plates were made from beating out ingots.", "The strips were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping downwards, and they surrounded the torso in two halves, being fastened at the front and back.", "Additional strips, shoulder guards, breastplates, and backplates were used to protect the upper body and the shoulders.", "The form of the armor allowed it to be stored very compactly, since it was possible to separate it into four sections, each of which would collapse on itself into a compact mass.", "The fitments that closed the various plate sections together (buckles, lobate hinges, hinged straps, tie-hooks, tie-rings, etc.)", "were made of brass.", "In later variants dating from around 75–80 C.E., the fastenings of the armor were simplified.", "Bronze hinges were removed in favor of simple rivets, belt fastenings used small hooks, and the lowest two girdle plates were replaced by one broad plate.", "The component parts of the ''lorica segmentata'' moved in synchronization with the other parts.", "This made the armor more flexible.", "The armor was very long lasting.", "The Kalkriese type of armor lasted 55 years, the Corbridge armor lasted 70 years, and the Newsteadtype lasted 90 years." ], [ "Usage", "It is unclear who used this armor.", "On monuments, ''Auxilia'' are generally shown wearing mail, not cuirasses, and carrying oval shields.", "Roman depictions of legionaries, such as those found on Trajan's column often depict them wearing the ''lorica segmentata''.", "On this basis, it has been supposed that ''lorica segmentata'' was exclusively used by legionaries and praetorians.", "However, some historians consider Trajan's Column to be inaccurate as a historical source due to its inaccurate and stylized portrayal of Roman armor.", "These historians also say that \"it is probably safest to interpret the Column reliefs as 'impressions', rather than accurate representations.\"", "The discovery of parts of the ''lorica segmentata'' at areas where auxiliary soldiers would have been stationed implies that auxiliary troops used the ''lorica segmentata''.", "However, it is entirely possible that the reason behind the presence of the ''lorica segmentata'' in these areas could be that these areas had a small number of legionaries stationed there.", "On the Adamclisi ''Tropaeum'', the ''lorica segmentata'' does not appear at all, and legionaries and ''auxilia'' alike are depicted wearing the ''lorica squamata''.", "Some experts are of the opinion that the Adamclisi monument is a more accurate portrayal of the situation.It may have been used rarely, maybe only for set-piece battles and parades.", "This viewpoint considers the figures in Trajan's Column to be highly stereotyped, in order to distinguish clearly between different types of troops.", "It's also debated if the lorica segmentata was only used in the west.", "Every archaeological find of such armor has been made in the western part of the Roman Empire but never in the east." ], [ "Cultural impact", "The tendency to portray Roman legionaries clad in this type of armour often extends to periods of time that are too early or too late in history." ], [ "Gallery", "File:046 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel XLVI (Ausschnitt 01).jpg|Relief from Trajan's Column showing a legionary with ''lorica segmentata'', manning a ''carroballista''File:047 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel XLVII (Ausschnitt 01).jpg|Detail of Trajan's ColumnFile:Roman Pontoon Bridge, Column of Marcus Aurelius, Rome, Italy.jpg|Roman legionaries crossing the Danube River by pontoon bridge, as depicted in relief on the column of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180 AD) in Rome, ItalyFile:Column of Marcus Aurelius - detail1.jpg|Column of Marcus Aurelius, Rome, ItalyFile:Roman soldier in lorica segmentata 1-cropped.jpg|A reenactor dressed as a Roman soldier in ''lorica segmentata''File:Lorica segmentata from back.jpgFile:Lorica segmentata detail front.jpgFile:Lorica segmentata from inside.jpg" ], [ "See also", "* * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* ''Lorica Segmentata Volume I: A Handbook of Articulated Roman Plate Armour'', M.C.", "Bishop, Armatura Press (November 1, 2002) (online version)* Roman Army website, showing the third century finds of segmentata in spain (downloadable PDF)* Ancient originals on the pages of the Roman Military Equipment Web Museum" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Known Space" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Known Space''' is the fictional setting of about a dozen science fiction novels and several collections of short stories by American writer Larry Niven.", "It has also become a shared universe in the spin-off ''Man-Kzin Wars'' anthologies.", "The Internet Speculative Fiction Database (ISFDB) catalogs all works set in the fictional universe that includes Known Space under the series name '''Tales of Known Space''', which was the title of a 1975 collection of Niven's short stories.", "The first-published work in the series, which was Niven's first published piece, was \"The Coldest Place\", in the December 1964 issue of ''If'' magazine, edited by Frederik Pohl.", "This was the first-published work in the 1975 collection.The stories span approximately one thousand years of future history, from the first human explorations of the Solar System to the colonization of dozens of nearby systems.", "Late in the series, Known Space is an irregularly shaped \"bubble\" about 60 light-years across.The epithet \"Known Space\" refers to a small region in the Milky Way galaxy, one centered on Earth.", "In the future that the series depicts, spanning roughly the third millennium, humans have explored this region and colonized many of its worlds.", "Contact has been made with other species, such as the two-headed Pierson's Puppeteers and the aggressive felinoid Kzinti.", "Stories in the Known Space series include events and places outside of the region called \"Known Space\" such as the Ringworld, the Pierson's Puppeteers' Fleet of Worlds and the Pak homeworld.The Tales were originally conceived as two separate series, the ''Belter'' stories set roughly from 2000 to 2350 CE and the ''Neutron Star'' / ''Ringworld'' stories set in 2651 CE and later.", "The earlier, ''Belter'' period features solar-system colonization and slower-than-light travel with fusion-powered and Bussard ramjet ships.", "The later, ''Neutron Star'', period features faster-than-light ships using \"hyperdrive\".", "Niven implicitly joined the two settings as a single fictional universe in the short story \"A Relic of the Empire\" (''If'', December 1966), by using background elements of the Slaver civilization from the ''Belter'' series as a plot element in the faster-than-light setting.", "In the late 1980s—having written almost no Tales of Known Space in more than a decade—Niven opened the 300-year gap in the Known Space timeline as a shared universe, and the stories of the ''Man-Kzin Wars'' volumes fill in that history, bridging the two settings.==Locations==One aspect of the ''Known Space'' universe is that most of the early human colonies are on planets suboptimal for ''Homo sapiens''.", "During the first phase of human interstellar colonization (i.e.", "before humanity acquired FTL), simple robotic probes were sent to nearby stars to assess their planets for habitation.", "The programming of these probes was flawed: they sent back a \"good for colonization\" message if they found a habitable ''point'', rather than a habitable ''planet''.", "Sleeper ships containing human colonists were sent to the indicated star systems.", "Too often, those colonists had to make the best of a bad situation.=== Solar System ===* Earth, the human homeworld, is ruled by the United Nations, a direct democracy, but not a utopia.", "An important organization is the ARM, a global police force tasked to deal with organlegging and crimes committed by cutting-edge technologies.", "For centuries, due to the perfection of organ transplant technology, all state executions were done in hospitals to provide organ transplants, and to maximize their availability nearly ''all'' crimes carried the death penalty, including such offenses as multiple traffic tickets or tax evasion.", "This period ended when Jack Brennan, who had consumed the Tree-of-Life root and become a human version of the Pak Protector, used his superior intelligence to engineer social change in medical technology and social attitudes that eventually reduced the use of organ banks to reasonable levels.", "Part of Brennan's manipulation was the development of a science known as \"psychistry\".", "Psychistry was used to \"correct\" all forms of \"mental aberration\" – the populace is extremely docile.", "To combat overpopulation (one estimate is 18 billion people), a license is required to procreate, only available after exhaustive testing has determined that a prospect is free of \"abnormalities\"; unlicensed procreation is a capital crime.", "This policy, in addition to the existence of the transfer booth and a one-world language and economy, has led to the populace eventually becoming fairly genetically homogeneous.", "To prevent the development of new WMDs, all scientific research is regulated by the government and potentially dangerous technology is suppressed.", "Due to such suppression, Earth has had fewer real breakthroughs in science than would be expected.", "A common title for people born on Earth is \"Flatlander\"; having been born and raised in the only environment in Known Space to which humans are well-adapted, they are considered naïve and a bit helpless by humans from colony worlds.", "* The Moon is a separate entity, with its own distinct culture but is under the control of the same government as Earth.", "Humans native to the Moon are called \"Lunies\", and tend toward tall, lean body types regularly reaching eight feet in height.", "They are frequently referred to as looking much like Tolkien's Elves due to their physiques and alien allure.", "* Mars, fourth planet in the Solar System and the first planetary colony in Known Space.", "Native \"Martians\" were exterminated by the Brennan genocide.", "No one goes there, as resources are easier to mine in the Belt and Jovian moons.", "Earth ultimately colonized Mars specifically to study the descent landing pod used by Phssthpok the Pak in 2124 AD and the research colony was still in existence in 2183 when the Martians were exterminated by Brennan.", "The colony expanded greatly during the first Man–Kzin war 2367–2433.", "* The Sol Belt possesses an abundance of valuable ores, which are easily accessible due to the low to negligible gravity of the rocks containing them.", "Originally a harsh frontier under U.N. control, the Belt declared independence after creating Confinement Asteroid, a habitat with spin gravity that permitted safe gestation of children, and Farmer's Asteroid, the Belt's primary food source.", "Almost immediately a lively competition began between the fiercely independent \"Belters\" and the technology police of the U.N. Several years of tension and economic conflicts followed, but soon settled into a relatively peaceful trade relationship as the Belt has so many resources that the UN and the Earth need.", "* Mercury is also a colony world with a small number of inhabitants, used mainly for mining and as a gravitational anchor for orbiting solar power stations which beam power to the more remote colonies using gigantic lasers.", "At the time of the First Man–Kzin War, human society is so pacifistic that no weapons exist; those who are able to even contemplate killing another sentient being or constructing a weapon for that purpose are regarded as mental aberrations and must take drugs to control their thoughts.", "However, an enormous laser, whether constructed as a weapon or not, makes a highly effective one, and it is strongly implied that the existence of the Mercury power satellites is a large part of what enabled Sol System to hold off the Kzinti in the early part of the war.=== Other planets ===* Down is the home world of the Grogs and a former Kzinti colony.", "It orbits \"L5-1668\", a faint, cool M-type star, significantly redder and cooler than Sol and 12.3 light-years from it.", "Down is made habitable in part because of its large moon, Sheila.", "Grogs, though friendly, are feared by humanity, due to their telepathic ability to control the minds of animals (and possibly sentient species as well).", "Because of this fear, humans have placed a Bussard ramjet field generator in close orbit around Down's sun, thus enabling them to destroy the Grog population should they ever take hostile action against any sentient species.", "* Jinx, orbiting Sirius A, is a massive moon of a gas giant (called ''Primary''), stretched by tidal forces into an egg shape and tidally locked.", "It has habitable areas but has high surface gravity of 1.78 times Earth, near the limits of human extended tolerance.", "The points nearest to and farthest from Primary (called the \"East\" and \"West\" ends) lie elevated out of the atmosphere in vacuum.", "The atmosphere of the belt-region halfway between them is too dense and too hot to breathe, and is inhabited only by the Bandersnatchi.", "The zones between the vacuum areas and the high-density belt area have atmosphere breathable by humans.", "Jinx's \"East\" and \"West\" ends become a major ''in vacuo'' manufacturing area.", "Jinxian humans are short and squat, the strongest bipeds in Known Space.", "They tend to die early, from heart and circulatory problems.", "There is a tourist industry which provides substantial useful interplanetary trade credits for the Bandersnatchi, who allow themselves to be hunted by humans under strict protocols.", "* Wunderland is a planet circling Alpha Centauri, and was the earliest extra-solar colony in Known Space's human history.", "It has a surface gravity of 60% that of Earth's and is hospitable to human life.", "Wunderland was invaded and its population enslaved by the Kzinti during the first Man–Kzin War.", "It was freed near the end of the First War by the human Hyperdrive Armada from We Made It.", "The system has an asteroid belt in the shape of a crescent, which gives it its name—the Serpent Swarm.", "The capital asteroid, Tiamat, houses one of the largest Kzin populations in Known Space.", "* We Made It, orbiting Procyon A, got its name because the first colony ship crash-landed.", "Gravity is about three-fifths Earth's.", "The planet's axis is pointed along the plane of its ecliptic (like Uranus), creating ferocious winds on the order of during half of the planet's year, forcing the people to live underground.", "Natives are known as \"Crashlanders\", tend to be very tall, and many are albinos.", "Their capital, which was the site of their colony ship's landing, is called Crashlanding City.", "We Made It also has viscous, algae-choked \"oceans\" and a big icy moon, ironically named Desert Isle.", "* Plateau in the Tau Ceti system is Venus-like, with a plateau (called Mount Lookitthat), half the size of California, rising high enough out of the dense atmosphere to be habitable.", "Inhabitants (\"Mountaineers\") are divided into two rigid hereditary castes, the \"crew\" and the \"colonists\", depending on whether their ancestors piloted the colonizing vessel.", "The crew are the upper caste, and hold power through their monopoly on organ transplantation and control of the police.", "The original colonists signed the \"Covenant of Planetfall\", agreeing that this outcome was just recompense for the labors of the crew during the voyage; that they signed at gunpoint as they were awakened from hibernation is kept secret from later generations, and also that those who refused, died.", "This repressive system is overthrown in ''A Gift From Earth'', and the former inequality and caste system appears to have disappeared by the time ''The Ethics of Madness'' takes place.", "* Home orbits the star Epsilon Indi, about 12 light years from Earth.", "The planet received its name because of its remarkable similarity to Earth; its day is nearly 24 hours long and its surface gravity is a comfortable 1.08 g. Oceans, mean global temperature, seasons, and moon (Home's moon is called Metaluna, but is often referred to as \"the Moon\" by Homers) are also similar.", "According to ''Protector'', the original colonists had planned to call their world \"Flatland\" as a sort of joke, but once settled on Home they had changed their minds—\"a belated attack of patriotism\", Elroy Truesdale of ''Protector'' muses.", "The entire population of Home is secretly destroyed as a consequence of Brennan's and Truesdale's war with the Pak—Brennan turns the entire population into human Protectors to create an army to fight the Pak invaders.", "Home is resettled quickly though, since another ramjet with colonists is already on its way when the colony \"fails\".", "In ''Procrustes'' and other later stories, Home is once again presented as a vibrant colony.", "* Canyon was once an uninhabitable Mars-like world known as Warhead.", "It is the second of seven planets around p Eridani A, 22 light-years from Earth.", "It was used as a military outpost by the Kzinti, until the planet was hit by a weapon called the \"Wunderland Treatymaker\" during the Third War.", "The attack tore a long, narrow, kilometers-deep crater into the crust approximately the size of the Baja Peninsula.", "The air and moisture in the thin atmosphere gathered at the bottom of this artificial canyon, creating a breathable environment, complete with a sea at the bottom.", "The planet was then renamed for the crater, and settled by humans in a huge city running up the crater wall.", "Archaic (hyper-aggressive and intractable) Kzinti were entombed in stasis field shells during the attack and are still beneath the lava, and someday, somebody will have to deal with them.", "The attack by the Wunderland Treatymaker is detailed as a part of ''Destiny's Forge'' by Paul Chafe, a part of the Man–Kzin Wars shared universe.", "* Gummidgy is a jungle world popular with hunters.", "It is home to the Gummidgy Orchid-Thing, a sessile carnivore which hangs from trees and is a popular trophy for the wealthy.", "It orbits CY Aquarii, a blue giant SX Phoenicis variable star; due to the resulting high levels of ultraviolet light, most humans (except Jinxians) require melanin-boosting medication to venture outdoors.", "* Fafnir is a former Kzin colony covered almost entirely in water.", "When under Kzinti control it was called Shasht, a Kzin word meaning \"burrowing murder\".", "It was captured by humans during the Man–Kzin Wars.", "Humans and Kzinti now cohabitate.", "The humans prefer to live on the coral islands while the Kzinti prefer the single large continent which they continue to call Shasht.", "* Margrave is a late addition to the family of Human colonies.", "In the ''Ringworld'' era it is still a frontier world, and is home to enormous birds the inhabitants have dubbed \"rocs\".", "It orbits Lambda Serpentis (27 Serpentis), a G0 star 34.7 light-years from Earth.", "It is named after its discoverer, J. Margrave Julland.", "* Silvereyes is, at the time of ''Ringworld'', the furthest Human world from Earth (21.3 light-years, 60 days at Quantum-I hyperdrive speeds), orbiting Beta Hydri.", "In Niven's obscure story ''The Color of Sunfire'' it has entire continents covered with Slaver sunflowers (bred as defense for Thrint manors, they focus sunlight using silver leaves as parabolic reflectors), giving it an appearance from orbit of having \"silver eyes\".", "The ''Man–Kzin Wars'' books, conversely, have it entirely covered by a world ocean, with groves of sunflowers growing up from the bottom of the ocean.", "The ''Ringworld Roleplaying Game'' describes it as an ocean planet dotted with island shield volcanoes.", "* Hearth is the homeworld of the Pierson's Puppeteers.", "With a population of around one trillion, it is covered by arcologies, most over one mile tall.", "Its industries and population generate so much waste heat it no longer requires a star for warmth (the four other \"farmworlds\", simply named \"Nature Preserves\" or NP1, NP2, etc., use artificial orbital lights to grow food).", "Together these five planets (with a sixth added later, as detailed in ''Fleet of Worlds'') are often referred as the Fleet of Worlds and do not orbit any star, but use Outsider-manufactured drives to move in order to flee the galactic core explosion discovered by Beowulf Schaeffer.", "They orbit about each other in a Klemperer rosette.", "* Kobold was a tiny artificial world created in the outer Sol system by Jack Brennan, a human Protector, composed of a small sphere of neutronium in the center ringed by a larger torus.", "Gravity generators facilitated movement between the two sections and were used in games and art.", "Brennan destroyed Kobold just prior to leaving for his war with the Pak Protectors.", "* The Ringworld is an artificial world structure with three million times the surface area of Earth, built in the shape of a giant ring circling its sun, a million miles wide and with a diameter of 186 million miles.", "It was built by the Pak, who either abandoned it, or more likely died out much as the Earth Pak did, due to a lack of the Tree-of-Life, a yamlike root which produces the conversion to Protector-stage Pak (which required a very specifically targeted soil chemistry to grow).", "It is inhabited by a number of different evolved hominid species, and includes representative samples of Bandersnatchi, Martians and Kzinti, and possibly other alien races that existed at the time of its construction.", "* Sheathclaws is a planet colonized by humans aboard ''Angel's Pencil'' and descendants of a rogue Kzin telepath.", "It orbits an as-yet-unspecified star 98 light-years from Earth, and kept its existence secret for several centuries.", "The Patriarchy would dearly love to capture the entire population of potential Telepaths and press them into service.", "* Kzin (so called by Humans) is the homeworld of the Kzinti.", "Its name in the Hero's Tongue translates as \"Home-of-the-Kzinti\" or \"Kzinhome\".", "It orbits 61 Ursae Majoris and has higher gravity than Earth and more oxygen in the atmosphere.", "It has two moons, known as the Hunter's Moon and the Traveler's Moon.", "* Cue Ball is an uninhabitable ice world orbiting Beta Lyrae.", "* Jm'ho is a moon similar to Europa, homeworld to the Gw'oth.", "It orbits a gas giant called Tl'ho.", "The star is simply called G567-X2 in the Puppeteers' catalogue* Kl'mo is a Gw'oth colony founded by Ol't'ro.", "Not much is explained about this world, except that it seems very primitive and has a very strong gravity.", "* Oceanus is a primitive world briefly surveyed by the crew of ''Explorer'' in ''Fleet of Worlds''." ], [ "Technology", "The series features a number of \"superscience\" inventions which figure as plot devices.", "Stories earlier in the timeline feature technology such as Bussard ramjets and drouds (wires capable of directly stimulating the pleasure centers of the brain), and explore how organ transplantation technology enables the new crime of ''organlegging'' (as well as the general sociological effects of widespread transplant technology), while later stories feature hyperdrive, invulnerable starship hulls, stasis fields, molecular monofilaments, transfer booths (teleporters used only on planetary surfaces), the lifespan-extending drug boosterspice, and the tasp which is an extension of the droud which works without direct contact.===Boosterspice===\"Boosterspice\" is a compound that increases the longevity and reverses aging of human beings.", "With the use of boosterspice, humans can easily live hundreds of years and, theoretically, indefinitely.Developed by the Institute of Knowledge on Jinx, it is said to be made from genetically engineered ragweed (although early stories have it ingested in the form of edible seeds).", "In ''Ringworld's Children'', it is suggested boosterspice may actually be adapted from Tree-of-Life, without the symbiotic virus that enabled hominids to metamorphose from Pak Breeder stage to Pak Protector stage (mutated Pak breeders were the ancestors of both ''Homo sapiens'' and the hominids of the Ringworld).On the Ringworld, there is an analogous (and apparently more potent) compound developed from Tree-of-Life, but they are mutually incompatible; in ''The Ringworld Engineers'', Louis Wu learns that the character Halrloprillalar died when in ARM custody after leaving the Ringworld, as a result of having taken boosterspice after having used the Ringworld equivalent.", "Boosterspice only works on ''Homo sapiens'', whereas the Tree-of-Life compound will work on any hominid descended from the Pak.===Hyperdrive===Faster-than-light (FTL) propulsion, or hyperdrive, was obtained from the Outsiders at the end of the First Man–Kzin War.", "In addition to winning the war for humanity, it allowed the re-integration of all the human colonies, which were previously separated by distance.", "Standard (Quantum I) hyperdrive covers a distance of one light-year every three days (121.75 ''c'').", "A more advanced Quantum II hyperdrive introduced later is able to cover the same distance in one and a quarter minutes (420,768 ''c'').In Niven's first novel, ''World of Ptavvs'', the hyperdrive used by the Thrintun required a ship to be going faster than 93% of the speed of light.", "However, this is the only time that hyperdrive is described this way.In the vast majority of ''Known Space'' material, hyperdrive requires that a ship be outside a star's gravity well to use.", "Ships which activate hyperdrive close to a star are likely to disappear without a trace.", "This effect is regarded as a limitation based on the laws of physics.", "In Niven's novel ''Ringworld's Children'' the Ringworld itself is converted into a gigantic Quantum II hyperdrive and launched into hyperspace while within its star's gravity well.", "''Ringworld's Children'' reveals that there is life in hyperspace around gravity wells and that hyperspace predators eat spaceships which appear in hyperspace close to large masses, thus explaining why a structure as large as the Ringworld can safely engage the hyperdrive in a star's gravity well.One phenomenon travelers in hyperspace can experience is the so-called 'blind spot' should they look through a porthole or camera screen, giving the impression that the walls around the porthole or sides of the camera view screen are expanding to 'cover up the outside'.", "The phenomenon is the result of hyperspace being so fundamentally different from normal/'Einsteinian' space that a traveler's senses cannot truly comprehend it, and instead the observer 'sees' a form of nothingness that can be hypnotic and dangerous.", "Staring too long into the 'blind spot' can be insanity-inducing, so as a precaution all view ports on ships are blinded when a ship enters hyperspace.===Invulnerable hulls===The Puppeteer firm, General Products, produces a series of invulnerable starship hulls, known simply as the General Products hull.", "The hulls are impervious to any type of matter or energy, with the exception of antimatter (which destroys the hull, as demonstrated in \"Flatlander\"), gravitation (demonstrated in \"Neutron Star\"), and visible light (which passes through the hull).", "While invulnerable themselves, this is no guarantee that the contents are likewise protected.", "For example, though a high speed impact with the surface of a planet or star may cause no harm to the hull, the occupants will be crushed if they are not protected by additional measures such as a stasis field (''Ringworld'') or a gravity compensating field.In ''Fleet of Worlds'', the characters tour a General Products factory and receive clues that allow them to destroy a General Products hull from the inside using only a high-powered interstellar communications laser.", "In ''Juggler of Worlds'', the Puppeteers, attempting to surmise how this was done without antimatter, identify another technique which can be used to destroy the otherwise invulnerable hulls, one which does suggest some potential defense options.The strength of the hulls was revealed to be based on the fact that they were essentially one giant molecule.===Organ transplantation===On Earth in the mid-21st century, it became possible to transplant any organ from any person to another, with the exception of brain and central nervous system tissue.", "Individuals were categorized according to their so-called \"rejection spectrum\" which allowed doctors to counter any immune system responses to the new organs, allowing transplants to \"take\" for life.", "It also enabled the crime of \"organlegging\" which lasted well into the 24th century.===Stasis fields===A Slaver stasis field creates a bubble of spacetime disconnected from the entropy gradient of the rest of the universe.", "Time slows effectively to a stop for an object in stasis, at a ratio of some billions of years outside to a second inside.", "An object in stasis is invulnerable to anything occurring outside the field, as well as being preserved indefinitely.", "A stasis field may be recognized by its perfectly reflecting surface, so perfect that it reflects 100% of all radiation and particles, including neutrinos.", "However one stasis field cannot exist inside another.", "This is used in ''World of Ptavvs'' where humans develop a stasis field technology and realize that a mirrored artifact known as the ''Sea Statue'' must be actually an alien in a stasis field.", "They place it with a human envoy, who is a telepath, and envelop both in field.", "By doing this, they unleash the last living member of the Slaver species on the world.===Stepping disks===Stepping disks are a teleportation technology.", "They were invented by the Pierson's Puppeteers, and their existence is not generally known to other races until the events of ''The Ringworld Engineers''.The stepping disks are an outgrowth and improvement of the transfer booth technology used by humans and other Known Space races.", "Unlike the booths, the disks do not require an enclosed chamber, and somehow can differentiate between solid masses and air, for example.", "They also have a far greater range than transfer booths, extending several astronomical units.Several limitations to stepping disks are mentioned in the ''Ringworld'' novels.", "If there is a difference in velocity between two disks, any matter transferred between them must be accelerated by the disk accordingly.", "If there is not enough energy to do so, the transfer cannot take place.", "This becomes a problem with disks that are a significant distance apart on the Ringworld's surface, as they will have different velocities: same speed, different direction.===Transfer booths===Transfer booths or displacement booths are an inexpensive form of teleportation.", "Short-range booths are similar in appearance to an old style telephone booth: one enters, \"dials\" one's desired destination, and is immediately deposited in a corresponding booth at the destination.", "Longer-range booths operate similarly, but are housed in former airports due to requiring \"equipment to compensate for the difference in rotational velocity between different points on the Earth\".", "They are inexpensive: a trip anywhere on Earth costs only a \"tenth-star\" (presumably equivalent to a dime).", "Introduced by one of Gregory Pelton's ancestors, apparently bought from, and based on, Puppeteer technology.", "\"A displacement booth was a glass cylinder with a rounded top.", "The machinery that made the magic work was invisible, buried beneath the booth.", "Coin slots and a telephone dial were set into the glass at sternum level\" (from ''Flash Crowd'').===Paranormal abilities===Some individuals in the stories display limited paranormal or \"psionic\" abilities.", "Gil Hamilton can move objects with his mind using his phantom arm, which he gained after losing an arm in an asteroid mining accident.", "When he finally had the arm replaced from an organ bank on Earth, the ability persisted.", "\"Plateau Eyes\" (introduced in ''A Gift From Earth'') is an ability to hide in plain sight, by causing others not to notice you.", "Population control is tight on Earth, but these abilities can gain the possessor a license to have more children.", "The Pierson's Puppeteers engineer a lottery for child licenses on Earth to increase the occurrence of \"luck\", which they think is a paranormal ability humans have that has enabled them to defeat races such as the Kzinti.", "In ''Ringworld'', the character Teela Brown is said to have this ability (although possibly not to the same extent as others who avoided being included in the expedition).==Organizations== The ARM is the police force of the United Nations.", "ARM originated as an acronym for \"Amalgamation of Regional Militia\", though this is not a term in current usage by the time of the ''Known Space'' novels.", "An agent of the ARM, Gil Hamilton, is the protagonist of Niven's science fictional detective stories, a series-within-a-series gathered in the collection ''Flatlander''.", "(Confusingly, \"Flatlander\" is also the name of an unrelated ''Known Space'' story.", ")Their basic function is to enforce mandatory birth control on overcrowded Earth, and restrict research which might lead to dangerous weapons.", "In short, the ARM hunts down women who have illegal pregnancies and suppresses all new technologies.", "They also hunt organleggers, especially in the era of the \"organ bank problem\".", "Among the many technologies they control and outlaw are all trained forms of armed and unarmed combat.", "By the 25th century, ARM agents were kept in an artificially induced state of paranoid schizophrenia to enhance their usefulness as law enforcement officials, which led to them sometimes being referred to as \"''Schizes''\".", "Agents with natural tendencies toward paranoia were medicated into docility during their off duty hours, through the aforementioned science of psychistry (see ''Madness Has Its Place'' and ''Juggler of Worlds'').Their jurisdiction is limited to the Earth-Moon system; other human colonies have their own militia.", "Nevertheless, in many ''Known Space'' stories, ARM agents operate or exert influence in other human star systems through the \"Bureau of Alien Affairs\" (see \"In the Hall of the Mountain King\", \"Procrustes\", \"The Borderland of Sol\", and \"Neutron Star\").", "These interventions begin following the Man-Kzin Wars and the introduction of hyperdrive, presumably as part of a general re-integration of human societies." ], [ "Stories in Known Space", "The Tales of Known Space were first published primarily as short stories or serials in science fiction magazines.", "Generally the short fiction was subsequently released in one or more collections and the serial novels as books.", "Some of the shorter novels (novellas) published in magazines were expanded as, or incorporated in, book-length novels.", "There are also two or three short stories which share common themes and some background elements with Known Space stories, but which are not considered a part of the Known Space universe: \"One Face\" (1965) and \"Bordered in Black\" (1966)—both in the 1979 collection ''Convergent Series''—and possibly \"The Color of Sunfire\", published online and listed here.In the Known Space stories, Niven had created a number of technological devices (GP hull, stasis field, Ringworld material) which, combined with the \"Teela Brown gene\", made it very difficult to construct engaging stories beyond a certain date—the combination of factors made it tricky to produce any kind of creditable threat/problem without complex contrivances.", "Niven demonstrated this, to his own satisfaction, with \"Safe at Any Speed\" (1967).", "He used the setting for much less short fiction after 1968 and much less for novels after two published in 1980.Late in that decade, Niven invited other authors to participate in a series of shared-universe novels, with the Man–Kzin Wars as their setting.", "The first volume was published in 1988.+ Stories written by Larry Niven in the Tales of Known Space seriesTitlePublishedFirst appearanceCollection\"The Coldest Place\"1964 (December) ''Worlds of If''''Tales of Known Space''\"World of Ptavvs\" 1965''Worlds of Tomorrow'' ''Three Books of Known Space''\"Becalmed in Hell\"1965''The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction''''Tales of Known Space'', ''All the Myriad Ways'', ''Playgrounds of the Mind''''World of Ptavvs'' 1966 (novel) ''Three Books of Known Space''\"Eye of an Octopus\"1966''Galaxy Magazine''''Tales of Known Space''\"The Warriors\"1966''Worlds of If''''Tales of Known Space'', Man-Kzin Wars I''\"Neutron Star\"1966''Worlds of If''''Neutron Star'', ''Crashlander''\"How the Heroes Die\"1966''Galaxy Magazine''''Tales of Known Space''\"At the Core\"1966''Worlds of If''''Neutron Star, Crashlander''\"A Relic of the Empire\"1966''Worlds of If''''Neutron Star'', ''Playgrounds of the Mind''\"At the Bottom of a Hole\"1966''Galaxy Magazine''''Tales of Known Space''\"The Soft Weapon\"1967''Worlds of If''''Neutron Star'', ''Playgrounds of the Mind''\"Flatlander\"1967''Worlds of If''''Neutron Star, Crashlander''\"The Ethics of Madness\"1967''Worlds of If''''Neutron Star''\"Safe at any Speed\"1967''The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction''''Tales of Known Space''\"The Adults\" 1967''Galaxy Magazine'' ''Protector''\"The Handicapped\"1967''Galaxy Magazine''''Neutron Star''\"The Jigsaw Man\"1967''Dangerous Visions''''Tales of Known Space''\"Slowboat Cargo\" 1968''Worlds of If''''A Gift from Earth''\"The Deceivers\" (later titled \"Intent to Deceive\") 1968''Galaxy Magazine''''Tales of Known Space''\"Grendel\"1968(collection only)''Neutron Star'', ''Crashlander''\"There Is a Tide\"1968''Galaxy Magazine''''Tales of Known Space'', ''A Hole in Space''''A Gift from Earth'' 1968(novel) ''Three Books of Known Space''\"Wait It Out\"1968''Future Unbounded convention program''''Tales of Known Space''\"The Organleggers\" (later titled \"Death by Ecstasy\") 1969 (January) ''Galaxy Magazine''''The Shape of Space'', ''The Long ARM of Gil Hamilton'', ''Flatlander''''Ringworld''1970(novel) —\"Cloak of Anarchy\"1972''Analog Science Fiction''''Tales of Known Space'', ''N-Space''''Protector'' 1973(novel) —\"The Defenseless Dead\"1973''Ten Tomorrows''''Flatlander'', ''The Long ARM of Gil Hamilton'', ''Playgrounds of the Mind''\"The Borderland of Sol\"1975''Analog Science Fiction''''Tales of Known Space'', ''Crashlander'', ''Playgrounds of the Mind''\"ARM\"1975''Epoch''''The Long ARM of Gil Hamilton''''The Ringworld Engineers''1979(novel) —''The Patchwork Girl''1980(novel) ''Flatlander''\"Madness Has Its Place\"1990''Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine''''Man-Kzin Wars III'', ''Three Books of Known Space''''Inconstant Star''1991(fix-up novel)''The Man-Kzin Wars'' (Part One), ''Man-Kzin Wars III'' (Part Two)\"The Color Of Sunfire\"1993Worldcon 51 convention program (\"Bridging the Galaxies\") ''Bridging the Galaxies''\"Procrustes\"1993Worldcon 51 convention program (\"Bridging the Galaxies\")''Crashlander''\"Ghost\"1994 (collection only, as frame story) ''Crashlander''\"The Woman in Del Rey Crater\"1995(collection only)''Flatlander''''The Ringworld Throne''1996(novel) —\"Choosing Names\"1998(collection only)''Choosing Names: Man-Kzin Wars VIII''\"Fly-By-Night\"2000''Asimov's Science Fiction''''Man-Kzin Wars IX''''Ringworld's Children''2004(novel) —\"The Hunting Park\"2005(collection only)''Man-Kzin Wars XI''''Fleet of Worlds'' (Edward M. Lerner and Niven, coauthors) 2007 (novel) —''Juggler of Worlds'' (Lerner and Niven) 2008(novel) —''Destroyer of Worlds'' (Lerner and Niven) 2009(novel) —''Betrayer of Worlds'' (Lerner and Niven) 2010(novel) —''Fate of Worlds'' (Lerner and Niven) 2012(novel) —\"Sacred Cow\" (Larry Niven and Steven Barnes, coauthors)2022''Analog Science Fiction'' —''Ringworld'' (1970) won the annual Nebula, Hugo, and Locus best novel awards.", "''Protector'' (1973) and ''The Ringworld Engineers'' (1980) were nominated for the Hugo and Locus Awards.===Man-Kzin Wars===" ], [ "Playground", "Niven has described his fiction as \"playground equipment\", encouraging fans to speculate and extrapolate on the events described.", "Debates have been made, for example, on who built the Ringworld (Pak Protectors and the Outsiders being the traditional favorites, but see ''Ringworld's Children'' for a possibly definitive answer), and what happened to the Tnuctipun.", "Niven also states that this is not an invitation to violate his copyrights, warning potential publishers and editors not to proceed without permission.Niven was also reported to have said that \"Known Space should be seen as a possible future history told by people that may or may not have all their facts right.", "\"The author also published an \"outline\" for a story which would \"destroy\" the Known Space Series (or more precisely, reveal much of the Known Space background to be an in-universe hoax), in an article entitled \"Down in Flames\" .", "Although the article is written as though Niven intended to write the story, he later wrote that the article was only an elaborate joke, and he never intended to write such a novel.", "The article itself notes that the outline was made obsolete by the publication of ''Ringworld''.", "\"Down in Flames\" was a result of a conversation between Norman Spinrad and Niven in 1968, but at the time of its first publication in 1977 some of the concepts were invalidated by Niven's writings between 1968 and 1977.", "(A further edited version of the outline was published in ''N-Space'' in 1990.)" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===* Wayne Douglas Barlowe, ''Barlowe's Guide to Extraterrestrials: Great Aliens from Science Fiction Literature'', Workman Pub.", "Co., 1979." ], [ "See also", "* List of Known Space characters, including alien species" ], [ "External links", "* Known Space: The Future Worlds of Larry Niven (official)* Encyclopedia of Known Space* The Known Space Concordance* Timeline of the ''Known Space'' universe* Marc Carlson's Timeline of the ''Known Space'' universe* Website for the ''Man-Kzin Wars'' novel ''Destiny's Forge''* Homepage of MKW author Paul Chafe" ] ]
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[ [ "LeRoy Homer Jr." ], [ "Introduction", "'''LeRoy Wilton Homer Jr.''' (August 27, 1965 – September 11, 2001) was the First Officer of United Airlines Flight 93, which was hijacked as part of the September 11 attacks in 2001, and crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, killing all 37 passengers and seven crewmembers, including LeRoy." ], [ "Early life", "Homer's name is located on Panel S-67 of the National September 11 Memorial's South Pool, along with those of other passengers and crew of Flight 93.Homer, son of a West German woman and an American soldier who was stationed in West Germany, grew up on Long Island in New York, where he always dreamed of flying.", "As a child, he assembled model airplanes, collected aviation memorabilia and read books on aviation.", "He was 15 years old when he started flight instruction in a Cessna 152.Working part-time jobs after school to pay for flying lessons, he completed his first solo trip at the age of 16 and obtained his private pilot's certificate in 1983.Homer graduated from Ss.", "Cyril and Methodius School in 1979 and St. John the Baptist Diocesan High School in 1983." ], [ "Career and personal life", "He entered the United States Air Force Academy as a member of the class of 1987.As an upperclassman, he was a member of Cadet Squadron 31.He graduated on May 27, 1987, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Air Force.After completing his USAF pilot training in 1988, he was assigned to McGuire Air Force Base in New Jersey, flying a Lockheed C-141 Starlifter.", "While on active duty, he served in the Gulf War and later supported operations in Somalia.", "He received many commendations, awards and medals during his military career.", "In 1993, he was named the Twenty-First Air Force \"Aircrew Instructor of the Year\".", "Homer achieved the rank of captain before his honorable discharge from active duty in 1995 and his acceptance of a reserve commission in order to continue his career as an Air Force officer.Homer continued his military career as a member of the U.S. Air Force Reserve, initially as a C-141 instructor pilot with the 356th Airlift Squadron at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio, then subsequently as an Academy Liaison Officer, recruiting potential candidates for both the Air Force Academy and the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps.", "During his time in the Air Force Reserve, he achieved the rank of major.Homer continued his flying career by joining United Airlines in May 1995.His first assignment was Second Officer on the Boeing 727.He then upgraded to First Officer on the Boeing 757/Boeing 767 in 1996, where he remained until September 11, 2001.Homer married his wife, Melodie, on May 24, 1998, and his first child, Laurel, was born in late November 2000.They resided together in Marlton, New Jersey." ], [ "September 11 attacks", "On September 11, 2001, Homer was flying with Captain Jason M. Dahl on United Airlines Flight 93 from Newark, New Jersey, to San Francisco.", "The plane was hijacked by four al-Qaeda terrorists, as they carried out the September 11 attacks.", "Homer and Dahl struggled with the hijackers, which was transmitted to Air Traffic Control.After learning of the earlier crashes at the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the crew and passengers attempted to foil the hijacking and reclaim the aircraft.", "Given the uprising of crew and passengers, and knowing they would not make it to their intended target, which was the US Capitol, the hijackers instead chose to crash the plane into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania.Homer received many awards and citations posthumously, including honorary membership in the historic Tuskegee Airmen; the Congress of Racial Equality's Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Award; the Southern Christian Leadership Conference Drum Major for Justice Award; and the Westchester County Trailblazer Award.He was survived by his wife, Melodie, and his only child, daughter Laurel.", "Other family members include his mother, seven sisters, and his brother.", "His widow Melodie Homer established the LeRoy W. Homer Jr. Foundation, which awards scholarships related to aviation.At the National 9/11 Memorial, Homer Jr. is memorialized at the South Pool, on Panel S-67, along with other crew and passengers on Flight 93.On May 7, 2021, United States Air Force Academy's graduating class of 2024 named Homer Jr as the class Exemplar, an honor that academy's graduating class has bestowed every years since 2000 upon the individual who \"exemplifies\" the type of person the cadets wish to emulate." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Melodie Homer, ''From Where I Stand: Flight #93 Pilot's Widow Sets the Record Straight'' ()" ], [ "External links", "* \"United Pilot Was a Proud Papa, Helped Others\", Newsday.", "* \"Huge crowd remembers LeRoy Homer Jr.\", phillyBurbs.com.", "* LeRoy Homer Foundation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "LGB" ], [ "Introduction", "'''LGB''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* La Grande Boissière, a campus of the International School of Geneva* Long Beach Airport (IATA code LGB), California, US" ], [ "Other uses", "* The Larger Grain Borer (LGB), ''Prostephanus truncatus''* Laser-guided bomb* ''Lectures on Government and Binding'', a book by Noam Chomsky* \"Lesbian, gay, and bisexual\", later usually LGBT* “Let's go Blues”, a chant used by the St. Louis Blues* \"Let's Go Brandon\", a political slogan used since 2021, a euphemistic expression to replace \"Fuck Joe Biden\"* LGB (trains) (''Lehmann Gross Bahn''), garden railroads * LGB Alliance* Formula LGB, a racecar category* Laghu language (ISO 639 code lgb)" ], [ "See also", "* * LG8 (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "La Jetée" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''La Jetée''''' () is a 1962 French science fiction featurette directed by Chris Marker and associated with the Left Bank artistic movement.", "Constructed almost entirely from still photos, it tells the story of a post-nuclear war experiment in time travel.", "It is 28 minutes long and shot in black and white.It won the Prix Jean Vigo for short film.", "The 1995 science fiction film ''12 Monkeys'' was inspired by and borrows several concepts directly from ''La Jetée''." ], [ "Plot", "A man is a prisoner in the aftermath of World War III in post-apocalyptic Paris, where survivors live underground in the ''Palais de Chaillot'' galleries.", "Scientists research time travel, hoping to send test subjects to different time periods \"to call past and future to the rescue of the present.\"", "They have difficulty finding subjects who can mentally withstand the shock of time travel.", "The scientists eventually settle upon the protagonist; his key to the past is a vague but obsessive memory from his pre-war childhood of a woman he had seen on the observation platform (\"the jetty\") at Orly Airport shortly before witnessing a startling incident there.", "He did not understand exactly what happened, but knew he had seen a man die.After several attempts, he reaches the pre-war period.", "He meets the woman from his memory, and they develop a romantic relationship.", "After his successful passages to the past, the experimenters attempt to send him into the far future.", "In a brief meeting with the technologically advanced people of the future, he is given a power unit sufficient to regenerate his own destroyed society.Upon his return, with his mission accomplished, he discerns that he is to be executed by his jailers.", "He is contacted by the people of the future, who offer to help him escape to their time permanently; but he asks instead to be returned to the pre-war time of his childhood, hoping to find the woman again.", "He is returned to the past, placed on the jetty at the airport, and it occurs to him that the child version of himself is probably also there at the same time.", "He is more concerned with locating the woman, and quickly spots her.", "However, as he rushes to her, he notices an agent of his jailers who has followed him and realizes the agent is about to kill him.", "In his final moments, he comes to understand that the incident he witnessed as a child, which has haunted him ever since, was his own death." ], [ "Cast", "* Jean Négroni as Narrator* Hélène Châtelain as The Woman* Davos Hanich as The Man* Jacques Ledoux as The Experimenter* Ligia Branice as Woman From The Future* Janine Kleina as Woman From The Future* William Klein as Man From The Future" ], [ "Production", "''La Jetée'' is constructed almost entirely from optically printed photographs playing out as a photomontage of varying rhythm.", "It contains only one brief shot (of the woman mentioned above sleeping and suddenly waking up) originating on a motion-picture camera, this due to the fact that Marker could only afford to hire one for an afternoon.", "The stills were taken with a Pentax Spotmatic and the motion-picture segment was shot with a 35 mm Arriflex.", "The film has no dialogue aside from small sections of muttering in German and people talking in an airport terminal.", "The story is told by a voice-over narrator.", "The scene in which the hero and the woman look at a cut-away trunk of a tree is a reference to Alfred Hitchcock's 1958 film ''Vertigo'' which Marker also references in his 1983 film ''Sans soleil''.The editing of ''La Jetée'' adds to the intensity of the film.", "With the use of cut-ins and fade-outs, it produces the eerie and unsettling nature adding to the theme of the apocalyptic destruction of World War III.", "Terry Gilliam, director of ''12 Monkeys'', describes the editing as \"simply poetic\" in the combination of editing and soundtrack that is used in the short film.As the film plays out as a photomontage, the only continuous variable is the sound.", "The sound used in this production is minimal, showing up in the form of narration, orchestral score and sound effect.", "The rhythmic patterns of the soundtrack act as a framework to add to the intensity of the film.", "\"The dissolve is synchronized with the sound.", "As the story moves from the past to the present, ''La Jetee'' creates mental continuity.\"", "The soundtrack adds to the illusion of movement within the film and the change of time." ], [ "Interpretation", "In ''Black and Blue'', her study of postwar French fiction, Carol Mavor describes ''La Jetée'' as \"taking place in a no-place (u-topia) in no-time (u-chronia)\" which she connects to the time and place of the fairy tale.", "She further elaborates: \"even the sound of the title resonates with the fairy-tale surprise of finding oneself in another world: ''La Jetée'' evokes 'là j'étais' (there I was)\".", "By \"u-topia\", Mavor does not refer to \"utopia\" as the word is commonly used; she also describes an ambiguity of dystopia/utopia in the film: \"It is dystopia with the hope of utopia, or is it utopia cut by the threat of dystopia.", "\"Tor Books blogger Jake Hinkson summed up his interpretation in the title of an essay about the film, \"There's No Escape Out of Time\".", "He elaborated:Hinkson also addresses the symbolic use of imagery: \"The Man is blindfolded with some kind of padded device and he sees images.", "The Man is chosen for this assignment because ... he has maintained a sharp mind because of his attachment to certain images.", "Thus a film told through the use of still photos becomes about looking at images.\"", "He further observes that Marker himself did not refer to ''La Jetée'' as a film, but as photo novel.Yannis Karpouzis makes a structuralistic analysis on ''La Jetée'', examining it as an intermedial artwork: Chris Marker creates an \"archive\" of objects and conditions that have a photographic quality of their own and they are followed by the same predicates as pictures.", "The dialogue between the media (photography and cinematography) and the filmic signifier (film stills, storyline and narration) is constantly in the backdrop." ], [ "Reception and legacy", "=== Release, awards, and recognition ===In 1963, Prix Jean Vigo awarded ''La Jetée'' for \"Best Short Film\".", "That same year, ''La Jetée'' was included in the Locarno International Film Festival, the Trieste Science+Fiction Festival, and the Mannheim-Heidelberg International Film Festival.", "The film has since been included in several contemporary film festivals, including the Buenos Aires Festival Internacional de Cine Independiente in 2009, the \"Cine//B Film Festival\" in 2011, and the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam in 2019.", "''La Jetée'' was included by producer Steven Schneider in the 2003 film reference book ''1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die''.", "In 2010, ''Time'' ranked ''La Jetée'' first in its list of \"Top 10 time-travel movies\".", "In 2012, in correspondence with the ''Sight & Sound'' poll, the British Film Institute deemed ''La Jetée'' as the 50th greatest film of all time.", "In 2022, it took the spot of 67th greatest film on the ''Sight & Sound'' critics' poll, and 35th greatest film on the director's poll, respectively.=== In popular culture ===Science fiction writer William Gibson considers the film one of his main influences.On November 8, 2022 the Chicago Fringe Opera staged a world-premiere concert performance of Seth Boustead and J. Robert Lennon's chamber opera adaptation of the film.==== Music ====The video for Sigue Sigue Sputnik's 1989 single \"Dancerama\" is an homage to ''La Jetée''.", "The film is also one of the influences in the video for David Bowie's \"Jump They Say\" (1993).The Chicago-based band Isotope 217 recorded the track \"La Jetée\" for their 1997 album''The Unstable Molecule''.", "On the 1998 album ''TNT'', the post-rock band Tortoise, of which Isotope 217 is a side-project, featured an alternate version of the same song, titled \"Jetty\".", "Both are inspired by the film.Kode9, in collaboration with Ms. Haptic, Marcel Weber (aka MFO), and Lucy Benson created an homage to ''La Jetée'' in 2011, for the Unsound Festival.Northern Irish rock band Two Door Cinema Club screened the film at the launch party for their 2016 album ''Gameshow''.", "The final track on the album, \"Je viens de la\", is inspired by ''La Jetée'' and describes the journey of the film's protagonist.==== Film ====Terry Gilliam's ''12 Monkeys'' (1995) was inspired by and takes several concepts directly from ''La Jetée'' (acknowledging this debt in the opening credits).", "The 2003 short film ''La puppé'' is both an homage to and a parody of ''La Jetée''.The 2007 Mexican film ''Year of the Nail'', which is told entirely through still photographs, was inspired by ''La Jetée''.", "The 2018 Spanish film ''Entre Oscuros Sueños'', where the still-image movie concept is also used, was entirely inspired by ''La Jetée''.", "''Friend of the World'', a two-hander film, was inspired by ''La Jetée,'' among others." ], [ "Related media", "In 1992, Zone Books released a book which reproduced the film's original images along with the script in both English and French." ], [ "Home media", "In Region 2, the film is available with English subtitles in the ''La Jetée/Sans soleil'' digipack released by Arte Video.", "In Region 1, the Criterion Collection has released a ''La Jetée/Sans soleil'' combination DVD / Blu-ray, which features the option of hearing the English or French narration." ], [ "See also", "* Filmstrip* List of films featuring time loops* ''The Glass Fortress'' (similar photomontage style)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * ''La Jetée'' at Turner Classic Movies* ''La Jetée: The Philosophy of Time Travel'', a video essay by William Leese for The Cinematheque* ''La Jetée: Unchained Melody'', an essay by Jonathan Romney at the Criterion Collection* Platonic Themes in Chris Marker's ''La Jetée'' by Sander Lee at Senses of Cinema* ''Retrospecto: La Jetée'' review by Simon Sellars" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Little penguin" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''little penguin''' ('''''Eudyptula minor''''') is a species of penguin from New Zealand.", "They are commonly known as '''fairy penguins''', '''little blue penguins''', or '''blue penguins''', owing to their slate-blue plumage and are also known by their Māori name ''''''.", "They are fossorial birds.The Australian little penguin (''Eudyptula novaehollandiae''), from Australia and the Otago region of New Zealand, is considered a separate species by a 2016 study and a 2019 study." ], [ "Taxonomy", "A white-flippered penguin in the South Island.The little penguin was first described by German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster in 1781.Several subspecies are known, but a precise classification of these is still a matter of dispute.", "The holotypes of the subspecies ''E.", "m. variabilis'' and ''Eudyptula minor chathamensis'' are in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.", "The white-flippered penguin (''E.", "m. albosignata'' or ''E.", "m. minor morpha albosignata'') is currently considered by most taxonomists to be a colour morph or subspecies of ''Eudyptula minor.''", "In 2008, Shirihai treated the little penguin and white-flippered penguin as allospecies.", "However, as of 2012, the IUCN and BirdLife International consider the white-flippered penguin to be a subspecies or morph of the little penguin.Little penguins from New Zealand and Australia were once considered to be the same species, called ''Eudyptula minor''.", "Analysis of mtDNA in 2002 revealed two clades in ''Eudyptula'': one containing little penguins of New Zealand's North Island, Cook Strait and Chatham Island, as well as the white-flippered penguin, and a second containing little penguins of Australia and the Otago region of New Zealand.", "Preliminary analysis of braying calls and cluster analysis of morphometrics partially supported these results.", "A 2016 study described the Australian little penguin as a new and separate species, ''Eudyptula novaehollandiae''.", "''E.", "minor'' is endemic to New Zealand, while ''E.", "novaehollandiae'' is found in Australia and Otago.", "A 2019 study supported the recognition of ''E.", "minor'' and ''E.", "novaehollandiae'' as separate species." ], [ "Description", "Like those of all penguins, the wings of ''Eudyptula'' species have developed into flippers used for swimming.", "''Eudyptula'' species typically grow to between tall and on average weigh 1.5 kg (3.3 lb).", "The head and upper parts are blue in colour, with slate-grey ear coverts fading to white underneath, from the chin to the belly.", "Their flippers are blue in colour.", "The dark grey-black beak is 3–4 cm long, the irises pale silvery- or bluish-grey or hazel, and the feet pink above with black soles and webbing.", "An immature individual will have a shorter bill and lighter upperparts.Like most seabirds, the ''Eudyptula'' species have a long lifespan.", "The average for the species is 6.5 years, but flipper ringing experiments show that in very exceptional cases they may live up to 25 years in captivity.", "''Eudyptula minor'' does not have the distinct bright blue feathers that distinguish ''Eudyptula novaehollandiae.''", "In addition, the vocalisation patterns of the New Zealand lineage located on Tiritiri Matangi Island vary from the Australian lineage located in Oamaru.", "Females are known to prefer the local call of the New Zealand lineage.There are also behavioural differences that help differentiate these penguins.", "Those of the Australian lineage will swim together in a large group after dusk and walk along the shore to reach their nesting sites.", "This may be an effective predator avoidance strategy by traveling in a large group simultaneously.", "This has not been seen by those of the New Zealand lineage.", "''Eudyptula'' ''minor'' only recently encountered terrestrial vertebrate predators, while ''Eudyptula novaehollandiae'' would have had to deal with carnivorous marsupials.Australian ''Eudyptula novaehollandiae'' have been observed to double brood.", "Birds will double brood by laying a second clutch of eggs after the first has fledged to increase their reproductive success.", "They may also do this due to the increasing sea surface temperatures and changing sources of food that are available.", "This behaviour has also been observed in the Otago population, indicating this may be genetically-mediated behaviour in the populations of Australian lineage." ], [ "Distribution and habitat", "''Eudyptula minor'' breeds along most of the coastline of New Zealand, including the Chatham Islands.", "However, ''Eudyptula minor'' does not occur in Otago, which is located on the east coast of New Zealand's South Island.", "The Australian species ''Eudyptula novaehollandiae'' occurs in Otago.", "''E.", "novaehollandiae'' was originally endemic to Australia.", "Using ancient-DNA analysis and radiocarbon dating using historical, pre-human, as well as archaeological ''Eudyptula'' remains, the arrival of the Australian species in New Zealand was determined to have occurred roughly between AD 1500 and 1900.When the ''E.", "minor'' population declined in New Zealand, it left a genetic opening for ''E.", "novaehollandiae''.", "The decrease of ''E.", "minor'' was most likely due to anthropogenic effects, such as being hunted by humans as well as introduced predators, including dogs brought from overseas.It has been determined that the population of ''Eudyptula novaehollandiae'' in Otago arrived even more recently than previously estimated due to mulitlocus coalescent analyses.Overall, little penguin populations in New Zealand have been decreasing.", "Some colonies have become extinct, and others continue to be at risk.", "Some new colonies have been established in urban areas.", "The species is not considered endangered in New Zealand, with the exception of the white-flippered subspecies found only on Banks Peninsula and nearby Motunau Island.", "Since the 1960s, the mainland population has declined by 60-70%; though a small increase has occurred on Motunau Island.", "A colony exists in Wellington Harbor on Matiu / Somes Island." ], [ "Behaviour", "=== Feeding ===Little penguins feed by hunting small clupeoid fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans, for which they travel and dive quite extensively including to the sea floor.", "Important little penguin prey items include arrow squid, slender sprat, Graham's gudgeon, red cod, and ahuru." ], [ "Threats", "West Coast of New ZealandProtestors have opposed the development of a marina at Kennedy Point, Waiheke Island in New Zealand for the risk it poses to little penguins and their habitat.", "Protesters claimed that they exhausted all legal means to oppose the project and have had to resort to occupation and non-violent resistance.", "Several arrests have been made for trespassing.=== Introduced predators ===Introduced mammalian predators present the greatest terrestrial risk to little penguins and include cats, dogs, rats, and particularly ferrets and stoats.", "As examples significant dog attacks have been recorded at the colony at Little Kaiteriteri Beach, and a suspected stoat or ferret attack at Doctor's Point near Dunedin, New Zealand claimed the lives of 29 little blue penguins in November 2014.=== Oil spills ===Little penguin populations have been significantly affected by a major oil spill with the grounding of the ''Rena'' off New Zealand in 2011, which killed 2,000 seabirds (including little penguins) directly, and killed an estimated 20,000 in total based on wider ecosystem impacts.", "Oil spills are the most common cause of the little penguins being admitted to the rehabilitation facilities at Phillip Island Nature Park (PINP).", "These oil spill recurrences have endangered not just the little penguins, but the entire penguin population.", "This can further decline the population, which can lead to possible extinction." ], [ "Conservation", "''Eudyptula'' species are classified as \"at risk - declining\" under New Zealand's Wildlife Act 1953." ], [ "Zoological exhibits", "Little penguins at the Birch Aquarium, La JollaZoological exhibits featuring purpose-built enclosures for ''Eudyptula'' species can be seen in Australia at the Adelaide Zoo, Melbourne Zoo, the National Zoo & Aquarium in Canberra, Perth Zoo, Caversham Wildlife Park (Perth), Ballarat Wildlife Park, Sea Life Sydney Aquarium, and the Taronga Zoo in Sydney.", "Enclosures include nesting boxes or similar structures for the animals to retire into, a reconstruction of a pool and in some cases, a transparent aquarium wall to allow patrons to view the animals underwater while they swim.", "''Eudyptula'' penguin exhibit exists at Sea World, on the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia.", "In early March 2007, 25 of the 37 penguins died from an unknown toxin following a change of gravel in their enclosure.", "It is still not known what caused the deaths of the penguins, and it was decided not to return the 12 surviving penguins to the same enclosure where the penguins became ill. A new enclosure for the little penguin colony was opened at Sea World in 2008.In New Zealand, ''Eudyptula'' penguin exhibits exist at the Auckland Zoo, the Wellington Zoo, and the National Aquarium of New Zealand.", "Since 2017, the National Aquarium of New Zealand, has featured a monthly \"Penguin of the Month\" board, declaring two of their resident animals the \"Naughty\" and \"Nice\" penguin for that month.", "Photos of the board have gone viral and gained the aquarium a large worldwide social media following.In the United States, ''Eudyptula'' penguins can be seen at the Louisville Zoo the Bronx Zoo, and the Cincinnati Zoo." ], [ "See also", "* Smallest organisms" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* State of Penguins: Little (blue) penguin – detailed and current species account of ''(Eudyptula minor)'' in New Zealand* Little penguins at the International Penguin Conservation* Little penguin at PenguinWorld* West Coast Penguin Trust (New Zealand)* Philip Island Nature Park website*Gould's ''The Birds of Australia'' plate*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lake Balaton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lake Balaton''' () is a freshwater rift lake in the Transdanubian region of Hungary.", "It is the largest lake in Central Europe, and one of the region's foremost tourist destinations.", "The Zala River provides the largest inflow of water to the lake, and the canalized Sió is the only outflow.The mountainous region of the northern shore is known both for its historic character and as a major wine region, while the flat southern shore is known for its resort towns.", "Balatonfüred and Hévíz developed early as resorts for the wealthy, but it was not until the late 19th century when landowners, ruined by ''Phylloxera'' attacking their grape vines, began building summer homes to rent out to the burgeoning middle class." ], [ "Name", "In distinction to all other Hungarian endonyms for lakes, which universally bear the suffix ''-tó'' 'lake', Lake Balaton is referred to in Hungarian with a definite article; that is, ''a Balaton'' 'the Balaton'.", "It was called ''lacus Pelsodis'' or ''Pelso'' by the Romans.", "The name is Indo-European in origin, derived from Slavic *''bolto'' (Czech ''bláto'', Slovak ''blato'', Polish ''błoto''), meaning 'mud, swamp' (from earlier Proto-Slavic ''boltьno'', cf.", ", ).", "In January 846, the Slavic prince Pribina began to build a fortress as his seat of power and several churches in the region of Lake Balaton, in the territory of modern Zalavár surrounded by forests and swamps along the Zala River.", "His well-fortified castle and capital of the Lower Pannonian Principality became known as ''Blatnohrad'' or ''Moosburg'' (literally, 'Swamp Fortress'), and it served as a bulwark against both the Bulgarians and the Moravians.The German name for the lake is ''''.", "It is unlikely it was given that name for being shallow because the adjective '''' is a Greek loanword that was borrowed via French and entered general German vocabulary in the 17th century.", "It is also noteworthy that the average depth of Balaton () is not extraordinary for the area (cf.", "the average depth of the neighbouring Neusiedler See, which is roughly )." ], [ "Climate", "Map of Balaton in ancient timesBalaton seen from Sentinel-2 satelliteLake Balaton affects precipitation in the local area.", "The area receives approximately more precipitation than most of Hungary, resulting in more cloudy days and less extreme temperatures.", "The lake freezes over during winters.", "The microclimate around Lake Balaton has also made the region ideal for viticulture.", "The Mediterranean-like climate, combined with the soil (containing volcanic rock), has made the region notable for its production of wines since the Roman period 2,000 years ago." ], [ "History", "Detail of a silver plate from the Seuso Treasure with the inscription ''PELSO'' (i.e., 'Balaton')While a few settlements on Lake Balaton, including Balatonfüred and Hévíz, have long been resort centres for the Hungarian aristocracy, it was only in the late 19th century that the Hungarian middle class began to visit the lake.", "The construction of railways in 1861 and 1909 increased tourism substantially, but the post-war boom of the 1950s was much larger.By the turn of the 20th century, Balaton had become a center of research by Hungarian biologists, geologists, hydrologists, and other scientists, leading to the country's first biological research institute being built on its shore in 1927.The last major German offensive of World War II, Operation Spring Awakening, was conducted in the region of Lake Balaton in March 1945, being referred to as \"the Lake Balaton Offensive\" in many British histories of the war.", "The battle was a German attack by Sepp Dietrich's Sixth Panzer Army and the Hungarian Third Army between 6 and 16 March 1945, and in the end, resulted in a Red Army victory.", "Several Ilyushin Il-2 wrecks have been pulled out of the lake after having been shot down during the later months of the war.During the 1960s and 1970s, Balaton became a major tourist destination due to focused government efforts, causing the number of overnight guests in local hotels and campsites to increase from 700,000 in July 1965 to two million in July 1975.The number of weekend visitors to the region, including tens of thousands from Budapest, reached more than 600,000 by 1975.It was visited by ordinary working Hungarians and especially for subsidised holiday excursions for labor union members.", "It also attracted many East Germans and other residents of the Eastern Bloc.", "West Germans could also visit, making Balaton a common meeting place for families and friends separated by the Berlin Wall until 1989." ], [ "Tourism", "The major resorts around the lake are Siófok, Keszthely, and Balatonfüred.", "Zamárdi, another resort town on the southern shore, has been the site of Balaton Sound, a notable electronic music festival since 2007.Balatonkenese has hosted numerous traditional gastronomic events.", "Siófok is known for attracting young people to it because of its large clubs.", "Keszthely is the site of the Festetics Palace and Balatonfüred is a historical bathing town which hosts the annual Anna Ball.The peak tourist season extends from June until the end of August.", "The average water temperature during the summer is , which makes bathing and swimming popular on the lake.", "Most of the beaches consist of either grass, rocks, or the silty sand that also makes up most of the bottom of the lake.", "Many resorts have artificial sandy beaches and all beaches have step access to the water.", "Other tourist attractions include sailing, fishing, and other water sports, as well as visiting the countryside and hills, wineries on the north coast, and nightlife on the south shore.", "The Tihany Peninsula is a historical district.", "Badacsony is a volcanic mountain and wine-growing region as well as a lakeside resort.", "The lake is almost completely surrounded by separated bike lanes to facilitate bicycle tourism.", "Although the peak season at the lake is the summer, Balaton is also frequented during the winter, when visitors go ice-fishing or even skate, sledge, or ice-sail on the lake if it freezes over.Sármellék International Airport provides air service to Balaton (although most service is only seasonal).Other resort towns include: Balatonalmádi, Balatonboglár, Balatonlelle, Fonyód and Vonyarcvashegy." ], [ "Towns and villages", "Towns and villages alongside Lake Balaton.=== North shore ===From east to west:Balatonfőkajár - Balatonakarattya - Balatonkenese - Balatonfűzfő - Balatonalmádi - Alsóörs - Paloznak - Csopak - Balatonarács - Balatonfüred - Tihany - Aszófő - Örvényes - Balatonudvari - Fövenyes - Balatonakali - Zánka - Balatonszepezd - Szepezdfürdő - Révfülöp - Pálköve - Ábrahámhegy - Balatonrendes - Badacsonytomaj - Badacsony - Badacsonytördemic - Szigliget - Balatonederics - Balatongyörök - Vonyarcvashegy - Gyenesdiás - Keszthely=== South shore ===From east to west:Balatonakarattya - Balatonaliga - Balatonvilágos - Sóstó - Szabadifürdő - Siófok - Széplak - Zamárdi - Szántód - Balatonföldvár - Balatonszárszó - Balatonszemes - Balatonlelle - Balatonboglár - Fonyód - Fonyód–Alsóbélatelep - Bélatelep - Balatonfenyves - Balatonmáriafürdő - Balatonkeresztúr - Balatonberény - Fenékpuszta" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Balatonmáriafürdő, Hungary.jpg|BadacsonyFile:Balatonalmadi06szept0005.jpg|BalatonalmádiFile:ShipsBalatonfüred.jpg|BalatonfüredFile:Zala estuary.jpg|The estuary of Zala riverFile:Heart-shaped tombstones in Balatonudvari.jpg|BalatonudvariFile:Balaton in winter (1).jpg|Balaton in WinterFile:Fonyód.jpg|FonyódFile:Balaton as seen from Alsórét szabadstrand.jpg|Balaton as seen from Alsórét, BalatonkeneseFile:Kőröshegy catholic church.JPG|KőröshegyFile:Balaton Hungary 2005 033.jpg|SiófokFile:Szigliget, vár 2.JPG|Castle at SzigligetFile:Benedictine Abbey on Tihany Peninsula - july 2007.jpg|TihanyFile:A tihanyi apátság.jpg|Benedictine Abbey on Tihany PeninsulaFile:Zamárdi kilátás Kőhegyről.jpg|ZamárdiFile:A tihanyi félszigeten.jpg|On Tihany PeninsulaFile:Naplemente a Balatonnál.jpg|Sunset at the lakeFile:Balatoni látkép.jpg|A view of the lakeFile:Balaton lake.jpg|View to lake Balaton from the Fonyod city" ], [ "See also", "* Balaton Principality* Balaton Uplands National Park* Geography of Hungary" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Libro de los juegos" ], [ "Introduction", "The game of astronomical tables, from The '''''' (Spanish: \"Book of games\"), or '''''' (\"Book of chess, dice and tables\", in Old Spanish), was a Spanish treaty of chess which synthesized the information from other Arabic works on this same topic, dice and tables (backgammon forebears) games, commissioned by Alfonso X of Castile, Galicia and León and completed in his scriptorium in Toledo in 1283.It contains the earliest European treatise on chess as well as being the oldest document on European tables games, and is an exemplary piece of the literary legacy of the Toledo School of Translators." ], [ "Significance", "The is one of the most important documents for researching the history of board games.", "This \"celebrated MS book of games\" has been described as \"one of the choicest treasures of the library of the Escorial\" as well as the \"perhaps the greatest source of information on board games ever compiled during the Middle Ages.\"", "It is both \"the earliest treatise on chess and the oldest document relating to tables which have had their origin in Europe.\"" ], [ "Description", "The book consists of ninety-seven leaves of parchment, many with color illustrations, and contains 150 miniatures.", "The text is a treatise that addresses the playing of three game types: a game of skill, or chess; games of chance, or dice; and a third game type, tables, which combines elements of both skill and chance.", "These games are discussed in the final section of the book at both an astronomical and astrological level.", "Examining further, the text can also be read as an allegorical initiation tale and as a metaphysical guide for leading a balanced, prudent, and virtuous life.", "In addition to the didactic, although not overly moralistic, aspect of the text, the manuscript's illustrations reveal a rich cultural, social, and religious complexity." ], [ "Location", "The earliest manuscript is in the library of the monastery of El Escorial near Madrid in Spain, as manuscript T.I.6.It is bound in sheepskin and is 40 cm high and 28 cm wide (16 in × 11 in).", "A 1334 copy is held in the library of the Spanish Royal Academy of History in Madrid." ], [ "Background", "Alfonso was likely influenced by his contact with scholars in the Arab world.", "Unlike many contemporary texts on the topic, he does not engage the games in the text with moralistic arguments; instead, he portrays them in an astrological context.", "He conceives of gaming as a dichotomy between the intellect and chance.", "The book is divided into three parts reflecting this: the first on chess (a game purely of abstract strategy), the second on dice (with outcomes controlled strictly by chance), and the last on tables (combining elements of both).", "The text may have been influenced by Frederick II's text on falconry." ], [ "Chess", "Chess problem #35 Chess problem featuring Moors of Spain.The contains an extensive collection of writings on chess, with over 100 chess problems and variants.", "Among its more notable entries is a depiction of what Alfonso calls the ''ajedrex de los quatro tiempos'' (\"chess of the four seasons\").", "This game is a chess variant for four players, described as representing a conflict between the four elements and the four humors.", "The chessmen are marked correspondingly in green, red, black, and white, and pieces are moved according to the roll of dice.", "Alfonso also describes a game titled \"astronomical chess\", played on a board of seven concentric circles, divided radially into twelve areas, each associated with a constellation of the Zodiac.Another variant described in the book is the \"Grant Acedrex\", played over a 12x12 board with alternative pieces as the giraffe and the unicornio." ], [ "Tables", "''Seis, dos, y as''The book describes the rules for a number of games in the tables family.", "One notable entry is ''todas tablas'', the equivalent of the Anglo-Scottish game of Irish, which some scholars have argued has several similarities to modern backgammon including an identical starting position and the same rules for movement and bearing off, albeit the accompanying image has a different opening layout.", "Alfonso also describes a variant played on a board with seven points in each table.", "Players rolled seven-sided dice to determine the movement of pieces, an example of Alfonso's preference for the number seven.The tables games described are: Spanish name Translation RemarksQuinze Tablas Fifteen Pieces Doce Canes, Doce Hermanos Twelve Dogs, Twelve Brothers Doblet Doublet Related to the English game of Doublets Fallas Drop Dead Related to the English game of Fayles Seys Does e As Six, Two and Ace Related to the English game of Six-Ace Emperador Emperor Medio-Emperador Half Emperor Paireia de Entrada Paired Entry Cab e Quinal Alongside Fives Todas Tablas All Pieces Related to the Anglo-Scottish game of Irish Laquet Related to the French game of Jacquet Buffa Cortesa Courtly Puff Related to the German game of Puff Buffa de Baldrac Common Puff Rencontrat" ], [ "Art", "A 13th-century illustration in of Nine men's morris being played with diceThe miniatures in the ''Libro de juegos'' vary between half- and full-page illustrations.", "The half-page miniatures typically occupy the upper half of a folio, with text explaining the game \"problem\" solved in the image occupying the bottom half.", "The back or second (verso) side of Folio 1, in a half-page illustration, depicts the initial stages of the creation of the ''Libro de juegos'', accompanied by text on the bottom half of the page, and the front or first (recto) side of Folio 2 depicts the transmission of the game of chess from an Indian Philosopher-King to three followers.", "The full-page illustrations are almost exclusively on the verso side of later folios and are faced by accompanying text on the recto side of the following folio.", "The significance of the change in miniature size and placement may indicate images of special emphasis, could merely function as a narrative or didactic technique, or could indicate different artisans at work in Alfonso's scriptorium as the project developed over time.Having multiple artisans working on the ''Libro de juegos'' would have been a typical practice for medieval chanceries and scriptoria, where the labor of producing a manuscript was divided amongst individuals of varying capacities, for example the positions of scribe, draftsman, and apprentice cutting pages.", "But in addition to performing different tasks, various artisans could have labored at the same job, such as the work of illustration in the ''Libro de juegos'', thereby revealing a variety hands or styles.", "The ''Libro de Juegos'' offers such evidence in the difference in size between the half- and full-page illustrations in addition to changes in framing techniques amongst the folios: geometrical frames with embellished corners, architectural frames established by loosely perspectival rooftops and colonnades, and games played under tents.", "Other stylistic variances are found in figural representation, in facial types, and in a repertoire of different postures assumed by the players in different folios in the manuscript.For example, in a comparison of two miniatures, found on Folios 53v and 76r, examples of these different styles are apparent, although the trope of a pair of gamers is maintained.", "In Folio 53v, two men are playing chess, both wearing turbans and robes.", "Although they may be seated on rugs on the ground, as suggested by the ceramic containers that are placed on or front of the rug near the man on the right side of the board, the figures' seated positions, which are full frontal with knees bent at right angles, suggests that they are seated on stools or perhaps upholstered benches.", "The figures' robes display a Byzantine conservatism, with their modeled three-dimensionality and allusion to a Classical style, yet the iconic hand gestures are reminiscent of a Romanesque energy and theatricality.", "Although the figures are seated with their knees and torsos facing front, their shoulders and heads rotate in three-quarter profile toward the center of the page, the chess board, and each other.", "The proximal, inner arm of each player (the arm that is closest to the board) is raised in a speaking gesture; the distal, outside arms of the players are also raised and are bent at the elbows, creating a partial crossing of each player's torso as the hands lift in speaking gestures.", "The faces reveal a striking specificity of subtle detail, particular to a limited number of miniatures throughout the ''Libro de juegos'', perhaps indicative of a particular artist's hand.", "These details include full cheeks, realistic wrinkles around the eyes and across the brow, and a red, full-lipped mouth that hints at the Gothic affectations in figural representation coming out of France during the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries.The style in the miniature in Folio 76v is markedly different from the style in Folio 53v.", "In this case, the framed miniature contains two men, perhaps Spanish, with uncovered wavy light brown hair that falls to the jaw line.", "The men seem young, as the player on the left has no facial hair and his face is unlined.", "In both folios, both pairs of players are playing tables and seem to be well-dressed, although there is no addition of gold detailing to their robes as seen in the wardrobes of aristocratic players in other miniatures.", "These players are seated on the ground, leaning on pillows that are placed next to a tables board.", "In this miniature, the figure on the left side of the board faces the reader, while the figure on the right leans in to the board with his back to the reader.", "In other words, each player is leaning on his left elbow, using his right hand to reach across his body to play.", "In the miniatures of this style, the emphasis seems to be more on the posture of the player than the detail of their faces; this crossed, lounging style is only found in the folios of the ''Libro de tablas'', the third section of the ''Libro de juegos'' which explains tables games, again perhaps indicative of the work of a particular artist.Other visual details contemporaneous of Alfonso's court and social and cultural milieu infuse the ''Libro de juegos''.", "Although some of the miniatures are framed by simple rectangles with corners embellished by the golden castles and lions of Castile and León, other are framed by medieval Spanish architectural motifs, including Gothic and Mudéjar arcades of columns and arches.", "At times, the figural depictions are hierarchical, especially in scenes with representations of Alfonso, where the king is seated on a raised throne while dictating to scribes or meting out punishments to gamblers.", "Yet a contemporary atmosphere of Spanish ''convivencia'' is evoked by the inclusion nobility, rogues, vagrants, young and old, men, women, Christian, Muslim, and Jewish characters.", "Alfonso himself is depicted throughout the text, both as participant and spectator and as an older man and as a younger.", "The pages are filled with many social classes and ethnicities in various stages of solving the challenges presented by games." ], [ "Iconography", "The can be divided into three parts: the games and problems it explores textually, the actual illuminations themselves, and the metaphysical allegories, where an analysis of the texts and illuminations reveals the movements of the macrocosmos of the universe and the microcosmos of man.", "The symbolism within the medieval illuminations, as explained by the accompanying texts, reveal allusions to medieval literature, art, science, law and philosophy.", "Intended as a didactic text, the manuscript functions as a manual that documents and explains how and why one plays games ranging from pure, intellectual strategy (chess), to games of pure chance (dice), to games that incorporate both elements (tables).", "Conceivably, Alfonso hoped to elucidate for himself how to better play the game of life, while also providing a teaching tool for others.", "The game of ''ajedrex'', or chess, is not the only game explained in the , but it does occupy the primary position in the text and is given the most attention to detail.In the thirteenth century, chess had been played in Europe for almost two hundred years, having been introduced into Europe by Arabs around the year 1000.The Arabs had become familiar with the game as early as the eighth century when the Islamic empire conquered Persia, where the game of chess was alleged to have been originated.", "It is said that a royal advisor had invented the game in order to teach his king prudence without having to overtly correct him.", "As Arab contact with the West expanded, so too did the game and its various permutations, and by the twelfth century, chess was becoming an entertaining diversion among a growing population of Europeans, including some scholars, clergy, the aristocracy, and the merchant classes; thus, by the thirteenth century, the iconography and symbolism associated with chess would have been accessible and familiar to Alfonso and his literate court culture, who may have had access to the private library, and manuscripts, of Alfonso, including the .The manuscript was a Castilian translation of Arabic texts, which were themselves translations of Persian manuscripts.", "The visual trope portrayed in the miniatures is seen in other European transcriptions of the Arabic translations, most notably the German Carmina Burana Manuscript: two figures, one on either side of the board, with the board tilted up to reveal to the readers the moves made by the players.", "The juxtaposition of chess and dice in Arabic tradition, indicating the opposing values of skill (chess) and ignorance (dice), was given a different spin in Alfonso's manuscript, however.", "As Alfonso elucidates in the opening section of the , the ''Libro de ajedrex'' (Book of chess) demonstrates the value of the intellect, the ''Libro de los dados'' (Book of dice) illustrates that chance has supremacy over pure intellect, and the'' Libro de las tablas'' (Book of tables) celebrates a conjoined use of both intellect and chance.", "Further, the iconographic linkage between chess and kingship in the Western tradition continued to evolve and became symbolic of kingly virtues, including skill, prudence, and intelligence." ], [ "Literary context", "Most of the work accomplished in Alfonso's scriptorium consisted of translations into the Spanish vernacular from Arabic translations of Greek texts or classical Jewish medicinal texts.", "As a result, very few original works were produced by this scholar-king, relative to the huge amount of work that was translated under his auspices.", "This enormous focus on translation was perhaps an attempt by Alfonso to continue the legacy of academic openness in Castile, initiated by Islamic rulers in Córdoba, where the emirates had also employed armies of translators in order to fill their libraries with Arabic translations of classic Greek texts.", "Alfonso was successful in promoting Castilian society and culture through his emphasis on the use of Galaico-Portuguese and Castilian, in academic, juridical, diplomatic, literary, and historical works.", "This emphasis also had the effect of reducing the universality of his translated works and original academic writings, as Latin was the ''lingua franca'' in both Iberia and Europe; yet Alfonso never desisted in his promotion of the Castilian vernacular." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1217, Alfonso had captured the Kingdom of Murcia, on the Mediterranean coast south of Valencia, for his father, King Alfonso IX, thereby unifying the kingdoms of Castile and León, bringing together the northern half of the Iberian Peninsula under one Christian throne.", "With the Christian ''Reconquista'' of the Peninsula underway, inroads into Islamic territories were successfully incorporating lands previously held by the ''taifa'' kingdoms.", "The arts and sciences prospered in the Kingdom of Castile under the confluence of Latin and Arabic traditions of academic curiosity as Alfonso sponsored scholars, translators, and artists of all three religions of the Book (Jewish, Christian, and Muslim) in his chanceries and scriptoria.", "Clerical and secular scholars from Europe turned their eyes to the Iberian Peninsula as the arts and sciences prospered in an early Spanish \"renaissance\" under the patronage of Alfonso X, who was continuing the tradition of (relatively) enlightened and tolerant ''convivencia'' established by the Muslim emirate several centuries earlier.As an inheritor of a dynamic mixture of Arabic and Latin culture, Alfonso was steeped in the rich heritage of humanistic philosophy, and the production of his reveals the compendium of world views that comprised the eclectic thirteenth-century admixture of faith and science.", "According to this approach, man's actions could be traced historically, and his failures and successes could be studied as lessons to be applied to his future progress.", "These experiences can be played out and studied as they are lived, or as game moves played and analysed in the pages of the .", "It is a beautiful and luxurious document, rich not only in workmanship but also in the amount of scholarship of multiple medieval disciplines that are integrated in its pages." ], [ "See also", "* Literature of Alfonso X* Astronomical chess*Scachs d'amor" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Canettieri, Paolo, \"A critical edition of The Book of Games\".", "''Google Knol'' collection.", "* Canettieri, Paolo, \"The Book of Games: A bibliography\".", "''Google Knol'' collection.", "* Canettieri, Paolo, \"The Book of Games: A critical edition\" (Italian: \"ALFONSO X EL SABIO – Il Libro dei giochi – Introduzione, edizione e commento\").", "''Google Knol'' collection.", "* Cazaux, Jean-Louis and Rick Knowlton (2017).", "''A World of Chess''.", "Jefferson, NC: McFarland.", "* Fiske, Willard (1905).", "''Chess in Iceland and in Icelandic literature: with Historical Notes on other Table-Games''.", "Florence: Florentine Typographical Society.", "* Golladay, Sonja Musser, \"Alfonso X's Book of Games: A translation\" (old link archived from the University of Arizona: A translation)* ( PDF version) Cf.", "especially section on \"The Alfonso X 'Book of Games'\".", "* Vazquez-Campos, Braulio, \"Alfonso X and Chess\" (Spanish: \"Alfonso X y el ajedrez\").", "''Google Knol'' collection." ], [ "External links", "* Alphonso X Book of Games at RenGeekCentral* Elliot Avedon Museum & Archive of Games* Focus on Chess variants from Alfonso's codex" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lithium citrate" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lithium citrate''' (Li3C6H5O7) is a lithium salt of citric acid that is used as a mood stabilizer in psychiatric treatment of manic states and bipolar disorder.", "There is extensive pharmacology of lithium, the active component of this salt.Lithia water contains various lithium salts, including the citrate." ], [ "History", "An early version of Coca-Cola available in pharmacies' soda fountains called Lithia Coke was a mixture of Coca-Cola syrup and lithia water.", "The soft drink 7Up was originally named \"Bib-Label Lithiated Lemon-Lime Soda\" when it was formulated in 1929 because it contained lithium citrate.", "The beverage was a patent medicine marketed as a cure for hangover.", "Lithium citrate was removed from 7Up in 1948 after it was banned by the Food and Drug Administration.Lithium citrate is used as a mood stabilizer and is used to treat mania, hypomania, depression and bipolar disorder.", "It can be administered orally in the form of a syrup." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lithium carbonate" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lithium carbonate''' is an inorganic compound, the lithium salt of carbonic acid with the formula .", "This white salt is widely used in processing metal oxides.", "It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines for its efficacy in the treatment of mood disorders such as bipolar disorder." ], [ "Uses", "Lithium carbonate is an important industrial chemical.", "Its main use is as a precursor to compounds used in lithium-ion batteries.", "Glasses derived from lithium carbonate are useful in ovenware.", "Lithium carbonate is a common ingredient in both low-fire and high-fire ceramic glaze.", "It forms low-melting fluxes with silica and other materials.", "Its alkaline properties are conducive to changing the state of metal oxide colorants in glaze, particularly red iron oxide ().", "Cement sets more rapidly when prepared with lithium carbonate, and is useful for tile adhesives.", "When added to aluminium trifluoride, it forms LiF which yields a superior electrolyte for the processing of aluminium.===Rechargeable batteries===Lithium carbonate-derived compounds are crucial to lithium-ion batteries.", "Lithium carbonate may be converted into lithium hydroxide as an intermediate.", "In practice, two components of the battery are made with lithium compounds: the cathode and the electrolyte.", "The electrolyte is a solution of lithium hexafluorophosphate, while the cathode uses one of several lithiated structures, the most popular of which are lithium cobalt oxide and lithium iron phosphate.Lithium prices===Medical uses===In 1843, lithium carbonate was used to treat stones in the bladder.", "In 1859, some doctors recommended a therapy with lithium salts for a number of ailments, including gout, urinary calculi, rheumatism, mania, depression, and headache.", "In 1948, John Cade discovered the anti-manic effects of lithium ions.", "This finding led to lithium carbonate's use as a psychiatric medication to treat mania, the elevated phase of bipolar disorder.", "Prescription lithium carbonate from a pharmacy is suitable for use as medicine in humans but industrial lithium carbonate is not since it may contain unsafe levels of toxic heavy metals or other toxicants.", "After ingestion, lithium carbonate is dissociated into pharmacologically active lithium ions (Li+) and (non-therapeutic) carbonate, with 300 mg of lithium carbonate containing approximately 8 mEq (8 mmol) of lithium ion.", "According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 300–600 mg of lithium carbonate taken two to three times daily is typical for maintenance of bipolar I disorder in adults, where the exact dose given varies depending on factors such as the patient's serum lithium concentrations, which must be closely monitored by a physician to avoid lithium toxicity and potential kidney damage (or even kidney failure) from lithium-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.", "Dehydration and certain drugs, including NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, can increase serum lithium concentrations to unsafe levels whereas other drugs, such as caffeine, may decrease concentrations.", "In contrast to the elemental ions sodium, potassium, and calcium, there is no known cellular mechanism specifically dedicated to regulating intracellular lithium.", "Lithium can enter cells through epithelial sodium channels.", "Lithium ions interfere with ion transport processes that relay and amplify messages carried to the cells of the brain.", "Mania is associated with irregular increases in protein kinase C (PKC) activity within the brain.", "Lithium carbonate and sodium valproate, another drug traditionally used to treat the disorder, act in the brain by inhibiting PKC's activity and help to produce other compounds that also inhibit the PKC.", "Lithium carbonate's mood-controlling properties are not fully understood.", "====Health risks====Taking lithium salts has risks and side effects.", "Extended use of lithium to treat mental disorders has been known to lead to acquired nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.", "Lithium intoxication can affect the central nervous system and renal system and can be lethal.", "Over a prolonged period, lithium can accumulate in the principal cells of the collecting duct and interfere with antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which regulates the water permeability of principal cells in the collecting tubule.", "The medullary interstitium of the collecting duct system naturally has a high sodium concentration and attempts to maintain it.", "There is no known mechanism for cells to distinguish lithium ions from sodium ions, so damage to the kidney's nephrons may occur if lithium concentrations become too high as a result of dehydration, hyponatremia, an unusually low sodium diet, or certain drugs.===Red pyrotechnic colorant===Lithium carbonate is used to impart a red color to fireworks." ], [ "Properties and reactions", "Unlike sodium carbonate, which forms at least three hydrates, lithium carbonate exists only in the anhydrous form.", "Its solubility in water is low relative to other lithium salts.", "The isolation of lithium from aqueous extracts of lithium ores capitalizes on this poor solubility.", "Its apparent solubility increases 10-fold under a mild pressure of carbon dioxide; this effect is due to the formation of the metastable lithium bicarbonate, which is more soluble:: + + 2 The extraction of lithium carbonate at high pressures of and its precipitation upon depressurizing is the basis of the Quebec process.Lithium carbonate can also be purified by exploiting its diminished solubility in hot water.", "Thus, heating a saturated aqueous solution causes crystallization of .Lithium carbonate, and other carbonates of group 1, do not decarboxylate readily.", "decomposes at temperatures around 1300 °C." ], [ "Production", "Lithium is extracted from primarily two sources: spodumene in pegmatite deposits, and lithium salts in underground brine pools.", "About 82,000 tons were produced in 2020, showing significant and consistent growth.===From underground brine reservoirs===In the Salar de Atacama in the Atacama desert of Northern Chile, lithium carbonate and hydroxide are produced from brine.The process pumps lithium rich brine from below ground into shallow pans for evaporation.", "The brine contains many different dissolved ions, and as their concentration increases, salts precipitate out of solution and sink.", "The remaining supernatant liquid is used for the next step.", "The sequence of pans may vary depending on the concentration of ions in a particular source of brine.In the first pan, halite (sodium chloride or common salt) crystallises.", "This has little economic value and is discarded.", "The supernatant, with ever increasing concentration of dissolved solids, is transferred successively to the sylvinite (sodium potassium chloride) pan, the carnalite (potassium magnesium chloride) pan and finally a pan designed to maximise the concentration of lithium chloride.", "The process takes about 15 months.", "The concentrate (30-35% lithium chloride solution) is trucked to Salar del Carmen.", "There, boron and magnesium are removed (typically residual boron is removed by solvent extraction and/or ion exchange and magnesium by raising the pH above 10 with sodium hydroxide) then in the final step, by addition of sodium carbonate, the desired lithium carbonate is precipitated out, separated, and processed.Some of the by-products from the evaporation process may also have economic value.There is considerable attention to the use of water in this water poor region.", "SQM commissioned a life-cycle analysis (LCA) which concluded that water consumption for SQM's lithium hydroxide and carbonate is significantly lower than the average consumption by production from the main ore-based process, using spodumene.", "A more general LCA suggests the opposite for extraction from reservoirs.The majority of brine based production is in the \"lithium triangle\" in South America.=== From 'geothermal' brine ===A potential source of lithium is the leachates of geothermal wells, carried to the surface.", "Recovery of lithium has been demonstrated in the field; the lithium is separated by simple precipitation and filtration.", "The process and environmental costs are primarily those of the already-operating well; net environmental impacts may thus be positive.The brine of United Downs Deep Geothermal Power project near Redruth is claimed by Cornish Lithium to be valuable due to its high lithium concentration (220 mg/L) with low magnesium (2Al4(CO3)(OH)12⋅3H2Oalso.===Other===In April 2017 MGX Minerals reported it had received independent confirmation of its rapid lithium extraction process to recover lithium and other valuable minerals from oil and gas wastewater brine.Electrodialysis has been proposed to extract lithium from seawater, but it is not commercially viable." ], [ "Natural occurrence", "Natural lithium carbonate is known as zabuyelite.", "This mineral is connected with deposits of some salt lakes and some pegmatites." ], [ "References", " Wilkinson" ], [ "External links", "* Official FDA information published by Drugs.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lunar Roving Vehicle" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Lunar Roving Vehicle''' ('''LRV''') is a battery-powered four-wheeled rover used on the Moon in the last three missions of the American Apollo program (15, 16, and 17) during 1971 and 1972.It is popularly called the '''Moon buggy''', a play on the term \"dune buggy\".Built by Boeing, each LRV has a mass of without payload.", "It could carry a maximum payload of , including two astronauts, equipment, and cargo such as lunar samples, and was designed for a top speed of , although it achieved a top speed of on its last mission, Apollo 17.Each LRV was carried to the Moon folded up in the Lunar Module's Quadrant 1 Bay.", "After being unpacked, each was driven an average of 30 km, without major incident.", "These three LRVs remain on the Moon." ], [ "History", "The concept of a lunar rover predated Apollo, with a 1952–1954 series in ''Collier's Weekly'' magazine by Wernher von Braun and others, \"Man Will Conquer Space Soon!\"", "In this, von Braun described a six-week stay on the Moon, featuring 10-ton tractor trailers for moving supplies.In 1956, Mieczysław G. Bekker published two books on land locomotion.", "At the time, Bekker was a University of Michigan professor and a consultant to the U.S. Army Tank-Automotive Command's Land Locomotion Laboratory.", "The books provided much of the theoretical basis for future lunar vehicle development.=== Early lunar mobility studies ===In the February 1964 issue of ''Popular Science'', von Braun, then director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), discussed the need for a lunar surface vehicle, and revealed that studies had been underway at Marshall in conjunction with Lockheed, Bendix, Boeing, General Motors, Brown Engineering, Grumman, and Bell Aerospace.MOLAB, NASA Illustration, 1960Beginning in the early 1960s, a series of studies centering on lunar mobility were conducted under Marshall.", "This began with the lunar logistics system (LLS), followed by the mobility laboratory (MOLAB), then the lunar scientific survey module (LSSM), and finally the mobility test article (MTA).", "In early planning for the Apollo program, it had been assumed that two Saturn V launch vehicles would be used for each lunar mission: one for sending the crew aboard a Lunar Surface Module (LSM) to lunar orbit, landing, and returning, and a second for sending an LSM-Truck (LSM-T) with all of the equipment, supplies, and transport vehicle for use by the crew while on the surface.", "All of the first Marshall studies were based on this dual-launch assumption, allowing a large, heavy, roving vehicle.Grumman and Northrop, in the fall of 1962, began to design pressurized-cabin vehicles, with electric motors for each wheel.", "At about this same time Bendix and Boeing started their own internal studies on lunar transportation systems.", "Mieczysław Bekker, now with General Motors Defense Research Laboratories at Santa Barbara, California, was completing a study for NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory on a small, uncrewed lunar roving vehicle for the Surveyor program.", "Ferenc Pavlics, originally from Hungary, used a wire-mesh design for \"resilient wheels,\" a design that would be followed in future small rovers.In early 1963, NASA selected Marshall for studies in an Apollo Logistics Support System (ALSS).", "Following reviews of all earlier efforts, this resulted in a 10-volume report.", "Included was the need for a pressurized vehicle in the weight range, accommodating two men with their expendables and instruments for traverses up to two weeks in duration.", "In June 1964, Marshall awarded contracts to Bendix and to Boeing, with GM's lab designated as the vehicle technology subcontractor.", "Bell Aerospace was already under contract for studies of Lunar Flying Vehicles.Even as the Bendix and Boeing studies were underway, Marshall was examining a less ambitious surface exploration activity, the LSSM.", "This would be composed of a fixed, habitable shelter–laboratory with a small lunar-traversing vehicle that could either carry one man or be remotely controlled.", "This mission would still require a dual launch with the moon vehicle carried on the \"lunar truck\".", "Marshall's Propulsion and Vehicle Engineering (P&VE) lab contracted with Hayes International to make a preliminary study of the shelter and its related vehicle.", "Because of the potential need for an enclosed vehicle for enlarged future lunar explorations, those design efforts continued for some time, and resulted in several full-scale test vehicles.Comparison of distances driven by various wheeled vehicles on the surface of the Moon and MarsWith pressure from Congress to hold down Apollo costs, Saturn V production was reduced, allowing only a single launch per mission.", "Any roving vehicle would have to fit on the same lunar module as the astronauts.", "In November 1964, two-rocket models were put on indefinite hold, but Bendix and Boeing were given study contracts for small rovers.", "The name of the lunar excursion module was changed to simply the lunar module, indicating that the capability for powered \"excursions\" away from a lunar-lander base did not yet exist.", "There could be no mobile lab — the astronauts would work out of the LM.", "Marshall also continued to examine uncrewed robotic rovers that could be controlled from the Earth.From the beginnings at Marshall, the Brown Engineering Company of Huntsville, Alabama, had participated in all of the lunar mobility efforts.", "In 1965, Brown became the prime support contractor for Marshall's P&VE Laboratory.", "With an urgent need to determine the feasibility of a two-man self-contained lander, von Braun bypassed the usual procurement process and had P&VE's Advanced Studies Office directly task Brown to design, build, and test a prototype vehicle.", "While Bendix and Boeing would continue to refine concepts and designs for a lander, test model rovers were vital for Marshall human factors studies involving spacesuit-clad astronauts interfacing with power, telemetry, navigation, and life-support rover equipment.Brown's team made full use of the earlier small-rover studies, and commercially available components were incorporated wherever possible.", "The selection of wheels was of great importance, and almost nothing was known at that time about the lunar surface.", "The Marshall Space Sciences Laboratory (SSL) was responsible for predicting surface properties, and Brown was also prime support contractor for this lab; Brown set up a test area to examine a wide variety of wheel-surface conditions.", "To simulate Pavlics' \"resilient wheel,\" a four-foot-diameter inner tube wrapped with nylon ski rope was used.", "On the small test rover, each wheel had a small electric motor, with overall power provided by standard truck batteries.", "A roll bar gave protection from overturn accidents.In early 1966, Brown's vehicle became available for examining human factors and other testing.", "Marshall built a small test track with craters and rock debris where the several different mock-ups were compared; it became obvious that a small rover would be best for the proposed missions.", "The test vehicle was also operated in remote mode to determine characteristics that might be dangerous to the driver, such as acceleration, bounce-height, and turn-over tendency as it traveled at higher speeds and over simulated obstacles.", "The test rover's performance under one-sixth gravity was obtained through flights on a KC-135A aircraft in a Reduced Gravity parabolic maneuver; among other things, the need for a very soft wheel and suspension combination was shown.", "Although Pavlics' wire-mesh wheels were not initially available for the reduced gravity tests, the mesh wheels were tested on various soils at the Waterways Experiment Station of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at Vicksburg, Mississippi.", "Later, when wire-mesh wheels were tested on low-g flights, the need for wheel fenders to reduce dust contamination was found.", "The model was also extensively tested at the U.S. Army's Yuma Proving Ground in Arizona, as well as the Army's Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland.=== Lunar Roving Vehicle Project ===Apollo 16 astronauts in the 1-g trainerDuring 1965 and 1967, the Summer Conference on Lunar Exploration and Science brought together leading scientists to assess NASA's planning for exploring the Moon and to make recommendations.", "One of their findings was that the LSSM was critical to a successful program and should be given major attention.", "At Marshall, von Braun established a Lunar Roving Task Team, and in May 1969, NASA approved the Manned Lunar Rover Vehicle Program as a Marshall hardware development.", "The project was led by Eberhard Rees, Director of Research and Development at Marshall, who oversaw the design and construction of the rover.", "Saverio \"Sonny\" Morea was named Lunar Roving Vehicle Project Manager.On 11 July 1969, just before the successful Moon landing of Apollo 11, a request for proposal for the final development and building the Apollo LRV was released by Marshall.", "Boeing, Bendix, Grumman, and Chrysler submitted proposals.", "Following three months of proposal evaluation and negotiations, Boeing was selected as the Apollo LRV prime contractor on 28 October 1969.Boeing would manage the LRV project under Henry Kudish in Huntsville, Alabama.", "Kudish was replaced the following year in 1970 by LRV Project Manager Earl Houtz.", "As a major subcontractor, the General Motors' Defense Research Laboratories in Santa Barbara, California, would furnish the mobility system (wheels, motors, and suspension); this effort would be led by GM Program Manager Samuel Romano and Ferenc Pavlics.", "Boeing in Seattle, Washington, would furnish the electronics and navigation system.", "Vehicle testing would take place at the Boeing facility in Kent, Washington, and the chassis manufacturing and overall assembly would be at the Boeing facility in Huntsville.Apollo 15 – Commander David Scott drives the Rover near the LM ''Falcon''The first cost-plus-incentive-fee contract to Boeing was for $19,000,000 and called for delivery of the first LRV by 1 April 1971.Cost overruns, however, led to a final cost of $38,000,000, which was about the same as NASA's original estimate.", "Four lunar rovers were built, one each for Apollo missions 15, 16, and 17; and one used for spare parts after the cancellation of further Apollo missions.", "Other LRV models were built: a static model to assist with human factors design; an engineering model to design and integrate the subsystems; two one-sixth gravity models for testing the deployment mechanism; a one-gravity trainer to give the astronauts instruction in the operation of the rover and allow them to practice driving it; a mass model to test the effect of the rover on the LM structure, balance, and handling; a vibration test unit to study the LRV's durability and handling of launch stresses; and a qualification test unit to study integration of all LRV subsystems.", "A paper by Saverio Morea gives details of the LRV system and its development.John Young works at the LRV near the LM ''Orion'' on Apollo 16 in April 1972.LRVs were used for greater surface mobility during the Apollo J-class missions, Apollo 15, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17.The rover was first used on 31 July 1971, during the Apollo 15 mission.", "This greatly expanded the range of the lunar explorers.", "Previous teams of astronauts were restricted to short walking distances around the landing site due to the bulky space suit equipment required to sustain life in the lunar environment.", "The range, however, was operationally restricted to remain within walking distance of the lunar module, in case the rover broke down at any point.", "The rovers were designed with a top speed of about , although Eugene Cernan recorded a maximum speed of , giving him the (unofficial) lunar land-speed record.The LRV was developed in only 17 months and performed all its functions on the Moon with no major anomalies.", "Scientist-astronaut Harrison Schmitt of Apollo 17 said, \"The Lunar Rover proved to be the reliable, safe and flexible lunar exploration vehicle we expected it to be.", "Without it, the major scientific discoveries of Apollo 15, 16, and 17 would not have been possible; and our current understanding of lunar evolution would not have been possible.", "\"The LRVs experienced some minor problems.", "The rear fender extension on the Apollo 16 LRV was lost during the mission's second extra-vehicular activity (EVA) at station 8 when John Young bumped into it while going to assist Charles Duke.", "The dust thrown up from the wheel covered the crew, the console, and the communications equipment.", "High battery temperatures and resulting high power consumption ensued.", "No repair attempt was mentioned.The fender extension on the Apollo 17 LRV broke when accidentally bumped by Eugene Cernan with a hammer handle.", "Cernan and Schmitt taped the extension back in place, but due to the dusty surfaces, the tape did not adhere and the extension was lost after about one hour of driving, causing the astronauts to be covered with dust.", "For their second EVA, a replacement \"fender\" was made with some EVA maps, duct tape, and a pair of clamps from inside the Lunar Module that were nominally intended for the moveable overhead light.", "This repair was later undone so that the clamps could be taken inside for the return launch.", "The maps were brought back to Earth and are now on display at the National Air and Space Museum.", "The abrasion from the dust is evident on some portions of the makeshift fender.The color TV camera mounted on the front of the LRV could be remotely operated by Mission Control in pan and tilt axes as well as zoom.", "This allowed far better television coverage of the EVA than the earlier missions.", "On each mission, at the conclusion of the astronauts' stay on the surface, the commander drove the LRV to a position away from the Lunar Module so that the camera could record the ascent stage launch.", "The camera operator in Mission Control experienced difficulty in timing the various delays so that the LM ascent stage was in frame through the launch.", "On the third and final attempt (Apollo 17), the launch and ascent were successfully tracked.NASA's rovers, left behind, are among the artificial objects on the Moon, as are the Soviet Union's uncrewed rovers, ''Lunokhod 1'' and ''Lunokhod 2''." ], [ "Features and specifications", "Eugene Cernan test drives the Apollo 17 lunar rover shortly after unloading it from the LM ''Challenger''The Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle is a battery electric vehicle designed to operate in the low-gravity vacuum of the Moon and to be capable of traversing the lunar surface, allowing the Apollo astronauts to extend the range of their surface extravehicular activities.", "Three LRVs were used on the Moon: one on Apollo 15 by astronauts David Scott and Jim Irwin, one on Apollo 16 by John Young and Charles Duke, and one on Apollo 17 by Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt.", "The mission commander served as the driver, occupying the left-hand seat of each LRV.", "Features are available in papers by Morea, Baker, and Kudish.=== Mass and payload ===The Lunar Roving Vehicles have a mass of , and were designed to hold an additional payload of .", "This resulted in weights in the approximately one-sixth g on the lunar surface of empty (curb weight) and fully loaded (gross vehicle weight).", "The vehicle frame is long with a wheelbase of .", "The height of the vehicles is .", "The frame is made of 2219 aluminium alloy tubing welded assemblies and consisted of a three-part chassis that was hinged in the center so it could be folded up and hung in the Lunar Module Quadrant 1 bay, which was kept open to space by omission of the outer skin panel.", "They have two side-by-side foldable seats made of tubular aluminium with nylon webbing and aluminum floor panels.", "An armrest was mounted between the seats, and each seat had adjustable footrests and a Velcro-fastened seat belt.", "A large mesh dish antenna was mounted on a mast on the front center of the rover.", "The suspension consists of a double horizontal wishbone with upper and lower torsion bars and a damper unit between the chassis and upper wishbone.", "Fully loaded, the LRV has a ground clearance of .=== Wheels and power ===Close-up of wheel showing chevron treadsThe wheels were designed and manufactured by General Motors Defense Research Laboratories in Santa Barbara, California.", "Ferenc Pavlics was given special recognition by NASA for developing the \"resilient wheel\".", "They consisted of a spun aluminum hub and a diameter, wide tire made of zinc-coated woven diameter steel strands attached to the rim.", "Titanium chevrons covered 50% of the contact area to provide traction.", "Inside the tire was a diameter titanium bump stop frame to protect the hub.", "Dust guards were mounted above the wheels.", "Each wheel had its own electric drive made by Delco, a brushed DC electric motor capable of at 10,000 rpm, attached to the wheel via an 80:1 harmonic drive, and a mechanical brake unit.", "In the case of drive failure, astronauts could remove pins to disengage the drive from the wheel, allowing the wheel to spin freely.Maneuvering capability was provided through the use of front and rear steering motors.", "Each series-wound DC steering motor was capable of .", "The front and rear wheels could pivot in opposite directions to achieve a tight turning radius of , or could be decoupled so only front or rear would be used for steering.", "The wheels were linked in Ackermann steering geometry, where the inside tires have a greater turn angle than the outside tires, to avoid sideslip.Power was provided by two 36-volt silver-zinc potassium hydroxide non-rechargeable batteries developed by Eagle-Picher with a charge capacity of 121 A·h each (a total of 242 A·h), yielding a range of .", "These were used to power the drive and steering motors and also a 36-volt utility outlet mounted on the front of the LRV to power the communications relay unit or the TV camera.", "LRV batteries and electronics were passively cooled, using change-of-phase wax thermal capacitor packages and reflective, upward-facing radiating surfaces.", "While driving, radiators were covered with mylar blankets to minimize dust accumulation.", "When stopped, the astronauts would open the blankets, and manually remove excess dust from the cooling surfaces with hand brushes.=== Control and navigation ===Lunar Rover diagram (NASA)Honorary lunar driver's license presented to then NASA Administrator James E. WebbA T-shaped hand controller situated between the two seats controlled the four drive motors, two steering motors, and brakes.", "Moving the stick forward powered the LRV forward, left and right turned the vehicle left or right, and pulling backwards activated the brakes.", "Activating a switch on the handle before pulling back would put the LRV into reverse.", "Pulling the handle all the way back activated a parking brake.", "The control and display modules were situated in front of the handle and gave information on the speed, heading, pitch, and power and temperature levels.Navigation was based on continuously recording direction and distance through use of a directional gyro and odometer and feeding this data to a computer that would keep track of the overall direction and distance back to the LM.", "There was also a Sun-shadow device that could give a manual heading based on the direction of the Sun, using the fact that the Sun moved very slowly in the sky." ], [ "Usage", "The LRV was used during the lunar surface operations of Apollo 15, 16 and 17, the J missions of the Apollo program.", "On each mission, the LRV was used on three separate EVAs, for a total of nine lunar traverses, or sorties.", "During operation, the Commander (CDR) always drove, while the Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) was a passenger who assisted with navigation.", "Mission Total distance Total time Longest single traverse Maximum range from the LM Apollo 15 (LRV-1) 3 h 02 min Apollo 16 (LRV-2) 3 h 26 min Apollo 17 (LRV-3) 4 h 26 min An operational constraint on the use of the LRV was that the astronauts must be able to walk back to the LM if the LRV were to fail at any time during the EVA (called the \"Walkback Limit\").", "Thus, the traverses were limited in the distance they could go at the start and at any time later in the EVA.", "Therefore, they went to the farthest point away from the LM and worked their way back to it so that, as the life support consumables were depleted, their remaining walk back distance was equally diminished.", "This constraint was relaxed during the longest traverse on Apollo 17, based on the demonstrated reliability of the LRV and spacesuits on previous missions.", "A paper by Burkhalter and Sharp provides details on usage.=== Deployment ===LRV extraction timelapse from Apollo 15Astronaut deployment of the Lunar Roving Vehicle from the LM's open Quadrant 1 bay was achieved with a system of pulleys and braked reels using ropes and cloth tapes.", "The rover was folded and stored in the bay with the underside of the chassis facing out.", "One astronaut would climb the egress ladder on the LM and release the rover, which would then be slowly tilted out by the second astronaut on the ground through the use of reels and tapes.", "As the rover was let down from the bay, most of the deployment was automatic.", "The rear wheels folded out and locked in place.", "When they touched the ground, the front of the rover could be unfolded, the wheels deployed, and the entire frame let down to the surface by pulleys.The rover components locked into place upon opening.", "Cabling, pins, and tripods would then be removed and the seats and footrests raised.", "After switching on all the electronics, the vehicle was ready to back away from the LM.=== Locations ===Four flight-ready LRVs were manufactured, as well as several others for testing and training.", "Three were transported to and left on the Moon via the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions (LRV-1 to 3), with the fourth (LRV-4) used for spare parts for the first three following the cancellation of Apollo 18.The rover used on Apollo 15 was left at Hadley-Apennine ().", "The rover used on Apollo 16 was left at Descartes ().", "The rover used on Apollo 17 was left at Taurus-Littrow () and was seen by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter during passes in 2009 and 2011.In 2020 the State of Washington designated the flown rovers as historic landmarks.Since only the upper stages of the lunar excursion modules could return to lunar orbit from the surface, the vehicles, along with the lower stages were abandoned.", "As a result, the only lunar rovers on display are LRV-4, test vehicles, trainers, and mock-ups.", "* Lunar Roving Vehicle 4 (LRV-4) is on display at the Kennedy Space Center Visitors Complex in Cape Canaveral, Florida.", "* The Engineering Mockup , intended to design and integrate subsystems, is on display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington.", "* The Qualification Test Unit , designed to study integration of all LRV subsystems, is on display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. * The Vibration Test Unit , intended to study durability and handling of launch stresses, is on display in the Davidson Saturn V Center at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama.", "* The 1-gravity trainer is on display at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.As mentioned before, additional test units were built, like a static model, two 1/6 gravity models, a mass model.File:Apollo 15- Follow the Tracks (6816337786).jpg|LRO image of Apollo 15 site, '''LRV-1''' is near the right edgeFile:Apollo 16 LS.png|LRO image of Apollo 16 site, '''LRV-2''' is near the right edgeFile:Apollo 17 landing site, labeled.jpg|LRO image of Apollo 17 site, '''LRV-3''' is in the lower rightFile:Lunar Roving Vehicle no.", "4, Boeing, 1971 - Kennedy Space Center - Cape Canaveral, Florida - DSC02871.jpg|'''LRV-4''', KSC Visitors ComplexFile:Space Center Houston March 2022 10 (Lunar Roving Vehicle trainer).jpg|'''LRV''' '''1-gravity trainer''', Space Center HoustonFile:Seattle (9287877759).jpg|'''LRV''' '''engineering mockup''', Museum of FlightFile:MSFC 76545 on display.JPG|'''LRV''' '''Vibration Test Unit''', U.S. Space & Rocket CenterFile:Lunar Roving Vehicle at SNASM.jpg|'''LRV''' '''Qualification Test Unit''', National Air and Space MuseumReplicas of rovers are on display at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, the Kennedy Space Center Visitors Complex in Cape Canaveral, Florida, the National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida, the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon, the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center in Hutchinson, Kansas and the Omega Museum in Biel, Switzerland.", "A replica on loan from the Smithsonian Institution is on display at the Mission: Space attraction at Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort near Orlando, Florida." ], [ "Media", "File:Astronauts with Lunar Roving Vehicle.jpg|(from left to right) Astronauts John Young, Eugene Cernan, Charles Duke, Fred Haise, Anthony England, Charles Fullerton, and Donald Peterson await deployment tests of the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) qualification test unit in building 4649 at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC).", "November 1971.Image:Ap16 rover.ogv|Apollo 16 Commander John Young drives Lunar Rover 002Image:Apollo 15 Lunar Rover training.ogg|Dave Scott and Jim Irwin train on Earth to use the Lunar Rover on Apollo 15" ], [ "See also", "* List of artificial objects on the Moon* Lunar Terrain Vehicle* Modular Equipment Transporter" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Boeing Lunar Rover Vehicle Operations Handbook* Article about the rover* LRV Operations Handbook, Appendix A (Performance Data)* Mobility Performance of the Lunar Roving Vehicle: Terrestrial Studies – Apollo 15 Results* Lunar Rover in Operation Video* Lunar and Planetary Rovers: The Wheels of Apollo and the Quest for Mars* Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle Documentation – Apollo Lunar Surface Journal* Lunar Roving Vehicle at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum * Lunar Roving Vehicle Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections* Ronald Lancaster Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections Engineer's collection of photos and documents on the design and construction of the LRV." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lake Kickapoo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lake Kickapoo''' is a reservoir located on the North Fork Little Wichita River in the Red River Basin of Archer County, Texas.", "It is neighbored by Archer City, Texas (population of 1,834) and Wichita Falls, Texas (population of 104,553) which reside within the Central Great Plains ecoregion." ], [ "Hydrology", "Lake Kickapoo reservoir was created by the impoundment of North Fork Little Wichita River, its only in-flow tributary, in 1946.The out-flow tributaries are Kickapoo Creek, Brier Creek, and Slippery Creek.", "It has a mean water level of 1,038 feet, surface area of 4,312 acres, and elevation of 1,060 feet above sea level as of 2022.The storage capacity, as of October 29, 2022, is 51,596 acre-feet with a maximum capacity of 86,345 acre-feet.", "The reservoir storage has steadily dropped by 293 acre-feet/year since 1945 when it had a total capacity of 106,000 acre-feet, due to increasing drought events in the region." ], [ "Ecoregion", "Lake Kickapoo resides within the Broken Red Plains subdivision of the Central Great Plains ecoregion.", "The Broken Red Plains ecoregion is defined by red clay and sandy soils, with irregular sandstone and shrub-covered surface of the even more specific Wichita Formation ecoregion.", "It is predominantly grass-/shrublands with plant species like Texas wintergrass, blue grama, buffalograss, sand bluestem, etc.", "The riparian vegetation includes species such as cedar elm trees, pecan trees, black willow trees, and tobosa grass.", "This region has an annual precipitation of 30 inches and mean air temperature of 41 degrees Fahrenheit in January and 84 degrees Fahrenheit in July." ], [ "Uses", "=== Water supply ===The construction of Lake Kickapoo Dam began in January 1945 and was completed on December 15, 1945.However, the deliberate impoundment of the North Fork Little Wichita River, a tributary of the Red River, did not occur until February 1, 1946.Lake Kickapoo Dam is classified as earth-fill embankment dam with a length of 8.200 feet (including spillway) and height of 62 feet.", "This dam's maximum design water surface has the capability to reach 1,060 feet above sea level but has been experiencing much lower levels due to recent droughts in the area.", "The dam's uncontrolled spillway is classified as ogee concrete and has a crest elevation of 1,045 feet above sea level.", "Lake Kickapoo reservoir is owned by the city of Wichita Falls and operated for the continued use as a water supply.", "Although it is owned by the city of Wichita Falls, the dam is regulated by the government entity Texas Commission on Environmental Quality.=== U.S.", "Naval Space Surveillance ===One of the nine Air Force Space Surveillance System (formerly NAVSPASUR) sites is located at Lake Kickapoo (33°32.764′N 98°45.763′W).", "Lake Kickapoo Field Station is one of three transmitter sites of the southern surveillance network, which is operated by the U.S.", "Naval Command.", "The purpose of these stations is to maintain an electromagnetic fence that has the capability to identify objects as far as 15,000 nautical miles.", "The Lake Kickapoo field station was constructed in 1951 to fill a gap in the surveillance fence.", "It is considered unique due to its transmitting power of 560 kilowatts via the combination of commercial FM and TV power unit frequencies." ], [ "Recreation", "=== Sports fishing ===The main source of recreation for Lake Kickapoo is sports fishing.", "The reservoir contains sports fish species, such as Blue catfish (abundant), Channel catfish, Flathead catfish, White Bass (abundant), Largemouth Bass, and White Crappie (declining in abundance).", "These fish species are supported by prey fish, such as Gizzard shad (abundant) and Bluegill (decreased abundance).Management plans have been enacted to support the genetic diversity of Largemouth Bass due to this species designation as a source for Texas Parks and Wildlife Department hatchery brood stock program.", "This is due to the decline in habitat for spawning and nursery areas via decreased water elevation." ], [ "History", "=== Namesake ===The name was derived from the Native American Kickapoo tribe that was native to that area along with the nearby inflow stream, Kickapoo Creek.=== Land use ===There is an elevated abundance of honey mesquite in the Broken Red Plains that has been associated with the 19th century cattle drives and subsequent grazing pressure via land use.=== Dam ===Lake Kickapoo Dam was designed by F. M. Rugeley and A. J.", "Gates." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Land (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Land''' is the solid surface of the Earth that is not covered by water.", "'''Land''', '''lands''', '''The Land''', or '''the Lands''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Entertainment and media", "===Film===*''Land'' (1987 film), a British television film by Barry Collins*''Land'' (2018 film), an international drama by Babak Jalali*''Land'' (2021 film), a drama directed by and starring Robin Wright===Music===* Dah (band), a former Yugoslav/Belgian rock band, known as Land during 1975-1976 period* ''Land (1975–2002)'', an album by Patti Smith* Land (band), an American rock band**''Land'' (Land album), 1995* Land (worship band), a Scottish Christian band* ''Land'' (The Comsat Angels album), 1983* ''Land'' (Týr album), 2008* Lands (band), a Japanese rock band===Other media===*''Land'' (book), a 2021 non-fiction book by Simon Winchester*''Land'' (magazine), a Swedish weekly magazine*''The Land'' (weekly newspaper)" ], [ "Places", "*Land Glacier, a glacier in Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica*Land, Norway, a region and historic petty kingdom in Norway*Land (municipality), a former municipality (1838–1847) in Eastern Norway*The Lands, the common name for Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara, or APY Lands, in South Australia===Division of a country===* Province of Austria* Länder of Germany, the states of Germany (singular: Land)*Lands of Denmark*Lands of Finland*Lands of Norway*Lands of Sweden" ], [ "Other uses", "*-land, a suffix used in the names of several countries and other regions*LAND, a type of denial-of-service attack*Land (economics), a factor of production comprising all naturally occurring resources*Land (surname)*Landing, the end of a flight*Land Tawney, an American conservationist*In rifling, lands are the raised areas between grooves in gun barrels" ], [ "See also", "*Land Instruments International, a company specialising in temperature monitoring equipment*Land law" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Labyrinth" ], [ "Introduction", "Silver coin from Knossos displaying the 7-course \"Classical\" design to represent the Labyrinth, 400 BCIn Greek mythology, the '''Labyrinth''' () was an elaborate, confusing structure designed and built by the legendary artificer Daedalus for King Minos of Crete at the Knossos.", "Its function was to hold the Minotaur, the monster eventually killed by the hero Theseus.", "Daedalus had so cunningly made the Labyrinth that he could barely escape it after he built it.Although early Cretan coins occasionally exhibit branching (multicursal) patterns, the single-path (unicursal) seven-course \"Classical\" design without branching or dead ends became associated with the Labyrinth on coins as early as 430 BC, and similar non-branching patterns became widely used as visual representations of the Labyrinth – even though both logic and literary descriptions make it clear that the Minotaur was trapped in a complex branching maze.", "Even as the designs became more elaborate, visual depictions of the mythological Labyrinth from Roman times until the Renaissance are almost invariably unicursal.", "Branching mazes were reintroduced only when hedge mazes became popular during the Renaissance.In English, the term ''labyrinth'' is generally synonymous with ''maze''.", "As a result of the long history of unicursal representation of the mythological Labyrinth, however, many contemporary scholars and enthusiasts observe a distinction between the two.", "In this specialized usage ''maze'' refers to a complex branching multicursal puzzle with choices of path and direction, while a unicursal ''labyrinth'' has only a single path to the center.", "A labyrinth in this sense has an unambiguous route to the center and back and presents no navigational challenge.Unicursal labyrinths appeared as designs on pottery or basketry, as body art, and in etchings on walls of caves or churches.", "The Romans created many primarily decorative unicursal designs on walls and floors in tile or mosaic.", "Many labyrinths set in floors or on the ground are large enough that the path can be walked.", "Unicursal patterns have been used historically both in group ritual and for private meditation, and are increasingly found for therapeutic use in hospitals and hospices." ], [ "Etymology", "''Labyrinth'' is a word of pre-Greek origin whose derivation and meaning are uncertain.", "Maximillian Mayer suggested as early as 1892 that ''labyrinthos'' might derive from ''labrys'', a Lydian word for \"double-bladed axe\".", "Arthur Evans, who excavated the Minoan palace of Knossos in Crete early in the 20th century, suggested that ruins inspired the story of the labyrinth, and since the double axe motif appears in the palace ruins, he asserted that ''labyrinth'' could be understood to mean \"the house of the double axe\".", "The same symbol, however, was discovered in other palaces in Crete.", "Nilsson observed that in Crete the double axe is not a weapon and always accompanies goddesses or women and not a male god.The association with \"labrys\" lost some traction when Linear B was deciphered in the 1950s, and an apparent Mycenaean Greek rendering of \"labyrinth\" appeared as ().", "This may be related to the Minoan word ''du-pu₂-re'', which appears in Linear A on libation tablets and in connection with Mts Dikte and Ida, both of which are associated with caverns.", "Caverns near Gortyna, the Cretan capital in the 1st century AD, were called ''labyrinthos''.Pliny's ''Natural History'' gives four examples of ancient labyrinths: the Cretan labyrinth, an Egyptian labyrinth, a Lemnian labyrinth, and an Italian labyrinth.", "These are all complex underground structures, and this appears to have been the standard Classical understanding of the word.Beekes also finds the relation with ''labrys'' speculative, and suggests instead a relation with Greek ('narrow street')." ], [ "Ancient labyrinths", "===Cretan labyrinth===A Roman mosaic from Zeugma, Commagene (now in the Zeugma Mosaic Museum) depicting Daedalus, his son Icarus, Queen Pasiphaë, and two of her female attendantsTheseus in the Minotaur's labyrinth, by Edward Burne-Jones, 1861When the Bronze Age site at Knossos was excavated by archaeologist Arthur Evans, the complexity of the architecture prompted him to suggest that the palace had been the Labyrinth of Daedalus.", "Evans found various bull motifs, including an image of a man leaping over the horns of a bull, as well as depictions of a labrys carved into the walls.", "On the strength of a passage in the ''Iliad'', it has been suggested that the palace was the site of a dancing-ground made for Ariadne by the craftsman Daedalus,where young men and women, of the age of those sent to Crete as prey for the Minotaur, would dance together.", "By extension, in popular legend the palace is associated with the myth of the Minotaur.In the 2000s, archaeologists explored other potential sites of the labyrinth.", "Oxford University geographer Nicholas Howarth believes that \"Evans's hypothesis that the palace of Knossos is also the Labyrinth must be treated sceptically.\"", "Howarth and his team conducted a search of an underground complex known as the Skotino cave but concluded that it was formed naturally.", "Another contender is a series of tunnels at Gortyn, accessed by a narrow crack but expanding into interlinking caverns.", "Unlike the Skotino cave, these caverns have smooth walls and columns, and appear to have been at least partially man-made.", "This site corresponds to a labyrinth symbol on a 16th-century map of Crete in a book of maps in the library of Christ Church, Oxford.", "A map of the caves themselves was produced by the French in 1821.The site was also used by German soldiers to store ammunition during the Second World War.", "Howarth's investigation was shown on a documentary produced for the National Geographic Channel.===The Egyptian labyrinth===In Book II of his ''Histories'', Herodotus applies the term \"labyrinth\" to a building complex in Egypt \"near the place called the City of Crocodiles\", that he considered to surpass the pyramids.", "The structure, which may have been a collection of funerary temples such as are commonly found near Egyptian pyramids, was destroyed in antiquity and can only be partially reconstructed.", "During the nineteenth century, the remains of this ancient Egyptian structure were discovered at Hawara in the Faiyum Oasis by Flinders Petrie at the foot of the pyramid of the twelfth-dynasty pharaoh Amenemhat III (reigned c. 1860 BC to c. 1814 BC).===Pliny's Lemnian labyrinth===Pliny the Elder's ''Natural History'' (36.90) lists the legendary Smilis, reputed to be a contemporary of Daedalus, together with the historical mid-sixth-century BC architects and sculptors Rhoikos and Theodoros as two of the makers of the Lemnian labyrinth, which Andrew Stewart regards as \"evidently a misunderstanding of the Samian temple's location ''en limnais'' 'in the marsh'.", "\"===Pliny's Italian labyrinth===According to Pliny, the tomb of the great Etruscan general Lars Porsena contained an underground maze.", "Pliny's description of the exposed portion of the tomb is intractable; Pliny, it seems clear, had not observed this structure himself, but is quoting the historian and Roman antiquarian Varro.===Ancient labyrinths outside Europe===Carving showing the warrior Abhimanyu entering the ''chakravyuha'' – Hoysaleswara temple, Halebidu, IndiaA design essentially identical to the 7-course \"classical\" pattern appeared in Native American culture, the Tohono O'odham people labyrinth which features I'itoi, the \"Man in the Maze.\"", "The Tonoho O'odham pattern has two distinct differences from the classical: it is radial in design, and the entrance is at the top, where traditional labyrinths have the entrance at the bottom (see below).", "The earliest appearances cannot be dated securely; the oldest is commonly dated to the 17th century.Unsubstantiated claims have been made for the early appearance of labyrinth figures in India, such as a prehistoric petroglyph on a riverbank in Goa purportedly dating to circa 2500 BC.", "Other examples have been found among cave art in northern India and on a dolmen shrine in the Nilgiri Mountains, but are difficult to date accurately.", "Securely datable examples begin to appear only around 250 BC.", "Early labyrinths in India typically follow the Classical pattern or a local variant of it; some have been described as plans of forts or cities.Labyrinths appear in Indian manuscripts and Tantric texts from the 17th century onward.", "They are often called \"Chakravyuha\" in reference to an impregnable battle formation described in the ancient Mahabharata epic.", "Lanka, the capital city of mythic Rāvana, is described as a labyrinth in the 1910 translation of Al-Beruni's ''India'' (c. 1030 AD) p. 306 (with a diagram on the following page).By the White Sea, notably on the Solovetsky Islands, there have been preserved more than 30 stone labyrinths.", "The most remarkable monument is the Stone labyrinths of Bolshoi Zayatsky Island – a group of some 13 stone labyrinths on 0.4 km2 area of one small island.", "Local archaeologists have speculated that these labyrinths may be 2,000–3,000 years old, though most researchers remain dubious." ], [ "Labyrinth as pattern", "\"Classical\" or \"Cretan\" design, well-known in antiquity.The 7-course \"Classical\" or \"Cretan\" pattern known from Cretan coins (ca 400–200 BC) appears in several examples from antiquity, some perhaps as early as the late Stone Age or early Bronze Age.", "Roman floor mosaics typically unite four copies of the classical labyrinth (or a similar pattern) interlinked around the center, squared off as the medium requires, but still recognisable.", "An image of the Minotaur or an allusion to the legend of the Minotaur appears at the center of many of these mosaic labyrinths.The four-axis pattern as executed in Chartres Cathedral (early 1200s)The four-axis medieval patterns may have developed from the Roman model, but are more varied in how the four quadrants of the design are traced out.", "The Minotaur or other danger is retained in the center of several medieval examples.", "The Chartres pattern (named for its appearance in Chartres Cathedral) is the most common medieval design; it appears in manuscripts as early as the 9th century." ], [ "Medieval labyrinths and turf mazes", "Chartres Cathedral, about 1750, Jean Baptiste RigaudWhen the early humanist Benzo d'Alessandria visited Verona before 1310, he noted the \"''Laberinthum'' which is now called the Arena\"; perhaps he was seeing the ''cubiculi'' beneath the arena's missing floor.The full flowering of the medieval labyrinth came about from the twelfth through fourteenth centuries with the grand pavement labyrinths of the gothic cathedrals, notably Chartres, Reims and Amiens in northern France.", "The symbolism or purpose behind these is unclear, and may have varied from one installation to the next.", "Descriptions survive of French clerics performing a ritual Easter dance along the path on Easter Sunday.", "Some labyrinths may have originated as allusions to the Holy City; and some modern writers have theorized that prayers and devotions may have accompanied the perambulation of their intricate paths.", "Although some books (in particular guidebooks) suggest that the mazes on cathedral floors served as substitutes for pilgrimage paths, the earliest attested use of the phrase \"chemin de Jerusalem\" (path to Jerusalem) dates to the late 18th century when it was used to describe mazes at Reims and Saint-Omer.", "The accompanying ritual, depicted in Romantic illustrations as involving pilgrims following the maze on their knees while praying, may have been practiced at Chartres during the 17th century.", "The cathedral labyrinths are thought to be the inspiration for the many turf mazes in the UK, such as survive at Wing, Hilton, Alkborough, and Saffron Walden.Over the same general period, some 500 or more non-ecclesiastical labyrinths were constructed in Scandinavia.", "These labyrinths, generally in coastal areas, are marked out with stones, most often in the simple 7- or 11-course classical forms.", "They often have names which translate as \"Troy Town.\"", "They are thought to have been constructed by fishing communities: trapping malevolent trolls or winds in the labyrinth's coils might ensure a safe fishing expedition.", "There are also stone labyrinths on the Isles of Scilly, although none is known to date from before the nineteenth century.There are examples of labyrinths in many disparate cultures.", "The symbol has appeared in various forms and media (petroglyphs, classic-form, medieval-form, pavement, turf, and basketry) at some time throughout most parts of the world, from Native North and South America to Australia, Java, India, and Nepal." ], [ "<span id=\"Modern\"></span> Modern labyrinths", "Labyrinth on floor of Grace Cathedral, San FranciscoStarting in the late 20th century, there has been a resurgence of interest in labyrinths and a revival in labyrinth building, of both unicursal and multicursal patterns.", "Approximately 6,000 labyrinths have been registered with the Worldwide Labyrinth Locator; these are located around the world in private properties, libraries, schools, gardens, recreational areas, as well as famous temples and cathedrals.The labyrinth is also treated in contemporary fine arts.", "Examples include Piet Mondrian's ''Pier and Ocean'' (1915), Joan Miró's ''Labyrinth'' (1923), Pablo Picasso's ''Minotauromachy'' (1935), M. C. Escher's ''Relativity'' (1953), Friedensreich Hundertwasser's ''Labyrinth'' (1957), Jean Dubuffet's ''Logological Cabinet'' (1970), Richard Long's ''Connemara sculpture'' (1971), Joe Tilson's ''Earth Maze'' (1975), Richard Fleischner's ''Chain Link Maze'' (1978), István Orosz's ''Atlantis Anamorphosis'' (2000), Dmitry Rakov's ''Labyrinth'' (2003), and drawings by contemporary American artist Mo Morales employing what the artist calls \"Labyrinthine projection.\"", "The Italian painter Davide Tonato has dedicated many of his artistic works to the labyrinth theme.", "In modern imagery, the labyrinth of Daedalus is often represented by a multicursal maze, in which one may become lost.Mark Wallinger has created a set of 270 enamel plaques of unicursal labyrinth designs, one for every tube station in the London Underground, to mark the 150th anniversary of the Underground.", "The plaques were installed over a 16-month period in 2013 and 2014, and each is numbered according to its position in the route taken by the contestants in the 2009 Guinness World Record Tube Challenge.=== Cultural meanings ===Prehistoric labyrinths may have served as traps for malevolent spirits or as paths for ritual dances.", "Many Roman and Christian labyrinths appear at the entrances of buildings, suggesting that they may have served a similar apotropaic purpose.", "In their cross-cultural study of signs and symbols, ''Patterns that Connect'', Carl Schuster and Edmund Carpenter present various forms of the labyrinth and suggest various possible meanings, including not only a sacred path to the home of a sacred ancestor, but also, perhaps, a representation of the ancestor him/herself: \"...many New World Indians who make the labyrinth regard it as a sacred symbol, a beneficial ancestor, a deity.", "In this they may be preserving its original meaning: the ultimate ancestor, here evoked by two continuous lines joining its twelve primary joints.\"", "Schuster also observes the common theme of the labyrinth being a refuge for a trickster; in India, the demon Ravana has dominion over labyrinths, the trickster Djonaha lives in a labyrinth according to Sumatran Bataks, and Europeans say it is the home of a rogue.One can think of labyrinths as symbolic of pilgrimage: people walking the path ascend toward salvation or enlightenment.", "Mystical teachings in traditions across centuries suggest that they can also be understood as coded maps of the spiritual path.", "Author Ben Radford conducted an investigation into some of the claims of spiritual and healing effects of labyrinths, reporting on his findings in his book Mysterious New Mexico.Many labyrinths have been constructed recently in churches, hospitals, and parks.", "These are often used for contemplation; walking among the turnings, one loses track of direction and of the outside world, and thus quiets the mind.===Christian use===Walking the labyrinth at Chartres CathedralLabyrinths have on various occasions been used in Christian tradition as a part of worship.", "The earliest known example is from a fourth-century pavement at the Basilica of St Reparatus, at Orleansville, Algeria, with the words \"Sancta Eclesia\" at the center, though it is unclear how it might have been used in worship.In medieval times, labyrinths began to appear on church walls and floors around 1000 AD.", "The most famous medieval labyrinth, with great influence on later practice, was created in Chartres Cathedral.The use of labyrinths has recently been revived in some contexts of Christian worship.", "Many churches in Europe and North America have constructed permanent, typically unicursal, labyrinths, or employ temporary ones (e.g., painted on canvas or outlined with candles).", "For example, a labyrinth was set up on the floor of St Paul's Cathedral for a week in March 2000.Some conservative Christians disapprove of labyrinths, considering them pagan practices or \"new age\" fads.=== Usage in media ===Labyrinths and mazes have been embraced by the video game industry, and countless video games include such a feature.", "For example, the 1994 video game Marathon features many maze-like passages the player must navigate.", "A number of film, game, and music creations feature labyrinths.", "For instance, the avant-garde multi-screen film ''In the Labyrinth'' presents a search for meaning in a symbolic modern labyrinth.", "The well-received 2006 film Pan's Labyrinth draws heavily upon labyrinth legend for symbolism.", "A magical labyrinth appears in the third episode \"And The Horns of a Dilemma\" of ''The Librarians''.", "See Labyrinth (disambiguation) for a further list of titles.The Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was entranced with the idea of the labyrinth, and used it extensively in his short stories (such as \"The House of Asterion\" in ''The Aleph'').", "His use of it has inspired other authors (e.g.", "Umberto Eco's ''The Name of the Rose'', Mark Z. Danielewski's ''House of Leaves'').", "Additionally, Roger Zelazny's fantasy series ''The Chronicles of Amber'' features a labyrinth, called \"the Pattern,\" which grants those who walk it the power to move between parallel worlds.", "In Rick Riordan's series Percy Jackson & the Olympians, the events of the fourth novel ''The Battle of the Labyrinth'' predominantly take place within the labyrinth of Daedalus, which has followed the heart of the West to settle beneath the United States.", "Ursula K. Le Guin used an underground labyrinth in the second book of her Earthsea series, ''The Tombs of Atuan,'' in which the series hero Ged is captured by the book's protagonist Tenar on his trip to the Kargish Empire - the spiritual power of the \"Nameless Ones\" is vested at least in part in the labyrinth.", "Australian author Sara Douglass incorporated some labyrinthine ideas in her series The Troy Game, in which the Labyrinth on Crete is one of several in the ancient world, created with the cities as a source of magical power.", "Lawrence Durrell's ''The Dark Labyrinth'' depicts travelers trapped underground in Crete.", "Because a labyrinth can serve as a metaphor for situations that are difficult to be extricated from, Octavio Paz titled his book on Mexican identity ''The Labyrinth of Solitude'', describing the Mexican condition as orphaned and lost." ], [ "See also", "*Caerdroia*Celtic maze*I'itoi*Julian's Bower*Mizmaze*Oxkintok" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Hermann Kern, ''Through the Labyrinth'', ed.", "Robert Ferré and Jeff Saward, Prestel, 2000, .", "(This is an English translation of Kern's original German monograph ''Labyrinthe'' published by Prestel in 1982.", ")* Lauren Artress, ''Walking a Sacred Path: Rediscovering the Labyrinth as a Spiritual Practice'', Penguin Books, 1995, .", "* Lauren Artress, ''The Sacred Path Companion: A Guide to Walking the Labyrinth to Heal and Transform'', Penguin Books, 2006, .", "* * Herodotus, ''The Histories'', Newly translated and with an introduction by Aubrey de Sélincourt, Harmondsworth, England, Penguin Books, 1965.", "* Karl Kerenyi, ''Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life'', Princeton University Press, 1976.", "* Helmut Jaskolski, ''The Labyrinth: Symbol of Fear, Rebirth and Liberation'', Shambala, 1997.", "* Adrian Fisher & Georg Gerster, ''The Art of the Maze'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990..* Jeff Saward, ''Labyrinths and Mazes'', Gaia Books Ltd, 2003, .", "* Jeff Saward, ''Magical Paths'', Mitchell Beazley, 2002, .", "* W. H. Matthews, ''Mazes and Labyrinths: Their History and Development'', Longmans, Green & Co., 1922.Includes bibliography.", "Dover Publications reprint, 1970, .", "* Andrew Stewart, ''One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works''.", "* Henning Eichberg, \"Racing in the labyrinth?", "About some inner contradictions of running.\"", "In: ''Athletics, Society & Identity.''", "Imeros, Journal for Culture and Technology, 5 (2005): 1.Athen: Foundation of the Hellenic World, 169-192.", "* Edward Hays, ''The Lenten Labyrinth: Daily Reflections for the Journey of Lent'', Forest of Peace Publishing, 1994.", "* Carl Schuster and Edmund Carpenter, ''Patterns that Connect: Social Symbolism in Ancient & Tribal Art'', Harry N. Abrams, NY, 1996.", "* Ettore Selli, ''Labirinti Vegetali, la guida completa alle architetture verdi dei cinque continenti'', Ed.", "Pendragon, 2020; ISBN 9788833642222" ], [ "External links", "* * The Labyrinth Society* World-Wide Labyrinth Locator, an international directory* Veriditas – Spiritual labyrinth organization founded by Lauren Artress.", "* Sunysb.edu, Through Mazes to Mathematics, Exposition by Tony Phillips* Astrolog.org, Maze classification, Extensive classification of labyrinths and algorithms to solve them.", "* Irrgartenwelt.de, Lars O. Heintel's collection of handdrawn labyrinths and mazes* Begehbare-labyrinthe.de Website with diagrams and photos of virtually all the public labyrinths in Germany.", "* Mymaze.de, German website and Mymaze.de with descriptions, animations, links, and especially photos of (mostly European) labyrinths.", "* Indigogroup.co.uk, British turf labyrinths by Marilyn Clark.", "Photos and descriptions of the surviving historical turf mazes in Britain.", "* Theedkins.co.uk, Jo Edkins's Maze Page, an early website providing a clear overview of the territory and suggestions for further study.", "* Gottesformel.ch, \"Die Kretische Labyrinth-Höhle\" by Thomas M. Waldmann, rev.", "2009 .", "Description of a labyrinthine artificial cave system near Gortyn, Crete, widely considered the original labyrinth on Crete.", "* ''Spiralzoom.com'' an educational website about the science of pattern formation, spirals in nature, and spirals in the mythic imagination & labyrinths.", "* Sanu.ac.rs, \"The Geometry of History,\" Tessa Morrison, University of Newcastle, Australia.", "An attempt to extend Phillips's topological classification to more general unicursal labyrinths.", "* Labyrinth of Egypt – Archaeological site reconstruction and 3D diagrams based on the writings of Herodotus and Strabo.", "* Report of expedition to Hawara in 2008 in search of the lost Egyptian Labyrinth of Herodotus.", "* Video and annotation on labyrinths" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lyon & Healy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lyon & Healy Harps, Inc.''' is an American musical instrument manufacturer based in Chicago, Illinois and is a subsidiary of Salvi Harps.", "Today best known for concert harps, the company's Chicago headquarters and manufacturing facility contains a showroom and concert hall.", "George W. Lyon and Patrick J. Healy began the company in 1864 as a sheet music shop.", "By the end of the 19th century, they manufactured a wide range of musical instruments—including not only harps, but pianos, guitars, mandolins, banjos, ukuleles and various brass and other percussion instruments.Today, Lyon & Healy harps are widely played by professional musicians, since they are one of the few makers of harps for orchestral use—which are known as ''concert harps'' or ''pedal harps''.", "Lyon & Healy also makes smaller ''folk harps'' or lever harps (based on traditional Irish and Scottish instruments) that use levers to change string pitch instead of pedals.", "In the 1980s, Lyon & Healy also began to manufacture electroacoustic harps and, later, solid body electric harps." ], [ "History", "Lyon & Healy pedal harp (1891–95)George W. Lyon, a native of Northborough, Massachusetts; and Patrick J. Healy, born in Mallow, Ireland, founded the company in 1864, after they moved from Boston to start a sheet music shop for music publisher Oliver Ditson.", "Determining Lyon & Healy's history is complicated because its building and company records were destroyed in two fires, including the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.Two smaller fires did little damage to the firm and did not result in data loss.Company letters and trade catalogs don't provide exact dates that would reveal when Lyon & Healy began manufacturing instruments.", "An article in the ''Musical Courier'' states that Lyon & Healy began manufacturing instruments in 1885.Clearly, Lyon & Healy was making fretted string instruments in the 1880s, with Washburn (guitars, mandolins, banjos, and zithers) as their premier line.", "By the 1900s, if not earlier, Lyon & Healy might well have been manufacturing bowed string instruments.According to Vintage Guitar magazine, \"Circa 1900, the firm was so large it manufactured under a host of sub-brands; Washburn is perhaps the most recognized, though Leland, Lakeside, and American Conservatory are still seen.\"", "Lyon & Healy also made various percussion instruments.", "Later, Lyon & Healy began manufacturing brass instruments, possibly as early as the 1890s.", "Lyon & Healy also repaired instruments, and offered engraving services.", "Complicating matters still further, Lyon & Healy engraved instruments that it retailed but did not actually manufacture.", "In its 1892 catalog, it claimed that it manufactured 100,000 instruments annually.File:SweetByAndBy1868.png|\t\t\t\t\t\"The Sweet By and By\" sheet music (1868)File:NorthernSeymourBlairSong.png|\t\t\t\tCover of Northern (Chicago) campaign song book (1868)File:Washburn Parlor Guitar (1894) and \"New Model\" (1896), Museum of Making Music.jpg|\tWashburn parlor guitars (1894/96)File:Lyon & Healy Lakeside (late 1900s) brighten.jpg|\t\tLakeside guitar (1900s)File:Lyon&HealeyTenorGuitarReplica.jpg|\t\t\t\tLyon & Healey tenor guitar (replica)File:Piccolomando.jpg|\t\t\t\t\t\tLeland piccolo mandolin (1911)File:Gloria Swanson Ad - July 1921 Photoplay.jpg| Advertisement for banjos, mandolin banjos and violin-back mandolins (1921)For a period of time, 1876 to the Great Depression, the \"Golden Age\" of piano making, the company hand made pianos and reed organs in addition to harps.", "Like their harps, Lyon & Healy put the highest quality and craftsmanship in building these instruments.", "In addition to making grand pianos, George W. Lyon patented his cottage upright in 1878.Its top-of-the-line pianos were sold under the Lyon & Healy name.", "Their pianos have been described as being remarkably powerful, clear, and having a singing tone.", "Some have compared the Lyon & Healy grand pianos to other high end brands of the time such as Steinway & Sons, Wm.", "Knabe & Co., and Sohmer.", "Lower cost pianos were sold by Lyon & Healy under various other brand names.", "Like most other Golden Age piano companies, they stopped making pianos during the Great Depression.Lyon retired in 1889 and Healy became the company's first president.", "That year, Lyon & Healy built their first harp.", "Healy wanted to develop a harp better suited to the rigors of the American climate than available European models.", "They successfully produced a harp notable for its strength, pitch reliability, and freedom from unwanted vibration.", "Previously, most harps in North America were made by small groups of craftsmen in France, England, Ireland, or Italy.In 1890, Lyon & Healy introduced the Style 23 Harp, still a popular and recognizable design.", "It has 47 strings, highly decorative floral carving on the top of the column, base, and feet, and a fleur de lis pattern at the bottom of the column.", "It is available in a gold version.", "It is tall, and weighs about .", "Lyon & Healy produces one of the most ornate and elaborate harps in the world, the Louis XV, which includes carvings of leaves, flowers, scrolls, and shells along its neck and kneeblock, as well the soundboard edges.Lyon would later form a new company with E.A.", "Potter called Lyon & Potter, and remained there until his death on January 12, 1894.Healy died of pneumonia on April 3, 1905.Welte OrchestrionIn the 1890s the company—which used the slogan,\"Everything in music\"—began building pipe organs.", "In 1894 Robert J. Bennett came to Lyon & Healy from the Hutchings company of Boston to head their organ department.", "The largest surviving Lyon & Healy pipe organ is at the Our Lady of Sorrows Basilica in Chicago.", "It is a large organ of four manuals and 57 ranks of pipes.They also made small pipe organs.", "An example survives at St. Mary's Catholic Church in Aspen Colorado.", "It is a two manual tracker with a 30 note straight pedalboard and 7 ranks.", "It is believed to have been built around 1900, and can still be pumped by hand.E.A.", "Couturier was bought in 1920sBy the 1900s, Lyon & Healy was one of the largest music publishers in the world, and was a major producer of musical instruments.", "However, In late 1920s, Lyon & Healy sold its brass musical instrument manufacturing branch (see \"New Langwill Index\").", "In the 1970s, the firm concentrated solely upon making and selling harps.In 1928, Lyon & Healy introduced one of the most unusual harps ever mass-produced, the ''Salzedo Model''.", "The company designed it in collaboration with the harpist Carlos Salzedo.", "It an Art Deco style instrument that incorporates bold red and white lines on the soundboard to create a stylized and distinct appearance.In the 1960s, Lyon & Healy introduced a smaller lever harp, the ''Troubadour'', a 36-string harp for young beginners with smaller hands, and for casual players.", "This harp stands , and weighs .In the late 1970s, Steinway & Sons (then owned by CBS) purchased Lyon & Healy and soon after closed all retail stores, which sold sheet music and musical instruments, to focus on harp production.By 1985, Lyon & Healy also made folk harps, also known as ''Irish harps'', which are even smaller than the Troubadour.", "The \"''Shamrock model folk harp''\" has 34 strings.", "It stands tall with its legs.", "The legs can be removed so the player can hold the instrument lap—style on the knees.", "It weighs about .", "It features Celtic designs on the soundboard.", "An Irish or folk harp player is sometimes called a ''harper'' rather than ''harpist''.", "Chicago, Illinois, as seen in a 2006 photograph.DePaul University now owns the Wabash building.", "Lyon & Healy harps are still in Chicago, Illinois, at 168 North Ogden Avenue.", "The building was once home to the recording studios of Orlando R. Marsh." ], [ "Craftsmanship", "Wood in harp construction varies by instrument, but Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis) is the most common soundboard wood.", "Various Lyon & Healy guitars, mandolins, and many other instrument types reside in major musical instrument museums in the U.S. and Europe.Lyon and Healy now primarily manufactures four types of harps—the ''lever harp'', ''petite pedal harp'', ''semi-grande pedal harp'', and ''concert grand harp''.", "They also make limited numbers of ''special harps'' called ''concert grands''.", "Lyon & Healy makes electric lever harps in nontraditional colors such as pink, green, blue, and red." ], [ "Lyon & Healy Corporation", "Lyon & Healy Corporation is a musical product distribution company in North America representing brands such as Delta, Relish Guitars, SIM1, Paoletti Guitars and Acus Sound Engineering." ], [ "See also", "* Washburn Guitars* List of Stradivarius instruments" ], [ "Notes" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Index of philosophy articles (A–C)" ], [ "Introduction", "__TOC__" ], [ "',-,\"", "* 'Pataphysics\"" ], [ "0–9", "* 14th Dalai Lama* 16 Questions on the Assassination* 1649 in philosophy* 1658 in philosophy* 17th-century philosophy* 18th-century philosophy* 1919 United States anarchist bombings* 1922 in philosophy* 1926 in philosophy* 1962 in philosophy* 1972 in philosophy* 1973 in philosophy* 1974 in philosophy* 1975 in philosophy* 1976 in philosophy* 1977 in philosophy* 1978 in philosophy* 1979 in philosophy* 1980 in philosophy* 19th-century philosophy* 20th-century philosophy* 20th-century Western painting" ], [ "A", "* A-series and B-series* A Buyer's Market* A Calendar of Wisdom* A Conflict of Visions* A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy* A Defence of Common Sense* A Defense of Abortion* A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain* A Few Words on Non-Intervention* A Fórmula de Deus* A fortiori argument* A General View of Positivism* A Grief Observed* A Guide for the Perplexed* A Happy Death* A History of God* A History of Murphy's Law* A History of Philosophy (Copleston)* A History of Western Philosophy* A las Barricadas* A Legend of Old Egypt* A Letter Concerning Toleration* A maiore ad minus* A Mathematician's Apology* A Message from the Emperor* A minore ad maius* A New Era of Thought* A New Model of the Universe* A New Philosophy of Society: Assemblage Theory and Social Complexity* A New Refutation of Time* A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful* A posteriori* A priori (philosophy)* A priori and a posteriori* A Salty Piece of Land* A Scanner Darkly* A Secular Humanist Declaration* A Short History of Chinese Philosophy* A System of Logic* A Thousand Plateaus* A Thousand Years of Nonlinear History* A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge* A Treatise of Human Nature* A Vindication of Natural Society* A Vindication of the Rights of Men* A Vindication of the Rights of Woman* A Voyage to Arcturus* A.", "A.", "Long* A.", "A. Luce* A. C. Ewing* A. C. Grayling* A. D. Gordon* A. H. Almaas* A. H. Armstrong* A. J. Baker (philosopher)* A. V. Dicey* A. W. Benn* A. P. Martinich* A. R. Natarajan* Ab ovo* Abacus logic* Abahlali baseMjondolo* Abandonment (existentialism)* Abas (sophist)* Abbasgulu Bakikhanov* Abd al-Karīm ibn Hawāzin al-Qushayri* Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi* Abd al-Rahman Ibn Khaldun* Abdallah ibn Yasin* Abdel-Halim Mahmoud* Abdel Rahman Badawi* Abdel Wahab Elmessiri* Abderites* Abdoldjavad Falaturi* Abdolkarim Soroush* Abductive logic programming* Abductive reasoning* Abductive validation* Abdullah Yusuf Azzam* Abdurrahman Ibn Khaldun* Abdurrahmān Ibn Khaldūn* Abel Paz* Abhayakaragupta* Abhidhamma Pitaka* Abhidharma* Abhinavagupta* Abilene paradox* Abimael Guzmán* Abjection* Abjunction* Abner of Burgos* Abner Shimony* Abolishing the Borders from Below* Abortion* Abortion debate* Aboutness* Abraham Abigdor* Abraham Abulafia* Abraham bar Hiyya* Abraham ben Moses Maimon* Abraham ben Moses Maimonides* Abraham Cohen de Herrera* Abraham Edel* Abraham ibn Daud* Abraham Ibn Daud* Abraham ibn Ezra* Abraham Ibn Ezra* Abraham Isaac Kook* Abraham Joshua Heschel* Abraham Kaplan* Abraham Kovoor* Abraham Leon* Abraham Robinson* Abraham Tucker* Abraham Yagel* Abraham Yehudah Khein* Abram Deborin* Absolute (philosophy)* Absolute atheism* Absolute idealism* Absolute Infinite* Absolute space* Absolute theory* Absolute threshold* Absolute time* Absolute truth* Abstinence* Abstract art* Abstract entity* Abstract expressionism* Abstract Illusionism* Abstract Imagists* Abstract labour and concrete labour* Abstract object* Abstract objects* Abstract particulars* Abstract process* Abstract semantic graph* Abstraction* Abstraction (philosophy)* Abstractionism* Absurdism* Abu'l Hasan Muhammad Ibn Yusuf al-'Amiri* Abu'l Walid Muhammad Ibn Rushd* Abu 'Ali al-Husayn Ibn Sina* Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani* Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari* Abu Bakr Ibn Bajja* Abu Bakr Ibn Bājja* Abu Bakr Ibn Ţufayl* Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Tufayl* Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn as-Say'igh Ibn Bajja* Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariyya' al-Razi* Abu Hamid al-Ghazali* Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali* Abū Hayyān al-Tawhīdī* Abu Mansur Maturidi* Abu Muhammad 'Ali Ibn Hazm* Abu Nasr al-Farabi* Abū Nasr al-Fārābī* Abu Rayhan Biruni* Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani* Abu Sulayman Muhammad al-Sijistani* Abu Tahir Marwazi* Abu Yaqub Sijistani* Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi* Abul Ala Maududi* Academic art* Academic authorship* Academic freedom* Academic skepticism* Academy* Acatalepsy* Accademia degli Infiammati* Accent* Acceptance* Accessibility* Accessibility relation* Accident* Accident (fallacy)* Accident (philosophy)* Accidental necessity* Accidental properties* Accidental property* Accidentalism* Accidie* Accountability* Accountant-client privilege* Accounting ethics* Accounting reform* Accumulation by dispossession* Acharya Hemachandra* Achieving Our Country* Achille Gagliardi* Achille Varzi (philosopher)* Achilles paradox* Achintya Bheda Abheda* Acosmism* Acquaintance* Acquiescence bias* Acquired taste* Acrasia* Acratas* Acrion* Act utilitarianism* Acting Out (book)* Action 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Young* Arthur Moeller van den Bruck* Arthur Norman Prior* Arthur Oncken Lovejoy* Arthur Pap* Arthur Prior* Arthur Schafer* Arthur Schopenhauer* Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics* Arthur Stanley Eddington* Arthur Willink* Artificial brain* Artificial consciousness* Artificial intelligence* Artificial language* Artificial life* Artist* Artistic expression* Artistic freedom* Artistic inspiration* Artistic interpretation* Artistic merit* Artistic revolution* Artistic style* Arto Haapala* Arts and Crafts Movement* Arts criticism* Arturo Andrés Roig* Artworld* Arvi Grotenfelt* Arya* Arya Samaj* Aryadeva* As a Man Thinketh* As I Lay Dying (novel)* As I was going to St Ives* As if* As She Climbed Across the Table* Asa Gray* Asa Kasher* Asanga* Asceticism* Asclepiades of Phlius* Asclepiades the Cynic* Asclepigenia* Asclepiodotus (philosopher)* Asclepiodotus of Alexandria* Asclepius of Tralles* Ascribed status* Ascriptivism* Aseity* Ashanti Alston* Ashcan School* Asher Ginzberg* Ashley Treatment* Ashtamangala* Asian values* Asiatic mode of production* Askapāda Gotama* Asociación Continental Americana de Trabajadores* Aspasius* Assertion* Assertoric* Assi Rahbani* Assisted suicide* Association fallacy* Association for Logic, Language and Information* Association for Symbolic Logic* Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness* Association of Autonomous Astronauts* Association of ideas* Associationism* Associative law* Āstika and nāstika* Astrology* Aśvaghoṣa* Asymmetrical* Ataraxia* Ateneo de la Juventud* Athanasius of Alexandria* Atheism* Atheist's Wager* Atheist existentialism* Athenaeus of Seleucia* Athenian democracy* Athenodoros Cananites* Athenodoros Cordylion* Athenodorus of Soli* Athens* Athīr al-Dīn al-Abharī* Atisha* Atlantis* Atlas Shrugged* Atman (Buddhism)* Ātman (Buddhism)* Atman (Hinduism)* Atomic fact* Atomic sentence* Atomism* Atonement in Christianity* Atonement in Judaism* Atopy (philosophy)* Atrocity story* Attacking Faulty Reasoning* Attalus (Stoic)* Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation* Attentional bias* Atticus (philosopher)* Attitude (psychology)* Attitude polarization* Attorney–client privilege* Attorney misconduct* Attorney/client privilege* Attribute grammar* Attribution theory* Attributional bias* Auberon Herbert* Auctoritas* Auctoritates Aristotelis* Aufheben* Augmented Backus–Naur form* Augoeides* August Cieszkowski* August Wilhelm Schlegel* Auguste Comte* Auguste Vaillant* Augustin Bonnetty* Augustin Souchy* Augustine Eriugena* Augustine of Hippo* Augustinian Studies* Augustinian values* Augusto César Sandino* Augusto Vera* Augustus De Morgan* Aulus Egnatius Priscillianus* Aulus Gellius* Aurel Kolnai* Austin Farrer* Austin Marsden Farrer* Austin Woodbury* Australasian Association of Philosophy* Australasian Journal of Philosophy* Australian materialism* Australian realism* Austrofascism* Autarchism* Authenticity (philosophy)* Authoritarianism* Authority* Auto-destructive art* Autocracy* Autoepistemic logic* Autological* Automata theory* Automated reasoning* Automatic sequence* Automaton* Autonomedia* Autonomism* Autonomous Action* Autonomy* Autopoiesis* Avadhuta Gita* Availability heuristic* Avant-garde* Avant-Garde and Kitsch* Avatar* Avecebrol* Avempace* Average and total utilitarianism* Averaging argument* Averroes* Averroës* Averroism* Aversion therapy* Avicebrol* Avicebron* Avicenna* Avicenna Prize* Avicennism* Avidya (Hinduism)* Avidyā (Buddhism)* Avishai Margalit* Avital Ronell* Avodah* Avraham son of Rambam* Avrum Stroll* Awareness* Awareness League* Axel Hägerström* Axel Honneth* Axial Age* Axiochus (dialogue)* Axiology* Axiom* Axiom of abstraction* Axiom of choice* Axiom of comprehension* Axiom of Equity* Axiom of extensionality* Axiom of infinity* Axiom of projective determinacy* Axiom of reducibility* Axiom of replacement* Axiom of separation* Axiom S5* Axiom schema* Axiomatic method* Axiomatic set theory* Axiomatic system* Axiomatization* Axiothea of Phlius* Ayatana* Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani* Ayn Rand* Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life* Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical* Ayurveda* Ayyavazhi* Ayyavazhi phenomenology* Azizah Y. al-Hibri* Aztec philosophy" ], [ "B", "* B-series* B-Theory of time* B. F. Skinner* B. R. Ambedkar* B. Traven* Babette Babich* Baby K* Backgammon* Backus–Naur form* Backward causation* Backward chaining* Bad faith* Bad faith (existentialism)* Baden School* Bahmanyār* Bahshamiyya* Bahya ibn Paquda* Baker Brownell* Balance (metaphysics)* Balance of nature* Balangoda Ananda Maitreya* Baltasar Gracián* Balthasar Bekker* Banality of evil* Banausos* Bandwagon effect* Bantu Philosophy* Baptista Mantuanus* Baptists in the history of separation of church and state* Barba non facit philosophum* Barbara* Barbara Forrest* Barbara Herrnstein Smith* Barber paradox* Barbershop paradox* Barbizon school* Barcan formula* Barcelona May Days* Bardo* Bare particular* Bargaining theory* Barhaspatya sutras* Barlaam of Seminara* Baron d'Holbach* Baron de Montesquieu* Baron Herbert of Cherbury* Baroque* Baroque Revival architecture* Barracks communism* Barrie Karp* Barrows Dunham* Barry Loewer* Barry Smith (ontologist)* Barry Stroud* Bartholomäus Keckermann* Bartholomew Des Bosses* Bartholomew Keckermann* Bartholomew of Bologna (philosopher)* Bartolomé de Medina* Bartolommeo Spina* Bartolus de Saxoferrato* Baruch Spinoza* Barwise prize* Barzillai Quaife* Bas C. van Fraassen* Bas Haring* Bas van Fraassen* Base and superstructure* Base and superstructure (Marxism)* Base rate fallacy* Basic belief* Basic Limiting Principle* Basic norm* Basic Points Unifying the Theravāda and the Mahāyāna* Basil Mitchell (academic)* Basilides* Basilides (Stoic)* Basilides the Epicurean* Basilios Bessarion* Batis of Lampsacus* Batman: Anarky* Battle of Peregonovka (1919)* Bauhaus* Bay Area Figurative Movement* Bayes' theorem* Bayes's rule* Bayes's theorem* Bayesian probability* Bayesianism* Beatific vision* Béatrice Longuenesse* Beatriz Sarlo* Beauty* Becoming* Becoming (philosophy)* Bedeutung* Beelzebub's Tales to His Grandson* Beerwolf* Begging the question* Begriffsschrift* Behavior therapy* Behavioral script* Behavioralism* Behaviorism* Behaviourism* Behind the Mirror: A Search for a Natural History of Human Knowledge* Behold a Pale Horse (film)* Being* Being and becoming* Being and Nothingness* Being and Time* Being for itself* Being in itself* Béla Balázs* Béla Hamvas* Belief* Belief-Desire-Intention model* Belief-in* Belief bias* Belief in* Belief revision* Bell's inequality* Bell's theorem* Bellum omnium contra omnes* Belmont Report* Ben Salem Himmich* Benedetto Croce* Benedict de Spinoza* Benedict Pereira* Benedictus Spinoza* Benedito Nunes* Beneficence* Benjamin Apthorp Gould Fuller* Benjamin Constant* Benjamin Franklin* Benjamin Lee (academic)* Benjamin Paul Blood* Benjamin Peirce* Benjamin Tucker* Benjamin Whichcote* Benny Lévy* Benoît Broutchoux* Benoît de Maillet* Benson Mates* Berlin Circle* Bernard-Henri Lévy* Bernard A. O. Williams* Bernard Arthur Owen Williams* Bernard Bolzano* Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher)* Bernard d'Espagnat* Bernard de Fontenelle* Bernard Delfgaauw* Bernard Gert* Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle* Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle* Bernard Lonergan* Bernard Mandeville* Bernard Mayo* Bernard Narokobi* Bernard Nieuwentyt* Bernard of Chartres* Bernard of Clairvaux* Bernard of Trilia* Bernard Philip Kelly* Bernard Rollin* Bernard Silvestris* Bernard Stiegler* Bernard Williams* Bernard Yack* Bernardino Telesio* Bernardino Varisco* Bernhard Riemann* Bernoulli's principle* Bernoulli's theorem* Berry's paradox* Bert Mosselmans* Berthold of Moosburg* Berthold Wulf* Bertil Mårtensson* Bertrand paradox (economics)* Bertrand paradox (probability)* Bertrand's box paradox* Bertrand Arthur William Russell* Bertrand de Jouvenel* Bertrand Russell* Bertrand Russell's views on philosophy* Bertrand Russell's views on society* Best of all possible worlds* Bête machine* Betrayal* Between Facts and Norms* Between Heaven and Hell (novel)* Between Past and Future* Beuron Art School* Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival* Beyond Freedom and Dignity* Beyond Good and Evil* Beyond the Pleasure Principle* Bhagavad Gita* Bhakti* Bhartrhari* Bhava* Bhavanga* Bhāvaviveka* Bhedabheda* Bhikhu Parekh, Baron Parekh* Bhumi (Buddhism)* Bias* Bias blind spot* Bible* Biblical literalism* Bibliography for Ayn Rand and Objectivism* Biconditional* Biconditional elimination* Biconditional introduction* Biennio rosso* Big Book (thought experiment)* Bigram* Bill Martin (philosophy)* Bilocation* Binary opposition* Biocentric universe* Biocentrism (ethics)* Biodefense* Bioethics* Bioethics (journal)* Biofact (philosophy)* Biofacticity* Biographia Literaria* Biographical fallacy* Biological determinism* Biological naturalism* Biological warfare* Biomedical tissue* Bion of Borysthenes* Biopolitics* Biopower* Biosafety* Biosecurity* Biosophy* Biotic Baking Brigade* Bisexuality* Bite the bullet* Bivalence* Bjarni Jónsson* Bl(A)ck Tea Society* Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity* Black anarchism* Black Artists Group* Black Arts Movement* Black bloc* Black box* Black box theory* Black existentialism* Black Flag (newspaper)* Black Laundry* Black Mask (anarchists)* Black Panther Party* Black Sotnia* Black Star (anarchist group)* Black swan theory* Blackbird Raum* Blackwell Companion to Philosophy* Blaise Pascal* Blame* Blanquism* Bleen* Blindsight* Blockhead (thought experiment)* Blossius* Bluestocking (journal)* Bluestockings (bookstore)* Blyenbergh* Boasting* Boatmen of Thessaloníki* Bob Black* Bob Hale (philosopher)* Bodhi* Bodhimandala* Bodhisattva Precepts* Bodhisena* Body donation* Body of Knowledge* Body politic* Body without organs* Bodymind* Boethius* Boethus of Sidon* Boethus of Sidon (Stoic)* Boetius of Dacia* Bohm interpretation* Bohr–Einstein debates* Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee* Bolshevik* Bolus of Mendes* Bonapartism (Marxism)* Bonaventure* Boncompagno da Signa* Bonifaty Kedrov* Bonini's paradox* Bonnie Honig* Bonnie Steinbock* Bonnot Gang* Book of Causes* Book of Changes* Book of Life* Boolean algebra (logic)* Boolean grammar* Bootstrapping* Borden Parker Bowne* Boredom* Boris Chicherin* Boris Furlan* Boris Grushin* Boris Hessen* Borussian myth* Bound variable* Bourgeois* Bourgeois socialism* Bourgeoisie* Bowling Green Studies in Applied Philosophy* Boyd Henry Bode* Boyle Lectures* Bracha L. Ettinger* Bracketing (phenomenology)* Bracketing paradox* Brad Hooker* Brahma* Brahmacharya* Brahman* Brahmavihara* Brahmin* Brahmo Samaj* Brain* Brain-in-a-vat theory* Brain event* Brain in a vat* Brainstorm machine* Brainstorms* Brand Blanshard* Brandon Darby* Branko Bošnjak* Brazilian Workers Confederation* Breaking the Spell (film)* Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon* Brethren of Purity* Brian Barry* Brian Boyd* Brian David Ellis* Brian Davies (philosopher)* Brian Klug* Brian Leftow* Brian Leiter* Brian MacKenzie Infoshop* Brian Massumi* Brian O'Shaughnessy (philosopher)* Brian Orend* Brian Skyrms* Brian Weatherson* Bridge ethics* Brie Gertler* Brights movement* British Empiricists* British Humanist Association* British idealism* British Idealism* British Journal of Aesthetics* British Philosophical Association* British philosophy* Broadway Barks* Bronisław Trentowski* Bronius Kuzmickas* Brontinus* Brother Wolf* Brownie points* Bruce Lee* Bruce Weinstein* Bruce Wilshire* Brunetto Latini* Bruno Bauch* Bruno Bauer* Bruno de Finetti* Bruno Leoni* Brute fact* Bryan Caplan* Bryan Magee* Bryson of Achaea* Bryson of Heraclea* Buchmanism* Budaya* Buddha-nature* Buddhaghosa* Buddhahood* Buddhapālita* Buddhism* Buddhism and evolution* Buddhist anarchism* Buddhist ethics* Buddhist philosophy* Buddhist schools* Buddhist view of marriage* Buenaventura Durruti* Bullshit* Bulverism* Bunched logic* Bundle theory* Bundle theory of the self* Burali-Forte paradox* Burali-Forti's paradox* Burchard de Volder* Burden of proof (logical fallacy)* Bureaucracy* Bureaucratic collectivism* Burghart Schmidt* Buridan's ass* Burleigh Taylor Wilkins* Burrhus Frederic Skinner* Burton Dreben* Business ethics* Buttered cat paradox* By any means necessary* Byzantine philosophy* Byzantine rhetoric* Byzantinism" ], [ "C", "* C. Anthony Anderson* C. D. Broad* C. E. M. Joad* C. I. Lewis* C. Lloyd Morgan* C. S. Lewis* C. S. Lewis bibliography* C. Stephen Evans* C. T. K. Chari* C. A. J. Coady* Cabbala* Café Philosophique* Cahal Daly* Cai Yuanpei* Caigentan* Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam* Cajetan* Calcidius* Calculus* Calculus of structures* Calculus ratiocinator* Calippus of Syracuse* Callicles* Calliphon* Calliphon of Croton* Callippus* Callistratus (sophist)* Calvin Normore* Calvin Seerveld* Calvinism* Camas Bookstore and Infoshop* Cambridge change* Cambridge Philosophical Society* Cambridge Platonism* Cambridge Platonists* Camera del Lavoro* Camera obscura* Camilo Cienfuegos* Camp (style)* Canadian Journal of Philosophy* Canadian Society for History and Philosophy of Mathematics* Candace Vogler* Candide* Candrakīrti* Canonical form (Boolean algebra)* Cantor's paradox* Cantor's theorem* Capacity* Capital accumulation* Capital punishment* Capital, Volume I* Capitalism* Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal* Capitalist mode of production* Capitalist realism* Cappadocian Fathers* Carceral state* Cardinal Mercier Prize for International Philosophy* Cardinal utility* Cardinal virtues* Cardinality* Care* Care Not Killing* Carew Arthur Meredith* Cargo cult science* Carl Cohen* Carl Dahlhaus* Carl Elliott (philosopher)* Carl Friedrich Gauss* Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker* Carl G. 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Picart* Carolingian renaissance* Carolus Sigonius* Carolyn Merchant* Carsun Chang* Cartesian anxiety* Cartesian circle* Cartesian demon* Cartesian doubt* Cartesian dualism* Cartesian materialism* Cartesian Meditations* Cartesian Other* Cartesian product* Cartesian Self* Cartesian skepticism* Cartesian theater* Cartesianism* Cārvāka* Carveth Read* Case-based reasoning* Casimir Lewy* Caspar Isenkrahe* Cassius Longinus (philosopher)* Casuistry* Cat's Cradle* Catch-22 (logic)* Catechism of a Revolutionary* Categoriae decem* Categorical* Categorical imperative* Categorical logic* Categorical proposition* Categorical theory* Categoricity* Categories (Aristotle)* Categories (Peirce)* Categories of the understanding* Categorization* Category (Kant)* Category (philosophy)* Category mistake* Category of being* Category theory* Catharine Macaulay* Catharsis* Catherine Clément* Catherine Elgin* Catherine Malabou* Catherine of Siena* Catherine Perret* Catherine Trotter* Catherine Trotter Cockburn* Catholic guilt* Catholic Probabilism* Catius* Cato Maior de Senectute* Cato the Elder* Cato the Younger* Catonism* Causa sui* Causal-historical theory of reference* Causal adequacy principle* Causal chain* Causal closure* Causal decision theory* Causal determinism* Causal diagram* Causal Markov condition* Causal relation* Causal theory of proper names* Causal theory of reference* Causalism* Causality* Causality loop* Causation (law)* Causative verb* Cause* Cavalcante de' Cavalcanti* Cebes* Celestial spheres* Célestin Bouglé* Celia Green* Celine's laws* Cellular automaton* Celsus* Cemal Yildirim* Center Leo Apostel for Interdisciplinary Studies* Centre de recherche et de documentation sur Hegel* Centre for Applied Ethics* Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics (CAPPE)* Centre for History and Philosophy of Science, University of Leeds* Cercidas* Cercops* Certainty* César Chesneau Dumarsais* César Dávila Andrade* Cesare Beccaria* Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)* Ceteris paribus* CH* Ch'i* Ch'ien Mu* Chaeremon of Alexandria* Chaerephon* Chaeron of Pellene* Chaïm Perelman* Chain of events* Chaldean Oracles* Chamaeleon (philosopher)* Chanakya* Chance (Ancient Greek concept)* Chandragomin* Change* Chantal Maillard* Chao Cuo* Chaos* Chaos theory* Chaotic system* Character Strengths and Virtues (book)* Character structure* Character traits* Characteristica universalis* Chariot Allegory* Charismatic authority* Charity (practice)* Charity (virtue)* Charity International* Charles A. 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wikipedia
[ [ "Lamborghini" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A.''' () is an Italian manufacturer of luxury sports cars and SUVs based in Sant'Agata Bolognese.", "The company is owned by the Volkswagen Group through its subsidiary Audi.Ferruccio Lamborghini (1916–1993), an Italian manufacturing magnate, founded Automobili Ferruccio Lamborghini S.p.A. in 1963 to compete with Ferrari.", "The company was noted for using a rear mid-engine, rear-wheel drive layout.", "Lamborghini grew rapidly during its first decade, but sales plunged in the wake of the 1973 worldwide financial downturn and the oil crisis.", "The firm's ownership changed three times after 1973, including a bankruptcy in 1978.American Chrysler Corporation took control of Lamborghini in 1987 and sold it to Malaysian investment group Mycom Setdco and Indonesian group V'Power Corporation in 1994.In 1998, Mycom Setdco and V'Power sold Lamborghini to the Volkswagen Group where it was placed under the control of the group's Audi division.New products and model lines were introduced to the brand's portfolio and brought to the market and saw an increased productivity for the brand.", "In the late 2000s, during the worldwide financial crisis and the subsequent economic crisis, Lamborghini's sales saw a drop of nearly 50 per cent.Lamborghini currently produces the V10-powered Huracán, Urus SUV powered by a twin-turbo V8 engine and will produce the Revuelto, a V12/electric hybrid, as of 2024.In addition, the company produces V12 engines for offshore powerboat racing.Lamborghini Trattori, founded in 1948 by Ferruccio Lamborghini, is headquartered in Pieve di Cento, Italy and continues to produce tractors.", "Since 1973, Lamborghini Trattori has been a separate entity from the automobile manufacturer." ], [ "History", "Ferruccio Lamborghini with a Jarama and a tractor of his brandManufacturing magnate Italian Ferruccio Lamborghini founded the company in 1963 with the objective of producing a refined grand touring car to compete with offerings from established marques such as Ferrari.", "The company's first models, such as the 350 GT, were released in the mid-1960s.", "Lamborghini was noted for the 1966 Miura sports coupé, which used a rear mid-engine, rear-wheel drive layout.Lamborghini grew rapidly during its first ten years, but sales fell in the wake of the 1973 worldwide financial downturn and the oil crisis.", "Ferruccio Lamborghini sold the company to Georges-Henri Rossetti and René Leimer and retired in 1974.The company went bankrupt in 1978, and was placed in the receivership of brothers Jean-Claude and Patrick Mimran in 1980.The Mimrans purchased the company out of receivership by 1984 and invested heavily in its expansion.", "Under the Mimrans' management, Lamborghini's model line was expanded from the Countach to include the Jalpa sports car and the LM002 high-performance off-road vehicle.The Mimrans sold Lamborghini to the Chrysler Corporation in 1987.After replacing the Countach with the Diablo and discontinuing the Jalpa and the LM002, Chrysler sold Lamborghini to Malaysian investment group Mycom Setdco and Indonesian group V'Power Corporation in 1994.In 1998, Mycom Setdco and V'Power sold Lamborghini to the Volkswagen Group where it was placed under the control of the group's Audi division.", "New products and model lines were introduced to the brand's portfolio and brought to the market and saw an increased productivity for the brand Lamborghini.", "In the late 2000s, during the worldwide financial crisis and the subsequent economic crisis, Lamborghini's sales saw a drop of nearly 50 per cent.In 2021, the CEO of Lamborghini said that by 2024 all its models will be hybrid.+ Lamborghini ownershipYearsOwner1963–1972Ferruccio Lamborghini1972–19771977–1984Receivership1984–1987Patrick Mimran1987–1994Chrysler Corporation1994–1995MegaTech1995–1998V'Power and Mycom SedtcoAudi AG" ], [ "Products", "===Automobiles===As of the 2018 model year, Lamborghini's automobile product range consists of three model lines, two of which are mid-engine two-seat sports cars while the third one is a front engined, all-wheel drive SUV.==== Models in production ====* '''Revuelto'''Lamborghini Revuelto coupeProduction of the new Revuelto began in mid-2023 and it will be delivered in late 2023 as a 2024 model.", "The car will be powered by a 6.5L naturally aspirated V12 and three magnetic motors for a combined power output of 1,001 hp (1,015 PS).", "* '''Huracán'''Lamborghini Huracan LP 610-4 SpyderThe V10-powered Huracán line currently includes the all-wheel-drive LP 610-4 coupé and Spyder, the low cost rear-wheel-drive LP 580-2 coupé and Spyder and the most powerful, track oriented LP 640-4 Performante coupé and Spyder.", "* '''Urus'''Lamborghini UrusWith the intention of doubling its sales volume by 2019, Lamborghini also added an SUV named Urus in its line-up which is powered by a twin-turbo V8 engine and utilises a front engine, all-wheel drive layout.===Marine engines===Motori Marini Lamborghini produces a large V12 marine engine block for use in World Offshore Series Class 1 powerboats.", "A Lamborghini branded marine engine displaces approximately and outputs approximately .===Lamborghini motorcycle===In the mid-1980s, Lamborghini produced a limited-production run of a sports motorcycle.", "UK weekly newspaper ''Motor Cycle News'' reported in 1994 – when featuring an example available through an Essex motorcycle retailer – that 24 examples were produced with a Lamborghini alloy frame having adjustable steering head angle, Kawasaki GPz1000RX engine/transmission unit, Ceriani front forks and Marvic wheels.", "The bodywork was plastic and fully integrated with front fairing merged into fuel tank and seat cover ending in a rear tail-fairing.", "The motorcycles were designed by Lamborghini stylists and produced by French business Boxer Bikes.===Branded merchandise===Lamborghini licenses its brand to manufacturers that produce a variety of Lamborghini-branded consumer goods including scale models, clothing, accessories, bags, electronics and laptop computers.File:Musée Lamborghini 0071.JPG|L900 marine engine" ], [ "Motorsport", "===Automobiles produced===Lamborghini Motorsport Division Squadra Corse produces GT3 cars and cars for their Super Trofeo events based on the Gallardo and Huracán.", "Apart from them, the Squadra Corse builds cars upon customer request.====GT3 and Super Trofeo Cars====*Gallardo LP 570-4 Super Trofeo*Gallardo LP 560-4 Super Trofeo*Huracán LP 620-2 Super Trofeo EVO*Huracán LP 620-2 Super Trofeo EVO2*Huracán Super Trofeo GT2*Huracán GT3*Huracán GT3 Evo*Huracán GT3 Evo 2====Special cars ====These cars were built by Squadra Corse upon customer request.", "*Essenza SCV12*SC18 Alston*SC20===Events held=======Lamborghini Super Trofeo====Lamborghini Gallardo Super Trofeo 2011 in Hockenheim|leftLamborghini Huracán Super Trofeo|leftThe Super Trofeo is a series of Motorsport events held by Squadra corse using their Super Trofeo model vehicles (currently the Huracán Super Trofeo EVO) which are racing versions of the road-approved models (Huracán and Gallardo models).The Super Trofeo events are held in three different series, in three continents: America, Asia and Europe.", "Many private race team participate each of these events.Every series consists of six rounds, each of which feature free practice sessions, qualifying and two races lasting 50 minutes each.", "There are four categories of drivers: Pro, Pro-Am, Am and Lamborghini Cup.", "The season ends in the Lamborghini Super Trofeo World Final.====Lamborghini GT3====leftleftThe Lamborghini GT3 is a series of Motorsport events held by The Squadra Corse using Huracán GT3 cars that comply with the FIA GT3 regulations.", "The racing event is open to any Huracán GT3 customer.Lamborghini currently uses Huracán GT3 Evo cars for these events and more than 60 private race teams participate these events." ], [ "Current factory drivers", "===Factory drivers======GT3 junior drivers======Super Trofeo junior drivers===" ], [ "Lamborghini in Formula One", "The Miura began as a clandestine prototype, a car that had racing pedigree in a company that was entirely against motorsport.In contrast to his rival Enzo Ferrari, Ferruccio Lamborghini had decided early on that there would be no factory-supported racing of Lamborghinis, viewing motorsport as too expensive and too draining on company resources.", "This was unusual for the time, as many sports car manufacturers sought to demonstrate speed, reliability, and technical superiority through motorsport participation.", "Enzo Ferrari in particular was known for considering his road car business mostly a source of funding for his participation in motor racing.", "Ferruccio's policy led to tensions between him and his engineers, many of whom were racing enthusiasts; some had previously worked at Ferrari.", "When Dallara, Stanzani, and Wallace began dedicating their spare time to the development of the P400 prototype, they designed it to be a road car with racing potential, one that could win on the track and also be driven on the road by enthusiasts.", "When Ferruccio discovered the project, he allowed them to go ahead, seeing it as a potential marketing device for the company, while insisting that it would not be raced.", "The P400 went on to become the Miura.", "The closest the company came to building a true race car under Lamborghini's supervision were a few highly modified prototypes, including those built by factory test driver Bob Wallace, such as the Miura SV-based \"Jota\" and the Jarama S-based \"Bob Wallace Special\".In the mid-1970s, while Lamborghini was under the management of Georges-Henri Rossetti, Lamborghini entered into an agreement with BMW to develop, then manufacture 400 cars for BMW in order to meet Group 4 homologation requirements.", "BMW lacked experience developing a mid-engined vehicle and believed that Lamborghini's experience in that area would make Lamborghini an ideal choice of partner.", "Due to Lamborghini's shaky finances, Lamborghini fell behind schedule developing the car's structure and running gear.", "When Lamborghini failed to deliver working prototypes on time, BMW took the program in house, finishing development without Lamborghini.", "BMW contracted with Baur to produce the car, which BMW named the M1, delivering the first vehicle in October 1978.In 1985, Lamborghini's British importer developed the Countach QVX, in conjunction with Spice Engineering, for the 1986 Group C championship season.", "One car was built, but lack of sponsorship caused it to miss the season.", "The QVX competed in only one race, the non-championship 1986 Southern Suns 500 km race at Kyalami in South Africa, driven by Tiff Needell.", "Despite the car finishing better than it started, sponsorship could once again not be found and the programme was cancelled.The 1990 Lotus 102 featured a Lamborghini V12 engine.Lamborghini was an engine supplier in Formula One for the 1989 through 1993 Formula One seasons.", "It supplied engines to Larrousse (1989–1990, 1992–1993), Lotus (1990), Ligier (1991), Minardi (1992), and to the Modena team in 1991.While the latter is commonly referred to as a factory team, the company saw itself as a supplier, not a backer.", "The 1992 Larrousse–Lamborghini was largely uncompetitive but noteworthy in its tendency to spew oil from its exhaust system.", "Cars following closely behind the Larrousse were commonly coloured yellowish-brown by the end of the race.", "Lamborghini's best result was achieved with Larrousse at the 1990 Japanese Grand Prix, when Aguri Suzuki finished third on home soil.In late 1991, a Lamborghini Formula One motor was used in the Konrad KM-011 Group C sports car, but the car only lasted a few races before the project was cancelled.", "The same engine, re-badged a Chrysler, Lamborghini's then-parent company, was tested by McLaren towards the end of the 1993 season, with the intent of using it during the 1994 season.", "Although driver Ayrton Senna was reportedly impressed with the engine's performance, McLaren pulled out of negotiations, choosing a Peugeot engine instead, and Chrysler ended the project.Silverstone in 2006Two racing versions of the Diablo were built for the Diablo Supertrophy, a single-model racing series held annually from 1996 to 1999.In the first year, the model used in the series was the Diablo SVR, while the Diablo 6.0 GTR was used for the remaining three years.", "Lamborghini developed the Murciélago R-GT as a production racing car to compete in the FIA GT Championship, the Super GT Championship and the American Le Mans Series in 2004.The car's highest placing in any race that year was the opening round of the FIA GT Championship at Valencia, where the car entered by Reiter Engineering finished third from a fifth-place start.", "In 2006, during the opening round of the Super GT championship at Suzuka, a car run by the Japan Lamborghini Owners Club garnered the first victory (in class) by an R-GT.", "A GT3 version of the Gallardo has been developed by Reiter Engineering.", "A Murciélago R-GT entered by All-Inkl.com racing, driven by Christophe Bouchut and Stefan Mücke, won the opening round of the FIA GT Championship held at Zhuhai International Circuit, achieving the first major international race victory for Lamborghini.===Complete Formula One results===(key) (results in bold indicate pole position) Year Entrant Chassis Engine(s) Tyres Drivers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Points WCC Larrousse Calmels Lola LC88BLola LC89 Lamborghini 3512 V12 BRA SMR MON MEX US CAN FRA GBR GER HUN BEL ITA POR ESP JPN AUS'''1''''''15th''' Yannick Dalmas DNQ Ret DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ Éric Bernard 11 Ret Michele Alboreto Ret Ret Ret Ret 11 DNPQ DNQ DNPQ Philippe Alliot 12 Ret Ret Ret Ret Ret Ret Ret Ret DNPQ 16 Ret 9 6 Ret Ret ESPO Larrousse F1 Lola LC89BLola LC90 Lamborghini 3512 V12 US BRA SMR MON CAN MEX FRA GBR GER HUN BEL ITA POR ESP JPN AUS'''11''''''6th''' Éric Bernard 8 Ret 13 6 9 Ret 8 4 Ret 6 9 Ret Ret Ret Ret Ret Aguri Suzuki Ret Ret Ret Ret 12 Ret 7 6 Ret Ret Ret Ret 14 6 3 Ret Camel Team Lotus Lotus 102 Lamborghini V12 Derek Warwick Ret Ret 7 Ret 6 10 11 Ret 8 5 11 Ret Ret Ret Ret Ret '''3''' '''8th''' Martin Donnelly DNS Ret 8 Ret Ret 8 12 Ret Ret 7 12 Ret Ret DNS Johnny Herbert Ret Ret Equipe Ligier Gitanes Ligier JS35Ligier JS35B Lamborghini 3512V12 US BRA SMR MON CAN MEX FRA GBR GER HUN BEL ITA POR ESP JPN AUS'''0''''''NC''' Thierry Boutsen Ret Ret 7 7 Ret 8 12 Ret 9 17 11 Ret 16 Ret 9 Ret Érik Comas DNQ Ret 10 10 8 DNQ 11 DNQ Ret 10 Ret 11 11 Ret Ret 18 Modena Team SpA Lambo 291 Lamborghini L3512 V12 Nicola Larini 7 DNPQ DNPQ DNPQ DNPQ DNPQ DNPQ DNPQ Ret 16 DNQ 16 DNQ DNQ DNQ Ret '''0''' '''NC''' Eric van de Poele DNPQ DNPQ 9 DNPQ DNPQ DNPQ DNPQ DNPQ DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ DNQ Central Park Venturi Larrousse Venturi LC92 Lamborghini 3512 V12 RSA MEX BRA ESP SMR MON CAN FRA GBR GER HUN BEL ITA POR JPN AUS'''1''''''11th''' Bertrand Gachot Ret 11 Ret Ret Ret 6 DSQ Ret Ret 14 Ret 18 Ret Ret Ret Ret Ukyo Katayama 12 12 9 DNQ Ret DNPQ Ret Ret Ret Ret Ret 17 9 Ret 11 Ret Minardi Team M191BM191LM192 Lamborghini 3512 3.5 V12 Christian Fittipaldi Ret Ret Ret 11 Ret 8 13 DNQ DNQ DNQ 12 6 '''9''' '''1''' '''12th''' Alessandro Zanardi DNQ Ret DNQ Gianni Morbidelli Ret Ret 7 Ret Ret Ret 11 8 17 12 DNQ 16 Ret 14 14 10 Larrousse F1 Larrousse LH93 Lamborghini 3512 V12 RSA BRA EUR SMR ESP MON CAN FRA GBR GER HUN BEL ITA POR JPN AUS'''3''''''10th''' Philippe Alliot Ret 7 Ret 5 Ret 12 Ret 9 11 12 8 12 9 10 Toshio Suzuki 12 14 Érik Comas Ret 10 9 Ret 9 Ret 8 16 Ret Ret Ret Ret 6 11 Ret 12" ], [ "Marketing", "===Brand identity===The Lamborghini wordmark, as displayed on the back of its carsThe world of bullfighting is a key part of Lamborghini's identity.", "In 1962, Ferruccio Lamborghini visited the Seville ranch of Don Eduardo Miura, a renowned breeder of Spanish fighting bulls.", "Lamborghini was so impressed by the majestic Miura animals that he decided to adopt a raging bull as the emblem for the automaker he would open shortly.===Vehicle nomenclature===After producing two cars with alphanumeric designations, Lamborghini once again turned to the bull breeder for inspiration.", "Don Eduardo was filled with pride when he learned that Ferruccio had named a car for his family and their line of bulls; the fourth Miura to be produced was unveiled to him at his ranch in Seville.The automaker would continue to draw upon the bullfighting connection in future years.", "The Islero was named for the Miura bull that killed the famed bullfighter Manolete in 1947.", "''Espada'' is the Spanish word for sword, sometimes used to refer to the bullfighter himself.", "The Jarama's name carried a special double meaning; though it was intended to refer only to the historic bullfighting region in Spain, Ferruccio was concerned about confusion with the also historic Jarama motor racing track.The Diablo (background) was named for a legendary bull, while the Countach (foreground) broke from the bullfighting tradition.After christening the Urraco after a bull breed, in 1974, Lamborghini broke from tradition, naming the Countach () not for a bull, but for (), a Piedmontese expletive.", "Legend has it that stylist Nuccio Bertone uttered the word in surprise when he first saw the Countach prototype, \"Project 112\".", "The LM002 (LM for Lamborghini Militaire) sport utility vehicle and the Silhouette (named after the popular racing category of the time) were other exceptions to the tradition.The Jalpa of 1982 was named for a bull breed; Diablo, for the Duke of Veragua's ferocious bull famous for fighting an epic battle against El Chicorro in Madrid in 1869; Murciélago, the legendary bull whose life was spared by El Lagartijo for his performance in 1879; Gallardo, named for one of the five ancestral castes of the Spanish fighting bull breed; and Reventón, the bull that defeated young Mexican ''torero'' Félix Guzmán in 1943.The Estoque concept of 2008 was named for the estoc, the sword traditionally used by matadors during bullfights.===Concept vehicles===Throughout its history, Lamborghini has envisioned and presented a variety of concept cars, beginning in 1963 with the very first Lamborghini prototype, the 350GTV.", "Other famous models include Bertone's 1967 Marzal, 1974 Bravo, and 1980 Athon, Chrysler's 1987 Portofino, the Italdesign-styled Cala from 1995, the Zagato-built Raptor from 1996.A retro-styled Lamborghini Miura concept car, the first creation of chief designer Walter de'Silva, was presented in 2006.President and CEO Stephan Winkelmann denied that the concept would be put into production, saying that the Miura concept was \"a celebration of our history, but Lamborghini is about the future.", "Retro design is not what we are here for.", "So we won't do the new Miura.", "\"The Estoque, a 2008 sedan conceptAt the 2008 Paris Motor Show, Lamborghini revealed the Estoque, a four-door sedan concept.", "Although there had been much speculation regarding the Estoque's eventual production, Lamborghini management has not made a decision regarding production of what might be the first four-door car to roll out of the Sant'Agata factory.Concept S, a Gallardo derivative|alt=At the 2010 Paris Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Sesto Elemento.", "The concept car is made almost entirely of carbon fibre making it extremely light, with a weight of .", "The Sesto Elemento shares the same V10 engine found in the Lamborghini Gallardo.", "Lamborghini hopes to signal a shift in the company's direction from making super cars focused on top speed to producing more agile, track focused cars with the Sesto Elemento.", "The concept car can reach in 2.5 seconds and can reach a top speed of over 180 mph.At the 2012 Geneva Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Aventador J – a roofless, windowless version of the Lamborghini Aventador.", "The Aventador J uses the same 700 hp engine and seven-speed transmission as the standard Aventador.At the 2012 Beijing Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Urus SUV.", "This is the first SUV built by Lamborghini since the LM002.As part of the celebration of 50 years of Lamborghini, the company created the Egoista.", "Egoista is for one person's driving and only one Egoista is to be made.At the 2014 Paris Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Asterion LPI910-4 hybrid concept car.", "Named after the half-man, half-bull hybrid (Minotaur) of Greek legend, it is the first hybrid Lamborghini in the history of the company.", "Utilizing the Huracán's 5.2 litre V10 producing , along with one electric motor mounted on the transaxle and an additional two on the front axle, developing an additional .", "This puts the power at a combined figure of .", "The time is claimed to be just above 3 seconds, with a claimed top speed of ." ], [ "Corporate affairs", "===Structure===, Lamborghini is structured as a wholly-owned subsidiary of Audi AG named Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A.Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. controls five principal subsidiaries: Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A., a manufacturer of motorcycles; Italdesign Giugiaro S.p.A., a design and prototyping firm that provides services to the entire Volkswagen Group; MML S.p.A. (Motori Marini Lamborghini), a manufacturer of marine engine blocks; and Volkswagen Group Italia S.p.A. (formerly Autogerma S.p.A.), which sells Audi and other Volkswagen Group vehicles in Italy.The Lamborghini headquarters and main production site is located in Sant'Agata Bolognese, Italy.", "With the launch of its Urus SUV, the production site expanded from to .On 13 November 2020, Stephan Winkelmann, current President of Bugatti, was appointed to be the new CEO of Lamborghini.", "He takes up his new position as of 1 December 2020.===Sales results===Lamborghini Gallardo coupe (Japan)By sales, the most important markets in 2004 for Lamborghini's sports cars were the U.S. (41%), Germany (13%), Great Britain (9%) and Japan (8%).", "Prior to the launch of the Gallardo in 2003, Lamborghini produced approximately 400 vehicles per year; in 2011 Lamborghini produced 1,711 vehicles.", ";Annual Lamborghini new car sales+Year Sales1968353199167319921661993215199621119972091999265+Year Sales20002962001297200242420031,30520041,59220051,60020062,08720072,40620082,43020091,515+Year Sales20101,30220111,60220122,08320132,12120142,53020153,24520163,45720173,81520185,75020198,205+ '''Annual Lamborghini new car sales''' ImageSize = width:1000 height:auto barincrement:30PlotArea = left:45 bottom:20 top:10 right:18AlignBars = justifyDateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:0 till:8300TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalColors = id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7)ScaleMajor = unit:year start:0 increment:500 gridcolor:line2ScaleMinor = start:0 increment:100 gridcolor:line1PlotData= color:skyblue width:25 bar:1999 from:start till:265 text:265 align:left bar:2000 from:start till:296 text:296 align:left bar:2001 from:start till:297 text:297 align:left bar:2002 from:start till:424 text:424 align:left bar:2003 from:start till:1305 text:1,305 align:left bar:2004 from:start till:1592 text:1,592 align:left bar:2005 from:start till:1600 text:1,600 align:left bar:2006 from:start till:2087 text:2,087 align:left bar:2007 from:start till:2406 text:2,406 align:left bar:2008 from:start till:2430 text:2,430 align:left bar:2009 from:start till:1515 text:1,515 align:left bar:2010 from:start till:1302 text:1,302 align:left bar:2011 from:start till:1602 text:1,602 align:left bar:2012 from:start till:2083 text:2,083 align:left bar:2013 from:start till:2121 text:2,121 align:left bar:2014 from:start till:2530 text:2,530 align:left bar:2015 from:start till:3245 text:3,245 align:left bar:2016 from:start till:3457 text:3,457 align:left bar:2017 from:start till:3815 text:3,815 align:left bar:2018 from:start till:5750 text:5,750 align:left bar:2019 from:start till:8205 text:8,205 align:left" ], [ "Licensing", "===Automóviles Lamborghini Latinoamérica===Automóviles Lamborghini Latinoamérica S.A. de C.V. (Lamborghini Automobiles of Latin America Public Limited Company) is an authorized distributor and manufacturer of Lamborghini-branded vehicles and merchandise in Latin America and South America.In 1995, Indonesian corporation MegaTech, Lamborghini's owner at the time, entered into distribution and license agreements with Mexican businessman Jorge Antonio Fernandez Garcia.", "The agreements give Automóviles Lamborghini Latinoamérica S.A. de C.V. the exclusive distributorship of Lamborghini vehicles and branded merchandise in Latin America and South America.", "Under the agreements, Automóviles Lamborghini is also allowed to manufacture Lamborghini vehicles and market them worldwide under the Lamborghini brand.Automóviles Lamborghini has produced two rebodied versions of the Diablo called the Eros and the Coatl.", "In 2015, Automóviles Lamborghini transferred the IP-rights to the Coatl foundation (chamber of commerce no.", "63393700) in The Netherlands in order to secure these rights and to make them more marketable.", "The company has announced the production of a speedboat called the Lamborghini Glamour." ], [ "Museums", "There are two museums in Bologna, Emilia-Romagna centered around the brand.===Museo Lamborghini===Museo LamborghiniThis two-storey museum is attached to the headquarters, and covers the history of Lamborghini cars and sport utility vehicles, showcasing a variety of modern and vintage models.", "The museum uses displays of cars, engines and photos to provide a history and review important milestones of Lamborghini.===Museo Ferruccio Lamborghini===A 9,000 square-foot museum about Ferruccio Lamborghini houses several cars, industrial prototypes, sketches, personal objects and family photos from Ferruccio's early life." ], [ "See also", "*List of automobile manufacturers of Italy*Automotive industry in Italy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Corporate documents===* * * * Alt URL * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Official website* Lamborghini of Latinoamerica Official page* Lamborghini Car Register*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "LaGrand case" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''LaGrand case''' was a legal action heard before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) which concerned the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations.", "In the case, the ICJ ruled that its own temporary court orders were legally binding and that the rights contained in the convention could not be denied by the application of domestic legal procedures." ], [ "Background", "On January 7, 1982, brothers Karl-Heinz LaGrand (1963–1999) and Walter Bernhard LaGrand (1962–1999) bungled an armed bank robbery in Marana, Arizona, killing 63-year-old Kenneth Hartsock by stabbing him 24 times with a letter opener, and severely injuring 20-year-old Dawn Lopez by stabbing her multiple times.", "Lopez later said she heard one of the brothers twice say, \"Just make sure he's dead.\"", "They were subsequently charged and convicted of murder and sentenced to death.", "The LaGrands also had prior convictions for robbery and burglary, which were used against them during the sentencing phase of their trials.The LaGrands were German nationals, having been born in Germany to a German mother.", "While they had both lived in the United States since they were four and five, respectively, neither had obtained U.S. citizenship.", "As foreigners, the LaGrands should have been informed of their right to consular assistance, under the Vienna Convention, from their state of nationality, Germany.", "However, the Arizona authorities failed to do this.", "The brothers later contacted Consul William Behrens, head of the German Consulate in Phoenix, on their own accord, having learned of their right to consular assistance.", "They appealed their sentences and convictions on the grounds that they were not informed of their right to consular assistance, and that with consular assistance they might have been able to mount a better defense.", "The federal courts rejected their argument on grounds of procedural default, which provides that issues cannot be raised in federal court appeals unless they had first been raised in state courts.Diplomatic efforts, including pleas by German Ambassador Jürgen Chrobog and German Member of Parliament Claudia Roth, and the recommendation of Arizona's clemency board, failed to sway Arizona Governor Jane Dee Hull, who insisted that the executions be carried out.", "Karl LaGrand was executed on February 24, 1999, by lethal injection.", "Walter LaGrand was executed March 3, 1999, by lethal gas (upon his request), and currently remains the last person executed by that method in the United States." ], [ "The case", "Germany initiated legal action in the International Court of Justice against the United States regarding Walter LaGrand.", "Hours before Walter LaGrand was due to be executed, Germany applied for the Court to grant a provisional court order, requiring the United States to delay the execution of Walter LaGrand, which the court granted.Germany then initiated action in the U.S. Supreme Court for enforcement of the provisional order.", "In its judgment, the U.S. Supreme Court held that it lacked jurisdiction with respect to Germany's complaint against Arizona due to the Eleventh Amendment of the U.S. constitution, which prohibits federal courts from hearing lawsuits of foreign states against a U.S. state.", "With respect to Germany's case against the United States, it held that the doctrine of procedural default was not incompatible with the Vienna Convention, and that even if procedural default did conflict with the Vienna Convention it had been overruled by later federal law – the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996, which explicitly legislated the doctrine of procedural default.", "(Subsequent federal legislation overrides prior self-executing treaty provisions, ''Whitney v. Robertson'', ).The U.S.", "Solicitor General sent a letter to the Supreme Court, as part of these proceedings, arguing that provisional measures of the International Court of Justice are not legally binding.", "The United States Department of State also conveyed the ICJ's provisional measure to the Governor of Arizona without comment.", "The Arizona clemency board recommended a stay to the governor, on the basis of the pending ICJ case; but the Governor of Arizona, Jane Dee Hull, ignored the recommendation.Germany then modified its complaint in the case before the ICJ, alleging furthermore that the U.S. violated international law by failing to implement the provisional measures.", "In opposition to the German submissions, the United States argued that the Vienna Convention did not grant rights to individuals but only to states; that the convention was meant to be exercised subject to the laws of each state party, which in the case of the United States meant subject to the doctrine of procedural default; and that Germany was seeking to turn the ICJ into an international court of criminal appeal." ], [ "ICJ decision", "On June 27, 2001, the ICJ, rejecting all of the United States' arguments, ruled in favor of Germany.", "The ICJ held that the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of April 24, 1963, granted rights to individuals on the basis of its plain meaning, and that domestic laws could not limit the rights of the accused under the convention, but only specify the means by which those rights were to be exercised.", "The ICJ also found that its own provisional measures were legally binding.", "The nature of provisional measures has been a subject of great dispute in international law; the English text of the Statute of the International Court of Justice implies they are not binding, while the French text implies that they are.", "Faced with a contradiction between two equally authentic texts of the statute, the court considered which interpretation better served the objects and purposes of the statute, and hence found that they are binding.", "This was the first time in the court's history it had ruled as such.The court also found that the United States violated the Vienna Convention through its application of procedural default.", "The court was at pains to point out that it was not passing judgment on the doctrine itself, but only its application to cases involving the Vienna Convention." ], [ "See also", "* Capital punishment in Arizona* List of people executed in Arizona* Avena case* ''Leal Garcia v. Texas'' (2011)* Linda Carty* List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 526" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Judgments of the International Court of Justice* Judgment of U.S. Supreme Court, Federal Republic of Germany vs. United States* ASIL Insight article on LaGrand case* Federal Republic of Germany v. United States, 526 U.S. 111 (1999) The opinion by the Supreme Court in the matter referenced in the article.", "* Stewart v. LaGrand, 526 U.S. 115 (1999) The Companion Case* ''Breard v. Greene'', 523 U.S. 317 (1997) The earlier case of the execution of a Paraguayan on which the LaGrand decisions rest." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lotus 1-2-3" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lotus 1-2-3''' is a discontinued spreadsheet program from Lotus Software (later part of IBM).", "It was the first killer application of the IBM PC, was hugely popular in the 1980s, and significantly contributed to the success of IBM PC-compatibles in the business market.The first spreadsheet, VisiCalc, had helped launch the Apple II as one of the earliest personal computers in business use.", "With IBM's entry into the market, VisiCalc was slow to respond, and when they did, they launched what was essentially a straight port of their existing system despite the greatly expanded hardware capabilities.", "Lotus's solution was marketed as a three-in-one integrated solution: it handled spreadsheet calculations, database functionality, and graphical charts, hence the name \"1-2-3\", though how much database capability the product actually had was debatable, given the sparse memory left over after launching 1-2-3.It quickly overtook VisiCalc, as well as Multiplan and SuperCalc, the two VisiCalc competitors.Lotus 1-2-3 was the state-of-the-art spreadsheet and the standard throughout the 1980s and into the early 1990s, part of an unofficial set of three stand-alone office automation products that included dBase and WordPerfect, to build a complete business platform.", "Lotus Software had their own word processor named Lotus Manuscript, which was to some extent acclaimed in academia, but did not catch the interest of the business, nor the consumer market.", "With the acceptance of Windows 3.0 in 1990, the market for desktop software grew even more.", "None of the major spreadsheet developers had seriously considered the graphical user interface (GUI) to supplement their DOS offerings, and so they responded slowly to Microsoft's own GUI-based products Excel and Word.", "Lotus was surpassed by Microsoft in the early 1990s, and never recovered.", "IBM purchased Lotus in 1995, and continued to sell Lotus offerings, only officially ending sales in 2013." ], [ "History", "=== VisiCalc ===VisiCalc was launched in 1979 on the Apple II and immediately became a best-seller.", "Compared to earlier programs, VisiCalc allowed one to easily construct free-form calculation systems for practically any purpose, the limitations being primarily related to the memory and speed of the computer.", "The application was so compelling that there were numerous stories of people buying Apple II machines to run the program (see article Killer application).", "VisiCalc's runaway success on the Apple led to direct bug compatible ports to other platforms, including the Atari 8-bit family, Commodore PET and many others.", "This included the IBM PC when it launched in 1981, where it quickly became another best-seller, with an estimated 300,000 sales in the first six months on the market.There were well-known problems with VisiCalc, and several competitors appeared to address some of these issues.", "One early example was 1980's SuperCalc, which solved the problem of circular references, while a slightly later example was Microsoft Multiplan from 1981, which offered larger sheets and other improvements.", "In spite of these, and others, VisiCalc continued to outsell them all.=== Beginnings ===Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.3 for DOS User's Guide; the Functions and Macros Guide is next to it.The Lotus Development Corporation was founded by Mitchell Kapor, a friend of the developers of VisiCalc.", "1-2-3 was originally written by Jonathan Sachs, who had written two spreadsheet programs previously while working at Concentric Data Systems, Inc. To aid its growth both in the UK and possibly elsewhere, Lotus 1-2-3 became the very first computer software to use television consumer advertising.Kapor was primarily a marketing guru.", "His ability to develop his product to appeal to non-technical users was one secret to its rapid success.", "Unlike many technologists, Kapor relied on focus group feedback to make his user instructions more user-friendly.", "One example: the instructions that came with the floppy disc read: \"Remove the protective cover and insert disc into computer.\"", "A few focus group participants tried to rip-off the stiff plastic envelope of disc carrier.", "Kapor's recognition that techno-speak instructions needed to be translated to normative English was a strong contributor to the product's popularity.Lotus 1-2-3 was released on 26 January 1983, and immediately overtook Visicalc in sales.", "Unlike Microsoft Multiplan, it stayed very close to the model of VisiCalc, including the \"A1\" letter and number cell notation, and slash-menu structure.", "It was cleanly programmed, relatively bug-free, gained speed from being written completely in x86 assembly language (this remained the case for all DOS versions until 3.0, when Lotus switched to C) and wrote directly to video memory rather than use the slow DOS and/or BIOS text output functions.Among other novelties that Lotus introduced was a graph maker that could display several forms of graphs (including pie charts, bar graphics, or line charts) but required the user to have a graphics card.", "At this early stage, the only video boards available for the PC were IBM's Color Graphics Adapter and Monochrome Display and Printer Adapter, the latter not supporting any graphics.", "However, because the two video boards used different RAM and port addresses, both could be installed in the same machine and so Lotus took advantage of this by supporting a \"split\" screen mode whereby the user could display the worksheet portion of 1-2-3 on the sharper monochrome video and the graphics on the CGA display.The initial release of 1-2-3 supported only three video setups: CGA, MDA (in which case the graph maker was not available) or dual-monitor mode.", "However, a few months later support was added for Hercules Computer Technology's Hercules Graphics Adapter which was a clone of the MDA that allowed bitmap mode.", "The ability to have high-resolution text and graphics capabilities (at the expense of color) proved extremely popular and Lotus 1-2-3 is credited with popularizing the Hercules graphics card.Subsequent releases of Lotus 1-2-3 supported more video standards as time went on, including EGA, AT&T/Olivetti, and VGA.", "Significantly, support for the PCjr/Tandy modes was never added and users of those machines were limited to CGA graphics.The early versions of 1-2-3 also had a key disk copy protection.", "While the program was hard disk installable, the user had to insert the original floppy disk when starting 1-2-3 up.", "This protection scheme was easily cracked and a minor inconvenience for home users, but proved a serious nuisance in an office setting.", "Starting with Release 3.0, Lotus no longer used copy protection.", "However, it was then necessary to \"initialize\" the System disk with one's name and company name so as to customize the copy of the program.", "Release 2.2 and higher had this requirement.", "This was an irreversible process unless one had made an exact copy of the original disk so as to be able to change names to transfer the program to someone else.The reliance on the specific hardware of the IBM PC led to 1-2-3 being utilized as one of the two stress test applications, along with Microsoft Flight Simulator, for true 100% compatibility when PC clones appeared in the early 1980s.", "1-2-3 required two disk drives and at least 192K of memory, which made it incompatible with the IBM PCjr; Lotus produced a version for the PCjr that was on two cartridges but otherwise identical.By early 1984 the software was a killer app for the IBM PC and compatibles, while hurting sales of computers that could not run it.", "\"They're looking for 1-2-3.Boy, are they looking for 1-2-3!\"", "''InfoWorld'' wrote.", "Noting that computer purchasers did not want PC compatibility as much as compatibility with certain PC software, the magazine suggested \"let's tell it like it is.", "Let's not say 'PC compatible,' or even 'MS-DOS compatible.'", "Instead, let's say '1-2-3 compatible.", "PC clones' advertising did often prominently state that they were compatible with 1-2-3.An Apple II software company promised that its spreadsheet had \"the power of 1-2-3\".", "Because spreadsheets use large amounts of memory, 1‐2‐3 helped popularize greater RAM capacities in PCs, and especially the advent of expanded memory, which allowed greater than 640k to be accessed.=== Rivals ===Lotus 1-2-3 inspired imitators, the first of which was Mosaic Software's \"The Twin\", written in the fall of 1985 largely in the C programming language, followed by VP-Planner, which was backed by Adam Osborne.", "These were able to not only read 1-2-3 files, but also execute many or most macro programs by incorporating the same command structure.", "Copyright law had first been understood to only cover the source code of a program.", "After the success of lawsuits which claimed that the very \"look and feel\" of a program were covered, Lotus sought to ban any program which had a compatible command and menu structure.", "Program commands had not been considered to be covered before, but the commands of 1-2-3 were embedded in the words of the menu displayed on the screen.", "1-2-3 won its three-year long court battle against Paperback Software International and Mosaic Software Inc. in 1990.However, when it sued Borland over its Quattro Pro spreadsheet in ''Lotus v. Borland'', a six-year battle that ended at the Supreme Court in 1996, the final ruling appeared to support narrowing the applicability of copyright law to software; this is because the lower court's decision that it was not a copyright violation to merely have a compatible command menu or language was upheld, but only via stalemate.", "In 1995, the First Circuit found that command menus are an uncopyrightable \"method of operation\" under section 102(b) of the Copyright Act.", "The 1-2-3 menu structure (example, slash File Erase) was itself an advanced version of single letter menus introduced in VisiCalc.", "When the case came before the Supreme Court, the justices would end up deadlocked 4–4.This meant that Borland had emerged victorious, but the extent to which copyright law would be applicable to computer software went unaddressed and undefined.=== Decline ===A Lotus 1-2-3 box, as seen in an exhibit at the Computer History Museum in 2008Microsoft's early spreadsheet Multiplan eventually gave way to Excel, which debuted on the Macintosh in 1985.It arrived on PCs with the release of Windows 2.x in 1987, but as Windows was not yet popular, it posed no serious threat to Lotus's stranglehold on spreadsheet sales.", "However, Lotus suffered technical setbacks in this period.", "Version 3 of Lotus 1-2-3, fully converted from its original macro assembler to the more portable C language, was delayed by more than a year as the totally new 1-2-3 had to be made portable across platforms and fully compatible with existing macro sets and file formats.", "The inability to fit the larger code size of compiled C into lower-powered machines forced the company to split its spreadsheet offerings, with 1-2-3 release 3 only for higher-end machines, and a new version 2.2, based on the 2.01 assembler code base, available for PCs without extended memory.", "By the time these versions were released in 1989, Microsoft had eroded much of Lotus's market share.During the early 1990s, Windows grew in popularity, and along with it, Excel, which gradually displaced Lotus from its leading position.", "A planned total revamp of 1-2-3 for Windows fell apart, and all that the company could manage was a Windows adaptation of their existing spreadsheet with no changes except using a graphical interface.", "Additionally, several versions of 1-2-3 had different features and slightly different interfaces.Lotus 1-2-3's intended successor, Lotus Symphony, was Lotus's entry into the anticipated \"integrated software\" market.", "It intended to expand the rudimentary all-in-one 1-2-3 into a fully-fledged spreadsheet, graph, database and word processor for DOS, but none of the integrated packages ever really succeeded.", "Lotus 1-2-3 migrated to the Windows platform, as part of Lotus SmartSuite.IBM's continued development and marketing of Lotus SmartSuite and OS/2 during the 1990s placed it in direct competition with Microsoft Office and Microsoft Windows, respectively.", "As a result, Microsoft \"punished the IBM PC Company with higher prices, a late license for Windows 95, and the withholding of technical and marketing support.\"", "Microsoft did not grant IBM the OEM rights for Windows 95 until 15 minutes prior to the release of Windows 95 on 24 August 1995.Because of this uncertainty, IBM machines were sold without Windows 95, while Compaq, HP, and other companies sold machines with Windows 95 from day one.On 11 June 2013, IBM announced it would withdraw the Lotus brand: IBM Lotus 1-2-3 Millennium Edition V9.x, IBM Lotus SmartSuite 9.x V9.8.0, and Organizer V6.1.0.IBM stated, \"Customers will no longer be able to receive support for these offerings after 30 September 2014.No service extensions will be offered.", "There will be no replacement programs.\"" ], [ "User features", "Charting on Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2 for DOSExamples of Lotus 1-2-3 macrosThe name \"1-2-3\" stemmed from the product's integration of three main capabilities: along with its core spreadsheet functionality, 1-2-3 also offered integral charting/graphing and rudimentary database operations.Data features included sorting data in any defined rectangle, by order of information in one or two columns in the rectangular area.", "Justifying text in a range into paragraphs allowed it to be used as a primitive word processor.It had keyboard-driven pop-up menus as well as one-key commands, making it fast to operate.", "It was also user-friendly, introducing an early instance of context-sensitive help accessed by the F1 key.Macros in version one and add-ins (introduced in version 2.0) contributed much to 1-2-3's popularity, allowing dozens of outside vendors to sell macro packages and add-ins ranging from dedicated financial worksheets like F9 to full-fledged word processors.", "In the single-tasking MS-DOS, 1-2-3 was sometimes used as a complete office suite.", "All major graphics standards were supported; initially CGA and Hercules, and later EGA, AT&T, and VGA.", "Early versions used the filename extension \"WKS\".", "In version 2.0, the extension changed first to \"WK1\", then \"WK2\".", "This later became \"WK3\" for version 3.0 and \"WK4\" for version 4.0.Version 2 introduced macros with syntax and commands similar in complexity to an advanced BASIC interpreter, as well as string variable expressions.", "Later versions supported multiple worksheets and were written in C. The charting/graphing routines were written in Forth by Jeremy Sagan (son of Carl Sagan) and the printing routines by Paul Funk (founder of Funk Software)." ], [ "{{anchor|WKS|WK1|WJ1|WK2|WJ2|WK3|WJ3|WK4|WJ4|WK5|123}}PC version history", "=== DOS ======= Real Mode (8088+) ====Lotus 1-2-3 R2.2J Japanese version in actionThese editions of 1-2-3 for DOS were primarily written in x86 assembly language.", "* Release 1 was the first release for DOS-based PCs.", "Introduced in January 1983.", "* Release 1A in April 1983 Officially supported ASCII, unofficially supported the IBM extended character set (but not LICS).", "* Release 2 brought add-in support, better memory management and expanded memory support, supported x87 math coprocessors, and introduced support for the Lotus International Character Set (LICS).", "Introduced in September 1985.The Japanese version Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2J for NEC PC-98 computers was released on 1986-09-05.", "* Release 2.01 in July 1986.Introduced an option to switch between LICS and the IBM extended character set.", "* The Japanese version Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.1J for NEC PC-98 computers was released in October 1987.A version Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.1J+ followed in February 1989.", "* Release 2.2 brought improved speed, automated macro tools, and presentation-quality graphics.", "Introduced in 1989.The Japanese version Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2J was released in February 1990.", "* Release 2.3 brought WYSIWYG editing to the 2.x line.", "Introduced in 1991.The Japanese version Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.3J was released in September 1991.", "* Release 2.4 added icons and additional tools, and was the last release supporting 2D (only) spreadsheets.", "Introduced in 1992.The Japanese version Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.4J was released in September 1993.", "* In July 1995, Lotus released Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.5J for DOS.==== Protected Mode (80286+) ====These editions of 1-2-3 for DOS were primarily written in C.* Release 3 introduced the concept of 3D spreadsheets, utilized extended memory, supported having multiple files open simultaneously, and required an 80286-based PC or higher.", "It also introduced support for the Lotus Multi-Byte Character Set (LMBCS).", "Introduced in March 1989.", "* Releases 3.1 and 3.1+ added WYSIWYG capabilities, the ability to swap to disk allowing for larger files (up to 64 MB), and could be run as a DOS program under Windows 3.0 and OS/2.Introduced in 1990.", "* Release 3.4 added icons, improved performance, and enhanced graph capabilities, making it functionally similar to Release 2.4.Introduced in 1992.", "* Lotus 1-2-3 for Home, 1992* Release 4 was the last release for DOS.", "More an upgrade to Release 3.4 than in line with Release 3 for Windows, it contains an improved interface and new features, including Version Manager, a spell checker, context-sensitive help, and cell comments.", "Introduced in May 1994.=== OS/2 ===* '''Lotus 1-2-3/G''' Release 1.OS/2 text mode application introduced support for the Lotus Multi-Byte Character Set (LMBCS) together with the Release 3.0 for DOS in summer 1989.", "* Release 1.1.Introduced in 1991.", "* Release 2.Introduced in 1992.", "* Release 2.1.Introduced in 1994.=== Windows ======= Win16 (Windows 3.x) ====* '''Lotus 1-2-3/W''' Release 1 was the first release for Windows, requiring Windows 3.0 or higher, was 16-bit, and was functionally equivalent to Release 3.x for DOS.", "Introduced in 1991.The Japanese version Lotus 1-2-3/Windows R1.0J was released on 1991-11-15.", "* The version Lotus 1-2-3/Windows R1.1J was released on 1992-6-2.", "* Release 4 was an extensive improvement that added groupware capabilities, improved integration with Lotus Notes, advanced graphics, context-sensitive menus and icons, and in-cell editing.", "Introduced in June 1993.A Japanese Lotus 1-2-3/Windows Release 4J was released 1993-07-16.", "* Release 5 added additional groupware capabilities, chart maps, and improved database access.", "This was the last 16-bit version for Windows 3.1x, and was available as part of SmartSuite 3.1, 4, and 4.5.Introduced in mid-1994.The Japanese version Lotus 1-2-3/Windows Release 5J was released on 1994-09-22.==== Win32 (Windows 9x/NT) ====* The ''97 Edition'' was the first 32-bit version, requiring Windows 95 or Windows NT 4.0, and had a changed interface and support for LotusScript.", "Introduced in 1997.The Japanese-language version Lotus 1-2-3 97J was released on 1997-04-11.", "* The Japanese-language Lotus 1-2-3 98J was released on 1998-06-05, followed by Lotus 1-2-3 2000J on 1999-07-02, and by Lotus 1-2-3 2001J on 2001-07-27.", "* The Millennium Edition (version 9.8) contained new functions, improved Y2K support, Internet support, and better Excel compatibility.", "This is the last version of 1-2-3 for any platform, and has received maintenance releases through Fixpack 2.Introduced in 2002." ], [ "Other operating systems", "Hewlett-Packard HP 95 LX pocket PC with Lotus 1-2-3 built into ROM* DeskMate Introduced in 1989, \"Lotus Spreadsheet for DeskMate\", which was not officially called \"1-2-3\", supported 1-2-3 version 2.x files, and used windows, on-screen symbols, pull-down menus, dialog boxes and other graphical tools, similar to Microsoft Windows.", "However, it did not support add-ins, macros, or expanded memory.", "* Unix A single version for Unix System V/386 was released in 1990.It was certified for SCO Xenix 2.3 and SCO Unix 3.2.0, but also expected to work on AT&T's plain System V and on ISC's 386/ix.", "* Linux In 2022, Lotus 1-2-3 for Unix System V/386 was adapted to GNU/Linux by Tavis Ormandy.", "* SunOS / Solaris At least three releases for SPARC-based systems were published.", "Release 1.1 supported both SunView and the OpenWindows / OPEN LOOK windowing systems.", "It also featured real-time update support.", "Introduced in 1991.Release 1.2 supported \"Classic\" in xterm, \"Classic\" in X Window, OPEN LOOK, and OSF/Motif.", "* Based on the Solaris version, other UNIX ports were developed at Lotus's offices in Dublin.", "The included 1-2-3 HP-UX running on the HP 9000 hardware (series 300/400 and 700), AIX running on RS/6000 workstations, DECstations, the 88000 processor, and more versions of UNIX running on Intel PCs.", "All these versions supported the X11 window system.", "* OpenVMS A character cell terminal version of Lotus 1-2-3 was available on OpenVMS.", "* HP MS-DOS palmtop PCs A joint collaboration between Hewlett-Packard and Lotus, the HP 95LX, HP 100LX, HP 200LX and HP OmniGo 700LX (1991–1994) had ports of Lotus 1-2-3 R2.2 and R2.4 embedded in ROM.", "* Apple Macintosh Lotus's first truly WYSIWYG spreadsheet, taking full advantage of the Mac OS, had two releases: Release 1.0 debuted in 1991 and Release 1.1 was introduced the following year.", "Lotus 1-2-3 for Macintosh 1.0 received a 4 mice rating (out of 5) in the March 1992 issue of MacUser, praising it for being the first spreadsheet on Macintosh to include in-cell editing instead of using the formula bar found in competing products, as well as other interface refinements.", "The user interface provided Macintosh users the advanced charting capabilities of the PC version with a Macintosh user interface, while also offering a \"classic\" keyboard driven user interface familiar to the users of the DOS version, giving it a mice rating (out of 5).", "* In 1987, Lotus announced a mainframe version of Lotus 1-2-3, '''Lotus 1-2-3/M'''; 1-2-3/M was designed for use with IBM 3270 terminals and ran under both VM/CMS and MVS operating systems.", "Lotus 1-2-3/M was jointly developed by IBM and Lotus, and exclusively sold by IBM." ], [ "File formats", "Lotus 1-2-3 file formats use various filename extensions including 123, wks, wk1, wk2, wk3, wk4, some of these may open in the desktop applications of Collabora Online, LibreOffice and Apache OpenOffice, these can then be saved into the OpenDocument format or other file formats." ], [ "Reception", "After previewing ''1-2-3'' on the IBM PC in 1982, ''BYTE'' called it \"modestly revolutionary\" for elegantly combining spreadsheet, database, and graphing functions.", "It praised the application's speed and ease of use, stating that with the built-in help screens and tutorial, \"1-2-3 is one of the few pieces of software that can literally be used by anybody.", "You can buy 1-2-3 and an IBM PC and be running the two together the same day\".", "''PC Magazine'' in 1983 called 1-2-3 \"a powerful and impressive program ... as a spreadsheet, it's excellent\", and attributed its very fast performance to being written in assembly language." ], [ "Bugs", "Lotus 1-2-3 assumes that 1900 is a leap year.", "This is incorrect as while 1900 is a year that is divisible by four, years divisible by 100 are not counted as leap years unless divisible by 400.This bug persists today as its competitor, Microsoft Excel, still incorporates the bug to ensure compatibility with legacy Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheets." ], [ "See also", "* As-Easy-As* Comparison of office suites* Compose key sequence* Reverse Polish Notation (RPN in formulas)* Microsoft Works" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of memorials to Lyndon B. Johnson" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a list of memorials to Lyndon B. Johnson, the 36th president of the United States." ], [ "Buildings", "* Lyndon B. Johnson Student Center, a complex including teaching theaters, shops, a student pool hall, and office space located at the Texas State University in San Marcos, Texas; President Johnson's college alma mater.", "* Lyndon B. Johnson Tropical Medical Center, a hospital in American Samoa* Lyndon B. Johnson General Hospital, part of Harris Health System in Houston, Texas* Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas* Lyndon Baines Johnson Department of Education Building, in Washington, D.C.* Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum, presidential museum in Austin, Texas" ], [ "Military vessels", "* USS ''Lyndon B. Johnson'' (DDG-1002)" ], [ "Parks and topographical features", "* Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park, Johnson City, Texas* Lake Lyndon B. Johnson, a lake in Texas* Lyndon B. Johnson National Grassland, in Texas* Lyndon Baines Johnson Memorial Grove on the Potomac, in Washington, D.C.* FELDA L.B.", "Johnson, a village settlement in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia." ], [ "Roads", "* Lyndon B. Johnson Freeway (Interstate 635), a freeway in Dallas, Texas" ], [ "Schools", "* Lyndon B. Johnson Elementary School in Jackson, Kentucky* Lyndon B. Johnson High School (Austin, Texas)* Lyndon B. Johnson High School (Johnson City, Texas)* Lyndon B. Johnson High School (Laredo, Texas)* Lyndon B. Johnson Middle School in Melbourne, Florida* Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs, a public affairs graduate school at the University of Texas at Austin* Johnson Elementary in Bryan, Texas" ], [ "Clubs and Organizations", "* The K5LBJ Amateur Radio Club is operated within LASA High School and is named after LBJ High School in Austin, Texas from its founding when LASA and LBJ were one high school." ], [ "See also", "* Presidential memorials in the United States" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Liberation Day (Netherlands)" ], [ "Introduction", "Music festival on Liberation Day 2008 in Zwolle'''Liberation Day''' () is a public holiday in the Netherlands to mark the end of the German occupation of the country during the Second World War.", "It follows the Remembrance of the Dead (''Dodenherdenking'') on 4 May.The Netherlands were liberated by Canadian forces, British infantry divisions, the British I Corps, the 1st Polish Armoured Division, American, Belgian, Dutch and Czechoslovak troops.", "Parts of the country, in particular the south-east, were liberated by the British Second Army which included American and Polish airborne forces (see Operation Market Garden) and French airbornes (see Operation Amherst).", "On 5 May 1945, at Hotel de Wereld in Wageningen, I Canadian Corps commander Lieutenant-General Charles Foulkes and ''Oberbefehlshaber Niederlande'' commander-in-chief ''Generaloberst'' Johannes Blaskowitz reached an agreement on the capitulation of all German forces in the Netherlands.", "The capitulation document was signed the next day in the auditorium of Wageningen University, located next door.After liberation in 1945, Liberation Day was celebrated every five years.", "In 1990 the day was declared a national holiday when liberation would be remembered and celebrated every year.", "Festivals are held in most places in the Netherlands with parades of veterans and musical festivals throughout the whole country." ], [ "See also", "* Battle of the Netherlands* Liberation of the Netherlands* Liberation Day* Liberation of Arnhem* Victory in Europe Day* Marine memorial" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Nationaal Comité 4 en 5 mei* WWII: Liberation of the Netherlands - The Canadian Encyclopedia* 1st Polish armoured division liberating Netherlands* 4th Canadian armoured division liberating Netherlands" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Light pollution" ], [ "Introduction", "Light pollution over Melbourne, Australia'''Light pollution''' is the presence of unwanted, inappropriate, or excessive artificial lighting.", "In a descriptive sense, the term ''light pollution'' refers to the effects of any poorly implemented lighting, during the day or night.", "Light pollution can be understood not only as a phenomenon resulting from a specific source or kind of pollution, but also as a contributor to the wider, collective impact of various sources of pollution.Although this type of pollution can exist throughout the day, its effects are magnified during the night with the contrast of darkness.", "It has been estimated that 83 percent of the world's people live under light-polluted skies and that 23 percent of the world's land area is affected by skyglow.The area affected by artificial illumination continues to increase.A major side-effect of urbanization, light pollution is blamed for compromising health, disrupting ecosystems, and spoiling aesthetic environments.", "Globally, it has increased by at least 49% from 1992 to 2017.Solutions to light pollution are often easy steps like adjusting light fixtures or using more appropriate lightbulbs.", "However, because it is a manmade phenomenon, addressing its impacts on humans and the environment has political, social, and economic considerations." ], [ "Definitions", "Light pollution is the presence of anthropogenic artificial light in otherwise dark conditions.The term is most commonly used in relation to in the outdoor environment and surrounding, but is also used to refer to artificial light indoors.", "Adverse consequences are multiple; some of them may not be known yet.", "Light pollution competes with starlight in the night sky for urban residents, interferes with astronomical observatories, and, like any other form of pollution, disrupts ecosystems and has adverse health effects.Light pollution is a side-effect of industrial civilization.", "Its sources include building exterior and interior lighting, advertising, outdoor area lighting (such as car parks), offices, factories, streetlights, and illuminated sporting venues.", "It is most severe in highly industrialized, densely populated areas of North America, Europe, and Asia and in major cities in the Middle East and North Africa like Tehran and Cairo, but even relatively small amounts of light can be noticed and create problems.", "Awareness of the deleterious effects of light pollution began in the second half of the 19th century, but efforts to address its effects did not begin until the 1950s.", "In the 1980s a global dark-sky movement emerged with the founding of the International Dark-Sky Association (IDA).", "There are now such educational and advocacy organizations in many countries worldwide.About 83% of people, including 99% of Europeans and Americans, live under light-polluted skies that are more than 10% brighter than natural darkness.", "80% of North Americans cannot see the Milky Way galaxy." ], [ "Remediation", "Energy conservation advocates contend that light pollution must be addressed by changing the habits of society, so that lighting is used more efficiently, with less waste and less creation of unwanted or unneeded illumination.", "Several industry groups also recognize light pollution as an important issue.", "For example, the Institution of Lighting Engineers in the United Kingdom provides its members with information about light pollution, the problems it causes, and how to reduce its impact.", "Although, recent research point that the energy efficiency is not enough to reduce the light pollution because of the rebound effect.Since people may disagree over whether any particular lighting source is irritating or how important its effects on non-human life are, it is common for one person to consider as light pollution something that another finds desirable.", "One example is found in advertising, when an advertiser wishes for particular lights to be bright and visible while others find them annoying.", "Other types of light pollution are less disputed.", "For instance, light that ''accidentally'' crosses a property boundary and annoys a neighbour is generally considered wasted and pollutive.For this reason and others, decisions about how to manage artificial light are often marked by disputes.", "Differences of opinion over what light is reasonable and who should have authority and responsibility sometimes make it necessary for parties to negotiate.", "Where it is desired that such decisions be supported by objective data, light levels can be quantified by field measurement or mathematical modeling, the results of which are typically rendered in isophote maps or light contour maps.", "To deal with light pollution, authorities have taken a variety of measures depending on the interests, beliefs, and understandings of the society involved.", "These measures range from doing nothing at all to implementing strict laws and regulations specifying how lights may be installed and used." ], [ "Types", "A light pollution source, using a broad spectrum metal halide lamp, pointing upward at Uniqema factory, Gouda, the NetherlandsLight pollution is caused by inefficient or unnecessary use of artificial light.", "Specific categories of light pollution include light trespass, over-illumination, glare, light clutter, and skyglow.", "A single offending light source often falls into more than one of these categories.===Light trespass===Light trespass occurs when unwanted light enters one's property, for instance, by shining over a neighbour's fence.", "A common light trespass problem occurs when a strong light enters the window of one's home from the outside, causing problems such as sleep deprivation.", "A number of cities in the U.S. have developed standards for outdoor lighting to protect the rights of their citizens against light trespass.", "To assist them, the International Dark-Sky Association has developed a set of model lighting ordinances.The Dark-Sky Association was started to reduce the light going up into the sky which reduces the visibility of stars (see Skyglow below).", "This is any light that is emitted more than 90° above nadir.", "By limiting light at this 90° mark they have also reduced the light output in the 80–90° range which creates most of the light trespass issues.The city of Phoenix, seen from away in Surprise, ArizonaU.S.", "federal agencies may also enforce standards and process complaints within their areas of jurisdiction.", "For instance, in the case of light trespass by white strobe lighting from communication towers in excess of FAA minimum lighting requirements the Federal Communications Commission maintains an Antenna Structure Registration database information which citizens may use to identify offending structures and provides a mechanism for processing citizen inquiries and complaints.", "The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) has also incorporated a credit for reducing the amount of light trespass and sky glow into their environmentally friendly building standard known as LEED.Light trespass can be reduced by selecting light fixtures that limit the amount of light emitted more than 80° above the nadir.", "The IESNA definitions include full cutoff (0%), cutoff (10%), and semi-cutoff (20%).", "(These definitions also include limits on light emitted above 90° to reduce sky glow.", ")===Over-illumination===high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps shining upward.", "Much light goes into the sky and neighboring apartment blocks, causing light pollution.Over-illumination is the excessive use of light.In the US, commercial building lighting consumes in excess of 81.68 terawatt-hours (1999 data) of electricity per year, according to the Department of Energy.", "Even among developed countries there are large differences in patterns of light use.", "American cities emit three to five times more light to space per capita compared to German cities.Over-illumination stems from several factors:* Consensus-based standards or norms that are not based on vision science;* Improper design, by specifying higher levels of light than needed for a given visual task;* Incorrect choice of fixtures or light bulbs, which do not direct light into areas as needed;* Improper selection of hardware to utilize more energy than needed to accomplish the lighting task;* Incomplete training of building managers and occupants to use lighting systems efficiently;* Inadequate lighting maintenance resulting in increased stray light and energy costs;* \"Daylight lighting\" demanded by citizens to reduce crime or by shop owners to attract customers;* Substitution of old lamps with more efficient LEDs using the same electrical power; and* Indirect lighting techniques, such as illuminating a vertical wall to bounce light onto the ground.", "* Institutions who illuminate their buildings not to improve navigation, but \"to show that its empire is inescapable\".Most of these issues can be readily corrected with available, inexpensive technology, and with the resolution of landlord/tenant practices that create barriers to rapid correction of these matters.", "Most importantly, public awareness would need to improve for industrialized countries to realize the large payoff in reducing over-illumination.In certain cases, an over-illumination lighting technique may be needed.", "For example, indirect lighting is often used to obtain a \"softer\" look, since hard direct lighting is generally found less desirable for certain surfaces, such as skin.", "The indirect lighting method is perceived as cozier and suits bars, restaurants, and living quarters.", "It is also possible to block the direct lighting effect by adding softening filters or other solutions, though intensity will be reduced.===Glare===Glare can be categorized into different types.", "One such classification is described in a book by Bob Mizon, coordinator for the British Astronomical Association's Campaign for Dark Skies, as follows:* ''Blinding glare'' describes effects such as that caused by staring into the Sun.", "It is completely blinding and leaves temporary or permanent vision deficiencies.", "* ''Disability glare'' describes effects such as being blinded by oncoming car lights, or light scattering in fog or in the eye, reducing contrast, as well as reflections from print and other dark areas that render them bright, with a significant reduction in sight capabilities.", "* ''Discomfort glare'' does not typically cause a dangerous situation in itself, though it is annoying and irritating at best.", "It can potentially cause fatigue if experienced over extended periods.According to Mario Motta, president of the Massachusetts Medical Society, \"...glare from bad lighting is a public-health hazard—especially the older you become.", "Glare light scattering in the eye causes loss of contrast and leads to unsafe driving conditions, much like the glare on a dirty windshield from low-angle sunlight or the high beams from an oncoming car.\"", "In essence bright and/or badly shielded lights around roads can partially blind drivers or pedestrians and contribute to accidents.The blinding effect is caused in large part by reduced contrast due to light scattering in the eye by excessive brightness, or to the reflection of light from dark areas in the field of vision, with luminance similar to the background luminance.", "This kind of glare is a particular instance of disability glare, called veiling glare.", "(This is not the same as loss of accommodation of night vision which is caused by the direct effect of the light itself on the eye.", ")View of the Phoenix metro area from the top of Goldmine Trail in the San Tan Mountains===Light clutter===The Las Vegas Strip displays excessive groupings of colorful lights.", "This is a classic example of light clutter.Light clutter refers to excessive groupings of lights.", "Groupings of lights may generate confusion, distract from obstacles (including those that they may be intended to illuminate), and potentially cause accidents.", "Clutter is particularly noticeable on roads where the street lights are badly designed, or where brightly lit advertisements surround the roadways.", "Depending on the motives of the person or organization that installed the lights, their placement and design can even be intended to distract drivers, and can contribute to accidents.===From satellites===Another source of light pollution are artificial satellites.", "With future increase in numbers of satellite constellations such as OneWeb and Starlink, it is feared, especially by members of the astronomical community such as the IAU, that light pollution will increase significantly, beside other problems of satellite overcrowding.Public discourse surrounding the anticipated growth of satellite constellation, like OneWeb and Starlink, includes multiple petitions by astronomers and citizen scientists, and has raised questions about which regulatory bodies hold jurisdiction over human actions that obscure starlight." ], [ "Measurement", "=== Issues to measuring light pollution ===Measuring the effect of sky glow on a global scale is a complex procedure.", "The natural atmosphere is not completely dark, even in the absence of terrestrial sources of light and illumination from the Moon.", "This is caused by two main sources: ''airglow'' and ''scattered light''.At high altitudes, primarily above the mesosphere, there is enough UV radiation from the sun at very short wavelengths to cause ionization.", "When the ions collide with electrically neutral particles they recombine and emit photons in the process, causing airglow.", "The degree of ionization is sufficiently large to allow a constant emission of radiation even during the night when the upper atmosphere is in the Earth's shadow.", "Lower in the atmosphere all the solar photons with energies above the ionization potential of N2 and O2 have already been absorbed by the higher layers and thus no appreciable ionization occurs.Apart from emitting light, the sky also scatters incoming light, primarily from distant stars and the Milky Way, but also the zodiacal light, sunlight that is reflected and backscattered from interplanetary dust particles.The amount of airglow and zodiacal light is quite varied (depending, amongst other things on sunspot activity and the Solar cycle) but given optimal conditions, the darkest possible sky has a brightness of about 22 magnitude/square arc second.", "If a full moon is present, the sky brightness increases to about 18 magnitude/sq.", "arcsecond depending on local atmospheric transparency, 40 times brighter than the darkest sky.", "In densely populated areas a sky brightness of 17 magnitude/sq.", "an arcsecond is not uncommon, or as much as 100 times brighter than is natural.=== Satellite imagery measuring ===To precisely measure how bright the sky gets, night time satellite imagery of the earth is used as raw input for the number and intensity of light sources.", "These are put into a physical model of scattering due to air molecules and aerosoles to calculate cumulative sky brightness.", "Maps that show the enhanced sky brightness have been prepared for the entire world.=== Bortle scale ===The Bortle scale is a nine-level measuring system used to track how much light pollution there is in the sky.", "A Bortle scale of five or less is required to see the Milky Way whilst one is \"pristine\", the darkest possible." ], [ "Global impact", "World map of light pollution.", "False colors show intensities of skyglow from artificial light sources around the world.=== Europe ===Inspection of the area surrounding Madrid reveals that the effects of light pollution caused by a single large conglomeration can be felt up to away from the center.Global effects of light pollution are also made obvious.", "Research in the late 1990s showed that the entire area consisting of southern England, Netherlands, Belgium, West Germany, and northern France have a sky brightness of at least two to four times normal.", "The only places in continental Europe where the sky can attain its natural darkness are in northern Scandinavia and in islands far from the continent.", "The growth of light pollution on the green band has been 11% from 2012–2013 to 2014–2020, and 24% on the blue band.=== North America ===In North America the situation is comparable.", "There is a significant problem with light pollution ranging from the Canadian Maritime Provinces to the American Southwest.", "The International Dark-Sky Association works to designate areas that have high-quality night skies.", "These areas are supported by communities and organizations that are dedicated to reducing light pollution (e.g.", "Dark-sky preserve).", "The National Park Service Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division has measured night sky quality in national park units across the U.S. Sky quality in the U.S. ranges from pristine (Capitol Reef National Park and Big Bend National Park) to severely degraded (Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area and Biscayne National Park).", "The National Park Service Night Sky Program monitoring database is available online (2015).=== East Asia ===Light pollution in Hong Kong was declared the 'worst on the planet' in March 2013.In June 2016, it was estimated that one third of the world's population could no longer see the Milky Way, including 80% of Americans and 60% of Europeans.", "Singapore was found to be the most light-polluted country in the world.Over the past 21 years, China's provincial capital cities have seen a major increase in light pollution, with hotspots along the eastern coastline region." ], [ "Consequences", "=== Public health impact ===Streetlights at the ski resort Kastelruth in South Tyrol, ItalyMedical research on the effects of excessive light on the human body suggests that a variety of adverse health effects may be caused by light pollution or excessive light exposure, and some lighting design textbooks use human health as an explicit criterion for proper interior lighting.", "Health effects of over-illumination or improper spectral composition of light may include: increased headache incidence, worker fatigue, medically defined stress, decrease in sexual function and increase in anxiety.", "Likewise, animal models have been studied demonstrating unavoidable light to produce adverse effect on mood and anxiety.", "For those who need to be awake at night, light at night also has an acute effect on alertness and mood.Outdoor artificial light at night – exposure to contemporary types such as current types of street lighting – has been linked to risks for obesity, mental disorders, diabetes, and potentially other health issues by preliminary studies.In 2007, \"shift work that involves circadian disruption\" was listed as a probable carcinogen by the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer.", "(IARC Press release No.", "180).", "Multiple studies have documented a correlation between night shift work and the increased incidence of breast and prostate cancer.", "One study which examined the link between exposure to artificial light at night (ALAN) and levels of breast cancer in South Korea found that regions which had the highest levels of ALAN reported the highest number of cases of breast cancer.", "Seoul, which had the highest levels of light pollution, had 34.4% more cases of breast cancer than Ganwon-do, which had the lowest levels of light pollution.", "This suggested a high correlation between ALAN and the prevalence of breast cancer.", "It was also found that there was no correlation between other types of cancer such as cervical or lung cancer and ALAN levels.A more recent discussion (2009), written by Professor Steven Lockley, Harvard Medical School, can be found in the CfDS handbook \"Blinded by the Light?\".", "Chapter 4, \"Human health implications of light pollution\" states that \"...light intrusion, even if dim, is likely to have measurable effects on sleep disruption and melatonin suppression.", "Even if these effects are relatively small from night to night, continuous chronic circadian, sleep and hormonal disruption may have longer-term health risks\".", "The New York Academy of Sciences hosted a meeting in 2009 on Circadian Disruption and Cancer.", "Red light suppresses melatonin the least.In June 2009, the American Medical Association developed a policy in support of control of light pollution.", "News about the decision emphasized glare as a public health hazard leading to unsafe driving conditions.", "Especially in the elderly, glare produces loss of contrast, obscuring night vision.A new 2021 study published in the Southern Economic Journal indicates that light pollution may increase by 13% in preterm births before 23 weeks of gestation.=== Ecological impact ===While light at night can be beneficial, neutral, or damaging for individual species, its presence invariably disturbs ecosystems.", "For example, some species of spiders avoid lit areas, while other species are happy to build their webs directly on lamp posts.", "Since lamp posts attract many flying insects, the spiders that tolerate the light gain an advantage over the spiders that avoid it.", "This is a simple example of the way in which species frequencies and food webs can be disturbed by the introduction of light at night.Light pollution poses a serious threat in particular to nocturnal wildlife, having negative impacts on plant and animal physiology.", "It can confuse animal navigation, alter competitive interactions, change predator-prey relations, and cause physiological harm.", "The rhythm of life is orchestrated by the natural diurnal patterns of light and dark, so disruption to these patterns impacts the ecological dynamics.", "Many species of marine plankton, such as ''Calanus'' copepods, can detect light levels as low as 0.1 μWm−2; using this as a threshold a global atlas of marine Artificial Light at Night has been generated, showing its global widespread nature.Studies suggest that light pollution around lakes prevents zooplankton, such as ''Daphnia'', from eating surface algae, causing algal blooms that can kill off the lakes' plants and lower water quality.", "Light pollution may also affect ecosystems in other ways.", "For example, entomologists have documented that nighttime light may interfere with the ability of moths and other nocturnal insects to navigate.", "It can also negative impact on insect development and reproduction.", "Night-blooming flowers that depend on moths for pollination may be affected by night lighting, as there is no replacement pollinator that would not be affected by the artificial light.", "This can lead to species decline of plants that are unable to reproduce, and change an area's longterm ecology.", "Among nocturnal insects, fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae, Phengodidae and Elateridae) are especially interesting study objects for light pollution, once they depend on their own light to reproduce and, consequently, are very sensitive to environmental levels of light.", "Fireflies are well known and interesting to the general public (unlike many other insects) and are easily spotted by non-experts, and, due to their sensibility and rapid response to environmental changes, good bioindicators for artificial night lighting.", "Significant declines in some insect populations have been suggested as being at least partially mediated by artificial lights at night.A scorpion hides under rocks.Birds flying trace and star trail near Rio de Janeiro beach at night time in light pollutionBrazil star trails and birds in light pollution in Rio beach at nightA 2009 study also suggests deleterious impacts on animals and ecosystems because of perturbation of polarized light or artificial polarization of light (even during the day, because direction of natural polarization of sun light and its reflection is a source of information for a lot of animals).", "This form of pollution is named polarized light pollution (PLP).", "Unnatural polarized light sources can trigger maladaptive behaviors in polarization-sensitive taxa and alter ecological interactions.Lights on tall structures can disorient migrating birds.", "Estimates by the U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service of the number of birds killed after being attracted to tall towers range from four to five million per year to an order of magnitude higher.", "The Fatal Light Awareness Program (FLAP) works with building owners in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and other cities to reduce mortality of birds by turning out lights during migration periods.", "Another study has found that the lights produced by the Post Tower has affected 25 bird species.", "As a result, they discovered that decreasing the use of excessive lights increased the survival rate of bird species.Similar disorientation has also been noted for bird species migrating close to offshore production and drilling facilities.", "Studies carried out by Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij b.v. (NAM) and Shell have led to the development and trial of new lighting technologies in the North Sea.", "In early 2007, the lights were installed on the Shell production platform L15.The experiment proved a great success since the number of birds circling the platform declined by 50 to 90%.Birds migrate at night for several reasons.", "Save water from dehydration in hot day flying and part of the bird's navigation system works with stars in some way.", "With city light outshining the night sky, birds (and also about mammals) no longer navigate by stars.Sea turtle hatchlings emerging from nests on beaches are another casualty of light pollution.", "It is a common misconception that hatchling sea turtles are attracted to the moon.", "Rather, they find the ocean by moving away from the dark silhouette of dunes and their vegetation, a behavior with which artificial lights interfere.", "The breeding activity and reproductive phenology of toads, however, are cued by moonlight.", "Juvenile seabirds are also disoriented by lights as they leave their nests and fly out to sea, causing events of high mortality.", "Amphibians and reptiles are also affected by light pollution.", "Introduced light sources during normally dark periods can disrupt levels of melatonin production.", "Melatonin is a hormone that regulates photoperiodic physiology and behaviour.", "Some species of frogs and salamanders utilize a light-dependent \"compass\" to orient their migratory behaviour to breeding sites.", "Introduced light can also cause developmental irregularities, such as retinal damage, reduced juvenile growth, premature metamorphosis, reduced sperm production, and genetic mutation.", "Close to global coastal megacities (e.g.", "Tokyo, Shanghai), the natural illumination cycles provided by the moon in the marine environment are considerably disrupted by light pollution, with only nights around the full moon providing greater radiances, and over a given month lunar dosages may be a factor of 6 less than light pollution dosages.In September 2009, the 9th European Dark-Sky Symposium in Armagh, Northern Ireland had a session on the environmental effects of light at night (LAN).", "It dealt with bats, turtles, the \"hidden\" harms of LAN, and many other topics.", "The environmental effects of LAN were mentioned as early as 1897, in a ''Los Angeles Times'' article.", "The following is an excerpt from that article, called \"Electricity and English songbirds\":===Effect on astronomy===Orion, imaged at left from dark skies, and at right from within the Provo/Orem, Utah metropolitan areaAstronomy is very sensitive to light pollution.", "The night sky viewed from a city bears no resemblance to what can be seen from dark skies.", "Skyglow (the scattering of light in the atmosphere at night) reduces the contrast between stars and galaxies and the sky itself, making it much harder to see fainter objects.", "This is one factor that has caused newer telescopes to be built in increasingly remote areas.Even at apparent clear night skies, there can be a lot of stray light that becomes visible at longer exposure times in astrophotography.", "By means of software, the stray light can be reduced, but at the same time, object detail will be lost in the image.", "The following picture of the area around the Pinwheel Galaxy (Messier 101) with the apparent magnitude of 7.5m with all stars down to an apparent magnitude of 10m was taken in Berlin in a direction close to the zenith with a fast lens (f-number 1.2) and an exposure time of five seconds at an exposure index of ISO 12800:File:Streulichtfilterung.0.P1023258.jpg|Original shot: lower edge Alkaid, right of center the double star Mizar with Alcor and right edge Alioth; the Pinwheel Galaxy is a small diffuse dot in the center of the image.File:Streulichtfilterung.1.P1023258.jpg|Black level compensation: the darkest point in the digital picture was set to zero luminance, in order to reduce the visible stray light.", "However, blue light caused by Rayleigh scattering is visible in the center of the image.File:Streulichtfilterung.2.P1023258.jpg|50 percent of stray light removed: the darker half of the stray light was set to zero luminance.", "The darker part of the blue light caused by Rayleigh scattering is still visible in the center of the image.File:Streulichtfilterung.3.P1023258.jpg|Complete elimination of stray light: all pixels showing stray light have been set to zero luminance, the faint and two-dimensional Pinwheel Galaxy is no longer visible, too.Some astronomers use narrow-band \"nebula filters\", which allow only specific wavelengths of light commonly seen in nebulae, or broad-band \"light pollution filters\", which are designed to reduce (but not eliminate) the effects of light pollution by filtering out spectral lines commonly emitted by sodium- and mercury-vapor lamps, thus enhancing contrast and improving the view of dim objects such as galaxies and nebulae.", "Unfortunately, these light pollution reduction (LPR) filters are not a cure for light pollution.", "LPR filters reduce the brightness of the object under study and this limits the use of higher magnifications.", "LPR filters work by blocking light of certain wavelengths, which alters the color of the object, often creating a pronounced green cast.", "Furthermore, LPR filters work only on certain object types (mainly emission nebulae) and are of little use on galaxies and stars.", "No filter can match the effectiveness of a dark sky for visual or photographic purposes.Atacama Desert in northern Chile is far from any cities, and the night sky there is pitch-black.", "Photo by José Francisco Salgado.Light pollution affects the visibility of diffuse sky objects like nebulae and galaxies more than stars, due to their low surface brightness.", "Most such objects are rendered invisible in heavily light-polluted skies above major cities.", "A simple method for estimating the darkness of a location is to look for the Milky Way, which from truly dark skies appears bright enough to cast a shadow.In addition to skyglow, light trespass can impact observations when artificial light directly enters the tube of the telescope and is reflected from non-optical surfaces until it eventually reaches the eyepiece.", "This direct form of light pollution causes a glow across the field of view, which reduces contrast.", "Light trespass also makes it hard for a visual observer to become sufficiently adapted to the dark.", "The usual measures to reduce this glare, if reducing the light directly is not an option, include flocking the telescope tube and accessories to reduce reflection, and putting a light shield (also usable as a dew shield) on the telescope to reduce light entering from angles other than those near the target.", "Under these conditions, some astronomers prefer to observe under a black cloth to ensure maximum adaptation to the dark.===Increase in atmospheric pollution===A study presented at the American Geophysical Union meeting in San Francisco found that light pollution destroys nitrate radicals thus preventing the normal night time reduction of atmospheric smog produced by fumes emitted from cars and factories.", "The study was presented by Harald Stark from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.===Reduction of natural sky polarization===Light pollution is mostly unpolarized, and its addition to moonlight results in a decreased polarization signal.In the night, the polarization of the moonlit sky is very strongly reduced in the presence of urban light pollution, because scattered urban light is not strongly polarized.", "Polarized moonlight cannot be seen by humans, but is believed to be used by many animals for navigation.===Economic impact===Research surrounding light pollution focuses on the quality of lighting and reducing our ability to clearly view the sky at night.", "However, light pollution has many root causes and effects across the spectrum of life.", "Since the time of the Industrial Revolution grew out of England and spread across the globe, major changes have been made in the way we live.", "Technological innovation is moving at a rapid pace.", "It is not uncommon to find 24-hour business, such as gas stations, convenience stores, and pharmacies.", "Hospitals and other healthcare facilities must be staffed 24 hours per day, seven days per week.", "With the rise of Amazon, many factories and shipping companies now operate 24x7 shifts to keep up with the demand of the new global consumer.", "These industries all require light, both inside and outside their facilities to ensure the safety of their workers as they move about their jobs and when the enter and depart the facilities.", "As a result, \"40% of the United States and almost 20% of the European Union population has lost the ability to view the night sky…in other words, it is as if they never really experience nighttime.", "\"With a focus on shift work and the continued need for 24-hour operations of specific sectors of the economy, researchers are looking at the impact of light pollution on this group of workers.", "In 2007 the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) sought to bring notice to the risk from shift work as a probable risk for developing cancers.", "This move was the result of numerous studies that found increased risks of cancers in groups of shift workers.", "The 1998 Nurses Health Study found a link between breast cancer and nurses who had worked more than 30 years on rotating night shifts.", "However, it is not possible to halt shift work in these industries.", "Hospitals must be staffed around the clock.Research suggests that, like other environmental issues, light pollution is primarily a problem caused by industrialized nations.", "Research by Galloway, et al.", "(2010) examined numerous economic indicators to get a better sense of where light pollution was occurring around the globe.", "Galloway's research found that countries with paved roads, a factor in a developed infrastructure, often had increased light pollution (2010).", "Similarly, countries with a high rate of resource extraction also have high rates of light pollution .", "Finally, Galloway found that countries with the highest GDP and high surface area described as urban and suburban also had the highest rates of light pollution.China is an emerging leader in industrial and economic growth.", "A recent study of light pollution using the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program Operational Linescan System (DMSL/OLS) found that light pollution is increasing over the eastern coastal cities but decreasing over the industrial and mineral extraction cities.", "Specifically, urban areas around the Yangtze River delta, Pearl River delta, and Beijing-Tianjin area are specific light pollution areas of concern.", "Examining China as a whole, Jiang found that light pollution in the East and North was much higher than the West.", "This is consistent with major industrial factories located in the East and North while resource extraction dominates the West.In 2010, following the United Nations declaration of ''The Year of Astronomy'' researchers urged a better understanding of artificial light and the role it plays in social, economic, and environmental issues.", "The researchers argues that the continued unfettered use of artificial light in urban and rural areas would cause a global shift with unpredictable outcomes.", "Holker argued that focusing on the economic impact of increased energy consumption in light bulbs, or the move to energy efficiency of lighting, was not enough.", "Rather, the broader focus should be on the socio-economic, ecologic, and physiologic impacts of light pollution.", "In essence, getting your package from Amazon in less than 48 hours is not a viable reason for increased light pollution.Humans require some artificial night light for shift work, manufacturing, street safety, and nighttime driving and research has shown that artificial light disrupts the lives of animals.", "However, a recent article suggests that we may be able to find a happy medium.", "A 2021 article examined seasonal light changes and its effect on all animals, but specifically mollusks.", "The authors noted that light research primarily focuses on length of exposure to light.", "Based on their research they suggest that further research should examine the lowest quantifying the least amount of light, in terms of duration and intensity, that would allow both humans and animals to continue safely.", "To collect as much data as possible, scientists are recruiting the public to act as citizen scientists from various locations around the globe and enter their findings in apps and websites.", "By collecting and uploading sky images, star counts, agricultural data, and bird and butterfly statistics, scientists gain access to volumes of data reflecting how light pollution is affecting the world around us.", "Hopefully scientists can predict and recommend responses to problems before changes become permanent.=== Noctalgia ===Noctalgia is the feeling of loss of access to seeing a starry night sky.", "This also includes the feeling of \"sky grief\", where people no longer have the ability look at the stars, something that has been done for most of human existence.", "The phenomenon also includes the grief over not being able to have the sense of awe and wonder that humans often experience when stargazing.Coined by Aprana Venkatesan of the University of San Francisco and John Barentine, an astronomer, the term first appeared in August 2023 as a response to an article on the effects of light pollution published in the journal Science.", "Venkatesan and Barentine presented an all-encompassing definition that includes the loss of cultural identity and practices, such as storytelling and stargazing, as well as ancient knowledge such as celestial navigation.", "The authors argued that the night sky deserves a global protection scheme as an important part of the global heritage." ], [ "Reduction", "Reducing light pollution implies many things, such as reducing sky glow, reducing glare, reducing light trespass, and reducing clutter.", "The method for best reducing light pollution, therefore, depends on exactly what the problem is in any given instance.", "Possible solutions include:* Utilizing light sources of minimum intensity necessary to accomplish the light's purpose.", "* Turning lights off using a timer or occupancy sensor or manually when not needed.", "For example, wind turbines have blinking lights that warn aircraft, to prevent collisions.", "Residents living near windfarms, especially those in rural areas, have complained that the blinking lights are a bothersome form of light pollution.", "A light mitigation approach involves Aircraft Detection Lighting Systems (ADLSs) by which the lights are turned on, only when the ADLS's radar detects aircraft within thresholds of altitude and distance.", "* Improving lighting fixtures, so they direct their light more accurately towards where it is needed, and with fewer side effects.", "* Adjusting the ''type'' of lights used, so the light waves emitted are those that are less likely to cause severe light pollution problems.", "Mercury, metal halide and above all first generation of blue-light LED road luminaires are much more polluting than sodium lamps: Earth's atmosphere scatters and transmits blue light better than yellow or red light.", "It is a common experience observing \"glare\" and \"fog\" around and below LED road luminaires as soon as air humidity increases, while orange sodium lamp luminaires are less prone to showing this phenomenon.", "* Evaluating existing lighting plans, and re-designing some or all the plans depending on whether existing light is actually needed.===Improving lighting fixtures===The use of ''full cutoff'' lighting fixtures, as much as possible, is advocated by most campaigners for the reduction of light pollution.", "It is also commonly recommended that lights be spaced appropriately for maximum efficiency, and that number of luminaires being used as well as the wattage of each luminaire match the needs of the particular application (based on local lighting design standards).Full cutoff fixtures first became available in 1959 with the introduction of General Electric's M100 fixture.A full cutoff fixture, when correctly installed, reduces the chance for light to escape above the plane of the horizontal.", "Light released above the horizontal may sometimes be lighting an intended target, but often serves no purpose.", "When it enters into the atmosphere, light contributes to sky glow.", "Some governments and organizations are now considering, or have already implemented, full cutoff fixtures in street lamps and stadium lighting.The use of full cutoff fixtures helps to reduce sky glow by preventing light from escaping above the horizontal.", "Full cutoff typically reduces the visibility of the lamp and reflector within a luminaire, so the effects of glare are also reduced.", "Campaigners also commonly argue that full cutoff fixtures are more efficient than other fixtures, since light that would otherwise have escaped into the atmosphere may instead be directed towards the ground.", "However, full cutoff fixtures may also trap more light in the fixture than other types of luminaires, corresponding to lower luminaire efficiency, suggesting a re-design of some luminaires may be necessary.The use of full cutoff fixtures can allow for lower wattage lamps to be used in the fixtures, producing the same or sometimes a better effect, due to being more carefully controlled.", "In every lighting system, some sky glow also results from light reflected from the ground.", "This reflection can be reduced, however, by being careful to use only the lowest wattage necessary for the lamp, and setting spacing between lights appropriately.", "Assuring luminaire setback is greater than 90° from highly reflective surfaces also diminishes reflectance.A common criticism of full cutoff lighting fixtures is that they are sometimes not as aesthetically pleasing to look at.", "This is most likely because historically there has not been a large market specifically for full cutoff fixtures, and because people typically like to see the source of illumination.", "Due to the specificity with their direction of light, full cutoff fixtures sometimes also require expertise to install for maximum effect.The effectiveness of using full cutoff roadway lights to combat light pollution has also been called into question.", "According to design investigations, luminaires with full cutoff distributions (as opposed to ''cutoff'' or ''semi cutoff'', compared here) have to be closer together to meet the same light level, uniformity and glare requirements specified by the IESNA.", "These simulations optimized the height and spacing of the lights while constraining the overall design to meet the IESNA requirements, and then compared total uplight and energy consumption of different luminaire designs and powers.", "Cutoff designs performed better than full cutoff designs, and semi-cutoff performed better than either cutoff or full cutoff.", "This indicates that, in roadway installations, over-illumination or poor uniformity produced by full cutoff fixtures may be more detrimental than direct uplight created by fewer cutoff or semi-cutoff fixtures.", "Therefore, the overall performance of existing systems could be improved more by reducing the number of luminaires than by switching to full cutoff designs.However, using the definition of \"light pollution\" from some Italian regional bills (i.e., \"every irradiance of artificial light outside competence areas and particularly upward the sky\") only full cutoff design prevents light pollution.", "The Italian Lombardy region, where only full cutoff design is allowed (Lombardy act no.", "17/2000, promoted by Cielobuio-coordination for the protection of the night sky), in 2007 had the lowest per capita energy consumption for public lighting in Italy.", "The same legislation also imposes a minimum distance between street lamps of about four times their height, so full cut-off street lamps are the best solution to reduce both light pollution and electrical power usage.File:LED Droplight.JPG|alt=This kind of LED droplight could reduce unnecessary light pollution in building interiors.|This kind of LED droplight could reduce unnecessary light pollution in building interiors.File:Flat-lens cobra luminaire.jpg|alt=A flat-lens cobra luminaire, which is a full-cutoff fixture, is very effective in reducing light pollution.", "It ensures that light is directed only below the horizontal, which means less light is wasted by directing it outwards and upwards.|A ''flat-lens cobra luminaire'', which is a full-cutoff fixture, is very effective in reducing light pollution.", "It ensures that light is directed only below the horizontal, which means less light is wasted by directing it outwards and upwards.File:Drop-lens cobra luminaire.jpg|alt=This drop-lens cobra luminaire allows light to escape sideways and upwards, where it may cause problems.|This ''drop-lens cobra luminaire'' allows light to escape sideways and upwards, where it may cause problems.File:110101 LightPollution Italian Regional bills specs.jpg|alt=The majority of Italian regions require \"zero upward light\", which usually implies the use of overall full cut-off lamps for new luminaires, but violations are common.|The majority of Italian regions require \"zero upward light\", which usually implies the use of overall full cut-off lamps for new luminaires, but violations are common.===Adjusting types of light sources===Several different types of light sources exist, each having a variety of properties that determine their appropriateness for different tasks.", "Particularly notable characteristics are efficiency and spectral power distribution.", "It is often the case that inappropriate light sources have been selected for a task, either due to ignorance or because more appropriate lighting technology was unavailable at the time of installation.", "Therefore, poorly chosen light sources often contribute unnecessarily to light pollution and energy waste.", "By updating light sources appropriately, it is often possible to reduce energy use and pollutive effects while simultaneously improving efficiency and visibility.Some types of light sources are listed in order of energy efficiency in the table below (figures are approximate maintained values), and include their visual skyglow impact, relative to LPS lighting.Type of light sourceColorLuminous efficiency(in lumens per watt)Sky glow impact(relative to LPS)LED street light (white) warm-white to cool-white1204–8Low Pressure Sodium (LPS/SOX)yellow/amber1101.0High Pressure Sodium (HPS/SON)pink/amber-white902.4Metal Halide warm-white to cool-white704–8Incandescent yellow/white8–251.1PCA-LEDamber2.4Many astronomers request that nearby communities use low-pressure sodium lights or amber Aluminium gallium indium phosphide LED as much as possible because the principal wavelength emitted is comparably easy to work around or in rare cases filter out.", "The low cost of operating sodium lights is another feature.", "In 1980, for example, San Jose, California, replaced all street lamps with low pressure sodium lamps, whose light is easier for nearby Lick Observatory to filter out.", "Similar programs are now in place in Arizona and Hawaii.", "Such yellow light sources also have significantly less visual skyglow impact, so reduce visual sky brightness and improve star visibility for everyone.Disadvantages of low-pressure sodium lighting are that fixtures must usually be larger than competing fixtures, and that color cannot be distinguished, due to its emitting principally a single wavelength of light (see security lighting).", "Due to the substantial size of the lamp, particularly in higher wattages such as 135 W and 180 W, control of light emissions from low-pressure sodium luminaires is more difficult.", "For applications requiring more precise direction of light (such as narrow roadways) the native lamp efficacy advantage of this lamp type is decreased and may be entirely lost compared to high pressure sodium lamps.", "Allegations that this also leads to higher amounts of light pollution from luminaires running these lamps arise principally because of older luminaires with poor shielding, still widely in use in the UK and in some other locations.", "Modern low-pressure sodium fixtures with better optics and full shielding, and the decreased skyglow impacts of yellow light preserve the luminous efficacy advantage of low-pressure sodium and result in most cases is less energy consumption and less visible light pollution.", "Unfortunately, due to continued lack of accurate information, many lighting professionals continue to disparage low-pressure sodium, contributing to its decreased acceptance and specification in lighting standards and therefore its use.", "According to Narisada and Schrueder (2004), another disadvantage of low-pressure sodium lamps is that some research has found that many people find the characteristic yellow light to be less pleasing aesthetically, although they caution that this research isn't thorough enough to draw conclusions from.Because of the increased sensitivity of the human eye to blue and green wavelengths when viewing low-luminances (the Purkinje effect) in the night sky, different sources produce dramatically different amounts of visible skyglow from the same amount of light sent into the atmosphere.===Re-designing lighting plans===In some cases, evaluation of existing plans has determined that more efficient lighting plans are possible.", "For instance, light pollution can be reduced by turning off unneeded outdoor lights, and lighting stadiums only when there are people inside.", "Timers are especially valuable for this purpose.", "One of the world's first coordinated ''legislative'' efforts to reduce the adverse effect of this pollution on the environment began in Flagstaff, Arizona, in the U.S.", "There, more than three decades of ordinance development has taken place, with the full support of the population, often with government support, with community advocates, and with the help of major local observatories, including the United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station.", "Each component helps to educate, protect and enforce the imperatives to intelligently reduce detrimental light pollution.One example of a lighting plan assessment can be seen in a report originally commissioned by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister in the United Kingdom, and now available through the Department for Communities and Local Government.", "The report details a plan to be implemented throughout the UK, for designing lighting schemes in the countryside, with a particular focus on preserving the environment.In another example, the city of Calgary has recently replaced most residential street lights with models that are comparably energy efficient.", "The motivation is primarily operation cost and environmental conservation.", "The costs of installation are expected to be regained through energy savings within six to seven years.The Swiss Agency for Energy Efficiency (SAFE) uses a concept that promises to be of great use in the diagnosis and design of road lighting, \"''consommation électrique spécifique'' (''CES'')\", which can be translated into English as \"specific electric power consumption (SEC)\".", "Thus, based on observed lighting levels in a wide range of Swiss towns, SAFE has defined target values for electric power consumption per metre for roads of various categories.", "Thus, SAFE currently recommends an SEC of two to three watts per meter for roads less than ten metres wide (four to six for wider roads).", "Such a measure provides an easily applicable environmental protection constraint on conventional \"norms\", which usually are based on the recommendations of lighting manufacturing interests, who may not take into account environmental criteria.", "In view of ongoing progress in lighting technology, target SEC values will need to be periodically revised downwards.Crossroad in Alessandria, Italy: luminaires with mercury lamps are in the background, LED street lights in the middle, luminaires with high pressure sodium lamps are in the foreground.A newer method for predicting and measuring various aspects of light pollution was described in the journal Lighting Research & Technology (September 2008).", "Scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's Lighting Research Center have developed a comprehensive method called Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP), which allows users to quantify, and thus optimize, the performance of existing and planned lighting designs and applications to minimize excessive or obtrusive light leaving the boundaries of a property.", "OSP can be used by lighting engineers immediately, particularly for the investigation of glow and trespass (glare analyses are more complex to perform and current commercial software does not readily allow them), and can help users compare several lighting design alternatives for the same site.In the effort to reduce light pollution, researchers have developed a \"Unified System of Photometry\", which is a way to measure how much or what kind of street lighting is needed.", "The Unified System of Photometry allows light fixtures to be designed to reduce energy use while maintaining or improving perceptions of visibility, safety, and security.", "There was a need to create a new system of light measurement at night because the biological way in which the eye's rods and cones process light is different in nighttime conditions versus daytime conditions.", "Using this new system of photometry, results from recent studies have indicated that replacing traditional, yellowish, high-pressure sodium (HPS) lights with \"cool\" white light sources, such as induction, fluorescent, ceramic metal halide, or LEDs can actually reduce the amount of electric power used for lighting while maintaining or improving visibility in nighttime conditions.The International Commission on Illumination, also known as the CIE from its French title, la Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage, will soon be releasing its own form of unified photometry for outdoor lighting.===Dark sky reserves===In 2001 International Dark Sky Places Program was founded in order to encourage communities, parks and protected areas around the world to preserve and protect dark sites through responsible lighting policies and public education.", "As of January 2022, there are 195 certified International Dark Sky Places in the world.", "For example, in 2016 China launched its first dark sky reserve in the Tibet Autonomous Region's Ngari Prefecture which covers an area of 2,500 square kilometers.", "Such areas are important for astronomical observation." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Empire State Building Night.jpg|This time exposure photo of New York City at night shows skyglow.File:Light pollution country versus city.png|A comparison of the view of the night sky from a small rural town (top) and a metropolitan area (bottom).", "Light pollution dramatically reduces the visibility of stars.File:Light pollution impact.jpg|Impact of light pollution on a starry night, as seen from a 4200 m altitude on Mount Damavand in Iran.File:Tiberias at the evening.jpg|alt=|Impact of LED lighting at the skyglow at night, as seen at Tiberias, Israel.", "Before the moving to LED lighting at 2017, the skyglow above the city was very little." ], [ "Videos", "File:YOUTUBE HQ-12573 blackmarble 2017 youtube hq.webm|This nighttime look at Earth, dubbed the Black Marble, provides researchers with a unique perspective of human activities around the globe." ], [ "See also", "* Roy Henry Garstang" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "'''Introductory'''* Save the night in Europe.", "(2021).", "What is light pollution?.", "'''Astronomy'''* Luginbuhl, C. B., Walker, C. E., and Wainscoat R. J.", "(2009) \"Lighting and Astronomy: Light Pollution\" .", "'''Energy'''* ASSIST.", "(2009).", "Outdoor Lighting: Visual Efficacy.", "* Crawford, M. (2015).", "LED light pollution: Can we save energy and save the night?", "'''Environment and ecology'''* Albers, S. and Duriscoe, D. (2001) Modeling Light Pollution from Population Data and Implications for National Park Service Lands.", "* TAB.", "(2019).", "Light pollution – extent, societal and ecological impacts as well as approaches.", "'''General'''* Alliance for Lighting Information.", "(2017).", "Alliance for Lighting Information .", "* Dobrzynski, J. H. (2009).", "Reclaiming the nighy sky.", "* Fraknoi, A.", "(2018).", "Light pollution and dark skies: a research guide.", "* Lewicki, M. (2005).", "Adelaide's Light Pollution – And the Solution.", "* Light Pollution UK.", "(2006).", "Is light pollution killing our birds?.", "* Owen, D. (2007).", "The Dark Side: Making war on light pollution.", "'''Handbooks'''* British Astronomical Association.", "(2009).", "Blinded by the Light?.", "A handbook for campaigners against the misuse of artificial light, victims of light pollution and friends of the terrestrial and celestial natural environments.", "'''Industrialisation'''* Schivelbusch, W. (1998).", "Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century.", "'''Reading lists'''* Kyba, C. (2012).", "Light pollution papers (and books).", "'''UK'''* Hillarys.", "(2021).", "Skyglow: light pollution & the UK's changing skies." ], [ "External links", "===Campaigns and research organizations====== Conferences and events ===* The Urban Wildlands Group (2002) Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting: Conference* ISTIL (2002).", "The Venice Meeting - Light Pollution Science and Technology Institute* NOAO (2009).", "Dark skies awareness: an IYA2009 cornerstone project.", "=== Interactive materials ===* Need-Less —Interactive simulations that demonstrate the effects of light pollution* Night Eart.", "Earth at night.=== Scientific models ===* Cool, A. D. (2010).", "German skyglow for population by postcode according to Walker's law.=== Presentations ===* Technical slide show \"Lamp Spectrum and Light Pollution: The Other Side of Light Pollution\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lagrange point" ], [ "Introduction", "Lagrange points in the Sun–Earth system (not to scale).", "This view is from the north, so that Earth's orbit is counterclockwise.A contour plot of the effective potential due to gravity and the centrifugal force of a two-body system in a rotating frame of reference.", "The arrows indicate the downhill gradients of the potential around the five Lagrange points, toward them (red) and away from them (blue).", "Counterintuitively, the L4 and L5 points are the high points of the potential.", "At the points themselves these forces are balanced.", "An example of a spacecraft at Sun-Earth L2In celestial mechanics, the '''Lagrange points''' (; also '''Lagrangian points''' or '''libration points''') are points of equilibrium for small-mass objects under the gravitational influence of two massive orbiting bodies.", "Mathematically, this involves the solution of the restricted three-body problem.Normally, the two massive bodies exert an unbalanced gravitational force at a point, altering the orbit of whatever is at that point.", "At the Lagrange points, the gravitational forces of the two large bodies and the centrifugal force balance each other.", "This can make Lagrange points an excellent location for satellites, as orbit corrections, and hence fuel requirements, needed to maintain the desired orbit are kept at a minimum.", "For any combination of two orbital bodies, there are five Lagrange points, L1 to L5, all in the orbital plane of the two large bodies.", "There are five Lagrange points for the Sun–Earth system, and five ''different'' Lagrange points for the Earth–Moon system.", "L1, L2, and L3 are on the line through the centers of the two large bodies, while L4 and L5 each act as the third vertex of an equilateral triangle formed with the centers of the two large bodies.When the mass ratio of the two bodies is large enough, the L4 and L5 points are stable points meaning that objects can orbit them, and that they have a tendency to pull objects into them.", "Several planets have trojan asteroids near their L4 and L5 points with respect to the Sun; Jupiter has more than one million of these trojans.", "Some Lagrange points are being used for space exploration.", "Two important Lagrange points in the Sun-Earth system are L1, between the Sun and Earth, and L2, on the same line at the opposite side of the Earth; both are well outside the Moon's orbit.", "Currently, an artificial satellite called the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) is located at L1 to study solar wind coming toward Earth from the Sun and to monitor Earth's climate, by taking images and sending them back.", "The James Webb Space Telescope, a powerful infrared space observatory, is located at L2.This allows the satellite's large sunshield to protect the telescope from the light and heat of the Sun, Earth and Moon.The European Space Agency's earlier Gaia telescope, and its newly launched Euclid, also occupy orbits around L2.Gaia keeps a tighter Lissajous orbit around L2, while Euclid follows a halo orbit similar to JWST.", "Each of the space observatories benefit from being far enough from Earth's shadow to utilize solar panels for power, from not needing much power or propellant for station-keeping, from not being subjected to the Earth's magnetospheric effects, and from having direct line-of-sight to Earth for data transfer." ], [ "History", "The three collinear Lagrange points (L1, L2, L3) were discovered by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler around 1750, a decade before the Italian-born Joseph-Louis Lagrange discovered the remaining two.In 1772, Lagrange published an \"Essay on the three-body problem\".", "In the first chapter he considered the general three-body problem.", "From that, in the second chapter, he demonstrated two special constant-pattern solutions, the collinear and the equilateral, for any three masses, with circular orbits." ], [ "Lagrange points", "The five Lagrange points are labelled and defined as follows:=== point===The point lies on the line defined between the two large masses ''M''1 and ''M''2.It is the point where the gravitational attraction of ''M''2 and that of ''M''1 combine to produce an equilibrium.", "An object that orbits the Sun more closely than Earth would typically have a shorter orbital period than Earth, but that ignores the effect of Earth's gravitational pull.", "If the object is directly between Earth and the Sun, then Earth's gravity counteracts some of the Sun's pull on the object, increasing the object's orbital period.", "The closer to Earth the object is, the greater this effect is.", "At the point, the object's orbital period becomes exactly equal to Earth's orbital period.", "is about 1.5 million kilometers, or 0.01 au, from Earth in the direction of the Sun.=== point===The point lies on the line through the two large masses beyond the smaller of the two.", "Here, the combined gravitational forces of the two large masses balance the centrifugal force on a body at .", "On the opposite side of Earth from the Sun, the orbital period of an object would normally be greater than Earth's.", "The extra pull of Earth's gravity decreases the object's orbital period, and at the point, that orbital period becomes equal to Earth's.", "Like L1, L2 is about 1.5 million kilometers or 0.01 au from Earth (away from the sun).", "An example of a spacecraft at L2 is the James Webb Space Telescope, designed to operate near the Earth–Sun L2.Earlier examples include the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe and its successor, ''Planck''.=== point===The point lies on the line defined by the two large masses, beyond the larger of the two.", "Within the Sun–Earth system, the point exists on the opposite side of the Sun, a little outside Earth's orbit and slightly farther from the center of the Sun than Earth is.", "This placement occurs because the Sun is also affected by Earth's gravity and so orbits around the two bodies' barycenter, which is well inside the body of the Sun.", "An object at Earth's distance from the Sun would have an orbital period of one year if only the Sun's gravity is considered.", "But an object on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth and directly in line with both \"feels\" Earth's gravity adding slightly to the Sun's and therefore must orbit a little farther from the barycenter of Earth and Sun in order to have the same 1-year period.", "It is at the point that the combined pull of Earth and Sun causes the object to orbit with the same period as Earth, in effect orbiting an Earth+Sun mass with the Earth-Sun barycenter at one focus of its orbit.=== and points===Gravitational accelerations at The and points lie at the third vertices of the two equilateral triangles in the plane of orbit whose common base is the line between the centers of the two masses, such that the point lies 60° ahead of () or behind () the smaller mass with regard to its orbit around the larger mass.===Stability===The triangular points ( and ) are stable equilibria, provided that the ratio of is greater than 24.96.This is the case for the Sun–Earth system, the Sun–Jupiter system, and, by a smaller margin, the Earth–Moon system.", "When a body at these points is perturbed, it moves away from the point, but the factor opposite of that which is increased or decreased by the perturbation (either gravity or angular momentum-induced speed) will also increase or decrease, bending the object's path into a stable, kidney bean-shaped orbit around the point (as seen in the corotating frame of reference).The points , , and are positions of unstable equilibrium.", "Any object orbiting at , , or will tend to fall out of orbit; it is therefore rare to find natural objects there, and spacecraft inhabiting these areas must employ a small but critical amount of station keeping in order to maintain their position." ], [ "Natural objects at Lagrange points", "Due to the natural stability of and , it is common for natural objects to be found orbiting in those Lagrange points of planetary systems.", "Objects that inhabit those points are generically referred to as 'trojans' or 'trojan asteroids'.", "The name derives from the names that were given to asteroids discovered orbiting at the Sun–Jupiter and points, which were taken from mythological characters appearing in Homer's ''Iliad'', an epic poem set during the Trojan War.", "Asteroids at the point, ahead of Jupiter, are named after Greek characters in the ''Iliad'' and referred to as the \"Greek camp\".", "Those at the point are named after Trojan characters and referred to as the \"Trojan camp\".", "Both camps are considered to be types of trojan bodies.As the Sun and Jupiter are the two most massive objects in the Solar System, there are more known Sun–Jupiter trojans than for any other pair of bodies.", "However, smaller numbers of objects are known at the Lagrange points of other orbital systems:* The Sun–Earth and points contain interplanetary dust and at least two asteroids, and .", "* The Earth–Moon and points contain concentrations of interplanetary dust, known as Kordylewski clouds.", "Stability at these specific points is greatly complicated by solar gravitational influence.", "* The Sun–Neptune and points contain several dozen known objects, the Neptune trojans.", "* Mars has four accepted Mars trojans: 5261 Eureka, , , and .", "* Saturn's moon Tethys has two smaller moons of Saturn in its and points, Telesto and Calypso.", "Another Saturn moon, Dione also has two Lagrange co-orbitals, Helene at its point and Polydeuces at .", "The moons wander azimuthally about the Lagrange points, with Polydeuces describing the largest deviations, moving up to 32° away from the Saturn–Dione point.", "* One version of the giant impact hypothesis postulates that an object named Theia formed at the Sun–Earth or point and crashed into Earth after its orbit destabilized, forming the Moon.", "* In binary stars, the Roche lobe has its apex located at ; if one of the stars expands past its Roche lobe, then it will lose matter to its companion star, known as Roche lobe overflow.Objects which are on horseshoe orbits are sometimes erroneously described as trojans, but do not occupy Lagrange points.", "Known objects on horseshoe orbits include 3753 Cruithne with Earth, and Saturn's moons Epimetheus and Janus." ], [ "Physical and mathematical details", "Visualisation of the relationship between the Lagrange points (red) of a planet (blue) orbiting a star (yellow) counterclockwise, and the effective potential in the plane containing the orbit (grey rubber-sheet model with purple contours of equal potential).Click for animation.", "Lagrange points are the constant-pattern solutions of the restricted three-body problem.", "For example, given two massive bodies in orbits around their common barycenter, there are five positions in space where a third body, of comparatively negligible mass, could be placed so as to maintain its position relative to the two massive bodies.", "This occurs because the combined gravitational forces of the two massive bodies provide the exact centripetal force required to maintain the circular motion that matches their orbital motion.Alternatively, when seen in a rotating reference frame that matches the angular velocity of the two co-orbiting bodies, at the Lagrange points the combined gravitational fields of two massive bodies balance the centrifugal pseudo-force, allowing the smaller third body to remain stationary (in this frame) with respect to the first two.======The location of L1 is the solution to the following equation, gravitation providing the centripetal force:where ''r'' is the distance of the L1 point from the smaller object, ''R'' is the distance between the two main objects, and ''M''1 and ''M''2 are the masses of the large and small object, respectively.", "The quantity in parentheses on the right is the distance of L1 from the center of mass.", "The solution for ''r'' is the only real root of the following quintic functionwhere is the mass fraction of ''M2'' and is the normalised distance.", "If the mass of the smaller object (''M''2) is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (''M''1) then and are at approximately equal distances ''r'' from the smaller object, equal to the radius of the Hill sphere, given by:We may also write this as:Since the tidal effect of a body is proportional to its mass divided by the distance cubed, this means that the tidal effect of the smaller body at the L or at the L point is about three times of that body.", "We may also write:where ρ and ρ are the average densities of the two bodies and and are their diameters.", "The ratio of diameter to distance gives the angle subtended by the body, showing that viewed from these two Lagrange points, the apparent sizes of the two bodies will be similar, especially if the density of the smaller one is about thrice that of the larger, as in the case of the earth and the sun.This distance can be described as being such that the orbital period, corresponding to a circular orbit with this distance as radius around ''M''2 in the absence of ''M''1, is that of ''M''2 around ''M''1, divided by ≈ 1.73:======The Lagrangian L2 point for the Sun–Earth systemThe location of L2 is the solution to the following equation, gravitation providing the centripetal force:with parameters defined as for the L1 case.", "The corresponding quintic equation isAgain, if the mass of the smaller object (''M''2) is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (''M''1) then L2 is at approximately the radius of the Hill sphere, given by:The same remarks about tidal influence and apparent size apply as for the L point.", "For example, the angular radius of the sun as viewed from L2 is arcsin(/) ≈ 0.264°, whereas that of the earth is arcsin(6371/) ≈ 0.242°.", "Looking toward the sun from L2 one sees an annular eclipse.", "It is necessary for a spacecraft, like Gaia, to follow a Lissajous orbit or a halo orbit around L2 in order for its solar panels to get full sun.===L3===The location of L3 is the solution to the following equation, gravitation providing the centripetal force:with parameters ''M''1, ''M''2, and ''R'' defined as for the L1 and L2 cases, and ''r'' being defined such that the distance of L3 from the centre of the larger object is ''R-r''.", "If the mass of the smaller object (''M''2) is much smaller than the mass of the larger object (''M''1), then:Thus the distance from L3 to the larger object is less than the separation of the two objects (although the distance between L3 and the barycentre is greater than the distance between the smaller object and the barycentre).=== and ===The reason these points are in balance is that at and the distances to the two masses are equal.", "Accordingly, the gravitational forces from the two massive bodies are in the same ratio as the masses of the two bodies, and so the resultant force acts through the barycenter of the system; additionally, the geometry of the triangle ensures that the resultant acceleration is to the distance from the barycenter in the same ratio as for the two massive bodies.", "The barycenter being both the center of mass and center of rotation of the three-body system, this resultant force is exactly that required to keep the smaller body at the Lagrange point in orbital equilibrium with the other two larger bodies of the system (indeed, the third body needs to have negligible mass).", "The general triangular configuration was discovered by Lagrange working on the three-body problem.===Radial acceleration===The radial acceleration ''a'' of an object in orbit at a point along the line passing through both bodies is given by:where ''r'' is the distance from the large body ''M''1, R is the distance between the two main objects, and sgn(''x'') is the sign function of ''x''.", "The terms in this function represent respectively: force from ''M''1; force from ''M''2; and centripetal force.", "The points L3, L1, L2 occur where the acceleration is zero — see chart at right.", "Positive acceleration is acceleration towards the right of the chart and negative acceleration is towards the left; that is why acceleration has opposite signs on opposite sides of the gravity wells.Net radial acceleration of a point orbiting along the Earth–Moon line" ], [ "Stability", "STL 3D model of the Roche potential of two orbiting bodies, rendered half as a surface and half as a meshAlthough the , , and points are nominally unstable, there are quasi-stable periodic orbits called ''halo orbits'' around these points in a three-body system.", "A full ''n''-body dynamical system such as the Solar System does not contain these periodic orbits, but does contain quasi-periodic (i.e.", "bounded but not precisely repeating) orbits following Lissajous-curve trajectories.", "These quasi-periodic Lissajous orbits are what most of Lagrangian-point space missions have used until now.", "Although they are not perfectly stable, a modest effort of station keeping keeps a spacecraft in a desired Lissajous orbit for a long time.For Sun–Earth- missions, it is preferable for the spacecraft to be in a large-amplitude () Lissajous orbit around than to stay at , because the line between Sun and Earth has increased solar interference on Earth–spacecraft communications.", "Similarly, a large-amplitude Lissajous orbit around keeps a probe out of Earth's shadow and therefore ensures continuous illumination of its solar panels.The and points are stable provided that the mass of the primary body (e.g.", "the Earth) is at least 25 times the mass of the secondary body (e.g.", "the Moon), The Earth is over 81 times the mass of the Moon (the Moon is 1.23% of the mass of the Earth).", "Although the and points are found at the top of a \"hill\", as in the effective potential contour plot above, they are nonetheless stable.", "The reason for the stability is a second-order effect: as a body moves away from the exact Lagrange position, Coriolis acceleration (which depends on the velocity of an orbiting object and cannot be modeled as a contour map) curves the trajectory into a path around (rather than away from) the point.", "Because the source of stability is the Coriolis force, the resulting orbits can be stable, but generally are not planar, but \"three-dimensional\": they lie on a warped surface intersecting the ecliptic plane.", "The kidney-shaped orbits typically shown nested around and are the projections of the orbits on a plane (e.g.", "the ecliptic) and not the full 3-D orbits." ], [ "Solar System values", "Sun–planet Lagrange points to scale (Click for clearer points.", ")This table lists sample values of L1, L2, and L3 within the Solar System.", "Calculations assume the two bodies orbit in a perfect circle with separation equal to the semimajor axis and no other bodies are nearby.", "Distances are measured from the larger body's center of mass (but see barycenter especially in the case of Moon and Jupiter) with L3 showing a negative direction.", "The percentage columns show the distance from the orbit compared to the semimajor axis.", "E.g.", "for the Moon, L1 is from Earth's center, which is 84.9% of the Earth–Moon distance or 15.1% \"in front of\" (Earthwards from) the Moon; L2 is located from Earth's center, which is 116.8% of the Earth–Moon distance or 16.8% beyond the Moon; and L3 is located from Earth's center, which is 99.3% of the Earth–Moon distance or 0.7084% inside (Earthward) of the Moon's 'negative' position.+Lagrangian points in Solar System Body pair Semimajor axis, SMA (×109 m) L1 (×109 m) 1 − L1/SMA (%) L2 (×109 m) L2/SMA − 1 (%) L3 (×109 m) 1 + L3/SMA (%) Earth–Moon Sun–Mercury Sun–Venus Sun–Earth Sun–Mars Sun–Jupiter Sun–Saturn Sun–Uranus Sun–Neptune" ], [ "Spaceflight applications", "=== Sun–Earth ===ACE in an orbit around Sun–Earth Gaia (yellow) and James Webb Space Telescope (blue) orbits around Sun–Earth Sun–Earth is suited for making observations of the Sun–Earth system.", "Objects here are never shadowed by Earth or the Moon and, if observing Earth, always view the sunlit hemisphere.", "The first mission of this type was the 1978 International Sun Earth Explorer 3 (ISEE-3) mission used as an interplanetary early warning storm monitor for solar disturbances.", "Since June 2015, DSCOVR has orbited the L1 point.", "Conversely, it is also useful for space-based solar telescopes, because it provides an uninterrupted view of the Sun and any space weather (including the solar wind and coronal mass ejections) reaches L1 up to an hour before Earth.", "Solar and heliospheric missions currently located around L1 include the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, Wind, Aditya-L1 Mission and the Advanced Composition Explorer.", "Planned missions include the Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe(IMAP) and the NEO Surveyor.Sun–Earth is a good spot for space-based observatories.", "Because an object around will maintain the same relative position with respect to the Sun and Earth, shielding and calibration are much simpler.", "It is, however, slightly beyond the reach of Earth's umbra, so solar radiation is not completely blocked at L2.Spacecraft generally orbit around L2, avoiding partial eclipses of the Sun to maintain a constant temperature.", "From locations near L2, the Sun, Earth and Moon are relatively close together in the sky; this means that a large sunshade with the telescope on the dark-side can allow the telescope to cool passively to around 50 K – this is especially helpful for infrared astronomy and observations of the cosmic microwave background.", "The James Webb Space Telescope was positioned in a halo orbit about L2 on January 24, 2022.Sun–Earth and are saddle points and exponentially unstable with time constant of roughly 23 days.", "Satellites at these points will wander off in a few months unless course corrections are made.", "Sun–Earth was a popular place to put a \"Counter-Earth\" in pulp science fiction and comic books, despite the fact that the existence of a planetary body in this location had been understood as an impossibility once orbital mechanics and the perturbations of planets upon each other's orbits came to be understood, long before the Space Age; the influence of an Earth-sized body on other planets would not have gone undetected, nor would the fact that the foci of Earth's orbital ellipse would not have been in their expected places, due to the mass of the counter-Earth.", "The Sun–Earth , however, is a weak saddle point and exponentially unstable with time constant of roughly 150 years.", "Moreover, it could not contain a natural object, large or small, for very long because the gravitational forces of the other planets are stronger than that of Earth (for example, Venus comes within 0.3 AU of this every 20 months).A spacecraft orbiting near Sun–Earth would be able to closely monitor the evolution of active sunspot regions before they rotate into a geoeffective position, so that a seven-day early warning could be issued by the NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center.", "Moreover, a satellite near Sun–Earth would provide very important observations not only for Earth forecasts, but also for deep space support (Mars predictions and for crewed missions to near-Earth asteroids).", "In 2010, spacecraft transfer trajectories to Sun–Earth were studied and several designs were considered.===Earth–Moon===Earth–Moon allows comparatively easy access to Lunar and Earth orbits with minimal change in velocity and this has as an advantage to position a habitable space station intended to help transport cargo and personnel to the Moon and back.", "The SMART-1 Mission passed through the L1 Lagrangian Point on 11 November 2004 and passed into the area dominated by the Moon's gravitational influence.Earth–Moon has been used for a communications satellite covering the Moon's far side, for example, Queqiao, launched in 2018, and would be \"an ideal location\" for a propellant depot as part of the proposed depot-based space transportation architecture.Earth–Moon and are the locations for the Kordylewski dust clouds.", "The L5 Society's name comes from the L4 and L5 Lagrangian points in the Earth–Moon system proposed as locations for their huge rotating space habitats.", "Both positions are also proposed for communication satellites covering the Moon alike communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit cover the Earth.===Sun–Venus===Scientists at the B612 Foundation were planning to use Venus's L3 point to position their planned Sentinel telescope, which aimed to look back towards Earth's orbit and compile a catalogue of near-Earth asteroids.===Sun–Mars===In 2017, the idea of positioning a magnetic dipole shield at the Sun–Mars point for use as an artificial magnetosphere for Mars was discussed at a NASA conference.", "The idea is that this would protect the planet's atmosphere from the Sun's radiation and solar winds." ], [ "See also", "* Co-orbital configuration* Euler's three-body problem* Gegenschein* Interplanetary Transport Network* Klemperer rosette* L5 Society* Lagrange point colonization* Lagrangian mechanics* List of objects at Lagrange points* Lunar space elevator* Oberth effect" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Joseph-Louis, Comte Lagrange, from ''Œuvres'', Tome 6, « Essai sur le Problème des Trois Corps »— Essai (PDF); source Tome 6 (Viewer)** \"Essay on the Three-Body Problem\" by J.-L. Lagrange, translated from the above, in merlyn.demon.co.uk .", "* Considerationes de motu corporum coelestium—Leonhard Euler—transcription and translation at merlyn.demon.co.uk .", "* What are Lagrange points?—European Space Agency page, with good animations* Explanation of Lagrange points—Neil J. Cornish* A NASA explanation—also attributed to Neil J. Cornish* Explanation of Lagrange points—John Baez* Geometry and calculations of Lagrange points—J.", "R. Stockton* Locations of Lagrange points, with approximations—David Peter Stern* An online calculator to compute the precise positions of the 5 Lagrange points for any 2-body system—Tony Dunn* ''Astronomy Cast''—Ep.", "76: \"Lagrange Points\" by Fraser Cain and Pamela L. Gay* The Five Points of Lagrange by Neil deGrasse Tyson* Earth, a lone Trojan discovered* See the Lagrange Points and Halo Orbits subsection under the section on Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit in ''NASA: Basics of Space Flight'', Chapter 5" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lucid dream" ], [ "Introduction", "In the psychology subfield of oneirology, a '''lucid dream''' is a type of dream in which the dreamer becomes aware that they are dreaming whilst dreaming.", "The capacity to have lucid dreams is a trainable cognitive skill.", "During a lucid dream, the dreamer may gain some amount of volitional control over the dream characters, narrative, or environment, although this control of dream content is not the salient feature of lucid dreaming.", "Lucid dreaming has been studied and reported for many years.", "Prominent figures from ancient to modern times have been fascinated by lucid dreams and have sought ways to better understand their causes and purpose.", "Many different theories have emerged as a result of scientific research on the subject.", "Further developments in psychological research have pointed to ways in which this form of dreaming may be utilized as a form of sleep therapy.The term ''lucid dream'' was coined by Dutch author and psychiatrist Frederik van Eeden in his 1913 article ''A Study of Dreams'', though descriptions of dreamers being aware that they are dreaming predate the article.", "Van Eeden studied his own dreams between January 20, 1898, and December 26, 1912, recording the ones he deemed most important in a dream diary.", "352 of these dreams are categorized as lucid." ], [ "Definition", "Paul Tholey laid the epistemological basis for the research of lucid dreams, proposing seven different conditions of clarity that a dream must fulfill in order to be defined as a lucid dream:# Awareness of the dream state (orientation)# Awareness of the capacity to make decisions# Awareness of memory functions# Awareness of self# Awareness of the dream environment# Awareness of the meaning of the dream# Awareness of concentration and focus (the subjective clarity of that state)Later, in 1992, a study by Deirdre Barrett examined whether lucid dreams contained four \"corollaries\" of lucidity:* The dreamer is aware that they are dreaming* They are aware actions will not carry over after waking* Physical laws need not apply in the dream* The dreamer has a clear memory of the waking worldBarrett found less than a quarter of lucidity accounts exhibited all four.Subsequently, Stephen LaBerge studied the prevalence of being able to control the dream scenario among lucid dreams, and found that while dream control and dream awareness are correlated, neither requires the other.", "LaBerge found dreams that exhibit one clearly without the capacity for the other; also, in some dreams where the dreamer is lucid and aware they could exercise control, they choose simply to observe." ], [ "History", "===Ancient===The practice of lucid dreaming, as in cultivating the dreamer's ability to be aware that they are dreaming, is central to both the ancient Indian Hindu practice of Yoga nidra and the Tibetan Buddhist practice of dream Yoga.", "The cultivation of such awareness was a common practice among early Buddhists.Early references to the phenomenon are also found in ancient Greek writing.", "For example, the philosopher Aristotle wrote: \"often when one is asleep, there is something in consciousness which declares that what then presents itself is but a dream.\"", "Meanwhile, the physician Galen of Pergamon used lucid dreams as a form of therapy.", "In addition, a letter written by Saint Augustine of Hippo in AD 415 tells the story of a dreamer, Doctor Gennadius, and refers to lucid dreaming.===17th century===Philosopher and physician Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682) was fascinated by dreams and described his own ability to lucid dream in his ''Religio Medici'', stating: \"...yet in one dream I can compose a whole Comedy, behold the action, apprehend the jests and laugh my self awake at the conceits thereof.", "\"Samuel Pepys, in his diary entry for 15 August 1665, records a dream, stating: \"I had my Lady Castlemayne in my arms and was admitted to use all the dalliance I desired with her, and then dreamt that this could not be awake, but that it was only a dream.", "\"===19th century===In 1867, the French sinologist Marie-Jean-Léon, Marquis d'Hervey de Saint Denys anonymously published ''Les Rêves et Les Moyens de Les Diriger; Observations Pratiques'' (\"Dreams and the ways to direct them; practical observations\"), in which he describes his own experiences of lucid dreaming, and proposes that it is possible for anyone to learn to dream consciously.===20th century===Frederik van Eeden and Marquis d'Hervey de Saint Denys, pioneers of lucid dreamingIn 1913, Dutch psychiatrist and writer Frederik (Willem) van Eeden (1860–1932) coined the term \"lucid dream\" in an article entitled \"A Study of Dreams\".Some have suggested that the term is a misnomer because Van Eeden was referring to a phenomenon more specific than a lucid dream.", "Van Eeden intended the term lucid to denote \"having insight\", as in the phrase ''a lucid interval'' applied to someone in temporary remission from a psychosis, rather than as a reference to the perceptual quality of the experience, which may or may not be clear and vivid." ], [ "Cognitive science", "In 1968, Celia Green analyzed the main characteristics of such dreams, reviewing previously published literature on the subject and incorporating new data from participants of her own.", "She concluded that lucid dreams were a category of experience quite distinct from ordinary dreams and said they were associated with rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep).", "Green was also the first to link lucid dreams to the phenomenon of false awakenings.In 1975, Dr. Keith Hearne had the idea to exploit the nature of rapid eye movements (REM) to allow a dreamer to send a message directly from dreams to the waking world.", "Working with an experienced lucid dreamer (Alan Worsley), he eventually succeeded in recording (via the use of an electrooculogram or EOG) a pre-defined set of eye movements signaled from within Worsley's lucid dream.", "This occurred at around 8 am on the morning of April 12, 1975.Hearne's EOG experiment was formally recognized through publication in the journal for The Society for Psychical Research.", "Lucid dreaming was subsequently researched by asking dreamers to perform pre-determined physical responses while experiencing a dream, including eye movement signals.In 1980, Stephen LaBerge at Stanford University developed such techniques as part of his doctoral dissertation.", "In 1985, LaBerge performed a pilot study that showed that time perception while counting during a lucid dream is about the same as during waking life.", "Lucid dreamers counted out ten seconds while dreaming, signaling the start and the end of the count with a pre-arranged eye signal measured with electrooculogram recording.", "LaBerge's results were confirmed by German researchers D. Erlacher and M. Schredl in 2004.In a further study by Stephen LaBerge, four subjects were compared either singing while dreaming or counting while dreaming.", "LaBerge found that the right hemisphere was more active during singing and the left hemisphere was more active during counting.Neuroscientist J. Allan Hobson has hypothesized what might be occurring in the brain while lucid.", "The first step to lucid dreaming is recognizing one is dreaming.", "This recognition might occur in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which is one of the few areas deactivated during REM sleep and where working memory occurs.", "Once this area is activated and the recognition of dreaming occurs, the dreamer must be cautious to let the dream continue but be conscious enough to remember that it is a dream.", "While maintaining this balance, the amygdala and parahippocampal cortex might be less intensely activated.", "To continue the intensity of the dream hallucinations, it is expected the pons and the parieto-occipital junction stay active.Using electroencephalography (EEG) and other polysomnographical measurements, LaBerge and others have shown that lucid dreams begin in the rapid eye movement (REM) stage of sleep.", "LaBerge also proposes that there are higher amounts of beta-1 frequency band (13–19 Hz) brain wave activity experienced by lucid dreamers, hence there is an increased amount of activity in the parietal lobes making lucid dreaming a conscious process.Paul Tholey, a German Gestalt psychologist and a professor of psychology and sports science, originally studied dreams in order to resolve the question of whether one dreams in colour or black and white.", "In his phenomenological research, he outlined an epistemological frame using critical realism.", "Tholey instructed his subjects to continuously suspect waking life to be a dream, in order that such a habit would manifest itself during dreams.", "He called this technique for inducing lucid dreams the ''Reflexions technik'' (reflection technique).", "Subjects learned to have such lucid dreams; they observed their dream content and reported it soon after awakening.", "Tholey could examine the cognitive abilities of dream figures.", "Nine trained lucid dreamers were directed to set other dream figures arithmetic and verbal tasks during lucid dreaming.", "Dream figures who agreed to perform the tasks proved more successful in verbal than in arithmetic tasks.", "Tholey discussed his scientific results with Stephen LaBerge, who has a similar approach.A study was conducted by Stephen LaBerge and other scientists to see if it were possible to attain the ability to lucid dream through a drug.", "In 2018, galantamine was given to 121 patients in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, the only one of its kind.", "Some participants found as much as a 42 percent increase in their ability to lucid dream, compared to self-reports from the past six months, and ten people experienced a lucid dream for the first time.", "It is theorized that galantamine allows acetylcholine to build up, leading to greater recollection and awareness during dreaming.===Two-way communication===Graphical abstract of \"Real-time dialogue between experimenters and dreamers during REM sleep\"Teams of cognitive scientists have established real-time two-way communication with people undergoing a lucid dream.", "During dreaming they were able to consciously communicate with experimenters via eye movements or facial muscle signals, were able to comprehend complex questions and use working memory.", "Such interactive lucid dreaming could be a new approach for the scientific exploration of the dream state and could have applications for learning and creativity.", "Researchers have also demonstrated that individuals in a lucid dream can control and respond to feedback within a virtual environment.===Alternative theories===Other researchers suggest that lucid dreaming is not a state of sleep, but of brief wakefulness, or \"micro-awakening\".", "Experiments by Stephen LaBerge used \"perception of the outside world\" as a criterion for wakefulness while studying lucid dreamers, and their sleep state was corroborated with physiological measurements.", "LaBerge's subjects experienced their lucid dream while in a state of REM, which critics felt may mean that the subjects are fully awake.", "J. Allen Hobson responded that lucid dreaming must be a state of both waking and dreaming.Philosopher Norman Malcolm was a proponent of dream skepticism.", "He has argued against the possibility of checking the accuracy of dream reports, pointing out that \"the only criterion of the truth of a statement that someone has had a certain dream is, essentially, his saying so.\"" ], [ "Prevalence and frequency", "In 2016, a meta-analytic study by David Saunders and colleagues on 34 lucid dreaming studies, taken from a period of 50 years, demonstrated that 55% of a pooled sample of 24,282 people claimed to have experienced lucid dreams at least once or more in their lifetime.", "Furthermore, for those that stated they did experience lucid dreams, approximately 23% reported to experience them on a regular basis, as often as once a month or more.", "In a 2004 study on lucid dream frequency and personality, a moderate correlation between nightmare frequency and frequency of lucid dreaming was demonstrated.", "Some lucid dreamers also reported that nightmares are a trigger for dream lucidity.", "Previous studies have reported that lucid dreaming is more common among adolescents than adults.A 2015 study by Julian Mutz and Amir-Homayoun Javadi showed that people who had practiced meditation for a long time tended to have more lucid dreams.", "The authors claimed that \"Lucid dreaming is a hybrid state of consciousness with features of both waking and dreaming\" in a review they published in Neuroscience of Consciousness in 2017.Mutz and Javadi found that during lucid dreaming, there is an increase in activity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the bilateral frontopolar prefrontal cortex, the precuneus, the inferior parietal lobules, and the supramarginal gyrus.", "All are brain functions related to higher cognitive functions including working memory, planning, and self-consciousness.", "The researchers also found that during a lucid dream, \"levels of self-determination\" were similar to those that people experienced during states of wakefulness.", "They also found that lucid dreamers can only control limited aspects of their dream at once.Mutz and Javadi also have stated that by studying lucid dreaming further, scientists could learn more about various types of consciousness, which happen to be less easy to separate and research at other times." ], [ "Suggested applications", "===Treating nightmares===It has been suggested that those who suffer from nightmares could benefit from the ability to be aware they are indeed dreaming.", "A pilot study performed in 2006 showed that lucid dreaming therapy treatment was successful in reducing nightmare frequency.", "This treatment consisted of exposure to the idea, mastery of the technique, and lucidity exercises.", "It was not clear what aspects of the treatment were responsible for the success of overcoming nightmares, though the treatment as a whole was said to be successful.Australian psychologist Milan Colic has explored the application of principles from narrative therapy to clients' lucid dreams, to reduce the impact not only of nightmares during sleep but also depression, self-mutilation, and other problems in waking life.", "Colic found that therapeutic conversations could reduce the distressing content of dreams, while understandings about life—and even characters—from lucid dreams could be applied to their lives with marked therapeutic benefits.Psychotherapists have applied lucid dreaming as a part of therapy.", "Studies have shown that, by inducing a lucid dream, recurrent nightmares can be alleviated.", "It is unclear whether this alleviation is due to lucidity or the ability to alter the dream itself.", "A 2006 study performed by Victor Spoormaker and Van den Bout evaluated the validity of lucid dreaming treatment (LDT) in chronic nightmare sufferers.", "LDT is composed of exposure, mastery and lucidity exercises.", "Results of lucid dreaming treatment revealed that the nightmare frequency of the treatment groups had decreased.", "In another study, Spoormaker, Van den Bout, and Meijer (2003) investigated lucid dreaming treatment for nightmares by testing eight subjects who received a one-hour individual session, which consisted of lucid dreaming exercises.", "The results of the study revealed that the nightmare frequency had decreased and the sleep quality had slightly increased.Holzinger, Klösch, and Saletu managed a psychotherapy study under the working name of ‘Cognition during dreaming—a therapeutic intervention in nightmares’, which included 40 subjects, men and women, 18–50 years old, whose life quality was significantly altered by nightmares.", "The test subjects were administered Gestalt group therapy and 24 of them were also taught to enter the state of lucid dreaming by Holzinger.", "This was purposefully taught in order to change the course of their nightmares.", "The subjects then reported the diminishment of their nightmare prevalence from 2–3 times a week to 2–3 times per month.===Creativity===In her book ''The Committee of Sleep'', Deirdre Barrett describes how some experienced lucid dreamers have learned to remember specific practical goals such as artists looking for inspiration seeking a show of their own work once they become lucid or computer programmers looking for a screen with their desired code.", "However, most of these dreamers had many experiences of failing to recall waking objectives before gaining this level of control.", "''Exploring the World of Lucid Dreaming'' by Stephen LaBerge and Howard Rheingold (1990) discusses creativity within dreams and lucid dreams, including testimonials from a number of people who claim they have used the practice of lucid dreaming to help them solve a number of creative issues, from an aspiring parent thinking of potential baby names to a surgeon practicing surgical techniques.", "The authors discuss how creativity in dreams could stem from \"conscious access to the contents of our unconscious minds\"; access to \"tacit knowledge\"—the things we know but can't explain, or things we know but are unaware that we know.", "''The Dreams Behind the Music'' book by Craig Webb (2016) details lucid dreams of a number of musical artists, including how they are able not just to hear, but also compose, mix, arrange, practice, and perform music while conscious within their dreams." ], [ "Risks", "Though lucid dreaming can be beneficial to a number of aspects of life, some risks have been suggested.", "Those who have never had a lucid dream may not understand what is happening when they experience it for the first time.", "This could cause those individuals to feel a variety of different emotions as they are going through a completely new psychological experience.", "Feelings of stress, worry, or confusion could arise.", "On the other hand, the feeling of empowerment could also come up as they realize that they are now in control of their dreams.", "Someone struggling with certain mental illnesses could find it hard to be able to tell the difference between reality and the actual dream (psychosis).A very small percentage of people may experience sleep paralysis, which can sometimes be confused with lucid dreaming.", "Although from the outside, both seem to be quite similar, there are a few distinct differences that can help differentiate them.", "A person usually experiences sleep paralysis when they partially wake up in REM atonia, a state in which said person is partially paralyzed and cannot move their limbs.", "When in sleep paralysis, people may also experience hallucinations.", "Although said hallucinations cannot cause physical damage, they may still be frightening.", "There are three common types of hallucinations: an intruder in the same room, a crushing feeling on one's chest or back, and a feeling of flying or levitating.", "About 7.6% of the general population have experienced sleep paralysis at least once.", "Exiting sleep paralysis to a waking state can be achieved by intently focusing on a part of the body, such as a finger, and wiggling it, continuing the action of moving to then the hand, the arm, and so on, until the person is fully awake.Long-term risks with lucid dreaming have not been extensively studied, although many people have been lucid dreaming for many years without any adverse effects." ], [ "See also", "* Active imagination* Astral projection* Patricia Garfield* Pre-lucid dream* Recurring dream* Sleep paralysis* Yoga nidra* Carl Jung* Sigmund Freud* Dream* Dreamwork* Dream character* Dreams in analytical psychology* Dreaming (journal)* Oneirology* Oneiromancy* Oneironautics* Unconscious mind* International Association for the Study of Dreams (IASD)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Blanken, C.M.", "den and Meijer, E.J.G.", "\"An Historical View of Dreams and the Ways to Direct Them; Practical Observations by Marie-Jean-Léon-Lecoq, le Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys\".", "''Lucidity Letter'', 7 (2) 67–78; 1988.Revised Edition in: ''Lucidity'', 10 (1&2) 311–22; 1991.", "* * * * * * * * * * Tholey, Paul (1983).", "\"Relation between dream content and eye movements tested by lucid dreams\".", "''Perceptual and Motor Skills'', 56, pp. 875–78.", "* Tholey, Paul (1988).", "\"A model for lucidity training as a means of self-healing and psychological growth\".", "In: J. Gackenbach & S. LaBerge (eds.", "), Conscious mind, sleeping brain.", "''Perspectives on lucid dreaming'', pp.", "263–87.London: Plenum Press.", "* * ''Lucid dreaming can be induced by electric scalp stimulation, study finds'' * \"A look at four psychology fads\" – a comparison of est, primal therapy, Transcendental Meditation and lucid dreaming at the ''Los Angeles Times''" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lyric" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lyric''' may refer to:* Lyrics, the words, often in verse form, which are sung, usually to a melody, and constitute the semantic content of a song* Lyric poetry is a form of poetry that expresses a subjective, personal point of view* Lyric, from the Greek language, a song that is played with a lyre* Lyric describes, in the classification of the human voice in European classical music, a specific vocal weight and a range at the upper end of the given voice part* RTÉ lyric fm, a radio station in Ireland* Lyric (group), a rhythm and blues girl group* \"Lyric\" (song), a single released in June 2003 by Zwan* Lyric Hearing, an extended wear hearing aid* ''The Lyric'' (magazine), a North American poetry magazine* ''The Lyric'' (album), a 2005 jazz album by Jim Tomlinson and Stacey Kent" ], [ "See also", "*Lyric Opera (disambiguation)*Lyric Theatre (disambiguation)*Lyrics (disambiguation)*LYRIQ (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Light-emitting diode" ], [ "Introduction", "Parts of a conventional LED.", "The flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded inside the epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out via mechanical strain or vibration.surface-mount LEDClose-up of an LED with the voltage being increased and decreased to show a detailed view of its operationretrofit with E27 screw in base|A bulb-shaped modern retrofit LED lamp with aluminum heat sink, a light diffusing dome and E27 screw base, using a built-in power supply working on mains voltageA '''light-emitting diode''' ('''LED''') is a semiconductor device that emits light when current flows through it.", "Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons.", "The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor.", "White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared (IR) light.", "Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as those used with a wide variety of consumer electronics.", "The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and limited to red.Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small incandescent bulbs, and in seven-segment displays.", "Later developments produced LEDs available in visible, ultraviolet (UV), and infrared wavelengths with high, low, or intermediate light output, for instance, white LEDs suitable for room and outdoor lighting.", "LEDs have also given rise to new types of displays and sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology with applications as diverse as aviation lighting, fairy lights, strip lights, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, lighted wallpaper, horticultural grow lights, and medical devices.LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower power consumption, a longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller sizes, and faster switching.", "In exchange for these generally favorable attributes, disadvantages of LEDs include electrical limitations to low voltage and generally to DC (not AC) power, the inability to provide steady illumination from a pulsing DC or an AC electrical supply source, and a lesser maximum operating temperature and storage temperature.LEDs are transducers of electricity into light.", "They operate in reverse of photodiodes, which convert light into electricity." ], [ "History", "===Discoveries and early devices===SiC recreates Round's original experiment from 1907.", "'''Close-up of a 1 watt red power led.", "'''Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the English experimenter H. J.", "Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector.", "Russian inventor Oleg Losev reported the creation of the first LED in 1927.His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades, partly due to the very inefficient light-producing properties of silicon carbide, the semiconductor Losev used.0603 SMD (Surface Mount Device) package LED.In 1936, Georges Destriau observed that electroluminescence could be produced when zinc sulphide (ZnS) powder is suspended in an insulator and an alternating electrical field is applied to it.", "In his publications, Destriau often referred to luminescence as Losev-Light.", "Destriau worked in the laboratories of Madame Marie Curie, also an early pioneer in the field of luminescence with research on radium.Hungarian Zoltán Bay together with György Szigeti pre-empted LED lighting in Hungary in 1939 by patenting a lighting device based on silicon carbide, with an option on boron carbide, that emitted white, yellowish white, or greenish white depending on impurities present.", "Kurt Lehovec, Carl Accardo, and Edward Jamgochian explained these first LEDs in 1951 using an apparatus employing SiC crystals with a current source of a battery or a pulse generator and with a comparison to a variant, pure, crystal in 1953.Rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955.Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide (GaSb), GaAs, indium phosphide (InP), and silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77 kelvins.", "In 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance.", "As noted by Kroemer Braunstein \"…had set up a simple optical communications link: Music emerging from a record player was used via suitable electronics to modulate the forward current of a GaAs diode.", "The emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away.", "This signal was fed into an audio amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker.", "Intercepting the beam stopped the music.", "We had a great deal of fun playing with this setup.\"", "This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications.A 1962 Texas Instruments SNX-100 GaAs LED contained in a TO-18 transistor metal caseIn September 1961, while working at Texas Instruments in Dallas, Texas, James R. Biard and Gary Pittman discovered near-infrared (900 nm) light emission from a tunnel diode they had constructed on a GaAs substrate.", "By October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically isolated semiconductor photodetector.", "On August 8, 1962, Biard and Pittman filed a patent titled \"Semiconductor Radiant Diode\" based on their findings, which described a zinc-diffused p–n junction LED with a spaced cathode contact to allow for efficient emission of infrared light under forward bias.", "After establishing the priority of their work based on engineering notebooks predating submissions from G.E.", "Labs, RCA Research Labs, IBM Research Labs, Bell Labs, and Lincoln Lab at MIT, the U.S. patent office issued the two inventors the patent for the GaAs infrared light-emitting diode (U.S. Patent US3293513), the first practical LED.", "Immediately after filing the patent, Texas Instruments (TI) began a project to manufacture infrared diodes.", "In October 1962, TI announced the first commercial LED product (the SNX-100), which employed a pure GaAs crystal to emit an 890 nm light output.", "In October 1963, TI announced the first commercial hemispherical LED, the SNX-110.In the 1960s, several laboratories focused on LEDs that would emit visible light.", "A particularly important device was demonstrated by Nick Holonyak on October 9, 1962, while he was working for General Electric in Syracuse, New York.", "The device used the semiconducting alloy gallium phosphide arsenide (GaAsP).", "It was the first semiconductor laser to emit visible light, albeit at low temperatures.", "At room temperature it still functioned as a red light-emitting diode.", "GaAsP was the basis for the first wave of commercial LEDs emitting visible light.", "It was mass produced by the Monsanto and Hewlett-Packard companies and used widely for displays in calculators and wrist watches.0603 SMD (Surface Mount Device) package red LED.M.", "George Craford, a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972.In 1976, T. P. Pearsall designed the first high-brightness, high-efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths.Close-up of Red LED.=== Initial commercial development ===LED display of a TI-30 scientific calculator (), which uses plastic lenses to increase the visible digit sizeX-Ray of a 1970s 8-digit LED calculator displayUntil 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, on the order of US$200 per unit, and so had little practical use.", "The first commercial visible-wavelength LEDs used GaAsP semiconductors and were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in seven-segment displays, first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as calculators, TVs, radios, telephones, as well as watches.The Hewlett-Packard company (HP) was engaged in research and development (R&D) on practical LEDs between 1962 and 1968, by a research team under Howard C. Borden, Gerald P. Pighini at HP Associates and HP Labs.", "During this time HP collaborated with Monsanto Company on developing the first usable LED products.", "The first usable LED products were HP's LED display and Monsanto's LED indicator lamp, both launched in 1968.Monsanto was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators.", "Monsanto had previously offered to supply HP with GaAsP, but HP decided to grow its own GaAsP.", "In February 1969, Hewlett-Packard introduced the HP Model 5082-7000 Numeric Indicator, the first LED device to use integrated circuit (integrated LED circuit) technology.", "It was the first intelligent LED display, and was a revolution in digital display technology, replacing the Nixie tube and becoming the basis for later LED displays.In the 1970s, commercially successful LED devices at less than five cents each were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics.", "These devices employed compound semiconductor chips fabricated with the planar process (developed by Jean Hoerni, ).", "The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and innovative packaging methods enabled the team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions.", "LED producers continue to use these methods.The early red LEDs were bright enough for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area.", "Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible.", "Later, other colors became widely available and appeared in appliances and equipment.Early LEDs were packaged in metal cases similar to those of transistors, with a glass window or lens to let the light out.", "Modern indicator LEDs are packed in transparent molded plastic cases, tubular or rectangular in shape, and often tinted to match the device color.", "Infrared devices may be dyed, to block visible light.", "More complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation in high-power LEDs.", "Surface-mounted LEDs further reduce the package size.", "LEDs intended for use with fiber optics cables may be provided with an optical connector.===Blue LED===The first blue-violet LED using magnesium-doped gallium nitride was made at Stanford University in 1972 by Herb Maruska and Wally Rhines, doctoral students in materials science and engineering.", "At the time Maruska was on leave from RCA Laboratories, where he collaborated with Jacques Pankove on related work.", "In 1971, the year after Maruska left for Stanford, his RCA colleagues Pankove and Ed Miller demonstrated the first blue electroluminescence from zinc-doped gallium nitride, though the subsequent device Pankove and Miller built, the first actual gallium nitride light-emitting diode, emitted green light.", "In 1974 the U.S. Patent Office awarded Maruska, Rhines, and Stanford professor David Stevenson a patent for their work in 1972 (U.S. Patent US3819974 A).", "Today, magnesium-doping of gallium nitride remains the basis for all commercial blue LEDs and laser diodes.", "In the early 1970s, these devices were too dim for practical use, and research into gallium nitride devices slowed.In August 1989, Cree introduced the first commercially available blue LED based on the indirect bandgap semiconductor, silicon carbide (SiC).", "SiC LEDs had very low efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of the visible light spectrum.In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type doping ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices.", "Building upon this foundation, Theodore Moustakas at Boston University patented a method for producing high-brightness blue LEDs using a new two-step process in 1991.In 2015, a US court ruled that three Taiwanese companies had infringed Moustakas's prior patent, and ordered them to pay licensing fees of not less than US$13 million.Shuji Nakamura in 2015, with a blue LEDTwo years later, in 1993, high-brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation using a gallium nitride (GaN) growth process.", "These LEDs had efficiencies of 10%.", "In parallel, Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano of Nagoya University were working on developing the important GaN deposition on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN.", "This new development revolutionized LED lighting, making high-power blue light sources practical, leading to the development of technologies like Blu-ray.Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention.Nakamura, Hiroshi Amano, and Isamu Akasaki were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2014 for \"the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes, which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources.", "\"In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and demonstrated a \"transparent contact\" LED using indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs).In 2001 and 2002, processes for growing gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs on silicon were successfully demonstrated.", "In January 2012, Osram demonstrated high-power InGaN LEDs grown on silicon substrates commercially, and GaN-on-silicon LEDs are in production at Plessey Semiconductors.", "As of 2017, some manufacturers are using SiC as the substrate for LED production, but sapphire is more common, as it has the most similar properties to that of gallium nitride, reducing the need for patterning the sapphire wafer (patterned wafers are known as epi wafers).", "Samsung, the University of Cambridge, and Toshiba are performing research into GaN on Si LEDs.", "Toshiba has stopped research, possibly due to low yields.", "Some opt for epitaxy, which is difficult on silicon, while others, like the University of Cambridge, choose a multi-layer structure, in order to reduce (crystal) lattice mismatch and different thermal expansion ratios, to avoid cracking of the LED chip at high temperatures (e.g.", "during manufacturing), reduce heat generation and increase luminous efficiency.", "Sapphire substrate patterning can be carried out with nanoimprint lithography.GaN-on-Si is difficult but desirable since it takes advantage of existing semiconductor manufacturing infrastructure.", "It allows for the wafer-level packaging of LED dies resulting in extremely small LED packages.GaN is often deposited using Metalorganic vapor-phase epitaxy (MOCVD), and it also utilizes Lift-off.===White LEDs and the illumination breakthrough===Even though white light can be created using individual red, green and blue LEDs, this results in poor color rendering, since only three narrow bands of wavelengths of light are being emitted.", "The attainment of high efficiency blue LEDs was quickly followed by the development of the first white LED.", "In this device a :Ce (known as \"YAG\" or Ce:YAG phosphor) cerium-doped phosphor coating produces yellow light through fluorescence.", "The combination of that yellow with remaining blue light appears white to the eye.", "Using different phosphors produces green and red light through fluorescence.", "The resulting mixture of red, green and blue is perceived as white light, with improved color rendering compared to wavelengths from the blue LED/YAG phosphor combination.Illustration of Haitz's law, showing improvement in light output per LED over time, with a logarithmic scale on the vertical axisThe first white LEDs were expensive and inefficient.", "The light output then increased exponentially.", "The latest research and development has been propagated by Japanese manufacturers such as Panasonic, and Nichia, and by Korean and Chinese manufacturers such as Samsung, Solstice, Kingsun, Hoyol and others.", "This trend in increased output has been called Haitz's law after Roland Haitz.Light output and efficiency of blue and near-ultraviolet LEDs rose and the cost of reliable devices fell.", "This led to relatively high-power white-light LEDs for illumination, which are replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting.Experimental white LEDs were demonstrated in 2014 to produce 303 lumens per watt of electricity (lm/W); some can last up to 100,000 hours.", "Commercially available LEDs have an efficiency of up to 223 lm/W as of 2018.A previous record of 135 lm/W was achieved by Nichia in 2010.Compared to incandescent bulbs, this is a huge increase in electrical efficiency, and even though LEDs are more expensive to purchase, overall lifetime cost is significantly cheaper than that of incandescent bulbs.The LED chip is encapsulated inside a small, plastic, white mold.", "It can be encapsulated using resin (polyurethane-based), silicone, or epoxy containing (powdered) Cerium-doped YAG phosphor.", "After allowing the solvents to evaporate, the LEDs are often tested, and placed on tapes for SMT placement equipment for use in LED light bulb production.", "Some \"remote phosphor\" LED light bulbs use a single plastic cover with YAG phosphor for several blue LEDs, instead of using phosphor coatings on single-chip white LEDs.The temperature of the phosphor during operation and how it is applied limits the size of an LED die.", "Wafer-level packaged white LEDs allow for extremely small LEDs." ], [ "Physics of light production and emission", "In a light emitting diode, the recombination of electrons and electron holes in a semiconductor produces light (be it infrared, visible or UV), a process called \"electroluminescence\".", "The wavelength of the light depends on the energy band gap of the semiconductors used.", "Since these materials have a high index of refraction, design features of the devices such as special optical coatings and die shape are required to efficiently emit light.Unlike a laser, the light emitted from an LED is neither spectrally coherent nor even highly monochromatic.", "Its spectrum is sufficiently narrow that it appears to the human eye as a pure (saturated) color.", "Also unlike most lasers, its radiation is not spatially coherent, so it cannot approach the very high intensity characteristic of lasers." ], [ "Single-color LEDs", "Blue LEDsBy selection of different semiconductor materials, single-color LEDs can be made that emit light in a narrow band of wavelengths from near-infrared through the visible spectrum and into the ultraviolet range.", "As the wavelengths become shorter, because of the larger band gap of these semiconductors, the operating voltage of the LED increases.Blue LEDs have an active region consisting of one or more InGaN quantum wells sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers.", "By varying the relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can in theory be varied from violet to amber.Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) of varying Al/Ga fraction can be used to manufacture the cladding and quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of InGaN/GaN blue/green devices.", "If unalloyed GaN is used in this case to form the active quantum well layers, the device emits near-ultraviolet light with a peak wavelength centred around 365 nm.", "Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN/GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems, but practical devices still exhibit efficiency too low for high-brightness applications.With AlGaN and AlGaInN, even shorter wavelengths are achievable.", "Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 360–395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example, as black light lamp replacements for inspection of anti-counterfeiting UV watermarks in documents and bank notes, and for UV curing.", "Substantially more expensive, shorter-wavelength diodes are commercially available for wavelengths down to 240 nm.", "As the photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption spectrum of DNA, with a peak at about 260 nm, UV LED emitting at 250–270 nm are expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices.", "Recent research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective disinfection and sterilization devices.UV-C wavelengths were obtained in laboratories using aluminium nitride (210 nm), boron nitride (215 nm) and diamond (235 nm)." ], [ "White LEDs", "There are two primary ways of producing white light-emitting diodes.", "One is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors—red, green and blue—and then mix all the colors to form white light.", "The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, similar to a fluorescent lamp.", "The yellow phosphor is cerium-doped YAG crystals suspended in the package or coated on the LED.", "This YAG phosphor causes white LEDs to appear yellow when off, and the space between the crystals allow some blue light to pass through in LEDs with partial phosphor conversion.", "Alternatively, white LEDs may use other phosphors like manganese(IV)-doped potassium fluorosilicate (PFS) or other engineered phosphors.", "PFS assists in red light generation, and is used in conjunction with conventional Ce:YAG phosphor.", "In LEDs with PFS phosphor, some blue light passes through the phosphors, the Ce:YAG phosphor converts blue light to green and red (yellow) light, and the PFS phosphor converts blue light to red light.", "The color, emission spectrum or color temperature of white phosphor converted and other phosphor converted LEDs can be controlled by changing the concentration of several phosphors that form a phosphor blend used in an LED package.The 'whiteness' of the light produced is engineered to suit the human eye.", "Because of metamerism, it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white.", "The appearance of objects illuminated by that light may vary as the spectrum varies.", "This is the issue of color rendition, quite separate from color temperature.", "An orange or cyan object could appear with the wrong color and much darker as the LED or phosphor does not emit the wavelength it reflects.", "The best color rendition LEDs use a mix of phosphors, resulting in less efficiency and better color rendering.The first white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were offered for sale in the autumn of 1996.=== RGB systems ===FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 24–27 nm for all three colors.An RGB LED projecting red, green, and blue onto a surfaceMixing red, green, and blue sources to produce white light needs electronic circuits to control the blending of the colors.", "Since LEDs have slightly different emission patterns, the color balance may change depending on the angle of view, even if the RGB sources are in a single package, so RGB diodes are seldom used to produce white lighting.", "Nonetheless, this method has many applications because of the flexibility of mixing different colors, and in principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light.There are several types of multicolor white LEDs: di-, tri-, and tetrachromatic white LEDs.", "Several key factors that play among these different methods include color stability, color rendering capability, and luminous efficacy.", "Often, higher efficiency means lower color rendering, presenting a trade-off between the luminous efficacy and color rendering.", "For example, the dichromatic white LEDs have the best luminous efficacy (120 lm/W), but the lowest color rendering capability.", "Although tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color rendering capability, they often have poor luminous efficacy.", "Trichromatic white LEDs are in between, having both good luminous efficacy (>70 lm/W) and fair color rendering capability.One of the challenges is the development of more efficient green LEDs.", "The theoretical maximum for green LEDs is 683 lumens per watt but as of 2010 few green LEDs exceed even 100 lumens per watt.", "The blue and red LEDs approach their theoretical limits.Multicolor LEDs offer a means to form light of different colors.", "Most perceivable colors can be formed by mixing different amounts of three primary colors.", "This allows precise dynamic color control.", "Their emission power decays exponentially with rising temperature,resulting in a substantial change in color stability.", "Such problems inhibit industrial use.", "Multicolor LEDs without phosphors cannot provide good color rendering because each LED is a narrowband source.", "LEDs without phosphor, while a poorer solution for general lighting, are the best solution for displays, either backlight of LCD, or direct LED based pixels.Dimming a multicolor LED source to match the characteristics of incandescent lamps is difficult because manufacturing variations, age, and temperature change the actual color value output.", "To emulate the appearance of dimming incandescent lamps may require a feedback system with color sensor to actively monitor and control the color.=== Phosphor-based LEDs ===Stokes-shifted light emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor, which emits at roughly 500–700 nmThis method involves coating LEDs of one color (mostly blue LEDs made of InGaN) with phosphors of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are called phosphor-based or phosphor-converted white LEDs (pcLEDs).", "A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes shift, which transforms it from shorter wavelengths to longer.", "Depending on the original LED's color, various color phosphors are used.", "Using several phosphor layers of distinct colors broadens the emitted spectrum, effectively raising the color rendering index (CRI).Phosphor-based LEDs have efficiency losses due to heat loss from the Stokes shift and also other phosphor-related issues.", "Their luminous efficacies compared to normal LEDs depend on the spectral distribution of the resultant light output and the original wavelength of the LED itself.", "For example, the luminous efficacy of a typical YAG yellow phosphor based white LED ranges from 3 to 5 times the luminous efficacy of the original blue LED because of the human eye's greater sensitivity to yellow than to blue (as modeled in the luminosity function).", "Due to the simplicity of manufacturing, the phosphor method is still the most popular method for making high-intensity white LEDs.", "The design and production of a light source or light fixture using a monochrome emitter with phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a complex RGB system, and the majority of high-intensity white LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using phosphor light conversion.1 watt 9 volt three chips SMD phosphor based white LEDAmong the challenges being faced to improve the efficiency of LED-based white light sources is the development of more efficient phosphors.", "As of 2010, the most efficient yellow phosphor is still the YAG phosphor, with less than 10% Stokes shift loss.", "Losses attributable to internal optical losses due to re-absorption in the LED chip and in the LED packaging itself account typically for another 10% to 30% of efficiency loss.", "Currently, in the area of phosphor LED development, much effort is being spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output and higher operation temperatures.", "For instance, the efficiency can be raised by adapting better package design or by using a more suitable type of phosphor.", "Conformal coating process is frequently used to address the issue of varying phosphor thickness.Some phosphor-based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside phosphor-coated epoxy.", "Alternatively, the LED might be paired with a remote phosphor, a preformed polycarbonate piece coated with the phosphor material.", "Remote phosphors provide more diffuse light, which is desirable for many applications.", "Remote phosphor designs are also more tolerant of variations in the LED emissions spectrum.", "A common yellow phosphor material is cerium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Ce3+:YAG).White LEDs can also be made by coating near-ultraviolet (NUV) LEDs with a mixture of high-efficiency europium-based phosphors that emit red and blue, plus copper and aluminium-doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al) that emits green.", "This is a method analogous to the way fluorescent lamps work.", "This method is less efficient than blue LEDs with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger, so more energy is converted to heat, but yields light with better spectral characteristics, which render color better.", "Due to the higher radiative output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue ones, both methods offer comparable brightness.", "A concern is that UV light may leak from a malfunctioning light source and cause harm to human eyes or skin.A new style of wafers composed of gallium-nitride-on-silicon (GaN-on-Si) is being used to produce white LEDs using 200-mm silicon wafers.", "This avoids the typical costly sapphire substrate in relatively small 100- or 150-mm wafer sizes.", "The sapphire apparatus must be coupled with a mirror-like collector to reflect light that would otherwise be wasted.", "It was predicted that since 2020, 40% of all GaN LEDs are made with GaN-on-Si.", "Manufacturing large sapphire material is difficult, while large silicon material is cheaper and more abundant.", "LED companies shifting from using sapphire to silicon should be a minimal investment.=== Mixed white LEDs ===Tunable white LED array in a floodlightThere are RGBW LEDs that combine RGB units with a phosphor white LED on the market.", "Doing so retains the extremely tunable color of RGB LED, but allows color rendering and efficiency to be optimized when a color close to white is selected.Some phosphor white LED units are \"tunable white\", blending two extremes of color temperatures (commonly 2700K and 6500K) to produce intermediate values.", "This feature allows users to change the lighting to suit the current use of a multifunction room.", "As illustrated by a straight line on the chromaticity diagram, simple two-white blends will have a pink bias, becoming most severe in the middle.", "A small amount of green light, provided by another LED, could correct the problem.", "Some products are RGBWW, i.e.", "RGBW with tunable white.A final class of white LED with mixed light is dim-to-warm.", "These are ordinary 2700K white LED bulbs with a small red LED that turns on when the bulb is dimmed.", "Doing so makes the color warmer, emulating an incandescent light bulb.=== Other white LEDs ===Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all and was based on homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate that simultaneously emitted blue light from its active region and yellow light from the substrate." ], [ "Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)", "In an organic light-emitting diode (OLED), the electroluminescent material composing the emissive layer of the diode is an organic compound.", "The organic material is electrically conductive due to the delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over all or part of the molecule, and the material therefore functions as an organic semiconductor.", "The organic materials can be small organic molecules in a crystalline phase, or polymers.The potential advantages of OLEDs include thin, low-cost displays with a low driving voltage, wide viewing angle, and high contrast and color gamut.", "Polymer LEDs have the added benefit of printable and flexible displays.", "OLEDs have been used to make visual displays for portable electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, lighting and televisions." ], [ "Perovskite Light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs)", "Perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) have emerged as promising candidates for next-generation display and lighting technologies.", "In recent years, researchers have shown a growing interest in perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) owing to their capacity for emitting light with narrow bandwidth, adjustable spectrum, ability to deliver high color purity, and cost-effective solution fabrication.=== Green PeLEDs ===When it comes to efficiency, PeLEDs have not surpassed commercial organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) because specific critical parameters, such as charge carrier transport and optical output coupling efficiency, have not been thoroughly optimized.In response to this challenge, the development of ultra-efficient green PeLEDs with a external quantum efficiency (EQE) exceeding the remarkable 30% milestone was reported by Bai and his colleagues on May 29, 2023.This achievement was made by strategic adjustments in charge carrier transport and the distribution of near-field light.", "These optimizations effectively reduced electron leakage and resulted in an exceptional light output coupling efficiency of 41.82%.", "A Ni0.9Mg0.1Ox film with high refractive index and increased hole carrier mobility was used as a hole injection layer to balance charge carrier injection, and a polyethylene glycol layer was inserted between the hole transport layer and the perovskite emission layer to prevent electron leakage and minimize photon loss.The modified structure of green PeLED enabled it to achieve a world-record external quantum efficiency of 30.84% (with a mean of 29.05 ± 0.77%) at a brightness level of 6514 cd/m2.This pioneering work introduces a compelling approach to building ultra-efficient PeLEDs by effectively balancing electron-hole recombination and enhancing light outcoupling.However, expanding the effective area of perovskite LEDs can lead to a significant drop in their performance.", "To address this issue, Sun et.al introduced L-methionine (NVAL) to construct an intermediate phase with low formation enthalpy and COO- coordination.", "This new intermediate phase altered the crystallization pathway, effectively inhibiting phase segregation.", "Consequently, high-quality large-area quasi-2D perovskite films were achieved.", "They further fine-tuned the film's composite dynamics, leading to high-efficiency quasi-2D perovskite green LEDs with an effective area of 9.0 cm2.An external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 16.4% was attained at = 3, making it the most efficient large-area perovskite LED.", "Moreover, a luminance of 9.1×104 cd/m2 was achieved in the = 10 films.=== Blue PeLEDs ===On March 16, 2023, Zhou et al.", "published a study demonstrating their successful control of ion behavior to create highly efficient sky-blue perovskite light-emitting diodes.", "They achieved this by utilizing a bifunctional passivator, which consisted of Lewis base benzoic acid anions and alkali metal cations.", "This passivator had a dual role: it effectively passivated the deficient lead atom while inhibited the migration of halide ions.", "The outcome of this innovative approach was the realization of an efficient perovskite LED that emitted light at a stable wavelength of 483 nm.", "The LED exhibited a commendable external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 16.58%, with a peak EQE reaching 18.65%.", "Through optical coupling enhancement, the EQE was further boosted to 28.82%.=== Red PeLEDs ===One of the most crucial aspects of lighting and display technology is the efficient generation of red emission.", "Quasi-2D perovskites have demonstrated potential for high emission efficiency due to robust carrier confinement.", "However, the external quantum efficiencies (EQE) of most red quasi-2D PeLEDs are not optimal due to different n-value phases within complex quasi-2D perovskite films.To address this challenge, Jiang et.al published their findings in Advanced Materials on July 20, 2022.Their research focused on strategically incorporating large cations to enhance the efficiency of red light perovskite LEDs.", "By introducing phenethylammonium iodide (PEAI)/3-fluorophenylethylammonium iodide (m-F-PEA) and 1-naphthylmethylammonium iodide (NMAI), they achieved precise control over the phase distribution of quasi-2D perovskite materials.", "This approach effectively reduced the prevalence of smaller n-index phases and concurrently addressed lead and halide defects in the perovskite films.", "The outcome of this research was the development of perovskite LEDs capable of achieving an EQE of 25.8% at 680 nm, accompanied by a peak brightness of 1300 cd/m2.=== White PeLEDs ===High-performance white perovskite LED with high light extraction efficiency can be constructed through near-field optical coupling.", "The near-field optical coupling between blue perovskite diode and red perovskite nanocrystal was achieved by a reasonably designed multi-layer translucent electrode (LiF/Al/Ag/LiF).", "The red perovskite nano-crystalline layer allows the waveguide mode and surface plasmon polarization mode captured in the blue perovskite diode to be extracted and converted into red light emission, increasing the light extraction efficiency by 50%.", "At the same time, the complementary emission spectra of blue photons and down-converted red photons contribute to the formation of white LEDs.", "Finally, the off-device quantum efficiency exceeds 12%, and the brightness exceeds 2000cd/m2, which are both the highest in white PeLEDs.=== Lifetime ===Preparing high-quality all-inorganic perovskite films through solution-based methods remains a formidable challenge, primarily attributed to the rapid and uncontrollable crystallization of such materials.", "The key innovation involved controlling the crystal orientation of the all-inorganic perovskite along the (110) plane through a low-temperature annealing process (35-40°C).", "This precise control led to the orderly stacking of crystals, which significantly increased surface coverage and reduced defects within the material.", "After thorough optimization, the well-oriented CsPbBr3 perovskite LED achieved an external quantum efficiency (EQE) of up to 16.45%, a remarkable brightness of 79,932 cd/m2, and a lifespan of 136 hours when initially operated at a brightness level of 100 cd/m2.On September 20, 2021, the team led by Sargent et.al from the University of Toronto published their research findings in the Journal of the American Chemical Society (JACS) on bright and stable light-emitting diodes (LEDs) based on perovskite quantum dots within a perovskite matrix.", "The research reported that perovskite quantum dots remain stable in a precursor solution thin film of perovskite and drive the uniform crystallization of the perovskite matrix using strain quantum dots as nucleation centers.", "The type I band alignment ensures that quantum dots act as charge acceptors and radiative emitters.The new material exhibits suppressed biexciton Auger recombination and bright luminescence even at high excitation (600 W/cm2).", "The red LEDs based on the new material demonstrate an external quantum efficiency of 18% and maintain high performance at a brightness exceeding 4700 cd/m2.The new material extends the LED's operating half-life to 2400 hours at an initial brightness of 100 cd/m2." ], [ "Types", "LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes.", "The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always.", "For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have colorless housings.", "Modern high-power LEDs such as those used for lighting and backlighting are generally found in surface-mount technology (SMT) packages (not shown).LEDs are made in different packages for different applications.", "A single or a few LED junctions may be packed in one miniature device for use as an indicator or pilot lamp.", "An LED array may include controlling circuits within the same package, which may range from a simple resistor, blinking or color changing control, or an addressable controller for RGB devices.", "Higher-powered white-emitting devices will be mounted on heat sinks and will be used for illumination.", "Alphanumeric displays in dot matrix or bar formats are widely available.", "Special packages permit connection of LEDs to optical fibers for high-speed data communication links.===Miniature===surface mount LEDs in most common sizes.", "They can be much smaller than a traditional 5mm lamp type LED, shown on the upper left corner.Very small (1.6×1.6×0.35mm) red, green, and blue surface mount miniature LED package with gold wire bonding details.These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages.", "Typical current ratings range from around 1 mA to above 20 mA.", "Multiple LED dies attached to a flexible backing tape form an LED strip light.Common package shapes include round, with a domed or flat top, rectangular with a flat top (as used in bar-graph displays), and triangular or square with a flat top.", "The encapsulation may also be clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle.", "Infrared devices may have a black tint to block visible light while passing infrared radiation.Ultra-high-output LEDs are designed for viewing in direct sunlight.5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that have a series resistor for direct connection to a 5V or 12V supply.===High-power===High-power light-emitting diodes attached to an LED star base (Luxeon, Lumileds)High-power LEDs (HP-LEDs) or high-output LEDs (HO-LEDs) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs.", "Some can emit over a thousand lumens.", "LED power densities up to 300 W/cm2 have been achieved.", "Since overheating is destructive, the HP-LEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation.", "If the heat from an HP-LED is not removed, the device fails in seconds.", "One HP-LED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp.Some well-known HP-LEDs in this category are the Nichia 19 series, Lumileds Rebel Led, Osram Opto Semiconductors Golden Dragon, and Cree X-lamp.", "As of September 2009, some HP-LEDs manufactured by Cree now exceed 105 lm/W.Examples for Haitz's law—which predicts an exponential rise in light output and efficacy of LEDs over time—are the CREE XP-G series LED, which achieved 105lm/W in 2009 and the Nichia 19 series with a typical efficacy of 140lm/W, released in 2010.===AC-driven===LEDs developed by Seoul Semiconductor can operate on AC power without a DC converter.", "For each half-cycle, part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half-cycle.", "The efficiency of this type of HP-LED is typically 40lm/W.", "A large number of LED elements in series may be able to operate directly from line voltage.", "In 2009, Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC voltage LED, named 'Acrich MJT', capable of being driven from AC power with a simple controlling circuit.", "The low-power dissipation of these LEDs affords them more flexibility than the original AC LED design.===Strip====== Application-specific ===RGB-SMD-LEDComposite image of an LED matrix lapel name tag display using 1608/0603-type SMD LEDs.", "Top: A little over half of the display.", "Center: Close-up of LEDs in ambient light.", "Bottom: LEDs in their own red light.", "; Flashing: Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics.", "Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated voltage regulator and a multivibrator circuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second.", "In diffused lens LEDs, this circuit is visible as a small black dot.", "Most flashing LEDs emit light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.", "Flashing SMD LEDs in the 0805 and other size formats have been available since early 2019.; Flickering: Integrated electronics Simple electronic circuits integrated into the LED package have been around since at least 2011 which produce a random LED intensity pattern reminiscent of a flickering candle.", "Reverse engineering in 2024 has suggested that some flickering LEDs with automatic sleep and wake modes might be using an integrated 8-bit microcontroller for such functionally.", "; Bi-color: Bi-color LEDs contain two different LED emitters in one case.", "There are two types of these.", "One type consists of two dies connected to the same two leads antiparallel to each other.", "Current flow in one direction emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the other color.", "The other type consists of two dies with separate leads for both dies and another lead for common anode or cathode so that they can be controlled independently.", "The most common bi-color combination is red/traditional green.", "Others include amber/traditional green, red/pure green, red/blue, and blue/pure green.", "; RGB tri-color: Tri-color LEDs contain three different LED emitters in one case.", "Each emitter is connected to a separate lead so they can be controlled independently.", "A four-lead arrangement is typical with one common lead (anode or cathode) and an additional lead for each color.", "Others have only two leads (positive and negative) and have a built-in electronic controller.", "RGB LEDs consist of one red, one green, and one blue LED.", "By independently adjusting each of the three, RGB LEDs are capable of producing a wide color gamut.", "Unlike dedicated-color LEDs, these do not produce pure wavelengths.", "Modules may not be optimized for smooth color mixing.", "; Decorative-multicolor: Decorative-multicolor LEDs incorporate several emitters of different colors supplied by only two lead-out wires.", "Colors are switched internally by varying the supply voltage.", "; Alphanumeric: Alphanumeric LEDs are available in seven-segment, starburst, and dot-matrix format.", "Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters.", "Starburst displays can display all letters.", "Dot-matrix displays typically use 5×7 pixels per character.", "Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but rising use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.", "; Digital RGB: Digital RGB addressable LEDs contain their own \"smart\" control electronics.", "In addition to power and ground, these provide connections for data-in, data-out, clock and sometimes a strobe signal.", "These are connected in a daisy chain, which allows individual LEDs in a long LED strip light to be easily controlled by a microcontroller.", "Data sent to the first LED of the chain can control the brightness and color of each LED independently of the others.", "They are used where a combination of maximum control and minimum visible electronics are needed such as strings for Christmas and LED matrices.", "Some even have refresh rates in the kHz range, allowing for basic video applications.", "These devices are known by their part number ( WS2812 being common) or a brand name such as NeoPixel.", "; Filament: An LED filament consists of multiple LED chips connected in series on a common longitudinal substrate that forms a thin rod reminiscent of a traditional incandescent filament.", "These are being used as a low-cost decorative alternative for traditional light bulbs that are being phased out in many countries.", "The filaments use a rather high voltage, allowing them to work efficiently with mains voltages.", "Often a simple rectifier and capacitive current limiting are employed to create a low-cost replacement for a traditional light bulb without the complexity of the low voltage, high current converter that single die LEDs need.", "Usually, they are packaged in bulb similar to the lamps they were designed to replace, and filled with inert gas at slightly lower than ambient pressure to remove heat efficiently and prevent corrosion.", "; Chip-on-board arrays: Surface-mounted LEDs are frequently produced in chip on board (COB) arrays, allowing better heat dissipation than with a single LED of comparable luminous output.", "The LEDs can be arranged around a cylinder, and are called \"corn cob lights\" because of the rows of yellow LEDs." ], [ "Considerations for use", "=== Power sources ===Simple LED circuit with resistor for current limitingThe current in an LED or other diodes rises exponentially with the applied voltage (see Shockley diode equation), so a small change in voltage can cause a large change in current.", "Current through the LED must be regulated by an external circuit such as a constant current source to prevent damage.", "Since most common power supplies are (nearly) constant-voltage sources, LED fixtures must include a power converter, or at least a current-limiting resistor.", "In some applications, the internal resistance of small batteries is sufficient to keep current within the LED rating.=== Electrical polarity ===Unlike a traditional incandescent lamp, an LED will light only when voltage is applied in the forward direction of the diode.", "No current flows and no light is emitted if voltage is applied in the reverse direction.", "If the reverse voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage, which is typically about five volts, a large current flows and the LED will be damaged.", "If the reverse current is sufficiently limited to avoid damage, the reverse-conducting LED is a useful noise diode.By definition, the energy band gap of any diode is higher when reverse-biased than when forward-biased.", "Because the band gap energy determines the wavelength of the light emitted, the color cannot be the same when reverse-biased.", "The reverse breakdown voltage is sufficiently high that the emitted wavelength cannot be similar enough to still be visible.", "Though dual-LED packages exist that contain a different color LED in each direction, it is not expected that any single LED element can emit visible light when reverse-biased.It is not known if any zener diode could exist that emits light only in reverse-bias mode.", "Uniquely, this type of LED would conduct when connected backwards.=== Safety and health ===Certain blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs can exceed safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such as \"ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1–05: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems\".", "One study showed no evidence of a risk in normal use at domestic illuminance, and that caution is only needed for particular occupational situations or for specific populations.", "In 2006, the International Electrotechnical Commission published ''IEC 62471 Photobiological safety of lamps and lamp systems'', replacing the application of early laser-oriented standards for classification of LED sources.While LEDs have the advantage over fluorescent lamps, in that they do not contain mercury, they may contain other hazardous metals such as lead and arsenic.In 2016 the American Medical Association (AMA) issued a statement concerning the possible adverse influence of blueish street lighting on the sleep-wake cycle of city-dwellers.", "Industry critics claim exposure levels are not high enough to have a noticeable effect.=== Advantages ===* Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent light bulbs.", "The efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.", "* Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting methods need.", "This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.", "* Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily attached to printed circuit boards.", "* Switch on time: LEDs light up extremely quickly.", "A typical red indicator LED achieves full brightness in under a microsecond.", "LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times.", "* Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike incandescent and fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or high-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps) that require a long time to warm up to full output and to cool down before they can be lighted again if they are being restarted.", "* Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current.", "This pulse-width modulation is why LED lights, particularly headlights on cars, when viewed on camera or by some people, seem to flash or flicker.", "This is a type of stroboscopic effect.", "* Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics.", "Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.", "* Slow failure: LEDs mainly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.", "* Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life.", "One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be shorter or longer.", "Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 25,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours.", "Several DOE demonstrations have shown that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is the primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product.", "* Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.", "* Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light.", "Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner.", "For larger LED packages total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the same effect.", "When large quantities of light are needed, many light sources such as LED chips are usually deployed, which are difficult to focus or collimate on the same target.=== Disadvantages ===* Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment – or thermal management properties.", "Overdriving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device failure.", "An adequate heat sink is needed to maintain long life.", "This is especially important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of temperatures, and require low failure rates.", "* Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with a voltage above their threshold voltage and a current below their rating.", "Current and lifetime change greatly with a small change in applied voltage.", "They thus require a current-regulated supply (usually just a series resistor for indicator LEDs).", "* Color rendition: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light.", "The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can make the color of objects appear differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being rendered particularly poorly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs.", "The same is true with green surfaces.", "The quality of color rendition of an LED is measured by the Color Rendering Index (CRI).", "* Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light giving a spherical light distribution, but rather a lambertian distribution.", "So, LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a spherical light field.", "Different fields of light can be manipulated by the application of different optics or \"lenses\".", "LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees.", "* Light pollution: Because white LEDs emit more short wavelength light than sources such as high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, the increased blue and green sensitivity of scotopic vision means that white LEDs used in outdoor lighting cause substantially more sky glow.", "* Efficiency droop: The efficiency of LEDs decreases as the electric current increases.", "Heating also increases with higher currents, which compromises LED lifetime.", "These effects put practical limits on the current through an LED in high power applications.", "* Impact on wildlife: LEDs are much more attractive to insects than sodium-vapor lights, so much so that there has been speculative concern about the possibility of disruption to food webs.", "LED lighting near beaches, particularly intense blue and white colors, can disorient turtle hatchlings and make them wander inland instead.", "The use of \"turtle-safe lighting\" LEDs that emit only at narrow portions of the visible spectrum is encouraged by conservancy groups in order to reduce harm.", "* Use in winter conditions: Since they do not give off much heat in comparison to incandescent lights, LED lights used for traffic control can have snow obscuring them, leading to accidents.", "* Thermal runaway: Parallel strings of LEDs will not share current evenly due to the manufacturing tolerances in their forward voltage.", "Running two or more strings from a single current source may result in LED failure as the devices warm up.", "If forward voltage binning is not possible, a circuit is required to ensure even distribution of current between parallel strands." ], [ "Manufacturing", "LED manufacturing involves multiple steps, including epitaxy, chip processing, chip separation, and packaging.In a typical LED manufacturing process, encapsulation is performed after probing, dicing, die transfer from wafer to package, and wire bonding or flip chip mounting, perhaps using Indium tin oxide, a transparent electrical conductor.", "In this case, the bond wire(s) are attached to the ITO film that has been deposited in the LEDs.Flip chip circuit on board (COB) is a technique that can be used to manufacture LEDs." ], [ "Applications", "Daytime running light LEDs of an automobileLED uses fall into five major categories:* Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning* Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these objects* Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision* Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and respond to incident light, instead of emitting light* Indoor cultivation, including cannabis.===Indicators and signs===The low energy consumption, low maintenance and small size of LEDs has led to uses as status indicators and displays on a variety of equipment and installations.", "Large-area LED displays are used as stadium displays, dynamic decorative displays, and dynamic message signs on freeways.", "Thin, lightweight message displays are used at airports and railway stations, and as destination displays for trains, buses, trams, and ferries.Red and green LED traffic signalsOne-color light is well suited for traffic lights and signals, exit signs, emergency vehicle lighting, ships' navigation lights, and LED-based Christmas lightsBecause of their long life, fast switching times, and visibility in broad daylight due to their high output and focus, LEDs have been used in automotive brake lights and turn signals.", "The use in brakes improves safety, due to a great reduction in the time needed to light fully, or faster rise time, about 0.1 second faster than an incandescent bulb.", "This gives drivers behind more time to react.", "In a dual intensity circuit (rear markers and brakes) if the LEDs are not pulsed at a fast enough frequency, they can create a phantom array, where ghost images of the LED appear if the eyes quickly scan across the array.", "White LED headlamps are beginning to appear.", "Using LEDs has styling advantages because LEDs can form much thinner lights than incandescent lamps with parabolic reflectors.Due to the relative cheapness of low output LEDs, they are also used in many temporary uses such as glowsticks, and throwies.", "Artists have also used LEDs for LED art.===Lighting===With the development of high-efficiency and high-power LEDs, it has become possible to use LEDs in lighting and illumination.", "To encourage the shift to LED lamps and other high-efficiency lighting, in 2008 the US Department of Energy created the L Prize competition.", "The Philips Lighting North America LED bulb won the first competition on August 3, 2011, after successfully completing 18 months of intensive field, lab, and product testing.Efficient lighting is needed for sustainable architecture.", "As of 2011, some LED bulbs provide up to 150 lm/W and even inexpensive low-end models typically exceed 50 lm/W, so that a 6-watt LED could achieve the same results as a standard 40-watt incandescent bulb.", "The lower heat output of LEDs also reduces demand on air conditioning systems.", "Worldwide, LEDs are rapidly adopted to displace less effective sources such as incandescent lamps and CFLs and reduce electrical energy consumption and its associated emissions.", "Solar powered LEDs are used as street lights and in architectural lighting.The mechanical robustness and long lifetime are used in automotive lighting on cars, motorcycles, and bicycle lights.", "LED street lights are employed on poles and in parking garages.", "In 2007, the Italian village of Torraca was the first place to convert its street lighting to LEDs.Cabin lighting on recent Airbus and Boeing jetliners uses LED lighting.", "LEDs are also being used in airport and heliport lighting.", "LED airport fixtures currently include medium-intensity runway lights, runway centerline lights, taxiway centerline and edge lights, guidance signs, and obstruction lighting.LEDs are also used as a light source for DLP projectors, and to backlight newer LCD television (referred to as LED TV), computer monitor (including laptop) and handheld device LCDs, succeeding older CCFL-backlit LCDs although being superseded by OLED screens.", "RGB LEDs raise the color gamut by as much as 45%.", "Screens for TV and computer displays can be made thinner using LEDs for backlighting.LEDs are small, durable and need little power, so they are used in handheld devices such as flashlights.", "LED strobe lights or camera flashes operate at a safe, low voltage, instead of the 250+ volts commonly found in xenon flashlamp-based lighting.", "This is especially useful in cameras on mobile phones, where space is at a premium and bulky voltage-raising circuitry is undesirable.LEDs are used for infrared illumination in night vision uses including security cameras.", "A ring of LEDs around a video camera, aimed forward into a retroreflective background, allows chroma keying in video productions.LED for miners, to increase visibility inside minesLos Angeles Vincent Thomas Bridge illuminated with blue LEDsLEDs are used in mining operations, as cap lamps to provide light for miners.", "Research has been done to improve LEDs for mining, to reduce glare and to increase illumination, reducing risk of injury to the miners.LEDs are increasingly finding uses in medical and educational applications, for example as mood enhancement.", "NASA has even sponsored research for the use of LEDs to promote health for astronauts.===Data communication and other signalling===Light can be used to transmit data and analog signals.", "For example, lighting white LEDs can be used in systems assisting people to navigate in closed spaces while searching necessary rooms or objects.Assistive listening devices in many theaters and similar spaces use arrays of infrared LEDs to send sound to listeners' receivers.", "Light-emitting diodes (as well as semiconductor lasers) are used to send data over many types of fiber optic cable, from digital audio over TOSLINK cables to the very high bandwidth fiber links that form the Internet backbone.", "For some time, computers were commonly equipped with IrDA interfaces, which allowed them to send and receive data to nearby machines via infrared.Because LEDs can cycle on and off millions of times per second, very high data bandwidth can be achieved.", "For that reason, visible light communication (VLC) has been proposed as an alternative to the increasingly competitive radio bandwidth.", "VLC operates in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, so data can be transmitted without occupying the frequencies of radio communications.=== Machine vision systems ===Machine vision systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so features of interest are easier to process.", "LEDs are often used.Barcode scanners are the most common example of machine vision applications, and many of those scanners use red LEDs instead of lasers.", "Optical computer mice use LEDs as a light source for the miniature camera within the mouse.LEDs are useful for machine vision because they provide a compact, reliable source of light.", "LED lamps can be turned on and off to suit the needs of the vision system, and the shape of the beam produced can be tailored to match the system's requirements.=== Biological detection ===The discovery of radiative recombination in aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN) alloys by U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) led to the conceptualization of UV light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to be incorporated in light-induced fluorescence sensors used for biological agent detection.", "In 2004, the Edgewood Chemical Biological Center (ECBC) initiated the effort to create a biological detector named TAC-BIO.", "The program capitalized on semiconductor UV optical sources (SUVOS) developed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).UV-induced fluorescence is one of the most robust techniques used for rapid real-time detection of biological aerosols.", "The first UV sensors were lasers lacking in-field-use practicality.", "In order to address this, DARPA incorporated SUVOS technology to create a low-cost, small, lightweight, low-power device.", "The TAC-BIO detector's response time was one minute from when it sensed a biological agent.", "It was also demonstrated that the detector could be operated unattended indoors and outdoors for weeks at a time.Aerosolized biological particles fluoresce and scatter light under a UV light beam.", "Observed fluorescence is dependent on the applied wavelength and the biochemical fluorophores within the biological agent.", "UV induced fluorescence offers a rapid, accurate, efficient and logistically practical way for biological agent detection.", "This is because the use of UV fluorescence is reagentless, or a process that does not require an added chemical to produce a reaction, with no consumables, or produces no chemical byproducts.Additionally, TAC-BIO can reliably discriminate between threat and non-threat aerosols.", "It was claimed to be sensitive enough to detect low concentrations, but not so sensitive that it would cause false positives.", "The particle-counting algorithm used in the device converted raw data into information by counting the photon pulses per unit of time from the fluorescence and scattering detectors, and comparing the value to a set threshold.The original TAC-BIO was introduced in 2010, while the second-generation TAC-BIO GEN II, was designed in 2015 to be more cost-efficient, as plastic parts were used.", "Its small, light-weight design allows it to be mounted to vehicles, robots, and unmanned aerial vehicles.", "The second-generation device could also be utilized as an environmental detector to monitor air quality in hospitals, airplanes, or even in households to detect fungus and mold.=== Other applications ===LED costume for stage performersLED wallpaper by MeystyleThe light from LEDs can be modulated very quickly so they are used extensively in optical fiber and free space optics communications.", "This includes remote controls, such as for television sets, where infrared LEDs are often used.", "Opto-isolators use an LED combined with a photodiode or phototransistor to provide a signal path with electrical isolation between two circuits.", "This is especially useful in medical equipment where the signals from a low-voltage sensor circuit (usually battery-powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically isolated from any possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device operating at potentially dangerous voltages.", "An optoisolator also lets information be transferred between circuits that do not share a common ground potential.Many sensor systems rely on light as the signal source.", "LEDs are often ideal as a light source due to the requirements of the sensors.", "The Nintendo Wii's sensor bar uses infrared LEDs.", "Pulse oximeters use them for measuring oxygen saturation.", "Some flatbed scanners use arrays of RGB LEDs rather than the typical cold-cathode fluorescent lamp as the light source.", "Having independent control of three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and there is no need for warm-up.", "Further, its sensors only need be monochromatic, since at any one time the page being scanned is only lit by one color of light.Since LEDs can also be used as photodiodes, they can be used for both photo emission and detection.", "This could be used, for example, in a touchscreen that registers reflected light from a finger or stylus.", "Many materials and biological systems are sensitive to, or dependent on, light.", "Grow lights use LEDs to increase photosynthesis in plants, and bacteria and viruses can be removed from water and other substances using UV LEDs for sterilization.", "LEDs of certain wavelengths have also been used for light therapy treatment of neonatal jaundice and acne.UV LEDs, with spectra range of 220 nm to 395 nm, have other applications, such as water/air purification, surface disinfection, glue curing, free-space non-line-of-sight communication, high performance liquid chromatography, UV curing dye printing, phototherapy (295nm Vitamin D, 308nm Excimer lamp or laser replacement), medical/ analytical instrumentation, and DNA absorption.LEDs have also been used as a medium-quality voltage reference in electronic circuits.", "The forward voltage drop (about 1.7 V for a red LED or 1.2V for an infrared) can be used instead of a Zener diode in low-voltage regulators.", "Red LEDs have the flattest I/V curve above the knee.", "Nitride-based LEDs have a fairly steep I/V curve and are useless for this purpose.", "Although LED forward voltage is far more current-dependent than a Zener diode, Zener diodes with breakdown voltages below 3 V are not widely available.The progressive miniaturization of low-voltage lighting technology, such as LEDs and OLEDs, suitable to incorporate into low-thickness materials has fostered experimentation in combining light sources and wall covering surfaces for interior walls in the form of LED wallpaper.LED screen behind Tsach Zimroni in Tel Aviv Israel.jpg| A large LED display behind a disc jockeyLED Digital Display.jpg| Seven-segment display that can display four digits and pointsLED panel and plants.jpg| LED panel light source used in an early experiment on potato growth during Shuttle mission STS-73 to investigate the potential for growing food on future long duration missions." ], [ "Research and development", "=== Key challenges ===LEDs require optimized efficiency to hinge on ongoing improvements such as phosphor materials and quantum dots.The process of down-conversion (the method by which materials convert more-energetic photons to different, less energetic colors) also needs improvement.", "For example, the red phosphors that are used today are thermally sensitive and need to be improved in that aspect so that they do not color shift and experience efficiency drop-off with temperature.", "Red phosphors could also benefit from a narrower spectral width to emit more lumens and becoming more efficient at converting photons.In addition, work remains to be done in the realms of current efficiency droop, color shift, system reliability, light distribution, dimming, thermal management, and power supply performance.Early suspicions were that the LED droop was caused by elevated temperatures.", "Scientists showed that temperature was not the root cause of efficiency droop.", "The mechanism causing efficiency droop was identified in 2007 as Auger recombination, which was taken with mixed reaction.", "A 2013 study conclusively identified Auger recombination as the cause.=== Potential technology ===A new family of LEDs are based on the semiconductors called perovskites.", "In 2018, less than four years after their discovery, the ability of perovskite LEDs (PLEDs) to produce light from electrons already rivaled those of the best performing OLEDs.", "They have a potential for cost-effectiveness as they can be processed from solution, a low-cost and low-tech method, which might allow perovskite-based devices that have large areas to be made with extremely low cost.", "Their efficiency is superior by eliminating non-radiative losses, in other words, elimination of recombination pathways that do not produce photons; or by solving outcoupling problem (prevalent for thin-film LEDs) or balancing charge carrier injection to increase the EQE (external quantum efficiency).", "The most up-to-date PLED devices have broken the performance barrier by shooting the EQE above 20%.In 2018, Cao et al.", "and Lin et al.", "independently published two papers on developing perovskite LEDs with EQE greater than 20%, which made these two papers a mile-stone in PLED development.", "Their device have similar planar structure, i.e.", "the active layer (perovskite) is sandwiched between two electrodes.", "To achieve a high EQE, they not only reduced non-radiative recombination, but also utilized their own, subtly different methods to improve the EQE.In the work of Cao ''et al.", "'', researchers targeted the outcoupling problem, which is that the optical physics of thin-film LEDs causes the majority of light generated by the semiconductor to be trapped in the device.", "To achieve this goal, they demonstrated that solution-processed perovskites can spontaneously form submicrometre-scale crystal platelets, which can efficiently extract light from the device.", "These perovskites are formed via the introduction of amino acid additives into the perovskite precursor solutions.", "In addition, their method is able to passivate perovskite surface defects and reduce nonradiative recombination.", "Therefore, by improving the light outcoupling and reducing nonradiative losses, Cao and his colleagues successfully achieved PLED with EQE up to 20.7%.Lin and his colleague used a different approach to generate high EQE.", "Instead of modifying the microstructure of perovskite layer, they chose to adopt a new strategy for managing the compositional distribution in the device—an approach that simultaneously provides high luminescence and balanced charge injection.", "In other words, they still used flat emissive layer, but tried to optimize the balance of electrons and holes injected into the perovskite, so as to make the most efficient use of the charge carriers.", "Moreover, in the perovskite layer, the crystals are perfectly enclosed by MABr additive (where MA is CH3NH3).", "The MABr shell passivates the nonradiative defects that would otherwise be present perovskite crystals, resulting in reduction of the nonradiative recombination.", "Therefore, by balancing charge injection and decreasing nonradiative losses, Lin and his colleagues developed PLED with EQE up to 20.3%." ], [ "See also", "* LED tattoo* List of light sources* Superluminescent diode* MicroLED" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Building a do-it-yourself LED* Color cycling LED in a single two pin package,*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Luxembourgish" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Luxembourgish''' ( ; also ''Luxemburgish'', ''Luxembourgian'', ''Letzebu(e)rgesch''; ) is a West Germanic language that is spoken mainly in Luxembourg.", "About 400,000 people speak Luxembourgish worldwide.The language is a standardized language and officially the 'national language' of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg.", "As such, Luxembourgish is different from the German language also used in the Grand Duchy.", "The German language exists in a national standard variety of Luxembourg, which is slightly different from the standard varieties in, say, Germany or Austria.", "Another important language of Luxembourg is French, which had a certain influence on both the national language Luxembourgish and the Luxembourg national variety of German.", "Luxembourgish, German and French are the three official languages ''(Amtssprachen)'' of Luxembourg.As a standard form of the Moselle Franconian language, Luxembourgish has similarities with other High German dialects and the wider group of West Germanic languages.", "The status of Luxembourgish as the national language of Luxembourg and the existence there of a regulatory body have removed Luxembourgish, at least in part, from the domain of Standard German, its traditional .", "It is also related to the Transylvanian Saxon dialect spoken by the Transylvanian Saxons in Transylvania, contemporary central Romania." ], [ "History", "A Luxembourgish speaker, recorded in France.Luxembourgish was considered a German dialect like many others until about World War II but then it underwent ausbau, creating its own standard form in vocabulary, grammar, and spelling and therefore is seen today as an independent language.", "Luxembourgish managed to gain linguistic autonomy against a vigorous One Standard German Axiom by being framed as an independent language with a name rather than as a national pluricentric standard variety of German.As Luxembourgish has a maximum of some 285,000 native speakers, resources in the language like books, newspapers, magazines, television, internet etc.", "are limited.", "Since most Luxembourgers also speak Standard German and French, there is strong competition with these languages, which both have large language resources.", "Because of this, the use of Luxembourgish remains limited." ], [ "Language family", "Luxembourgish belongs to the West Central German group of the High German languages and is the primary example of a Moselle Franconian language.", "Furthermore, it is closely related to Transylvanian Saxon which has been spoken since the High Middle Ages by the Transylvanian Saxons in Transylvania, present-day central Romania." ], [ "Speech", "Sign in Luxembourgish indicating the way to walk through a shop during the COVID-19 pandemicSign in French and Luxembourgish (in ''italic'') in a supermarket.", "Items labeled in Standard German and French are displayed.Luxembourgish is considered the national language of Luxembourg and also one of the three administrative languages, alongside German and French.In Luxembourg, 77% of residents can speak Luxembourgish, and it is the primary language of 48% of the population.", "It is also spoken in the Arelerland region of Belgium (part of the Province of Luxembourg) and in small parts of Lorraine in France.In the German Eifel and Hunsrück regions, similar local Moselle Franconian dialects of German are spoken.", "The language is also spoken by a few descendants of Luxembourg immigrants in the United States and Canada.Other Moselle Franconian dialects are spoken by ethnic Germans long settled in Transylvania, Romania (Siebenbürgen).Moselle Franconian dialects outside the Luxembourg state border tend to have far fewer French loanwords, and these mostly remain from the French Revolution.The political party that places the greatest importance on promoting, using and preserving Luxembourgish is the Alternative Democratic Reform Party (ADR) and its electoral success in the 1999 election pushed the CSV-DP government to make knowledge of it a criterion for naturalisation.", "It is currently also the only political party in Luxembourg that wishes to implement written laws also in Luxembourgish and that wants Luxembourgish to be an officially recognized language of the European Union.", "In this context, in 2005, then-Deputy Prime Minister Jean Asselborn of the LSAP rejected a demand made by the ADR to make Luxembourgish an official language of the European Union citing financial reasons and the suffiency of official German and French.", "A similar proposal from the ADR was rejected by the Chamber of Deputies in 2024.===Varieties===There are several distinct dialect forms of Luxembourgish including Areler (from Arlon), Eechternoacher (Echternach), Dikrecher (Diekirch), Kliärrwer (Clervaux), Miseler (Moselle), Stater (Luxembourg), Veiner (Vianden), Minetter (Southern Luxembourg) and Weelzer (Wiltz).", "Further small vocabulary differences may be seen even between small villages.Increasing mobility of the population and the dissemination of the language through mass media such as radio and television are leading to a gradual standardisation towards a \"Standard Luxembourgish\" through the process of koineization.===Surrounding languages===There is no distinct geographic boundary between the use of Luxembourgish and the use of other closely related High German dialects (for example, Lorraine Franconian); it instead forms a dialect continuum of gradual change.Spoken Luxembourgish is relatively hard to understand for speakers of German who are generally not familiar with Moselle Franconian dialects (or at least other West Central German dialects).", "They can usually read the language to some degree.", "For those Germans familiar with Moselle Franconian dialects, it is relatively easy to understand and speak Luxembourgish as far as the everyday vocabulary is concerned.", "The large number of French loanwords in Luxembourgish may hamper communication about certain topics, or with certain speakers (who use many French loanwords)." ], [ "Writing", "===Standardisation===A number of proposals for standardising the orthography of Luxembourgish can be documented, going back to the middle of the 19th century.", "There was no officially recognised system until the adoption of the \"OLO\" () on 5 June 1946.This orthography provided a system for speakers of all varieties of Luxembourgish to transcribe words the way they pronounced them, rather than imposing a single, standard spelling for the words of the language.", "The rules explicitly rejected certain elements of German orthography (, the use of and , the capitalisation of nouns).", "Similarly, new principles were adopted for the spelling of French loanwords.", "* , , , (cf.", "German , '''', '''', '''')* , , , (cf.", "French '''', '''', '''', '''')This proposed orthography, so different from existing \"foreign\" standards that people were already familiar with, did not enjoy widespread approval.A more successful standard eventually emerged from the work of the committee of specialists charged with the task of creating the ''Luxemburger Wörterbuch'', published in 5 volumes between 1950 and 1977.The orthographic conventions adopted in this decades-long project, set out in Bruch (1955), provided the basis of the standard orthography that became official on 10 October 1975.Modifications to this standard were proposed by the ''Permanent Council of the Luxembourguish language'' and adopted officially in the spelling reform of 30 July 1999.A detailed explanation of current practice for Luxembourgish can be found in Schanen & Lulling (2003).===Alphabet===The Luxembourgish alphabet consists of the 26 Latin letters plus three letters with diacritics: , , and .", "In loanwords from French and Standard German, other diacritics are usually preserved:* French: , , , etc.", "* German: , (from German ), etc.In German loanwords, the digraphs and indicate the diphthong , which does not appear in native words.====Orthography of vowels====:+ Monophthongs Spelling IPA Example a aa ä e ë é ee i ii o oo u uu :+ Diphthongs Spelling IPA Example ai ei äi au éi ier ou ue uer :+ r-vocalization Spelling IPA Example ar aar är äer er ir ier or oer ur uer ===Eifeler Regel===Like many other varieties of Western High German, Luxembourgish has a rule of final ''n''-deletion in certain contexts.", "The effects of this rule (known as the \"Eifel Rule\") are indicated in writing, and therefore must be taken into account when spelling words and morphemes ending in or .", "For example:* \"when I go\", but \"when we go\"* \"thirty-five\", but \"forty-five\"." ], [ "Phonology", "===Consonants===The consonant inventory of Luxembourgish is quite similar to that of Standard German.+ Consonant phonemes of Luxembourgish Labial Alveolar Postalveolar Dorsal Glottal Nasal Plosive Affricate () () () Fricative Trill Approximant * occurs only in loanwords from Standard German.", "Just as for many native speakers of Standard German, it tends to be simplified to word-initially.", "For example, ''Pflicht'' ('obligation') is realised as or, in careful speech, .", "* is realised as when it occurs after , e.g.", "''zwee'' ('two').", "* appears only in a few words, such as ''spadséieren'' ('to go for a walk').", "* occurs only in loanwords from English.", "* have two types of allophones: alveolo-palatal and uvular .", "The latter occur before back vowels, and the former occur in all other positions.", "** The allophone appears only in a few words, and speakers increasingly fail to distinguish between the alveolo-palatal allophones of and the postalveolar phonemes .", "* Younger speakers tend to vocalize a word-final to .===Vowels===+ Monophthong phonemes Front Back unrounded rounded short long short long short long Close () () Close-mid () Open-mid () () Open * The front rounded vowels appear only in loanwords from French and Standard German.", "In loanwords from French, nasal also occur.", "* has two allophones:** Before velars: close-mid front unrounded , which, for some speakers, may be open-mid , especially before .", "The same variation in height applies to , which may be as open as .", "** All other positions: mid central vowel, more often slightly rounded than unrounded .", "* Phonetically, the long mid vowels are raised close-mid (near-close) and may even overlap with .", "** before is realised as .", "* is the long variant of , not , which does not have a long counterpart.+ Diphthong phonemes Ending point Front Central Back Close Mid Open * appears only in loanwords from Standard German.", "* The first elements of may be phonetically short in fast speech or in unstressed syllables.", "* The and contrasts arose from the former lexical tone contrast; the shorter were used in words with Accent 1, and the lengthened were used in words with Accent 2." ], [ "Grammar", "===Nominal syntax===Luxembourgish has three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and three cases (nominative, accusative, and dative).", "These are marked morphologically on determiners and pronouns.", "As in German, there is no morphological gender distinction in the plural.The forms of the articles and of some selected determiners are given below:+ nominative/accusative singular plural masculine neuter feminine definite def.", "emphatic demonstrative indefinite () negative \"his/its\" \"her/their\" + dative singular plural masculine neuter feminine definite def.", "emphatic demonstrative indefinite () negative \"his/its\" \"her/their\" As seen above, Luxembourgish has plural forms of (\"a, an\"), namely in the nominative/accusative and in the dative.", "They are not used as indefinite articles, which—as in German and English—do not exist in the plural, but they do occur in the compound pronouns (\"what, which\") and (\"such\").", "For example: (\"what things\"); (\"such things\").", "Moreover, they are used before numbers to express an estimation: (\"some 30,000 spectators\").Distinct nominative forms survive in a few nominal phrases such as (\"the devil\") and (\"our Lord\").", "Rare examples of the genitive are also found: (\"end of the month\"), (\"at the beginning of the week\").", "The functions of the genitive are normally expressed using a combination of the dative and a possessive determiner: e.g.", "(lit.", "\"to the man his book\", i.e.", "\"the man's book\").", "This is known as a periphrastic genitive, and is a phenomenon also commonly seen in dialectal and colloquial German, and in Dutch.The forms of the personal pronouns are given in the following table (unstressed forms appear in parentheses): nominative accusative dative 1sg () 2sg () () 3sgm () () 3sgn () 3sgf () () 1pl () / 2pl () 3pl () ()The 2pl form is also used as a polite singular (like French , see T-V distinction); the forms are capitalised in writing:: (\"How did you informal sg.", "like the concert?", "\"): (\"How did you informal pl.", "like the concert?", "\"): (\"How did you formal sg.", "or pl.", "like the concert?", "\")Like most varieties of colloquial German, but even more invariably, Luxembourgish uses definite articles with personal names.", "They are obligatory and not to be translated:: (\"Serge is in the kitchen.", "\")A feature Luxembourgish shares with only some western dialects of German is that women and girls are most often referred to with forms of the ''neuter'' pronoun :: (\"That's Nathalie.", "She is tired because she has worked a lot in her garden.", "\")===Adjectives===Adjectives show a different morphological behaviour when used attributively and predicatively.", "In predicative use, e.g.", "when they occur with verbs like ''sinn'' (\"to be\"), adjectives receive no extra ending:* De Mann ass grouss.", "(''masculine'', \"The man is tall.", "\")* D'Fra ass grouss.", "(''feminine'', \"The woman is tall.", "\")* D'Meedchen ass grouss.", "(''neuter'', \"The girl is tall.", "\")* D'Kanner si grouss.", "(''plural'', \"The children are tall.", "\")In attributive use, i.e.", "when placed before the noun they describe, they change their ending according to the grammatical gender, number and case of the noun:* de grouss'''e''' Mann (''masculine'')* déi grouss Fra (''feminine'')* dat grouss'''t''' Meedchen (''neuter'')* déi grouss Kanner (''plural'')The definite article changes with the use of an attributive adjective: feminine ''d'' goes to ''déi'' (or ''di''), neuter ''d'' goes to ''dat'', and plural ''d'' changes to ''déi''.The comparative in Luxembourgish is formed analytically, i.e.", "the adjective itself is not altered (compare the use of -''er'' in German and English; ''tall'' → ''taller'', ''klein'' → ''kleiner'').", "Instead it is formed using the adverb ''méi'': e.g.", "''schéin'' → ''méi schéin''* Lëtzebuerg ass méi schéi wéi Esch.", "(\"Luxembourg is prettier than Esch.", "\")The superlative involves a synthetic form consisting of the adjective and the suffix ''-st'': e.g.", "''schéin'' → ''schéin'''st''' '' (compare German ''schönst'', English ''prettiest'').", "Attributive modification requires the emphatic definite article and the inflected superlative adjective:* '''dee''' schéinst'''e''' Mann (\"the most handsome man\")* '''déi''' schéinst Fra (\"the prettiest woman\")Predicative modification uses either the same adjectival structure or the adverbial structure ''am''+ -''sten'': e.g.", "''schéin'' → ''am schéinsten'':* Lëtzebuerg ass dee schéinsten / deen allerschéinsten / am schéinsten.", "(\"Luxembourg is the most beautiful (of all).", "\")Some common adjectives have exceptional comparative and superlative forms:* gutt, besser, am beschten (\"good, better, best\")* vill, méi, am meeschten (\"much, more, most\")* wéineg, manner, am mannsten (\"few, fewer, fewest\")Several other adjectives also have comparative forms, not commonly used as normal comparatives, but in special senses:* al (\"old\") → ''eeler'' Leit (\"elderly people\"), but: ''méi al'' Leit (\"older people, people older than X\")* fréi (\"early\") → de ''fréiere'' President (\"the former president\"), but: e ''méi fréien'' Termin (\"an earlier appointment\")* laang (\"long\") → viru ''längerer'' Zäit (\"some time ago\"), but: eng ''méi laang'' Zäit (\"a longer period of time\")===Word order===Luxembourgish exhibits \"verb second\" word order in clauses.", "More specifically, Luxembourgish is a V2-SOV language, like German and Dutch.", "In other words, we find the following finite clausal structures:* the finite verb in second position in declarative clauses and ''wh''-questions::Ech '''kafen''' en Hutt.", "Muer '''kafen''' ech en Hutt.", "(lit.", "\"I buy a hat.", "Tomorrow buy I a hat.", ")::Wat '''kafen''' ech haut?", "(lit.", "\"What buy I today?", "\")* the finite verb in first position in yes/no questions and finite imperatives::'''Bass''' de midd?", "(\"Are you tired?", "\")::'''Gëff''' mer deng Hand!", "(\"Give me your hand!", "\")* the finite verb in final position in subordinate clauses::Du weess, datt ech midd '''sinn'''.", "(lit.", "\"You know, that I tired am.", "\")Non-finite verbs (infinitives and participles) generally appear in final position:* compound past tenses::Ech hunn en Hutt '''kaf'''.", "(lit.", "\"I have a hat bought.", "\")* infinitival complements::Du solls net esou vill Kaffi '''drénken'''.", "(lit.", "\"You should not so much coffee drink.", "\")* infinitival clauses (e.g., used as imperatives)::Nëmme Lëtzebuergesch '''schwätzen'''!", "(lit.", "\"Only Luxembourgish speak!", "\")These rules interact so that in subordinate clauses, the finite verb and any non-finite verbs must all cluster at the end.", "Luxembourgish allows different word orders in these cases:::Hie freet, ob ech '''komme kann'''.", "(cf.", "German ''Er fragt, ob ich kommen kann.'')", "(lit.", "\"He asks if I come can.", "\")::Hie freet, ob ech '''ka kommen'''.", "(cf.", "Dutch ''Hij vraagt of ik kan komen.'')", "(lit.", "\"He asks if I can come.", "\")This is also the case when two non-finite verb forms occur together:::Ech hunn net '''kënne kommen'''.", "(cf.", "Dutch ''Ik heb niet kunnen komen.'')", "(lit, \"I have not be-able to-come\")::Ech hunn net '''komme kënnen'''.", "(cf.", "German ''Ich habe nicht kommen können.'')", "(lit, \"I have not to-come be-able\")Luxembourgish (like Dutch and German) allows prepositional phrases to appear after the verb cluster in subordinate clauses:::alles, wat Der ëmmer wollt wëssen '''iwwer Lëtzebuerg'''::(lit.", "\"everything what you always wanted know about Luxembourg\")" ], [ "Vocabulary", " Luxembourgish has borrowed many French words.", "For example, the word for a bus driver is ''Buschauffeur'' (as in Dutch and Swiss German), which would be ''Busfahrer'' in German and ''chauffeur de bus'' in French.Some words are different from Standard German, but have equivalents in German dialects.", "An example is ''Gromperen'' (potatoes – German: ''Kartoffeln'').", "Other words are exclusive to Luxembourgish.===Selected common phrases===Justus-Lipsius building during the Luxembourgish EU-Presidency, first half of 2005''Note: Words spoken in sound clip do not reflect all words on this list.", "''DutchLuxembourgishStandard GermanEnglish Ja.", "Jo.", "Ja.''Yes.''", "Nee(n).", "Nee(n).", "Nein.''No.''", "Misschien, wellicht Vläicht.", "Vielleicht.''Maybe.''", "Hallo.", "(also ''moi'' in the north and east) Moien.", "Hallo.", "(also ''Moin'' in the north)''Hello.''", "Goedemorgen.", "Gudde Moien.", "Guten Morgen.", "''Good morning.''", "Goedendag.", "or Goedemiddag.", "Gudde Mëtteg.", "Guten Tag.", "''Good afternoon.''", "Goedenavond.", "Gudden Owend.", "Guten Abend.", "''Good evening.''", "Tot ziens.", "Äddi.", "Auf Wiedersehen.''Goodbye.''", "Dank u or Merci.", "(Belgium) Merci.", "Danke.", "''Thank you.''", "Waarom?", "or Waarvoor?", "Firwat?", "Warum?", "or Wofür?", "''Why'', ''What for'' Ik weet het niet.", "Ech weess net.", "Ich weiß nicht.", "''I don't know.''", "Ik versta het niet.", "Ech verstinn net.", "Ich verstehe nicht.", "''I don't understand.''", "Excuseer mij or Wablief?", "(Belgium) Watgelift?", "or Entschëllegt?", "Entschuldigung?", "''Excuse me?''", "Slagerszoon.", "Metzleschjong.", "Metzgersohn.", "/ Metzgerjunge.", "''Butcher's son.''", "Spreek je Duits/Frans/Engels?", "Schwätzt dir Däitsch/Franséisch/Englesch?", "Sprichst du Deutsch/Französisch/Englisch?", "''Do you speak German/French/English?''", "Hoe heet je?", "Wéi heeschs du?", "Wie heißt du?", "''What is your name?''", "Hoe gaat het?", "Wéi geet et?", "Wie geht's?", "''How are you?", "'', ''How is it going?''", "Politiek Fatsoen.", "Politeschen Anstand.", "Politischer Anstand.", "''Political decency'' Zo.", "Sou.", "So.''So.''", "Vrij.", "Fräi.", "Frei.''Free.''", "Thuis.", "Heem.", "zu Hause.", "/ Heim.''Home.''", "Ik.", "Ech.", "Ich.''I.''", "En.", "An.", "Und.''And.''", "Mijn.", "Mäin.", "Mein.''My.''", "Ezel.", "Iesel.", "Esel.", "''donkey'', ''ass.''", "Met.", "Mat.", "Mit.''With.''", "Kind.", "Kand.", "Kind.", "''Child, kid'' Weg.", "Wee.", "Weg.''Way.''", "Aardappel.", "Gromper.", "Kartoffel/Erdapfel.''Potato.''", "Brood.", "Brout.", "Brot.''Bread.", "''===Neologisms===Neologisms in Luxembourgish include both entirely new words, and the attachment of new meanings to old words in everyday speech.", "The most recent neologisms come from the English language in the fields of telecommunications, computer science, and the Internet.Recent neologisms in Luxembourgish include:* direct loans from English: ''Browser'', ''Spam'', ''CD'', ''Fitness'', ''Come-back'', ''Terminal'', ''Hip'', ''Cool'', ''Tip-top''* also found in German: ''Sichmaschinn'' (search engine, German: ''Suchmaschine''), ''schwaarzt Lach'' (black hole, German: ''Schwarzes Loch''), ''Handy'' (mobile phone), ''Websäit'' (webpage, German: ''Webseite'')* native Luxembourgish** ''déck'' as an emphatic like ''ganz'' and ''voll'', e.g.", "''Dëse Kuch ass déck gutt!''", "(\"This cake is really good!", "\")** recent expressions, used mainly by teenagers: ''oh mëllen!''", "(\"oh crazy\"), ''en décke gelénkt'' (\"you've been tricked\") or ''cassé'' (French for \"(you've been) owned\")" ], [ "Academic projects", "Between 2000 and 2002, Luxembourgish linguist Jérôme Lulling compiled a lexical database of 125,000-word forms as the basis for the first Luxembourgish spellchecker (Projet C.ORT.IN.A).The LaF (''Lëtzebuergesch als Friemsprooch'' – Luxembourgish as a Foreign Language) is a set of four language proficiency certifications for Luxembourgish and follows the ALTE framework of language examination standards.", "The tests are administered by the Institut National des Langues Luxembourg.The \"Centre for Luxembourg Studies\" at the University of Sheffield was founded in 1995 on the initiative of Professor Gerald Newton.", "It is supported by the government of Luxembourg which funds an endowed chair in Luxembourg Studies at the university.The first class of students to study the language outside of the country as undergraduate students began their studies at the 'Centre for Luxembourg Studies' at Sheffield in the academic year 2011–2012." ], [ "Endangered status claims", "UNESCO declared Luxembourgish to be an endangered language in 2019, adding it to its ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger''.Additionally, some local media have argued that the Luxembourgish language is at risk of disappearing, and that it should be considered an endangered language.", "Even though the government claims that more people than ever are able to speak Luxembourgish, these are absolute numbers and often include the many naturalized citizens who have passed the ''Sproochentest,'' a language test that certifies the knowledge of merely A.2.in speaking and B.1.in understanding.Luxembourgish language expert and historian Alain Atten argues that not only the absolute number of Luxembourgish speakers should be considered when defining the status of a language, but also the proportion of speakers in a country.", "Noting that the proportion of native Luxembourgish speakers has decreased in recent decades, Atten believes that Luxembourgish will inevitably disappear, stating:\"''It is simple math, if there are about 70% foreigners and about 30% Luxembourgers (which is the case in Luxembourg City), then it cannot possibly be said that Luxembourgish is thriving.", "That would be very improbable.", "''\"Alain Atten also argues that the situation is even more dramatic, since the cited percentages take only the residents of Luxembourg into account, excluding the 200,000 cross-border-workers present in the country on a daily basis.", "This group plays a major role in the daily use of languages in Luxembourg, thus further lowering the percentage of Luxembourgish speakers present in the country.The following numbers are based on statistics by ''STATEC'' (those since 2011) and show that the percentage of the population that is able to speak Luxembourgish has been constantly diminishing for years (The 200,000 cross-border workers are not included in this statistic):+ Year Percentage 1846 99.0% 1900 88.0% 1983 80.6% 2011 70.51% 2012 70.07% 2013 69.65% 2014 69.17% 2015 68.78% 2016 68.35% 2017 67.77%It has also been argued that two very similar languages, Alsatian and Lorraine Franconian, which were very broadly spoken by the local populations at the beginning of the 20th century in Alsace and in Lorraine respectively, have been nearly completely supplanted by French, and that a similar fate could also be possible for Luxembourgish.", "Another example of the replacement of Luxembourgish by French occurred in Arelerland (historically a part of Luxembourg, today in Belgium), where the vast majority of the local population spoke Luxembourgish as a native language well into the 20th century.", "Today, Luxembourgish is nearly extinct in this region, having been replaced by French.According to some Luxembourgish news media and members of Actioun Lëtzebuergesch (an association for the preservation and promotion of the language), the biggest threat to the existence of Luxembourgish is indeed French, since it is the language of most official documents and street signs in Luxembourg; this considerably weakens the possibility for Luxembourgish to be practiced by new speakers and learners.", "In most cases, this passively forces expats to learn French instead of Luxembourgish.In 2021 it was announced that public announcements in Luxembourgish (and in German as well) at Luxembourg Airport would cease; it would only be using French and English for future public announcements.", "This will cause Luxembourgish to go unused at Luxembourg Airport after many decades.", "Actioun Lëtzebuergesch declared itself to be hugely upset by this new governmental measure, citing that other airports in the world seem to have no problems making public announcements in multiple languages.", "According to a poll conducted by AL, 92.84% of the Luxembourgish population wished to have public announcements to be made in Luxembourgish at Luxembourg Airport.Further fears of Luxembourgish's replacement by French were fueled in 2021, when ASTI (''Association de Soutien aux Travailleurs Immigrés'') wished to see Luxembourgish removed as the national language of Luxembourg (as written in the constitution).", "ASTI claimed that the national language of Luxembourg should by law be defined as the one that is most used in the local population, hinting that French would be the better choice.ADR politician Fred Keup has claimed that Luxembourgish is already on its way to complete replacement by French." ], [ "See also", "* Erna Hennicot-Schoepges* Literature of Luxembourg* Luxembourgish Swadesh List* Multilingualism in Luxembourg" ], [ "Notes and references", "=== Notes ====== References ======Bibliography===* Bruch, Robert.", "(1955) ''Précis de grammaire luxembourgeoise''.", "Bulletin Linguistique et Ethnologique de l'Institut Grand-Ducal, Luxembourg, Linden.", "(2nd edition of 1968)* * Schanen, François and Lulling, Jérôme.", "(2003) '' Introduction à l'orthographe luxembourgeoise''.", "(text available in French and Luxembourgish)*" ], [ "Further reading", "'''In English'''* NEWTON, Gerald (ed.", "), ''Luxembourg and Lëtzebuergesch: Language and Communication at the Crossroads of Europe'', Oxford, 1996, * '''In French'''* BRAUN, Josy, ''et al.''", "(en coll.", "avec Projet Moien), ''Grammaire de la langue luxembourgeoise''.", "Luxembourg, Ministère de l'Éducation nationale et de la Formation professionnelle 2005.", "* SCHANEN, François, ''Parlons Luxembourgeois, Langue et culture linguistique d'un petit pays au coeur de l'Europe''.", "Paris, L'Harmattan 2004, * SCHANEN, François / ZIMMER, Jacqui, ''1,2,3 Lëtzebuergesch Grammaire''.", "Band 1: ''Le groupe verbal.''", "Band 2: ''Le groupe nominal.''", "Band 3:''L'orthographe.''", "Esch-sur-Alzette, éditions Schortgen, 2005 et 2006* SCHANEN, François / ZIMMER, Jacqui, ''Lëtzebuergesch Grammaire luxembourgeoise''.", "En un volume.", "Esch-sur-Alzette, éditions Schortgen, 2012.", "'''In Luxembourgish'''* SCHANEN, François, ''Lëtzebuergesch Sproocherubriken''.", "Esch-sur-Alzette, éditions Schortgen, 2013.", "* Meyer, Antoine, ''E' Schrek ob de' lezeburger Parnassus'', Lezeburg (Luxembourg), Lamort, 1829'''In German'''* BRUCH, Robert, ''Grundlegung einer Geschichte des Luxemburgischen'', Luxembourg, Publications scientifiques et littéraires du Ministère de l'Éducation nationale, 1953, vol.", "I; ''Das Luxemburgische im westfränkischen Kreis'', Luxembourg, Publications scientifiques et littéraires du Ministère de l'Éducation nationale, 1954, vol.", "II* MOULIN, Claudine and Nübling, Damaris (publisher): ''Perspektiven einer linguistischen Luxemburgistik.", "Studien zu Diachronie und Synchronie.", "'', Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg, 2006.This book has been published with the support of the Fonds National de la Recherche* * BERG, Guy, ''Mir wëlle bleiwe wat mir sin: Soziolinguistische und sprachtypologische Betrachtungen zur luxemburgischen Mehrsprachigkeit.", "'', Tübingen, 1993 (Reihe Germanistische Linguistik 140).", "* (phrasebook) REMUS, Joscha, ''Lëtzebuergesch Wort für Wort''.", "Kauderwelsch Band 104.Bielefeld, Reise Know-How Verlag 1997.", "* WELSCHBILLIG Myriam, SCHANEN François, Jérôme Lulling, ''Luxdico Deutsch: Luxemburgisch ↔ Deutsches Wörterbuch'', Luxemburg (Éditions Schortgen) 2008, Luxdico Deutsch" ], [ "External links", "* Conseil Permanent de la Langue Luxembourgeoise* LuxVocabulary: Web application for learning Luxembourgish vocabulary;Spellcheckers and dictionaries* Spellcheckers for Luxembourgish: Spellchecker.lu, Spellchecker.lu - Richteg Lëtzebuergesch schreiwen* Luxdico online dictionary (24.000 words)* Lëtzebuerger Online Dictionnaire (Luxembourgish Online Dictionary) with German, French and Portuguese translations created by the CPLL* dico.lu – Dictionnaire Luxembourgeois//Français* Luxembourgish Dictionary with pronunciation, translation to and from English, French, German, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian* Luxogramm – Information system for the Luxembourgish grammar (University of Luxembourg, LU)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lev Kuleshov" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lev Vladimirovich Kuleshov''' (; – 29 March 1970) was a Russian and Soviet filmmaker and film theorist, one of the founders of the world's first film school, the Moscow Film School.", "He was given the title People's Artist of the RSFSR in 1969.He was intimately involved in development of the style of film making known as Soviet montage, especially its psychological underpinning, including the use of editing and the cut to influence the emotions of audience, a principle known as the Kuleshov effect.", "He also developed the theory of creative geography, which is the use of the action around a cut to connect otherwise disparate settings into a cohesive narrative." ], [ "Life and career", "Lev Kuleshov was born in 1899 into an intellectual Russian family.", "His father Vladimir Sergeyevich Kuleshov was of noble heritage; he studied art in the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, despite his own father's disapproval.", "He then married a village schoolteacher Pelagia Aleksandrovna Shubina who was raised in an orphanage, which only led to more confrontation.", "They gave birth to two sons: Boris and Lev.At the time Lev Kuleshov was born, the family became financially broke, lost their estate and moved to Tambov, living a modest life.", "In 1911 Vladimir Kuleshov died; three years later Lev and his mother moved to Moscow where his elder brother was studying and working as an engineer.", "Lev Kuleshov decided to follow the steps of his father and entered the Moscow School of Painting, although he didn't finish it.", "In 1916 he applied to work at the film company led by Aleksandr Khanzhonkov.", "He produced scenery for Yevgeni Bauer's pictures, such as ''The King of Paris'', ''For Happiness'' and others.", "With time Kuleshov became more interested in film theory.", "He co-directed his first movie ''Twilight'' in 1917.His next film was released under the Soviet patronage.", "Although many Russian filmmakers left the country after 1917, Kuleshov stayed, hoping to create a new Soviet cinema.", "He worked for the state, editing pre-revolutionary \"bourgeois\" footage to align with Boleshevik ideology.Inspired by American films such as The Birth of a Nation and lectures by Vladimir Gardin, Kuleshov developed a philosophy of editing and montage, which he considered as fundamental to cinema as harmony was to music.", "He famously demonstrated the eponymous Kuleshov Effect by juxtaposing the same footage of Ivan Mozzhukhin against different images, including a meal and a corpse.", "Although the footage was unchanged, viewers interpreted Mozzhukhin's expression differently based on its context.", "Kuleshov rejected Konstantin Stanislavski's acting method, which emphasized psychology and emotions, and instead emphasized precise, legible movements which could be cleanly edited.", "He called his performers ''naturshchik'' (models) instead of \"actors\", and had them rehearse using a \"spacial metric grid\" to confirm their movements followed 90- and 45-degree angles.During 1918–1920 he covered the Russian Civil War with a documentary crew.", "In 1919 he headed the first Soviet film courses at the National Film School.", "He contributed the article \"Kinematografichesky naturshchik\" to the first issue of ''Zrelishcha'' in 1922.Among his other notable students were Vsevolod Pudovkin, Boris Barnet, Mikhail Romm, Sergey Komarov, Porfiri Podobed, Vladimir Fogel and Aleksandra Khokhlova who became his wife.", "Another one of his famous inventions was creative geography, also known as artificial landscape.", "Those techniques were described in his book ''The Basics of Film Direction'' (1941) which was later translated into many languages.In addition to his theoretical and teaching work, Kuleshov directed a number of feature-length films.", "Among his most notable works are an action-comedy ''The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks'' (1924), a psychological drama ''By the Law'' (1926) adapted from the short story by Jack London and a biographical drama ''The Great Consoler'' (1933) based on O. Henry's life and works.", "In 1934 and 1935 Kuleshov went to Tajikistan to direct there ''Dokhunda'', a movie based on the novel by Tajik national poet Sadriddin Ayni, but the project was regarded with suspicion by the authorities as possibly exciting Tajik nationalism, and stopped.", "No footage survives.Lev Kuleshov (left) and Arkady Gaidar at the Bolshevo House of Creativity.", "May 1941After directing his last film in 1943, Kuleshov served as an artistic director and an academic rector at VGIK where he worked for the next 25 years.", "He was a member of the jury at the 27th Venice International Film Festival, as well as a special guest during other international film festivals.Kuleshov was awarded the Order of Lenin shortly before his death.", "He died in Moscow in 1970.He was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery.", "He was survived by his wife Aleksandra Khokhlova (1897–1985) – an actress, film director and educator, granddaughter of Pavel Tretyakov and Sergey Botkin – and Aleksandra's son Sergei from her first marriage." ], [ "Awards and honours", "* Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1944)* Order of Lenin (1967)* People's Artist of the RSFSR (1969)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Kuleshov, Lev.", "''Kuleshov on Film'', translated and edited, with an introduction by Ronald Levaco.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.", "* Kuleshov, L.V.", "''Kuleshov on Film: Writings''.", "Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1974.", "* Kuleshov, L. V., and E. S. Khokhlova.", "''Fifty Years in Films: Selected Works''.", "Moscow: Raduga Publishers, 1987.", "* Drubek, Natascha. ''", "Russisches Licht''.", "''Von der Ikone zum frühen sowjetischen Kino'', Wien – Köln – Weimar: Böhlau 2012.", "* Graffy, Julian.", "\"DVD Reviews\" of two Hyperkino editions of Kuleshov films, Studies in Russian and Soviet Cinema, 2010.4:3, 345-354.DOI: 10.1386/srsc.4.3.345_7* Izvolov, Nikolai and Natascha Drubek-Meyer.", "\"Annotations for the Hyperkino Edition of Lev Kuleshov’s ''Engineer Prite’s Project'' (1918), Academia Series, RUSCICO 2010.\"", "''Studies in Russian & Soviet Cinema''.", "4.1 (2010): 65-93.", "* Kepley, Jr., Vance.", "\"Mr. Kuleshov in the Land of the Modernists.\"", "''The Red Screen: Politics, Society, Art in Soviet Cinema''.", "Ed.", "Anna Lawton.", "London; New York: Routledge, 1992.132-47.", "* Norris, Stephen.", "Lev Kuleshov (Dir.", "), \"Proekt Inzhenera Praita\" (\"Engineer Prite’s Project\"); \"Velikii uteshitel’ (O. Genri v tiur’me)\" (\"The Great Consoler (O’Henry in Prison\") (DVD Review 2011).", "https://artmargins.com/lev-kuleshov-dir-qproekt-inzhenera-praitaq-qengineer-prites-projectq-qvelikii-uteshitel-o-genri-v-tiurmeq-qthe-great-consoler-ohenry-in-prisonq-dvd-review/* Olenina, Ana.", "\"Lev Kuleshov’s Retrospective in Bologna, 2008: An Interview with Ekaterina Khokhlova.\"", "''Art Margins Online''.", "(Oct 2008).", "* Yampolsky, Mikhail.", "\"Kuleshov’s Experiments and the New Anthropology of the Actor.\"", "''Inside the Film factory: New Approaches to Russian and Soviet Filmmaking''.", "Eds.", "Richard Taylor and Ian Christie.", "London, UK: Routledge, 1994, 31-50." ], [ "External links", "* * An interview with Lev Kuleshov's grand-daughter, the film scholar Ekaterina Khokhlova.", "By Ana Olenina." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Legacy system" ], [ "Introduction", "In 2011, MS-DOS was still used in some enterprises to run legacy applications, such as this US Navy food service management system.In computing, a '''legacy system''' is an old method, technology, computer system, or application program, \"of, relating to, or being a previous or outdated computer system\", yet still in use.", "Often referencing a system as \"legacy\" means that it paved the way for the standards that would follow it.", "This can also imply that the system is out of date or in need of replacement.", "'''Legacy code''' is old computer source code that is no longer supported on the standard hardware and environments, and is a codebase that is in some respect obsolete or supporting something obsolete.", "Legacy code may be written in programming languages, use frameworks and external libraries, or use architecture and patterns that are no longer considered modern, increasing the mental burden and ramp-up time for software engineers who work on the codebase.", "Legacy code may have zero or insufficient automated tests, making refactoring dangerous and likely to introduce bugs.", "Long-lived code is susceptible to software rot, where changes to the runtime environment, or surrounding software or hardware may require maintenance or emulation of some kind to keep working.", "Legacy code may be present to support legacy hardware, a separate legacy system, or a legacy customer using an old feature or software version.While the term usually refers to source code, it can also apply to executable code that no longer runs on a later version of a system, or requires a compatibility layer to do so.", "An example would be a classic Macintosh application which will not run natively on macOS, but runs inside the Classic environment, or a Win16 application running on Windows XP using the Windows on Windows feature in XP.An example of '''legacy hardware''' are legacy ports like PS/2 and VGA ports, and CPUs with older, incompatible instruction sets (with e.g.", "newer operating systems).", "Examples in '''legacy software''' include '''legacy file formats''' like .swf for Adobe Flash or .123 for Lotus 1-2-3, and text files encoded with legacy character encodings like EBCDIC." ], [ "Overview", "Although off-support since April 2014, Windows XP has endured continued use in fields such as ATM operating system software.The first use of the term ''legacy'' to describe computer systems probably occurred in the 1960s.", "By the 1980s it was commonly used to refer to existing computer systems to distinguish them from the design and implementation of new systems.", "Legacy was often heard during a conversion process, for example, when moving data from the legacy system to a new database.While this term may indicate that some engineers may feel that a system is out of date, a legacy system can continue to be used for a variety of reasons.", "It may simply be that the system still provides for the users' needs.", "In addition, the decision to keep an old system may be influenced by economic reasons such as return on investment challenges or vendor lock-in, the inherent challenges of change management, or a variety of other reasons other than functionality.", "Backward compatibility (such as the ability of newer systems to handle legacy file formats and character encodings) is a goal that software developers often include in their work.Even if it is no longer used, a legacy system may continue to impact the organization due to its historical role.", "Historic data may not have been converted into the new system format and may exist within the new system with the use of a customized schema crosswalk, or may exist only in a data warehouse.", "In either case, the effect on business intelligence and operational reporting can be significant.", "A legacy system may include procedures or terminology which are no longer relevant in the current context, and may hinder or confuse understanding of the methods or technologies used.Organizations can have compelling reasons for keeping a legacy system, such as:* The system works satisfactorily, and the owner sees no reason to change it.", "* The costs of redesigning or replacing the system are prohibitive because it is large, monolithic, and/or complex.", "* Retraining on a new system would be costly in lost time and money, compared to the anticipated appreciable benefits of replacing it (which may be zero).", "* The system requires near-constant availability, so it cannot be taken out of service, and the cost of designing a new system with a similar availability level is high.", "Examples include systems to handle customers' accounts in banks, computer reservations systems, air traffic control, energy distribution (power grids), nuclear power plants, military defense installations, and systems such as the TOPS database.", "* The way that the system works is not well understood.", "Such a situation can occur when the designers of the system have left the organization, and the system has either not been fully documented or documentation has been lost.", "* The user expects that the system can easily be replaced when this becomes necessary.", "* Newer systems perform undesirable (especially for individual or non-institutional users) secondary functions such as ''a'') tracking and reporting of user activity and/or ''b'') automatic updating that creates \"back-door\" security vulnerabilities and leaves end users dependent on the good faith and honesty of the vendor providing the updates.", "This problem is especially acute when these secondary functions of a newer system cannot be disabled." ], [ "Problems posed by legacy computing", "Legacy systems are considered to be potentially problematic by some software engineers for several reasons.", "* If legacy software runs on only antiquated hardware, the cost of maintaining the system may eventually outweigh the cost of replacing both the software and hardware unless some form of emulation or backward compatibility allows the software to run on new hardware.", "* These systems can be hard to maintain, improve, and expand because there is a general lack of understanding of the system; the staff who were experts on it have retired or forgotten what they knew about it, and staff who entered the field after it became \"legacy\" never learned about it in the first place.", "This can be worsened by lack or loss of documentation.", "Comair airline company fired its CEO in 2004 due to the failure of an antiquated legacy crew scheduling system that ran into a limitation not known to anyone in the company.", "* Legacy systems may have vulnerabilities in older operating systems or applications due to lack of security patches being available or applied.", "There can also be production configurations that cause security problems.", "These issues can put the legacy system at risk of being compromised by attackers or knowledgeable insiders.", "* Integration with newer systems may also be difficult because new software may use completely different technologies.", "Integration across technology is quite common in computing, but integration between newer technologies and substantially older ones is not common.", "There may simply not be sufficient demand for integration technology to be developed.", "Some of this \"glue\" code is occasionally developed by vendors and enthusiasts of particular legacy technologies.", "* Budgetary constraints often lead corporations to not address the need of replacement or migration of a legacy system.", "However, companies often don't consider the increasing supportability costs (people, software and hardware, all mentioned above) and do not take into consideration the enormous loss of capability or business continuity if the legacy system were to fail.", "Once these considerations are well understood, then based on the proven ROI of a new, more secure, updated technology stack platform is not as costly as the alternative—and the budget is found.", "* Due to the fact that most legacy programmers are entering retirement age and the number of young engineers replacing them is very small, there is an alarming shortage of available workforce.", "This in turn results in difficulty in maintaining legacy systems, as well as an increase in costs of procuring experienced programmers.", "* Some legacy systems have a hard limit on their total capacity which may not be enough for today's needs, for example the 4 GB memory limit on many older x86 CPUs, or the 4 billion address limit in IPv4." ], [ "Improvements on legacy software systems", "Where it is impossible to replace legacy systems through the practice of application retirement, it is still possible to enhance (or \"re-face\") them.", "Most development often goes into adding new interfaces to a legacy system.", "The most prominent technique is to provide a Web-based interface to a terminal-based mainframe application.", "This may reduce staff productivity due to slower response times and slower mouse-based operator actions, yet it is often seen as an \"upgrade\", because the interface style is familiar to unskilled users and is easy for them to use.", "John McCormick discusses such strategies that involve middleware.Printing improvements are problematic because legacy software systems often add no formatting instructions, or they use protocols that are not usable in modern PC/Windows printers.", "A print server can be used to intercept the data and translate it to a more modern code.", "Rich Text Format (RTF) or PostScript documents may be created in the legacy application and then interpreted at a PC before being printed.Biometric security measures are difficult to implement on legacy systems.", "A workable solution is to use a Telnet or HTTP proxy server to sit between users and the mainframe to implement secure access to the legacy application.The change being undertaken in some organizations is to switch to automated business process (ABP) software which generates complete systems.", "These systems can then interface to the organizations' legacy systems and use them as data repositories.", "This approach can provide a number of significant benefits: the users are insulated from the inefficiencies of their legacy systems, and the changes can be incorporated quickly and easily in the ABP software.Model-driven reverse and forward engineering approaches can be also used for the improvement of legacy software." ], [ "NASA example", "Andreas M. Hein researched the use of legacy systems in space exploration at the Technical University of Munich.", "According to Hein, legacy systems are attractive for reuse if an organization has the capabilities for verification, validation, testing, and operational history.", "These capabilities must be integrated into various software life cycle phases such as development, implementation, usage, or maintenance.", "For software systems, the capability to use and maintain the system are crucial.", "Otherwise the system will become less and less understandable and maintainable.According to Hein, verification, validation, testing, and operational history increases the confidence in a system's reliability and quality.", "However, accumulating this history is often expensive.", "NASA's now retired Space Shuttle program used a large amount of 1970s-era technology.", "Replacement was cost-prohibitive because of the expensive requirement for flight certification.", "The original hardware completed the expensive integration and certification requirement for flight, but any new equipment would have had to go through that entire process again.", "This long and detailed process required extensive tests of the new components in their new configurations before a single unit could be used in the Space Shuttle program.", "Thus any new system that started the certification process becomes a ''de facto'' legacy system by the time it is approved for flight.Additionally, the entire Space Shuttle system, including ground and launch vehicle assets, was designed to work together as a closed system.", "Since the specifications did not change, all of the certified systems and components performed well in the roles for which they were designed.", "Even before the Shuttle was scheduled to be retired in 2010, NASA found it advantageous to keep using many pieces of 1970s technology rather than to upgrade those systems and recertify the new components." ], [ "Perspectives on legacy code", "Some in the software engineering prefer to describe \"legacy code\" without the connotation of being obsolete.", "Among the most prevalent neutral conceptions are ''source code inherited from someone else'' and ''source code inherited from an older version of the software''.", "Eli Lopian, CEO of Typemock, has defined it as \"code that developers are afraid to change\".", "Michael Feathers introduced a definition of ''legacy code'' as ''code without tests'', which reflects the perspective of legacy code being difficult to work with in part due to a lack of automated regression tests.", "He also defined characterization tests to start putting ''legacy code'' under test.Ginny Hendry characterized creation of code as a `challenge` to current coders to create code that is \"like other legacies in our lives—like the antiques, heirlooms, and stories that are cherished and lovingly passed down from one generation to the next.", "What if legacy code was something we took pride in?", "\"." ], [ "Additional uses of the term ''Legacy'' in computing", "The term ''legacy support'' is often used in conjunction with legacy systems.", "The term may refer to a feature of modern software.", "For example, Operating systems with \"legacy support\" can detect and use older hardware.", "The term may also be used to refer to a business function; e.g.", "a software or hardware vendor that is supporting, or providing software maintenance, for older products.A \"legacy\" product may be a product that is no longer sold, has lost substantial market share, or is a version of a product that is not current.", "A legacy product may have some advantage over a modern product making it appealing for customers to keep it around.", "A product is only truly \"obsolete\" if it has an advantage to nobody—if no person making a rational decision would choose to acquire it new.The term \"legacy mode\" often refers specifically to backward compatibility.", "A software product that is capable of performing as though it were a previous version of itself, is said to be \"running in legacy mode\".", "This kind of feature is common in operating systems and internet browsers, where many applications depend on these underlying components.The computer mainframe era saw many applications running in legacy mode.", "In the modern business computing environment, n-tier, or 3-tier architectures are more difficult to place into legacy mode as they include many components making up a single system.Virtualization technology is a recent innovation allowing legacy systems to continue to operate on modern hardware by running older operating systems and browsers on a software system that emulates legacy hardware." ], [ "Brownfield architecture", "Programmers have borrowed the term ''brownfield'' from the construction industry, where previously developed land (often polluted and abandoned) is described as ''brownfield''.", "* ''Brownfield architecture'' is a type of software or network architecture that incorporates legacy systems.", "* ''Brownfield deployment'' is an upgrade or addition to an existing software or network architecture that retains legacy components." ], [ "Alternative view", "There is an alternate favorable opinion—growing since the end of the Dotcom bubble in 1999—that legacy systems are simply computer systems in working use:IT analysts estimate that the cost of replacing business logic is about five times that of reuse, even discounting the risk of system failures and security breaches.", "Ideally, businesses would never have to rewrite most core business logic: ''debits = credits'' is a perennial requirement.The IT industry is responding with \"legacy modernization\" and \"legacy transformation\": refurbishing existing business logic with new user interfaces, sometimes using screen scraping and service-enabled access through web services.", "These techniques allow organizations to understand their existing code assets (using discovery tools), provide new user and application interfaces to existing code, improve workflow, contain costs, minimize risk, and enjoy classic qualities of service (near 100% uptime, security, scalability, etc.", ").This trend also invites reflection on what makes legacy systems so durable.", "Technologists are relearning the importance of sound architecture from the start, to avoid costly and risky rewrites.", "The most common legacy systems tend to be those which embraced well-known IT architectural principles, with careful planning and strict methodology during implementation.", "Poorly designed systems often don't last, both because they wear out and because their inherent faults invite replacement.", "Thus, many organizations are rediscovering the value of both their legacy systems and the theoretical underpinnings of those systems." ], [ "See also", "* Application retirement* Software rot* Data migration* Deprecation* Digital dark age* Legacy encoding* Legacy-free PC* Legacy port* Software archaeology* Software brittleness* Software entropy* Stovepipe system* Internet Archive legacy software emulators" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* A.M. Hein, How to Assess Heritage Systems in the Early Phases?", "SECESA 2014, 08-10 October 2014, University of Stuttgart Germany* \"Tips and Tricks for Legacy Hardware\" by Danny Budzinski, ''Control Design Magazine'', January 2011* \"Comair's Christmas Disaster: Bound To Fail\" by Stephanie Overby, ''CIO Magazine'', May 1, 2005* \"The Failure of the Digital Computer\" by Adam N. Rosenberg*** \"The Danger of Legacy Systems\" by Steve R. Smith, May 3, 2011." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lamentations (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Book of Lamentations''' is part of the Old Testament or Pentateuch.", "'''Lamentations''' may also refer to:* ''Lamentations'' (Solstice album), a 1994 album by British doom metal band Solstice* ''Lamentations'' (Ngaiire album), a 2014 album by Australian singer Ngaiire* ''Lamentations'' (William Basinski album), a 2018 album by American avant-garde composer and musician William Basinski* ''Lamentations (Live at Shepherd's Bush Empire 2003)'', a live DVD by the band Opeth* \"Lamentations of Jeremiah the Prophet\" from the celebration of Tenebrae in Roman Catholic and certain other Christian denominations* The Holy Saturday Lamentation hymns in Eastern Orthodoxy* The ''Book of Lamentations'' by Gregory of Narek," ], [ "See also", "* Lament (disambiguation)* Lamentation (disambiguation)* ''Laments (Kochanowski)'' by 16th-century Polish poet Jan Kochanowski" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lunar eclipse" ], [ "Introduction", "lunar eclipse on 17 July 2019 taken from Gloucestershire, United KingdomA '''lunar eclipse''' is an astronomical event that occurs when the Moon moves into the Earth's shadow, causing the Moon to be darkened.", "Such an alignment occurs during an eclipse season, approximately every six months, during the full moon phase, when the Moon's orbital plane is closest to the plane of the Earth's orbit.This can occur only when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are exactly or very closely aligned (in syzygy) with Earth between the other two, which can happen only on the night of a full moon when the Moon is near either lunar node.", "The type and length of a lunar eclipse depend on the Moon's proximity to the lunar node.When the Moon is totally eclipsed by the Earth (a \"deep eclipse\"), it takes on a reddish color that is caused by the planet when it completely blocks direct sunlight from reaching the Moon's surface, as only the light reflected from the lunar surface has been refracted by the Earth's atmosphere.", "This light appears reddish due to the Rayleigh scattering of blue light, the same reason sunrises and sunsets are more orange than during the day.Unlike a solar eclipse, which can only be viewed from a relatively small area of the world, a lunar eclipse may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of Earth.", "A total lunar eclipse can last up to nearly two hours, while a total solar eclipse lasts only a few minutes at any given place, because the Moon's shadow is smaller.", "Also, unlike solar eclipses, lunar eclipses are safe to view without any eye protection or special precautions.The symbol for a lunar eclipse (or indeed, any body in the shadow of another) is 🝶 (U+1F776 🝶)." ], [ "{{anchor|Penumbral eclipse|penumbral lunar eclipse}}<!-- [[Penumbral eclipse]] redirects here -->Types of lunar eclipse", "shadow cast by Earth.", "Within the umbra, the central region, the planet totally shields direct sunlight.", "In contrast, within the penumbra, the outer portion, the sunlight is only partially blocked.", "(Neither the Sun, Moon, and Earth sizes nor the distances between the bodies are to scale.", ")Earth's shadow can be divided into two distinctive parts: the umbra and penumbra.", "Earth totally occludes direct solar radiation within the umbra, the central region of the shadow.", "However, since the Sun's diameter appears to be about one-quarter of Earth's in the lunar sky, the planet only partially blocks direct sunlight within the penumbra, the outer portion of the shadow.===Penumbral lunar eclipse===A penumbral lunar eclipse occurs when part or all of the Moon passes into the Earth's penumbra.", "No part of the moon is in the Earth's umbra during this event.", "The penumbra causes a subtle dimming of the lunar surface, which is only visible to the naked eye when about 70% of the Moon's diameter has immersed into Earth's penumbra.", "A special type of penumbral eclipse is a ''total penumbral lunar eclipse'', during which the entire Moon lies exclusively within Earth's penumbra.", "Total penumbral eclipses are rare, and when these occur, the portion of the Moon closest to the umbra may appear slightly darker than the rest of the lunar disk.===Partial lunar eclipse===When the Moon penetrates partially into the Earth's umbra, it is known as a partial lunar eclipse, while a ''total lunar eclipse'' occurs when the entire Moon enters the Earth's umbra.", "During this event, one part of the moon is in the Earth's umbra, while the other part is in the Earth's penumbra.", "The Moon's average orbital speed is about , or a little more than its diameter per hour, so totality may last up to nearly 107 minutes.", "Nevertheless, the total time between the first and last contacts of the Moon's limb with Earth's shadow is much longer and could last up to 236 minutes.=== Total lunar eclipse ===Timelapse of a total lunar eclipseIf the Moon entirely passes into the Earth's umbra, a total lunar eclipse occurs.", "Just prior to complete entry, the brightness of the lunar limb—the curved edge of the Moon still being hit by direct sunlight—will cause the rest of the Moon to appear comparatively dim.", "The moment the Moon enters a complete eclipse, the entire surface will become more or less uniformly bright.", "Later, as the Moon's opposite limb is struck by sunlight, the overall disk will again become obscured.", "This is because, as viewed from the Earth, the brightness of a lunar limb is generally greater than that of the rest of the surface due to reflections from the many surface irregularities within the limb: sunlight striking these irregularities is always reflected back in greater quantities than that striking more central parts, which is why the edges of full moons generally appear brighter than the rest of the lunar surface.", "This is similar to the effect of velvet fabric over a convex curved surface, which, to an observer, will appear darkest at the center of the curve.", "It will be true of any planetary body with little or no atmosphere and an irregular cratered surface (e.g., Mercury) when viewed opposite the Sun.===Central lunar eclipse===Central lunar eclipse is a total lunar eclipse during which the Moon passes through the centre of Earth's shadow, contacting the antisolar point.", "This type of lunar eclipse is relatively rare.The relative distance of the Moon from Earth at the time of an eclipse can affect the eclipse's duration.", "In particular, when the Moon is near apogee, the farthest point from Earth in its orbit, its orbital speed is the slowest.", "The diameter of Earth's umbra does not decrease appreciably within the changes in the Moon's orbital distance.", "Thus, the concurrence of a totally eclipsed Moon near apogee will lengthen the duration of totality.=== Selenelion ===October 2014 lunar eclipse viewed from Minneapolis during sunrise.", "Both the Moon and Sun were visible at that time.A ''selenelion'' or ''selenehelion'', also called a ''horizontal eclipse'', occurs where and when both the Sun and an eclipsed Moon can be observed at the same time.", "The event can only be observed just before sunset or just after sunrise, when both bodies will appear just above opposite horizons at nearly opposite points in the sky.", "A selenelion occurs during every total lunar eclipse—it is an experience of the ''observer'', not a planetary ''event'' separate from the lunar eclipse itself.", "Typically, observers on Earth located on high mountain ridges undergoing false sunrise or false sunset ''at the same moment of a total lunar eclipse'' will be able to experience it.", "Although during selenelion the Moon is completely within the Earth's umbra, both it and the Sun can be observed in the sky because atmospheric refraction causes each body to appear higher (i.e., more central) in the sky than its true geometric planetary position." ], [ "Timing", "Contact points relative to the Earth's umbral and penumbral shadows, here with the Moon near is descending nodeThe timing of total lunar eclipses is determined by what are known as its \"contacts\" (moments of contact with Earth's shadow):* ''P1'' (''First contact''): Beginning of the penumbral eclipse.", "Earth's penumbra touches the Moon's outer limb.", "* ''U1'' (''Second contact''): Beginning of the partial eclipse.", "Earth's umbra touches the Moon's outer limb.", "* ''U2'' (''Third contact''): Beginning of the total eclipse.", "The Moon's surface is entirely within Earth's umbra.", "* ''Greatest eclipse'': The peak stage of the total eclipse.", "The Moon is at its closest to the center of Earth's umbra.", "* U3 (''Fourth contact''): End of the total eclipse.", "The Moon's outer limb exits Earth's umbra.", "* ''U4'' (''Fifth contact''): End of the partial eclipse.", "Earth's umbra leaves the Moon's surface.", "* ''P4'' (''Sixth contact''): End of the penumbral eclipse.", "Earth's penumbra no longer makes contact with the Moon." ], [ "Danjon scale", "The Moon does not completely darken as it passes through the umbra because Earth's atmosphere refracts sunlight into the shadow cone.The following scale (the Danjon scale) was devised by André Danjon for rating the overall darkness of lunar eclipses:* ''L'' = 0: Very dark eclipse.", "Moon almost invisible, especially at mid-totality.", "* ''L'' = 1: Dark eclipse, gray or brownish in coloration.", "Details distinguishable only with difficulty.", "* ''L'' = 2: Deep red or rust-colored eclipse.", "Very dark central shadow, while outer edge of umbra is relatively bright.", "* ''L'' = 3: Brick-red eclipse.", "Umbral shadow usually has a bright or yellow rim.", "* ''L'' = 4: Very bright copper-red or orange eclipse.", "Umbral shadow is bluish and has a very bright rim." ], [ "Lunar versus solar eclipse", "In a lunar eclipse, the Moon often passes through two regions of Earth's shadow: an outer penumbra, where direct sunlight is dimmed, and an inner umbra, where indirect and much dimmer sunlight refracted by Earth's atmosphere shines on the Moon, leaving a reddish color.", "This can be seen in different exposures of a partial lunar eclipse, for example here with exposures of 1/80, 2/5, and 2 seconds.There is often confusion between a solar eclipse and a lunar eclipse.", "While both involve interactions between the Sun, Earth, and the Moon, they are very different in their interactions.The Moon does not completely darken as it passes through the umbra because of the refraction of sunlight by Earth's atmosphere into the shadow cone; if Earth had no atmosphere, the Moon would be completely dark during the eclipse.", "The reddish coloration arises because sunlight reaching the Moon must pass through a long and dense layer of Earth's atmosphere, where it is scattered.", "Shorter wavelengths are more likely to be scattered by the air molecules and small particles; thus, the longer wavelengths predominate by the time the light rays have penetrated the atmosphere.", "Human vision perceives this resulting light as red.", "This is the same effect that causes sunsets and sunrises to turn the sky a reddish color.", "An alternative way of conceiving this scenario is to realize that, as viewed from the Moon, the Sun would appear to be setting (or rising) behind Earth.The amount of refracted light depends on the amount of dust or clouds in the atmosphere; this also controls how much light is scattered.", "In general, the dustier the atmosphere, the more that other wavelengths of light will be removed (compared to red light), leaving the resulting light a deeper red color.", "This causes the resulting coppery-red hue of the Moon to vary from one eclipse to the next.", "Volcanoes are notable for expelling large quantities of dust into the atmosphere, and a large eruption shortly before an eclipse can have a large effect on the resulting color.Christopher Columbus predicting a lunar eclipse" ], [ "Lunar eclipse in culture", "Several cultures have myths related to lunar eclipses or allude to the lunar eclipse as being a good or bad omen.", "The Egyptians saw the eclipse as a sow swallowing the Moon for a short time; other cultures view the eclipse as the Moon being swallowed by other animals, such as a jaguar in Mayan tradition, or a mythical three-legged toad known as Chan Chu in China.", "Some societies thought it was a demon swallowing the Moon, and that they could chase it away by throwing stones and curses at it.", "The Ancient Greeks correctly believed the Earth was round and used the shadow from the lunar eclipse as evidence.", "Some Hindus believe in the importance of bathing in the Ganges River following an eclipse because it will help to achieve salvation.===Inca===Similarly to the Mayans, the Incans believed that lunar eclipses occurred when a jaguar ate the Moon, which is why a blood moon looks red.", "The Incans also believed that once the jaguar finished eating the Moon, it could come down and devour all the animals on Earth, so they would take spears and shout at the Moon to keep it away.===Mesopotamians===The ancient Mesopotamians believed that a lunar eclipse was when the Moon was being attacked by seven demons.", "This attack was more than just one on the Moon, however, for the Mesopotamians linked what happened in the sky with what happened on the land, and because the king of Mesopotamia represented the land, the seven demons were thought to be also attacking the king.", "In order to prevent this attack on the king, the Mesopotamians made someone pretend to be the king so they would be attacked instead of the true king.", "After the lunar eclipse was over, the substitute king was made to disappear (possibly by poisoning).===Chinese===In some Chinese cultures, people would ring bells to prevent a dragon or other wild animals from biting the Moon.", "In the 19th century, during a lunar eclipse, the Chinese navy fired its artillery because of this belief.", "During the Zhou Dynasty ( 1046–256 BC) in the ''Book of Songs'', the sight of a Red Moon engulfed in darkness was believed to foreshadow famine or disease." ], [ "Blood moon", "lunar eclipse of 15 May 2022.Direct sunlight is being blocked by the Earth, and the only light reaching it is sunlight refracted by Earth's atmosphere, producing a reddish color.Certain lunar eclipses have been referred to as \"blood moons\" in popular articles but this is not a scientifically recognized term.", "This term has been given two separate, but overlapping, meanings.The meaning usually relates to the reddish color a totally eclipsed Moon takes on to observers on Earth.", "As sunlight penetrates the atmosphere of Earth, the gaseous layer filters and refracts the rays in such a way that the green to violet wavelengths on the visible spectrum scatter more strongly than the red, thus giving the Moon a reddish cast.", "This is possible because the rays from the Sun are able to wrap around the Earth and reflect off the Moon." ], [ "Occurrence", "As the Earth revolves around the Sun, approximate axial parallelism of the Moon's orbital plane (tilted five degrees to the Earth's orbital plane) results in the revolution of the lunar nodes relative to the Earth.", "This causes an eclipse season approximately every six months, in which a solar eclipse can occur at the new moon phase and a lunar eclipse can occur at the full moon phase.At least two lunar eclipses and as many as five occur every year, although total lunar eclipses are significantly less common than partial lunar eclipses.", "If the date and time of an eclipse is known, the occurrences of upcoming eclipses are predictable using an eclipse cycle, like the saros.", "Eclipses occur only during an eclipse season, when the Sun appears to pass near either node of the Moon's orbit." ], [ "View from the Moon", "A painting by Lucien Rudaux showing how a solar eclipse might appear when viewed from the lunar surface.", "The Moon's surface appears red because the only sunlight available is refracted through Earth's atmosphere on the edges of Earth, as shown in the sky in this painting.A lunar eclipse is on the Moon a solar eclipse.", "The occurrence makes Earth's atmosphere appear as a red ring around the dark Earth.", "During full moon, the phase when lunar eclipses take place, the dark side of the Earth is illuminated by the Moon and its moon light." ], [ "See also", "* Lists of lunar eclipses and List of 21st-century lunar eclipses*Lunar occultation*Moon illusion*Orbit of the Moon*Solar eclipse" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===*" ], [ "Further reading", "*Bao-Lin Liu, ''Canon of Lunar Eclipses 1500 B.C.-A.D.", "3000.''", "Willmann-Bell, Richmond VA, 1992*Jean Meeus and Hermann Mucke ''Canon of Lunar Eclipses -2002 to +2526'' (3rd edition).", "Astronomisches Büro, Vienna, 1992*Espenak, F., ''Fifty Year Canon of Lunar Eclipses: 1986–2035.''", "NASA Reference Publication 1216, 1989*Espenak, F. ''Thousand Year Canon of Lunar Eclipses 1501 to 2500'', Astropixels Publishing, Portal AZ, 2014" ], [ "External links", "* ''Lunar Eclipse Essentials'': video from NASA* Animated explanation of the mechanics of a lunar eclipse , University of South Wales* U.S. Navy Lunar Eclipse Computer * NASA Lunar Eclipse Page* Search among the 12,064 lunar eclipses over five millennium and display interactive maps* Lunar Eclipses for Beginners* Tips on photographing the lunar eclipse from New York Institute of Photography *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Liber Pontificalis" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Liber Pontificalis''''' (Latin for 'pontifical book' or ''Book of the Popes'') is a book of biographies of popes from Saint Peter until the 15th century.", "The original publication of the ''Liber Pontificalis'' stopped with Pope Adrian II (867–872) or Pope Stephen V (885–891), but it was later supplemented in a different style until Pope Eugene IV (1431–1447) and then Pope Pius II (1458–1464).", "Although quoted virtually uncritically from the 8th to 18th centuries, the ''Liber Pontificalis'' has undergone intense modern scholarly scrutiny.", "The work of the French priest Louis Duchesne (who compiled the major scholarly edition), and of others has highlighted some of the underlying redactional motivations of different sections, though such interests are so disparate and varied as to render improbable one popularizer's claim that it is an \"unofficial instrument of pontifical propaganda.", "\"The title ''Liber Pontificalis'' goes back to the 12th century, although it only became current in the 15th century, and the canonical title of the work since the edition of Duchesne in the 19th century.", "In the earliest extant manuscripts it is referred to as '''''Liber episcopalis in quo continentur acta beatorum pontificum Urbis Romae''''' ('episcopal book in which are contained the acts of the blessed pontiffs of the city of Rome') and later the '''''Gesta''''' or '''''Chronica pontificum'''''." ], [ "Authorship", "Rabanus Maurus (left) was the first to attribute the ''Liber Pontificalis'' to Saint Jerome.During the Middle Ages, Saint Jerome was considered the author of all the biographies up until those of Pope Damasus I (366–383), based on an apocryphal letter between Saint Jerome and Pope Damasus published as a preface to the Medieval manuscripts.", "The attribution originated with Rabanus Maurus and is repeated by Martin of Opava, who extended the work into the 13th century.", "Other sources attribute the early work to Hegesippus and Irenaeus, having been continued by Eusebius of Caesarea.Martin of Opava continued the ''Liber Pontificalis'' into the 13th century.In the 16th century, Onofrio Panvinio attributed the biographies after Damasus until Pope Nicholas I (858–867) to Anastasius Bibliothecarius; Anastasius continued to be cited as the author into the 17th century, although this attribution was disputed by the scholarship of Caesar Baronius, Ciampini, Schelstrate and others.Eusebius of Caesarea may have continued the ''Liber Pontificalis'' into the 4th century.The modern interpretation, following that of Louis Duchesne, is that the ''Liber Pontificalis'' was gradually and unsystematically compiled, and that the authorship is impossible to determine, with a few exceptions (e.g.", "the biography of Pope Stephen II (752–757) to papal \"Primicerius\" Christopher; the biographies of Pope Nicholas I and Pope Adrian II (867–872) to Anastasius).", "Duchesne and others have viewed the beginning of the ''Liber Pontificalis'' up until the biographies of Pope Felix III (483–492) as the work of a single author, who was a contemporary of Pope Anastasius II (496-498), relying on ''Catalogus Liberianus'', which in turn draws from the papal catalogue of Hippolytus of Rome, and the ''Leonine Catalogue'', which is no longer extant.", "Most scholars believe the ''Liber Pontificalis'' was first compiled in the 5th or 6th century.Because of the use of the ''vestiarium'', the records of the papal treasury, some have hypothesized that the author of the early ''Liber Pontificalis'' was a clerk of the papal treasury.", "Edward Gibbon's ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' (1788) summarised the scholarly consensus as being that the ''Liber Pontificalis'' was composed by \"apostolic librarians and notaries of the viiith and ixth centuries\" with only the most recent portion being composed by Anastasius.Duchesne and others believe that the author of the first addition to the ''Liber Pontificalis'' was a contemporary of Pope Silverius (536–537), and that the author of another (not necessarily the second) addition was a contemporary of Pope Conon (686–687), with later popes being added individually and during their reigns or shortly after their deaths." ], [ "Content", "The ''Liber Pontificalis'' originally only contained the names of the bishops of Rome and the durations of their pontificates.", "As enlarged in the 6th century, each biography consists of: the birth name of the pope and that of his father, place of birth, profession before elevation, length of pontificate, historical notes of varying thoroughness, major theological pronouncements and decrees, administrative milestones (including building campaigns, especially of Roman churches), ordinations, date of death, place of burial, and the duration of the ensuing ''sede vacante''.Pope Adrian II (867–872) is the last pope for which there are extant manuscripts of the original ''Liber Pontificalis'': the biographies of Pope John VIII, Pope Marinus I, and Pope Adrian III are missing and the biography of Pope Stephen V (885–891) is incomplete.", "From Stephen V through the 10th and 11th centuries, the historical notes are extremely abbreviated, usually with only the pope's origin and reign duration." ], [ "Extension", "It was only in the 12th century that the ''Liber Pontificalis'' was systematically continued, although papal biographies exist in the interim period in other sources.===Petrus Guillermi===Duchesne refers to the 12th-century work by Petrus Guillermi in 1142 at the monastery of St. Gilles (Diocese of Reims) as the ''Liber Pontificalis of Petrus Guillermi (son of William)''.", "Guillermi's version is mostly copied from other works with small additions or excisions from the papal biographies of Pandulf, nephew of Hugo of Alatri, which in turn was copied almost verbatim from the original ''Liber Pontificalis'' (with the notable exception of the biography of Pope Leo IX), then from other sources until Pope Honorius II (1124–1130), and with contemporary information from Pope Paschal II (1099–1118) to Pope Urban II (1088–1099).Duchesne attributes all biographies from Pope Gregory VII to Urban II to Pandulf, while earlier historians like Giesebrecht and Watterich attributed the biographies of Gregory VII, Victor III, and Urban II to Petrus Pisanus, and the subsequent biographies to Pandulf.", "These biographies until those of Pope Martin IV (1281–1285) are extant only as revised by Petrus Guillermi in the manuscripts of the monastery of St. Gilles having been taken from the Chronicle of Martin of Opava.Early in the 14th century, an unknown author built upon the continuation of Petrus Guillermi, adding the biographies of popes Martin IV (d. 1285) through John XXII (1316–1334), with information taken from the \"Chronicon Pontificum\" of Bernardus Guidonis, stopping abruptly in 1328.===Boso===Independently, the cardinal-nephew of Pope Adrian IV, Cardinal Boso intended to extend the ''Liber Pontificalis'' from where it left off with Stephen V, although his work was only published posthumously as the ''Gesta Romanorum Pontificum'' alongside the ''Liber Censuum'' of Pope Honorius III.", "Boso drew on Bonizo of Sutri for popes from John XII to Gregory VII, and wrote from his own experiences about the popes from Gelasius II (1118–1119) to Alexander III (1179–1181).===Western Schism===An independent continuation appeared in the reign of Pope Eugene IV (1431–1447), appending biographies from Pope Urban V (1362–1370) to Pope Martin V (1417–1431), encompassing the period of the Western Schism.", "A later recension of this continuation was expanded under Pope Eugene IV.===15th century===The two collections of papal biographies of the 15th century remain independent, although they may have been intended to be continuations of the ''Liber Pontificalis''.", "The first extends from popes Benedict XII (1334–1342) to Martin V (1417–1431), or in one manuscript to Eugene IV (1431–1447).", "The second extends from Pope Urban VI (1378–1389) to Pope Pius II (1458–1464)." ], [ "Editions", "Theodor Mommsen's 1898 edition of the ''Liber Pontificalis'' terminates in 715.The ''Liber Pontificalis'' was first edited by Joannes Busaeus under the title ''Anastasii bibliothecarii Vitæ seu Gesta.", "Romanorum Pontificum'' (Mainz, 1602).", "A new edition, including the ''Historia ecclesiastica'' of Anastasius, was edited by Fabrotti (Paris, 1647).", "Another edition, editing the older ''Liber Pontificalis'' up to Pope Adrian II and adding Pope Stephen VI, was compiled by Fr.", "Bianchini (4 vols., Rome, 1718–35; a projected fifth volume did not appear).", "Muratori reprinted Bianchini's edition, adding the remaining popes through John XXII (Scriptores rerum Italicarum, III).", "Migne also republished Bianchini's edition, adding several appendixes (P. L., CXXVII-VIII).Modern editions include those of Louis Duchesne (''Liber Pontificalis.", "Texte, introduction et commentaire'', 2 vols., Paris, 1886–92) and Theodor Mommsen (''Gestorum Pontificum Romanorum pars I: Liber Pontificalis'', Mon.", "Germ.", "hist., Berlin, 1898).", "Duchesne incorporates the ''Annales Romani'' (1044–1187) into his edition of the ''Liber Pontificalis'', which otherwise relies on the two earliest known recensions of the work (530 and 687).", "Mommsen's edition is incomplete, extending only until 715.Translations and further commentaries appeared throughout the 20th century." ], [ "See also", "*List of popes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Editions", "* Davis, Raymond.", "''The Book of Pontiffs'' '''(Liber Pontificalis)'''.", "Liverpool: University of Liverpool Press, 1989.. An English translation for general use, but not including scholarly notes.", "** Davis, Raymond.", "''The Book of Pontiffs'' '''(Liber Pontificalis)'''.", "Second Edition.", "Liverpool: University of Liverpool Press, 2000..", "Stops with Pope Constantine, 708–15; contains an extensive and up to date bibliography,** Davis, Raymond.", "\"The Lives of the Eighth Century Popes.\"", "Liverpool: University of Liverpool Press, 1992.From 715 to 817.", "** Davis, Raymond.", "\"The Lives of the Ninth Century Popes\" Liverpool: University of Liverpool Press, 1989.From 817 to 891." ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* ''Anastasii Bibliothecarii Historia, de vitis romanorum pontificum a b. Petro apostolo usque ad Nicolaum I nunquam hactenus typis excusa.", "Deinde Vita Hadriani II et Stephani VI''; full view of the 1602 ''editio princeps''.", "* Full text from The Latin Library until Pope Felix IV (526–530)* Full text from Fontistoriche after Pope Felix IV (526–530) until Adrian I (772-795)* Full Latin text of best reading of different manuscripts* English Translation (Loomis, Louise Ropes 1916) until Pope Gregory I (590–604)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Latin alphabet" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Latin alphabet''', also known as the '''Roman alphabet''', is the collection of letters originally used by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language.", "Largely unaltered with the exception of additions (the letters , , and ) and extensions (such as diacritics), it forms the Latin script that is used to write many modern European languages, including English.", "With modifications, it is also used for other alphabets, such as the Vietnamese alphabet.", "Its modern repertoire is standardised as the ISO basic Latin alphabet." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''Latin alphabet'' may refer to either the alphabet used to write Latin (as described in this article) or other alphabets based on the Latin script, which is the basic set of letters common to the various alphabets descended from the classical Latin alphabet, such as the English alphabet.", "These Latin-script alphabets may discard letters, like the Rotokas alphabet, or add new letters, like the Danish and Norwegian alphabets.", "Letter shapes have evolved over the centuries, including the development in Medieval Latin of lower-case, forms which did not exist in the Classical period alphabet." ], [ "Evolution", "The Latin alphabet evolved from the visually similar Etruscan alphabet, which evolved from the Cumaean Greek version of the Greek alphabet, which was itself descended from the Phoenician alphabet, which in turn derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs.", "The Etruscans ruled early Rome; their alphabet evolved in Rome over successive centuries to produce the Latin alphabet.During the Middle Ages, the Latin alphabet was used (sometimes with modifications) for writing Romance languages, which are direct descendants of Latin, as well as Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and some Slavic languages.", "With the age of colonialism and Christian evangelism, the Latin script spread beyond Europe, coming into use for writing indigenous American, Australian, Austronesian, Austroasiatic and African languages.", "More recently, linguists have also tended to prefer the Latin script or the International Phonetic Alphabet (itself largely based on the Latin script) when transcribing or creating written standards for non-European languages, such as the African reference alphabet.===Signs and abbreviations===Although Latin did not use diacritical marks, signs of truncation of words (often placed above or at the end of the truncated word) were very common.", "Furthermore, abbreviations or smaller overlapping letters were often used.", "This was due to the fact that if the text was engraved on stone, the number of letters to be written was reduced, while if it was written on paper or parchment, it saved precious space.", "This habit continued even in the Middle Ages.", "Hundreds of symbols and abbreviations exist, varying from century to century." ], [ "History", "===Origins===It is generally believed that the Latin alphabet used by the Romans was derived from the Old Italic alphabet used by the Etruscans.That alphabet was derived from the Euboean alphabet used by the Cumae, which in turn was derived from the Phoenician alphabet.====Old Italic alphabet====The Duenos inscription, dated to the 6th century BC, shows the earliest known form of the Old Latin alphabet.|alt=Duenos inscription+ Old Italic alphabetLetters 𐌀 𐌁 𐌂 𐌃 𐌄 𐌅 𐌆 𐌇 𐌈 𐌉 𐌊 𐌋 𐌌 𐌍 𐌎 𐌏 𐌐 𐌑 𐌒 𐌓 𐌔 𐌕 𐌖 𐌗 𐌘 𐌙 𐌚 Transliteration A B C D E V Z H Θ I K L M N Ξ O P Ś Q R S T Y X Φ Ψ F====Archaic Latin alphabet====+Archaic Latin alphabetAs Old Italic 𐌀 𐌁 𐌂 𐌃 𐌄 𐌅 𐌆 𐌇 𐌉 𐌊 𐌋 𐌌 𐌍 𐌏 𐌐 𐌒 𐌓 𐌔 𐌕 𐌖 𐌗 As Latin A B C D E F Z H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X====Old Latin alphabet====Latin included 21 different characters.", "The letter was the western form of the Greek gamma, but it was used for the sounds and alike, possibly under the influence of Etruscan, which might have lacked any voiced plosives.", "Later, probably during the 3rd century BC, the letter – not needed to write Latin properly – was replaced with the new letter , a modified with a small vertical stroke, which took its place in the alphabet.", "From then on, represented the voiced plosive , while was generally reserved for the voiceless plosive .", "The letter was used only rarely, in a small number of words such as ''Kalendae'', often interchangeably with .+ Old Latin alphabetLetter A B C D E F Z G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X====Classical Latin alphabet====After the Roman conquest of Greece in the 1st century BC, Latin adopted the Greek letters and (or readopted, in the latter case) to write Greek loanwords, placing them at the end of the alphabet.", "An attempt by the emperor Claudius to introduce three additional letters did not last.", "Thus it was during the classical Latin period that the Latin alphabet contained 21 letters and 2 foreign letters:+ Classical Latin alphabet Letter A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z Latin name (majus) Transliteration ''ā'' ''bē'' ''cē '' ''dē '' ''ē'' ''ef'' ''gē '' ''hā'' ''ī'' ''kā '' ''el'' ''em'' ''en'' ''ō '' ''pē'' ''qū '' ''er'' ''es '' ''tē'' ''ū'' ''ix '' ''zēta'' Latin pronunciation (IPA) apices in this first-century inscription are very light.", "(There is one over the in the first line.)", "The vowel ''I'' is written taller rather than taking an apex.", "The interpuncts are comma-shaped, an elaboration of a more typical triangular shape.", "From the shrine of the Augustales at Herculaneum.The Latin names of some of these letters are disputed; for example, may have been called or .", "In general the Romans did not use the traditional (Semitic-derived) names as in Greek: the names of the plosives were formed by adding to their sound (except for and , which needed different vowels to be distinguished from ) and the names of the continuants consisted either of the bare sound, or the sound preceded by .The letter when introduced was probably called \"hy\" as in Greek, the name upsilon not being in use yet, but this was changed to (\"Greek i\") as Latin speakers had difficulty distinguishing its foreign sound from .", "was given its Greek name, zeta.", "This scheme has continued to be used by most modern European languages that have adopted the Latin alphabet.", "For the Latin sounds represented by the various letters see Latin spelling and pronunciation; for the names of the letters in English see English alphabet.Diacritics were not regularly used, but they did occur sometimes, the most common being the apex used to mark long vowels, which had previously sometimes been written doubled.", "However, in place of taking an apex, the letter i was written taller: .", "For example, what is today transcribed was written in the inscription depicted.Some letters have more than one form in epigraphy.Latinists have treated some of them especially such as , a variant of found in Roman Gaul.The primary mark of punctuation was the interpunct, which was used as a word divider, though it fell out of use after 200 AD.Old Roman cursive script, also called majuscule cursive and capitalis cursive, was the everyday form of handwriting used for writing letters, by merchants writing business accounts, by schoolchildren learning the Latin alphabet, and even emperors issuing commands.", "A more formal style of writing was based on Roman square capitals, but cursive was used for quicker, informal writing.", "It was most commonly used from about the 1st century BC to the 3rd century, but it probably existed earlier than that.", "It led to Uncial, a majuscule script commonly used from the 3rd to 8th centuries AD by Latin and Greek scribes.Tironian notes were a shorthand system consisting of thousands of signs.New Roman cursive script, also known as minuscule cursive, was in use from the 3rd century to the 7th century, and uses letter forms that are more recognizable to modern eyes; , , , and had taken a more familiar shape, and the other letters were proportionate to each other.", "This script evolved into a variety of regional medieval scripts (for example, the Merovingian, Visigothic and Benevantan scripts), to be later supplanted by the Carolingian minuscule.===Medieval and later developments===''De chalcographiae inventione'' (1541, Mainz) with the 23 letters.", "J, U and W are missing.Jeton from Nuremberg, It was not until the Middle Ages that the letter (originally a ligature of two s) was added to the Latin alphabet, to represent sounds from the Germanic languages which did not exist in medieval Latin, and only after the Renaissance did the convention of treating and as vowels, and and as consonants, become established.", "Prior to that, the former had been merely allographs of the latter.With the fragmentation of political power, the style of writing changed and varied greatly throughout the Middle Ages, even after the invention of the printing press.", "Early deviations from the classical forms were the uncial script, a development of the Old Roman cursive, and various so-called minuscule scripts that developed from New Roman cursive, of which the insular script developed by Irish literati and derivations of this, such as Carolingian minuscule were the most influential, introducing the lower case forms of the letters, as well as other writing conventions that have since become standard.The languages that use the Latin script generally use capital letters to begin paragraphs and sentences and proper nouns.", "The rules for capitalization have changed over time, and different languages have varied in their rules for capitalization.", "Old English, for example, was rarely written with even proper nouns capitalized, whereas Modern English writers and printers of the 17th and 18th century frequently capitalized most and sometimes all nouns, e.g.", "in the preamble and all of the United States Constitution: ''We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.''", "This is still systematically done in modern German." ], [ "See also", "*Latin spelling and pronunciation*Calligraphy*Euboean alphabet*Latin script in Unicode*ISO basic Latin alphabet*Latin-1*Legacy of the Roman Empire*Palaeography*Phoenician alphabet*Pinyin*Roman letters used in mathematics*Typography*Western Latin character sets (computing)*Spread of the Latin script" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Transl.", "of , as revised by the author***: Peter Lang.", "**" ], [ "External links", "* Lewis and Short ''Latin Dictionary'' on the letter ''G''* Latin-Alphabet" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lugh" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lugh''' or '''Lug''' (; ) is a figure in Irish mythology.", "A member of the Tuatha Dé Danann, a group of supernatural beings, Lugh is portrayed as a warrior, a king, a master craftsman and a saviour.", "He is associated with skill and mastery in multiple disciplines, including the arts.", "Lugh also has associations with oaths, truth and the law, and therefore with rightful kingship.", "Lugh is linked with the harvest festival of Lughnasadh, which bears his name.", "His most common epithets are ''Lámfada'' (\"long hand\" or \"long arm\", possibly for his skill with a spear or his ability as a ruler) and ''Samildánach'' (\"equally skilled in many arts\").", "This has sometimes been anglicised as \"Lewy of the Long Hand\".", "In mythology, Lugh is the son of Cian and Ethniu (or Ethliu).", "He is the maternal grandson of the Fomorian tyrant Balor, whom Lugh kills in the ''Battle of Mag Tuired''.", "Lugh's son is the hero Cú Chulainn, who is believed to be an incarnation of Lugh.Lugh has several magical possessions.", "He wields an unstoppable fiery spear, a sling stone, and owns a hound named ''Failinis''.", "He is said to have invented ''fidchell'', ball games, and horse racing.He corresponds to the pan-Celtic god Lugus, and his Welsh counterpart is Lleu Llaw Gyffes.", "He has also been equated with Mercury." ], [ "Name", "===Etymology===The meaning of Lugh's name is still a matter of debate.", "Some scholars propose that it derives from a suggested Proto-Indo-European root ''*(h2)lewgh-'' meaning \"to bind by oath\" (compare Old Irish ''luige'' and Welsh ''llw'', both meaning \"oath, vow, act of swearing\" and derived from a suffixed Proto-Celtic form, ''*lugiyo-'', \"oath\"), suggesting that he was originally a god of oaths and sworn contracts.", "When Balor meets Lugh in the Second Battle of Moytura he calls Lugh a \"babbler\".", "In the past his name was generally believed to come from another suggested Proto-Indo-European root *''leuk-'', \"flashing light\", and since the Victorian era he has often been considered a sun god, similar to the Greco-Roman Apollo.", "However, the figure of Lugh in Irish mythology and literature seems to be a better match with a romanized god identified with Mercury, described by Julius Caesar in his ''De Bello Gallico''.", "There are serious phonological issues with deriving the name from ''*leuk-'', notably that Proto-Indo-European '''' never produced Proto-Celtic '''';, for this reason, most modern specialists in Celtic languages no longer accept this etymology.===Epithets===* ''Lámfada'' ( (\"Long Hand\") - possibly for his skill with a spear or his ability as a ruler* ''Ildánach'' (\"skilled in many arts\")* ''Samildánach'' (\"equally skilled in all the arts\")* ''Lonnansclech''* ''Lonnbéimnech'' (\"fierce striker\")* ''Macnia'' (\"youthful warrior/hero\")* ''Conmac'' (\"hound-son\")" ], [ "Description", "Lugh is typically described as a youthful warrior.", "In the brief narrative ''Baile in Scáil'' Lugh is described as being very large and very beautiful and also as a spear-wielding horseman.When he appears before the wounded Cú Chulainn in the Táin Bó Cúalnge he is described as follows:A man fair and tall, with a great head of curly yellow hair.", "He has a green mantle wrapped about him and a brooch of white silver in the mantle over his breast.", "Next to his white skin, he wears a tunic of royal satin with red-gold insertion reaching to his knees.", "He carries a black shield with a hard boss of white-bronze.", "In his hand a five-pointed spear and next to it a forked javelin.", "Wonderful is the play and sport and diversion that he makes (with these weapons).", "But none accosts him and he accosts none as if no one could see him.Elsewhere Lugh is described as a tall young man with bright red cheeks, white sides, a bronze-coloured face and blood-coloured hair.Finally, in ''The Fate of the Children of Turenn'' Lugh's appearance is compared to the sun on several occasions.", "He is described by Bres as follows:Then arose Breas, the son of Balar, and he said: \"It is a wonder to me\", said he, \"that the sun to rise in the west today, and in the east every other day\".", "\"It would be better that it wer so\", said the Druids.", "\"What else is it?\"", "said he.", "\"The radiance of the face of Lugh of the Long Arms\", said they.Elsewhere in the same passage, the following remark is made:...they were not long there when they saw an army and a goodly host coming towards them from the East, and in the vanguard there was one young man high in authority over all; and like to the setting sun was the radiance of his face and forehead, and they were unable to gaze upon his countenance on account of its splendour.", "And this is who it was - Lugh Lamhfhada Loinnbheimionach...from the Land of Promise...and when the ''Cathbarr'' (Manannan's helmet) was let off of him the appearance of his face and forehead was as brilliant as the sun on a dry summer's day." ], [ "Mythology", "===Birth===Lugh's father is Cian of the Tuatha Dé Danann, and his mother is Ethniu (Eithne in Modern Irish), daughter of Balor of the Fomorians.", "In ''Cath Maige Tuired'' their union is a dynastic marriage following an alliance between the Tuatha Dé and the Fomorians.", "In the ''Lebor Gabála Érenn,'' Cian gives the boy to Tailtiu, queen of the Fir Bolg, in fosterage.", "In the Dindsenchas, Lugh, the foster-son of Tailtiu, is described as the \"son of the Dumb Champion\".", "In the poem Baile Suthain Sith Eamhna Lugh is called \"descendant of the poet.", "\"A folktale told to John O'Donovan by Shane O'Dugan of Tory Island in 1835 recounts the birth of a grandson of Balor who grows up to kill his grandfather.", "The grandson is unnamed, his father is called Mac Cinnfhaelaidh and the manner of his killing of Balor is different, but it has been taken as a version of the birth of Lugh, and was adapted as such by Lady Gregory.", "In this tale, Balor hears a druid's prophecy that he will be killed by his own grandson.", "To prevent this he imprisons his only daughter in the Tór Mór (great tower) of Tory Island.", "She is cared for by twelve women, who are to prevent her from ever meeting or even learning of the existence of men.", "On the mainland, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh owns a magic cow who gives such abundant milk that everyone, including Balor, wants to possess her.", "While the cow is in the care of Mac Cinnfhaelaidh's brother Mac Samthainn, Balor appears in the form of a little red-haired boy and tricks him into giving him the cow.", "Looking for revenge, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh calls on a ''leanan sídhe'' (fairy woman) called Biróg, who transports him by magic to the top of Balor's tower, where he seduces Ethniu.", "In time she gives birth to triplets, which Balor gathers up in a sheet and sends to be drowned in a whirlpool.", "The messenger drowns two of the babies but unwittingly drops one child into the harbour, where he is rescued by Biróg.", "She takes him to his father, who gives him to his brother, Gavida the smith, in fosterage.There may be further triplism associated with his birth.", "His father in the folktale is one of a triad of brothers, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh, Gavida, and Mac Samthainn, whereas in the ''Lebor Gabála'', his father Cian is mentioned alongside his brothers Cú and Cethen.", "Two characters called Lugaid, a popular medieval Irish name thought to derive from Lugh, have three fathers: Lugaid Riab nDerg (Lugaid of the Red Stripes) was the son of the three ''Findemna'' or fair triplets, and Lugaid mac Con Roí was also known as ''mac Trí Con'', \"son of three hounds\".", "In Ireland's other great \"sequestered maiden\" story, the tragedy of Deirdre, the king's intended is carried off by three brothers, who are hunters with hounds.", "The canine imagery continues with Cian's brother Cú (\"hound\"), another Lugaid, Lugaid Mac Con (son of a hound), and Lugh's son Cúchulainn (\"Culann's Hound\").", "A fourth Lugaid was Lugaid Loígde, a legendary King of Tara and ancestor of (or inspiration for) Lugaid Mac Con.===Lugh joins the Tuatha Dé Danann===As a young man Lugh travels to Tara to join the court of King Nuada of the Tuatha Dé Danann.", "The doorkeeper will not let him in unless he has a skill he can use to serve the king.", "He offers his services as a wright, a smith, a champion, a swordsman, a harpist, a hero, a poet, a historian, a sorcerer, and a craftsman, but each time is rejected as the Tuatha Dé Danann already have someone with that skill.", "When Lugh asks if they have anyone with all those skills simultaneously, the doorkeeper has to admit defeat, and Lugh joins the court and is appointed Chief Ollam of Ireland.", "He wins a flagstone-throwing contest against Ogma, the champion, and entertains the court with his harp.", "The Tuatha Dé Danann are, at that time, oppressed by the Fomorians, and Lugh is amazed at how meekly they accept their oppression.", "Nuada wonders if this young man could lead them to freedom.", "Lugh is given command over the Tuatha Dé Danann, and he begins making preparations for war.===Sons of Tuireann===Tuireann and Cian, Lugh's father, are old enemies, and one day his sons, Brian, Iuchar, and Iucharba spot Cian in the distance and decide to kill him.", "They find him hiding in the form of a pig, but Cian tricked the brothers into allowing him to transform back into a man before they killed him, giving Lugh the legal right to claim compensation for a father rather than just a pig.", "When they try to bury him, the ground spits his body back twice before keeping him down, and eventually confesses that it is a grave to Lugh.", "Lugh holds a feast and invites the brothers, and during it he asks them what they would demand as compensation for the murder of their father.", "They reply that death would be the only just demand, and Lugh agrees.", "He then accuses them of the murder of his father, Cian, and sets them on a series of seemingly impossible quests.", "The brothers go on an adventure and achieve them all except the last one, which will surely kill them.", "Despite Tuireann's pleas, Lugh demands that they proceed and, when they are all fatally wounded, he denies them the use of one of the items they have retrieved, a magic pigskin which heals all wounds.", "They die of their wounds and Tuireann dies of grief over their bodies.===Battle of Magh Tuireadh===Using the magic artefacts the sons of Tuireann have gathered, Lugh leads the Tuatha Dé Danann in the Second Battle of Mag Tuireadh against the Fomorians.", "Prior to the battle, Lugh asked each man and woman in his army what art he or she would bring to the fray; he then addressed his army in speech, which elevated each warrior's spirit to that of a king or lord.", "Nuada is killed in the battle by Balor.", "Lugh faces Balor, who opens his terrible, poisonous eye that kills all it looks upon, but Lugh shoots a sling-stone that drives his eye out the back of his head, killing Balor and wreaking havoc on the Fomorian army behind.", "After the victory Lugh finds Bres, the half-Fomorian former king of the Tuatha Dé Danann, alone and unprotected on the battlefield, and Bres begs for his life.", "If he is spared, he promises, he will ensure that the cows of Ireland always give milk.", "The Tuatha Dé Danann refuse the offer.", "He then promises four harvests a year, but the Tuatha Dé Danann say one harvest a year suits them.", "But Lugh spares his life on the condition that he teach the Tuatha Dé Danann how and when to plough, sow, and reap.===Later life and death===Lugh instituted an event similar to the Olympic games called the Assembly of Talti which finished on Lughnasadh (1 August) in memory of his foster mother, Tailtiu, at the town that bears her name (now Teltown, County Meath).", "He likewise instituted Lughnasadh fairs in the areas of Carman and Naas in honour of Carman and Nás, the eponymous tutelary goddesses of these two regions.", "Horse races and displays of martial arts were important activities at all three fairs.", "However, Lughnasadh itself is a celebration of Lugh's triumph over the spirits of the Otherworld who had tried to keep the harvest for themselves.", "It survived long into Christian times and is still celebrated under a variety of names.", "''Lúnasa'' is now the Irish name for the month of August.According to a poem of the ''dindsenchas'', Lugh was responsible for the death of Bres.", "He made 300 wooden cows and filled them with a bitter, poisonous red liquid which was then \"milked\" into pails and offered to Bres to drink.", "Bres, who was under an obligation not to refuse hospitality, drank it down without flinching, and it killed him.Lugh is said to have invented the board game fidchell.One of his wives, Buach, had an affair with Cermait, son of the Dagda.", "Lugh killed him in revenge, but Cermait's sons, Mac Cuill, Mac Cecht, and Mac Gréine, killed Lugh in return, spearing him through the foot then drowning him in Loch Lugborta in County Westmeath He had ruled for forty years.", "Cermait was later revived by his father, the Dagda, who used the smooth or healing end of his staff to bring Cermait back to life.===In other cycles and traditions===* In the Ulster Cycle he fathered Cúchulainn with the mortal maiden Deichtine.", "When Cúchulainn lay wounded after a gruelling series of combats during the ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (Cattle Raid of Cooley), Lugh appeared and healed his wounds over a period of three days.", "* In ''Baile in Scáil'' (The Phantom's Trance), a story of the Historical Cycle, Lugh appeared in a vision to Conn of the Hundred Battles.", "Enthroned on a daïs, he directed a beautiful woman called the Sovereignty of Ireland to serve Conn a portion of meat and a cup of red ale, ritually confirming his right to rule and the dynasty that would follow him.", "* In the Fenian Cycle the dwarf harper Cnú Deireóil claimed to be Lugh's son.", "* The Luigne, a people who inhabited Counties Meath and Sligo, claimed descent from him.", "* Ainle is listed as the son of Lug Longhand (here called \"Leo lam-fota\") and is killed by Curnan the Blacklegged in the Rennes Dinsenchas.", "Ainle, whose name means \"champion\" is described as being renowned and glorious, but in the same poetic verse is also described as being a weakling with no grip in battle.", "* Lugh appears in folklore as a trickster, and in County Mayo thunderstorms were referred to as battles between Lugh and Balor, which leads some to speculate that he was a storm god." ], [ "Family", "Lugh is given the matriname ''mac Ethlenn'' or ''mac Ethnenn'' (\"son of Ethliu or Ethniu\", his mother) and the patriname ''mac Cein'' (\"son of Cian\", his father).", "He is the maternal grandson of the Fomorian tyrant Balor, whom Lugh kills in the ''Battle of Mag Tuired''.", "Lugh's son is the hero Cú Chulainn, who is believed to be an incarnation of Lugh.He had several wives, including Buí (AKA Buach or Bua \"Victory\") and Nás, daughters of Ruadri Ruad, king of Britain.", "Buí lived and was buried at Knowth (Cnogba).", "Nás was buried at Naas, County Kildare, which is said to named after her.", "Lugh had a son, Ibic \"of the horses\", by Nás.", "It is said that Nás dies with the noise of combat, therefore it is difficult to know where she dies.", "Lugh's daughter or sister was Ebliu, who married Fintan.", "By the mortal Deichtine, Lugh was the father to the hero Cú Chulainn." ], [ "Possessions", "Lugh possessed a number of magical items, retrieved by the sons of Tuirill Piccreo in Middle Irish redactions of the Lebor Gabála.", "Not all the items are listed here.", "The late narrative ''Fate of the Children of Tuireann'' not only gives a list of items gathered for Lugh, but also endows him with such gifts from the sea god Manannán as the sword Fragarach, the horse Enbarr (Aonbarr), the boat / (\"Wave-Sweeper\"), his armour and helmet.===Lugh's spear===Lugh's bloodthirsty magical spear, described in Charles Squire's popular book (1905).Lugh's spear (), according to the text of The Four Jewels of the Tuatha Dé Danann, was said to be impossible to overcome, taken to Ireland from Gorias (or Findias).Lugh obtained the Spear of Assal () as fine () imposed on the children of Tuirill Piccreo (or Biccreo), according to the short account in which adds that the incantation \"Ibar (Yew)\" made the cast always hit its mark, and \"Athibar (Re-Yew)\" caused the spear to return.In a full narrative version called (The Fate of the Children of Tuireann), from copies no earlier than the 17th century, Lugh demands the spear named ''Ar-éadbair'' or ''Areadbhair'' (Early Modern Irish: ) which belonged to Pisear, king of Persia.", "Areadbhair's tip had to be kept immersed in a pot of water to keep it from igniting, a property similar to the Lúin of Celtchar.", "This spear is also called \"Slaughterer\" in translation.There is yet another name that Lugh's spear goes by: \"A yew tree, the finest of the wood\" (Early Modern Irish: ), occurring in an inserted verse within ''The Fate of the Children of Tuireann''.", "\"The famous yew of the wood\" () is also the name that Lugh's spear is given in a tract which alleges that it, the Lúin of Celtchar and the spear Crimall that blinded Cormac Mac Airt were one and the same weapon (tract in TCD MS 1336 (H 3.17), col. 723, discussed in the Lúin page).Lugh's projectile weapon, whether a dart or missile, was envisioned to be symbolic of lightning-weapon.Lugh's sling rod, named \"Lugh's Chain\", was the rainbow and the Milky Way, according to popular writer Charles Squire.", "Squire adds that Lugh's spear which needed no wielding was alive and thirsted so for blood that only by steeping its head in a sleeping-draught of pounded fresh poppy leaves could it be kept at rest.", "When a battle was near, it was drawn out; then it roared and struggled against its thongs, fire flashed from it, and it tore through the ranks of the enemy once slipped from the leash, never tired of slaying.===Sling-stone===According to the brief accounts in the Lebor Gabála Érenn, Lugh used the \"sling-stone\" (''cloich tabaill'') to slay his grandfather, Balor the Strong-Smiter in the Battle of Magh Tuired.", "The narrative , preserved in a unique 16th-century copy, words it slightly different saying that Lugh used the sling-stone to destroy the evil eye of Balor of the Piercing Eye (Bolur Birugderc).The ammunition that Lugh used was not just a stone, but a ''tathlum'' according to a certain poem in Egerton MS. 1782 (olim W. Monck Mason MS.), the first quatrain of which is as follows:The poem goes on to describe the composition of this tathlum, as being formed from the bloods collected from toads, bears, the lion, vipers and the neck-base of Osmuinn, mixed with the sands of the Armorian Sea and the Red Sea.===Fragarach===Lugh is also seen girt with the Freagarthach (better known as Fragarach), the sword of Manannán, in the assembly of the Tuatha Dé Danann in the ''Fate of the Children of Tuireann''.===Lugh's horse and magic boat===Lugh had a horse named Aenbharr which could fare over both land and sea.", "Like much of his equipment, it was furnished to him by the sea god Manannán mac Lir.", "When the Children of Tuireann asked to borrow this horse, Lugh begrudged them, saying it would not be proper to make a loan of a loan.", "Consequently, Lugh was unable to refuse their request to use Lugh's currach (coracle) or boat, the \"Wave-Sweeper\" ().In the Lebor Gabála, Gainne and Rea were the names of the pair of horses belonging to the king of the isle of Sicily on the (Tyrrhene sea), which Lug demanded as éraic from the sons of Tuirill Briccreo.===Lugh's hound===Failinis was the name of the whelp of the King of Ioruaidhe that Lugh demanded as éiric (a forfeit) in the ''Oidhead Chloinne Tuireann''.", "This concurs with the name of the hound mentioned in an \"Ossianic Ballad\", sometimes referred to by its opening line \" (They came here as a band of three)\".", "In the ballad, the hound is called Ṡalinnis (Shalinnis) or Failinis (in the Lismore text), and belonged to a threesome from Iruaide whom the Fianna encounter.", "It is described as \"the ancient grayhound... that had been with Lugh of the Mantles, / Given him by the sons of Tuireann Bicreann\"" ], [ "Comparative mythology", "Lugh corresponds to the pan-Celtic god Lugus, and his Welsh counterpart is Lleu Llaw Gyffes.", "He has also been equated with Mercury.", "Sometimes he is interpreted as a storm god and, less often today, as a sun god.", "Others have noted a similarity in Lugh's slaying of Balor to the slaying of Baldr by Loki.", "Lugh's mastery of all arts has led many to link him with the unnamed Gaulish god Julius Caesar identifies with Mercury, whom he describes as the \"inventor of all the arts\".", "Caesar describes the Gaulish Mercury as the most revered deity in Gaul, overseeing journeys and business transactions.St.", "Mologa has been theorized to be a Christian continuation of the god Lugh." ], [ "Toponymy", "The County of Louth in Ireland is named after the village of Louth, which is named after the god Lugh.", "Historically, the place name has had various spellings; \"Lugmad\", \"Lughmhaigh\", and \"Lughmhadh\" (see Historic Names List, for full listing).", "''Lú'' is the modern simplified spelling.", "Other places named for Lugh include the cairn at Seelewey (Suidhe Lughaidh, or Lug's Seat), Dunlewey, and Rath-Lugaidh in Carney, Sligo.", "Seelewey was located in Moyturra Chonlainn and, according to local folklore, was a place where giants used to gather in olden days.The modern city of Lyon was founded as ''Colonia Copia Felix Munatia'' in 43 BC, but by the end of the first century AD had come to be known as \"Lugdunum\", a Latinized variant of the ancient Gaulish name *Lugudunon, meaning \"Fortress of Lugh\".One of the four regions in Galicia is called Lugo, in honour of this god." ], [ "See also", "* Irish mythology in popular culture: Lugh* Perseus, whose birth is similar to that of Lugh's* Táin Bó Flidhais* Triglav (mythology)* Triple deity" ], [ "Explanatory notes", "===References===;Citations;Bibliography; (''Baile In Scáil'', The Phantom's Trance)* via Celtic Literature Collective, accessed 5 August 2019; (''Cath Maige Tuired'')* via sacred-texts.com * , text via Internet Archive, text via CELT; (''Compert Con Culainn'')* ;(LGE)* ; (''Metrical Dindshenchas'')*, via CELT*, snippet via Google, via CELT;(''Oidheadh Chlainne Tuireann'', The Death of the Children of Tuireann)* * * * (Some of the earlier notes on MSS in the earlier edition are wanting)* https://www.dias.ie/wp-content/uploads/2002/11/tionol2002_baillie.pdf(M G L BaillieSchool of Archaeology and Palaeoecology, Queen's University, Belfast); (''Rennes Dindshenchas'')* , text via Internet Archive; e-text via UCD* , text via Internet Archive; e-text via UCD; (''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', The Cattle Raid of Cooley)* .", ";(Other)* Cross, Tom Peete and Clark Harris Slover.", "''Ancient Irish Tales'', Henry Holt & Company, Inc., 1936..* Ellis, Peter Berresford.", "''Dictionary of Celtic Mythology''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994..* MacKillop, James.", "''Dictionary of Celtic Mythology''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998..* Ovist, Krista L. ''The integration of Mercury and Lugus: Myth and history in late Iron Age and early Roman Gaul''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Divinity School dissertation, pp.", "703, 2004.", "(link)* Wood, Juliette.", "''The Celts: Life, Myth, and Art''.", "Thorsons Publishers, 2002.." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lanthanide" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''lanthanide''' () or '''lanthanoid''' () series of chemical elements comprises at least the 14 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers 57–70, from lanthanum through ytterbium.", "In the periodic table, they fill the 4f orbitals.", "Lutetium (element 71) is also sometimes considered a lanthanide, despite being a d-block element and a transition metal.The informal chemical symbol '''Ln''' is used in general discussions of lanthanide chemistry to refer to any lanthanide.", "All but one of the lanthanides are f-block elements, corresponding to the filling of the 4f electron shell.", "Lutetium is a d-block element (thus also a transition metal), and on this basis its inclusion has been questioned; however, like its congeners scandium and yttrium in group 3, it behaves similarly to the other 14.The term rare-earth element or rare-earth metal is often used to include the stable group 3 elements Sc, Y, and Lu in addition to the 4f elements.", "All lanthanide elements form trivalent cations, Ln3+, whose chemistry is largely determined by the ionic radius, which decreases steadily from lanthanum (La) to lutetium (Lu).These elements are called lanthanides because the elements in the series are chemically similar to lanthanum.", "Since \"lanthanide\" means \"like lanthanum\", it has been argued that lanthanum cannot logically be a lanthanide, but the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) acknowledges its inclusion based on common usage.In presentations of the periodic table, the f-block elements are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table.", "This convention is entirely a matter of aesthetics and formatting practicality; a rarely used wide-formatted periodic table inserts the 4f and 5f series in their proper places, as parts of the table's sixth and seventh rows (periods), respectively.The 1985 IUPAC \"Red Book\" (p. 45) recommends using ''lanthanoid'' instead of ''lanthanide'', as the ending '''' normally indicates a negative ion.", "However, owing to widespread current use, ''lanthanide'' is still allowed." ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"lanthanide\" was introduced by Victor Goldschmidt in 1925.Despite their abundance, the technical term \"lanthanides\" is interpreted to reflect a sense of elusiveness on the part of these elements, as it comes from the Greek λανθανειν (''lanthanein''), \"to lie hidden\".", "Rather than referring to their natural abundance, the word reflects their property of \"hiding\" behind each other in minerals.", "The term derives from lanthanum, first discovered in 1838, at that time a so-called new rare-earth element \"lying hidden\" or \"escaping notice\" in a cerium mineral, and it is an irony that lanthanum was later identified as the first in an entire series of chemically similar elements and gave its name to the whole series.", "Together with the stable elements of group 3, scandium, yttrium, and lutetium, the trivial name \"rare earths\" is sometimes used to describe all the lanthanides.", "The \"earth\" in the name \"rare earths\" arises from the minerals from which they were isolated, which were uncommon oxide-type minerals.", "However, these elements are neither rare in abundance nor \"earths\" (an obsolete term for water-insoluble strongly basic oxides of electropositive metals incapable of being smelted into metal using late 18th century technology).", "Group 2 is known as the alkaline earth elements for much the same reason.The \"rare\" in the \"rare earths\" name has much more to do with the difficulty of separating out each of the individual lanthanide elements than scarcity of any of them.", "By way of the Greek \"dysprositos\" for \"hard to get at,\" element 66, dysprosium was similarly named; lanthanum itself is named after a word for \"hidden.\"", "The elements 57 (La) to 71 (Lu) are very similar chemically to one another and frequently occur together in nature, often anywhere from three to all 15 of the lanthanides (along with yttrium as a 16th) occur in minerals such as samarskite, monazite and many others which can also contain the other two group 3 elements as well as thorium and occasionally other actinides as well.", "A majority of the rare earths were discovered at the same mine in Ytterby, Sweden and four of them are named (yttrium, ytterbium, erbium, terbium) after the village and a fifth (holmium) after Stockholm; scandium is named after Scandinavia, thulium after the old name Thule, and the immediately-following group 4 element (number 72) hafnium is named for the Latin name of the city of Copenhagen.Samarskite (a mineral which is the source of the name of the element samarium) and other similar minerals in particular also have these elements in association with the nearby metals tantalum, niobium, hafnium, zirconium, vanadium, and titanium, from group 4 and group 5 often in similar oxidation states.", "Monazite is a phosphate of numerous group 3 + lanthanide + actinide metals and mined especially for the thorium content and specific rare earths especially lanthanum, yttrium and cerium.", "Cerium and lanthanum as well as other members of the rare earth series are often produced as a metal called mischmetal containing a variable mixture of these elements with cerium and lanthanum predominating; it has direct uses such as lighter flints and other spark sources which do not require extensive purification of one of these metals.", "There are also rare earth-bearing minerals based on group 2 elements such as yttrocalcite, yttrocerite, yttrofluorite which vary in content of yttrium, cerium, and lanthanum in a particular as well as varying amounts of the others.", "Other lanthanide/rare earth minerals include bastnäsite, florencite, chernovite, perovskite, xenotime, cerite, gadolinite, lanthanite, fergusonite, polycrase, blomstrandine, håleniusite, miserite, loparite, lepersonnite, euxenite, all of which have a range of relative element concentration and may have the symbol of a predominating one such as monazite-ce; group 3 elements do not occur as native element minerals in the fashion of gold, silver, tantalum and many others on earth but may in lunar regolith.", "Very rare cerium, lanthanum, and presumably other lanthanide/group 3 halides, feldspars and garnets are also known to exist.All of this is the result of the order in which the electron shells of these elements are filled—the outermost has the same configuration for all of them, and a deeper shell is progressively filled with electrons as the atomic number increases from 57 towards 71.For many years, mixtures of more than one rare earth were considered to be single elements, such as neodymium and praseodymium being thought to be the single element didymium and so on.", "Very small differences in solubility are used in solvent and ion-exchange purification methods for these elements which require a great deal of repeating to get a purified metal.", "The refined metals and their compounds have subtle and stark differences amongst themselves in electronic, electrical, optical, and magnetic properties which account for their many niche uses.By way of examples of the term meaning the above considerations rather than their scarcity, cerium is the 26th most abundant element in the Earth's crust and more abundant than copper, neodymium is more abundant than gold; thulium (the second least common naturally occurring lanthanide) is more abundant than iodine, which is itself common enough for biology to have evolved critical usages thereof, and even the lone radioactive element in the series, promethium, is more common than the two rarest naturally occurring elements, francium and astatine, combined." ], [ "Physical properties of the elements", "Chemical elementLaCePrNdPmSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLu Atomic number575859606162636465666768697071Image 50px50px50px50px 50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50pxDensity (g/cm3)6.162 6.770 6.77 7.01 7.26 7.52 5.244 7.90 8.23 8.540 8.79 9.066 9.32 6.90 9.841Melting point (°C)920 795 935 1024 1042 1072 826 1312 1356 1407 1461 1529 1545 824 1652Boiling point (°C)3464 3443 3520 3074 3000 1794 1529 3273 3230 2567 2720 2868 1950 1196 3402 Atomic electron configuration(gas phase)*'''5d1'''4f1'''5d1'''4f3 4f4 4f54f6 4f7 4f7'''5d1'''4f94f10 4f114f124f134f144f14'''5d1'''Metal lattice (RT)dhcp fcc dhcp dhcp dhcp ** bcc hcp hcp hcp hcphcp hcp fcc hcpMetallic radius (pm) 162 181.8 182.4 181.4 183.4 180.4 208.4 180.4 177.3 178.1 176.2 176.1 175.9 193.3 173.8Resistivity at 25 °C (μΩ·cm) 57–8020 °C 73 68 64 88 90 134 114 57 87 87 79 29 79Magnetic susceptibilityχmol /10−6(cm3·mol−1)+95.9 +2500 (β)+5530(α)+5930 (α) +1278(α)+30900+185000(350 K)+170000 (α)+98000+72900+48000+24700+67 (β)+183 Between initial Xe and final 6s2 electronic shells Sm has a close packed structure like most of the lanthanides but has an unusual 9 layer repeatGschneider and Daane (1988) attribute the trend in melting point which increases across the series, (lanthanum (920 °C) – lutetium (1622 °C)) to the extent of hybridization of the 6s, 5d, and 4f orbitals.", "The hybridization is believed to be at its greatest for cerium, which has the lowest melting point of all, 795 °C.The lanthanide metals are soft; their hardness increases across the series.", "Europium stands out, as it has the lowest density in the series at 5.24 g/cm3 and the largest metallic radius in the series at 208.4 pm.", "It can be compared to barium, which has a metallic radius of 222 pm.", "It is believed that the metal contains the larger Eu2+ ion and that there are only two electrons in the conduction band.", "Ytterbium also has a large metallic radius, and a similar explanation is suggested.The resistivities of the lanthanide metals are relatively high, ranging from 29 to 134 μΩ·cm.", "These values can be compared to a good conductor such as aluminium, which has a resistivity of 2.655 μΩ·cm.With the exceptions of La, Yb, and Lu (which have no unpaired f electrons), the lanthanides are strongly paramagnetic, and this is reflected in their magnetic susceptibilities.", "Gadolinium becomes ferromagnetic at below 16 °C (Curie point).", "The other heavier lanthanides – terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, and ytterbium – become ferromagnetic at much lower temperatures." ], [ "Chemistry and compounds", "Chemical elementLaCePrNdPmSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLu Atomic number575859606162636465666768697071 Ln3+ electron configuration*4f0 4f14f2 4f3 4f44f5 4f6 4f74f8 4f9 4f104f114f12 4f134f14 Ln3+ radius (pm) 103 102 99 98.3 97 95.8 94.7 93.8 92.3 91.2 90.1 8988 86.8 86.1 Ln4+ ion color in aqueous solution — Orange-yellow Yellow Blue-violet — — — — Red-brown Orange-yellow — — — — — Ln3+ ion color in aqueous solution Colorless Colorless Green Violet Pink Pale yellow Colorless Colorless V. pale pink Pale yellow Yellow Rose Pale green Colorless Colorless Ln2+ ion color in aqueous solution — — — — — Blood red Colorless — — — — — Violet-red Yellow-green — Not including initial Xe coref → f transitions are symmetry forbidden (or Laporte-forbidden), which is also true of transition metals.", "However, transition metals are able to use vibronic coupling to break this rule.", "The valence orbitals in lanthanides are almost entirely non-bonding and as such little effective vibronic coupling takes, hence the spectra from f → f transitions are much weaker and narrower than those from d → d transitions.", "In general this makes the colors of lanthanide complexes far fainter than those of transition metal complexes.", "+Approximate colors of lanthanide ions in aqueous solution Oxidation state 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 +2 '''Sm2+''' '''Eu2+''' '''Tm2+''' '''Yb2+''' +3 '''La3+''' '''Ce3+''' '''Pr3+''' '''Nd3+''' '''Pm3+''' '''Sm3+''' '''Eu3+''' '''Gd3+''' '''Tb3+''' '''Dy3+''' '''Ho3+''' '''Er3+''' '''Tm3+''' '''Yb3+''' '''Lu3+''' +4 '''Ce4+''' '''Pr4+''' '''Nd4+''' '''Tb4+''' '''Dy4+''' ===Effect of 4f orbitals===Viewing the lanthanides from left to right in the periodic table, the seven 4f atomic orbitals become progressively more filled (see above and ).", "The electronic configuration of most neutral gas-phase lanthanide atoms is Xe6s24f''n'', where ''n'' is 56 less than the atomic number ''Z''.", "Exceptions are La, Ce, Gd, and Lu, which have 4f''n''−15d1 (though even then 4f''n'' is a low-lying excited state for La, Ce, and Gd).", "With the exception of lutetium, the 4f orbitals are chemically active in all lanthanides and produce profound differences between lanthanide chemistry and transition metal chemistry.", "The 4f orbitals penetrate the Xe core and are isolated, and thus they do not participate much in bonding.", "This explains why crystal field effects are small and why they do not form π bonds.", "As there are seven 4f orbitals, the number of unpaired electrons can be as high as 7, which gives rise to the large magnetic moments observed for lanthanide compounds.", "Measuring the magnetic moment can be used to investigate the 4f electron configuration, and this is a useful tool in providing an insight into the chemical bonding.", "The lanthanide contraction, i.e.", "the reduction in size of the Ln3+ ion from La3+ (103 pm) to Lu3+ (86.1 pm), is often explained by the poor shielding of the 5s and 5p electrons by the 4f electrons.Lanthanide oxides: clockwise from top center: praseodymium, cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, samarium and gadolinium.The chemistry of the lanthanides is dominated by the +3 oxidation state, and in LnIII compounds the 6s electrons and (usually) one 4f electron are lost and the ions have the configuration Xe4f(''n''−1).", "All the lanthanide elements exhibit the oxidation state +3.In addition, Ce3+ can lose its single f electron to form Ce4+ with the stable electronic configuration of xenon.", "Also, Eu3+ can gain an electron to form Eu2+ with the f7 configuration that has the extra stability of a half-filled shell.", "Other than Ce(IV) and Eu(II), none of the lanthanides are stable in oxidation states other than +3 in aqueous solution.", "In terms of reduction potentials, the Ln0/3+ couples are nearly the same for all lanthanides, ranging from −1.99 (for Eu) to −2.35 V (for Pr).", "Thus these metals are highly reducing, with reducing power similar to alkaline earth metals such as Mg (−2.36 V).===Lanthanide oxidation states===+ Ionization energies and reduction potentials of the elementsChemical elementLaCePrNdPmSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLu Atomic number575859606162636465666768697071 electron configuration above Xe core'''5d16s2'''4f1'''5d16s2'''4f36s24f46s2 4f56s24f66s24f76s24f7'''5d16s2'''4f96s24f106s24f116s24f126s24f136s24f146s24f14'''5d16s2'''E° Ln4+/Ln3+ 1.72 3.2 3.1 E° Ln3+/Ln2+ −2.6 −1.55−0.35 −2.5 −2.3−1.05E° Ln3+/Ln −2.38−2.34−2.35−2.32−2.29−2.30−1.99−2.28−2.31−2.29−2.33−2.32−2.32−2.22−2.301st Ionization energy (kJ·mol−1)5385415225305365425475955695675745815896035132nd Ionization energy (kJ·mol−1)1067104710181034105210681085117211121126113911511163117513411st + 2nd Ionization energy (kJ·mol−1)1605158815401564158816101632176716811693171317321752177818543rd Ionization energy (kJ·mol−1)1850194020902128214022852425199921222230222122072305240820541st + 2nd + 3rd Ionization energy (kJ·mol−1)3455352836303692372838954057376638033923393439394057418639084th Ionization energy (kJ·mol−1)481935473761390039703990412042503839399041004120412042034370The ionization energies for the lanthanides can be compared with aluminium.", "In aluminium the sum of the first three ionization energies is 5139 kJ·mol−1, whereas the lanthanides fall in the range 3455 – 4186 kJ·mol−1.This correlates with the highly reactive nature of the lanthanides.The sum of the first two ionization energies for europium, 1632 kJ·mol−1 can be compared with that of barium 1468.1 kJ·mol−1 and europium's third ionization energy is the highest of the lanthanides.", "The sum of the first two ionization energies for ytterbium are the second lowest in the series and its third ionization energy is the second highest.", "The high third ionization energy for Eu and Yb correlate with the half filling 4f7 and complete filling 4f14 of the 4f subshell, and the stability afforded by such configurations due to exchange energy.", "Europium and ytterbium form salt like compounds with Eu2+ and Yb2+, for example the salt like dihydrides.", "Both europium and ytterbium dissolve in liquid ammonia forming solutions of Ln2+(NH3)x again demonstrating their similarities to the alkaline earth metals.The relative ease with which the 4th electron can be removed in cerium and (to a lesser extent praseodymium) indicates why Ce(IV) and Pr(IV) compounds can be formed, for example CeO2 is formed rather than Ce2O3 when cerium reacts with oxygen.===Separation of lanthanides===The similarity in ionic radius between adjacent lanthanide elements makes it difficult to separate them from each other in naturally occurring ores and other mixtures.", "Historically, the very laborious processes of cascading and fractional crystallization were used.", "Because the lanthanide ions have slightly different radii, the lattice energy of their salts and hydration energies of the ions will be slightly different, leading to a small difference in solubility.", "Salts of the formula Ln(NO3)3·2NH4NO3·4H2O can be used.", "Industrially, the elements are separated from each other by solvent extraction.", "Typically an aqueous solution of nitrates is extracted into kerosene containing tri-''n''-butylphosphate.", "The strength of the complexes formed increases as the ionic radius decreases, so solubility in the organic phase increases.", "Complete separation can be achieved continuously by use of countercurrent exchange methods.", "The elements can also be separated by ion-exchange chromatography, making use of the fact that the stability constant for formation of EDTA complexes increases for log K ≈ 15.5 for La(EDTA)− to log K ≈ 19.8 for Lu(EDTA)−.===Coordination chemistry and catalysis===When in the form of coordination complexes, lanthanides exist overwhelmingly in their +3 oxidation state, although particularly stable 4f configurations can also give +4 (Ce, Tb) or +2 (Eu, Yb) ions.", "All of these forms are strongly electropositive and thus lanthanide ions are hard Lewis acids.", "The oxidation states are also very stable; with the exceptions of SmI2 and cerium(IV) salts, lanthanides are not used for redox chemistry.", "4f electrons have a high probability of being found close to the nucleus and are thus strongly affected as the nuclear charge increases across the series; this results in a corresponding decrease in ionic radii referred to as the lanthanide contraction.The low probability of the 4f electrons existing at the outer region of the atom or ion permits little effective overlap between the orbitals of a lanthanide ion and any binding ligand.", "Thus lanthanide complexes typically have little or no covalent character and are not influenced by orbital geometries.", "The lack of orbital interaction also means that varying the metal typically has little effect on the complex (other than size), especially when compared to transition metals.", "Complexes are held together by weaker electrostatic forces which are omni-directional and thus the ligands alone dictate the symmetry and coordination of complexes.", "Steric factors therefore dominate, with coordinative saturation of the metal being balanced against inter-ligand repulsion.", "This results in a diverse range of coordination geometries, many of which are irregular, and also manifests itself in the highly fluxional nature of the complexes.", "As there is no energetic reason to be locked into a single geometry, rapid intramolecular and intermolecular ligand exchange will take place.", "This typically results in complexes that rapidly fluctuate between all possible configurations.Many of these features make lanthanide complexes effective catalysts.", "Hard Lewis acids are able to polarise bonds upon coordination and thus alter the electrophilicity of compounds, with a classic example being the Luche reduction.", "The large size of the ions coupled with their labile ionic bonding allows even bulky coordinating species to bind and dissociate rapidly, resulting in very high turnover rates; thus excellent yields can often be achieved with loadings of only a few mol%.", "The lack of orbital interactions combined with the lanthanide contraction means that the lanthanides change in size across the series but that their chemistry remains much the same.", "This allows for easy tuning of the steric environments and examples exist where this has been used to improve the catalytic activity of the complex and change the nuclearity of metal clusters.Despite this, the use of lanthanide coordination complexes as homogeneous catalysts is largely restricted to the laboratory and there are currently few examples them being used on an industrial scale.", "Lanthanides exist in many forms other than coordination complexes and many of these are industrially useful.", "In particular lanthanide metal oxides are used as heterogeneous catalysts in various industrial processes.====Ln(III) compounds====The trivalent lanthanides mostly form ionic salts.", "The trivalent ions are hard acceptors and form more stable complexes with oxygen-donor ligands than with nitrogen-donor ligands.", "The larger ions are 9-coordinate in aqueous solution, Ln(H2O)93+ but the smaller ions are 8-coordinate, Ln(H2O)83+.", "There is some evidence that the later lanthanides have more water molecules in the second coordination sphere.", "Complexation with monodentate ligands is generally weak because it is difficult to displace water molecules from the first coordination sphere.", "Stronger complexes are formed with chelating ligands because of the chelate effect, such as the tetra-anion derived from 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA).", ":Samples of lanthanide nitrates in their hexahydrate form.", "From left to right: La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu.====Ln(II) and Ln(IV) compounds====The most common divalent derivatives of the lanthanides are for Eu(II), which achieves a favorable f7 configuration.", "Divalent halide derivatives are known for all of the lanthanides.", "They are either conventional salts or are Ln(III) \"electride\"-like salts.", "The simple salts include YbI2, EuI2, and SmI2.The electride-like salts, described as Ln3+, 2I−, e−, include LaI2, CeI2 and GdI2.Many of the iodides form soluble complexes with ethers, e.g.", "TmI2(dimethoxyethane)3.Samarium(II) iodide is a useful reducing agent.", "Ln(II) complexes can be synthesized by transmetalation reactions.", "The normal range of oxidation states can be expanded via the use of sterically bulky cyclopentadienyl ligands, in this way many lanthanides can be isolated as Ln(II) compounds.Ce(IV) in ceric ammonium nitrate is a useful oxidizing agent.", "The Ce(IV) is the exception owing to the tendency to form an unfilled f shell.", "Otherwise tetravalent lanthanides are rare.", "However, recently Tb(IV) and Pr(IV) complexes have been shown to exist.====Hydrides====Chemical elementLaCePrNdPmSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLu Atomic number575859606162636465666768697071Metal lattice (RT)dhcp fcc dhcp dhcp dhcp r bcc hcp hcp hcp hcphcp hcp hcp hcpDihydrideLaH2+xCeH2+xPrH2+x NdH2+x SmH2+x EuH2 o \"salt like\"GdH2+x TbH2+x DyH2+x HoH2+x ErH2+x TmH2+x YbH2+x o, ''fcc'' \"salt like\" LuH2+x''Structure''CaF2CaF2CaF2CaF2CaF2CaF2*PbCl2 CaF2CaF2CaF2CaF2CaF2CaF2 CaF2''metal sub lattice''''fcc''''fcc''''fcc''''fcc''''fcc''''fcc''''o''''fcc''''fcc''''fcc''''fcc''''fcc''''fcc''''o'' ''fcc''''fcc''TrihydrideLaH3−xCeH3−x PrH3−xNdH3−x |SmH3−x EuH3−x GdH3−xTbH3−x DyH3−x HoH3−xErH3−x LuH3−x''metal sub lattice''''fcc''''fcc''''fcc''''hcp''''hcp''''hcp''''fcc''''hcp''''hcp''''hcp''''hcp''''hcp''''hcp''''hcp''''hcp''Trihydride properties transparent insulators (color where recorded)red bronze to grey PrH3−x ''fcc''golden greenish EuH3−x ''fcc'' GdH3−x ''hcp'' TbH3−x ''hcp''DyH3−x ''hcp'' HoH3−x ''hcp''ErH3−x ''hcp'' LuH3−x ''hcp''Lanthanide metals react exothermically with hydrogen to form LnH2, dihydrides.", "With the exception of Eu and Yb, which resemble the Ba and Ca hydrides (non-conducting, transparent salt-like compounds),they form black pyrophoric, conducting compounds where the metal sub-lattice is face centred cubic and the H atoms occupy tetrahedral sites.", "Further hydrogenation produces a trihydride which is non-stoichiometric, non-conducting, more salt like.", "The formation of trihydride is associated with and increase in 8–10% volume and this is linked to greater localization of charge on the hydrogen atoms which become more anionic (H− hydride anion) in character.====Halides====+ Lanthanide halidesChemical elementLaCePrNdPmSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLu Atomic number575859606162636465666768697071'''Tetrafluoride''' '''''CeF4''''''''''PrF4''''''''''NdF4''''' '''''TbF4''''''''''DyF4''''' Color m.p.", "°C white decwhite dec white dec Structure C.N.UF4 8UF4 8 UF4 8 '''Trifluoride''''''''LaF3''''''''''CeF3''''''''''PrF3''''''''''NdF3''''''''''PmF3''''''''''SmF3''''''''''EuF3''''''''''GdF3''''''''''TbF3''''''''''DyF3''''''''''HoF3''''''''''ErF3''''''''''TmF3''''''''''YbF3''''''''''LuF3'''''Color m.p.", "°Cwhite 1493 white 1430green 1395violet 1374green 1399white 1306white 1276white 1231white 1172green 1154pink 1143pink 1140white 1158white 1157white 1182Structure C.N.", "LaF3 9 LaF3 9 LaF3 9 LaF3 9 LaF3 9 YF3 8YF3 8YF3 8YF3 8YF3 8YF3 8YF3 8YF3 8YF3 8YF3 8'''Trichloride''''''''LaCl3''''''''''CeCl3''''''''''PrCl3''''''''''NdCl3''''''''''PmCl3''''''''''SmCl3''''''''''EuCl3''''''''''GdCl3''''''''''TbCl3''''''''''DyCl3''''''''''HoCl3''''''''''ErCl3''''''''''TmCl3''''''''''YbCl3''''''''''LuCl3'''''Color m.p.", "°Cwhite 858white 817green 786mauve 758green 786yellow 682yellow decwhite 602white 582white 647yellow 720violet 776yellow 824white 865white 925Structure C.N.UCl3 9UCl3 9UCl3 9UCl3 9UCl3 9UCl3 9UCl3 9UCl3 9PuBr3 8 PuBr3 8YCl3 6YCl3 6YCl3 6YCl3 6YCl3 6'''Tribromide''''''''LaBr3''''''''''CeBr3''''''''''PrBr3''''''''''NdBr3''''''''''PmBr3''''''''''SmBr3''''''''''EuBr3''''''''''GdBr3''''''''''TbBr3''''''''''DyBr3''''''''''HoBr3''''''''''ErBr3''''''''''TmBr3''''''''''YbBr3''''''''''LuBr3'''''Color m.p.", "°Cwhite 783white 733green 691violet 682green 693yellow 640grey decwhite 770white 828white 879yellow 919violet 923white 954white decwhite 1025Structure C.N.UCl3 9UCl3 9UCl3 9PuBr3 8PuBr3 8PuBr3 8PuBr3 8 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6'''Triiodide''''''''LaI3''''''''''CeI3''''''''''PrI3''''''''''NdI3''''''''''PmI3''''''''''SmI3''''''''''EuI3''''''''''GdI3''''''''''TbI3''''''''''DyI3''''''''''HoI3''''''''''ErI3''''''''''TmI3''''''''''YbI3''''''''''LuI3'''''Color m.p.", "°Cyellow-green 772yellow 766green 738green 784green 737orange 850colorless dec. yellow 925 brown 957 green 978yellow 994violet 1015yellow 1021white decbrown 1050Structure C.N.PuBr3 8PuBr3 8PuBr3 8PuBr3 8 BiI3 6BiI3 6BiI3 6BiI3 6BiI3 6BiI3 6BiI3 6BiI3 6BiI3 6BiI3 6'''Difluoride''' '''''SmF2''''''''''EuF2''''' '''''TmF2''''''''''YbF2'''''Color m.p.", "°C purple 1417yellow 1416 grey Structure C.N.", "CaF2 8CaF2 8 CaF2 8'''Dichloride''' '''''NdCl2''''' '''''SmCl2''''''''''EuCl2''''' '''''DyCl2''''' '''''TmCl2''''''''''YbCl2'''''Color m.p.", "°C green 841 brown 859white 731 black dec. green 718green 720Structure C.N.", "PbCl2 9 PbCl2 9PbCl2 9 SrBr2 SrI2 7SrI2 7 '''Dibromide''' '''''NdBr2''''' '''''SmBr2''''''''''EuBr2''''' '''''DyBr2''''' '''''TmBr2''''''''''YbBr2'''''Color m.p.", "°C green 725 brown 669white 731 black green yellow 673Structure C.N.", "PbCl2 9 SrBr2 8SrBr2 8 SrI2 7 SrI2 7SrI2 7 '''Diiodide''''''''LaI2''''' metallic'''''CeI2''''' metallic '''''PrI2''''' metallic '''''NdI2''''' high pressure metallic '''''SmI2''''''''''EuI2''''' '''''GdI2''''' metallic '''''DyI2''''' '''''TmI2''''''''''YbI2'''''Color m.p.", "°C bronze 808bronze 758violet 562 green 520green 580bronze 831 purple 721 black 756yellow 780LuStructure C.N.CuTi2 8CuTi2 8CuTi2 8 SrBr2 8 CuTi2 8 EuI2 7EuI2 7 2H-MoS2 6 CdI2 6 CdI2 6 '''Ln7I12''''''''La7I12''''' '''''Pr7I12''''' '''''Tb7I12''''' '''Sesquichloride''''''''La2Cl3''''' '''''Gd2Cl3''''' '''''Tb2Cl3''''' '''''Er2Cl3''''' '''''Tm2Cl3''''' '''''Lu2Cl3'''''Structure Gd2Cl3 Gd2Cl3 '''Sesquibromide''' '''''Gd2Br3''''' '''''Tb2Br3''''' Structure Gd2Cl3 Gd2Cl3 '''Monoiodide''' '''''LaI''''' '''''TmI''''' Structure NiAs type The only tetrahalides known are the tetrafluorides of cerium, praseodymium, terbium, neodymium and dysprosium, the last two known only under matrix isolation conditions.All of the lanthanides form trihalides with fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.", "They are all high melting and predominantly ionic in nature.", "The fluorides are only slightly soluble in water and are not sensitive to air, and this contrasts with the other halides which are air sensitive, readily soluble in water and react at high temperature to form oxohalides.The trihalides were important as pure metal can be prepared from them.", "In the gas phase the trihalides are planar or approximately planar, the lighter lanthanides have a lower % of dimers, the heavier lanthanides a higher proportion.", "The dimers have a similar structure to Al2Cl6.Some of the dihalides are conducting while the rest are insulators.", "The conducting forms can be considered as LnIII electride compounds where the electron is delocalised into a conduction band, Ln3+ (X−)2(e−).", "All of the diiodides have relatively short metal-metal separations.", "The CuTi2 structure of the lanthanum, cerium and praseodymium diiodides along with HP-NdI2 contain 44 nets of metal and iodine atoms with short metal-metal bonds (393-386 La-Pr).", "these compounds should be considered to be two-dimensional metals (two-dimensional in the same way that graphite is).", "The salt-like dihalides include those of Eu, Dy, Tm, and Yb.", "The formation of a relatively stable +2 oxidation state for Eu and Yb is usually explained by the stability (exchange energy) of half filled (f7) and fully filled f14.GdI2 possesses the layered MoS2 structure, is ferromagnetic and exhibits colossal magnetoresistance.The sesquihalides Ln2X3 and the Ln7I12 compounds listed in the table contain metal clusters, discrete Ln6I12 clusters in Ln7I12 and condensed clusters forming chains in the sesquihalides.", "Scandium forms a similar cluster compound with chlorine, Sc7Cl12 Unlike many transition metal clusters these lanthanide clusters do not have strong metal-metal interactions and this is due to the low number of valence electrons involved, but instead are stabilised by the surrounding halogen atoms.LaI and TmI are the only known monohalides.", "LaI, prepared from the reaction of LaI3 and La metal, it has a NiAs type structure and can be formulated La3+ (I−)(e−)2.TmI is a true Tm(I) compound, however it is not isolated in a pure state.====Oxides and hydroxides====All of the lanthanides form sesquioxides, Ln2O3.The lighter/larger lanthanides adopt a hexagonal 7-coordinate structure while the heavier/smaller ones adopt a cubic 6-coordinate \"C-M2O3\" structure.", "All of the sesquioxides are basic, and absorb water and carbon dioxide from air to form carbonates, hydroxides and hydroxycarbonates.", "They dissolve in acids to form salts.Cerium forms a stoichiometric dioxide, CeO2, where cerium has an oxidation state of +4.CeO2 is basic and dissolves with difficulty in acid to form Ce4+ solutions, from which CeIV salts can be isolated, for example the hydrated nitrate Ce(NO3)4.5H2O.", "CeO2 is used as an oxidation catalyst in catalytic converters.", "Praseodymium and terbium form non-stoichiometric oxides containing LnIV, although more extreme reaction conditions can produce stoichiometric (or near stoichiometric) PrO2 and TbO2.Europium and ytterbium form salt-like monoxides, EuO and YbO, which have a rock salt structure.", "EuO is ferromagnetic at low temperatures, and is a semiconductor with possible applications in spintronics.", "A mixed EuII/EuIII oxide Eu3O4 can be produced by reducing Eu2O3 in a stream of hydrogen.", "Neodymium and samarium also form monoxides, but these are shiny conducting solids, although the existence of samarium monoxide is considered dubious.All of the lanthanides form hydroxides, Ln(OH)3.With the exception of lutetium hydroxide, which has a cubic structure, they have the hexagonal UCl3 structure.", "The hydroxides can be precipitated from solutions of LnIII.", "They can also be formed by the reaction of the sesquioxide, Ln2O3, with water, but although this reaction is thermodynamically favorable it is kinetically slow for the heavier members of the series.", "Fajans' rules indicate that the smaller Ln3+ ions will be more polarizing and their salts correspondingly less ionic.", "The hydroxides of the heavier lanthanides become less basic, for example Yb(OH)3 and Lu(OH)3 are still basic hydroxides but will dissolve in hot concentrated NaOH.====Chalcogenides (S, Se, Te)====All of the lanthanides form Ln2Q3 (Q= S, Se, Te).", "The sesquisulfides can be produced by reaction of the elements or (with the exception of Eu2S3) sulfidizing the oxide (Ln2O3) with H2S.", "The sesquisulfides, Ln2S3 generally lose sulfur when heated and can form a range of compositions between Ln2S3 and Ln3S4.The sesquisulfides are insulators but some of the Ln3S4 are metallic conductors (e.g.", "Ce3S4) formulated (Ln3+)3 (S2−)4 (e−), while others (e.g.", "Eu3S4 and Sm3S4) are semiconductors.", "Structurally the sesquisulfides adopt structures that vary according to the size of the Ln metal.", "The lighter and larger lanthanides favoring 7-coordinate metal atoms, the heaviest and smallest lanthanides (Yb and Lu) favoring 6 coordination and the rest structures with a mixture of 6 and 7 coordination.", "Polymorphism is common amongst the sesquisulfides.", "The colors of the sesquisulfides vary metal to metal and depend on the polymorphic form.", "The colors of the γ-sesquisulfides are La2S3, white/yellow; Ce2S3, dark red; Pr2S3, green; Nd2S3, light green; Gd2S3, sand; Tb2S3, light yellow and Dy2S3, orange.", "The shade of γ-Ce2S3 can be varied by doping with Na or Ca with hues ranging from dark red to yellow, and Ce2S3 based pigments are used commercially and are seen as low toxicity substitutes for cadmium based pigments.All of the lanthanides form monochalcogenides, LnQ, (Q= S, Se, Te).", "The majority of the monochalcogenides are conducting, indicating a formulation LnIIIQ2−(e-) where the electron is in conduction bands.", "The exceptions are SmQ, EuQ and YbQ which are semiconductors or insulators but exhibit a pressure induced transition to a conducting state.Compounds LnQ2 are known but these do not contain LnIV but are LnIII compounds containing polychalcogenide anions.Oxysulfides Ln2O2S are well known, they all have the same structure with 7-coordinate Ln atoms, and 3 sulfur and 4 oxygen atoms as near neighbours.Doping these with other lanthanide elements produces phosphors.", "As an example, gadolinium oxysulfide, Gd2O2S doped with Tb3+ produces visible photons when irradiated with high energy X-rays and is used as a scintillator in flat panel detectors.When mischmetal, an alloy of lanthanide metals, is added to molten steel to remove oxygen and sulfur, stable oxysulfides are produced that form an immiscible solid.====Pnictides (group 15)====All of the lanthanides form a mononitride, LnN, with the rock salt structure.", "The mononitrides have attracted interest because of their unusual physical properties.", "SmN and EuN are reported as being \"half metals\".", "NdN, GdN, TbN and DyN are ferromagnetic, SmN is antiferromagnetic.", "Applications in the field of spintronics are being investigated.CeN is unusual as it is a metallic conductor, contrasting with the other nitrides also with the other cerium pnictides.", "A simple description is Ce4+N3− (e–) but the interatomic distances are a better match for the trivalent state rather than for the tetravalent state.", "A number of different explanations have been offered.The nitrides can be prepared by the reaction of lanthanum metals with nitrogen.", "Some nitride is produced along with the oxide, when lanthanum metals are ignited in air.", "Alternative methods of synthesis are a high temperature reaction of lanthanide metals with ammonia or the decomposition of lanthanide amides, Ln(NH2)3.Achieving pure stoichiometric compounds, and crystals with low defect density has proved difficult.", "The lanthanide nitrides are sensitive to air and hydrolyse producing ammonia.The other pnictides phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth also react with the lanthanide metals to form monopnictides, LnQ, where Q = P, As, Sb or Bi.", "Additionally a range of other compounds can be produced with varying stoichiometries, such as LnP2, LnP5, LnP7, Ln3As, Ln5As3 and LnAs2.====Carbides====Carbides of varying stoichiometries are known for the lanthanides.", "Non-stoichiometry is common.", "All of the lanthanides form LnC2 and Ln2C3 which both contain C2 units.", "The dicarbides with exception of EuC2, are metallic conductors with the calcium carbide structure and can be formulated as Ln3+C22−(e–).", "The C-C bond length is longer than that in CaC2, which contains the C22− anion, indicating that the antibonding orbitals of the C22− anion are involved in the conduction band.", "These dicarbides hydrolyse to form hydrogen and a mixture of hydrocarbons.", "EuC2 and to a lesser extent YbC2 hydrolyse differently producing a higher percentage of acetylene (ethyne).", "The sesquicarbides, Ln2C3 can be formulated as Ln4(C2)3.These compounds adopt the Pu2C3 structure which has been described as having C22− anions in bisphenoid holes formed by eight near Ln neighbours.", "The lengthening of the C-C bond is less marked in the sesquicarbides than in the dicarbides, with the exception of Ce2C3.Other carbon rich stoichiometries are known for some lanthanides.", "Ln3C4 (Ho-Lu) containing C, C2 and C3 units; Ln4C7 (Ho-Lu) contain C atoms and C3 units and Ln4C5 (Gd-Ho) containing C and C2 units.Metal rich carbides contain interstitial C atoms and no C2 or C3 units.", "These are Ln4C3 (Tb and Lu); Ln2C (Dy, Ho, Tm) and Ln3C (Sm-Lu).====Borides====All of the lanthanides form a number of borides.", "The \"higher\" borides (LnBx where x > 12) are insulators/semiconductors whereas the lower borides are typically conducting.", "The lower borides have stoichiometries of LnB2, LnB4, LnB6 and LnB12.Applications in the field of spintronics are being investigated.", "The range of borides formed by the lanthanides can be compared to those formed by the transition metals.", "The boron rich borides are typical of the lanthanides (and groups 1–3) whereas for the transition metals tend to form metal rich, \"lower\" borides.", "The lanthanide borides are typically grouped together with the group 3 metals with which they share many similarities of reactivity, stoichiometry and structure.", "Collectively these are then termed the rare earth borides.Many methods of producing lanthanide borides have been used, amongst them are direct reaction of the elements; the reduction of Ln2O3 with boron; reduction of boron oxide, B2O3, and Ln2O3 together with carbon; reduction of metal oxide with boron carbide, B4C.", "Producing high purity samples has proved to be difficult.", "Single crystals of the higher borides have been grown in a low melting metal (e.g.", "Sn, Cu, Al).Diborides, LnB2, have been reported for Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu.", "All have the same, AlB2, structure containing a graphitic layer of boron atoms.", "Low temperature ferromagnetic transitions for Tb, Dy, Ho and Er.", "TmB2 is ferromagnetic at 7.2 K.Tetraborides, LnB4 have been reported for all of the lanthanides except EuB4, all have the same UB4 structure.", "The structure has a boron sub-lattice consists of chains of octahedral B6 clusters linked by boron atoms.", "The unit cell decreases in size successively from LaB4 to LuB4.The tetraborides of the lighter lanthanides melt with decomposition to LnB6.Attempts to make EuB4 have failed.", "The LnB4 are good conductors and typically antiferromagnetic.Hexaborides, LnB6 have been reported for all of the lanthanides.", "They all have the CaB6 structure, containing B6 clusters.", "They are non-stoichiometric due to cation defects.", "The hexaborides of the lighter lanthanides (La – Sm) melt without decomposition, EuB6 decomposes to boron and metal and the heavier lanthanides decompose to LnB4 with exception of YbB6 which decomposes forming YbB12.The stability has in part been correlated to differences in volatility between the lanthanide metals.", "In EuB6 and YbB6 the metals have an oxidation state of +2 whereas in the rest of the lanthanide hexaborides it is +3.This rationalises the differences in conductivity, the extra electrons in the LnIII hexaborides entering conduction bands.", "EuB6 is a semiconductor and the rest are good conductors.", "LaB6 and CeB6 are thermionic emitters, used, for example, in scanning electron microscopes.Dodecaborides, LnB12, are formed by the heavier smaller lanthanides, but not by the lighter larger metals, La – Eu.", "With the exception YbB12 (where Yb takes an intermediate valence and is a Kondo insulator), the dodecaborides are all metallic compounds.", "They all have the UB12 structure containing a 3 dimensional framework of cubooctahedral B12 clusters.The higher boride LnB66 is known for all lanthanide metals.", "The composition is approximate as the compounds are non-stoichiometric.", "They all have similar complex structure with over 1600 atoms in the unit cell.", "The boron cubic sub lattice contains super icosahedra made up of a central B12 icosahedra surrounded by 12 others, B12(B12)12.Other complex higher borides LnB50 (Tb, Dy, Ho Er Tm Lu) and LnB25 are known (Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er) and these contain boron icosahedra in the boron framework.====Organometallic compounds====Lanthanide-carbon σ bonds are well known; however as the 4f electrons have a low probability of existing at the outer region of the atom there is little effective orbital overlap, resulting in bonds with significant ionic character.", "As such organo-lanthanide compounds exhibit carbanion-like behavior, unlike the behavior in transition metal organometallic compounds.", "Because of their large size, lanthanides tend to form more stable organometallic derivatives with bulky ligands to give compounds such as LnCH(SiMe3)3.Analogues of uranocene are derived from dilithiocyclooctatetraene, Li2C8H8.Organic lanthanide(II) compounds are also known, such as Cp*2Eu." ], [ "Physical properties", "===Magnetic and spectroscopic===All the trivalent lanthanide ions, except lanthanum and lutetium, have unpaired f electrons.", "(Ligand-to-metal charge transfer can nonetheless produce a nonzero f-occupancy even in La(III) compounds.)", "However, the magnetic moments deviate considerably from the spin-only values because of strong spin–orbit coupling.", "The maximum number of unpaired electrons is 7, in Gd3+, with a magnetic moment of 7.94 B.M., but the largest magnetic moments, at 10.4–10.7 B.M., are exhibited by Dy3+ and Ho3+.", "However, in Gd3+ all the electrons have parallel spin and this property is important for the use of gadolinium complexes as contrast reagent in MRI scans.holmium oxide in 10% perchloric acid, permanently fused into a quartz cuvette as a wavelength calibration standardCrystal field splitting is rather small for the lanthanide ions and is less important than spin–orbit coupling in regard to energy levels.", "Transitions of electrons between f orbitals are forbidden by the Laporte rule.", "Furthermore, because of the \"buried\" nature of the f orbitals, coupling with molecular vibrations is weak.", "Consequently, the spectra of lanthanide ions are rather weak and the absorption bands are similarly narrow.", "Glass containing holmium oxide and holmium oxide solutions (usually in perchloric acid) have sharp optical absorption peaks in the spectral range 200–900 nm and can be used as a wavelength calibration standard for optical spectrophotometers, and are available commercially.As f-f transitions are Laporte-forbidden, once an electron has been excited, decay to the ground state will be slow.", "This makes them suitable for use in lasers as it makes the population inversion easy to achieve.", "The Nd:YAG laser is one that is widely used.", "Europium-doped yttrium vanadate was the first red phosphor to enable the development of color television screens.", "Lanthanide ions have notable luminescent properties due to their unique 4f orbitals.", "Laporte forbidden f-f transitions can be activated by excitation of a bound \"antenna\" ligand.", "This leads to sharp emission bands throughout the visible, NIR, and IR and relatively long luminescence lifetimes." ], [ "Occurrence", "The lanthanide contraction is responsible for the great geochemical divide that splits the lanthanides into light and heavy-lanthanide enriched minerals, the latter being almost inevitably associated with and dominated by yttrium.", "This divide is reflected in the first two \"rare earths\" that were discovered: yttria (1794) and ceria (1803).", "The geochemical divide has put more of the light lanthanides in the Earth's crust, but more of the heavy members in the Earth's mantle.", "The result is that although large rich ore-bodies are found that are enriched in the light lanthanides, correspondingly large ore-bodies for the heavy members are few.", "The principal ores are monazite and bastnäsite.", "Monazite sands usually contain all the lanthanide elements, but the heavier elements are lacking in bastnäsite.", "The lanthanides obey the Oddo–Harkins rule – odd-numbered elements are less abundant than their even-numbered neighbors.Three of the lanthanide elements have radioactive isotopes with long half-lives (138La, 147Sm and 176Lu) that can be used to date minerals and rocks from Earth, the Moon and meteorites.", "Promethium is effectively a man-made element, as all its isotopes are radioactive with half-lives shorter than 20 years." ], [ "Applications", "===Industrial===Lanthanide elements and their compounds have many uses but the quantities consumed are relatively small in comparison to other elements.", "About 15000 ton/year of the lanthanides are consumed as catalysts and in the production of glasses.", "This 15000 tons corresponds to about 85% of the lanthanide production.", "From the perspective of value, however, applications in phosphors and magnets are more important.The devices lanthanide elements are used in include superconductors, samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron high-flux rare-earth magnets, magnesium alloys, electronic polishers, refining catalysts and hybrid car components (primarily batteries and magnets).", "Lanthanide ions are used as the active ions in luminescent materials used in optoelectronics applications, most notably the Nd:YAG laser.", "Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers are significant devices in optical-fiber communication systems.", "Phosphors with lanthanide dopants are also widely used in cathode-ray tube technology such as television sets.", "The earliest color television CRTs had a poor-quality red; europium as a phosphor dopant made good red phosphors possible.", "Yttrium iron garnet (YIG) spheres can act as tunable microwave resonators.", "Lanthanide oxides are mixed with tungsten to improve their high temperature properties for TIG welding, replacing thorium, which was mildly hazardous to work with.", "Many defense-related products also use lanthanide elements such as night-vision goggles and rangefinders.", "The SPY-1 radar used in some Aegis equipped warships, and the hybrid propulsion system of s all use rare earth magnets in critical capacities.The price for lanthanum oxide used in fluid catalytic cracking has risen from $5 per kilogram in early 2010 to $140 per kilogram in June 2011.Most lanthanides are widely used in lasers, and as (co-)dopants in doped-fiber optical amplifiers; for example, in Er-doped fiber amplifiers, which are used as repeaters in the terrestrial and submarine fiber-optic transmission links that carry internet traffic.", "These elements deflect ultraviolet and infrared radiation and are commonly used in the production of sunglass lenses.", "Other applications are summarized in the following table:ApplicationPercentageCatalytic converters45%Petroleum refining catalysts25%Permanent magnets12%Glass polishing and ceramics7%Metallurgical7%Phosphors3%Other1%The complex Gd(DOTA) is used in magnetic resonance imaging.===Life science===Lanthanide complexes can be used for optical imaging.", "Applications are limited by the lability of the complexes.", "Some applications depend on the unique luminescence properties of lanthanide chelates or cryptates.", "These are well-suited for this application due to their large Stokes shifts and extremely long emission lifetimes (from microseconds to milliseconds) compared to more traditional fluorophores (e.g., fluorescein, allophycocyanin, phycoerythrin, and rhodamine).", "The biological fluids or serum commonly used in these research applications contain many compounds and proteins which are naturally fluorescent.", "Therefore, the use of conventional, steady-state fluorescence measurement presents serious limitations in assay sensitivity.", "Long-lived fluorophores, such as lanthanides, combined with time-resolved detection (a delay between excitation and emission detection) minimizes prompt fluorescence interference.Time-resolved fluorometry (TRF) combined with Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) offers a powerful tool for drug discovery researchers: Time-Resolved Förster Resonance Energy Transfer or TR-FRET.", "TR-FRET combines the low background aspect of TRF with the homogeneous assay format of FRET.", "The resulting assay provides an increase in flexibility, reliability and sensitivity in addition to higher throughput and fewer false positive/false negative results.This method involves two fluorophores: a donor and an acceptor.", "Excitation of the donor fluorophore (in this case, the lanthanide ion complex) by an energy source (e.g.", "flash lamp or laser) produces an energy transfer to the acceptor fluorophore if they are within a given proximity to each other (known as the Förster's radius).", "The acceptor fluorophore in turn emits light at its characteristic wavelength.The two most commonly used lanthanides in life science assays are shown below along with their corresponding acceptor dye as well as their excitation and emission wavelengths and resultant Stokes shift (separation of excitation and emission wavelengths).DonorExcitation⇒Emission λ (nm)AcceptorExcitation⇒Emission λ (nm)Stoke's Shift (nm)Eu3+340⇒615Allophycocyanin615⇒660320Tb3+340⇒545Phycoerythrin545⇒575235===Possible medical uses===Currently there is research showing that lanthanide elements can be used as anticancer agents.", "The main role of the lanthanides in these studies is to inhibit proliferation of the cancer cells.", "Specifically cerium and lanthanum have been studied for their role as anti-cancer agents.One of the specific elements from the lanthanide group that has been tested and used is cerium (Ce).", "There have been studies that use a protein-cerium complex to observe the effect of cerium on the cancer cells.", "The hope was to inhibit cell proliferation and promote cytotoxicity.", "Transferrin receptors in cancer cells, such as those in breast cancer cells and epithelial cervical cells, promote the cell proliferation and malignancy of the cancer.", "Transferrin is a protein used to transport iron into the cells and is needed to aid the cancer cells in DNA replication.", "Transferrin acts as a growth factor for the cancerous cells and is dependent on iron.", "Cancer cells have much higher levels of transferrin receptors than normal cells and are very dependent on iron for their proliferation.", "Cerium has shown results as an anti-cancer agent due to its similarities in structure and biochemistry to iron.", "Cerium may bind in the place of iron on to the transferrin and then be brought into the cancer cells by transferrin-receptor mediated endocytosis.", "The cerium binding to the transferrin in place of the iron inhibits the transferrin activity in the cell.", "This creates a toxic environment for the cancer cells and causes a decrease in cell growth.", "This is the proposed mechanism for cerium's effect on cancer cells, though the real mechanism may be more complex in how cerium inhibits cancer cell proliferation.", "Specifically in HeLa cancer cells studied in vitro, cell viability was decreased after 48 to 72 hours of cerium treatments.", "Cells treated with just cerium had decreases in cell viability, but cells treated with both cerium and transferrin had more significant inhibition for cellular activity.Another specific element that has been tested and used as an anti-cancer agent is lanthanum, more specifically lanthanum chloride (LaCl3).", "The lanthanum ion is used to affect the levels of let-7a and microRNAs miR-34a in a cell throughout the cell cycle.", "When the lanthanum ion was introduced to the cell in vivo or in vitro, it inhibited the rapid growth and induced apoptosis of the cancer cells (specifically cervical cancer cells).", "This effect was caused by the regulation of the let-7a and microRNAs by the lanthanum ions.", "The mechanism for this effect is still unclear but it is possible that the lanthanum is acting in a similar way as the cerium and binding to a ligand necessary for cancer cell proliferation." ], [ "Biological effects", "Due to their sparse distribution in the earth's crust and low aqueous solubility, the lanthanides have a low availability in the biosphere, and for a long time were not known to naturally form part of any biological molecules.", "In 2007 a novel methanol dehydrogenase that strictly uses lanthanides as enzymatic cofactors was discovered in a bacterium from the phylum Verrucomicrobiota, ''Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum''.", "This bacterium was found to survive only if there are lanthanides present in the environment.", "Compared to most other nondietary elements, non-radioactive lanthanides are classified as having low toxicity.", "The same nutritional requirement has also been observed ''Methylorubrum extorquens'' and ''Methylobacterium radiotolerans''." ], [ "See also", "* Actinides, the heavier congeners of the lanthanides* Group 3 element* Lanthanide probes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Cited sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* lanthanide Sparkle Model, used in the computational chemistry of lanthanide complexes* USGS Rare Earths Statistics and Information* Ana de Bettencourt-Dias: Chemistry of the lanthanides and lanthanide-containing materials* Eric Scerri, 2007, ''The periodic table: Its story and its significance,'' Oxford University Press, New York," ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lucifer" ], [ "Introduction", "''The Fallen Angel'' (1847) by Alexandre Cabanel (Musée Fabre, Montpellier)|250x250pxThe most common meaning for '''Lucifer''' in English is as a name for the Devil in Christian theology.", "It appeared in the King James Version of the Bible in Isaiah and before that in the Vulgate (the late-4th-century Latin translation of the Bible), not as the name of a devil but as the Latin word (uncapitalized), meaning \"the morning star\", \"the planet Venus\", or, as an adjective, \"light-bringing\".", "It is a translation of the Hebrew word , meaning \"Shining One\".", "As the Latin name for the morning appearances of the planet Venus, it corresponds to the Greek names Phosphorus , \"light-bringer\", and Eosphorus , \"dawn-bringer\".", "The entity's Latin name was subsequently absorbed into Christianity as a name for the devil.", "Modern scholarship generally translates the term in the relevant Bible passage (Isaiah 14:12), where the Greek Septuagint reads ὁ ἑωσφόρος ὁ πρωὶ, as \"morning star\" or \"shining one\" rather than as a proper noun, Lucifer, as found in the Latin Vulgate.", "The word \"Lucifer\" appears in The Second Epistle of Peter (''2 Peter 1:19'') in the Latin Vulgate to refer to Jesus.", "The word \"Lucifer\" is also used in the Latin version of Exsultet, the Easter proclamation.As a name for the planet in its morning aspect, \"Lucifer\" (Light-Bringer) is a proper noun and is capitalized in English.", "In Greco-Roman civilization, it was often personified and considered a god and in some versions considered a son of Aurora (the Dawn).", "A similar name used by the Roman poet Catullus for the planet in its evening aspect is \"Noctifer\" (Night-Bringer)." ], [ "Roman folklore and etymology", "Lucifer (the morning star) represented as a winged child pouring light from a jar.", "Engraving by G. H. Frezza, 1704.In Roman folklore, Lucifer (\"light-bringer\" in Latin) was the name of the planet Venus, though it was often personified as a male figure bearing a torch.", "The Greek name for this planet was variously Phosphoros (also meaning \"light-bringer\") or Heosphoros (meaning \"dawn-bringer\").", "Lucifer was said to be \"the fabled son of Aurora and Cephalus, and father of Ceyx\".", "He was often presented in poetry as heralding the dawn.Planet Venus in alignment with Mercury (above) and the Moon (below)The Latin word corresponding to Greek is .", "It is used in its astronomical sense both in prose and poetry.", "Poets sometimes personify the star, placing it in a mythological context.Lucifer's mother Aurora corresponds to goddesses in other cultures.", "The name \"Aurora\" is cognate to the name of the Vedic goddess Ushas, that of the Lithuanian goddess Aušrinė, and that of the Greek goddess Eos, all three of whom are also goddesses of the dawn.", "All four are considered derivatives of the Proto-Indo-European stem '''' (later ''''), \"dawn\", a stem that also gave rise to Proto-Germanic , Old Germanic and Old English (whence also Modern German \"Österreich\" meaning \"Eastern Kingdom\", as well as Modern English \"east\".)", "This agreement has led scholars to reconstruct a Proto-Indo-European dawn goddess.The 2nd-century Roman mythographer Pseudo-Hyginus said of the planet:The Latin poet Ovid, in his 1st-century epic , describes Lucifer as ordering the heavens:Ovid, speaking of Phosphorus and Hesperus (the Evening Star, the evening appearance of the planet Venus) as identical, makes him the father of Daedalion.", "Ovid also makes him the father of Ceyx, while the Latin grammarian Servius makes him the father of the Hesperides or of Hesperis.In the classical Roman period, Lucifer was not typically regarded as a deity and had few, if any, myths, though the planet was associated with various deities and often poetically personified.", "Cicero stated that \"You say that Sol the Sun and Luna the Moon are deities, and the Greeks identify the former with Apollo and the latter with Diana.", "But if Luna (the Moon) is a goddess, then Lucifer (the Morning-Star) also and the rest of the Wandering Stars () will have to be counted gods; and if so, then the Fixed Stars () as well.\"" ], [ "Planet Venus, Sumerian folklore, and fall from heaven motif", "The motif of a heavenly being striving for the highest seat of heaven only to be cast down to the underworld has its origins in the motions of the planet Venus, known as the morning star.The Sumerian goddess Inanna (Babylonian Ishtar) is associated with the planet Venus, and Inanna's actions in several of her myths, including ''Inanna and Shukaletuda'' and ''Inanna's Descent into the Underworld'' appear to parallel the motion of Venus as it progresses through its synodic cycle.A similar theme is present in the Babylonian myth of Etana.", "The ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' comments:The fall from heaven motif also has a parallel in Canaanite mythology.", "In ancient Canaanite religion, the morning star is personified as the god Attar, who attempted to occupy the throne of Ba'al and, finding he was unable to do so, descended and ruled the underworld.", "The original myth may have been about the lesser god Helel trying to dethrone the Canaanite high god El, who lived on a mountain to the north.", "Hermann Gunkel's reconstruction of the myth told of a mighty warrior called Hêlal, whose ambition was to ascend higher than all the other stellar divinities, but who had to descend to the depths; it thus portrayed as a battle the process by which the bright morning star fails to reach the highest point in the sky before being faded out by the rising sun.", "However, the Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible argues that no evidence has been found of any Canaanite myth or imagery of a god being forcibly thrown from heaven, as in the Book of Isaiah (see below).", "It argues that the closest parallels with Isaiah's description of the king of Babylon as a fallen morning star cast down from heaven are to be found not in Canaanite myths, but in traditional ideas of the Jewish people, echoed in the Biblical account of the fall of Adam and Eve, cast out of God's presence for wishing to be as God, and the picture in Psalm 82 of the \"gods\" and \"sons of the Most High\" destined to die and fall.", "This Jewish tradition has echoes also in Jewish pseudepigrapha such as 2 Enoch and the Life of Adam and Eve.", "The Life of Adam and Eve, in turn, shaped the idea of Iblis in the Quran.The Greek myth of Phaethon, a personification of the planet Jupiter, follows a similar pattern." ], [ "Christianity", "=== In the Bible ===''Le génie du mal'' (1848) by Guillaume Geefs (Liège Cathedral), known in English as ''The Genius of Evil, The Spirit of Evil, The Lucifer of Liège'', or simply ''Lucifer''In the Book of Isaiah, chapter 14, the king of Babylon is condemned in a prophetic vision by the prophet Isaiah and is called (, Hebrew for \"shining one, son of the morning\"), who is addressed as ().", "The title refers to the planet Venus as the morning star, and that is how the Hebrew word is usually interpreted.", "The Hebrew word transliterated as or , occurs only once in the Hebrew Bible.", "The Septuagint renders in Greek as (), \"bringer of dawn\", the Ancient Greek name for the morning star.", "Similarly the Vulgate renders in Latin as , the name in that language for the morning star.", "According to the King James Bible-based Strong's Concordance, the original Hebrew word means \"shining one, light-bearer\", and the English translation given in the King James text is the Latin name for the planet Venus, \"Lucifer\", as it was already in the Wycliffe Bible.However, the translation of as \"Lucifer\" has been abandoned in modern English translations of Isaiah 14:12.Present-day translations render as \"morning star\" (New International Version, New Century Version, New American Standard Bible, Good News Translation, Holman Christian Standard Bible, Contemporary English Version, Common English Bible, Complete Jewish Bible), \"daystar\" (New Jerusalem Bible, The Message), \"Day Star\" (New Revised Standard Version, English Standard Version), \"shining one\" (New Life Version, New World Translation, JPS Tanakh), or \"shining star\" (New Living Translation).In a modern translation from the original Hebrew, the passage in which the phrase \"Lucifer\" or \"morning star\" occurs begins with the statement: \"On the day the Lord gives you relief from your suffering and turmoil and from the harsh labour forced on you, you will take up this taunt against the king of Babylon: How the oppressor has come to an end!", "How his fury has ended!\"", "After describing the death of the king, the taunt continues:For the unnamed \"king of Babylon\", a wide range of identifications have been proposed.", "They include a Babylonian ruler of the prophet Isaiah's own time, the later Nebuchadnezzar II, under whom the Babylonian captivity of the Jews began, or Nabonidus, and the Assyrian kings Tiglath-Pileser, Sargon II and Sennacherib.", "Verse 20 says that this king of Babylon will not be \"joined with them all the kings of the nations in burial, because thou hast destroyed thy land, thou hast slain thy people; the seed of evil-doers shall not be named for ever\", but rather be cast out of the grave, while \"All the kings of the nations, all of them, sleep in glory, every one in his own house\".", "Herbert Wolf held that the \"king of Babylon\" was not a specific ruler but a generic representation of the whole line of rulers.Isaiah 14:12 became a source for the popular conception of the fallen angel motif.", "Rabbinical Judaism has rejected any belief in rebel or fallen angels.", "In the 11th century, the ''Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer'' illustrates the origin of the \"fallen angel myth\" by giving two accounts, one relates to the angel in the Garden of Eden who seduces Eve, and the other relates to the angels, the who cohabit with the daughters of man (Genesis 6:1–4).", "An association of Isaiah 14:12–18 with a personification of evil, called the devil, developed outside of mainstream Rabbinic Judaism in pseudepigrapha, and later in Christian writings, particularly with the apocalypses.=== As the devil ===Illustration of Lucifer in the first fully illustrated print edition of Dante Alighieri's ''Divine Comedy''.", "Woodcut for ''Inferno'', canto 33.Pietro di Piasi, Venice, 1491.The metaphor of the morning star that Isaiah 14:12 applied to a king of Babylon gave rise to the general use of the Latin word for \"morning star\", capitalized, as the original name of the devil before his fall from grace, linking Isaiah 14:12 with Luke 10 (\"I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven\") and interpreting the passage in Isaiah as an allegory of Satan's fall from heaven.Considering pride as a major sin peaking in self-deification, Lucifer () became the template for the devil.", "As a result, Lucifer was identified with the devil in Christianity and in Christian popular literature, as in Dante Alighieri's ''Inferno'', Joost van den Vondel's ''Lucifer'', and John Milton's ''Paradise Lost''.", "Early medieval Christianity fairly distinguished between Lucifer and Satan.", "While Lucifer, as the devil, is fixated in hell, Satan executes the desires of Lucifer as his vassal.==== Interpretations ====Gustave Doré, illustration to ''Paradise Lost'', book IX, 179–187: \"he Satan held on / His midnight search, where soonest he might finde / The Serpent: him fast sleeping soon he found\"J. Mehoffer, fallen Lucifer and the hound of hell Aquila of Sinope derives the word , the Hebrew name for the morning star, from the verb (to lament).", "This derivation was adopted as a proper name for an angel who laments the loss of his former beauty.", "The Christian church fathers – for example Hieronymus, in his Vulgate – translated this as Lucifer.", "The equation of Lucifer with the fallen angel probably occurred in 1st century Palestinian Judaism.", "The church fathers brought the fallen lightbringer Lucifer into connection with the Devil on the basis of a saying of Jesus in the Gospel of Luke (10.18 EU): \"I saw Satan fall from heaven like lightning.", "\"Some Christian writers have applied the name \"Lucifer\" as used in the Book of Isaiah, and the motif of a heavenly being cast down to the earth, to the devil.", "Sigve K. Tonstad argues that the New Testament War in Heaven theme of Revelation 12, in which the dragon \"who is called the devil and Satan ... was thrown down to the earth\", was derived from the passage about the Babylonian king in Isaiah 14.Origen (184/185–253/254) interpreted such Old Testament passages as being about manifestations of the devil.", "Origen was not the first to interpret the Isaiah 14 passage as referring to the devil: he was preceded by at least Tertullian (), who in his (book 5, chapters 11 and 17) twice presents as spoken by the devil the words of Isaiah 14:14: \"I will ascend above the tops of the clouds; I will make myself like the Most High\".", "Though Tertullian was a speaker of the language in which the word \"lucifer\" was created, \"Lucifer\" is not among the numerous names and phrases he used to describe the devil.", "Even at the time of the Latin writer Augustine of Hippo (354–430), a contemporary of the composition of the Vulgate, \"Lucifer\" had not yet become a common name for the devil.Augustine of Hippo's work (5th century) became the major opinion of Western demonology including in the Catholic Church.", "For Augustine, the rebellion of the devil was the first and final cause of evil.", "By this he rejected some earlier teachings about Satan having fallen when the world was already created.", "Further, Augustine rejects the idea that envy could have been the first sin (as some early Christians believed, evident from sources like Cave of Treasures in which Satan has fallen because he envies humans and refused to prostrate himself before Adam), since pride (\"loving yourself more than others and God\") is required to be envious (\"hatred for the happiness of others\").", "He argues that evil came first into existence by the free will of Lucifer.", "Lucifer's attempt to take God's throne is not an assault on the gates of heaven, but a turn to solipsism in which the devil becomes God in his world.", "When the King of Babel uttered his phrase in Isaiah, he was speaking through the spirit of Lucifer, the head of devils.", "He concluded that everyone who falls away from God are within the body of Lucifer, and is a devil.Adherents of the King James Only movement and others who hold that Isaiah 14:12 does indeed refer to the devil have decried the modern translations.", "An opposing view attributes to Origen the first identification of the \"Lucifer\" of Isaiah 14:12 with the devil and to Tertullian and Augustine of Hippo the spread of the story of Lucifer as fallen through pride, envy of God and jealousy of humans.The 1409 Lollard manuscript titled ''Lanterne of Light'' associated Lucifer with the deadly sin of the pride.Protestant theologian John Calvin rejected the identification of Lucifer with Satan or the devil.", "He said: \"The exposition of this passage, which some have given, as if it referred to Satan, has arisen from ignorance: for the context plainly shows these statements must be understood in reference to the king of the Babylonians.\"", "Martin Luther also considered it a gross error to refer this verse to the devil.Counter-Reformation writers, like Albertanus of Brescia, classified the seven deadly sins each to a specific Biblical demon.", "He, as well as Peter Binsfield, assigned Lucifer to the sin ''pride''.==== Gnosticism ====Since Lucifer's sin mainly consists of self-deification, some Gnostic sects identified Lucifer with the creator deity in the Old Testament.", "In the Bogomil and Cathar text ''Gospel of the Secret Supper'', Lucifer is a glorified angel but fell from heaven to establish his own kingdom and became the Demiurge who created the material world and trapped souls from heaven inside matter.", "Jesus descended to earth to free the captured souls.", "In contrast to mainstream Christianity, the cross was denounced as a symbol of Lucifer and his instrument in an attempt to kill Jesus.==== Latter Day Saint movement ====Lucifer is regarded within the Latter Day Saint movement as the pre-mortal name of the devil.", "Mormon theology teaches that in a heavenly council, Lucifer rebelled against the plan of God the Father and was subsequently cast out.", "The Doctrine and Covenants reads:After becoming Satan by his fall, Lucifer \"goeth up and down, to and fro in the earth, seeking to destroy the souls of men\".", "Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints consider Isaiah 14:12 to be referring to both the king of the Babylonians and the devil." ], [ "Other occurrences", "===Anthroposophy===Rudolf Steiner's writings, which formed the basis for Anthroposophy, characterised Lucifer as a spiritual opposite to Ahriman, with Christ between the two forces, mediating a balanced path for humanity.", "Lucifer represents an intellectual, imaginative, delusional, otherworldly force which might be associated with visions, subjectivity, psychosis and fantasy.", "He associated Lucifer with the religious/philosophical cultures of Egypt, Rome and Greece.", "Steiner believed that Lucifer, as a supersensible Being, had incarnated in China about 3000 years before the birth of Christ.===Luciferianism===Luciferianism is a belief structure that venerates the fundamental traits that are attributed to Lucifer.", "The custom, inspired by the teachings of Gnosticism, usually reveres Lucifer not as the devil, but as a savior, a guardian or instructing spirit or even the true god as opposed to Jehovah.In Anton LaVey's ''The Satanic Bible'', Lucifer is one of the four crown princes of hell, particularly that of the East, the 'lord of the air', and is called the bringer of light, the morning star, intellectualism, and enlightenment.===Freemasonry===Léo Taxil (1854–1907) claimed that Freemasonry is associated with worshipping Lucifer.", "In what is known as the Taxil hoax, he alleged that leading Freemason Albert Pike had addressed \"The 23 Supreme Confederated Councils of the world\" (an invention of Taxil), instructing them that Lucifer was God, and was in opposition to the evil god Adonai.", "Taxil promoted a book by Diana Vaughan (actually written by himself, as he later confessed publicly) that purported to reveal a highly secret ruling body called the Palladium, which controlled the organization and had a satanic agenda.", "As described by ''Freemasonry Disclosed'' in 1897:Supporters of Freemasonry assert that, when Albert Pike and other Masonic scholars spoke about the \"Luciferian path,\" or the \"energies of Lucifer,\" they were referring to the Morning Star, the light bearer, the search for light; the very antithesis of dark.", "Pike says in Morals and Dogma, \"Lucifer, the Son of the Morning!", "Is it who bears the Light, and with its splendors intolerable blinds feeble, sensual, or selfish Souls?", "Doubt it not!\"", "Much has been made of this quote.Taxil's work and Pike's address continue to be quoted by anti-masonic groups.In ''Devil-Worship in France'', Arthur Edward Waite compared Taxil's work to today's tabloid journalism, replete with logical and factual inconsistencies.===Charles Godfrey Leland===In a collection of folklore and magical practices supposedly collected in Italy by Charles Godfrey Leland and published in his ''Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches'', the figure of Lucifer is featured prominently as both the brother and consort of the goddess Diana, and father of Aradia, at the center of an alleged Italian witch-cult.", "In Leland's mythology, Diana pursued her brother Lucifer across the sky as a cat pursues a mouse.", "According to Leland, after dividing herself into light and darkness:Here, the motions of Diana and Lucifer once again mirror the celestial motions of the moon and Venus, respectively.", "Though Leland's Lucifer is based on the classical personification of the planet Venus, he also incorporates elements from Christian tradition, as in the following passage:In the several modern Wiccan traditions based in part on Leland's work, the figure of Lucifer is usually either omitted or replaced as Diana's consort with either the Etruscan god Tagni, or Dianus (Janus, following the work of folklorist James Frazer in ''The Golden Bough'')." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Inf.", "34 Alessandro Vellutello, Lucifero (1534).jpg|Lucifer, by Alessandro Vellutello (1534), for Dante's ''Inferno'', canto 34File:Illustrations to Dante's Divine Comedy, object 72 Butlin 812-69 recto Lucifer.jpg|Lucifer, by William Blake, for Dante's ''Inferno'', canto 34File:ParadiseLButts1.jpg|Satan/Lucifer arousing rebel angels in Milton's ''Paradise Lost'', by William BlakeFile:Copertina_Lucifero.jpg|Cover of 1887 edition of Mario Rapisardi's poem ''Lucifero''File:Zichy,Mihaly - Lucifer az urral szemben (Madach).jpg|Lucifer before the Lord, by Mihály Zichy (19th century)File:Punchinello Mayor Hall.png|Mayor Hall and Lucifer, by an unknown artist (1870)File:Paradise Lost 12.jpg|Gustave Doré's illustration for Milton's ''Paradise Lost'', III, 739–742: Satan on his way to bring about the fall of manFile:Paradise Lost 19.jpg|Gustave Doré's illustration for Milton's ''Paradise Lost'', V, 1006–1015: Satan yielding before Gabriel" ], [ "Modern popular culture" ], [ "See also", "* Angra Mainyu* Aphrodite* Astarte* Asura* Aurvandil, aka Earendel* Azazil (Angelic name of Satan in Islam)* Azazel* Devil in popular culture* ''Doctor Faustus'', tragic play by Christopher Marlowe* Erlik* Guardian of the Threshold* ''Inferno'', first of the three canticas of Dante's ''Divine Comedy''* ''Luceafărul'', a literary magazine* Luceafărul, a poem by the poet Mihai Eminescu* ''Lucifer and Prometheus''* ''The Lucifer Effect''* Luciform body* Lucis Trust * Phosphorus, the morning star, aka Eosphorus and Heosphorus* Shahar" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "***" ], [ "External links", "*The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (2010).", "Lucifer (classical mythology).", "''Encyclopaedia Britannica.''", "Encyclopædia Britannica, inc.*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lambda phage" ], [ "Introduction", "Bacteriophage Lambda Structural Model at Atomic Resolution'''''Enterobacteria phage λ''''' ('''lambda phage''', '''coliphage λ''', officially '''''Escherichia virus Lambda''''') is a bacterial virus, or bacteriophage, that infects the bacterial species ''Escherichia coli'' (''E.", "coli'').", "It was discovered by Esther Lederberg in 1950.The wild type of this virus has a temperate life cycle that allows it to either reside within the genome of its host through lysogeny or enter into a lytic phase, during which it kills and lyses the cell to produce offspring.", "Lambda strains, mutated at specific sites, are unable to lysogenize cells; instead, they grow and enter the lytic cycle after superinfecting an already lysogenized cell.The phage particle consists of a head (also known as a capsid), a tail, and tail fibers (see image of virus below).", "The head contains the phage's double-strand linear DNA genome.", "During infections, the phage particle recognizes and binds to its host, ''E.", "coli'', causing DNA in the head of the phage to be ejected through the tail into the cytoplasm of the bacterial cell.", "Usually, a \"lytic cycle\" ensues, where the lambda DNA is replicated and new phage particles are produced within the cell.", "This is followed by cell lysis, releasing the cell contents, including virions that have been assembled, into the environment.", "However, under certain conditions, the phage DNA may integrate itself into the host cell chromosome in the lysogenic pathway.", "In this state, the λ DNA is called a prophage and stays resident within the host's genome without apparent harm to the host.", "The host is termed a lysogen when a prophage is present.", "This prophage may enter the lytic cycle when the lysogen enters a stressed condition." ], [ "Anatomy", " Bacteriophage lambda virion (schematic).", "Protein names and their copy numbers in the virion particle are shown.", "The presence of the L and M proteins in the virion is still unclear.The virus particle consists of a head and a tail that can have tail fibers.", "The whole particle consists of 12–14 different proteins with more than 1000 protein molecules total and one DNA molecule located in the phage head.", "However, it is still not entirely clear whether the L and M proteins are part of the virion.", "All characterized lambdoid phages possess an N protein-mediated transcription antitermination mechanism, with the exception of phage HK022.Linear layout of lambda phage genome with major operons, promoter regions and capsid coding genes.The genome contains 48,502 base pairs of double-stranded, linear DNA, with 12-base single-strand segments at both 5' ends.", "These two single-stranded segments are the \"sticky ends\" of what is called the ''cos'' site.", "The ''cos'' site circularizes the DNA in the host cytoplasm.", "In its circular form, the phage genome, therefore, is 48,502 base pairs in length.", "The lambda genome can be inserted into the '' E. coli'' chromosome and is then called a prophage.", "See section below for details.The tail of lambda phages is made of at least 6 proteins (H, J, U, V, Stf, Tfa) and requires 7 more for assembly (I, K, L, M, Z, G/T).", "This assembly process begins with protein J, which then recruits proteins I, L, K, and G/T to add protein H. Once G and G/T leave the complex, protein V can assemble onto the J/H scaffold.", "Then, protein U is added to the head-proximal end of the tail.", "Protein Z is able to connect the tail to the head.", "Protein H is cleaved due to the actions of proteins U and Z." ], [ "Life cycle", "=== Infection ===Lambda phage J protein interaction with the LamB porinLambda phage is a non-contractile tailed phage, meaning during an infection event it cannot 'force' its DNA through a bacterial cell membrane.", "It must instead use an existing pathway to invade the host cell, having evolved the tip of its tail to interact with a specific pore to allow entry of its DNA to the hosts.# Bacteriophage Lambda binds to an ''E.", "coli'' cell by means of its J protein in the tail tip.", "The J protein interacts with the maltose outer membrane porin (the product of the ''lamB'' gene) of ''E.", "coli'', a porin molecule, which is part of the maltose operon.# The linear phage genome is injected through the outer membrane.# The DNA passes through the mannose permease complex in the inner membrane (encoded by the manXYZ genes) and immediately circularises using the ''cos'' sites, 12-base G-C-rich cohesive \"sticky ends\".", "The single-strand viral DNA ends are ligated by host DNA ligase.", "It is not generally appreciated that the 12 bp lambda cohesive ends were the subject of the first direct nucleotide sequencing of a biological DNA.Lambda phage DNA injection into the cell membrane using Mannose PTS permease (a sugar transporting system) as a mechanism of entry into the cytoplasm# Host DNA gyrase puts negative supercoils in the circular chromosome, causing A-T-rich regions to unwind and drive transcription.# Transcription starts from the constitutive ''PL'', ''PR'' and ''PR''' promoters producing the 'immediate early' transcripts.", "At first, these express the ''N'' and ''cro'' genes, producing N, Cro and a short inactive protein.Early activation events involving N protein# Cro binds to ''OR3'', preventing access to the ''PRM'' promoter, preventing expression of the ''cI'' gene.", "N binds to the two ''Nut'' (N utilisation) sites, one in the ''N'' gene in the ''PL'' reading frame, and one in the ''cro'' gene in the ''PR'' reading frame.# The N protein is an antiterminator, and functions by engaging the transcribing RNA polymerase at specific sites of the nascently transcribed mRNA.", "When RNA polymerase transcribes these regions, it recruits N and forms a complex with several host Nus proteins.", "This complex skips through most termination sequences.", "The extended transcripts (the 'late early' transcripts) include the ''N'' and ''cro'' genes along with ''cII'' and ''cIII'' genes, and ''xis'', ''int'', ''O'', ''P'' and ''Q'' genes discussed later.# The cIII protein acts to protect the cII protein from proteolysis by FtsH (a membrane-bound essential ''E''.", "''coli'' protease) by acting as a competitive inhibitor.", "This inhibition can induce a bacteriostatic state, which favours lysogeny.", "cIII also directly stabilises the cII protein.On initial infection, the stability of cII determines the lifestyle of the phage; stable cII will lead to the lysogenic pathway, whereas if cII is degraded the phage will go into the lytic pathway.", "Low temperature, starvation of the cells and high multiplicity of infection (MOI) are known to favor lysogeny (see later discussion).==== N antitermination ====This occurs without the N protein interacting with the DNA; the protein instead binds to the freshly transcribed mRNA.", "Nut sites contain 3 conserved \"boxes\", of which only BoxB is essential.# The boxB RNA sequences are located close to the 5' end of the pL and pR transcripts.", "When transcribed, each sequence forms a hairpin loop structure that the N protein can bind to.# N protein binds to boxB in each transcript, and contacts the transcribing RNA polymerase via RNA looping.", "The N-RNAP complex is stabilized by subsequent binding of several host Nus (N utilisation substance) proteins (which include transcription termination/antitermination factors and, bizarrely, a ribosome subunit).# The entire complex (including the bound ''Nut'' site on the mRNA) continues transcription, and can skip through termination sequences.===Lytic life cycle===E.", "coli'' bacteriaThis is the lifecycle that the phage follows following most infections, where the cII protein does not reach a high enough concentration due to degradation, so does not activate its promoters.# The 'late early' transcripts continue being written, including ''xis'', ''int'', ''Q'' and genes for replication of the lambda genome (''OP'').", "Cro dominates the repressor site (see \"Repressor\" section), repressing synthesis from the ''PRM'' promoter (which is a promoter of the lysogenic cycle).# The O and P proteins initiate replication of the phage chromosome (see \"Lytic Replication\").# Q, another antiterminator, binds to ''Qut'' sites.# Transcription from the ''PR''' promoter can now extend to produce mRNA for the lysis and the head and tail proteins.# Structural proteins and phage genomes self-assemble into new phage particles.# Products of the genes ''S'',''R'', ''Rz'' and ''Rz1'' cause cell lysis.", "S is a holin, a small membrane protein that, at a time determined by the sequence of the protein, suddenly makes holes in the membrane.", "R is an endolysin, an enzyme that escapes through the S holes and cleaves the cell wall.", "Rz and Rz1 are membrane proteins that form a complex that somehow destroys the outer membrane, after the endolysin has degraded the cell wall.", "For wild-type lambda, lysis occurs at about 50 minutes after the start of infection and releases around 100 virions.====Rightward transcription====Rightward transcription expresses the ''O'', ''P'' and ''Q'' genes.", "O and P are responsible for initiating replication, and Q is another antiterminator that allows the expression of head, tail, and lysis genes from ''PR’''.Pr is the promoter for rightward transcription, and the cro gene is a regulator gene.", "The cro gene will encode for the Cro protein that will then repress Prm promoter.", "Once Pr transcription is underway the Q gene will then be transcribed at the far end of the operon for rightward transcription.", "The Q gene is a regulator gene found on this operon, which will control the expression of later genes for rightward transcription.", "Once the gene's regulatory proteins allow for expression, the Q protein will then act as an anti-terminator.", "This will then allow for the rest of the operon to be read through until it reaches the transcription terminator.", "Thus allowing expression of later genes in the operon, and leading to the expression of the lytic cycle.Pr promoter has been found to activate the origin in the use of rightward transcription, but the whole picture of this is still somewhat misunderstood.", "Given there are some caveats to this, for instance this process is different for other phages such as N15 phage, which may encode for DNA polymerase.", "Another example is the P22 phage may replace the p gene, which encodes for an essential replication protein for something that is capable of encoding for a DnaB helices.====Lytic replication====# For the first few replication cycles, the lambda genome undergoes θ replication (circle-to-circle).# This is initiated at the ''ori'' site located in the ''O'' gene.", "O protein binds the ''ori'' site, and P protein binds the DnaB subunit of the host replication machinery as well as binding O.", "This effectively commandeers the host DNA polymerase.# Soon, the phage switches to a rolling circle replication similar to that used by phage M13.The DNA is nicked and the 3’ end serves as a primer.", "Note that this does not release single copies of the phage genome but rather one long molecule with many copies of the genome: a concatemer.# These concatemers are cleaved at their ''cos'' sites as they are packaged.", "Packaging cannot occur from circular phage DNA, only from concatomeric DNA.====Q antitermination====Q is similar to N in its effect: Q binds to RNA polymerase in ''Qut'' sites and the resulting complex can ignore terminators, however the mechanism is very different; the Q protein first associates with a DNA sequence rather than an mRNA sequence.# The ''Qut'' site is very close to the ''PR’'' promoter, close enough that the σ factor has not been released from the RNA polymerase holoenzyme.", "Part of the ''Qut'' site resembles the -10 Pribnow box, causing the holoenzyme to pause.# Q protein then binds and displaces part of the σ factor and transcription re-initiates.# The head and tail genes are transcribed and the corresponding proteins self-assemble.====Leftward transcription====Diagram showing the retro-regulation process that yields a higher concentration of xis compared to int.", "The mRNA transcript is digested by bacterial RNase starting from the cleaved hairpin loop at sib.Leftward transcription expresses the ''gam,'' ''xis'', ''bar'' and ''int'' genes.", "Gam proteins are involved in recombination.", "Gam is also important in that it inhibits the host RecBCD nuclease from degrading the 3’ ends in rolling circle replication.", "Int and xis are integration and excision proteins vital to lysogeny.===== Leftward transcription process =====# Lambda phage inserts chromosome into the cytoplasm of the host bacterial cell.# The phage chromosome is inserted to the host bacterial chromosome through DNA ligase.# Transcription of the phage chromosome proceeds leftward when the host RNA polymerase attaches to promotor site ''p''L resulting in the translation of gene ''N.", "''## Gene N acts a regulatory gene that results in RNA polymerase to be unable to recognize translation-termination sites.===== Leftward Transcription mutations =====Leftward transcription is believed to result in a deletion mutation of the ''rap'' gene resulting in a lack of growth of lambda phage.", "This is due to RNA polymerase attaching to pL promoter site instead of the pR promotor site.", "Leftward transcription results in ''bar''I and ''bar''II transcription on the left operon.", "Bar positive phenotype is present when the ''rap'' gene is absent.", "The lack of growth of lambda phage is believed to occur due to a temperature sensitivity resulting in inhibition of growth.===== xis and int regulation of insertion and excision =====# ''xis'' and ''int'' are found on the same piece of mRNA, so approximately equal concentrations of ''xis'' and ''int'' proteins are produced.", "This results (initially) in the excision of any inserted genomes from the host genome.# The mRNA from the ''PL'' promoter forms a stable secondary structure with a stem-loop in the ''sib'' section of the mRNA.", "This targets the 3' (''sib'') end of the mRNA for RNAaseIII degradation, which results in a lower effective concentration of ''int'' mRNA than ''xis'' mRNA (as the ''int'' cistron is nearer to the ''sib'' sequence than the ''xis'' cistron is to the ''sib'' sequence), so a higher concentrations of ''xis'' than ''int'' is observed.# Higher concentrations of ''xis'' than ''int'' result in no insertion or excision of phage genomes, the evolutionarily favoured action - leaving any pre-inserted phage genomes inserted (so reducing competition) and preventing the insertion of the phage genome into the genome of a doomed host.===Lysogenic (or lysenogenic) life cycle===The lysogenic lifecycle begins once the cI protein reaches a high enough concentration to activate its promoters, after a small number of infections.# The 'late early' transcripts continue being written, including ''xis'', ''int'', ''Q'' and genes for replication of the lambda genome.# The stabilized cII acts to promote transcription from the ''PRE'', ''PI'' and ''Pantiq'' promoters.# The ''Pantiq'' promoter produces antisense mRNA to the ''Q'' gene message of the ''PR'' promoter transcript, thereby switching off Q production.", "The ''PRE'' promoter produces antisense mRNA to the cro section of the ''PR'' promoter transcript, turning down cro production, and has a transcript of the ''cI'' gene.", "This is expressed, turning on cI repressor production.", "The ''PI'' promoter expresses the ''int'' gene, resulting in high concentrations of Int protein.", "This int protein integrates the phage DNA into the host chromosome (see \"Prophage Integration\").# No Q results in no extension of the ''PR''' promoter's reading frame, so no lytic or structural proteins are made.", "Elevated levels of int (much higher than that of xis) result in the insertion of the lambda genome into the hosts genome (see diagram).", "Production of cI leads to the binding of cI to the ''OR1'' and ''OR2'' sites in the ''PR'' promoter, turning off ''cro'' and other early gene expression.", "cI also binds to the ''PL'' promoter, turning off transcription there too.# Lack of cro leaves the ''OR3'' site unbound, so transcription from the ''PRM'' promoter may occur, maintaining levels of cI.# Lack of transcription from the ''PL'' and ''PR'' promoters leads to no further production of cII and cIII.# As cII and cIII concentrations decrease, transcription from the ''Pantiq'', ''PRE'' and ''PI'' stop being promoted since they are no longer needed.# Only the ''PRM'' and ''PR''' promoters are left active, the former producing cI protein and the latter a short inactive transcript.", "The genome remains inserted into the host genome in a dormant state.The prophage is duplicated with every subsequent cell division of the host.", "The phage genes expressed in this dormant state code for proteins that repress expression of other phage genes (such as the structural and lysis genes) in order to prevent entry into the lytic cycle.", "These repressive proteins are broken down when the host cell is under stress, resulting in the expression of the repressed phage genes.", "Stress can be from starvation, poisons (like antibiotics), or other factors that can damage or destroy the host.", "In response to stress, the activated prophage is excised from the DNA of the host cell by one of the newly expressed gene products and enters its lytic pathway.====Prophage integration====The integration of phage λ takes place at a special attachment site in the bacterial and phage genomes, called ''attλ''.", "The sequence of the bacterial att site is called ''attB'', between the ''gal'' and ''bio'' operons, and consists of the parts B-O-B', whereas the complementary sequence in the circular phage genome is called ''attP'' and consists of the parts P-O-P'.", "The integration itself is a sequential exchange (see genetic recombination) via a Holliday junction and requires both the phage protein Int and the bacterial protein IHF (''integration host factor'').", "Both Int and IHF bind to ''attP'' and form an intasome, a DNA-protein-complex designed for site-specific recombination of the phage and host DNA.", "The original B-O-B' sequence is changed by the integration to B-O-P'-phage DNA-P-O-B'.", "The phage DNA is now part of the host's genome.====Maintenance of lysogeny====A simplified representation of the integration/excision paradigm and the major genes involved.", "* Lysogeny is maintained solely by cI.", "cI represses transcription from ''PL'' and ''PR'' while upregulating and controlling its own expression from ''PRM''.", "It is therefore the only protein expressed by lysogenic phage.Lysogen repressors and polymerase bound to OR1 and recruits OR2, which will activate PRM and shutdown PR.", "* This is coordinated by the ''PL'' and ''PR'' operators.", "Both operators have three binding sites for cI: ''OL1'', ''OL2'', and ''OL3'' for ''PL'', and ''OR1'', ''OR2'' and ''OR3'' for ''PR''.", "* cI binds most favorably to ''OR1''; binding here inhibits transcription from ''PR''.", "As cI easily dimerises, the binding of cI to ''OR1'' greatly increases the affinity of the binding of cI to ''OR2'', and this happens almost immediately after ''OR1'' binding.", "This activates transcription in the other direction from ''PRM'', as the N terminal domain of cI on ''OR2'' tightens the binding of RNA polymerase to ''PRM'' and hence cI stimulates its own transcription.", "When it is present at a much higher concentration, it also binds to ''OR3'', inhibiting transcription from ''PRM'', thus regulating its own levels in a negative feedback loop.", "* cI binding to the ''PL'' operator is very similar, except that it has no direct effect on cI transcription.", "As an additional repression of its own expression, however, cI dimers bound to ''OR3'' and ''OL3'' bend the DNA between them to tetramerise.", "* The presence of cI causes immunity to superinfection by other lambda phages, as it will inhibit their ''PL'' and ''PR'' promoters.====Induction====Transcriptional state of the PRM and PR promoter regions during a lysogenic state vs induced, early lytic state.The classic induction of a lysogen involved irradiating the infected cells with UV light.", "Any situation where a lysogen undergoes DNA damage or the SOS response of the host is otherwise stimulated leads to induction.# The host cell, containing a dormant phage genome, experiences DNA damage due to a high stress environment, and starts to undergo the SOS response.# RecA (a cellular protein) detects DNA damage and becomes activated.", "It is now RecA*, a highly specific co-protease.# Normally RecA* binds LexA (a transcription repressor), activating LexA auto-protease activity, which destroys LexA repressor, allowing production of DNA repair proteins.", "In lysogenic cells, this response is hijacked, and RecA* stimulates cI autocleavage.", "This is because cI mimics the structure of LexA at the autocleavage site.# Cleaved cI can no longer dimerise, and loses its affinity for DNA binding.# The ''PR'' and ''PL'' promoters are no longer repressed and switch on, and the cell returns to the lytic sequence of expression events (note that cII is not stable in cells undergoing the SOS response).", "There is however one notable difference.The function of LexA in the SOS response.", "LexA expression leads to inhibition of various genes including LexA.====Control of phage genome excision in induction====# The phage genome is still inserted in the host genome and needs excision for DNA replication to occur.", "The ''sib'' section beyond the normal ''PL'' promoter transcript is, however, no longer included in this reading frame (see diagram).# No ''sib'' domain on the ''PL'' promoter mRNA results in no hairpin loop on the 3' end, and the transcript is no longer targeted for RNAaseIII degradation.# The new intact transcript has one copy of both ''xis'' and ''int'', so approximately equal concentrations of xis and int proteins are produced.# Equal concentrations of xis and int result in the excision of the inserted genome from the host genome for replication and later phage production." ], [ "Multiplicity reactivation and prophage reactivation", "Multiplicity reactivation (MR) is the process by which multiple viral genomes, each containing inactivating genome damage, interact within an infected cell to form a viable viral genome.", "MR was originally discovered with phage T4, but was subsequently found in phage λ (as well as in numerous other bacterial and mammalian viruses).", "MR of phage λ inactivated by UV light depends on the recombination function of either the host or of the infecting phage.", "Absence of both recombination systems leads to a loss of MR.Survival of UV-irradiated phage λ is increased when the E. coli host is lysogenic for an homologous prophage, a phenomenon termed prophage reactivation.", "Prophage reactivation in phage λ appears to occur by a recombinational repair process similar to that of MR." ], [ "Repressor", "Protein interactions that lead to either Lytic or Lysogenic cycles for Lambda phageThe repressor found in the phage lambda is a notable example of the level of control possible over gene expression by a very simple system.", "It forms a 'binary switch' with two genes under mutually exclusive expression, as discovered by Barbara J. Meyer.Visual representation of repressor tetramer/octamer binding to phage lambda L and R operator sites (stable lysogenic state)The lambda repressor gene system consists of (from left to right on the chromosome):* ''cI'' gene* OR3* OR2* OR1* ''cro'' geneThe lambda repressor is a self assembling dimer also known as the cI protein.", "It binds DNA in the helix-turn-helix binding motif.", "It regulates the transcription of the cI protein and the Cro protein.The life cycle of lambda phages is controlled by cI and Cro proteins.", "The lambda phage will remain in the lysogenic state if cI proteins predominate, but will be transformed into the lytic cycle if cro proteins predominate.The cI dimer may bind to any of three operators, OR1, OR2, and OR3, in the order OR1 > OR2 > OR3.Binding of a cI dimer to OR1 enhances binding of a second cI dimer to OR2, an effect called cooperativity.", "Thus, OR1 and OR2 are almost always simultaneously occupied by cI.", "However, this does not increase the affinity between cI and OR3, which will be occupied only when the cI concentration is high.At high concentrations of cI, the dimers will also bind to operators OL1 and OL2 (which are over 2 kb downstream from the R operators).", "When cI dimers are bound to OL1, OL2, OR1, and OR2 a loop is induced in the DNA, allowing these dimers to bind together to form an octamer.", "This is a phenomenon called ''long-range cooperativity''.", "Upon formation of the octamer, cI dimers may cooperatively bind to OL3 and OR3, repressing transcription of cI.", "This ''autonegative'' regulation ensures a stable minimum concentration of the repressor molecule and, should SOS signals arise, allows for more efficient prophage induction.", "* In the absence of cI proteins, the ''cro'' gene may be transcribed.", "* In the presence of cI proteins, only the ''cI'' gene may be transcribed.", "* At high concentration of cI, transcriptions of both genes are repressed.File:Viral DNA setup.svg|Some base pairs with serve a dual function with promoter and operator for either cl and cro proteins.File:Polymerase ON.svg|Protein cl turned ON, with repressor bound to OR2 polymerase binding is increased and turn OFF OR1.File:Repressor concentration.svg|Lysogen repression all 3 sites bound is a low occurrence due to OR3 weak binding affinity.", "OR1 repression increases binding affinity to OR2 due to repressor-repressor interaction.", "Increased concentrations of repressor increase binding." ], [ "Protein function overview", " Protein Function in life cycle Promoter region Description cIII Regulatory protein CIII.", "Lysogeny, cII Stability PL (Clear 3) ''HflB'' (FtsH) binding protein, protects ''cII'' from degradation by proteases.", "cII Lysogeny, Transcription activator PR (Clear 2) Activates transcription from the PAQ, PRE and PI promoters, transcribing ''cI'' and ''int''.", "Low stability due to susceptibility to cellular ''HflB'' (FtsH) proteases (especially in healthy cells and cells undergoing the SOS response).", "High levels of ''cII'' will push the phage toward integration and lysogeny while low levels of ''cII'' will result in lysis.", "cI Repressor, Maintenance of Lysogeny PRM, PRE (Clear 1) Transcription inhibitor, binds OR1, OR2 and OR3 (affinity OR1 > OR2 = OR3, i.e.", "preferentially binds OR1).", "At low concentrations blocks the PR promoter (preventing cro production).", "At high concentrations downregulates its own production through OR3 binding.", "Repressor also inhibits transcription from the PL promoter.", "Susceptible to cleavage by ''RecA*'' in cells undergoing the SOS response.", "cro Lysis, Control of Repressor's Operator PR Transcription inhibitor, binds OR3, OR2 and OR1 (affinity OR3 > OR2 = OR1, i.e.", "preferentially binds OR3).", "At low concentrations blocks the pRM promoter (preventing ''cI'' production).", "At high concentrations downregulates its own production through OR2 and OR1 binding.", "No cooperative binding (c.f.", "below for cI binding) O Lysis, DNA replication PR Replication protein O. Initiates Phage Lambda DNA replication by binding at ''ori'' site.", "P Lysis, DNA Replication PR Initiates Phage Lambda DNA replication by binding to ''O'' and ''DnaB'' subunit.", "These bindings provide control over the host DNA polymerase.", "gam Lysis, DNA replication PL Inhibits host ''RecBCD'' nuclease from degrading 3' ends—allow rolling circle replication to proceed.", "S Lysis PR' Holin, a membrane protein that perforates the membrane during lysis.", "R Lysis PR' Endolysin, Lysozyme, an enzyme that exits the cell through the holes produced by Holin and cleaves apart the cell wall.", "Rz and Rz1 Lysis PR' Forms a membrane protein complex that destroys the outer cell membrane following the cell wall degradation by endolysin.", "Spanin, Rz1(outer membrane subunit) and Rz(inner membrane subunit).", "F Lysis PR' Phage capsid head proteins.", "D Lysis PR' Head decoration protein.", "E Lysis PR' Major head protein.", "C Lysis PR' Minor capsid protein.", "B Lysis PR' Portal protein B.", "A Lysis PR' Large terminase protein.", "J Lysis PR' Host specificity protein J. M V U G L T Z Lysis PR' Minor tail protein M. K Lysis PR' Probable endopeptidase.", "H Lysis PR' Tail tape measure protein H. I Lysis PR' Tail assembly protein I. FI Lysis PR' DNA-packing protein FI.", "FII Lysis PR' Tail attachment protein.", "tfa Lysis PR' Tail fiber assembly protein.", "int Genome Integration, Excision PI, PL Integrase, manages insertion of phage genome into the host's genome.", "In Conditions of low ''int'' concentration there is no effect.", "If ''xis'' is low in concentration and ''int'' high then this leads to the insertion of the phage genome.", "If ''xis'' and ''int'' have high (and approximately equal) concentrations this leads to the excision of phage genomes from the host's genome.", "xis Genome Excision PI, PL Excisionase and ''int'' protein regulator, manages excision and insertion of phage genome into the host's genome.", "N Antitermination for Transcription of Late Early Genes PL Antiterminator, RNA-binding protein and RNA polymerase cofactor, binds RNA (at Nut sites) and transfers onto the nascent RNApol that just transcribed the nut site.", "This RNApol modification prevents its recognition of termination sites, so normal RNA polymerase termination signals are ignored and RNA synthesis continues into distal phage genes (''cII, cIII, xis, int, O, P, Q'') Q Antitermination for Transcription of Late Lytic Genes PR Antiterminator, DNA binding protein and RNApol cofactor, binds DNA (at Qut sites) and transfers onto the initiating RNApol.", "This RNApol modification alters its recognition of termination sequences, so normal ones are ignored; special Q termination sequences some 20,000 bp away are effective.", "Q-extended transcripts include phage structural proteins (A-F, Z-J) and lysis genes (''S, R, Rz and Rz1'').", "Downregulated by P''antiq'' antisense mRNA during lysogeny.", "RecA SOS Response Host protein DNA repair protein, functions as a co-protease during SOS response, auto-cleaving ''LexA'' and ''cI'' and facilitating lysis." ], [ "Lytic vs. lysogenic", "Diagram of temperate phage life cycle, showing both lytic and lysogenic cycles.An important distinction here is that between the two decisions; lysogeny and lysis on infection, and continuing lysogeny or lysis from a prophage.", "The latter is determined solely by the activation of RecA in the SOS response of the cell, as detailed in the section on induction.", "The former will also be affected by this; a cell undergoing an SOS response will always be lysed, as no cI protein will be allowed to build up.", "However, the initial lytic/lysogenic decision on infection is also dependent on the cII and cIII proteins.In cells with sufficient nutrients, protease activity is high, which breaks down cII.", "This leads to the lytic lifestyle.", "In cells with limited nutrients, protease activity is low, making cII stable.", "This leads to the lysogenic lifestyle.", "cIII appears to stabilize cII, both directly and by acting as a competitive inhibitor to the relevant proteases.", "This means that a cell \"in trouble\", i.e.", "lacking in nutrients and in a more dormant state, is more likely to lysogenise.", "This would be selected for because the phage can now lie dormant in the bacterium until it falls on better times, and so the phage can create more copies of itself with the additional resources available and with the more likely proximity of further infectable cells.A full biophysical model for lambda's lysis-lysogeny decision remains to be developed.", "Computer modeling and simulation suggest that random processes during infection drive the selection of lysis or lysogeny within individual cells.", "However, recent experiments suggest that physical differences among cells, that exist prior to infection, predetermine whether a cell will lyse or become a lysogen." ], [ "As a genetic tool", "Lambda phage has been used heavily as a model organism and has been an excellent tool first in microbial genetics, and then later in molecular genetics.", "Some of its uses include its application as a vector for the cloning of recombinant DNA; the use of its site-specific recombinase (int) for the shuffling of cloned DNAs by the gateway method; and the application of its Red operon, including the proteins Red alpha (also called 'exo'), beta and gamma in the DNA engineering method called recombineering.", "The 48 kb DNA fragment of lambda phage is not essential for productive infection and can be replaced by foreign DNA, which can then be replicated by the phage.", "Lambda phage will enter bacteria more easily than plasmids, making it a useful vector that can either destroy or become part of the host's DNA.", "Lambda phage can also be manipulated and used as an anti-cancer vaccine that targets human aspartyl (asparaginyl) β-hydroxylase (ASPH, HAAH), which has been shown to be beneficial in cases of hepatocellular carcinoma in mice.", "Lambda phage has also been of major importance in the study of specialized transduction." ], [ "See also", "* Esther Lederberg* Lambda holin family* Molecular weight size marker* Sankar Adhya* Zygotic induction* Corynebacteriophages – Corynephages β (beta) and ω (omega) are (proposed) members of genus ''Lambdavirus''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * Ptashne, M. \"A Genetic Switch: Phage Lambda Revisited\", 3rd edition 2003* * (Contains an informative and well illustrated overview of bacteriophage lambda)* (illustrates genes active at all stages in lifecycle)" ], [ "External links", "* Life Cycle, Basic Animation of Lambda Lifecyecle (illustrates infection and lytic/lysogenic pathways with some protein and transcription detail)* Time-lapse microscopy video from MIT showing both lysis and lysogeny by phage lambda* Lambda Phage Life cycle (basic visual demonstration of Lambda bacteriophage life cycle)* Lambda Phage genome in GenBank* Lambda Phage Reference Proteome from UniProt* Lambda Phage Protein Structures in NCBI (3D display of protein structures for bacteriophage Lambda)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Louis Armstrong" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Louis Daniel Armstrong''' (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971), nicknamed \"'''Satchmo'''\", \"'''Satch'''\", and \"'''Pops'''\", was an American trumpeter and vocalist.", "He was among the most influential figures in jazz.", "His career spanned five decades and several eras in the history of jazz.", "He received numerous accolades including the Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance for ''Hello, Dolly!''", "in 1965, as well as a posthumous win for the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972, and induction into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame in 2017.Armstrong was born and raised in New Orleans.", "Coming to prominence in the 1920s as an inventive trumpet and cornet player, Armstrong was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from collective improvisation to solo performance.", "Around 1922, he followed his mentor, Joe \"King\" Oliver, to Chicago to play in the .", "He earned a reputation at \"cutting contests\", and his fame reached band leader Fletcher Henderson.", "He moved to New York City, where he became a featured and musically influential band soloist and recording artist.", "By the 1950s, he was a national musical icon, appearing regularly in radio and television broadcasts and on film.His best known songs include \"What a Wonderful World\", \"La Vie en Rose\", \"Hello, Dolly!", "\", \"On the Sunny Side of the Street\", \"Dream a Little Dream of Me\", \"When You're Smiling\" and \"When the Saints Go Marching In\".", "He collaborated with Ella Fitzgerald, producing three records together: ''Ella and Louis'' (1956), ''Ella and Louis Again'' (1957), and ''Porgy and Bess'' (1959).", "He also appeared in films such as ''A Rhapsody in Black and Blue'' (1932), ''Cabin in the Sky'' (1943), ''High Society'' (1956), ''Paris Blues'' (1961), ''A Man Called Adam'' (1966), and ''Hello, Dolly!''", "(1969).With his instantly recognizable rich, gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer and skillful improviser.", "He was also skilled at scat singing.", "By the end of Armstrong's life, his influence had spread to popular music in general.", "Armstrong was one of the first popular African-American entertainers to \"cross over\" to wide popularity with White and international audiences.", "He rarely publicly discussed racial issues, to the dismay of fellow African Americans, but took a well-publicized stand for desegregation in the Little Rock crisis.", "He was able to access the upper echelons of American society at a time when this was difficult for Black men." ], [ "Early life", "Armstrong is believed to have been born in New Orleans on August 4, 1901, but the date has been heavily debated.", "Armstrong himself often claimed he was born on July 4, 1900.His parents were Mary Estelle \"Mayann\" Albert and William Armstrong.", "Mary Albert was from Boutte, Louisiana, and gave birth at home when she was about sixteen.", "Less than a year and a half later, they had a daughter, Beatrice \"Mama Lucy\" Armstrong (1903–1987), who was raised by Albert.", "William Armstrong abandoned the family shortly thereafter.Louis Armstrong was raised by his grandmother until the age of five, when he was returned to his mother.", "He spent his youth in poverty in a rough neighborhood known as The Battlefield, on the southern section of Rampart Street.", "At six he started attending the Fisk School for Boys, a school that accepted black children in the racially segregated school system of New Orleans.During this time, Armstrong lived with his mother and sister and worked for the Karnoffskys, a family of Lithuanian Jews, at their home.", "He helped their two sons, Morris and Alex, collect \"rags and bones\" and deliver coal.", "In 1969, while recovering from heart and kidney problems at Beth Israel Hospital in New York City, Armstrong wrote a memoir called ''Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, LA., the year of 1907'', describing his time working for the Karnoffsky family.Armstrong writes about singing \"Russian Lullaby\" with the Karnoffsky family when their baby son David was put to bed, and credits the family with teaching him to sing \"from the heart.\"", "Curiously, Armstrong quotes lyrics for it that appear to be the same as the \"Russian Lullaby\", copyrighted by Irving Berlin in 1927, about twenty years after Armstrong remembered singing it as a child.", "Gary Zucker, Armstrong's doctor at Beth Israel hospital in 1969, shared Berlin's song lyrics with him, and Armstrong quoted them in the memoir.", "This inaccuracy may simply be because he wrote the memoir over 60 years after the events described.", "Regardless, the Karnoffskys treated Armstrong extremely well.", "Knowing he lived without a father, they fed and nurtured him.In his memoir, ''Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907'', he described his discovery that this family was also subject to discrimination by \"other white folks\" who felt that they were better than Jews: \"I was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the white folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I worked for.\"", "He wrote about what he learned from them: \"how to live—real life and determination.\"", "His first musical performance may have been at the side of the Karnoffskys' junk wagon.", "To distinguish them from other hawkers, he tried playing a tin horn to attract customers.", "Morris Karnoffsky gave Armstrong an advance toward the purchase of a cornet from a pawn shop.Later as an adult, Armstrong wore a Star of David given to him by his Jewish manager, Joe Glaser, until the end of his life, in part in memory of this family who had raised him.When Armstrong was eleven, he dropped out of school.", "His mother moved into a one-room house on Perdido Street with Armstrong, Lucy, and her common-law husband, Tom Lee, next door to her brother Ike and his two sons.", "Armstrong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for money.", "Cornetist Bunk Johnson said he taught the eleven-year-old to play by ear at Dago Tony's honky tonk.", "In his later years Armstrong credited King Oliver.", "He said about his youth, \"Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans ...", "It has given me something to live for.", "\"A snippet from the January 2, 1913, issue of The Times-Democrat, New Orleans.", "\"Negro\" is a dated term for black people.Borrowing his stepfather's gun without permission, he fired a blank into the air and was arrested on December 31, 1912.He spent the night at New Orleans Juvenile Court, and was sentenced the next day to detention at the Colored Waif's Home.", "Life at the home was spartan.", "Mattresses were absent.", "Meals were often little more than bread and molasses.", "Captain Joseph Jones ran the home like a military camp and used corporal punishment.Armstrong developed his cornet skills by playing in the band.", "Peter Davis, who frequently appeared at the home at the request of Captain Jones, became Armstrong's first teacher and chose him as bandleader.", "With this band, the thirteen-year-old Armstrong attracted the attention of Kid Ory.On June 14, 1914, Armstrong was released into the custody of his father and his new stepmother, Gertrude.", "He lived in this household with two stepbrothers for several months.", "After Gertrude gave birth to a daughter, Armstrong's father never welcomed him, so he returned to his mother, Mary Albert.", "In her small home, he had to share a bed with his mother and sister.", "His mother still lived in The Battlefield, leaving him open to old temptations, but he sought work as a musician.He found a job at a dance hall owned by Henry Ponce, who had connections to organized crime.", "He met the six-foot tall drummer Black Benny, who became his guide and bodyguard.", "Around the age of fifteen, he pimped for a prostitute named Nootsy, but that relationship failed after she stabbed Armstrong in the shoulder and his mother choked her nearly to death.He briefly studied shipping management at the local community college, but was forced to quit after being unable to afford the fees.", "While selling coal in Storyville, he heard spasm bands, groups that played music out of household objects.", "He heard the early sounds of jazz from bands that played in brothels and dance halls such as Pete Lala's, where King Oliver performed." ], [ "Career", "===Riverboat education===Armstrong was a member of Fate Marable's New Orleans Band in 1918, here on board the S.S.", "''Sidney.", "''Early in his career, Armstrong played in brass bands and riverboats in New Orleans, first on an excursion boat in September 1918.He traveled with the band of Fate Marable, which toured on the steamboat ''Sidney'' with the Streckfus Steamers line up and down the Mississippi River.", "Marable was proud of his musical knowledge, and he insisted that Armstrong and other musicians in his band learn sight reading.", "Armstrong described his time with Marable as \"going to the University\", since it gave him a wider experience working with written arrangements.", "In 1919, Armstrong's mentor, King Oliver decided to go north and resigned his position in Kid Ory's band; Armstrong replaced him.", "He also became second trumpet for the Tuxedo Brass Band.Throughout his riverboat experience, Armstrong's musicianship began to mature and expand.", "At twenty, he could read music.", "He became one of the first jazz musicians to be featured on extended trumpet solos, injecting his own personality and style.", "He also started singing in his performances.===Chicago period recordings===In 1922, Armstrong moved to Chicago at the invitation of King Oliver, although Armstrong would return to New Orleans periodically for the rest of his life.", "Playing second cornet to Oliver in Oliver's Creole Jazz Band in the black-only Lincoln Gardens on the South Side of Chicago, he could make enough money to quit his day jobs.", "Although race relations were poor, Chicago was booming.", "The city had jobs for blacks making good wages at factories with some left over for entertainment.Oliver's band was among the most influential jazz bands in Chicago in the early 1920s.", "Armstrong lived luxuriously in his own apartment with his first private bath.", "Excited as he was to be in Chicago, he began his career-long pastime of writing letters to friends in New Orleans.", "Armstrong could blow two hundred high Cs in a row.", "As his reputation grew, he was challenged to cutting contests by other musicians.His first studio recordings were with Oliver for Gennett Records on April 56, 1923.They endured several hours on the train to remote Richmond, Indiana, and the band was paid little.", "The quality of the performances was affected by lack of rehearsal, crude recording equipment, bad acoustics, and a cramped studio.", "These early recordings were true acoustic, the band playing directly into a large funnel connected directly to the needle making the groove in the master recording.", "Electrical recording was not invented until 1926 and Gennett installed it later.", "Because Armstrong's playing was so loud, when he played next to Oliver, Oliver could not be heard on the recording.", "Armstrong had to stand fifteen feet away from Oliver, in a far corner of the room.Lil Hardin, who Armstrong would marry in 1924, urged Armstrong to seek more prominent billing and develop his style apart from the influence of Oliver.", "At her suggestion, Armstrong began to play classical music in church concerts to broaden his skills; and he began to dress more in more stylish attire to offset his girth.", "Her influence eventually undermined Armstrong's relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional money that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members.", "Armstrong's mother, May Ann Albert, came to visit him in Chicago during the summer of 1923 after being told that Armstrong was \"out of work, out of money, hungry, and sick\"; Hardin located and decorated an apartment for her to live in while she stayed.===Fletcher Henderson Orchestra===The Fletcher Henderson Orchestra in 1925.Armstrong is the third person from the left.Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924.Shortly afterward, Armstrong received an invitation to go to New York City to play with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, the top African-American band of the time.", "He switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section.", "His influence on Henderson's tenor sax soloist, Coleman Hawkins, can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period.Armstrong adapted to the tightly controlled style of Henderson, playing trumpet and experimenting with the trombone.", "The other members were affected by Armstrong's emotional style.", "His act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers.", "The Henderson Orchestra played in prominent venues for white patrons only, including the Roseland Ballroom, with arrangements by Don Redman.", "Duke Ellington's orchestra went to Roseland to catch Armstrong's performances.During this time, Armstrong recorded with Clarence Williams (a friend from New Orleans), the Williams Blue Five, Sidney Bechet, and blues singers Alberta Hunter, Ma Rainey, and Bessie Smith.===The Hot Five===In 1925, Armstrong returned to Chicago largely at the insistence of Lil, who wanted to expand his career and his income.", "In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed him as \"The World's Greatest Trumpet Player\".", "For a time he was a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and working for his wife.", "He formed Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five and recorded the hits \"Potato Head Blues\" and \"Muggles\".", "The word \"muggles\" was a slang term for marijuana, something he used often during his life.Heebie Jeebies\" by Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five, 1926The Hot Five included Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), Lil Armstrong on piano, and usually no drummer.", "Over a twelve-month period starting in November 1925, this quintet produced twenty-four records.", "Armstrong's band leading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted, \"One felt so relaxed working with him, and he was very broad-minded ... always did his best to feature each individual.", "\"Among the Hot Five and Seven records were \"Cornet Chop Suey\", \"Struttin' With Some Barbecue\", \"Hotter Than that\" and \"Potato Head Blues\", all featuring highly creative solos by Armstrong.", "According to Thomas Brothers, recordings such as \"Struttin' with Some Barbeque\" were so superb, \"planned with density and variety, bluesyness, and showiness,\" that the arrangements were probably showcased at the Sunset Café.", "His recordings soon after with pianist Earl \"Fatha\" Hines, their famous 1928 \"Weather Bird\" duet and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to and solo in \"West End Blues\", remain some of the most influential improvisations in jazz history.", "Young trumpet players across the country bought these recordings and memorized his solos.Armstrong was now free to develop his personal style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as \"Whip That Thing, Miss Lil\" and \"Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, Do That Clarinet, Boy!", "\"Armstrong also played with Erskine Tate's Little Symphony, which played mostly at the Vendome Theatre.", "They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as \"Madame Butterfly\", which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience.", "He began scat singing (improvised vocal jazz using nonsensical words) and was among the first to record it, on the Hot Five recording \"Heebie Jeebies\" in 1926.The recording was so popular that the group became the most famous jazz band in the United States, even though they had seldom performed live.", "Young musicians across the country, black or white, were turned on by Armstrong's new type of jazz.After separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the Sunset Café for Al Capone's associate Joe Glaser in the Carroll Dickerson Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers, though Hines was the music director and Glaser managed the orchestra.", "Hines and Armstrong became fast friends and successful collaborators.", "It was at the Sunset Café that Armstrong accompanied singer Adelaide Hall.", "It was during Hall's tenure at the venue that she experimented, developed and expanded her scat singing with Armstrong's guidance and encouragement.In the first half of 1927, Armstrong assembled his Hot Seven group, which added drummer Al \"Baby\" Dodds and tuba player, Pete Briggs, while preserving most of his original Hot Five lineup.", "John Thomas replaced Kid Ory on trombone.", "Later that year he organized a series of new Hot Five sessions which resulted in nine more records.", "In the last half of 1928, he started recording with a new group: Zutty Singleton (drums), Earl Hines (piano), Jimmy Strong (clarinet), Fred Robinson (trombone), and Mancy Carr (banjo).===The Harlem Renaissance===Armstrong made a huge impact during the 1920s Harlem Renaissance.", "His music touched well-known writer Langston Hughes.", "Hughes admired Armstrong and acknowledged him as one of the most recognized musicians of the era.", "Hughes wrote many books that celebrated jazz and recognized Armstrong as one of the leaders of the Harlem Renaissance's newfound love of African-American culture.", "The sound of jazz, along with musicians such as Armstrong, helped shape Hughes as a writer.", "Just like the musicians, Hughes wrote his words with jazz.Armstrong changed jazz during the Harlem Renaissance.", "As \"The World's Greatest Trumpet Player\" during this time, Armstrong cemented his legacy and continued a focus on his vocal career.", "His popularity brought together many black and white audiences.===Emerging as a vocalist===Armstrong returned to New York in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra for the musical ''Hot Chocolates'', an all-black revue written by Andy Razaf and pianist Fats Waller.", "He made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of \"Ain't Misbehavin'\".", "His version of the song became his biggest selling record yet.Armstrong started to work at Connie's Inn in Harlem, chief rival to the Cotton Club, a venue for elaborately staged floor shows, and a front for gangster Dutch Schultz.", "Armstrong had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of songs composed by his old friend Hoagy Carmichael.", "His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the RCA ribbon microphone, introduced in 1931, which imparted warmth to vocals and became an intrinsic part of the 'crooning' sound of artists like Bing Crosby.", "Armstrong's interpretation of Carmichael's \"Stardust\" became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that were already standards.Armstrong's radical re-working of Sidney Arodin and Carmichael's \"Lazy River\", recorded in 1931, encapsulated his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing.", "The song begins with a brief trumpet solo, then the main melody is introduced by sobbing horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: \"Yeah!", "...\"Uh-huh\"...\"Sure\"...\"Way down, way down.\"", "In the first verse, he ignores the notated melody and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing.", "In the second stanza he breaks into an almost fully improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong scat singing.As with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation for jazz vocal interpretation.", "The uniquely gravelly coloration of his voice became an archetype that was endlessly imitated.", "His scat singing was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist.", "His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as \"Lazy River\" exerted a huge influence on younger white singers such as Bing Crosby.===Work during hard times===Armstrong in 1936The Great Depression of the early 1930s was especially hard on the jazz scene.", "The Cotton Club closed in 1936 after a long downward spiral and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated.", "Bix Beiderbecke died and Fletcher Henderson's band broke up.", "King Oliver made a few records but otherwise struggled.", "Sidney Bechet became a tailor, later moving to Paris and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens.Armstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new opportunities.", "He played at the New Cotton Club in Los Angeles with Lionel Hampton on drums.", "The band drew the Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish night life, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home.", "Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club.", "In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie, ''Ex-Flame''.", "He was also convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence.He returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the Guy Lombardo vein and he recorded more standards.", "When the mob insisted that he get out of town, Armstrong visited New Orleans, had a hero's welcome, and saw old friends.", "He sponsored a local baseball team known as Armstrong's Secret Nine and had a cigar named after him.", "But soon he was on the road again.", "After a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, he fled to Europe.After returning to the United States, he undertook several exhausting tours.", "His agent Johnny Collins's erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash.", "Breach of contract violations plagued him.", "He hired Joe Glaser as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer, who began to straighten out his legal mess, mob troubles and debts.", "Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, aggravated by his unorthodox playing style.", "As a result, he branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances.", "He appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit ''Pennies from Heaven''.", "In 1937, Armstrong substituted for Rudy Vallee on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored, national broadcast.===Reviving his career with the All Stars===Armstrong in 1953After spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York in 1943 with his fourth wife, Lucille.", "Although subject to the vicissitudes of Tin Pan Alley and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, he continued to develop his playing.Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes.", "Ballrooms closed and there was competition from other types of music, especially pop vocals, becoming more popular than big band music.", "It became impossible under such circumstances to finance a 16-piece touring band.A widespread revival of interest in the 1940s in the traditional jazz of the 1920s made it possible for Armstrong to consider a return to the small-group musical style of his youth.", "Armstrong was featured as a guest artist with Lionel Hampton's band at the famed second Cavalcade of Jazz concert held at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles, produced by Leon Hefflin Sr., on October 12, 1946.He also led a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring Armstrong with trombonist/singer Jack Teagarden.", "During the concert, Armstrong and Teagarden performed a duet on Hoagy Carmichael's \"Rockin' Chair\" they then recorded for Okeh Records.Armstrong's manager, Joe Glaser, changed the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947, into a six-piece traditional jazz group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, Earl Hines and other top swing and Dixieland musicians, most of whom were previously leaders of big bands.", "The new group was announced at the opening of Billy Berg's Supper Club.This smaller group was called Louis Armstrong and His All Stars and included at various times Earl \"Fatha\" Hines, Barney Bigard, Edmond Hall, Jack Teagarden, Trummy Young, Arvell Shaw, Billy Kyle, Marty Napoleon, Big Sid \"Buddy\" Catlett, Cozy Cole, Tyree Glenn, Barrett Deems, Mort Herbert, Joe Darensbourg, Eddie Shu, Joe Muranyi and percussionist Danny Barcelona.On February 28, 1948, Suzy Delair sang the French song \"C'est si bon\" at the Hotel Negresco during the first Nice Jazz Festival.", "Louis Armstrong was present and loved the song.", "On June 26, 1950, he recorded the American version of the song (English lyrics by Jerry Seelen) in New York City with Sy Oliver and his Orchestra.", "When it was released, the disc was a worldwide success and the song was then performed by the greatest international singers.He was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of ''Time'' magazine, on February 21, 1949.Louis Armstrong and his All Stars were featured at the ninth Cavalcade of Jazz concert also at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles produced by Leon Hefflin Sr. held on June 7, 1953, along with Shorty Rogers, Roy Brown, Don Tosti and His Mexican Jazzmen, Earl Bostic, and Nat \"King\" Cole.Over 30 years, Armstrong played more than 300 performances a year, making many recordings and appearing in over thirty films.===A jazz ambassador===Armstrong in 1955By the 1950s, Armstrong was a widely beloved American icon and cultural ambassador who commanded an international fanbase.", "However, a growing generation gap became apparent between him and the young jazz musicians who emerged in the postwar era such as Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, and Sonny Rollins.", "The postwar generation regarded their music as abstract art and considered Armstrong's vaudevillian style, half-musician and half-stage entertainer, outmoded and Uncle Tomism.", "\"... he seemed a link to minstrelsy that we were ashamed of.\"", "He called bebop \"Chinese music\".", "While touring Australia in 1954, he was asked if he could play bebop.", "\"'Bebop?'", "he husked.", "'I just play music.", "Guys who invent terms like that are walking the streets with their instruments under their arms'\".Record of Armstrong's visit to Brazil, 1957In the 1960s, he toured Egypt, Ghana and Nigeria.After finishing his contract with Decca Records, he went freelance and recorded for other labels.", "He continued an intense international touring schedule, but in 1959 he suffered a heart attack in Italy and had to rest.In 1964, after over two years without setting foot in a studio, he recorded his biggest-selling record, \"Hello, Dolly!", "\", a song by Jerry Herman, originally sung by Carol Channing.", "Armstrong's version remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, longer than any other record produced that year, and went to No.", "1 making him, at 62 years, 9 months and 5 days, the oldest person to accomplish that feat.", "His hit dislodged The Beatles from the No.", "1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs.Armstrong toured well into his 60s, even visiting part of the Communist Bloc in 1965.He also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under the sponsorship of the US State Department with great success, earning the nickname \"Ambassador Satch\" and inspiring Dave Brubeck to compose his jazz musical ''The Real Ambassadors''.", "By 1968, he was approaching 70 and his health was failing.", "His heart and kidney ailments forced him to stop touring.", "He did not perform publicly in 1969 and spent most of the year recuperating at home.", "Meanwhile, his longtime manager Joe Glaser died.", "By the summer of 1970, his doctors pronounced him fit enough to resume live performances.", "He embarked on another world tour, but a heart attack forced him to take a break for two months.Armstrong made his last recorded trumpet performances on his 1968 album ''Disney Songs the Satchmo Way''." ], [ "Personal life", "===Pronunciation of name===The Louis Armstrong House Museum website states:In a memoir written for Robert Goffin between 1943 and 1944, Armstrong stated, \"All white folks call me Louie,\" suggesting that he himself did not, or that no whites addressed him by one of his nicknames such as Pops.", "That said, Armstrong was registered as \"Lewie\" for the 1920 U.S. Census.", "On various live records he is called \"Louie\" on stage, such as on the 1952 \"Can Anyone Explain?\"", "from the live album ''In Scandinavia vol.1''.", "The same applies to his 1952 studio recording of the song \"Chloe\", where the choir in the background sings \"Louie ... Louie\", with Armstrong responding \"What was that?", "Somebody called my name?\".", "\"Lewie\" is the French pronunciation of \"Louis\" and is commonly used in Louisiana.===Family===Armstrong with Lucille Wilson, c. 1960sArmstrong was performing at the Brick House in Gretna, Louisiana, when he met Daisy Parker, a local prostitute, and started an affair as a client.", "He returned to Gretna on several occasions to visit her.", "He found the courage to look for her home to see her away from work.", "There he found out she had a common-law husband.", "Not long after that fiasco, Parker traveled to Armstrong's home on Perdido Street.", "They checked into Kid Green's hotel that evening.", "On the next day, March 19, 1919, Armstrong and Parker married at City Hall.", "They adopted a three-year-old boy, Clarence, whose mother, Armstrong's cousin Flora, had died soon after giving birth.", "Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled as a result of a head injury at an early age, and Armstrong spent the rest of his life taking care of him.", "His marriage to Parker ended when they separated in 1923.On February 4, 1924, he married Lil Hardin Armstrong, King Oliver's pianist.", "She had divorced her first husband a few years earlier.", "His second wife helped him develop his career, but they separated in 1931 and divorced in 1938.Armstrong then married Alpha Smith.", "His relationship with Alpha began while he was playing at the Vendome during the 1920s and continued long after.", "His marriage to her lasted four years; they divorced in 1942.Louis then married Lucille Wilson, a singer at the Cotton Club in New York, in October 1942.They remained married until his death in 1971.Armstrong's marriages produced no offspring.", "However, in December 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his daughter from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and Lucille \"Sweets\" Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club.", "In a 1955 letter to his manager, Joe Glaser, Armstrong affirmed his belief that Preston's newborn baby was his daughter, and ordered Glaser to pay a monthly allowance of $400, $ in dollars, to mother and child.===Personality===Armstrong in 1959 during a night concert in the Concertgebouw, AmsterdamArmstrong was colorful and charismatic.", "His autobiography vexed some biographers and historians because he had a habit of telling tales, particularly about his early childhood when he was less scrutinized, and his embellishments lack consistency.In addition to being an entertainer, Armstrong was a leading personality.", "He was beloved by an American public that usually offered little access beyond their public celebrity to even the greatest African American performers, and he was able to live a private life of access and privilege afforded to few other African Americans during that era.He generally remained politically neutral, which at times alienated him from members of the black community who expected him to use his prominence within white America to become more outspoken during the civil rights movement.", "However, he did criticize President Eisenhower for not acting forcefully enough on civil rights.===Health problems===The trumpet is notoriously hard on the lips, and Armstrong suffered from lip damage over most of his life.", "This was due to his aggressive style of playing and preference for narrow mouthpieces that would stay in place more easily, but which tended to dig into the soft flesh of his inner lip.", "During his 1930s European tour, he suffered an ulceration so severe that he had to stop playing entirely for a year.", "Eventually he took to using salves and creams on his lips and also cutting off scar tissue with a razor blade.", "By the 1950s, he was an official spokesman for Ansatz-Creme Lip Salve.During a backstage meeting with trombonist Marshall Brown in 1959, Armstrong received the suggestion to see a doctor and receive proper treatment for his lips instead of relying on home remedies, but he did not get around to that until his final years, by which point his health was failing and the doctors considered surgery too risky.Also in 1959, Armstrong was hospitalized for pneumonia while on tour in Italy.", "Doctors were concerned about his lungs and heart, but by June 26 he rallied.===Nicknames===An autograph of Armstrong on the muretto of AlassioThe nicknames \"Satchmo\" and \"Satch\" are short for \"Satchelmouth\".", "The nickname origin is uncertain.", "The most common tale that biographers tell is the story of Armstrong as a young boy in New Orleans dancing for pennies.", "He scooped the coins off the street and stuck them into his mouth to prevent bigger children from stealing them.", "Someone dubbed him \"satchel mouth\" for his mouth acting as a satchel.", "Another tale is that because of his large mouth, he was nicknamed \"satchel mouth\" which was shortened to \"Satchmo\".Early on he was also known as \"Dipper\", short for \"Dippermouth\", a reference to the piece ''Dippermouth Blues'' and something of a riff on his unusual embouchure.The nickname \"Pops\" came from Armstrong's own tendency to forget people's names and simply call them \"Pops\" instead.", "The nickname was turned on Armstrong himself.", "It was used as the title of a 2010 biography of Armstrong by Terry Teachout.After a competition at the Savoy, he was crowned and nicknamed \"King Menelik\", after the Emperor of Ethiopia, for slaying \"ofay jazz demons\".===Race===Armstrong celebrated his heritage as an African American man from a poor New Orleans neighborhood and tried to avoid what he called \"putting on airs\".", "Many younger black musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of segregated audiences and for not taking a stronger stand in the American civil rights movement.", "When he did speak out, it made national news.", "In 1957, journalism student Larry Lubenow scored a candid interview with Armstrong while the musician was performing in Grand Forks, North Dakota shortly after the conflict over school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas.", "Armstrong denounced both Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus and President Dwight D. Eisenhower, saying the President had \"no guts\" and was \"two-faced.\"", "Armstrong told his interviewer that he would cancel a planned tour of the Soviet Union on behalf of the State Department saying, \"The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell\"; he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people.", "The FBI kept a file on Armstrong for his outspokenness about integration.===Religion===When asked about his religion, Armstrong answered that he was raised a Baptist, always wore a Star of David, and was friends with the pope.", "He wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnoffsky family who took him in as a child and lent him money to buy his first cornet.", "He was baptized a Catholic in the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans, and he met Pope Pius XII and Pope Paul VI.===Personal habits===The Armstrong Secret 9, 1931Armstrong was concerned with his health.", "He used laxatives to control his weight, a practice he advocated both to acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title ''Lose Weight the Satchmo Way''.", "Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was Pluto Water, but when he discovered the herbal remedy Swiss Kriss, he became an enthusiastic convert, extolling its virtues to anyone who would listen and passing out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the British Royal Family.Armstrong also appeared in humorous, risqué cards that he had printed to send to friends.", "The cards bore a picture of him sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole—with the slogan \"Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya!", "The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as ads for Swiss Kriss.", "In a live recording of \"Baby, It's Cold Outside\" with Velma Middleton, he changes the lyric from \"Put another record on while I pour\" to \"Take some Swiss Kriss while I pour\".", "His laxative use began as a child when his mother would collect dandelions and peppergrass around the railroad tracks to give to her children for their health.Armstrong was a heavy marijuana smoker for much of his life and spent nine days in jail in 1930 after being arrested outside a club for drug possession.", "He described marijuana as \"a thousand times better than whiskey\".The concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as \"Cheesecake\", \"Cornet Chop Suey\", and \"Struttin' with Some Barbecue\", though the latter was written about a fine-looking companion, and not food.", "He kept a strong connection throughout his life to the cooking of New Orleans, always signing his letters, \"Red beans and ricely yours ...\".A fan of Major League Baseball, he founded a team in New Orleans that was known as Raggedy Nine and transformed the team into his Armstrong's \"Secret Nine Baseball\".===Writings===Armstrong's gregariousness extended to writing.", "On the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes of his life with correspondents around the world.", "He avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy \"medicinal\" marijuana use, and even his bowel movements, which he gleefully described.===Social organizations===Louis Armstrong was not, as claimed, a Freemason.", "Although he has been cited as a member of Montgomery Lodge No.", "18 (Prince Hall) in New York, no such lodge ever existed.", "Armstrong did state in his autobiography that he was a member of the Knights of Pythias, which although real, is not a Masonic group.", "During the krewe's 1949 Mardi Gras parade, Armstrong presided as King of the Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club, for which he was featured on the cover of ''Time'' magazine." ], [ "Music", "===Horn playing and early jazz===Selmer trumpet, given as a gift by King George V of the United Kingdom to Louis Armstrong in 1933In his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet.", "Along with his \"clarinet-like figurations and high notes in his cornet solos\", he was also known for his \"intense rhythmic 'swing', a complex conception involving ... accented upbeats, upbeat to downbeat slurring, and complementary relations among rhythmic patterns.\"", "The most lauded recordings on which Armstrong plays trumpet include the Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions, as well as those of the Red Onion Jazz Babies.", "Armstrong's improvisations, while unconventionally sophisticated for that era, were also subtle and highly melodic.", "The solo that Armstrong plays during the song \"Potato Head Blues\" has long been considered his best solo of that series.Prior to Armstrong, most collective ensemble playing in jazz, along with its occasional solos, simply varied the melodies of the songs.", "Armstrong was virtually the first to create significant variations based on the chord harmonies of the songs instead of merely on the melodies.", "This opened a rich field for creation and improvisation, and significantly changed the music into a soloist's art form.Often, Armstrong re-composed pop-tunes he played, simply with variations that made them more compelling to jazz listeners of the era.", "At the same time, his oeuvre includes many original melodies, creative leaps, and relaxed or driving rhythms.", "Armstrong's playing technique, honed by constant practice, extended the range, tone and capabilities of the trumpet.", "In his records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what had been essentially a collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression.Armstrong was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself.", "Armstrong was an avid audiophile.", "He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career.", "He enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically.", "In the den of his home, he had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio.===Vocal popularity===As his music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important.", "Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it with the first recording on which he scatted, \"Heebie Jeebies\".", "At a recording session for Okeh Records, when the sheet music supposedly fell on the floor and the music began before he could pick up the pages, Armstrong simply started singing nonsense syllables while Okeh President E.A.", "Fearn, who was at the session, kept telling him to continue.", "Armstrong did, thinking the track would be discarded, but that was the version that was pressed to disc, sold, and became an unexpected hit.", "Although the story was thought to be apocryphal, Armstrong himself confirmed it in at least one interview as well as in his memoirs.", "On a later recording, Armstrong also sang out \"I done forgot the words\" in the middle of recording \"I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas\".Such records were hits and scat singing became a major part of his performances.", "Long before this, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, using his voice as creatively as his trumpet.", "Armstrong once told Cab Calloway that his scat style was derived \"from the Jews ''rockin''\", an Orthodox Jewish style of chanting during prayer.===Composing===Armstrong was a gifted composer who wrote more than fifty songs, some of which have become jazz standards (e.g., \"Gully Low Blues\", \"Potato Head Blues\" and \"Swing That Music\").===Colleagues and followers===With Jack Teagarden (left) and Barney Bigard (right), Armstrong plays the trumpet in Helsinki, Finland, October 1949.During his long career he played and sang with some of the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the time, including Bing Crosby, Duke Ellington, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Jimmie Rodgers, Bessie Smith, and Ella Fitzgerald.", "His influence upon Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music.", "Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably \"Just One More Chance\" (1931).", "The ''New Grove Dictionary of Jazz'' describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name:Armstrong recorded two albums with Ella Fitzgerald, ''Ella and Louis'' and ''Ella and Louis Again'', for Verve Records.", "The sessions featured the backing musicianship of the Oscar Peterson Trio with drummer Buddy Rich on the first album and Louie Bellson on the second.", "Norman Granz then had the vision for Ella and Louis to record ''Porgy and Bess''.His two recordings for Columbia Records, ''Louis Armstrong Plays W.C.", "Handy'' (1954) and ''Satch Plays Fats'' (all Fats Waller tunes) (1955), were both being considered masterpieces, as well as moderately well selling.", "In 1961, the All Stars participated in two albums, ''The Great Summit'' and ''The Great Reunion'' (now together as a single disc) with Duke Ellington.", "The albums feature many of Ellington's most famous compositions (as well as two exclusive cuts) with Duke sitting in on piano.", "His participation in Dave Brubeck's high-concept jazz musical ''The Real Ambassadors'' (1963) was critically acclaimed and features \"Summer Song\", one of Armstrong's most popular vocal efforts.Louis Armstrong in 1966In the week beginning May 9, 1964, his recording of the song \"Hello, Dolly!\"", "went to number one.", "An album of the same title was quickly created around the song, and also shot to number one, knocking The Beatles off the top of the chart.", "The album sold very well for the rest of the year, quickly going \"Gold\" (500,000).", "His performance of \"Hello, Dolly!\"", "won for best male pop vocal performance at the 1964 Grammy Awards.===Hits and later career===Armstrong had nineteen \"Top Ten\" records including \"Stardust\", \"What a Wonderful World\", \"When The Saints Go Marching In\", \"Dream a Little Dream of Me\", \"Ain't Misbehavin'\", \"You Rascal You\", and \"Stompin' at the Savoy\".", "\"We Have All the Time in the World\" was featured on the soundtrack of the James Bond film ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'', and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it was featured on a Guinness advertisement.", "It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released.In 1964, Armstrong knocked The Beatles off the top of the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart with \"Hello, Dolly!", "\", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a number one song.", "His 1964 song \"Bout Time\" was later featured in the film ''Bewitched''.In February 1968, he appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian RAI television channel where he performed \"Grassa e Bella\", a track he sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I.", "label.In 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the UK with \"What a Wonderful World\", which topped the British charts for a month.", "Armstrong appeared on the October 28, 1970, ''Johnny Cash Show'', where he sang Nat King Cole's hit \"Ramblin' Rose\" and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on \"Blue Yodel No.", "9\".===Stylistic range===Armstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of Guy Lombardo, to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera.", "He incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories.", "Armstrong was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an ''early influence''.", "Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the hard rocking version of \"St. Louis Blues\" from the ''WC Handy'' album, show that the influence went in both directions." ], [ "Film, television, and radio", "Armstrong entertains Grace Kelly on the set of ''High Society'' in 1956.Armstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a bandleader or musician.", "His most familiar role was as the bandleader ''cum'' narrator in the 1956 musical ''High Society'', starring Bing Crosby, Grace Kelly, Frank Sinatra, and Celeste Holm.", "He appears throughout the film, sings the title song, and performs the duet \"Now You Has Jazz\" with Crosby.", "In 1947, he played himself in the movie ''New Orleans'' opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the Storyville district and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago.", "In the 1959 film ''The Five Pennies'', Armstrong played himself, sang, and played several classic numbers.", "He performed a duet of \"When the Saints Go Marching In\" with Danny Kaye during which Kaye impersonated Armstrong.", "He had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in ''The Glenn Miller Story''.In 1937, Armstrong was the first African American to host a nationally broadcast radio show.", "In 1969, he had a cameo role in Gene Kelly's film version of ''Hello, Dolly!''", "as the bandleader Louis where he sang the title song with actress Barbra Streisand.", "His solo recording of \"Hello, Dolly!\"", "is one of his most recognizable performances.", "He was heard on such radio programs as ''The Story of Swing'' (1937) and ''This Is Jazz'' (1947), and he also made television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson''.In 1949, his life was dramatized by scriptwriter Richard Durham in the Chicago WMAQ radio series ''Destination Freedom''.Argentine writer Julio Cortázar, a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called Cronopios that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories.", "Cortázar once called Armstrong himself \"Grandísimo Cronopio\" (The Great Cronopio).There is a pivotal scene in ''Stardust Memories'' (1980) in which Woody Allen is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's \"Stardust\" and experiences a nostalgic epiphany." ], [ "Death", "The Flushing Cemetery resting place of Louis 'Satchmo' ArmstrongAgainst his doctor's advice, Armstrong played a two-week engagement in March 1971 at the Waldorf-Astoria's Empire Room.", "At the end of it, he was hospitalized for a heart attack.", "He was released from the hospital in May, and quickly resumed practicing his trumpet playing.", "Still hoping to get back on the road, Armstrong died of a heart attack in his sleep on July 6, 1971.He was residing in Corona, Queens, New York City, at the time of his death.He was interred in Flushing Cemetery, Flushing, in Queens, New York City.His honorary pallbearers included Bing Crosby, Ella Fitzgerald, Dizzy Gillespie, Pearl Bailey, Count Basie, Harry James, Frank Sinatra, Ed Sullivan, Earl Wilson, Alan King, Johnny Carson and David Frost.", "Peggy Lee sang \"The Lord's Prayer\" at the services while Al Hibbler sang \"Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen\" and Fred Robbins, a long-time friend, gave the eulogy." ], [ "Awards and honors", "===Grammy Awards===Armstrong was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences.", "This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the field of recording.", "Year Category Title Genre Label Result 1964 Male Vocal Performance \"Hello, Dolly!\"", "Pop Kapp Winner===Grammy Hall of Fame===Recordings of Armstrong were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old, and that have \"qualitative or historical significance\".", "Year recorded Title Label Year inducted Notes 1925 \"St. Louis Blues\" Columbia 1993 Bessie Smith with Louis Armstrong, cornet 1926 \"Heebie Jeebies\" OKeh 1999 1928 \"West End Blues\" OKeh 1974 1928 \"Weather Bird\" OKeh 2008 with Earl Hines 1929 \"St. Louis Blues\" OKeh 2008with Red Allen 1930 \"Blue Yodel No.", "9(Standing on the Corner)\" Victor 2007 Jimmie Rodgers (featuring Louis Armstrong) 1932 \"All of Me\" Columbia 2005 1938 \"When the Saints Go Marching In\" Decca 2016 1955 \"Mack the Knife\" Columbia 1997 1958 ''Porgy and Bess'' Verve 2001 Album, with Ella Fitzgerald 1964 \"Hello, Dolly!\"", "Kapp 2001 1967 \"What a Wonderful World\" ABC 1999===Rock and Roll Hall of Fame===The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed Armstrong's ''West End Blues'' on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll.", "Year recorded Title Label Group 1928 West End Blues Okeh Louis Armstrong and his Hot Five===Inductions and honors===In 1995, the U.S. Post Office issued a Louis Armstrong 32-cent commemorative postage stamp.", "Year inducted Title Notes 1952 DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame 1960 Hollywood Walk of Fame Star at 7601 Hollywood Blvd.", "1978 Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame 2004 Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame At Jazz at Lincoln Center 1990 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Early influence 2007 Louisiana Music Hall of Fame 2007 Gennett Records Walk of Fame, Richmond, Indiana 2007 Long Island Music Hall of Fame===Film honors===In 1999 Armstrong was nominated for inclusion in the American Film Institute's 100 Years ... 100 Stars." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1950, Bing Crosby, the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, \"He is the beginning and the end of music in America\".", "Duke Ellington, DownBeat magazine in 1971, said, \"If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong.", "He was and will continue to be the embodiment of jazz.\"", "Though Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing, Ethel Waters and others preceded his scatting on record in the 1920s according to Gary Giddins and others.According to literary critic Harold Bloom, \"The two great American contributions to the world's art, in the end, are Walt Whitman and, after him, Armstrong and jazz ...", "If I had to choose between the two, ultimately, I wouldn't.", "I would say that the genius of this nation at its best is indeed Walt Whitman and Louis Armstrong\".In 2023, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked Armstrong at No.", "39 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.In 1991, an asteroid was named 9179 Satchmo in his honor.", "In the summer of 2001, in commemoration of the centennial of Armstrong's birth, New Orleans's main airport was renamed Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport.", "The entrance to the airport's former terminal building houses a statue depicting Armstrong playing his cornet.", "In 2002, the Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings (1925–1928) were preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of recordings selected yearly by the National Recording Preservation Board for preservation in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress.", "The US Open tennis tournament's former main stadium was named Louis Armstrong Stadium in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site.Congo Square was a common gathering place for African-Americans in New Orleans for dancing and performing music.", "The park where Congo Square is located was later renamed Louis Armstrong Park.", "Dedicated in April 1980, the park includes a statue of Armstrong, trumpet in hand.The house where Armstrong lived for almost 28 years was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1977 and is now a museum.", "The Louis Armstrong House Museum, at 34–56 107th Street between 34th and 37th avenues in Corona, Queens, presents concerts and educational programs, operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research.", "The museum is operated by the Queens College, City University of New York, following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will.", "The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003.A new visitors center opened across the street from the Armstrong home in summer 2023.", "''A Wonderful World, A New Musical About the Life and Loves of Louis Armstrong'' had its world premiere run at Miami New Drama from December 4, 2021, to January 16, 2021, after mounting previews beginning March 5, 2020 and canceling opening night (March 14) due to COVID concerns.", "Mirroring Armstrong's musical journey, the show stars James Monroe Iglehart and makes \"pre-Broadway\" stops in New Orleans October 1–8, 2023, and Chicago October 11–29, 2023.The new musical charts the rise of Armstrong from the perspective of his four wives.", "It is conceived by Drama Desk Award winner and Tony Award nominee, Christopher Renshaw, and novelist Andrew Delaplaine and directed by Renshaw, ''A Wonderful World'' features an original book by Aurin Squire." ], [ "Discography" ], [ "See also", "* Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong collaborations" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "* Armstrong, Louis (1954).", "''Satchmo: My Life in New Orleans''.", "* Bergreen, Laurence (1997).", "''Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life''.", "* Cogswell, Michael (2003).", "''Armstrong: The Offstage Story''.", "* Elie, Lolis Eric.", "''A Letter from New Orleans.''", "Originally printed in ''Gourmet''.", "Reprinted in ''Best Food Writing 2006'', ed.", "by Holly Hughes, Da Capo Press, 2006.", "* Teachout, Terry (2009).", "''PopsA life of Louis Armstrong''." ], [ "Further reading", "* Jones, Max and Chilton, John.", "''Louis: The Louis Armstrong Story, 1900–1971''.", "Da Capo Press, 1988.", "* Storb, Ilse (1999).", "''Louis Armstrong: The Definitive Biography''.", "* Willems, Jos.", "''All of Me: The Complete Discography of Louis Armstrong''.", "Scarecrow Press, 2006." ], [ "External links", "* * * Louis Armstrong House Museum" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Long Island" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Long Island''' is an island in southeastern New York State, constituting a significant share of the New York metropolitan area in terms of both population and land area.", "The island extends from New York Harbor eastward into the North Atlantic Ocean with a maximum north–south width of .", "With a land area of , it is the largest island in the contiguous United States.Long Island is divided among four counties, with Kings (Brooklyn), Queens, and Nassau occupying its western third and Suffolk its eastern two-thirds.", "As of 2020, more than half (58.4%) of New York City residents live on Long Island in the boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens, although in common parlance, the term \"Long Island\", locally \"the Island\", refers exclusively to the counties of Nassau and Suffolk.", "Conversely, locally, the term \"the City\" refers to Manhattan alone.", "The Nassau–Suffolk-only definition of Long Island is recognized as a region by the State of New York.", "Although geographically an island, the Supreme Court of the United States has held that given the island's extensive ties to the mainland, it should be treated legally as a peninsula, giving the state jurisdiction over its maritime boundaries.Long Island may refer both to the main island and the surrounding outer barrier islands.", "To its west, Long Island is separated from Manhattan and the Bronx by the East River tidal estuary.", "North of the island is Long Island Sound, across which lie Westchester County, New York, and the state of Connecticut.", "Across the Block Island Sound to the northeast is the state of Rhode Island.", "Block Island—which is part of Rhode Island—and numerous smaller islands extend farther into the Atlantic.", "To the extreme southwest, Long Island, at Brooklyn, is separated from Staten Island and the state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, the Narrows, and Lower New York Bay.With a population of 8,063,232 residents as of the 2020 U.S. census, constituting 40% of the State of New York's population, Long Island is the most populated island in any U.S. state or territory, the third-most populous island in the Americas (after only Hispaniola and Cuba), and the 18th-most populous island in the world (ahead of Ireland, Jamaica, and Hokkaidō).", "Its population density is .", "If Long Island geographically constituted an independent metropolitan statistical area, it would rank fourth most populous in the United States; if it were a U.S. state, Long Island would rank thirteenth in population and first in population density.", "Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse, featuring some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the world near the shorelines, as well as working-class areas in all four counties.As of 2022, Kings, Queens, Nassau, and Suffolk counties collectively had a gross domestic product of approximately $500 billion.", "Median household income on the island significantly exceeds $100,000, and the median home price is approximately $600,000, with Nassau County approximating $700,000.Among residents over the age of 25, 42.6% hold a college degree or higher educationally.", "Unemployment on Long Island stays consistently below 4%.As a hub of commercial aviation, Long Island is home to two of the nation's and New York City metropolitan area's three busiest airports, JFK International Airport and LaGuardia Airport, in addition to Long Island MacArthur Airport; as well as two major air traffic control radar facilities, the New York TRACON and the New York ARTCC.", "Nine bridges and thirteen navigable tunnels (road and railroad tunnels but not metropolitan water tunnels) connect Brooklyn and Queens to the three other boroughs of New York City.", "Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to Connecticut.", "The Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America and operates continuously.", "Biotechnology companies, engineering, and scientific research play a significant role in Long Island's economy, including research facilities at Brookhaven National Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Stony Brook University, New York Institute of Technology, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, the New York University Tandon School of Engineering, the Zucker School of Medicine, and the Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research." ], [ "History", "===Early history===Native American settlements on Long Island in 1600Lenape IndiansOld House, built in 1699 in CutchogueThe first nations of Long Island used canoes as a source of transportation, and since they lived by the shores, they went fishing.", "The fishermen used bows, arrows, and hooks to catch seafood such as crabs, scallops, and lobster.", "The farmers used fish for fertilizer and planted vegetables such as corn, beans, and squash, which were popular among the indigenous people.", "They were exceptional farmers; they had a great understanding of how the weather and soil affected the crops.", "Many of them hunted animals, such as deer, raccoon, and turkey in the forest.The government that these original settlers set up was a participatory democracy and there was an alliance between the nations.", "Each nation had its own territory and chief that was respected by other tribes.", "Prior to European colonization, the Lenape people (named the ''Delaware'' by Europeans) inhabited the western end of Long Island and spoke the Munsee dialect of Lenape, part of the Algonquian language family.", "The Lenape practiced record keeping and used wooden tablets, trees, and stones to keep record.", "They also used wampum belts to write down important messages.", "They also used their wampum to trade with the Europeans.", "The Lenape people, in specific, were seen as peacemakers by other indigenous nations, although they would defend themselves if necessary.", "The Europeans admired their friendliness and their skills in mediation.Giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with the Lenape people, after entering what is now New York Bay in 1524.The island's eastern portion was inhabited by speakers of the Mohegan-Pequot language group of Algonquian languages; they were part of the Pequot and Narragansett peoples inhabiting the area that now includes Connecticut and Rhode Island.There is a common misconception that there were \"thirteen tribes\" which inhabited the island before the arrival of Europeans; this was erroneously taught in schools until as late as the mid-1990s.===17th century===Excerpt from the 1685 Novi Belgii Novæque Angliæ map by Nicolaes Visscher II with \"'t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs\" in redIn 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson explored the harbor and purportedly landed at the present-day Coney Island.", "Dutch explorer Adriaen Block followed in 1615 and is credited as the first European to determine that both Manhattan and Long Island are islands.In 1636, Charles I of England, a Stuart, rewarded Scottish courtier, diplomat, and colonial governor William Alexander's service to the Crown by creating him Lord Alexander of Tullibody and Viscount of Stirling.", "On April 22 of that year Charles told the Plymouth Colony, which had laid claim to Long Island but had not settled it, to cede it to Alexander.", "When his agent James Farret arrived in New Amsterdam in 1637 to present his claim of English sovereignty, he was arrested and imprisoned in Holland, but later escaped from prison.In 1639, Lion Gardiner purchased an islet off of present-day East Hampton, Gardiners Island, from Montaukett received Farret's approval of the transaction on behalf of Alexander, who by then was the 1st Earl of Stirling and Viscount Canada, and subsequently received a royal patent establishing him as Lord of the Manor over it.In 1640, English colonists attempted to settle Cow Bay in what is present-day Port Washington.", "After an alert by Native leader Penhawitz, the colonists were arrested by the Dutch but released after saying they were mistaken about the title.Through Farret, who personally received Shelter Island and Robins Island, Alexander in turn sold most of the eastern island to the New Haven and Connecticut colonies.Despite these shifting claims to title and absentee land sales, European settlers continued to purchase land directly from indigenous people.", "In 1655, they split the acquired land amongst themselves and continued to search the island for more land for settlement.", "On June 10, 1664, other parts of indigenous land were bought, including present-day Brookhaven, Bellport, and South Haven, in exchange for four coats and 6 pounds 10 shilling - a value that, accounting for monetary inflation through 2017, is currently worth approximately $840.The white settlers and indigenous people lived amicably together for a while.", "During King Philip's War in 1675, the English governor of New York ordered that all canoes east of Hell Gate be confiscated.", "This was done to prevent the indigenous people from helping their native allies on the mainland, who were attacking settlers there.After the Dutch began to move into Manhattan, many indigenous people moved to Pennsylvania and Delaware.", "Many of those who stayed behind died from smallpox, which inflicted North American for the first time and resulted in large scale deaths due to lack of antibodies and natural resistance which Eurasian peoples had gained with their exposure to the disease.Native American land deeds recorded by the Dutch from 1636 state that the Indians referred to Long Island as ''''. ''''", "and '''' were other spellings in the transliteration of the Lenape. ''''", "was one of the terms for wampum, commemorative stringed shell beads, for a while also used as currency by colonists in trades with the Lenape, and is also translated as \"loose\" or \"scattered\", which may refer either to the wampum or to Long Island.", "The name \"'t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs\" appears in Dutch maps from the 1650s, with '''t Lange Eylandt'' translating it to \"Long Island\" from Old Dutch.", "The English referred to Long Island as \"Nassau Island\", after the House of Nassau of the Dutch Prince William of Nassau, Prince of Orange (who later also ruled as King William III of England).", "It is unclear when the name \"Nassau Island\" was discontinued.", "Another indigenous name from colonial time, Paumanok, comes from the Native American name for Long Island and means \"the island that pays tribute.", "\"The very first European settlements on Long Island were by settlers from England and its colonies in present-day New England.", "Lion Gardiner settled nearby Gardiners Island.", "The first settlement on the geographic Long Island itself was on October 21, 1640, when Southold was established by the Rev.", "John Youngs and settlers from New Haven, Connecticut.", "Peter Hallock, one of the settlers, drew the long straw and was granted the honor to step ashore first.", "He is considered the first New World settler on Long Island.", "Southampton was settled in the same year.", "Hempstead followed in 1644, East Hampton in 1648, Huntington in 1653, Brookhaven in 1655, and Smithtown in 1665.While the eastern region of Long Island was first settled by the English, the western portion of Long Island was settled by the Dutch; until 1664, the jurisdiction of Long Island was split between the Dutch and English, roughly at the present border between Nassau County and Suffolk County.", "The Dutch founded six towns in present-day Brooklyn beginning in 1645.These included: Brooklyn, Gravesend, Flatlands, Flatbush, New Utrecht, and Bushwick.", "The Dutch had granted an English settlement in Hempstead, New York (now in Nassau County) in 1644, but after a boundary dispute, they drove out English settlers from the Oyster Bay area.", "However, in 1664, the English returned to take over the Dutch colony of New Netherland, including Long Island.The 1664 land patent granted to the Duke of York included all islands in Long Island Sound.", "The Duke of York held a grudge against Connecticut, as New Haven had hidden three of the judges (John Dixwell, Edward Whalley and William Goffe) who sentenced the Duke's father, King Charles I, to death in 1649.Settlers throughout Suffolk County pressed to stay part of Connecticut, but Governor Sir Edmund Andros threatened to eliminate the settlers' rights to land if they did not yield, which they did by 1676.All of Long Island (as well as the islands between it and Connecticut) became part of the Province of New York within the Shire of York.", "Present-day Suffolk County was designated as the ''East Riding'' (of Yorkshire), present-day Brooklyn was part of the ''West Riding'', and present-day Queens and Nassau were part of the larger ''North Riding''.", "In 1683, Yorkshire was dissolved and the three original counties on Long Island were established: Kings, Queens, and Suffolk.===18th century===The Brooklyn Bridge, the first of multiple crossings bridge constructed across the East River, connects Long Island with ManhattanWilliam Floyd was born on Long Island on December 17, 1734.His family had emigrated to America in 1654 and by the time of his birth were well established and wealthy.", "He was a member of the Suffolk County Militia in the early conflict with Britain, attaining the rank of Major General.", "In 1774 he was chosen as a representative from New York to the First Continental Congress.", "His property was destroyed by British and Tory sympathizers.", "In 1789 he was elected to the United States House of Representatives, serving until 1791.Francis Lewis from Brookhaven on Long Island was another signer of the Declaration that also had his home destroyed by the British, who then imprisoned his wife.", "George Washington managed her release by having the wives of two wealthy Philadelphia Tories arrested, then exchanging them for Mrs. Lewis.Marinus Willett, of Jamaica, Queens enlisted in the colonial militia after the French and Indian War broke out in 1754.He participated in the Ticonderoga campaign and the capture of Fort Frontenac in 1758.Joining the revolutionary Sons of Liberty in the 1770s, Willett shortly thereafter enlisted in the Continental Army in 1775.Serving in the 1st New York, he took part in the Invasion of Quebec before transferring to the 3rd New York in 1776.Seeing action at Monmouth, Willett then participated in the 1778 Sullivan Campaign.", "He was made the colonel of the 5th New York in 1780 and the Tryon County militia in 1781, where he fought at Johnstown.", "On August 22, 1830, Willett died and was buried in the graveyard of Trinity Church.", "The Willets Point and the accompanying Mets-Willets Point station is named in his honor.Early in the American Revolutionary War, the island was captured by the British from General George Washington in the Battle of Long Island, a decisive battle after which Washington narrowly evacuated his troops from Brooklyn Heights under a dense fog.", "After the British victory on Long Island, many Patriots withdrew, leaving mostly Loyalists behind.", "The island was a British stronghold until the end of the war in 1783.General Washington based his espionage activities on Long Island, due to the western part of the island's proximity to the British military headquarters in New York City.", "The Culper Spy Ring included agents operating between Setauket and Manhattan.", "This ring alerted Washington to valuable British secrets, including the treason of Benedict Arnold and a plan to use counterfeiting to induce economic sabotage.Long Island's colonists served both Loyalist and Patriot causes, with many prominent families divided among both sides.", "During the occupation, British troops used a number of civilian structures for defense and demanded to be quartered in the homes of civilians.", "A number of structures from this era remain.", "Among these are Raynham Hall, the Oyster Bay home of patriot spy Robert Townsend, and the Caroline Church in Setauket, which contains bullet holes from a skirmish known as the Battle of Setauket.", "Also in existence is a reconstruction of Brooklyn's Old Stone House, on the site of the Maryland 400's celebrated last stand during the Battle of Long Island.===19th century===In the 19th century, Long Island was still mainly rural and devoted to agriculture.", "The predecessor to the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) began service in 1836 from the South Ferry in Brooklyn, through the remainder of Brooklyn, to Jamaica in Queens.", "The line was completed to the east end of Long Island in 1844 (as part of a plan for transportation to Boston).", "Competing railroads (soon absorbed by the LIRR) were built along the south shore to accommodate travellers from those more populated areas.", "For the century from 1830 until 1930, total population roughly doubled every twenty years, with more dense development in areas near Manhattan.", "Several cities were incorporated, such as the \"City of Brooklyn\" in Kings County, and Long Island City in Queens.Until the 1883 completion of the Brooklyn Bridge, the only means of travel between Long Island and the rest of the United States was by boat or ship.", "As other bridges and tunnels were constructed, areas of the island began to be developed as residential suburbs, first around the railroads that offered commuting into the city.", "On January 1, 1898, Kings County and portions of Queens County were consolidated into the \"City of Greater New York\", abolishing all cities and towns within them.", "The easternmost of Queens County, which were not part of the consolidation plan,separated from Queens in 1899 to form Nassau County.At the close of the 19th century, wealthy industrialists who made vast fortunes during the Gilded Age began to construct large \"baronial\" country estates in Nassau County communities along the North Shore of Long Island, favoring the many properties with water views.", "Proximity to Manhattan attracted such men as J. P. Morgan, William K. Vanderbilt, and Charles Pratt, whose estates led to this area being nicknamed the Gold Coast.", "This period and the area was immortalized in fiction, such as F. Scott Fitzgerald's ''The Great Gatsby'', which has also been adapted in films.===20th century===Oheka Castle, a North Shore estate in West Hills, is the second-largest private residence in the country.Charles Lindbergh lifted off from Roosevelt Field with his ''Spirit of Saint Louis'' for his historic 1927 solo flight to Europe, one of the events that helped to establish Long Island as an early center of aviation during the 20th century.", "Other famous aviators such as Wiley Post originated notable flights from Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn, which became the first major airport serving New York City before it was superseded by the opening of La Guardia Airport in 1939.Long Island was also the site of Mitchel Air Force Base and was a major center of military aircraft production by companies such as Grumman and Fairchild Aircraft during World War II and for some decades afterward.", "Aircraft production on Long Island extended all the way into the Space Age.", "Grumman was one of the major contractors that helped to build the early lunar flight and space shuttle vehicles.", "Although the aircraft companies eventually ended their Long Island operations and the early airports were all later closed.", "Roosevelt Field, for instance, became the site of a major shopping mall, the Cradle of Aviation Museum on the site of the former Mitchel Field documents the Island's key role in the history of aviation.From the 1920s to the 1940s, Long Island began the transformation from backwoods and farms as developers created numerous suburbs.", "Numerous branches of the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) already enabled commuting from the suburbs to Manhattan.", "Robert Moses engineered various automobile parkway projects to span the island, and developed beaches and state parks for the enjoyment of residents and visitors from the city.", "Gradually, development also followed these parkways, with various communities springing up along the more traveled routes.After World War II, suburban development increased with incentives under the G.I.", "Bill, and Long Island's population skyrocketed, mostly in Nassau County and western Suffolk County.", "Second and third-generation children of immigrants moved out to eastern Long Island to settle in new housing developments built during the post-war boom.", "Levittown became noted as a suburb, where housing construction was simplified to be produced on a large scale.", "These provided opportunities for white World War II military veterans returning home to buy houses and start a family.", "In his 1966 book, ''My Private America'' (''Moja prywatna Ameryka''), Kazimierz Wierzyński, a Polish poet who could not go back to Poland after World War II, describes Polish farmers living there, as \"walking novels\".===21st century===The Brooklyn Tower, a 93-story supertall skyscraper in Downtown Brooklyn, was topped out in 2021 as the tallest building on Long Island, at a height of .By the start of the 21st century, a number of Long Island communities had converted their assets from industrial uses to post-industrial roles.", "Brooklyn reversed decades of population decline and factory closings to resurface as a globally renowned cultural and intellectual hotbed.", "Gentrification has impacted much of Brooklyn and a portion of Queens, relocating a sizeable swath of New York City's population.", "On eastern Long Island, such villages as Port Jefferson, Patchogue, and Riverhead have been changed from inactive shipbuilding and mill towns into tourist-centric commercial centers with cultural attractions.The descendants of late 19th and early 20th-century immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, and Black migrants from the South, have been followed by more recent immigrants from Asia and Latin America.", "Long Island has many ethnic Irish, Jews, and Italians, as well as an increasing numbers of Asians, Hispanics, Afghans, Arabs, and Indians reflecting later migrations." ], [ "Geography", "Montauk on Long Island's rural eastern tip in East Hampton in January 2013Nassau and Suffolk, and two New York City boroughs, Brooklyn and QueensSatellite imagery showing the New York metropolitan area at night; Long Island is highly developed and densely populated, extending approximately eastward from the central core of Manhattan.The intersection of Long Island, Manhattan, and the continental mainland taken from space by Space Shuttle Columbia in 1993North Shore in November 2012The westernmost end of Long Island contains the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn (Kings County) and Queens (Queens County).", "The central and eastern portions contain the suburban Nassau and Suffolk counties.", "However, colloquial usage of the term \"Long Island\" usually refers only to Nassau and Suffolk counties.", "For example, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York has a district named \"Long Island (Nassau-Suffolk Metro Division).\"", "At least as late as 1911, locations in Queens were still commonly referred to as being on Long Island.", "Some institutions in the New York City section of the island use the island's names, like Long Island University and Long Island Jewish Medical Center.In 1985, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in ''United States v. Maine'' that Long Island is integrally related to the mainland enough that Long Island Sound and the western part of Block Island Sound constitute a \"juridical bay\" for the purpose of determining maritime state boundaries.", "In the popular media this has been often misinterpreted as a ruling that Long Island is legally not an island.", "The United States Board on Geographic Names still considers Long Island an island, because it is surrounded by water.There are few tall buildings on Long Island.", "Nassau County is more densely developed than Suffolk County.", "While affluent overall, Nassau County has pockets of more pronounced wealth with estates covering greater acreage within the Gold Coast of the North Shore and the Five Towns area on the South Shore.", "South Shore communities are built along protected wetlands of the island and contain white sandy beaches of Outer Barrier Islands fronting on the Atlantic Ocean.", "Dutch and English settlers from the time before the American Revolutionary War, as well as communities of Native Americans, populated the island.", "The 19th century saw the infusion of the wealthiest Americans in the so-called Gold Coast of the North Shore, where wealthy Americans and Europeans in the Gilded Age built lavish country homes.In its easternmost sections, Suffolk County remains semi-rural, as in Greenport on the North Fork and some of the periphery of the area prominently known as The Hamptons, although summer tourism swells the population in those areas.", "The North Fork peninsula of Suffolk County's East End has developed a burgeoning wine region.", "In addition, the South Fork peninsula is known for beach communities, including the Hamptons, and for the Montauk Point Lighthouse at the eastern tip of the island.", "The Pine Barrens is a preserved pine forest encompassing much of eastern Suffolk County.===Geology===A detailed geomorphological study of Long Island provides evidence of glacial history of the kame and terminal moraines of the island which were formed by the advance and retreat of two ice sheets.", "Long Island, as part of the Outer Lands region, is formed largely of two spines of glacial moraine, with a large, sandy outwash plain beyond.", "These moraines consist of gravel and loose rock left behind during the two most recent pulses of Wisconsin glaciation during the ice ages some 21,000 years ago (19,000 BC).", "The northern moraine, which directly abuts the North Shore of Long Island at points, is known as the Harbor Hill moraine.", "The more southerly moraine, known as the Ronkonkoma moraine, forms the \"backbone\" of Long Island; it runs primarily through the very center of Long Island, roughly coinciding with the length of the Long Island Expressway.The land to the south of this moraine to the South Shore is the outwash plain of the last glacier.", "One part of the outwash plain was known as the Hempstead Plains, and this land contained one of the few natural prairies to exist east of the Appalachian Mountains.", "The glaciers melted and receded to the north, resulting in the difference between the topography of the North Shore beaches and the South Shore beaches.", "The North Shore beaches are rocky from the remaining glacial debris, while the South Shore's are crisp, clear, outwash sand.", "Jayne's Hill, at , within Suffolk County near its border with Nassau County, is the highest hill along either moraine; another well-known summit is Bald Hill in Brookhaven Town, not far from its geographical center at Middle Island.", "The glaciers also formed Lake Ronkonkoma in Suffolk County and Lake Success in Nassau County, each a deep kettle lake.===Countyscapes======Climate===Cumulus congestus clouds over Long Island in July 2013Clear skies over Peconic Bay with the Atlantic Ocean as its primary inflow, separating the North Fork and South Fork at the East End of Long Island in November 2007Rockaway Beach Boardwalk after Hurricane Sandy in November 2012Under the Köppen climate classification, Long Island lies in a transition zone between a humid subtropical climate ('''Cfa''') and a hot-summer humid continental climate ('''Dfa''').", "The climate features hot, usually humid summers with occasional thunderstorms, mild spring and fall weather, and cool winters with a mix of snow and rain and stormier conditions.", "Spring can be cool due to the relatively cooler temperatures of the Atlantic Ocean and occasional blocking.", "Thunderstorms rarely form directly over Long Island, but can form over inland areas and then move eastward.", "Some storms may weaken as they approach Long Island due to the moderating effects of the Atlantic Ocean.", "The ocean also brings afternoon sea breezes to the immediate South Shore areas (within ) that temper the heat in the warmer months.", "The temperatures south of Sunrise Highway (NY Route 27) tend to be significantly cooler than the rest of Long Island in the spring and summer months because of the relatively cooler temperatures of the Atlantic Ocean.", "Long Island has a moderately sunny climate, averaging 2,400 to 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Due to its coastal location, Long Island winter temperatures are milder than most of the state.", "The coldest month is January, when average temperatures range from , and the warmest month is July, when average temperatures range from .", "Temperatures seldom fall below or rise above .", "Coldest temp ever recorded on Long Island was on January 22, 1961.Long Island temperatures vary from west to east, with the western part (Nassau County, Queens, and Brooklyn) generally 2 to 3 degrees F (1 to 2 degrees C) warmer than the east (Suffolk County).", "This is due to several factors: the western part is closer to the mainland and more densely developed, causing the \"urban heat island\" effect, and Long Island's land mass veers northward as one travels east.", "Also, daytime high temperatures on the eastern part of Long Island are cooler on most occasions, due to the moderating effect of the Atlantic Ocean and Long Island Sound.", "On dry nights with no clouds or wind, the Central Part of Suffolk County and Pine Barrens forest of eastern Suffolk County can be almost 5 to 10 F (3 to 5 C) cooler than the rest of the island, due to radiational cooling.", "Average dew points, a measure of atmospheric moisture, typically lie in the range during July and August.Precipitation is distributed uniformly throughout the year, with approximately on average during each month.", "Average yearly snowfall totals range from approximately , with the north shore and western parts averaging more than the immediate south shore (South of Sunrise Hwy) and the east end.", "In any given winter, however, some parts of the island can see up to of snow or more.", "There are also milder winters, in which much of the island see less than of snow.On August 13, 2014, flash flooding occurred in western-central Suffolk County after a record-setting rainfall deposited more than three months' worth of precipitation on the area within a few hours.Long Island is somewhat vulnerable to tropical cyclones.", "While it lies north of where most tropical cyclones turn eastward and out to sea (most landfalls on the East Coast of the U.S. occur from North Carolina southward), several tropical cyclones have struck Long Island, including a devastating Category 3, the 1938 New England hurricane (also known as the \"Long Island Express\"), and another Category 3, Hurricane Carol in 1954.Other 20th-century storms that made landfall on Long Island at hurricane intensity include the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane, Hurricane Donna in 1960, Hurricane Belle in 1976, and Hurricane Gloria in 1985.Also, the eyewall of Hurricane Bob in 1991 brushed the eastern tip.", "In August 2011, portions of Long Island were evacuated in preparation for Hurricane Irene, a Category 1 hurricane which weakened to a tropical storm before it reached Long Island.On October 29, 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused extensive damage to low-lying coastal areas of Nassau and Suffolk counties, Brooklyn, and Queens, destroying or severely damaging thousands of area homes and other structures by ocean and bay storm surges.", "Hundreds of thousands of residents were left without electric power for periods of time ranging up to several weeks while the damage was being repaired.", "The slow-moving \"Superstorm Sandy\" (so-nicknamed because it merged with a nor'easter before it made landfall) caused 90% of Long Island households to lose power and an estimated $18 billion in damages in Nassau and Suffolk counties alone.", "The storm also had a devastating impact on coastal communities in the Brooklyn and Queens portions of the island, including Coney Island in Brooklyn and the Rockaway Peninsula in Queens, although estimates of monetary damages there are usually calculated as part of the overall losses suffered in New York City as a whole.", "When allowance is made for inflation, the extent of Sandy's damages is second only to that of those caused by the 1938 Long Island Express.", "Although a lower central pressure was recorded in Sandy, the National Hurricane Center estimates that the 1938 hurricane had a lower pressure at landfall.", "Hurricane Sandy and its profound impacts have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of Long Island and New York City to minimize the risk of destructive consequences from another such event in the future.===Additional islands===A detailed map of Long IslandNorth Shore, which along with The Hamptons and Brooklyn's western waterfront (facing Manhattan) provides Long Island with some of world's most expensive residential real estateSeveral smaller islands, though geographically distinct, are in proximity to Long Island and are often grouped with it.", "These islands include Fire Island, the largest of the outer barrier islands that parallels the southern shore of Long Island for approximately ; Plum Island, which was home to the Plum Island Animal Disease Center, a biological weapons research facility; Fishers Island and smaller islands Wicopesset Island, North Dumpling Island, South Dumpling Island, and Flat Hammock; as well as Robins Island, Gardiners Island, Long Beach Barrier Island, Jones Beach Island, Great Gull Island, Little Gull Island, and Shelter Island.=== Environmental degradation ===Long Island is a region affected by environmental degradation resulting from urban and suburban expansion beginning at the start of the 20th century.", "With the Long Island Sound to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the south and east, Long Island is home to a diverse range of habitats including salt marshes, coastal grasslands, beaches, rocky intertidal zones, tidal flats, pine barrens, estuaries, deciduous forests and many more.", "Each of these habitats faces unique challenges in terms of environmental degradation but a few common issues can be found in each of them.One of the most common forms of environmental degradation is eutrophication of lakes and ponds due nutrient pollution.", "Nearly all of the bodies of water on Long Island have been affected by nutrient pollution in the form of nitrogen and phosphorus.", "Fertilizer containing high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus is washed into nearby surface water, accelerating the process of eutrophication.", "Common signs of eutrophication include murky green water and foul odor.", "Nutrient pollution is also responsible for Harmful Algal Blooms which can be toxic to aquatic organisms, birds and mammals, including humans.Chemical pollution is common on Long Island with it being home to 38 Superfund sites both closed and active.", "The four counties of Long Island have had chemical pollution, but Nassau County has the most out of the group with 18 superfund sites.", "Most famously from 1942 to 1996 Northrop Grumman and the United States Navy owned 600 acres where they manufactured military aircraft.", "Disposal practices of both parties resulted in a plume of VOCs or volatile organic compounds that contaminated groundwater in an area extending 4.3 miles north and south and 2.1 miles east and west.", "Restoration efforts have been on going since 2019 but concern over water quality still remains.", "Chemical pollution on Long Island often follows a similar pattern of negligence with hazardous chemicals that leak into groundwater and soil.", "Long Island drinking water is sourced from a large aquifer which is at risk of contamination if chemical pollution continues.Long Island is one of the most developed areas in the United States with a majority of the high intensity development located closer to New York City and lower intensity development moving east across the island.", "High intensity development makes up 10% of the land cover on Long Island.", "Medium intensity development makes up 17%, and low intensity development makes up 17%.", "Developed open spaces account for 19% making the total percent of developed land around 63%.", "Most of the undeveloped land is found in Suffolk County which is made up of 46% undeveloped land.", "This level of development means most of the original habitats on Long Island have been destroyed or segmented by housing developments or roads.", "Tidal wetlands are the victims of the most habitat destruction due development of coastal land.", "New York has lost almost half of its tidal wetlands along the Long Island Sound.", "These tidal wetlands act as a natural barrier from flooding.", "As they are destroyed and developed the chances of flooding increase.Climate change will affect Long Islanders in a number of ways in the future.", "It is estimated that at current rates by the year 2100 water levels will rise about four feet causing the relocation and destruction of neighborhoods along the coast of the island.", "As well as rising water levels, Long Islanders will have to deal with the effects of ever stronger hurricane seasons, and more catastrophic storms like Hurricane Sandy in 2012.Rising temperatures will also exacerbate the algal bloom problems, as algae tends to thrive in warmer waters.", "Restoration of coast lines and marsh habitats may provided some protection against flooding from large storms, but Long Island is largely unprepared for the increasing intensity of storms in the years to come." ], [ "Demographics", "Long Island is the most populous island and one of the most densely populated regions in the United States.", "At the 2020 U.S. census, the total population of all four counties of Long Island was 8,063,232, comprising 40% of the population of the State of New York.", "As of 2020, the proportion of New York City residents (total 8,804,190) living on Long Island had risen to 58.4%, given the 5,141,538 residents living in Brooklyn and Queens.", "Furthermore, the proportion of New York State's population residing on Long Island has also been increasing, with Long Island's census-estimated population increasing 6.5% since 2010, to 8,063,232 in 2020, representing 40% of New York State's census 2020-enumerated population of 20,215,751 and with a population density of on Long Island; the island is more populous than 37 of the 50 U.S. states.At the 2020 census, the combined population of Nassau and Suffolk counties was 2,921,694 people, Suffolk County's share being 1,525,920 and Nassau County's 1,395,774.Nassau County had a larger population for decades, but Suffolk County surpassed it in the 1990 census as growth and development continued to spread eastward.", "As Suffolk County has more than three times the land area of Nassau County, the latter still has a much higher population density, given its proximity to New York City.", "According to the U.S. Census Bureau's 2008 American Community Survey, Nassau and Suffolk counties had the 10th and 26th highest median household incomes in the nation, respectively.Whites are the largest racial group in all four counties, and are in the majority in Nassau and Suffolk counties.", "In 2002, ''The New York Times'' cited a study by the non-profit group ERASE Racism, which determined that Nassau and Suffolk counties constitute the most racially segregated suburbs in the United States.In contrast, Queens is the most ethnically diverse county in the United States and the most diverse urban area in the world.According to a 2000 report on religion, which asked congregations to respond, Catholics are the largest religious group on Long Island, with non-affiliated in second place.", "Catholics make up 52% of the population of Nassau and Suffolk, versus 22% for the country as a whole, with Jews at 16% and 7%, respectively, versus 1.7% nationwide.", "Only a small percentage of Protestants responded, 7% and 8% respectively, for Nassau and Suffolk counties.", "This is in contrast with 23% for the entire country on the same survey, and 50% on self-identification surveys.A growing population of nearly half a million Chinese Americans now live on Long Island.", "Rapidly expanding Chinatowns have developed in Brooklyn and Queens, with Chinese immigrants also moving into Nassau County, as did earlier European immigrants, such as the Irish and Italians.", "The busy intersection of Main Street, Kissena Boulevard, and 41st Avenue defines the center of Downtown Flushing and the Flushing Chinatown, known as the \"Chinese Times Square\" or the \"Chinese Manhattan\".", "The segment of Main Street between Kissena Boulevard and Roosevelt Avenue, punctuated by the Long Island Rail Road trestle overpass, represents the cultural heart of the Flushing Chinatown.", "Housing over 30,000 individuals born in China alone, the largest by this metric outside Asia, Flushing has become home to the largest and one of the fastest-growing Chinatowns in the world as the heart of over 250,000 ethnic Chinese in Queens, representing the largest Chinese population of any U.S. municipality other than New York City in total.", "Conversely, the Flushing Chinatown has also become the epicenter of organized prostitution in the United States, importing women from China, Korea, Thailand, and Eastern Europe to sustain the underground North American sex trade.", "Flushing is undergoing rapid gentrification with investment by Chinese transnational entities.More recently, a Little India community has emerged in Hicksville, Nassau County, spreading eastward from the more established Little India enclaves in Queens.", "Rapidly growing Chinatowns have developed in Brooklyn and Queens, as did earlier European immigrants, such as the Irish and Italians.", "As of 2019, the Asian population in Nassau County had grown by 39% since 2010 to an estimated 145,191 individuals, including approximately 50,000 Indian Americans and 40,000 Chinese Americans, as Nassau County has become the leading suburban destination in the U.S. for Chinese immigrants.", "Likewise, the Long Island Koreatown originated in Flushing, Queens, and is expanding eastward along Northern Boulevard and into Nassau County.Long Island is home to two Native American reservations, Poospatuck Reservation, and Shinnecock Reservation, both in Suffolk County.", "Numerous island place names are Native American in origin.A 2010 article in ''The New York Times'' stated that the expansion of the immigrant workforce on Long Island has not displaced any jobs from other Long Island residents.", "Half of the immigrants on Long Island hold white-collar positions.The counties of Nassau and Suffolk have been long renowned for their affluence.", "Long Island is home to some of the wealthiest communities in the United States, including The Hamptons, on the East End of the South Shore of Suffolk County; the Gold Coast, in the vicinity of the island's North Shore, along Long Island Sound; and increasingly, the western shoreline of Brooklyn, facing Manhattan.", "In 2016, according to ''Business Insider'', the 11962 zip code encompassing Sagaponack, within Southampton, was listed as the most expensive in the U.S., with a median home sale price of $8.5 million." ], [ "Economy", "Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on the North Shore of Nassau County is a biomedical research facility and home to eight Nobel Prize recipients.Brookhaven National Laboratory, a major U.S. Department of Energy research institution in July 2010Long Island has played a prominent role in scientific research and in engineering.", "It is the home of the Brookhaven National Laboratory in nuclear physics and Department of Energy research.", "Long Island is also home to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, which was directed for 35 years by James D. Watson (who, along with Francis Crick and Rosalind Franklin, discovered the double helix structure of DNA).", "Companies such as Sperry Corporation, Computer Associates (headquartered in Islandia), Zebra Technologies (now occupying the former headquarters of Symbol Technologies, and a former Grumman plant in Holtsville), have made Long Island a center for the computer industry.", "Stony Brook University and New York Institute of Technology conduct advanced medical and technological research.Long Island is home to the East Coast's largest industrial park, the Hauppauge Industrial Park, hosting over 1,300 companies which employ more than 71,000 individuals.", "Companies in the park and abroad are represented by the Hauppauge Industrial Association.", "As many as 20% of Long Islanders commute to jobs in Manhattan.", "The island's eastern end is still partly agricultural.", "Development of vineyards on the North Fork has spawned a major viticultural industry, replacing potato fields.", "Pumpkin farms have been added to traditional truck farming.", "Farms allow fresh fruit picking by Long Islanders for much of the year.", "Fishing continues to be an important industry, especially at Huntington, Northport, Montauk, and other coastal communities of the East End and South Shore.From about 1930 to about 1990, Long Island was considered one of the aerospace manufacturing centers of the United States, with companies such as Grumman, Republic, Fairchild, and Curtiss having their headquarters and factories on Long Island.", "These operations have largely been phased out or significantly diminished." ], [ "Government and politics", "half-dollar coin issued in 1936 for Long Island's 300th anniversaryNassau County and Suffolk County each have their own governments, with a County Executive leading each.", "Each has a county legislature and countywide-elected officials, including district attorney, county clerk, and county comptroller.", "The towns in both counties have their own governments as well, with town supervisors and a town council.", "Nassau County is divided into three towns and two small incorporated cities (Glen Cove and Long Beach).", "Suffolk County is divided into ten towns.Brooklyn and Queens, on the other hand, do not have official county governments and are represented only by the Kings County and Queens County District Attorneys, respectively, who work for the State of New York.", "As boroughs of New York City, both have borough presidents, which have been largely ceremonial offices since the shutdown of the New York City Board of Estimate.", "The respective Borough Presidents are responsible for appointing individuals to the Brooklyn Community Boards and Queens Community Boards, each of which serves an advisory function on local issues.", "Brooklyn's sixteen members and Queens' fourteen members represent the first and second largest borough contingents of the New York City Council.===Law enforcement===Queens and Brooklyn are patrolled by the New York City Police Department.", "Nassau and Suffolk counties are served by the Nassau County Police Department and Suffolk County Police Department, respectively, although several dozen villages and the two cities in Nassau County have their own police departments.", "The Nassau County Sheriff's Department and Suffolk County Sheriff's Office handle civil procedure, evictions, warrant service and enforcement, prisoner transport and detention, and operation of the county jails.", "The Suffolk County Sheriff also has a patrol division, and in 2008, had patrol duties along the Long Island Expressway, when the County Executive briefly disbanded the Suffolk County Police Highway Patrol Division.", "The Suffolk County Sheriff's Office is the oldest law enforcement agency in the State of New York, founded in the year 1683.New York State Police patrol state parks and parkways.", "The several SUNY colleges and universities are patrolled by the New York State University Police.===Statehood proposals===The secession of Nassau and Suffolk counties on Long Island from New York State was proposed as early as 1896, but talk was revived towards the latter part of the twentieth century.", "On March 28, 2008, Suffolk County Comptroller Joseph Sawicki proposed a plan that would make Nassau and Suffolk counties on Long Island the 51st state of the United States of America.", "Sawicki claimed all of Nassau and Suffolk taxpayers' money would remain locally, rather than the funds being dispersed all over the entire state of New York, with these counties sending to Albany over three billion dollars more than they receive.", "The state of Long Island would have included nearly 3 million people (a larger population than that of fifteen other states).", "Nassau County executive Ed Mangano came out in support of such a proposal in April 2010 and commissioned a study on it." ], [ "Education", "===Primary and secondary education===Great Neck North High School in Great Neck, Nassau County, in August 2022Many public and private high schools on Long Island are ranked among the best in the United States.", "Nassau and Suffolk counties are the home of 125 public school districts containing 656 public schools.", "Brookhaven Public Schools is the largest district.", "It also hosts private schools such as Friends Academy, Chaminade High School, Kellenberg Memorial High School, St. Anthony's High School, and North Shore Hebrew Academy, as well as parochial schools, many of which are operated by the Catholic Diocese of Rockville Centre.In contrast, all of Brooklyn and Queens are served by the New York City Department of Education, the largest school district in the United States.", "Three of the nine specialized high schools in New York City are in the two Long Island boroughs, those being Brooklyn Latin School, Brooklyn Technical High School (one of the original three specialized schools), and Queens High School for the Sciences.", "Like Nassau and Suffolk counties, they are home to private schools such as Poly Prep Country Day School, Packer Collegiate Institute, and Saint Ann's School, and Berkeley Carroll School, and parochial schools operated by the Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn.===Colleges and universities===A solar electric vehicle charging station at the New York Institute of Technology.Long Island is home to a range of higher-education institutions, both public and private.", "Brooklyn and Queens contain five of eleven senior colleges within CUNY, the public university system of New York City and one of the largest in the country.", "Among these are the notable institutions of Brooklyn College and Queens College.", "Brooklyn also contains private colleges such as Pratt Institute and the New York University Tandon School of Engineering, the engineering school of New York University.Several colleges and universities within the State University of New York system are on Long Island, including Stony Brook University, as well as Nassau Community College and Suffolk County Community College that serve their respective counties.", "Notable private universities on Long Island include Molloy University in Rockville Centre, the New York Institute of Technology in Old Westbury (NYIT also has another campus in Manhattan), Hofstra University and Adelphi University (both in the Town of Hempstead), as well as Long Island University (with its C.W.", "Post campus, on a former Gold Coast estate in Brookville, and a satellite campus in downtown Brooklyn).", "Long Island also contains the Webb Institute, a small naval architecture college in Glen Cove.", "The island is also home to the United States Merchant Marine Academy, a Federal Service Academy in Kings Point, on the North Shore." ], [ "Culture", "===Music===Jones Beach Theater, a 15,000-capacity theater and stadium in Wantagh in March 2007Music on Long Island (Nassau and Suffolk) is strongly influenced by the proximity to New York City and by the youth culture of the suburbs.Psychedelic rock was widely popular in the 1960s as flocks of disaffected youth travelled to NYC to participate in protest and the culture of the time.", "R & B also has a history on Long Island, most notably Huntington-born Mariah Carey, one of the top-selling musicians of all time.", "In the late 1970s through the 1980s, the influence of radio station WLIR made Long Island one of the first places in the U.S. to hear and embrace European New Wave bands such as Depeche Mode, the Pet Shop Boys, and Culture Club.", "In the 1990s, hip-hop became popular with rap pioneers Rakim, EPMD, De La Soul, MF Doom, and Public Enemy growing up on Long Island.", "Long Island was the home of a bustling emo scene in the 2000s, with bands such as Brand New, Taking Back Sunday, Straylight Run, From Autumn to Ashes and As Tall as Lions.", "More recently, newer acts from Long Island, including Austin Schoeffel, Jon Bellion, and Envy on the Coast, have made a name for themselves.Rock bands from Long Island include the Rascals, the Ramones (from Queens), Dream Theater, Blue Öyster Cult, Twisted Sister, and guitar virtuosos Donald (Buck Dharma) Roeser, John Petrucci, Steve Vai, and Joe Satriani, and drummer Mike Portnoy.", "Rock and pop singer Billy Joel grew up in Hicksville, and his music references Long Island and his youth.Nassau Coliseum and Northwell Health at Jones Beach Theater are venues used by national touring acts as performance spaces for concerts.", "Northwell Health at Jones Beach Theater is an outdoor amphitheatre at Jones Beach State Park.", "It is a popular place to view summer concerts that feature new and classic artists.", "It hosts a large Fourth of July fireworks show every year which fills the stands.Long Island is also known for its school music programs.", "Many schools in both Nassau and Suffolk County have distinguished music programs, with high numbers of students who are accepted into the statewide All-State music groups, or even the National All-Eastern Coast music groups.", "Both the Suffolk County and Nassau County Music Educator's Associations are recognized by The National Association for Music Education (NAfME),and host numerous events, competitions, and other music-related activities.===Cuisine===The Big Duck in Flanders in August 2018Stony Brook in May 2014Long Island has historically been a center for fishing and seafood.", "This legacy continues in the Blue Point oyster, a now ubiquitous variety originally harvested on the Great South Bay that was the favorite oyster of Queen Victoria.", "Clams are also a popular food and clam digging a popular recreational pursuit, with Manhattan clam chowder reputed to have Long Island origins.Of land-based produce, Long Island duck has a history of national recognition since the 19th century, with four duck farms continuing to produce 2 million ducks a year .", "Two symbols of Long Island's duck farming heritage are the Long Island Ducks minor-league baseball team and the Big Duck, a 1931 duck-shaped building that is a historic landmark and tourist attraction.", "In addition to Long Island's duck industry, Riverhead contains one of the largest buffalo farms on the East coast.Long Island is well known for its production of alcoholic beverages.", "Eastern Long Island is a significant producer of wine.", "Vineyards are most heavily concentrated on Long Island's North Fork, which contains 38 wineries.", "Most of these contain tasting rooms, which are popular attractions for visitors from across the New York metropolitan area.", "Long Island has also become a producer of diverse craft beers, with 15 microbreweries across Nassau and Suffolk counties .", "The largest of these is Blue Point Brewing Company, best known for its ''toasted lager''.", "Long Island is also globally known for its signature cocktail, the Long Island Iced Tea, which was purportedly invented at the popular Babylon Town ''Oak Beach Inn'' nightclub in the 1970s.Long Island's eateries are largely a product of the region's local ethnic populations.", "Asian cuisines, Italian cuisine, Jewish cuisine, and Latin American cuisines were the most popular ethnic cuisines on Long Island as of the second decade of the 2000s.", "Asian cuisines are predominantly represented by East Asian, South Asian, and Middle Eastern cuisines.", "Italian cuisine is found in ubiquitous pizzerias throughout the island, with the region hosting an annual competition, the Long Island Pizza Festival & Bake-Off.", "Jewish cuisine is likewise represented by delicatessens and bagel stores.", "Latin American cuisines span their geographical origins, from Brazilian rodizios to Mexican taquerias.===Sports=======Major league sports====UBS Arena in Elmont is home of the NHL's New York Islanders, a team named after Long Island.The New York Mets baseball team plays at Citi Field in Flushing Meadows-Corona Park, Queens.", "Their former stadium, Shea Stadium was also home for the New York Jets football team from 1964 until 1983.The new stadium has an exterior façade and main entry rotunda inspired by Brooklyn's famous Ebbets Field (see below).", "The New York Mets planned to move their Double-A farm team to Long Island, as part of the ambitious but now-defunct plan for Nassau County called The Lighthouse Project.", "The Brooklyn Cyclones are a minor league baseball team, affiliated with the New York Mets.", "The Cyclones play at MCU Park just off the boardwalk on Coney Island in Brooklyn.", "An artificial turf baseball complex named Baseball Heaven is in Yaphank.The Barclays Center, a sports arena, business, and residential complex built partly on a platform over the Atlantic Yards at Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn, is the home of the Brooklyn Nets and New York Liberty basketball teams.", "The move from New Jersey in the summer of 2012 marked the return to Long Island for the Nets franchise, which played at Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Uniondale from 1972 to 1977.The Islanders played at Nassau Coliseum from their 1972 inception through 2015, and then splitting time between Nassau Coliseum and Barclays Center from 2017 to 2021, playing their last full season at the Nassau Coliseum during the 2020-2021 NHL Season.", "The Islanders moved full-time to UBS Arena at Belmont Park, in Elmont, New York, in November 2021.Ebbets Field, which stood in Brooklyn from 1913 until its demolition in 1960, was the home of the Brooklyn Dodgers baseball team, who moved to Los Angeles after the 1957 Major League Baseball season to become the Los Angeles Dodgers.", "The Dodgers won several National League pennants in the 1940s and 1950s, losing several times in the World Series, often called ''Subway Series'', to their Bronx rivals, the New York Yankees.", "The Dodgers won their lone championship in Brooklyn in the 1955 World Series versus the Yankees.Despite this success during the latter part of the team's stay in Brooklyn, they were a second-division team with an unspectacular winning record for much of their history there – but nonetheless became legendary for the almost-fanatical devotion of the Brooklynites who packed the relatively small ballpark to vigorously root for the team they affectionately called, \"Dem Bums\".", "Loss of the Dodgers to California was locally considered a civic tragedy that negatively affected the community far more than the similar moves of other established teams to new cities in the 1950s, including the Dodgers' long-time arch-rival New York Giants, who also left for California after 1957.====Minor league and college sports====The Stony Brook Seawolves homecoming game in September 2012Bethpage Ballpark, home of the Long Island Ducks, in July 2011The Stony Brook Seawolves represent Stony Brook University, and have had a bevy of athletic accomplishments such as reaching the 2012 College World Series as an underdog after defeating the LSU Tigers in a best-of-3 series.Long Island is also home to the Long Island Ducks independent league team of the Atlantic League.", "Their stadium, Bethpage Ballpark, is in Central Islip.", "The Brooklyn Cyclones minor league baseball team, affiliated with the New York Mets, plays in the High-A classification South Atlantic League.", "The Cyclones play at MCU Park just off the Coney Island Boardwalk in the New York City borough of Brooklyn.", "The New York Dragons of the Arena Football League played their home games at Nassau Coliseum.", "The two main rugby union teams are the Long Island RFC in East Meadow and the Suffolk Bull Moose in Stony Brook.The New York Sharks is a women's American football team that is a member of the Women's Football Alliance.", "The New York Sharks home field is at Aviator Sports Complex in Brooklyn.Long Island's professional soccer club, the New York Cosmos, play in the Division 2 North American Soccer League at James M. Shuart Stadium in Hempstead.Long Island has historically been a hotbed of lacrosse at the youth and college level, which made way for a Major League Lacrosse team in 2001, the Long Island Lizards.", "The Lizards play at Mitchel Athletic Complex in Uniondale.====Other sports====Preparing for the Belmont Stakes horse race, the final leg of the Triple Crown, at Belmont Park, in April 2005Long Island has a wide variety of golf courses found all over the island.", "Two of the most well-known are the Shinnecock Hills Golf Club and the public Bethpage Black Course that has hosted multiple U.S. Open tournaments as well as several other top level international championships.", "Queens also hosts one of the four tennis grand slams, the US Open.", "Every August (September, in Olympic years) the best tennis players in the world travel to Long Island to play the championships held in the USTA National Tennis Center, adjacent to Citi Field in Flushing Meadows Park.", "The complex also contains the biggest tennis stadium in the world, the Arthur Ashe Stadium.Long Island also has two horse racing tracks, Aqueduct Racetrack in Ozone Park, Queens and Belmont Park on the Queens/Nassau border in Elmont, home of the Belmont Stakes.", "The longest dirt thoroughbred racecourse in the world is also at Belmont Park.", "Another category of sporting events popular in this region involves firematic racing events, involving many local volunteer fire departments.====Notable sportspeople and teams====Long Island is home to numerous famous athletes, including Hall of Fame players Jim Brown, Julius Erving, John Mackey, Whitey Ford, Nick Drahos, and Carl Yastrzemski.", "Others include gold medalists Sue Bird, Sarah Hughes and Derrick Adkins, USWNT World Cup champions Crystal Dunn and Alexandra Long, D'Brickashaw Ferguson, Billy Donovan, Larry Brown, Rick Pitino, John McEnroe, Jumbo Elliott, Mick Foley, Zack Ryder, Matt Serra, Boomer Esiason, Vinny Testaverde, Craig Biggio, Frank Catalanotto, Greg Sacks, Gilles Villemure, Rob Burnett, Steve Park, Frank Viola, Chris Weidman, Don Genalo, Marques Colston, and Speedy Claxton.Several NHL players were born and/or raised on Long Island, including Vancouver Canucks' Christopher Higgins and Matt Gilroy, Nashville Predators' Eric Nystrom, Toronto Maple Leafs' Mike Komisarek, Pittsburgh Penguins' Rob Scuderi, and New York Rangers' Keith Kinkaid.", "Both Komisarek and Higgins played on the same Suffolk County Hockey League team at an early age, and later played on the Montreal Canadiens together.", "Nick Drahos was an All Scholastic and All Long Island honoree at Lawrence High School, Nassau Co. in 1936 and 1937, and a two-time Unanimous National College All-American in 1939 and 1940 at Cornell University.", "Club City Sport Founded League Venue(s) Championships Brooklyn Nets Brooklyn Basketball 1967 National Basketball Association Barclays Center 2 (1974, 1976) New York Islanders Elmont Ice hockey 1972 National Hockey League UBS Arena 4 (1980, 1981, 1982, 1983) New York Mets Queens Baseball 1962 Major League Baseball Citi Field 2 (1969, 1986) Brooklyn Cyclones Brooklyn Baseball 1986 South Atlantic League MCU Park 2 (1986, 2001) Long Island Nets Uniondale Basketball 2015 NBA G League Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum 0 Long Island Ducks Islip Baseball 2000 Atlantic League Bethpage Ballpark 4 (2004, 2012, 2013, 2019)New Amsterdam F.CHempsteadSoccer2020National Independent Soccer associationHofstra University Soccer Stadium0 New York Cosmos Hempstead Soccer 2010 North American Soccer League James M. Shuart Stadium 0 New York Lizards Hempstead Lacrosse 2001 Major League Lacrosse Shuart Stadium and Icahn Stadium 3 (2001, 2003, 2015)" ], [ "Transportation", "John F. Kennedy Airport in Queens, the busiest international air passenger gateway to the United States in January 2013Many major forms of transportation serve Long Island, including aviation via John F. Kennedy International Airport, LaGuardia Airport, and Long Island MacArthur Airport, and multiple smaller airports; rail transportation via the Long Island Rail Road and the New York City Subway; bus routes via MTA Regional Bus Operations, Nassau Inter-County Express, and Suffolk County Transit; ferry service via NYC Ferry and multiple smaller ferry companies; and several major highways.", "There are historic and modern bridges, and recreational and commuter trails, serving various parts of Long Island.There are eleven road crossings out of Long Island, all but one providing Brooklyn-Manhattan, Queens-Manhattan, and Queens-Bronx connections across the East River, with the Triborough Bridge providing two connections from Queens, one each to Manhattan and the Bronx.", "The single non-East River crossing is the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge, connecting Brooklyn to Staten Island across The Narrows.", "Plans for a Long Island Sound link at locations in Nassau and Suffolk counties (a proposed bridge or tunnel that would link Long Island to the south with Westchester County, New York or Connecticut to the north across Long Island Sound) have been discussed for decades, but there are no plans to construct such a crossing.===Public transportation===7 train in Queens in April 2007The Metropolitan Transportation Authority operates mass transportation for the New York metropolitan area including all five boroughs of New York City, the suburban counties of Dutchess, Nassau, Orange, Putnam, Rockland, Suffolk, and Westchester, all of which together are the \"Metropolitan Commuter Transportation District (MCTD)\".The MTA considers itself to be the largest regional public transportation provider in the Western Hemisphere.", ", MTA agencies move about 8.6 million customers per day (translating to 2.65 billion rail and bus customers a year).", "The MTA's systems carry over 11 million passengers on an average weekday systemwide, and over 850,000 vehicles on its seven toll bridges and two tunnels per weekday.====Rail====A schematic map of the Long Island Rail Road systemThe Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) is North America's busiest commuter railroad system, carrying an average of 282,400 passengers each weekday on 728 daily trains.", "Chartered on April 24, 1834, and operating continuously since, it is also the oldest railroad in the U.S. that still operates under its original charter and name.", "The Metropolitan Transportation Authority has operated the LIRR as one of its two commuter railroads since 1966, and the LIRR is one of the few railroads worldwide that provides service all the time, year round.", "A $2 billion plan to add a third railroad track to the LIRR Main Line between the Floral Park and Hicksville stations in Nassau County was completed in 2022, and an expansion of the Ronkonkoma Branch from one to two tracks was completed in 2018.Five \"readiness projects\" across the LIRR system, which cost a combined $495 million, were built in preparation for expanded peak-hour LIRR service after the completion of East Side Access, which brings LIRR trains to Grand Central Madison in Manhattan.====Bus====A Nassau Inter-County Express bus in June 2019Nassau Inter-County Express (NICE) provides bus service in Nassau County, while Suffolk County Transit, an agency of the Suffolk County government, provides bus service in Suffolk County.", "In 2012, NICE replaced the former MTA Long Island Bus in transporting Long Islanders across Nassau County while allowing them to use MTA MetroCards as payment.===Roads===Long Island Expressway in Nassau County.The Long Island Expressway, Northern State Parkway, and Southern State Parkway, all products of the automobile-centered planning of Robert Moses, are the island's primary east–west high-speed controlled-access highways.", "'''Major roads of Long Island'''Direction Routeshield Name'''''West-East'''''25px 25px '''Nassau Expressway northern section'''25px Montauk Highway25px '''Sunrise Highway'''*25px 25px '''Belt Parkway''' / '''Southern State Parkway'''25px Hempstead Turnpike25px Babylon–Farmingdale Turnpike25px 25px '''Grand Central Parkway''' / '''Northern State Parkway'''25px '''Long Island Expressway'''25px Jericho Turnpike/Middle Country Road25px Northern Boulevard'''''South-North'''''25px '''Brooklyn-Queens Expressway'''25px '''Van Wyck Expressway'''25px Nassau Expressway southern section25px '''Clearview Expressway'''25px '''Cross Island Parkway'''25px '''Meadowbrook State Parkway'''25px '''Wantagh State Parkway'''25px Newbridge Road25px Cedar Swamp Road/Broadway/HicksvilleRoad25px '''Seaford-Oyster Bay Expressway'''25px Broad Hollow Road25px Deer Park Avenue25px '''Robert Moses Causeway'''25px '''Sagtikos State Parkway'''25px '''Sunken Meadow State Parkway'''25px Islip Avenue25px Nicolls Road25px '''William Floyd Parkway'''Roads in '''boldface''' are limited access roads.Sunrise Highway is only limited-access from western Suffolk County eastwards.====Ground transportation====Several hundred transportation companies service the Long Island and New York City areas.", "Winston Airport Shuttle, the oldest of these companies in business since 1973, was the first to introduce door-to-door shared-ride service to and from the major airports, which almost all transportation companies now use." ], [ "See also", "* Coastal Connecticut* Geography of New York City* Jersey Shore* List of films shot on Long Island* List of Long Islanders, famous residents of Nassau and Suffolk* List of Long Island recreational facilities* List of people from New York City, including notable residents of Brooklyn and Queens* List of tallest buildings on Long Island* Long Island (proposed state)* Timeline of town creation in Downstate New York" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lower Peninsula of Michigan" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Lower Peninsula of Michigan''' – also known as '''Lower Michigan''' – is the larger, southern and less elevated of the two major landmasses that make up the U.S. state of Michigan; the other being the Upper Peninsula, which is separated by the Straits of Mackinac.", "It is surrounded by water on all sides except its southern border, which it shares with Indiana and Ohio.", "Although the Upper Peninsula is commonly referred to as \"the U.P.", "\", it is uncommon for the Lower Peninsula to be called \"the L.P.\"Because of its recognizable shape, the Lower Peninsula is nicknamed '''The Mitten''', with the eastern region identified as \"The Thumb\".", "This has led to several folkloric creation myths for the area, one being that it is a handprint of Paul Bunyan, a giant lumberjack and popular European-American folk character in Michigan.", "When asked where they live, Lower Peninsula residents may hold up their right palm and point to a spot on it to indicate the location.The peninsula is sometimes divided into the Northern Lower Peninsula—which is more sparsely populated and largely forested—and the Southern Lower Peninsula—which is largely urban or farmland.", "Southern Lower Michigan is sometimes further divided into economic and cultural subregions.The more culturally and economically diverse Lower Peninsula dominates Michigan politics, and maps of it without the Upper Peninsula are sometimes mistakenly presented as \"Michigan\", which contributes to resentment by \"Yoopers\" (residents of \"the U.P\").", "Yoopers jokingly refer to residents of the Lower Peninsula as \"flat-landers\" (referring to the region's less rugged terrain) or \"trolls\" (because, being south of the Mackinac Bridge, they \"live under the bridge\")." ], [ "Geography", "The Lower Peninsula is bounded on the west by Lake Michigan and on the northeast by Lake Huron, which connect at the Straits of Mackinac.", "In the southeast, the waterway consisting of the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, and Lake Erie separates it from the province of Ontario, Canada.", "It is bounded on the south by the states of Indiana and Ohio.", "This border is irregular: the border with Indiana was moved 10 miles northward from its territorial position to give Indiana more access to Lake Michigan, and its slightly angled border with Ohio was part of the compromise which ended the Toledo War.", "The Lower Peninsula is a part of the Great Lakes Plain, which include large parts of Wisconsin and Ohio.At its widest points, the Lower Peninsula is long from north to south and from east to west.", "It contains nearly two-thirds of Michigan's total land area.", "The surface of the peninsula is generally level, broken by conical hills and glacial moraines usually not more than a few hundred feet tall, most common in the north.", "The highest point in the Lower Peninsula is not definitely established, but is either Briar Hill at , or one of several points nearby in the vicinity of Cadillac.", "The lowest point is at the shore of Lake Erie at .", "The western coast features extensive sandy beaches and dunes produced by Lake Michigan and the prevailing winds from the west.", "The relatively shallow Saginaw Bay is surrounded by a similarly shallow drainage basin.", "Several large river systems flow into the adjacent Great Lakes, including the Kalamazoo, Grand, Muskegon, and Manistee rivers (Lake Michigan), and the Au Sable and Tittabawassee–Shiawassee–Saginaw rivers (Lake Huron).", "Because of the networks of rivers and numerous lakes, no point on land is more than from one of these bodies of water, and at most from one of the Great Lakes (near Lansing).===Flora and fauna===Geologic map of the Michigan BasinThe American Bird Conservancy and the National Audubon Society have designated several locations as internationally Important Bird Areas.===Geology===The Lower Peninsula is dominated by a geological basin known as the Michigan Basin.", "That feature is represented by a nearly circular pattern of geologic sedimentary strata in the area with a nearly uniform structural dip toward the center of the peninsula.", "The basin is centered in Gladwin County where the Precambrian basement rocks are deep.", "Around the margins, such as under Mackinaw City, Michigan, the Precambrian surface is around down.", "This contour on the bedrock clips the northern part of the lower peninsula and continues under Lake Michigan along the west.", "It crosses the southern counties of Michigan and continues on to the north beneath Lake Huron.=== Climate ===Most monthly temperatures in the lower peninsula range from a low of 14 degrees to a high of 84 degrees Fahrenheit." ], [ "Regions", "Michigan regions, including the Upper Peninsula and the four principal regions of the Lower Peninsula.Michigan's Lower Peninsula can be divided into four main regions based on geological, soil, and vegetation differences; amount of urban areas or rural areas; minority populations; and agriculture.", "The four principal regions listed below can further be separated into sub-regions and overlapping areas.", "*Northern Michigan*Central/Mid-Michigan**The Thumb**Tri-Cities**Southern Michigan*West Michigan**Southern Michigan**Michiana*Southeast Michigan**Metro Detroit" ], [ "Transportation", "===Major airports===* Alpena County Regional Airport (APN) (Alpena)* Bishop International Airport (FNT) (Flint)* Capital Region International Airport (LAN) (Lansing)* Cherry Capital Airport (TVC) (Traverse City)* Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport (DTW) (Romulus)* Gerald R. Ford International Airport (GRR) (Grand Rapids)* Kalamazoo/Battle Creek International Airport (AZO) (Kalamazoo)* MBS International Airport (MBS) (Saginaw)* Pellston Regional Airport (PLN) (Pellston)===Highways===Interstate Highways in the region include:* * * * U.S.", "Highways in the region include:* * * * * * * * The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River." ], [ "See also", "*List of counties in Michigan" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University, Bibliography on Michigan (arranged by counties and regions)* Michigan Geology -- Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University* Michigan Department of Natural Resources website, harbors, hunting, resources and more* Info Michigan, detailed information on 630 cities* List of Museums, other attractions compiled by state government* Michigan's Official Economic Development and Travel Site* * Map of Michigan Lighthouse in PDF Format* Northern Michigan Live Streaming Webcam* Terry Pepper on lighthouses of the Western Great Lakes" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lake Toba" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lake Toba''' (, Toba Batak: ᯖᯀᯬ ᯖᯬᯅ; romanized: ''Tao Toba'') is a large natural lake in North Sumatra, Indonesia, occupying the caldera of a supervolcano.", "The lake is located in the middle of the northern part of the island of Sumatra, with a surface elevation of about , the lake stretches from to .", "The lake is about long, wide, and up to deep.", "It is the largest lake in Indonesia and the largest volcanic lake in the world.", "Toba Caldera is one of twenty geoparks in Indonesia, and was recognised in July 2020 as one of the UNESCO Global Geoparks.Lake Toba is the site of a supervolcanic eruption estimated at VEI 8 that occurred 69,000 to 77,000 years ago, representing a climate-changing event.", "Recent advances in dating methods suggest a more accurate identification of 74,000 years ago as the date.", "It is the largest-known explosive eruption on Earth in the last 25 million years.", "According to the Toba catastrophe theory, it had global consequences for human populations; it killed most humans living at that time and is believed to have created a population bottleneck in central east Africa and India, which affects the genetic make-up of the human worldwide population to the present.", "More recent studies have cast doubt on this theory and found no evidence of substantial changes in global population.It was also suggested that the eruption of the Toba Caldera led to a volcanic winter with a worldwide decrease in temperature between , and up to in higher latitudes.", "Additional studies in Lake Malawi in East Africa show significant amounts of ash being deposited from the Toba Caldera eruptions, even at that great distance, but little indication of a significant climatic effect in East Africa." ], [ "Geology", "Batu Gantung (Hanging stone) in Lake TobaMap of the lakeThe Toba Caldera in North Sumatra comprises four overlapping volcanic craters that adjoin the Sumatran \"volcanic front\".", "At it is the world's largest Quaternary caldera, and the fourth and youngest caldera.", "It intersects the three older calderas.", "An estimated of dense-rock equivalent pyroclastic material, known as the youngest Toba tuff, was released during one of the largest explosive volcanic eruptions in recent geological history.", "Following this eruption, a resurgent dome formed within the new caldera, joining two half-domes separated by a longitudinal graben.At least four cones, four stratovolcanoes, and three craters are visible in the lake.", "The Tandukbenua cone on the northwestern edge of the caldera has only sparse vegetation, suggesting a young age of several hundred years.", "Also, the Pusubukit (Hill Center) volcano ( above sea level) on the south edge of the caldera is solfatarically active." ], [ "Major eruption", "Location of Lake Toba shown in red on mapThe ''Toba eruption'' (the ''Toba event'') occurred at what is now Lake Toba about 73,700±300 years ago.", "It was the last in a series of at least four caldera-forming eruptions at this location, with the earlier known caldera having formed around 1.2 million years ago.", "This last eruption had an estimated VEI of 8, making it the largest-known explosive volcanic eruption in the Quaternary.Bill Rose and Craig Chesner of Michigan Technological University have estimated that the total amount of material released in the eruption was at least —about of ignimbrite that flowed over the ground, and approximately that fell as ash mostly to the west.", "However, as more outcrops become available, Toba possibly erupted of ignimbrite and co-ignimbrite.", "The pyroclastic flows of the eruption destroyed an area of least , with ash deposits as thick as by the main vent.", "The eruption was large enough to have deposited an ash layer approximately thick over all of South Asia; at one site in central India, the Toba ash layer today is up to thick and parts of Malaysia were covered with of ash fall.The subsequent collapse formed a caldera that filled with water, creating Lake Toba.", "The island in the center of the lake is formed by a resurgent dome.Landsat photo of Sumatra surrounding Lake TobaThe exact year of the eruption is unknown, but the pattern of ash deposits suggests that it occurred during the northern summer because only the summer monsoon could have deposited Toba ashfall in the South China Sea.", "The eruption lasted perhaps two weeks, and the ensuing volcanic winter resulted in a decrease in average global temperatures by for several years.", "Ice cores from Greenland record a pulse of starkly reduced levels of organic carbon sequestration.", "Very few plants or animals in southeast Asia would have survived, and it is possible that the eruption caused a planet-wide die-off.", "However, the global cooling has been discussed by Rampino and Self.", "Their conclusion is that the cooling had already started before Toba's eruption.", "This conclusion was supported by Lane and Zielinski who studied the lake-core from Africa and GISP2.They concluded that there was no volcanic winter after the Toba eruption and that high H2SO4 deposits do not cause long-term effects.", "Furthermore, due to the low solubility of sulfur in the magma, the emission of volatiles and climate impacts are likely limited.Evidence from studies of mitochondrial DNA suggests that humans may have passed through a genetic bottleneck around this time that reduced genetic diversity below what would be expected given the age of the species.", "According to the Toba catastrophe theory, proposed by Stanley H. Ambrose of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign in 1998, the effects of the Toba eruption may have decreased the size of human populations to only a few tens of thousands of individuals.", "However, this hypothesis is not widely accepted because similar effects on other animal species have not been observed, and paleoanthropology suggests there was no population bottleneck.", "The genetic bottleneck is now recognized to be the Out-of-Africa founder effect, rather than an actual reduction in population.===More recent activity===Since the major eruption ~70,000 years ago, eruptions of smaller magnitude have also occurred at Toba.", "The small cone of Pusukbukit formed on the southwestern margin of the caldera and lava domes.", "The most recent eruption may have been at Tandukbenua on the northwestern caldera edge, suggested by a lack of vegetation that could be due to an eruption within the last few hundred years.Some parts of the caldera have shown uplift due to partial refilling of the magma chamber, for example, pushing Samosir Island and the Uluan Peninsula above the surface of the lake.", "The lake sediments on Samosir Island show that it has risen by at least since the cataclysmic eruption.", "Such uplifts are common in very large calderas, apparently due to the upward pressure of below-ground magma.", "Toba is probably the largest resurgent caldera on Earth.", "Large earthquakes have recently occurred in the vicinity of the volcano, notably in 1987 along the southern shore of the lake at a depth of .", "Such earthquakes have also been recorded in 1892, 1916, and 1920–1922.In 2016, a study revealed that the Toba Supervolcano has a magma chamber containing of eruptible magma, about underground.", "This makes the supervolcano's magma chamber more than four times larger than the volume of Lake Superior in North America, and also larger than the magma chamber underneath Yellowstone.Lake Toba lies near the Great Sumatran fault, which runs along the centre of Sumatra in the Sumatra Fracture Zone.", "The volcanoes of Sumatra and Java are part of the Sunda Arc, a result of the northeasterly movement of the Indo-Australian Plate, which is sliding under the eastward-moving Eurasian Plate.", "The subduction zone in this area is very active: the seabed near the west coast of Sumatra has had several major earthquakes since 1995, including the 9.1 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 8.7 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake, the epicenters of which were around from Toba." ], [ "People", "Batak canoes near Haranggaol on Lake Toba (circa 1920)Most of the people who live around Lake Toba are ethnically Bataks.", "Traditional Batak houses are noted for their distinctive roofs (which curve upwards at each end, as a boat's hull does) and their colorful decor." ], [ "Transportation", "Parapat is located on the edge of the lake, which is the transit point to travel the lake and Samosir Island.", "Medan is about 173 km by road from the town and is connected via the Trans-Sumatran Highway to Pematang Siantar by a 48 km road.", "Sisingamangaraja XII International Airport is located about 47 mi (76 km) from Parapat." ], [ "Flora and fauna", "The flora of the lake includes various types of phytoplankton, emerged macrophytes, floating macrophytes, and submerged macrophytes, while the surrounding countryside is rainforest including areas of Sumatran tropical pine forests on the higher mountainsides.The fauna includes several species of zooplankton and benthic animals.", "Since the lake is oligotrophic (nutrient-poor), the native fish fauna is relatively scarce, and the only endemics are ''Rasbora tobana'' (strictly speaking near-endemic, since also found in some tributary rivers that run into the lake) and ''Neolissochilus thienemanni'', locally known as the Batak fish.", "The latter species is threatened by deforestation (causing siltation), pollution, changes in water level and the numerous fish species that have been introduced to the lake.", "Other native fishes include species such as ''Aplocheilus panchax'', ''Nemacheilus pfeifferae'', ''Homaloptera gymnogaster'', ''Channa gachua'', ''Channa striata'', ''Clarias batrachus'', ''Barbonymus gonionotus'', ''Barbonymus schwanenfeldii'', ''Danio albolineatus'', ''Osteochilus vittatus'', ''Puntius binotatus'', ''Rasbora jacobsoni'', ''Tor tambra'', ''Betta imbellis'', ''Betta taeniata'' and ''Monopterus albus''.", "Among the many introduced species are ''Anabas testudineus'', ''Oreochromis mossambicus'', ''Oreochromis niloticus'', ''Ctenopharyngodon idella'', ''Cyprinus carpio'', ''Osphronemus goramy'', ''Trichogaster pectoralis'', ''Trichopodus trichopterus'', ''Poecilia reticulata'' and ''Xiphophorus hellerii''." ], [ "Sinking of MV Sinar Bangun", "On 18 June 2018, Lake Toba was the scene of a ferry disaster, in which over 160 people drowned.", "MV Sinar Bangun was an irregular operating vessel on the lake which capsized with many passengers on board.", "The incident caused the death of 167 people and injuries to a number of others.", "Preliminary reports found the vessel was in operation with irregularities.", "Ignoring overloading on the vessel and operating in rough weather conditions were concluded to be the main reasons leading to the disaster." ], [ "In popular culture", "''The Origin of Lake Toba'' is a folk story about the lake, in which once upon a time, there was a fisherman who caught a golden fish.", "Samosir Island is believed to be the golden fish's son." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Lake Toba Aerial View.JPG|Lake Toba Aerial ViewFile:LakeTobaSEShore.jpg|Aerial view of the southern shore with Sibandang Island visible in the backgroundFile:AmbaritaView.jpg|View of the lake with an example of Batak architecture in the foregroundFile:Tradbatakhouse.jpg|Traditional Batak house at Ambarita, Lake TobaFile:Air terjun sipiso-piso.jpg|Sipiso-Piso WaterfallFile:DanauToba20110608-1.jpg|Lake Toba from Tongging Village, near Sipiso-Piso WaterfallFile:Indonesia 1992 1000r o.jpg|Lake Toba featured in 1,000-rupiah banknoteFile:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houtsnijwerk op de voorsteven van een Toba Batak prauw Tobameer TMnr 10017614.jpg|Details of carvings on the prow of a Toba Batak canoeFile:Toba zoom.jpg|The caldera of Lake Toba, with a resurgent dome, forming Samosir IslandFile:A partial view of Toba Lake.jpg|alt=A panoramic partial view of Toba Lake, as seen from the west side to the southeast|A panoramic partial view of Toba Lake, as seen from the west side to the southeast" ], [ "See also", "* List of lakes of Indonesia* List of volcanoes in Indonesia* Mount Sinabung* Lake Taupō* Yellowstone Caldera* La Garita Caldera" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia – Volcano.oregonstate.edu Accessed 11 December 2005* Stanley H. Ambrose, ''Volcanic Winter, and Differentiation of Modern Humans'' Accessed 11 December 2005* Joel Achenbach, ''Who Knew'', National Geographic Accessed 11 December 2005* (Lake Toba Ecosystem Management Plan) From laketoba.org * Magma 'Pancakes' May Have Fueled Toba Supervolcano*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lens" ], [ "Introduction", "burning apparatus consisting of two biconvex lensA '''lens''' is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction.", "A simple lens consists of a single piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses (''elements''), usually arranged along a common axis.", "Lenses are made from materials such as glass or plastic and are ground, polished, or molded to the required shape.", "A lens can focus light to form an image, unlike a prism, which refracts light without focusing.", "Devices that similarly focus or disperse waves and radiation other than visible light are also called \"lenses\", such as microwave lenses, electron lenses, acoustic lenses, or explosive lenses.Lenses are used in various imaging devices such as telescopes, binoculars, and cameras.", "They are also used as visual aids in glasses to correct defects of vision such as myopia and hypermetropia." ], [ "History", "Light being refracted by a spherical glass container full of water.", "Roger Bacon, 13th centuryLSST, a planned sky surveying telescopeThe word ''lens'' comes from , the Latin name of the lentil (a seed of a lentil plant), because a double-convex lens is lentil-shaped.", "The lentil also gives its name to a geometric figure.Some scholars argue that the archeological evidence indicates that there was widespread use of lenses in antiquity, spanning several millennia.", "The so-called Nimrud lens is a rock crystal artifact dated to the 7th century BCE which may or may not have been used as a magnifying glass, or a burning glass.", "Others have suggested that certain Egyptian hieroglyphs depict \"simple glass meniscal lenses\".The oldest certain reference to the use of lenses is from Aristophanes' play ''The Clouds'' (424 BCE) mentioning a burning-glass.", "Pliny the Elder (1st century) confirms that burning-glasses were known in the Roman period.Pliny also has the earliest known reference to the use of a corrective lens when he mentions that Nero was said to watch the gladiatorial games using an emerald (presumably concave to correct for nearsightedness, though the reference is vague).", "Both Pliny and Seneca the Younger (3 BC–65 AD) described the magnifying effect of a glass globe filled with water.Ptolemy (2nd century) wrote a book on ''Optics'', which however survives only in the Latin translation of an incomplete and very poor Arabic translation.The book was, however, received by medieval scholars in the Islamic world, and commented upon by Ibn Sahl (10th century), who was in turn improved upon by Alhazen (''Book of Optics'', 11th century).", "The Arabic translation of Ptolemy's ''Optics'' became available in Latin translation in the 12th century (Eugenius of Palermo 1154).", "Between the 11th and 13th century \"reading stones\" were invented.", "These were primitive plano-convex lenses initially made by cutting a glass sphere in half.", "The medieval (11th or 12th century) rock crystal Visby lenses may or may not have been intended for use as burning glasses.Spectacles were invented as an improvement of the \"reading stones\" of the high medieval period in Northern Italy in the second half of the 13th century.", "This was the start of the optical industry of grinding and polishing lenses for spectacles, first in Venice and Florence in the late 13th century, and later in the spectacle-making centres in both the Netherlands and Germany.Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the correction of vision based more on empirical knowledge gained from observing the effects of the lenses (probably without the knowledge of the rudimentary optical theory of the day).", "The practical development and experimentation with lenses led to the invention of the compound optical microscope around 1595, and the refracting telescope in 1608, both of which appeared in the spectacle-making centres in the Netherlands.With the invention of the telescope and microscope there was a great deal of experimentation with lens shapes in the 17th and early 18th centuries by those trying to correct chromatic errors seen in lenses.", "Opticians tried to construct lenses of varying forms of curvature, wrongly assuming errors arose from defects in the spherical figure of their surfaces.", "Optical theory on refraction and experimentation was showing no single-element lens could bring all colours to a focus.", "This led to the invention of the compound achromatic lens by Chester Moore Hall in England in 1733, an invention also claimed by fellow Englishman John Dollond in a 1758 patent." ], [ "Construction of simple lenses<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"simple_lens_anchor\"></span>", "Most lenses are ''spherical lenses'': their two surfaces are parts of the surfaces of spheres.", "Each surface can be ''convex'' (bulging outwards from the lens), ''concave'' (depressed into the lens), or ''planar'' (flat).", "The line joining the centres of the spheres making up the lens surfaces is called the ''axis'' of the lens.", "Typically the lens axis passes through the physical centre of the lens, because of the way they are manufactured.", "Lenses may be cut or ground after manufacturing to give them a different shape or size.", "The lens axis may then not pass through the physical centre of the lens.Toric or sphero-cylindrical lenses have surfaces with two different radii of curvature in two orthogonal planes.", "They have a different focal power in different meridians.", "This forms an astigmatic lens.", "An example is eyeglass lenses that are used to correct astigmatism in someone's eye.===Types of simple lenses=== 450x450pxLenses are classified by the curvature of the two optical surfaces.", "A lens is ''biconvex'' (or ''double convex'', or just ''convex'') if both surfaces are convex.", "If both surfaces have the same radius of curvature, the lens is ''equiconvex''.", "A lens with two concave surfaces is ''biconcave'' (or just ''concave'').", "If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is ''plano-convex'' or ''plano-concave'' depending on the curvature of the other surface.", "A lens with one convex and one concave side is ''convex-concave'' or ''meniscus''.", "It is this type of lens that is most commonly used in corrective lenses, since its shape minimizes some aberrations.If the lens is biconvex or plano-convex, a collimated beam of light passing through the lens converges to a spot (a ''focus'') behind the lens.", "In this case, the lens is called a ''positive'' or ''converging'' lens.", "For a thin lens in air, the distance from the lens to the spot is the focal length of the lens, which is commonly represented by in diagrams and equations.", "An extended hemispherical lens is a special type of plano-convex lens, in which the lens's curved surface is a full hemisphere and the lens is much thicker than the radius of curvature.Another extreme case of a thick convex lens is a ball lens, whose shape is completely round.", "When used in novelty photography it is often called a \"lensball\".", "A ball-shaped lens has the advantage of being omnidirectional, but for most optical glass types, its focal point lies close to the ball's surface .", "Because of the ball's curvature extremes compared to the lens size, optical aberration is much worse than thin lenses, with the notable exception of chromatic aberration.", "Biconvex lens250pxIf the lens is biconcave or plano-concave, a collimated beam of light passing through the lens is diverged (spread); the lens is thus called a ''negative'' or ''diverging'' lens.", "The beam, after passing through the lens, appears to emanate from a particular point on the axis in front of the lens.", "For a thin lens in air, the distance from this point to the lens is the focal length, though it is negative with respect to the focal length of a converging lens.Biconcave lens250pxMeniscus lenses: negative (top) and positive (bottom)Convex-concave (meniscus) lenses can be either positive or negative, depending on the relative curvatures of the two surfaces.", "A ''negative meniscus'' lens has a steeper concave surface (with a shorter radius than the convex surface) and is thinner at the centre than at the periphery.", "Conversely, a ''positive meniscus'' lens has a steeper convex surface (with a shorter radius than the concave surface) and is thicker at the centre than at the periphery.", "An ideal thin lens with two surfaces of equal curvature would have zero optical power, meaning that it would neither converge nor diverge light.", "All real lenses have a nonzero thickness, however, which makes a real lens with identical curved surfaces slightly positive.", "To obtain exactly zero optical power, a meniscus lens must have slightly unequal curvatures to account for the effect of the lens' thickness.=== For a spherical surface ===Simulation of refraction at spherical surface at DesmosFor a single refraction for a circular boundary, the relation between object and image is given bywhere is the radius of the spherical surface, is the refractive index of the surface, and is the refractive index of medium.Applying this on the two spherical surfaces of a thin lens leads to the lens maker's formula.==== Derivation ====thumbThe four cases of spherical refractionApplying Snell's law on the spherical surface, Also in the diagram,Using small angle approximation and eliminating , , and , ===Lensmaker's equation===The position of the focus of a spherical lens depends on the radii of curvature of the two facets.The focal length of a lens can be calculated from the '''lensmaker's equation''':where*   is the (effective) focal length of the lens;* is the refractive index of the lens material;* is the (signed, see below) radius of curvature of the lens surface closer to the light source;* is the radius of curvature of the lens surface farther from the light source; and* is the thickness of the lens (the distance along the lens axis between the two surface vertices).The focal length is with respect to the principal planes of the lens, and the locations of the planes and with respect to the respective lens vertices are given by the following formulas, where it is a positive value if it is right to the respective vertex.", "is positive for converging lenses, and negative for diverging lenses.", "The reciprocal of the focal length, , is the optical power of the lens.", "If the focal length is in metres, this gives the optical power in dioptres (inverse metres).Lenses have the same focal length when light travels from the back to the front as when light goes from the front to the back.", "Other properties of the lens, such as the aberrations are not the same in both directions.==== Sign convention for radii of curvature and ====The signs of the lens' radii of curvature indicate whether the corresponding surfaces are convex or concave.", "The sign convention used to represent this varies, but in this article a ''positive'' indicates a surface's center of curvature is further along in the direction of the ray travel (right, in the accompanying diagrams), while ''negative'' means that rays reaching the surface have already passed the center of curvature.", "Consequently, for external lens surfaces as diagrammed above, and indicate ''convex'' surfaces (used to converge light in a positive lens), while and indicate ''concave'' surfaces.", "The reciprocal of the radius of curvature is called the curvature.", "A flat surface has zero curvature, and its radius of curvature is infinite.==== Thin lens approximation ====If is small compared to and then the approximation can be made.", "For a lens in air,   is then given by" ], [ "Imaging properties", "As mentioned above, a positive or converging lens in air focuses a collimated beam travelling along the lens axis to a spot (known as the focal point) at a distance from the lens.", "Conversely, a point source of light placed at the focal point is converted into a collimated beam by the lens.", "These two cases are examples of image formation in lenses.", "In the former case, an object at an infinite distance (as represented by a collimated beam of waves) is focused to an image at the focal point of the lens.", "In the latter, an object at the focal length distance from the lens is imaged at infinity.", "The plane perpendicular to the lens axis situated at a distance from the lens is called the ''''.If the distances from the object to the lens and from the lens to the image are and respectively, for a lens of negligible thickness (thin lens), in air, the distances are related by the '''thin lens formula''':This can also be put into the \"Newtonian\" form:where and A camera lens forms a ''real image'' of a distant object.The above equations also hold for a thick lens if , , and are with respect to the principal plans of the lens ( as the effective focal length in this case).", "Therefore, if an object is placed at a distance from a positive lens of focal length , we will find an image at a distance according to this formula.", "If a screen is placed at a distance on the opposite side of the lens, an image is formed on it.", "This sort of image, which can be projected onto a screen or image sensor, is known as a ''real image''.", "This is the principle of the camera, and also of the human eye, in which the retina serves as the image sensor.The focusing adjustment of a camera adjusts , as using an image distance different from that required by this formula produces a defocused (fuzzy) image for an object at a distance of from the camera.", "Put another way, modifying causes objects at a different to come into perfect focus.", "Virtual image formation using a positive lens as a magnifying glass.In some cases, is negative, indicating that the image is formed on the opposite side of the lens from where those rays are being considered.", "Since the diverging light rays emanating from the lens never come into focus, and those rays are not physically present at the point where they to form an image, this is called a virtual image.", "Unlike real images, a virtual image cannot be projected on a screen, but appears to an observer looking through the lens as if it were a real object at the location of that virtual image.", "Likewise, it appears to a subsequent lens as if it were an object at that location, so that second lens could again focus that light into a real image, then being measured from the virtual image location behind the first lens to the second lens.", "This is exactly what the eye does when looking through a magnifying glass.", "The magnifying glass creates a (magnified) virtual image behind the magnifying glass, but those rays are then re-imaged by the lens of the eye to create a ''real image'' on the retina.Using a positive lens of focal length , a virtual image results when , the lens thus being used as a magnifying glass (rather than if as for a camera).", "Using a negative lens () with a () can only produce a virtual image (), according to the above formula.", "It is also possible for the object distance to be negative, in which case the lens sees a so-called ''virtual object''.", "This happens when the lens is inserted into a converging beam (being focused by a previous lens) the location of its real image.", "In that case even a negative lens can project a real image, as is done by a Barlow lens.", "For a thin lens, the distances and are measured from the object and image to the position of the lens, as described above.", "When the thickness of the lens is not much smaller than and or there are multiple lens elements (a compound lens), one must instead measure from the object and image to the principal planes of the lens.", "If distances or pass through a medium other than air or vacuum a more complicated analysis is required.=== Magnification ===The linear ''magnification'' of an imaging system using a single lens is given bywhere is the magnification factor defined as the ratio of the size of an image compared to the size of the object.", "The sign convention here dictates that if is negative, as it is for real images, the image is upside-down with respect to the object.", "For virtual images is positive, so the image is upright.This magnification formula provides two easy ways to distinguish converging () and diverging () lenses: For an object very close to the lens (), a converging lens would form a magnified (bigger) virtual image, whereas a diverging lens would form a demagnified (smaller) image; For an object very far from the lens (), a converging lens would form an inverted image, whereas a diverging lens would form an upright image.Linear magnification is not always the most useful measure of magnifying power.", "For instance, when characterizing a visual telescope or binoculars that produce only a virtual image, one would be more concerned with the angular magnification—which expresses how much larger a distant object appears through the telescope compared to the naked eye.", "In the case of a camera one would quote the plate scale, which compares the apparent (angular) size of a distant object to the size of the real image produced at the focus.", "The plate scale is the reciprocal of the focal length of the camera lens; lenses are categorized as long-focus lenses or wide-angle lenses according to their focal lengths.Using an inappropriate measurement of magnification can be formally correct but yield a meaningless number.", "For instance, using a magnifying glass of focal length, held from the eye and from the object, produces a virtual image at infinity of infinite linear size: .", "But the '''' is 5, meaning that the object appears 5 times larger to the eye than without the lens.", "When taking a picture of the moon using a camera with a lens, one is not concerned with the linear magnification Rather, the plate scale of the camera is about , from which one can conclude that the image on the film corresponds to an angular size of the moon seen from earth of about 0.5°.In the extreme case where an object is an infinite distance away, , and , indicating that the object would be imaged to a single point in the focal plane.", "In fact, the diameter of the projected spot is not actually zero, since diffraction places a lower limit on the size of the point spread function.", "This is called the diffraction limit.Images of black letters in a thin convex lens of focal length are shown in red.", "Selected rays are shown for letters '''E''', '''I''' and '''K''' in blue, green and orange, respectively.", "'''E''' (at ) has an equal-size, real and inverted image; '''I''' (at ) has its image at infinity; and '''K''' (at ) has a double-size, virtual and upright image." ], [ "Aberrations", "Lenses do not form perfect images, and a lens always introduces some degree of distortion or ''aberration'' that makes the image an imperfect replica of the object.", "Careful design of the lens system for a particular application minimizes the aberration.", "Several types of aberration affect image quality, including spherical aberration, coma, and chromatic aberration.=== Spherical aberration ===''Spherical aberration'' occurs because spherical surfaces are not the ideal shape for a lens, but are by far the simplest shape to which glass can be ground and polished, and so are often used.", "Spherical aberration causes beams parallel to, but distant from, the lens axis to be focused in a slightly different place than beams close to the axis.", "This manifests itself as a blurring of the image.", "Spherical aberration can be minimised with normal lens shapes by carefully choosing the surface curvatures for a particular application.", "For instance, a plano-convex lens, which is used to focus a collimated beam, produces a sharper focal spot when used with the convex side towards the beam source.400px=== Coma ===''Coma'', or ''comatic aberration'', derives its name from the comet-like appearance of the aberrated image.", "Coma occurs when an object off the optical axis of the lens is imaged, where rays pass through the lens at an angle to the axis .", "Rays that pass through the centre of a lens of focal length are focused at a point with distance from the axis.", "Rays passing through the outer margins of the lens are focused at different points, either further from the axis (positive coma) or closer to the axis (negative coma).", "In general, a bundle of parallel rays passing through the lens at a fixed distance from the centre of the lens are focused to a ring-shaped image in the focal plane, known as a ''comatic circle''.", "The sum of all these circles results in a V-shaped or comet-like flare.", "As with spherical aberration, coma can be minimised (and in some cases eliminated) by choosing the curvature of the two lens surfaces to match the application.", "Lenses in which both spherical aberration and coma are minimised are called ''bestform'' lenses.400px=== Chromatic aberration ===''Chromatic aberration'' is caused by the dispersion of the lens material—the variation of its refractive index, , with the wavelength of light.", "Since, from the formulae above, is dependent upon , it follows that light of different wavelengths is focused to different positions.", "Chromatic aberration of a lens is seen as fringes of colour around the image.", "It can be minimised by using an achromatic doublet (or ''achromat'') in which two materials with differing dispersion are bonded together to form a single lens.", "This reduces the amount of chromatic aberration over a certain range of wavelengths, though it does not produce perfect correction.", "The use of achromats was an important step in the development of the optical microscope.", "An apochromat is a lens or lens system with even better chromatic aberration correction, combined with improved spherical aberration correction.", "Apochromats are much more expensive than achromats.Different lens materials may also be used to minimise chromatic aberration, such as specialised coatings or lenses made from the crystal fluorite.", "This naturally occurring substance has the highest known Abbe number, indicating that the material has low dispersion.400px400px=== Other types of aberration ===Other kinds of aberration include ''field curvature'', ''barrel '' and ''pincushion distortion'', and ''astigmatism''.=== Aperture diffraction ===Even if a lens is designed to minimize or eliminate the aberrations described above, the image quality is still limited by the diffraction of light passing through the lens' finite aperture.", "A diffraction-limited lens is one in which aberrations have been reduced to the point where the image quality is primarily limited by diffraction under the design conditions." ], [ "Compound lenses <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"compound_lens_anchor\"></span>", "Simple lenses are subject to the optical aberrations discussed above.", "In many cases these aberrations can be compensated for to a great extent by using a combination of simple lenses with complementary aberrations.", "A ''compound lens'' is a collection of simple lenses of different shapes and made of materials of different refractive indices, arranged one after the other with a common axis.The simplest case is where lenses are placed in contact: if the lenses of focal lengths and are \"thin\", the combined focal length of the lenses is given bySince is the power of a lens, it can be seen that the powers of thin lenses in contact are additive.If two thin lenses are separated in air by some distance , the focal length for the combined system is given byThe distance from the front focal point of the combined lenses to the first lens is called the '''' (FFL):Similarly, the distance from the second lens to the rear focal point of the combined system is the '''' (BFL):As tends to zero, the focal lengths tend to the value of given for thin lenses in contact.If the separation distance is equal to the sum of the focal lengths (), the FFL and BFL are infinite.", "This corresponds to a pair of lenses that transform a parallel (collimated) beam into another collimated beam.", "This type of system is called an ''afocal system'', since it produces no net convergence or divergence of the beam.", "Two lenses at this separation form the simplest type of optical telescope.", "Although the system does not alter the divergence of a collimated beam, it does alter the width of the beam.", "The magnification of such a telescope is given bywhich is the ratio of the output beam width to the input beam width.", "Note the sign convention: a telescope with two convex lenses (, ) produces a negative magnification, indicating an inverted image.", "A convex plus a concave lens () produces a positive magnification and the image is upright.", "For further information on simple optical telescopes, see Refracting telescope § Refracting telescope designs." ], [ "Non spherical types", "An aspheric biconvex lens.Cylindrical lenses have curvature along only one axis.", "They are used to focus light into a line, or to convert the elliptical light from a laser diode into a round beam.", "They are also used in motion picture anamorphic lenses.Aspheric lenses have at least one surface that is neither spherical nor cylindrical.", "The more complicated shapes allow such lenses to form images with less aberration than standard simple lenses, but they are more difficult and expensive to produce.", "These were formerly complex to make and often extremely expensive, but advances in technology have greatly reduced the manufacturing cost for such lenses.", "Close-up view of a flat Fresnel lens.A Fresnel lens has its optical surface broken up into narrow rings, allowing the lens to be much thinner and lighter than conventional lenses.", "Durable Fresnel lenses can be molded from plastic and are inexpensive.Lenticular lenses are arrays of microlenses that are used in lenticular printing to make images that have an illusion of depth or that change when viewed from different angles.Bifocal lens has two or more, or a graduated, focal lengths ground into the lens.A gradient index lens has flat optical surfaces, but has a radial or axial variation in index of refraction that causes light passing through the lens to be focused.An axicon has a conical optical surface.", "It images a point source into a line the optic axis, or transforms a laser beam into a ring.Diffractive optical elements can function as lenses.Superlenses are made from negative index metamaterials and claim to produce images at spatial resolutions exceeding the diffraction limit.", "The first superlenses were made in 2004 using such a metamaterial for microwaves.", "Improved versions have been made by other researchers.", "the superlens has not yet been demonstrated at visible or near-infrared wavelengths.A prototype flat ultrathin lens, with no curvature has been developed." ], [ "Uses", "A watch with a plano-convex lens over the date indicatorA single convex lens mounted in a frame with a handle or stand is a magnifying glass.Lenses are used as prosthetics for the correction of refractive errors such as myopia, hypermetropia, presbyopia, and astigmatism.", "(See corrective lens, contact lens, eyeglasses, intraocular lens.)", "Most lenses used for other purposes have strict axial symmetry; eyeglass lenses are only approximately symmetric.", "They are usually shaped to fit in a roughly oval, not circular, frame; the optical centres are placed over the eyeballs; their curvature may not be axially symmetric to correct for astigmatism.", "Sunglasses' lenses are designed to attenuate light; sunglass lenses that also correct visual impairments can be custom made.Other uses are in imaging systems such as monoculars, binoculars, telescopes, microscopes, cameras and projectors.", "Some of these instruments produce a virtual image when applied to the human eye; others produce a real image that can be captured on photographic film or an optical sensor, or can be viewed on a screen.", "In these devices lenses are sometimes paired up with curved mirrors to make a catadioptric system where the lens's spherical aberration corrects the opposite aberration in the mirror (such as Schmidt and meniscus correctors).Convex lenses produce an image of an object at infinity at their focus; if the sun is imaged, much of the visible and infrared light incident on the lens is concentrated into the small image.", "A large lens creates enough intensity to burn a flammable object at the focal point.", "Since ignition can be achieved even with a poorly made lens, lenses have been used as burning-glasses for at least 2400 years.", "A modern application is the use of relatively large lenses to concentrate solar energy on relatively small photovoltaic cells, harvesting more energy without the need to use larger and more expensive cells.Radio astronomy and radar systems often use dielectric lenses, commonly called a lens antenna to refract electromagnetic radiation into a collector antenna.Lenses can become scratched and abraded.", "Abrasion-resistant coatings are available to help control this." ], [ "See also", "* Anti-fogging treatment of optical surfaces* Back focal plane* Bokeh* Cardinal point (optics)* Caustic (optics)* Eyepiece* F-number* Gravitational lens* Lens (anatomy)* List of lens designs* Numerical aperture* Optical coatings* Optical lens design* Photochromic lens* Prism (optics)* Ray tracing* Ray transfer matrix analysis" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Chapters 5 & 6.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* A chapter from an online textbook on refraction and lenses * ''Thin Spherical Lenses '' (.pdf) on Project PHYSNET.", "* Lens article at ''digitalartform.com''* Article on Ancient Egyptian lenses* * The Use of Magnifying Lenses in the Classical World* (with 21 diagrams)=== Simulations ===* Learning by Simulations – Concave and Convex Lenses* OpticalRayTracer – Open source lens simulator (downloadable java)* Animations demonstrating lens by QED" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lamorna Birch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Samuel John \"Lamorna\" Birch''', RA, RWS (7 June 1869 – 7 January 1955) was an English artist in oils and watercolours.", "At the suggestion of fellow artist Stanhope Forbes, Birch adopted the ''soubriquet'' \"Lamorna\" to distinguish himself from Lionel Birch, an artist who was also working in the area at that time." ], [ "Biography", "Lamorna Cove (here in 2005) was a frequent subject for his paintings.Lamorna Birch was born in Egremont, Cheshire, England.", "He was self-taught as an artist, except for a brief period of study at the Académie Colarossi in Paris during 1895.Birch settled in Lamorna, Cornwall in 1892, initially lodging at nearby Boleigh Farm.", "Many of his most famous pictures date from this time and the beautiful Lamorna Cove is usually their subject matter.", "He was attracted to Cornwall by the Newlyn group of artists but he ended up starting a second group based around his adopted home of Lamorna.", "He married Houghton (Mouse) Emily Vivian, the daughter of a mining agent from Camborne and they lived at Flagstaff Cottage, Lamorna.Greta Valentine met Birch when she was 28 and she was on holiday with her parents in Cornwall.", "Lamorna was married but he was intrigued by Greta.", "He would write her poetry and create paintings for her.", "Symbolism within the paintings expressed his love for her." ], [ "Exhibitions", "He exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1893, was elected as an Associate (ARA) in 1926 and made a Royal Academician (RA) in 1934, and showed more than two hundred paintings there.", "He held his first one-man exhibition at the Fine Art Society in 1906 and is said to have produced more than 20,000 pictures.", "Like a number of his contemporaries, he was profiled as an 'Artist of Note' in ''The Artist'' magazine, by Richard Seddon, in the June 1944 edition.", "* ''Shades of British Impressionism Lamorna Birch and his Circle'' was shown at Warrington Museum & Art Gallery in the Mezzanine in October 2004.This details his links with Henry Scott Tuke and Thomas Cooper Gotch and many others who settled in the artists' colony in the 1880s and 1890s.", "\"These painters helped to change the face of British art.", "Their emphasis on colour and light, truth and social realism brought about a revolution in British art.\"", "says the catalogue for the show.", "* ''Entranced by a Special Place: The Art of S J Lamorna Birch'' – at Penlee House, Penzance, part of the Royal Academy's 250th anniversary celebrations." ], [ "Today", "Birch has paintings at Penlee House and in the collection of Derby Art Gallery." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "LDP" ], [ "Introduction", "'''LDP''' may mean:" ], [ "Politics", "*Liberal Democratic Party (disambiguation), a list of liberal democratic parties*Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino, a political party in the Philippines*Lebanese Democratic Party, a political party in Lebanon*League for Democracy Party, a political party in Cambodia*Liberal Democratic Party of Australia, a political party in Australia*Liberal Democratic Party of Germany, a political party in East Germany*Liberal Democratic Party (Japan), a political party in Japan*Liberal Democratic Party (Serbia), a political party in Serbia*Liberal Democratic Party (Turkey), a political party in Turkey *Liberal Democratic Party (Malaysia), a political party in Malaysia" ], [ "Technology", "*Label Distribution Protocol, a routing protocol used in Multiprotocol Label Switching networks*Laser designator pod*Laserdisc player*Linked Data Platform, a Semantic Web specification*Linux Documentation Project*Local differential privacy" ], [ "Mathematics", "*Large deviation principle, the rate function in mathematics" ], [ "Locations", "*Damansara–Puchong Expressway or Lebuhraya Damansara–Puchong (LDP), an expressway in Malaysia*Long-distance footpaths in the UK (long-distance paths)" ], [ "Language", "*Lingwa de planeta, a conlang mentioned in Worldlang" ], [ "Other", "*Loan deficiency payments, a U.S. agriculture policy farm income support program*Local Development Plan, a form of town and country planning document in Wales*Long day plant, a plant that flowers when the night length falls below its critical photoperiod*Long Distance (Skateboard) Pumping*Leadership development Program, a type of professional development program for businesses and organizations*Landed Duty Paid (LDP), a shipping term indicating the seller will import to country of destination and pay duty on goods" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Labour" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Labour''' or '''labor''' may refer to:* Childbirth, the delivery of a baby* Labour (human activity), or work** Manual labour, physical work ** Wage labour, a socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer** Organized labour and the labour movement, consisting principally of labour unions** Labour Party (UK)" ], [ "Literature", "* ''Labor'' (journal), an American quarterly on the history of the labor movement* ''Labour/Le Travail'', an academic journal focusing on the Canadian labour movement* ''Labor'' (Tolstoy book) or ''The Triumph of the Farmer or Industry and Parasitism'' (1888)" ], [ "Music", "* ''Labour'' (song), 2023 single by Paris Paloma" ], [ "Places", "* La Labor, Honduras* Labor, Koper, Slovenia" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Labor'' (album), a 2013 album by MEN* Labor (area), a Spanish customary unit* \"Labor\", an episode of TV series ''Superstore''* Labour (constituency), a functional constituency in Hong Kong elections* Labors, fictional robots in ''Patlabor''" ], [ "People with the surname", "* Earle Labor (1928–2022), professor of American literature* Jérémy Labor (born 1992), French footballer* Josef Labor (1842–1924), Austrian musician and composer* Larry Labor, American politician" ], [ "See also", "* Labor Day (disambiguation)* Labour law* Labour organization* Labour Party (disambiguation)* Work (disambiguation)* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Library of Congress Classification" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Library of Congress Classification''' ('''LCC''') is a system of library classification developed by the Library of Congress in the United States, which can be used for shelving books in a library.", "LCC is mainly used by large research and academic libraries, while most public libraries and small academic libraries used the Dewey Decimal Classification system.", "The classification was developed by James Hanson (chief of the Catalog Department), with assistance from Charles Martel, in 1897, while they were working at the Library of Congress.", "It was designed specifically for the purposes and collection of the Library of Congress to replace the fixed location system developed by Thomas Jefferson.LCC has been criticized for lacking a sound theoretical basis; many of the classification decisions were driven by the practical needs of that library rather than epistemological considerations.", "Although it divides subjects into broad categories, it is essentially enumerative in nature.", "That is, it provides a guide to the books actually in one library's collections, not a classification of the world." ], [ "History", "The central core of the modern Library of Congress was formed from books sold to the government by Thomas Jefferson after the original collection was razed by the British in the War of 1812.As a result, the original classification system used by the library was of his own invention.", "However, by the end of the nineteenth century, the collection had grown to over a million volumes and his system was deemed too unwieldy.John Russell Young, the seventh Librarian of Congress, hired James Hanson and Charles Martel in 1897, who began the development of a new classification system that would more accurately describe the collections the library held.", "Young's tenure as Librarian ended with his death in 1899, and his successor, Herbert Putnam, continued to implement the updates to the catalog through his long stay in the office.", "By the time he departed from his post in 1939, all the classes except K (Law) were well developed.In creating their classification system, Hanson and Martel evaluated several systems already in existence, including the Dewey Decimal System, Charles Ammi Cutter's Cutter Expansive Classification, the Index Medicus, and the Putnam Classification System (developed while Putnam was head librarian at the Minneapolis Public Library).", "The one closest to their needs was Cutter's; however, he died before the completion of his system.", "Hanson and Martel thus decided to develop their own unique system, strongly based on his ideas.", "They published their first outline of the classification scheme in 1904.Development of the classes continued throughout the twentieth century.", "The last class to be developed was K (Law): the first K schedule was published in 1969 and not completed until the 2004 publication of KB.From 1996 onwards, the LCC schedules were available online, and since 2013, there have been no new print editions of the classification system.", "All updates are now distributed by the Library's Cataloging Distribution Service entirely online." ], [ "<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Design and Organization\"></span>Design and organization", "LCC divides all knowledge into twenty-one basic classes, exchanges given a single letter of the alphabet as an identifier.", "The vast majority of these classes are divided further into two and three level sub-classes.", "With these sub-classes, numerical ranges are assigned to topics, going from more general to more specific.", "Unlike in the Dewey Decimal Classification, where the numbers assigned to a topic iterate throughout the system (e.g., the \".05\" tag indicated a periodical publication on the topic), the LCC numerical ranges are strictly hierarchal, only corresponding to their level on the outline.", "LCC is enumerative, meaning that it lists all the classes in officially published schedules, which are updated as needed by the Library of Congress.", "The call number for ''Glaciers and Glaciation'' (2nd edt.)", "by Benn & Evans.", "This indicates that it belongs to the broad class of \"Geography, Anthropology, Recreation,\" the subclass of \"Physical Geography,\" and the topic of \"Ice.", "Glaciers.", "Ice sheets.", "Sea ice.\"", "B44 is the Cutter number, after the first author Benn, and 2010 represents the publication year.After the range of numbers making up the topical division, call numbers often also include one or more Cutter numbers, modeled after the unfinished Cutter Expansive Classification index.", "The full LCC schedules contain tables that describe Cutter numbers for certain types of media, collections of work, and geographical areas.", "Cutter numbers also can take the form of an author-specific code, containing a letter and several numbers corresponding to the author's last name.", "This serves to further distinguish publications and nominally alphabetize volumes within a topic section.", "The final component of a typical LCC call-number is the publication year, in full.", "Library collections can add modifiers to distinguish specific volumes, such as \"Copy 1.", "\"LCC should not be confused with Library of Congress Control Numbers (LCCN), which are assigned to all books (and authors) and defines online catalog entries.", "Library of Congress Classification is also distinct from Library of Congress Subject Headings, the system of labels such as \"Glaciers\" and \"Glaciers—Fiction\" that describe contents systematically.One variation from the original LCC system is the National Library of Medicine classification system (NLM), which uses the initial letters ''W'' and ''QS''–''QZ'', which are not used by LCC.", "Some libraries use NLM in conjunction with LCC, eschewing LCC's R, QM, and QP, which overlap with NLM's schema.", "Another is the Canadian Universities and the Canadian National Library using FC for Canadian History, a subclass that LCC has not officially adopted, but which it has agreed not to use for anything else.=== Classes ===LetterSubject areaAGeneral WorksBPhilosophy, Psychology, ReligionCAuxiliary Sciences of HistoryDWorld History and History of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, etc.EHistory of AmericaFHistory of the AmericasGGeography, Anthropology, and RecreationHSocial SciencesJPolitical ScienceKLawLEducationMMusicNFine ArtsPLanguage and LiteratureQScienceRMedicineSAgricultureTTechnologyUMilitary ScienceVNaval ScienceZBibliography, Library Science, and General Information Resources" ], [ "<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Use and Criticism\"></span>Use and criticism", "Together with the Dewey Decimal System (DDC), LCC make up the two main classification system used in U.S. libraries.", "LCC is favored by large academic and research libraries.Systems of classification can be evaluated on several metrics, including expressiveness (the ability of the numeration system to express the hierarchal and correlative relationships between topics), hospitality (the ability of the system to accommodate new subjects), and brevity (length of call numbers).", "While LCC is significantly less expressive than DDC, it is extremely hospitable, mainly in the fact that five class (I, O, W, X, and Y) lack any assignment to topics.", "LCC call numbers also tend to be shorter than those in DDC.The main difference between DDC and LCC is their approach to classifying.", "Dewey's system is a comprehensive classification to all topics, with no regard to the actual collections a library might hold.", "While this has allowed it to be successfully adapted into more modern classification systems for use outside of libraries, such as the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC), it does make it more unwieldy for large or specialized collections.", "On the other hand, Hanson and Martel designed LCC specifically for library use, which means while it does not completely enumerate the world, it does more reflect what books a library might hold.Because LCC was designed around the collections of the Library of Congress, it has an American, European, and Christian bias, as reflected mainly in the earlier developed schedules of D (World History), E and F (History of the Americas), and B (Philosophy, Psychology, Religion).", "On the other hand, the later-developed K (Law) gives fairly even weight to global law.", "Today, the various schedules are maintained and revised by the Library's Policy and Standards Division, in conjunction with experts in each field.", "However, updating various schedules with classification biases is generally assumed to be impractical due to the massive workload that would result in, especially as the \"discipline\" based classes of LCC have been entrenched in the average library user's mind.Like all classification systems, LCC struggles with catering to interdisciplinary scholars and topics, as ultimately, a book can only be shelved in a single location.", "Additionally, LCC has a problem with \"othering\" marginalized groups, making works related to or authored by members of these groups particularly difficult to locate.", "This is not a new issue, and libraries with more specialized collections about minority groups or issues sometimes eschew LCC, with one example alternative classification being the Harvard–Yenching Classification, specifically developed for Chinese language materials." ], [ "<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Full Classification Outline\"></span>Full classification outline", "===Class A – general works===* Subclass AC – Collections.", "Series.", "Collected works* Subclass AE – Encyclopedias* Subclass AG – Dictionaries and other general reference works* Subclass AI – Indexes* Subclass AM – Museums.", "Collectors and collecting* Subclass AN – Newspapers* Subclass AP – Periodicals* Subclass AS – Academies and learned societies* Subclass AY – Yearbooks.", "Almanacs.", "Directories* Subclass AZ – History of scholarship and learning.", "The humanities===Class B – Philosophy, Psychology, Religion===* Subclass B – Philosophy (General)* Subclass BC – Logic* Subclass BD – Speculative philosophy* Subclass BF – Psychology* Subclass BH – Aesthetics* Subclass BJ – Ethics* Subclass BL – Religions.", "Mythology.", "Rationalism* Subclass BM – Judaism* Subclass BP – Islam.", "Baháʼísm.", "Theosophy, etc.", "* Subclass BQ – Buddhism* Subclass BR – Christianity* Subclass BS – The Bible* Subclass BT – Doctrinal theology* Subclass BV – Practical theology* Subclass BX – Christian Denominations===Class C – Auxiliary Sciences of History===* Subclass C – Auxiliary Sciences of History* Subclass CB – History of Civilization* Subclass CC – Archaeology* Subclass CD – Diplomatics.", "Archives.", "Seals* Subclass CE – Technical Chronology; Calendar* Subclass CJ – Numismatics* Subclass CN – Inscriptions; Epigraphy* Subclass CR – Heraldry* Subclass CS – Genealogy* Subclass CT – Biography===Class D – World History and History of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, etc.===* Subclass D – History (General)* Subclass DA – Great Britain* Subclass DAW – Central Europe* Subclass DB – Austria – Liechtenstein – Hungary – Czechoslovakia* Subclass DC – France – Andorra – Monaco* Subclass DD – Germany* Subclass DE – Greco-Roman World* Subclass DF – Greece* Subclass DG – Italy – Malta* Subclass DH – Low Countries – Benelux Countries* Subclass DJ – Netherlands (Holland)* Subclass DJK – Eastern Europe (General)* Subclass DK – Russia.", "Soviet Union.", "Former Soviet Republics – Poland* Subclass DL – Northern Europe.", "Scandinavia* Subclass DP – Spain – Portugal* Subclass DQ – Switzerland* Subclass DR – Balkan Peninsula* Subclass DS – Asia* Subclass DT – Africa* Subclass DU – Oceania (South Seas)* Subclass DX – Romanies===Class E – History of America===* Class E does not have any subclasses.===Class F – Local History of the Americas===*Class F does not have any subclasses, though Canadian Universities and the Canadian National Library use FC for Canadian History, a subclass that LCC has not officially adopted, but which it has agreed not to use for anything else.===Class G – Geography, Anthropology, Recreation===* Subclass G – Geography (General).", "Atlases.", "Maps* Subclass GA – Mathematical geography.", "Cartography* Subclass GB – Physical geography* Subclass GC – Oceanography* Subclass GE – Environmental Sciences* Subclass GF – Human ecology.", "Anthropogeography* Subclass GN – Anthropology* Subclass GR – Folklore* Subclass GT – Manners and customs (General)* Subclass GV – Recreation.", "Leisure===Class H – Social Sciences===* Subclass H – Social sciences (General)* Subclass HA – Statistics* Subclass HB – Economic theory.", "Demography* Subclass HC – Economic history and conditions* Subclass HD – Industries.", "Land use.", "Labor* Subclass HE – Transportation and communications* Subclass HF – Commerce* Subclass HG – Finance* Subclass HJ – Public finance* Subclass HM – Sociology (General)* Subclass HN – Social history and conditions.", "Social problems.", "Social reform* Subclass HQ – The family.", "Marriage, Women and Sexuality* Subclass HS – Societies: secret, benevolent, etc.", "* Subclass HT – Communities.", "Classes.", "Races* Subclass HV – Social pathology.", "Social and public welfare.", "Criminology* Subclass HX – Socialism.", "Communism.", "Anarchism===Class J – Political Science===* Subclass J – General legislative and executive papers* Subclass JA – Political science (General)* Subclass JC – Political theory* Subclass JF – Political institutions and public administration* Subclass JJ – Political institutions and public administration (North America)* Subclass JK – Political institutions and public administration (United States)* Subclass JL – Political institutions and public administration (Canada, Latin America, etc.", ")* Subclass JN – Political institutions and public administration (Europe)* Subclass JQ – Political institutions and public administration (Asia, Africa, Australia, Pacific Area, etc.", ")* Subclass JS – Local government.", "Municipal government* Subclass JV – Colonies and colonization.", "Emigration and immigration.", "International migration* Subclass JX – International law, see JZ and KZ (obsolete)* Subclass JZ – International relations===Class K – Law===* Subclass K – Law in general.", "Comparative and uniform law.", "Jurisprudence* Subclass KB – Religious law in general.", "Comparative religious law.", "Jurisprudence* Subclass KBM – Jewish law* Subclass KBP – Islamic law* Subclass KBR – History of canon law* Subclass KBS – Canon law of Eastern churches* Subclass KBT – Canon law of Eastern Rite Churches in Communion with the Holy See of Rome* Subclass KBU – Law of the Roman Catholic Church.", "The Holy See* Subclasses – KD/KDK - United Kingdom and Ireland* Subclass KDZ – America.", "North America* Subclass KE – Canada* Subclass KF – United States* Subclass KG – Latin America – Mexico and Central America – West Indies.", "Caribbean area* Subclass KH – South America* Subclasses KJ-KKZ – Europe* Subclasses KL-KWX – Asia and Eurasia, Africa, Pacific Area, and Antarctica* Subclass KU/KUQ – Law of Australia and New Zealand* Subclass KZ – Law of nations===Class L – Education===* Subclass L – Education (General)* Subclass LA – History of education* Subclass LB – Theory and practice of education* Subclass LC – Special aspects of education* Subclass LD – Individual institutions – United States* Subclass LE – Individual institutions – America (except United States)* Subclass LF – Individual institutions – Europe* Subclass LG – Individual institutions – Asia, Africa, Indian Ocean islands, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific islands* Subclass LH – College and school magazines and papers* Subclass LJ – Student fraternities and societies, United States* Subclass LT – Textbooks===Class M – Music===* Subclass M – Music* Subclass ML – Literature on music* Subclass MT – Instruction and study===Class N – Fine Arts===* Subclass N – Visual Arts* Subclass NA – Architecture* Subclass NB – Sculpture* Subclass NC – Drawing.", "Design.", "Illustration* Subclass ND – Painting* Subclass NE – Print media* Subclass NK – Decorative arts* Subclass NX – Arts in general===Class P – Language and Literature===The PN-subclass shelf.", "* Subclass P – Philology.", "Linguistics* Subclass PA – Greek language and literature.", "Latin language and literature* Subclass PB – Modern languages.", "Celtic languages and literature* Subclass PC – Romanic languages* Subclass PD – Germanic languages.", "Scandinavian languages* Subclass PE – English language* Subclass PF – West Germanic languages* Subclass PG – Slavic languages and literature.", "Baltic languages.", "Albanian language* Subclass PH – Uralic languages.", "Basque language* Subclass PJ – Oriental languages and literatures* Subclass PK – Indo-Iranian languages and literature* Subclass PL – Languages and literature of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania* Subclass PM – Hyperborean, Native American, and artificial languages* Subclass PN – Literature (General)* Subclass PQ – French literature – Italian literature – Spanish literature – Portuguese literature* Subclass PR – English literature* Subclass PS – American literature* Subclass PT – German literature – Dutch literature – Flemish literature since 1830 – Afrikaans literature -Scandinavian literature – Old Norse literature: Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian – Modern Icelandic literature – Faroese literature – Danish literature – Norwegian literature – Swedish literature* Subclass PZ – Fiction and juvenile belles lettres===Class Q – Science===Java programming books in the QA subclass.", "* Subclass Q – Science (General)* Subclass QA – Mathematics* Subclass QB – Astronomy* Subclass QC – Physics* Subclass QD – Chemistry* Subclass QE – Geology* Subclass QH – Natural history – Biology* Subclass QK – Botany* Subclass QL – Zoology* Subclass QM – Human anatomy* Subclass QP – Physiology* Subclass QR – Microbiology=== Class R – Medicine ===* Subclass R – Medicine (General)* Subclass RA – Public aspects of medicine* Subclass RB – Pathology* Subclass RC – Internal medicine* Subclass RD – Surgery* Subclass RE – Ophthalmology* Subclass RF – Otorhinolaryngology* Subclass RG – Gynecology and Obstetrics* Subclass RJ – Pediatrics* Subclass RK – Dentistry* Subclass RL – Dermatology* Subclass RM – Therapeutics.", "Pharmacology* Subclass RS – Pharmacy and materia medica* Subclass RT – Nursing* Subclass RV – Botanic, Thomsonian, and Eclectic medicine* Subclass RX – Homeopathy* Subclass RZ – Other systems of medicine===Class S – Agriculture===* Subclass S – Agriculture (General)* Subclass SB – Horticulture.", "Plant propagation.", "Plant breeding* Subclass SD – Forestry.", "Arboriculture.", "Silviculture* Subclass SF – Animal husbandry.", "Animal science* Subclass SH – Aquaculture.", "Fisheries.", "Angling* Subclass SK – Hunting===Class T – Technology===* Subclass T – Technology (General)* Subclass TA – Engineering Civil engineering (General).", "* Subclass TC – Hydraulic engineering.", "Ocean engineering* Subclass TD – Environmental technology.", "Sanitary engineering* Subclass TE – Highway engineering.", "Roads and pavements* Subclass TF – Railroad engineering and operation* Subclass TG – Bridges* Subclass TH – Building construction* Subclass TJ – Mechanical engineering and machinery* Subclass TK – Electrical engineering.", "Electronics.", "Nuclear engineering* Subclass TL – Motor vehicles.", "Aeronautics.", "Astronautics* Subclass TN – Mining engineering.", "Metallurgy* Subclass TP – Chemical technology* Subclass TR – Photography* Subclass TS – Manufacturing engineering.", "Mass production* Subclass TT – Handicrafts.", "Arts and crafts* Subclass TX – Home economics===Class U – Military Science===* Subclass U – Military science (General)* Subclass UA – Armies: Organization, distribution, military situation* Subclass UB – Military administration* Subclass UC – Military maintenance and transportation* Subclass UD – Infantry* Subclass UE – Cavalry.", "Armor* Subclass UF – Artillery* Subclass UG – Military engineering.", "Air forces* Subclass UH – Other military services===Class V – Naval Science===* Subclass V – Naval science (General)* Subclass VA – Navies: Organization, distribution, naval situation* Subclass VB – Naval administration* Subclass VC – Naval maintenance* Subclass VD – Naval seamen* Subclass VE – Marines* Subclass VF – Naval ordnance* Subclass VG – Minor services of navies* Subclass VK – Navigation.", "Merchant marine* Subclass VM – Naval architecture.", "Shipbuilding.", "Marine engineering===Class Z – Bibliography, Library Science===* Subclass Z – Books (General).", "Writing.", "Paleography.", "Book industries and trade.", "Libraries.", "Bibliography* Subclass ZA – Information resources/materials==See also==* ACM Computing Classification System* Books in the United States* Brinkler classification* Chinese Library Classification* Database of Recorded American Music* Dewey Decimal Classification** Comparison of Dewey and Library of Congress subject classification* Harvard–Yenching Classification* Moys Classification Scheme* ISBN* Minnie Earl Sears, formulated Sears Subject Headings, simplified for use by small libraries" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Library of Congress classification outline, loc.gov* Full list of LCC classification schedules, loc.gov* Library of Congress – classification, loc.gov* Cataloging Distribution Services – source of Library of Congress Classification schedules.", "loc.gov* Classification outline, loc.gov* How to read LCC call numbers, geography.about.com (via The Wayback Machine)* How to use LCC to organize a home library, zackgrossbart.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Library classification" ], [ "Introduction", "A library book shelf in Hong Kong arranged using the Dewey classificationA '''library classification''' is a system of organization of knowledge in which sources are arranged according to the classification scheme and ordered very systematically.", "Library classifications are a notational system that represents the order of topics in the classification and allows items to be stored in the order of classification.", "Library classification systems group related materials together, typically arranged as a hierarchical tree structure.", "A different kind of classification system, called a faceted classification system, is also widely used, which allows the assignment of multiple classifications to an object, enabling the classifications to be ordered in many ways." ], [ "Description", "Library classification is an important and crucial aspect in library and information science.", "It is distinct from scientific classification in that it has as its goal to provide a useful ordering of documents rather than a theoretical organization of knowledge.", "Although it has the practical purpose of creating a physical ordering of documents, it does generally attempt to adhere to accepted scientific knowledge.", "Library classification helps to accommodate all the newly published literature in an already created order of arrangement in a filial sequence.Library classification can be defined as the arrangement of books on shelves, or description of them, in the manner which is most useful to those who read with the ultimate aim of grouping similar things together.", "Library classification is meant to achieve these four purposes: ordering the fields of knowledge in a systematic way, bring related items together in the most helpful sequence, provide orderly access on the shelf, and provide a location for an item on the shelf.Library classification is distinct from the application of subject headings in that classification organizes knowledge into a systematic order, while subject headings provide access to intellectual materials through vocabulary terms that may or may not be organized as a knowledge system.The characteristics that a bibliographic classification demands for the sake of reaching these purposes are: a useful sequence of subjects at all levels, a concise memorable notation, and a host of techniques and devices of number synthesis." ], [ "History", "Library classifications were preceded by classifications used by bibliographers such as Conrad Gessner.", "The earliest library classification schemes organized books in broad subject categories.", "The earliest known library classification scheme is the Pinakes by Callimachus, a scholar at the Library of Alexandria during the third century BC.", "During the Renaissance and Reformation era, \"Libraries were organized according to the whims or knowledge of individuals in charge.\"", "This changed the format in which various materials were classified.", "Some collections were classified by language and others by how they were printed.After the printing revolution in the sixteenth century, the increase in available printed materials made such broad classification unworkable, and more granular classifications for library materials had to be developed in the nineteenth century.In 1627 Gabriel Naudé published a book called ''Advice on Establishing a Library''.", "At the time, he was working in the private library of President Henri de Mesmes II.", "Mesmes had around 8,000 printed books and many more Greek, Latin and French written manuscripts.", "Although it was a private library, scholars with references could access it.", "The purpose of ''Advice on Establishing a Library'' was to identify rules for private book collectors to organize their collections in a more orderly way to increase the collection's usefulness and beauty.", "Naudé developed a classification system based on seven different classes: theology, medicine, jurisprudence, history, philosophy, mathematics and the humanities.", "These seven classes would later be increased to twelve.", "''Advice on Establishing a Library'' was about a private library, but within the same book, Naudé encouraged the idea of public libraries open to all people regardless of their ability to pay for access to the collection.", "One of the most famous libraries that Naudé helped improve was the in Paris.", "Naudé spent ten years there as a librarian.", "Because of Naudé's strong belief in free access to libraries to all people, the Bibliothèque Mazarine became the first public library in France around 1644.Although libraries created order within their collections from as early as the fifth century BC, the Paris Bookseller's classification, developed in 1842 by Jacques Charles Brunet, is generally seen as the first of the modern book classifications.", "Brunet provided five major classes: theology, jurisprudence, sciences and arts, belles-lettres, and history.", "Classification can now be seen as a provider of subject access to information in a networked environment." ], [ "Types", "There are many standard systems of library classification in use, and many more have been proposed over the years.", "However, in general, classification systems can be divided into three types depending on how they are used:; Universal schemes: Covers all subjects, e.g.", "the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC), Universal Decimal Classification (UDC), Library of Congress Classification (LCC), and Colon Classification (CC).", "; Specific classification schemes: Covers particular subjects or types of materials, e.g.", "Iconclass (art), British Catalogue of Music Classification, and Dickinson classification (music), or the NLM Classification (medicine).", "; National schemes: Specially created for certain countries, e.g.", "Swedish library classification system, SAB (Sveriges Allmänna Biblioteksförening).In terms of functionality, classification systems are often described as:; Enumerative: Subject headings are listed alphabetically, with numbers assigned to each heading in alphabetical order.", "; Hierarchical: Subjects are divided hierarchically, from most general to most specific.", "; Faceted/analytico-synthetic: Subjects are divided into mutually exclusive orthogonal facets.There are few completely enumerative systems or faceted systems; most systems are a blend but favouring one type or the other.", "The most common classification systems, LCC and DDC, are essentially enumerative, though with some hierarchical and faceted elements (more so for DDC), especially at the broadest and most general level.", "The first true faceted system was the colon classification of S. R. Ranganathan." ], [ "Methods or systems", "Classification types denote the classification or categorization according to the form or characteristics or qualities of a classification scheme or schemes.", "Method and system has similar meaning.", "Method or methods or system means the classification schemes like Dewey Decimal Classification or Universal Decimal Classification.", "The types of classification is for identifying and understanding or education or research purposes while classification method means those classification schemes like DDC, UDC.", "===English language universal classification systems===The Moys Classification Scheme as used by the law library of the Hong Kong High CourtThe most common systems in English-speaking countries are:* Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)* Library of Congress Classification (LCC)* Colon classification (CC)* Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)Other systems include:* Moys Classification Scheme, used in law libraries in many common law jurisdictions such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.", "* Harvard-Yenching Classification, an English classification system for Chinese language materials* Vartavan Library Classification* Barnard Classification Scheme devised by Cyril Cuthbert Barnard, used at London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and others* London Education Classification devised by D.J.", "Foskett and Joy Foskett and used at the UCL Institute of Education* Garside classification used in most libraries of University College London* Bliss bibliographic classification used in some British libraries*Gladstone Library Classification, devised by W.E.", "Gladstone and used exclusively at Gladstone's Library===Non-English universal classification systems===* German Regensburger Verbundklassifikation (RVK)*A system of book classification for Chinese libraries (Liu's Classification) library classification for user**New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries* Nippon Decimal Classification (NDC)* Chinese Library Classification (CLC)* Korean Decimal Classification (KDC)* Russian Library-Bibliographical Classification (BBK)===Universal classification systems that rely on synthesis (faceted systems)===* Bliss bibliographic classification* Colon classification* Cutter Expansive Classification* Universal Decimal ClassificationNewer classification systems tend to use the principle of synthesis (combining codes from different lists to represent the different attributes of a work) heavily, which is comparatively lacking in LC or DDC." ], [ "The practice of classifying", "Library classification is associated with library (descriptive) cataloging under the rubric of ''cataloging and classification'', sometimes grouped together as ''technical services''.", "The library professional who engages in the process of cataloging and classifying library materials is called a ''cataloger'' or ''catalog librarian''.", "Library classification systems are one of the two tools used to facilitate subject access.", "The other consists of alphabetical indexing languages such as Thesauri and Subject Headings systems.Library classification of a piece of work consists of two steps.", "Firstly, the subject or topic of the material is ascertained.", "Next, a '''call number''' (essentially a book's address) based on the classification system in use at the particular library will be assigned to the work using the notation of the system.Unlike subject heading or thesauri where multiple terms can be assigned to the same work, in library classification systems, each work can only be placed in one class.", "This is due to shelving purposes: A book can have only one physical place.", "However, in classified catalogs one may have main entries as well as added entries.", "Most classification systems like the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) and Library of Congress Classification also add a cutter number to each work which adds a code for the main entry (primary access point) of the work (e.g.", "author).Classification systems in libraries generally play two roles.", "Firstly, they facilitate subject access by allowing the user to find out what works or documents the library has on a certain subject.", "Secondly, they provide a known location for the information source to be located (e.g.", "where it is shelved).Until the 19th century, most libraries had closed stacks, so the library classification only served to organize the subject catalog.", "In the 20th century, libraries opened their stacks to the public and started to shelve library material itself according to some library classification to simplify subject browsing.Some classification systems are more suitable for aiding subject access, rather than for shelf location.", "For example, Universal Decimal Classification, which uses a complicated notation of pluses and colons, is more difficult to use for the purpose of shelf arrangement but is more expressive compared to DDC in terms of showing relationships between subjects.", "Similarly faceted classification schemes are more difficult to use for shelf arrangement, unless the user has knowledge of the citation order.Depending on the size of the library collection, some libraries might use classification systems solely for one purpose or the other.", "In extreme cases, a public library with a small collection might just use a classification system for location of resources but might not use a complicated subject classification system.", "Instead all resources might just be put into a couple of wide classes (travel, crime, magazines etc.).", "This is known as a \"mark and park\" classification method, more formally called reader interest classification." ], [ "Comparing library classification systems", "As a result of differences in notation, history, use of enumeration, hierarchy, and facets, classification systems can differ in the following ways:* Type of Notation: Notation can be pure (consisting of only numerals, for example) or mixed (consisting of letters and numerals, or letters, numerals, and other symbols).", "* Expressiveness: This is the degree to which the notation can express relationship between concepts or structure.", "* Whether they support mnemonics: For example, the number 44 in DDC notation often means it concerns some aspect of France.", "For example, in the Dewey classification 598.0944 concerns \"Birds in France\", the 09 signifies geographic division, and 44 represents France.", "* Hospitality: The degree to which the system is able to accommodate new subjects.", "* Brevity: The length of the notation to express the same concept.", "* Speed of updates and degree of support: The better classification systems are frequently being reviewed.", "* Consistency * Simplicity* Usability== See also ==* Attribute-value system* Categorization* Classification (general theory)* Decimal classification* Document classification* Information retrieval* Knowledge organization* Library management* Library of Congress Subject Headings* W. C. Berwick Sayers* Subject indexing" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lexus" ], [ "Introduction", " is the luxury vehicle division of the Japanese automaker Toyota Motor Corporation.", "The Lexus brand is marketed in more than 90 countries and territories worldwide and is Japan's largest-selling make of premium cars.", "It has ranked among the 10 largest Japanese global brands in market value.", "Lexus is headquartered in Nagoya, Japan.", "Operational centers are located in Brussels, Belgium, and Plano, Texas, United States.Created at around the same time as Japanese rivals Honda and Nissan created their Acura and Infiniti luxury divisions respectively, Lexus originated from a corporate project to develop a new premium sedan, code-named F1, which began in 1983 and culminated in the launch of the Lexus LS in 1989.Subsequently, the division added sedan, coupé, convertible and SUV models.", "Lexus did not exist as a brand in its home market until 2005, and all vehicles marketed internationally as Lexus from 1989 to 2005 were released in Japan under the Toyota marque and an equivalent model name.", "In 2005, a hybrid version of the RX crossover debuted and additional hybrid models later joined the division's lineup.", "Lexus launched its own F marque performance division in 2007 with the debut of the IS F sport sedan, followed by the LFA supercar in 2009.Lexus vehicles are largely produced in Japan, with manufacturing centered in the Chūbu and Kyūshū regions, and in particular at Toyota's Tahara, Aichi, Chūbu and Miyata, Fukuoka, Kyūshū plants.", "Assembly of the first Lexus produced outside the country, the Canadian-built RX 330, began in 2003.Following a corporate reorganization from 2001 to 2005, Lexus began operating its own design, engineering and manufacturing centers.Since the 2000s, Lexus has increased sales outside its largest market, the United States.", "The division inaugurated dealerships in the Japanese domestic market in 2005, becoming the first Japanese premium car marque to launch in its country of origin.", "The brand has since debuted in Southeast Asia, Latin America, Europe and other regions, and has introduced hybrid vehicles in many markets." ], [ "History", "=== 1980s: The F1 project ===The Lexus brand was created around the same time as Japanese rivals Nissan and Honda developed their Infiniti and Acura premium brands.", "The Japanese government imposed voluntary export restraints for the U.S. market, so it was more profitable for Japanese automakers to export more expensive cars to the U.S.In 1983, Toyota chairman Eiji Toyoda issued a challenge to build the world's best car.", "The project, code-named F1 (\"Flagship One\") developed the Lexus LS 400 to expand Toyota's product line in the premium segment.", "The F1 project followed the Toyota Supra sports car and the premium Toyota Mark II models.", "Both the Supra and Mark II were rear-wheel drive cars with a powerful 7M-GE or 7M-GTE inline-six engine.", "The largest sedan Toyota built at the time was the limited-production, 1960s-vintage Toyota Century, a domestic, hand-built limousine, and V8-powered model, followed by the inline-six-engined Toyota Crown premium sedan.", "The Century was conservatively styled for the Japanese market and along with the Crown not slated for export after a restyle in 1982.The F1 designers targeted their new sedan at international markets and began development on a new V8 engine.Japanese manufacturers exported more expensive models in the 1980s due to voluntary export restraints negotiated by the Japanese government and U.S. trade representatives that restricted mainstream car sales.", "In 1986, Honda launched its Acura marque in the U.S., influencing Toyota's plans for a luxury division.", "The initial Acura model was an export version of the Honda Legend, itself launched in Japan in 1985 as a rival to the Toyota Crown, Nissan Cedric/Gloria and Mazda Luce.", "In 1987, Nissan unveiled its plans for a premium brand, Infiniti, and revised its Nissan President sedan in standard wheelbase form for export as the Infiniti Q45, which it launched in 1990.Mazda began selling the Luce as the Mazda 929 in North America in 1988 and later began plans to develop an upscale marque to be called Amati, but its plans did not come to fruition.Toyota researchers visited the U.S. in May 1985 to conduct focus groups and market research on luxury consumers.", "During that time, several F1 designers rented a home in Laguna Beach, California, to observe the lifestyles and tastes of American upper class consumers.", "Meanwhile, F1 engineering teams conducted prototype testing on locations ranging from the German autobahn to U.S. roads.", "Toyota's market research concluded that a separate brand and sales channel were needed to present its new sedan, and plans were made to develop a new network of dealerships in the U.S. market.==== Brand development ====In 1986, Toyota's longtime advertising agency Saatchi & Saatchi formed a specialized unit, Team One, to handle marketing for the new brand.", "Image consulting firm Lippincott & Margulies was hired to develop a list of 219 prospective names; Vectre, Verone, Chaparel, Calibre and Alexis were chosen as top candidates.", "While Alexis quickly became the front runner, concerns were raised that the name applied to people more than cars (being associated with the Alexis Carrington character on the popular 1980s prime time drama ''Dynasty'').", "As a result, the first letter was removed and the \"i\" replaced with a \"u\" to morph the name to Lexus.LS 400 sedan was the first Lexus model.|alt=Front quarter view of a sedan parked on a street.Theories of the etymology of the Lexus name have suggested it is the combination of the words \"luxury\" and \"elegance,\" and that it is an acronym for \"luxury exports to the U.S.\" According to Team One interviews, the brand name has no specific meaning and simply denotes a luxurious and technological image.", "Prior to the release of the first vehicles, database service LexisNexis obtained a temporary injunction forbidding the name Lexus from being used because it might cause product confusion.", "The injunction threatened to delay the division's launch and marketing efforts.", "The U.S. appeals court lifted the injunction, deciding that there was little likelihood of confusion between the two products.The original Lexus slogan, developed after Team One representatives visited Lexus designers in Japan and noted an obsessive attention to detail, became \"The Relentless Pursuit of Perfection.\"", "Three firms were involved in the final phase of logo development: Saatchi & Saatchi, Molly Designs and Hunter/Korobkin, Inc.", "The finished logo was a combination of two firms' final designs: the Lexus logo typeface came from Saatchi & Saatchi and the \"L\" was Hunter/Korobkin, Inc.'s design.", "According to Toyota, the automaker made some refinements so the logo would be easier to manufacture, rendering it using a mathematical formula.", "The first teaser ads featuring the Lexus name and logo appeared at the Chicago, Los Angeles and New York auto shows in 1988.==== Launch ====The F1 project was completed in 1989, involving 60 designers, 24 engineering teams, 1,400 engineers, 2,300 technicians, 220 support workers, approximately 450 prototypes and more than $1 billion in costs.", "The resulting car, the Lexus LS 400, had a design that shared no major elements with previous Toyota vehicles, with a new 4.0 L V8 gasoline engine and rear-wheel drive.", "The car debuted in January 1989 at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit and official sales of the vehicle began the following September at a network of 81 new Lexus dealerships in the U.S.", "The LS 400 was sold along with the smaller ES 250, a rebadged version of the Japanese market Toyota Camry Prominent/Toyota Vista.", "The launch of Lexus was accompanied by a multimillion-dollar advertising campaign.SC 400 was the third Lexus model and first coupe.|alt=Front quarter view of a coupe.The LS 400 was praised for its quietness, well-appointed and ergonomic interior, engine performance, build quality, aerodynamics, fuel economy and value.", "However, it was criticized by some automobile columnists for derivative styling and a suspension regarded as too compromising of handling for ride comfort.", "In some markets it was priced against mid-size, six-cylinder Mercedes-Benz and BMW models.", "It was rated by ''Car and Driver'' magazine as better than the higher-priced Mercedes-Benz 420 SEL and BMW 735i in terms of ride, handling and performance.", "The LS 400 also won motoring awards from automotive publications including ''Automobile Magazine'' and ''Wheels Magazine''.", "Lexus quickly established customer loyalty and its debut was generally regarded as a shock to existing luxury marques.", "BMW's and Mercedes-Benz's U.S. sales figures dropped 29 percent and 19 percent, respectively, with BMW executives accusing Lexus of dumping in that market, while 35 percent of Lexus buyers traded in a Lincoln or Cadillac.In December 1989, Lexus initiated a voluntary recall of all 8,000 LS 400s based upon two customer complaints over defective wiring and an overheated brake light.", "A 20-day operation to replace the parts on affected vehicles included technicians to pick up, repair and return cars to customers free of charge, and also flying personnel and renting garage space for owners in remote locations.", "This response was covered in media publications and helped establish the marque's early reputation for customer service.By the end of 1989, a total of 16,392 LS 400 and ES 250 sedans were sold in the four months following the U.S. launch.", "Although sales had begun at a slower pace than expected, the final tally matched the division's target of 16,000 units for that year.", "Following initial models, plans called for the addition of a sports coupe along with a redesigned ES sedan.===1990s: Growth and expansion===RX 300, first Lexus crossover SUV|alt=Front quarter view of an SUV.In 1990, during its first full year of sales, Lexus sold 63,594 LS 400 and ES 250 sedans in the U.S., the majority being the LS model.", "That year, Lexus also began limited exports to the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Canada and Australia.", "In 1991, Lexus launched its first sports coupe, the SC 400, which shared the LS 400s V8 engine and rear-wheel drive design.", "This was followed by the second generation ES 300 sedan, which succeeded the ES 250 and became Lexus' top seller.", "At the conclusion of 1991, Lexus had become the top-selling premium car import in the U.S., with sales reaching 71,206 vehicles.", "That year, Lexus ranked highest in J.D.", "Power and Associates' studies on initial vehicle quality, customer satisfaction and sales satisfaction for the first time.", "The marque also began increasing U.S. model prices past those of comparable American premium makes, but still below high-end European models.", "By 1992, the LS 400's base price had risen 18 percent.In 1993, Lexus launched the mid-size GS 300 sports sedan, based on the Toyota Aristo using the Toyota \"S\" platform from the Toyota Crown, which had sold for two years prior in Japan.", "The GS 300 was priced below the LS 400 in the marque's lineup.", "That same year, Lexus became one of the first marques to debut a certified pre-owned program, with the aim of improving trade-in model values.", "The marque introduced the second generation LS 400 in 1994.In May 1995, sales were threatened by the U.S. government's proposal of 100 percent tariffs on upscale Japanese cars in response to the widening U.S.-Japan trade deficit.", "SUVs were exempt from the proposed sanctions.", "Normal sales operations resumed by late 1995 when the Japanese auto manufacturers collectively agreed to greater American investments and the tariffs were not enacted.ES 300 was the best-selling Lexus sedan in the 1990s.|alt=Front quarter view of a sedan.In 1996, Lexus debuted its first sport utility vehicle, the LX 450, followed by the third generation ES 300 sedan, and the second generation GS 300 and GS 400 sedans in 1997.The marque's plans for developing an SUV model had accelerated during the U.S.-Japan tariff discussions of 1995.Lexus added the first luxury-branded crossover SUV, the RX 300 in 1998.The RX crossover targeted suburban buyers who desired an upmarket SUV but did not need the LX's off-road capability.", "It was particularly successful, eventually becoming the marque's top-selling model ahead of the ES sedan.", "The same year, Lexus made its debut in South America's most populous country when it launched sales in Brazil.", "In 1999, the IS was introduced, an entry-level sport sedan.", "Lexus also recorded its 1 millionth vehicle sold in the U.S. market, being ranked as the top-selling premium car maker in the U.S. overall.=== 2000s: Global reorganization ===RX 400h, first hybrid version of Lexus' best-selling vehicle|alt=Front quarter view of an SUV parked next to a beach.In July 2000, Lexus introduced the IS 300 in North America, following global launch in 1999 (as the IS 200) and the third generation LS 430.In 2001, the first convertible was introduced, as well as the SC 430 and a redesigned ES 300.The GX 470 mid-size SUV debuted in 2002, followed by the second generation RX 330 in 2003.The following year, Lexus recorded its 2 millionth U.S. vehicle sale, and the first luxury-branded production hybrid SUV, the RX 400h.", "This vehicle used Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive system that combined gasoline and electric motors.In 2005, Lexus completed an organizational separation from parent company Toyota, with dedicated design, engineering, training, and manufacturing centers working exclusively for the division.", "This effort coincided with Lexus' launch in its home market of Japan and an expanded global launch of the brand in markets such as China.", "Executives aimed to increase Lexus sales outside of its largest market in the U.S. To accompany this expansion, next generation Lexus vehicles were redesigned as \"global models\" for international release.", "In the European market, where Lexus had long faced struggling sales owing to low brand recognition, few dedicated dealerships, and 1990s import quotas, the marque announced plans to introduce hybrid and diesel powertrains, increase the number of Lexus dealerships, and expand operations in emerging markets such as Russia.2006 alt=Front quarter view of a sedan.Lexus' arrival in the Japanese market in July 2005 marked the first introduction of a Japanese premium car marque in the domestic market.", "New generation LS, IS, ES, GS, and RX models subsequently became available in Japan along with the SC 430, ending domestic sales of Toyota-branded models under the Celsior, Altezza, Windom, Aristo, Harrier, and Soarer nameplates, respectively.", "The Altezza and Aristo were previously exclusive to Japanese Toyota retail sales channels called Toyota Vista Store, the Windom was exclusive to Toyota Corolla Store, the Celsior and Harrier were exclusive to Toyopet Store, and the Soarer was previously available at both Toyota Store and Toyopet Store locations.", "Lexus models sold in Japan featured higher specifications and a price premium compared with their discontinued Toyota counterparts.", "Sales for the first half-year were slower than expected, affected by the contraction of the domestic auto market and price increases, but improved in subsequent months with an expanded lineup.Through the mid-2000s, Lexus experienced sales successes in South Korea and Taiwan, becoming the top-selling import make in both markets in 2005; the marque also sold well in the Middle East, where it ranked first or second among rivals in multiple countries, and in Australia, where Lexus reached third in luxury car sales in 2006.Division executives in 2006 announced an expansion goal from 68 countries to 76 worldwide by 2010.By the end of the decade, this expansion resulted in official launches in Malaysia and South Africa in 2006, Indonesia in 2007, Chile in 2008, and the Philippines in 2009.====Hybrids and F models====In 2006, Lexus began sales of the GS 450h, a V6 hybrid performance sedan, and launched the fourth generation LS line, comprising both standard- and long-wheelbase V8 (LS 460 and LS 460 L) and hybrid (LS 600h and LS 600h L) versions.", "The fifth generation ES 350 also debuted in the same year.", "The LS 600h L subsequently went on sale as the most expensive sedan ever produced in Japan.", "By the end of 2006, Lexus' annual sales had reached 475,000 vehicles worldwide.", "In January 2007, Lexus announced a new F marque performance division, which would produce racing-inspired versions of its performance models.", "The IS F, made its debut at the 2007 North American International Auto Show, accompanied by a concept car, the LF-A.GS 450h, first rear-wheel-drive hybrid|alt=Front quarter view of a sedan.In October 2007, Lexus entered the Specialty Equipment Market Association show in the U.S. for the first time with the IS F, and announced its F-Sport performance trim level and factory-sanctioned accessory line.", "Increased emphasis on sporty models was an effort to target rivals from Mercedes-Benz's AMG and BMW's M divisions.", "Models such as the SC 400 and GS 400 had received favorable reactions from sport luxury buyers, most Lexus models had been characterized as favoring comfort over sporty road feel and handling, compared with European rivals.", "By the end of 2007, Lexus annual worldwide sales had surpassed 500,000 vehicles, and the marque ranked as the top-selling premium import in China for the first time.", "The largest sales markets in order of size for 2007 were the U.S., Japan, the UK, China, Canada, and Russia.In 2008, amidst the late-2000s recession and a weakened world car market, global sales fell 16 percent to 435,000, with declines in markets such as the U.S. and Europe where deliveries fell by 21 percent and 27.5 percent, respectively.", "In 2009, the marque launched the HS 250h, a dedicated hybrid sedan for North America and Japan, the RX 450h, the second generation hybrid SUV replacing the earlier RX 400h, and later that year debuted the production LFA exotic coupe.", "In late 2009, citing higher sales of hybrid models over their petrol counterparts, Lexus announced plans to become a hybrid-only marque in Europe.", "By the end of the decade, Lexus ranked as the fourth-largest premium car make in the world by volume, and was the number one selling premium car marque in the U.S. for 10 consecutive years.=== 2010s–2020s: Recent developments ===2012 alt=Front quarter view of a coupe.In 2010, Lexus underwent a gradual sales recovery in North America and Asia as the marque focused on adding hybrids and new model derivatives.", "Sales in the U.S. held steady despite the 2009–2010 Toyota vehicle recalls, several of which included Lexus models.", "The ES 350 and certain IS models were affected by a recall for potentially jamming floor mats, while parent company Toyota bore the brunt of negative publicity amid investigations over its series of product recalls and problem rates per-vehicle.", "The redesigned GX 460 was also voluntarily recalled in April 2010 for a software update, one week after ''Consumer Reports'' issued a recommendation not to buy the SUV, citing a possible rollover risk following the slow stability control response to a high-speed emergency turn.", "Although the publication knew of no reported incidents, the GX 460 received updated stability control software.In late 2010 and early 2011, Lexus began sales of the CT 200h, a compact four-door hybrid hatchback designed for Europe, in multiple markets.", "Sales of lower-displacement regional models were also expanded, beginning with the ES 240 in China followed by the RX 270; Japan, Russia, and Taiwan were among markets which received model variants intended for reduced emissions or import taxes.", "In March 2011, the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami caused severe disruption to Lexus' Japan-based production lines, hindering the marque's near-term sales prospects.", "Lexus' U.S. executives stated that due to vehicle shortages amidst close competition from BMW, Mercedes-Benz, and Audi, the marque would not remain the country's top-selling premium car brand.CT 200h, first Lexus hatchback|alt=Front quarter view of a hatchback.Cumulative sales results for 2011 indicated a 14 percent sales drop in the U.S. market, along with sales increases of 40 percent and 27 percent in Europe and Japan respectively, for a global sales total of 410,000 units.", "Lexus' streak of 11 consecutive years as the best-selling luxury marque in the U.S. ended that year, with the title going to BMW followed by Mercedes-Benz.", "While 45 percent of Lexus sales in the U.S. in 2011 relied upon the RX luxury crossover SUV, rival Mercedes-Benz's best-selling offering was the E-Class mid-luxury sedan, which commands considerably higher prices.", "Subsequently, Toyota chairman Akio Toyoda vowed to restore passion to the marque and further increase its organizational independence, admitting that \"...back then we did not regard Lexus as a brand, but as a distribution channel\".", "As a result of Toyoda's organizational changes, Lexus senior managers report directly to the chairman for the first time in the marque's history.In January 2012, the marque began sales of the fourth generation GS line, including GS 350 and GS 450h variants, as well as a lower-displacement GS 250 model for select markets.", "In April 2012, the sixth generation ES line, including ES 350 and ES 300h variants, debuted at the New York International Auto Show.fourth-generation LS’ production of eleven years made it the longest running single-generation Lexus.In April 2014, Lexus unveiled the five-seater NX crossover.", "The vehicle features a very first for a Lexus vehicle: a turbocharger.", "Its nomenclature is denoted as the 200t.", "In August 2014, Toyota announced it would be cutting its Lexus spare parts prices in China by up to 35 percent.", "The company admitted the move was in response to a probe foreshadowed earlier in the month by China's National Development and Reform Commission of Lexus spare parts policies, as part of an industry-wide investigation into what the Chinese regulator considers exorbitantly high prices being charged by automakers for spare parts and after-sales servicing.In March 2016, Lexus announced that it will be producing a new flagship vehicle: the two-door LC 500.The vehicle will be produced for late 2017 in a V8 version putting out 467 horsepower.", "The LC 500h, a V6 hybrid variant, could potentially become available in late 2017 or early 2018.In April 2019, Lexus announced that a rebadged limousine version of the third-generation Toyota Alphard would be sold as the Lexus LM.", "It was also announced that Lexus would finally enter the market in Mexico in 2021 with some of the vehicles in their lineup.", "In October 2019, Lexus announced that it will be launching the brand's first all-battery electric vehicle in 2020." ], [ "Corporate affairs", "+ Total sales and production Regional sales, 2011 UnitsJapan 42,365 China56,303Europe 43,637 United States 198,552 Type production, 2010 UnitsPassenger vehicles 205,070Crossover SUVs 159,560Hybrid vehicles66,226 Line production, 2010 Units Japan production283,012 Canada production 81,618 '''Total''' '''364,630'''=== Operations ===Lexus International coordinates the worldwide operations of Toyota's luxury division from the brand's global headquarters, located in Nagoya, Aichi.", "Corporate entities further include the brand's Japan Sales and Marketing and global Product and Marketing Planning divisions.", "While organizationally separate from its parent company, Lexus International reports directly to Toyota chief executive officer Akio Toyoda.", "In the U.S., brand operations are managed by the U.S. Lexus division, which is headquartered in Plano, Texas.", "In Europe, Lexus operations are managed by Lexus Europe, located in Brussels.", "Companion design facilities are located in Southern California and central Japan, with the head design studio devoted entirely to Lexus models in Toyota City, Aichi.Lexus sales operations vary in structure by region.", "In many markets, such as the U.S., the dealership network is a distinct organization from corporate headquarters, with separately owned and operated Lexus showrooms.", "By contrast, in Japan all 143 dealerships in the country are owned and operated by Lexus.", "Several markets have a designated, third party regional distributor; for example, in the United Arab Emirates, sales operations are managed by Al-Futtaim Motors LLC, and in Costa Rica, Lexus vehicles are sold via regional distributor Purdy Motors S.A. Other officially sanctioned regional distributors have sold Lexus models prior to the launch of, or in absence of, a dedicated dealership network.The Lexus brand launched in the Indian market in 2017, with the models RX450h, LX450d, LX570, ES300h, NX, LS.", "Dealerships in Mumbai, Delhi, Gurgaon, and Bangalore became operational in March 2017, when the brand began sales in India with a second set of dealerships opening in Chandigarh, Kochi, and Chennai toward the end of 2017.This made Lexus the fifth luxury brand to be launched in India, after Mercedes-Benz, Porsche, BMW, and Audi.=== Sales ===Global sales of Lexus vehicles reached an all-time high in 2007, with a total of 518,000.Sales decreased in subsequent years due to the effects of the 2008 recession and the Japanese tsunami of 2011.Following this, sales recovered and reached a new high of 523,000 in 2013.In 2014, the Lexus brand set a new global sales record after selling 582,000 vehicles.", "This made Lexus the fourth best selling luxury brand in the world, trailing BMW, Audi and Mercedes-Benz.Shizuoka, Japan|alt=Rectangular windowed building, with landscaping and a sign in front labeled 'Lexus'.Global sales of Lexus vehicles increased by 12 percent in 2015 to reach another annual sales record with 652,000 units sold worldwide.Global cumulative sales of Lexus brand hybrid electric cars reached the 500,000 mark in November 2012.The 1 million sales milestone was achieved in March 2016.The Lexus RX 400h/RX 450h ranks as the top selling Lexus hybrid with 335,000 units delivered worldwide , followed by the Lexus CT 200h with 267,000 units.Lexus has not sold as well in Europe, where it suffers from smaller brand recognition, image, and a less-developed dealership network.", "In European markets, the Lexus LS has ranked behind Jaguar, Mercedes-Benz, Audi, and BMW in flagship luxury car sales.", "Automotive analysts have suggested a possible rationale for the sales disparity, in that European buyers place less emphasis on vehicle reliability and have more brand loyalty to established domestic marques.", "In contrast, the Lexus LS has ranked second in sales to the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (and ahead of rivals from BMW, Audi, and Jaguar) in markets outside Europe, such as South Africa.Currently all of Lexus's models for the US market are imported from Japan, with the exception of the RX and NX, which are also produced in Cambridge, Ontario, for North America, and the ES, which is also produced in Georgetown, Kentucky.", "The RX midsized crossover is Lexus's best selling model in the United States, while the ES mid-sized car is the most popular sedan in the line-up.Calendar YearEuropeUS (Market share %)2017 44,944 305,229 (1.77)2016 44,287 331,228 (1.89)2015 39,255 344,601 (1.97)2014 31,479 311,389 (1.88)2013 23,708 273,847 (1.76)2012 26,820 244,162 (1.68)2011 27,442 198,552 (1.55)2010 19,185 229,329 (1.98)2009 20,629 215,975 (2.07)2008 29,682 260,087 (1.96)2007 40,496 329,177 (2.07)2006 40,337 322,434 (1.95)2005 23,340 302,895 (2.04)2004 21,122 287,927 (1.70)2003 18,318 259,755 (1.56)2002 19,435 234,109 (1.40)2001 21,357 223,983 (1.30)2000 17,214 206,037 (1.20)1999 15,800 185,890 (1.10)1998 6,938 156,260 (1.00)1997 3,408 97,563 (0.60)1996 81,529 (0.50)1995 83,616 (0.50)1994 91,554 (0.58)1993 99,280 (0.64)1992 92,890 (0.69)1991 71,206 (0.58)1990 63,534 (0.46)1989 16,302 (0.11)19880 (0.00)===Financial performance===Financial data of Lexus operations are not disclosed publicly.", "However, automotive analysts estimate that the Lexus division contributes a disproportionate share of Toyota's profits, relative to its limited production and sales volume.", "Interviews with retired division officials indicate that depending on sales volume, vehicle product development cycles, and exchange rates, Lexus sales have accounted for as much as half of Toyota's annual U.S. profit in certain years.", "Division executives have employed pricing strategies aimed at sustaining profit margins rather than sales volume, with historically fewer price incentives than rival brands.", "In 2006, Lexus entered Interbrand's list of the Top 100 Global Brands for the first time, with an estimated brand value of approximately $3 billion annually.", "In 2009, Interbrand ranked Lexus as Japan's seventh largest brand, between Panasonic and Nissan, based on revenue, earnings, and market value." ], [ "Automobiles", "===Vehicle lineup===The global Lexus lineup features sedans of different size classes, including the compact IS model, mid-size ES and GS models, and the full-size LS.", "The 2-door coupe range consists of the RC and the LC.", "Former convertibles include the SC and IS C models.", "Sport-utility vehicles range in size from the subcompact UX, compact NX and mid-size RX crossovers, to the full-size GX and LX.", "Hybrid models include the CT hatchback, the discontinued HS, and variants of the IS, ES, GS, LS, RC, LC, UX, NX, RX and LM.", "The F marque line formerly produced a variant of the IS, GS and the LFA and currently produces a variant of the RC coupe.===F marque===alt=Logo in the shape of the letter 'F'.Lexus produces its highest-performance models under its F marque division.", "The name refers to Flagship and Fuji Speedway in Japan, whose first corner, 27R, inspired the shape of the \"''F''\" emblem.", "F marque models are developed by the Lexus Vehicle Performance Development Division.", "The first F marque model, the IS F, went on sale in 2007, followed by the LFA in 2009.A related F-Sport performance trim level and factory-sanctioned accessory line is available for standard Lexus models such as the IS 250 and IS 350.The F-Sport trim level commonly includes cosmetic upgrades to the exterior and interior, and in some vehicles, mechanical upgrades such as an adaptive variable suspension.", "F-Sport succeeded an earlier in-house tuning effort, the TRD-based L-Tuned, which had offered performance packages on the IS and GS sedans in the early 2000s (decade).Additions to the performance F Sport marque include the Lexus RC F Sport and Lexus GS F Sport and Lexus LS F Sport.===Model nomenclature===Lexus production models are named alphanumerically using two-letter designations followed by three digits.", "The first letter indicates relative status in the Lexus model range (ranking), and the second letter refers to car body style or type (e.g.", "LS for 'luxury sedan').", "The three digits commonly indicate engine displacement in liters multiplied by a factor of one hundred (e.g.", "350 for a 3.5 L engine), except in the case of turbocharged and hybrid vehicles, for which the digits correspond to the displacement of a naturally aspirated engine with equivalent output (on hybrids, the three digits refer to the combined gasoline-electric output).", "A space is used between the letters and numbers.", "The same letter may be used differently depending on the model; 'S' can refer to 'sedan' or 'sport' (e.g.", "in LS and SC), while 'X' refers to 'luxury utility vehicle' or SUV.", "For certain models, a lower case letter placed after the alphanumeric designation indicates powerplant type ('h' for hybrid, 'd' for diesel, 't' for turbocharged), while capital letter(s) placed at the end indicates a class subtype (e.g.", "'L' for long-wheelbase, 'C' for coupe, 'AWD' for all-wheel drive).", "On F marque models, the two-letter designation and the letter 'F' are used with no numbers or hyphens (e.g.", "IS F)." ], [ "Design and technology", "Lexus alt=Palmrest with forward buttons and movable control knob.Lexus design has traditionally placed an emphasis on targeting specific vehicle development standards.", "Since the marque's inception, design targets have ranged from aerodynamics and ride quality to interior ergonomics.", "The backronym \"IDEAL\" (\"Impressive, Dynamic, Elegant, Advanced, and Lasting\") is used in the development process.", "Each vehicle is designed according to approximately 500 specific product standards, known as \"Lexus Musts\", on criteria such as leather seat stitching.", "Design elements from the marque's concept vehicle line, the LF series (including the 2003 LF-S and 2004 LF-C), have been incorporated in production models.Vehicle cabins have incorporated electroluminescent Optitron gauges, SmartAccess, a smart key entry and startup system, and multimedia features.", "Beginning with the 2010 RX and HS models, the Remote Touch system, featuring a computer mouse-like controller with haptic feedback, was introduced; other models have featured touchscreen controls (through the 2009 model year) as a navigation screen interface.", "2014 saw the introduction of the next version of Lexus' remote-touch innovations—the Remote Touch Interface Touchpad in the new RC Coupe.In 1989, Lexus became among the first premium car marques to equip models with premium audio systems, in partnership with stereo firm Nakamichi.", "Since 2001, optional surround sound systems are offered via high-end audio purveyor Mark Levinson.", "For reduced cabin noise, the first LS 400 introduced sandwich steel plating, and later models added acoustic glass.", "In 2006, the LS 460 debuted the first ceiling air diffusers and infrared body temperature sensors in a car.", "Telematics services include G-Book with G-Link in Asia and Lexus Enform in North America.LS 460 Sport|alt=Cutaway car transmission, with exposed gears and internal machinery.In 2006, Lexus incorporated the first production eight-speed automatic transmission in an automobile with the LS 460, and the gearbox was later adapted for the GS 460 and IS F models.", "Continuously variable transmissions, regenerative brakes, and electric motors have been used on all Lexus hybrid models.", "In 2007, Lexus executives signaled intentions to equip further models with hybrid powertrains, catering to demands for a decrease in both carbon pollution and oil reliance.", "Hybrid models have been differentiated by separate badging and lighting technology; in 2008, the LS 600h L became the first production vehicle to use LED headlamps.Safety features on Lexus models range from stability and handling programs (Vehicle Stability Control and Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management) to backup cameras, swivel headlights, and sonar warning systems.", "The Lexus Pre-Collision System (PCS) integrates multiple safety systems.", "In 2007, Lexus introduced the first car safety systems with infrared and pedestrian detection capabilities, lane keep assist, a Driver Monitoring System with facial recognition monitoring of driver attentiveness, and rear pre-collision whiplash protection, as part of the LS 460 PCS.", "As a safety precaution, Lexus GPS navigation systems in many regions feature a motion lockout when the vehicle reaches a set speed; to prevent distraction, navigation inputs are limited, while voice input and certain buttons are still accessible.", "This safety feature has attracted criticism because passengers cannot use certain functions when the vehicle is in motion.", "Pre-2007 models came with a hidden manufacturer override option, and updated European models allow operation in motion.LS 600h and LS 600h L in hybrid form|alt=Cutaway hybrid car showing electrical connections; auto show display backdrop.Production models in development have included convertibles, crossovers, and dedicated hybrids.", "Under the F marque, Lexus plans to produce high-performance vehicles with its first expressions being the IS F and the LFA.", "Lexus officials have also discussed standard production model usage of varying platforms.", "The LS uses a dedicated platform, while the entry-level Lexus ES had been criticized for being too similar to the Toyota Camry, with which it shared platforms until its sixth generation, in both styling and powertrain design.", "The Nürburgring test track in Germany has also seen Lexus prototype testing.===L-finesse===Lexus introduced a new design language known as \"L-finesse\" in the mid-2000s with its LF series concepts and the 2006 Lexus GS.", "L-finesse is represented by three Japanese kanji characters which translate as \"Intriguing Elegance, Incisive Simplicity, and Seamless Anticipation\".", "Design characteristics, including a fastback profile, lower-set grille, and the use of both convex and concave surfaces, are derived from Japanese cultural motifs (e.g.", "the phrase ''kirikaeshi'' in arrowhead shapes).", "While earlier Lexus models were criticized for reserved and derivative styling, and often mistaken for understated domestic market cars, automotive design analyses described L-finesse as adding a distinctive nature and embrace of Japanese design identity.", "Opinions varied for L-finesse's debut on the GS; ''Sports Car International'' analysis praised the vehicle's in-person appearance; ''Automobile Magazine'' criticized the daring of its forward styling, and compared subsequent rival models for design similarities.", "In 2012, the arrival of the redesigned fourth generation Lexus GS featured the introduction of a spindle-shaped grille design, intended to be used on all forthcoming Lexus models.", "L-finesse exhibitions were presented at Milan's Salone del Mobile from 2005 through 2009." ], [ "Production", "===Assembly plants===Aichi, Japan|alt=Car showroom displaying three sedans, the nearest on a glass turntable, in front of a reception counter and windows.The first Lexus vehicles were manufactured in Toyota's Tahara plant, a computerized manufacturing plant in Japan.", "Through the 2000s, most Lexus sedan and SUV production has occurred in Japan at the Tahara plant in Aichi and the Miyata plant in Fukuoka.", "In addition to the Tahara factory, over time Lexus vehicles have been produced at the Miyata plant (Toyota Motor Kyushu) in Miyawaka, Fukuoka; the Higashi-Fuji plant (Kanto Auto Works) in Susono, Shizuoka; and the Yoshiwara plant (Araco, later Toyota Auto Body) in Toyota City, Aichi.", "Front-wheel drive cars, such as the ES and HS, have been produced in the Fukuoka Prefecture.", "Toyota Motor Kyushu's Kokura plant in Kitakyushu, Fukuoka, which opened in 2008, is a dedicated hybrid production site for hybrid systems used in Lexus models such as the gasoline-electric RX.", "The North American–market RX 350 (since the 2004 model year) is produced at the Cambridge plant (Toyota Canada, Inc.) in the city of Cambridge, in Ontario, Canada, which is the first Lexus production site located outside Japan.", "In late 2015, Lexus started to assemble North American-spec ES 350 sedans at the Georgetown plant (TMMK, Inc.).", "In January 2020, Toyota Kirloskar Motor of India started assembling the ES sedan in its Bidadi plant.Relative to Toyota models, Lexus vehicles are built according to different quality control standards, including more stringent body panel fit tolerances and paint quality requirements.", "Their manufacture involves different assembly lines, molds, welding processes, and manufacturing equipment.", "Lexus plant workers also undergo a more selective screening process.", "Production vehicles are given visual inspections for flaws, individually test-driven at high speeds, and subjected to vibration tests.+ Assembly sites by model Plant Owner Location Country Model(s)TaharaToyota Motor Corp.Tahara, Aichi PrefectureJapanLS, GS, IS, GX, RC, NXTsutsumiToyota Motor Corp.Toyota City, Aichi PrefectureESKokuraToyota Motor Kyushu, Inc.Kitakyushu, Fukuoka PrefectureCT, HS, RXMiyata Toyota Motor Kyushu, Inc.Miyawaka, Fukuoka PrefectureES, IS, RX, NX, UXMotomachiToyota Motor Corp.Toyota City, Aichi PrefectureLFA, LCHigashi Fuji Kanto Auto Works, Ltd.Susono, Shizuoka PrefectureSCYoshiwara Toyota Auto Body Corp.Toyota City, Aichi PrefectureLXCambridge Toyota Motor Manufacturing CanadaCambridge, OntarioCanadaRX, RXh, NXGeorgetown Toyota Motor Manufacturing KentuckyGeorgetown, KentuckyUnited StatesESBidadi Toyota Kirloskar MotorBidadi, KarnatakaIndiaES===Quality rankings===In the 2000s (decade), ''Consumer Reports'' named Lexus among the top five most reliable brands in its Annual Car Reliability Surveys of over one million vehicles across the U.S." ], [ "Service", "Lexus dealership showroom in Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan|alt=Car showroom with a coupe, two sedans, glass windows, plus large sign reading \"Lexus\".Lexus has become known for efforts to provide an upscale image, particularly with service provided after the sale.", "The waiting areas in service departments are replete with amenities, ranging from refreshment bars to indoor putting greens.", "Dealerships typically offer complimentary loaner cars or \"courtesy cars\" and free car washes, and some have added on-site cafes and designer boutiques.", "Service bays are lined with large picture windows for owners to watch the servicing of their vehicle.", "In 2005, Lexus also began reserving parking lots at major sporting arenas, entertainment events, and shopping malls, with the only requirement for free entry being the ownership of a Lexus vehicle.", "An online owner publication, ''Lexus Magazine'', features automotive and lifestyle articles and is published online monthly and on a mobile site.Since 2002, Lexus has scored consecutive top ratings in the ''Auto Express'' and 76,000-respondent ''Top Gear'' customer satisfaction surveys in the UK.", "Lexus has also repeatedly topped the 79,000-respondent J.D.", "Power Customer Service Index and Luxury Institute, New York surveys in the U.S. As a result of service satisfaction levels, the marque has one of the highest customer loyalty rates in the industry.", "To improve customer service, employees are instructed to follow the \"Lexus Covenant,\" the marque's founding promise (which states that \"Lexus will treat each customer as we would a guest in our home\"), and some dealerships have incorporated training at upscale establishments such as Nordstrom department stores and Ritz-Carlton hotels." ], [ "Motorsport", "Lexus campaigned at the alt=Forward view of two racecars on a curved section of racetrack.Lexus first entered the motorsport arena in 1999 when its racing unit, Team Lexus, fielded two GS 400 race vehicles in the Motorola Cup North American Street Stock Championship touring car series.", "In its 1999 inaugural season, Team Lexus achieved its first victory with its sixth race at Road Atlanta.", "Led by Sports Car Club of America and International Motor Sports Association driver Chuck Goldsborough, based in Baltimore, Maryland, Team Lexus capitalized on the debut of the first generation Lexus IS by entering three IS 300s in the third race of the 2001 Grand-Am Cup season at Phoenix, Arizona.", "Team Lexus won its first IS 300 victory that year at the Virginia International Raceway.", "In 2002, Team Lexus' competitive efforts in the Grand-Am Cup ST1 (Street Tuner) class achieved victories in the Drivers' and Team Championships, as well as a sweep of the top three finishes at Circuit Mont-Tremblant in Quebec, Canada.After the release of the Lexus brand in the Japanese domestic market in 2005, Lexus sanctioned the entry of four SC 430 coupes in the Super GT series of the All Japan Grand Touring Car Championship in the GT500 class.", "In the first race of the 2006 series, an SC 430 took the chequered flag, and drivers André Lotterer and Juichi Wakisaka raced the SC 430 to capture the GT500 championship for that year.", "In 2007, another SC 430 won the GT500 opening round race.", "In 2006, Lexus raced a hybrid vehicle for the first time, entering a GS 450h performance hybrid sedan in partnership with Sigma Advanced Racing Development at the 24 Hours of Tokachi race in Hokkaido, Japan.", "Lexus Canada also entered the GS 450h in 2007's Targa Newfoundland event.", "In 2009, Lexus Super GT Team SC 430 and IS 350 racers won the GT500 and GT300 championships, respectively.Rolex Sports Car Series Manufacturers' Championship.|alt=Forward angle view of a racecar on a track; the car is labeled '01', 'Lexus', and 'Telmex'.Lexus' participation in endurance racing further includes the Rolex 24 Hours of Daytona, sanctioned by the Grand American Road Racing Association.", "After entering the Rolex Sports Car Series in 2004, Lexus has won over 15 Rolex Series event races.", "In 2005, Lexus was runner-up, and in 2006, it won the championship.", "Although Toyota has won this race in the past, it was the first time that its luxury arm emerged as the winner.", "In 2007, six Lexus-powered Daytona prototypes were entered in the Rolex 24 Hours of Daytona event at the Daytona International Speedway.", "Lexus was a repeat winner of the event, with a Lexus-Riley prototype driven by Scott Pruett, Juan Pablo Montoya, and Salvador Durán of Chip Ganassi Racing finishing first; Lexus-Riley prototypes also took three of the top ten spots.", "In 2008, Lexus won its third consecutive win at Daytona.", "For the 2010 season, Lexus departed from the Rolex Sports Car Series, and Ganassi Racing switched to BMW/Dinan engines.The LF-A prototype also competed on the Nürburgring from 2008 to 2011 in VLN endurance races and in the 24 Hours Nürburgring, also with the IS F. On 14 May 2011, a CT 200h tuned up by Gazoo Racing competed in the Adenauer ADAC Rundstrecken-Trophy, a six-hour endurance race.3GT Racing, a partnership of Lexus and Paul Gentilozzi, entered two Lexus RC F GT3 at the N.American 2017 WeatherTech SportsCar Championship in the GT Daytona class.", "Their first win came in the 2018 WeatherTech SportsCar Championship with Dominik Baumann and Kyle Marcelli at Mid-Ohio before winning again with the same pairing at Virginia International Raceway.", "Lexus finished in 8th in their first season in 2017 in the GT Daytona Manufacturer's Championship.", "They then improved to 5th in 2018 with the #14 achieving 5th and the #15 getting 10th in the Team's Championship.For the 2019 WeatherTech SportsCar Championship, the running of the Lexus GT3 cars has been transferred to AIM Vasser Sullivan, which is a debuting partnership, where the driver pairing of Jack Hawksworth and Richard Heistand have currently achieved 2 wins at Mid-Ohio before winning the next race at Belle Isle.", "As of the result of Lime Rock Park, Lexus are second in the 2019 Manufacturer's Championship and the #12 is third with the #14 in 5th despite that being the winning car." ], [ "Marketing", "Lexus 2054, a concept model produced for the film ''Minority Report''|alt=Futuristic two-door concept car displayed in front of a banner labeled \"Minority Report\".From its inception, Lexus has been advertised to luxury consumers using specific marketing strategies, with a consistent motif used for the marque's advertisements.", "Beginning in 1989, television ads were narrated by actor James Sloyan (the voice of \"Mr. Lexus\" until 2009), and accompanied by vehicles that performed unusual stunts onscreen.", "The first decade of Lexus commercials (1989–99) consisted primarily of disjunctive verbal descriptions, such as \"relentless,\" \"pursuit,\" and \"perfection,\" while vehicles were used to claim superiority in precision, idling, and interior quiet and comfort on camera.", "Examples included the champagne glass \"Balance\" (1989) and rolling \"Ball Bearing\" (1992).", "In the 2000s (decade), commercials included descriptions of features, or a narration of the events onscreen, and were often targeted at the marque's German competitors.", "An annual \"December to Remember\" campaign featured scenes of family members surprising loved ones with the gift of a new Lexus.", "The marque returned to the champagne glass theme in a 2006 LS 460 spot showing the sedan maneuvering between two stacks of glasses using its self-parking system, and in a 2010 LFA spot showing its engine sound shattering a glass via resonance frequency.Lexus LFA Crystallised Wind, a full-size glass art model|alt=Translucent glass model in the shape of a coupe.Industry observers have attributed Lexus' early marketing successes to higher levels of perceived quality and lower prices than competitors, which have enabled the marque to attract customers upgrading from mass-market cars.", "A reputation for dependability, bolstered by reliability surveys, also became a primary factor in attracting new customers from rival premium makes.", "Lexus has since grown to command higher price premiums than rival Japanese makes, with new models further increasing in price and reaching the more than $100,000 ultra-luxury category long dominated by rival European marques.Automotive analysts have also noted Lexus' relative newcomer status as a marketing challenge for the brand, although some have debated the requirement of a long history.", "European rivals have marketed their decades of heritage and pedigree, whereas Lexus' reputation rests primarily upon its perceived quality and shared history with parent company Toyota.", "Several analysts have stated that Lexus will have to develop its own heritage over time by highlighting technological innovations and producing substantial products.Lexus' marketing efforts have extended to sporting and charity event sponsorships, including the U.S. Open tennis Grand Slam event from 2005 to 2009, and the United States Golf Association's U.S. Open, U.S. Women's Open, U.S. Senior Open, and U.S.", "Amateur tournaments since 2007.Lexus has organized an annual Champions for Charity golf series in the U.S. since 1989.Endorsement contracts have also been signed with professional athletes Hideki Matsuyama, Andy Roddick, Annika Sörenstam, and Peter Jacobsen.Since 2008, Lexus has run the video website L Studio.", "Shows on L Studio include ''Web Therapy''.Lexus unveiled its new \"Experience Amazing\" tagline in the U.S. in a 60-second advertisement at the February 2017 Super Bowl LI.", "The new tagline replaced Lexus's previous slogans, \"Amazing in Motion\" and \"The Pursuit of Perfection\".On 30 March 2018, Lexus premiered a fake partnership with 23 and Me during a spot on ''Saturday Night Live'', for a pretend program that allows buyers to customize vehicles based on their DNA, as an April Fool's Day joke.=== Lexus slogans ===* ''The Relentless Pursuit of Perfection'' (1989–2011)* ''The Pursuit of Perfection'' (2010–2016)* ''Amazing in Motion'' (2013–2016)* ''Experience Amazing'' (2017–present)" ], [ "See also", "* The Championship by Lexus* Slide (hoverboard)" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Legal status of transgender people" ], [ "Introduction", "The legal status of transgender people varies greatly around the world.", "Some countries have enacted laws protecting the rights of transgender individuals, but others have criminalized their gender identity or expression.", "In many cases, transgender individuals face discrimination in employment, housing, healthcare, and other areas of life.A transgender person is someone whose gender identity is inconsistent or not culturally associated with the sex they were assigned at birth and also with the gender role that is associated with that sex.", "They may have, or may intend to establish, a new gender status that accords with their gender identity.", "''Transsexual'' is generally considered a subset of ''transgender'', but some transsexual people reject being labelled ''transgender''.Globally, most legal jurisdictions recognize the two traditional gender identities and social roles, man and woman, but tend to exclude any other gender identities and expressions.", "People assigned male at birth are usually legally recognized as men, and people assigned female at birth are usually legally recognized as women, in jurisdictions that distinguish between the two.", "However, there are some countries which recognize, by law, a third gender.", "That third gender is often associated with being nonbinary.", "There is now a greater understanding of the breadth of variation outside the typical categories of \"man\" and \"woman\", and many self-descriptions are now entering the literature, including ''pangender'', ''genderqueer'', ''polygender'', and ''agender''.", "Medically and socially, the term \"transsexualism\" is being replaced with ''gender incongruence'' or ''gender dysphoria'', and terms such as ''transgender people'', ''trans men'', and ''trans women'', and ''non-binary'' are replacing the category of transsexual people.Many of the issues regarding transgender rights are generally considered a part of family law, especially the issues of marriage and the question of a transgender person benefiting from a partner's insurance or social security.The degree of legal recognition provided to transgender people varies widely throughout the world.", "Many countries now legally recognize sex reassignments by permitting a change of legal gender on an individual's birth certificate.", "Many transsexual people have permanent surgery to change their body, gender-affirming surgery or semi-permanently change their body by hormonal means, transgender hormone therapy.", "The legal status of such healthcare varies.", "In many countries, some of these modifications are required for legal recognition.", "In a few, the legal aspects are directly tied to health care; i.e.", "the same bodies or doctors decide whether a person can move forward in their treatment and the subsequent processes automatically incorporate both matters.", "In others, these medical procedures are illegal.In some jurisdictions, transgender people (who are considered non-transsexual) can benefit from the legal recognition given to transsexual people.", "In some countries, an explicit medical diagnosis of \"transsexualism\" is (at least formally) necessary.", "In others, a diagnosis of \"gender dysphoria\", or simply the fact that one has established a non-conforming gender role, can be sufficient for some or all of the legal recognition available.", "The DSM-5 recognizes gender dysphoria as an official diagnosis.", "Not all transgender or transsexual people feel gender dysphoria or gender incongruence, but in many countries a diagnosis is required for legal recognition, if transgender people are legally recognized at all." ], [ "Legislative efforts to recognise gender identity", "===National level=== Country Date Gender identity/expression legislation Upper house Lower house Head of state Finaloutcome Yes No Yes No Germany Gesetz über die Änderung der Vornamen und die Feststellung der Geschlechtszugehörigkeit in besonderen Fällen ''Passed'' ''Passed'' ''Signed'' Yes Yes Japan Act on Special Cases in Handling Gender for People with Gender Identity Disorder ''Passed'' ''Passed'' ''Signed'' Yes Yes South Africa Alteration of Sex Description and Sex Status Act, 2003 ''Passed'' ''Passed'' ''Signed'' Yes Yes United Kingdom Gender Recognition Act 155 57 357 48 ''Signed'' Yes Yes Spain Gender identity law ''Passed'' ''Passed'' ''Signed'' Yes Yes Uruguay Gender identity law 20 0 51 2 ''Signed'' Yes Yes Argentina Gender identity law 55 0 167 17 ''Signed'' Yes Yes India January 2014 The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Bill, 2016''Passed'' ''Passed''''Signed'' Yes Yes Denmark Gender Recognition law ''Passed'' ''Signed'' Yes Yes Malta Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sex Characteristics Act ''Passed'' ''Signed'' Yes Yes Colombia Gender recognition law (Order 1227) ''Passed'' ''Passed'' ''Signed'' Yes Yes Ireland Gender Recognition Act ''Passed'' ''Passed'' ''Signed'' Yes Yes Poland September 2015 Gender identity law ''Passed'' 252 158 ''Vetoed''No No Vietnam Transgender Rights Law ''Passed'' ''Signed'' Yes Yes Ecuador Civil Registration Act (gender identity recognition on legal documents) 82 1 ''Signed'' Yes Yes BoliviaMay 2016 Gender identity law ''Passed'' ''Passed'' ''Signed''Yes Yes Norway Gender identity law 79 13 ''Signed'' Yes Yes France Gender identity law (abolishing sterilization) ''Passed'' ''Passed'' ''Signed'' Yes Yes Canada June 2017 An Act to amend the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Criminal Code (Bill C-16) ''Passed'' ''Passed'' ''Signed'' Yes Yes Belgium Gender identity law (abolishing sterilization) ''Passed'' ''Signed''Yes Yes Greece December 2017 Gender identity law (abolishing sterilization) 171 114 ''Signed''Yes Yes Pakistan May 2018 Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Bill ''Passed'' ''Passed'' ''Signed''Yes Yes Portugal July 2018 Gender identity law (expansion: self-determination)109106''Signed''Yes Yes Luxembourg September 2018 Gender identity law (abolishing sterilization)573''Signed''Yes Yes Uruguay October 2018 Integral gender identity law (expansion: self-determination)''Passed''''Passed''''Signed''Yes Yes Chile November 2018 Gender identity law 26 14 9546''Signed''Yes Yes Iceland December 2019 Gender autonomy law 45 0 ''Signed''Yes Yes Spain February 2023 Gender identity law (expansion: self-determination) ''Passed'' ''Signed''Yes Yes Scotland Gender Recognition Reform (Scotland) Bill''86''39''Pending'' Thailand Unknown Gender identity law ''Pending'' Brazil Unknown Gender identity law ''Pending'' Costa Rica Unknown Gender identity recognition and equality before the law ''Pending'' El Salvador Unknown Gender identity law ''Pending'' Peru Unknown Gender identity law ''Pending'' Sweden Unknown Gender identity law ''Pending''" ], [ "Legislative efforts to derecognise gender identity", "===National level=== Country Date Gender identity/expression legislation Upper house Lower house Head of state Finaloutcome Yes No Yes No Hungary On Amendments to Certain Administrative Laws and the Free Transfer of Property (T/9934), Article 33 134 56 ''Signed'' Yes Yes Slovakia Birth Number Act (Bill No.", "301/1995) Russia 164 0 386 0 ''Signed'' Yes Yes===Subnational level=======United States==== State Date Gender identity/expression legislation Upper house Lower house Governor Finaloutcome Yes No Yes No Idaho House Bill 509, An Act Relating to Vital Statistics 27 6 53 16 ''Signed'' Yes YesYes Struck down by court in August 2020" ], [ "Africa", "===South Africa===The Constitution of South Africa forbids discrimination on the basis of sex, gender and sexual orientation (amongst other grounds).", "The Constitutional Court has indicated that \"sexual orientation\" includes transsexuality.In 2003 Parliament enacted the Alteration of Sex Description and Sex Status Act, which allows a transgender person who has undergone medical or surgical gender reassignment to apply to the Department of Home Affairs to have the sex description altered on their birth record.", "Once the birth record is altered they can be issued with a new birth certificate and identity document, and are considered \"for all purposes\" to be of the new sex.===Egypt===Transgender people face significant existing societal stigma against the LGBT+ community in Egypt, a conservative Muslim nation.", "The procedure for gender reassignment is not illegal in Egypt, however, the complication and stigmatisation has put transgender people through mental and physical assault along with torture, as per Human Rights Watch.", "Reportedly, the statistics of criminal acts committed against the transgender community have not been available because they have had a history of going unreported.===Botswana===In September 2017, the Botswana High Court ruled that the refusal of the Registrar of National Registration to change a transgender man's gender marker was \"unreasonable and violated his constitutional rights to dignity, privacy, freedom of expression, equal protection of the law, freedom from discrimination and freedom from inhumane and degrading treatment\".", "LGBT activists celebrated the ruling, describing it as a great victory.", "At first, the Botswana Government announced it would appeal the ruling, but decided against it in December, supplying the trans man in question with a new identity document that reflects his gender identity.A similar case, where a transgender woman sought to change her gender marker to female, was heard in December 2017.The High Court ruled that the Government must recognise her gender identity.", "She dedicated her victory to \"every single trans diverse person in Botswana\"." ], [ "Asia", "===China===In 2009 the Chinese government made it illegal for minors to change their officially listed gender, stating that sexual reassignment surgery, available to only those over the age of twenty, was required in order to apply for a revision of their identification card and residence registration.In early 2014 the Shanxi province started allowing minors to apply for the change with the additional information of their guardian's identification card.", "This shift in policy allows post-surgery marriages to be recognized as heterosexual and therefore legal.Transgender youth in China face many challenges.", "One study found that Chinese parents report 0.5% (1:200) of their 6 to 12-year boys and 0.6% (1:167) of girls often or always 'state the wish to be the other gender'.", "0.8% (1:125) of 18- to 24-year-old university students who are birth-assigned males (whose sex/gender as indicated on their ID card is male) report that the 'sex/gender I feel in my heart' is female, while another 0.4% indicating that their perceived gender was 'other'.", "Among birth-assigned females, 2.9% (1:34) indicated they perceived their gender as male, while another 1.3% indicating 'other'.According to a survey conducted by Peking University, Chinese trans female students face strong discrimination in many areas of education.", "Sex segregation is found everywhere in Chinese schools and universities: student enrollment (for some special schools, universities and majors), appearance standards (hairstyles and uniforms included), private spaces (bathrooms, toilets and dormitories included), physical examinations, military trainings, conscription, PE classes, PE exams and physical health tests.", "Chinese students are required to attend all the activities according to their legal gender marker, otherwise they will be punished.", "It is also difficult to change the gender information of educational attainments and academic degrees in China, even after sex reassignment surgery, which results in discrimination against well-educated trans women.===Hong Kong===The Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong ruled that a transsexual woman has the right to marry her boyfriend.", "The ruling was made on 13 May 2013.On 16 September 2013, Eliana Rubashkyn, a transgender woman claimed that she was discriminated and sexually abused by the customs officers, including being subjected to invasive body searches and denied usage of a female toilet, although Hong Kong officers denied the allegations.", "After being released, she applied for and was granted refugee status by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), rendering her effectively stateless awaiting acceptance to a third country.In February 2023, the Court of Final Appeal ruled that the government's requirement of full sex reassignment surgery in order to update gender identity on ID cards was unconstitutional and unacceptably burdensome.", ", the ruling has yet to be implemented.=== India ===In April 2014, the Supreme Court of India declared transgender to be a 'third gender' in Indian law.", "The transgender community in India (made up of Hijras and others) has a long history in India and in Hindu mythology.The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, was passed by Parliament in November 2019, and came into effect on 11 January 2020.It protects transgender individuals against discrimination in education, employment and healthcare.", "It recognizes the gender identity of the individual, and there are provisions in the law for a certificate to be issued with their new gender identity.", "There have been reservations among some in the transgender community, both regarding the difficulty of obtaining a certificate, and because of lack of awareness and lack of sensitivity to the issue among local public officials.", "LGBTQ protests against the bill have occurred, with claims that the bill hurts the transgender community instead of helping it.", "Protesters noted the provision for certification, but criticized the fact that this would require people to register with the government in order to be recognized as transgender.", "They also criticized the inequality inherent in the vast differences in punishment for the same crime, such as sexual abuse, committed against violating a transgender or cisgender individual.===Iran===Beginning in the mid-1980s, transgender individuals were officially recognized by the government and allowed to undergo sex reassignment surgery.", "Officially the leader of Iran's Islamic Revolution, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, issued a fatwa declaring sex reassignment surgery permissible for \"diagnosed transsexuals\".", "The government provides up to half the cost for those needing financial assistance, and a sex change is recognised on the birth certificate.", "Despite this, Iran's transgender people face discrimination in society.", "Founded in 2007 by Maryam Khatoon Molkara the Iranian Society to Support Individuals with Gender Identity Disorder (نجمن حمایت از بیماران مبتلا به اختلالات هویت جنسیایران) is Iran's main transsexual organization.Additionally, the Iranian government's response to homosexuality is to pressure lesbian and gay individuals, who are not in fact transsexual, towards sex reassignment surgery.", "Eshaghian's documentary, ''Be Like Others'', chronicles a number of stories of Iranian gay men who feel transitioning is the only way to avoid further persecution, jail, or execution.", "Maryam Khatoon Molkara—who convinced Khomeini to issue the fatwa on transsexuality—confirmed that some people who undergo operations are gay rather than transsexual.===Japan===On 10 July 2003, the National Diet of Japan unanimously approved a new law that enables transsexual people to amend their legal sex.", "It is called '''' (Act on Special Cases in Handling Gender for People with Gender Identity Disorder) The law, effective on 16 July 2004, however, has controversial conditions which demand the applicants be both unmarried and childless.", "On 28 July 2004, Naha Family Court in Okinawa Prefecture returned a verdict to a transsexual woman in her 20s, allowing the sex on her family registry record or koseki to be amended from male to female.", "It is generally believed to be the first court approval under the new law.", "Since 2018 sex reassignment surgeries are paid for by the Japanese government, which are covered by the Japanese national health insurance as long as patients are not receiving hormone treatment and do not have any other pre-existing conditions.", "However applicants are required to be at least 20 years old, single, sterile, have no children under 20 (the age of majority in Japan), as well as to undergo a psychiatric evaluation to receive a diagnosis of \"Gender Identity Disorder\", also known as gender dysphoria in western countries.", "Once completed the patient has to only pay 30% of the surgery costs.===Malaysia===There is no legislation expressly allowing transsexuals to legally change their gender in Malaysia.", "The relevant legislations are the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1957 and National Registration Act 1959.Therefore, judges currently exercise their discretion in interpreting the law and defining the gender.", "There are conflicting decisions on this matter.", "There is a case in 2003 where the court allowed a transsexual to change her gender indicated in the identity card, and granted a declaration that she is a female.", "However, in 2005, in another case, the court refused to amend the gender of a transsexual in the identity card and birth certificate.", "Both cases applied the United Kingdom case of ''Corbett v Corbett'' in defining legal gender.===Pakistan===In Pakistan, some members of the LGBT community have started undergoing acts of sex reassignment surgery to change their sex.", "There are situations where such cases have caused media attention.", "A 2008 ruling at Pakistan's Lahore High Court gave permission to Naureen, 28, to have a sex change operation, although the decision was applicable only towards individuals who were diagnosed with gender dysphoria.In 2009, the Pakistan Supreme Court made a ruling in favor of the transgender community.", "The landmark ruling stated that as citizens they were entitled to the equal benefit and protection of the law and called upon the Pakistani government to take steps to protect transgender people from discrimination and harassment.", "Pakistan's chief justice, Iftikhar Chaudhry, was the architect of major extension of rights to Pakistan's transgender community during his term.", "There are also anti-discrimination laws in the provision of goods and services for transgender or transsexual individuals (known as Khuwaja Sira, formerly hijra, or Third Gender) in Pakistani.In 2018, the Pakistani government passed the '''Transgender Person (Protection of Rights) Act''' which officially established the legal right of transgender people in Pakistan to identify themselves as such and instituted anti-discrimination laws.", "These include recognition of transgender identity in legal documents such as passports, identity card, and drivers licences, along with prohibiting discrimination in employment, schools, workplaces, public transit, healthcare, etc.", "The bill also included the right for inheritance in accordance to their chosen gender.", "Furthermore, the bill obligates the Pakistani government to build protection centers and safe houses for the specific purpose of being used by the transgender community in Pakistan.===Jordan===The Court of Cassation, the highest court in Jordan allowed a transsexual woman to change her legal name and sex to female in 2014 after she brought forth medical reports from Australia.", "The head of the Jordanian Department of civil Status and Passports stated that two to three cases of change of sex reach the department annually, all based on Medical Reports and Court orders.===Philippines===The Supreme Court of the Philippines Justice Leonardo Quisumbing on 12 September 2008, allowed Jeff Cagandahan, 27, to change his birth certificate, gender and name:We respect respondent's congenital condition and his mature decision to be a male.", "Life is already difficult for the ordinary person.", "We cannot but respect how respondent deals with his unordinary state and thus help make his life easier, considering the unique circumstances in this case.", "In the absence of a law on the matter, the court will not dictate on respondent concerning a matter so innately private as one's sexuality and lifestyle preferences, much less on whether or not to undergo medical treatment to reverse the male tendency due to rare medical condition, congenital adrenal hyperplasia.", "In the absence of evidence that respondent is an 'incompetent,' and in the absence of evidence to show that classifying respondent as a male will harm other members of society ... the court affirms as valid and justified the respondent's position and his personal judgment of being a male.Court records showed that at age six, he had small ovaries; at 13, his ovarian structure was minimized, he had no breasts and did not menstruate.", "The psychiatrist testified that \"he has both male and female sex organs, but was genetically female, and that since his body secreted male hormones, his female organs did not develop normally.\"", "The Philippines National Institutes of Health said \"people with congenital adrenal hyperplasia lack an enzyme needed by the adrenal gland to make the hormones cortisol and aldosterone.This ruling, however, only applied to cases involving congenital adrenal hyperplasia and other intersex situations.", "The Philippine Supreme Court has also ruled that Filipino citizens do not have the right to legally change their sex on official documents (driver's license, passport, birth certificate, Social Security records, etc.)", "if they are transsexual and have undergone sexual reassignment surgery.", "In 2007, the Court overruled a lower court decision and found that another individual could not legally change name and sex from male to female, as it would have \"serious and wide-ranging legal and public policy consequences,\" citing the institution of marriage in particular.===South Korea===In South Korea, it is possible for transgender individuals to change their legal gender, although it depends on the decision of the judge for each case.", "Since the 1990s, however, it has been approved in most of the cases.", "The legal system in Korea does not prevent marriage once a person has changed their legal gender.In 2006, the Supreme Court of Korea ruled that transsexuals have the right to alter their legal papers to reflect their reassigned sex.", "A trans woman can be registered, not only as female, but also as being \"born as a woman\".While same-sex marriage is not approved by South Korean law, a transsexual woman obtains the marital status of 'female' automatically when she marries to a man, even if she has previously been designated as \"male\".In 2013 a court ruled that transsexuals can change their legal sex without undergoing genital surgery.===Taiwan===Transgender people in Taiwan need to undergo genital surgery (removal of primary sex organs) in order to register gender change on both the identity card and the birth certificate.", "The surgery requires approval of two psychiatrists, and the procedure is ''not'' covered by the National Health Insurance.", "The government conducted public consultations on the elimination of surgery requirements back in 2015, but no concrete changes have been made since then.In 2018, the government unveiled the new chip-embedded identity card, scheduled to be issued in late 2020.Gender will not be explicitly displayed on the physical card, although the second digit of national identification number reveals gender information anyway (\"1\" for male; \"2\" for female).", "With the inception of new identity card, a third gender option (using digit \"7\" as the second digit of national identification number) will be available to transgender persons alike.", "However, it raises concerns that the practice could stigmatize transgender persons, instead of respecting their gender identity.", "Details of the third-gender option policy are yet to be released.After same-sex marriage law became effective on 24 May 2019, transgender persons could marry a person of the same registered gender." ], [ "Europe", "A majority of countries in Europe give transgender people the right to at least change their first name, most of which also provide a way of changing birth certificates.", "Several European countries recognize the right of transgender people to marry in accordance with their post-operative sex.", "Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Sweden, Spain, and the United Kingdom all recognize this right.", "The Convention on the recognition of decisions regarding a sex change provides regulations for mutual recognition of sex change decisions and has been signed by five European countries and ratified by Spain and the Netherlands.===Finland===Before 2023, people wishing to change their legal gender in Finland had to be sterilized or be found infertil.", "A recommendation from the UN Human Rights Council to eliminate the sterilization requirement was rejected by the Finnish government in 2017.In 2023, Finland changed its gender identity law in 2023 so that it no longer requires sterilization and is instead based on self-identification.===France===In France, the change of the first name can be done by registry office or tribunal.", "The change of sex can be done by tribunal.", "In both cases there is no need for psychiatric reports or sex reassignment surgery.===Germany===In 1908, Imperial Germany (with the help of sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld and the WhK) issued a very limited number of 'transvestite passes' – ''transvestite'' at this time referring to crossdressers as well as transgender and gender non-conforming people – which enabled individuals to dress in clothes which were seen as discordant with their sex.", "This ended in 1933.Since 1980, Germany has a law that regulates the change of first names and legal gender.", "It is called (Law about the change of first name and determination of gender identity in special cases (Transsexual law – TSG)).", "Requirements that applicants for a change in gender were infertile post-surgery declared unconstitutional by supreme court ruling in a 2011.===Greece===On 10 October 2017, the Greek Parliament passed, by a comfortable majority, the ''Legal Gender Recognition Bill'' which grants the transgender people in Greece the right to change their legal gender freely by abolishing any conditions and requirements, such as undergoing any medical interventions, sex reassignment surgeries or sterilisation procedures to have their gender legally recognized on their IDs.", "The bill grants this right to anyone aged 17 and older.", "However, even underaged children between the age of 15 and 17 will have access to the legal gender recognition process, but under certain conditions, such as obtaining a certificate from a medical council.", "The bill was opposed by the Holy Synod of the Orthodox Church, the Communist Party of Greece, Golden Dawn and New Democracy.The Legal Gender Recognition Bill followed a 20 July 2016 decision of the County Court of Athens, which ruled that a person who wants to change their legal gender on the Registry Office files is no longer obliged to already have undergone a sex reassignment surgery.", "This decision was applied by the Court on a case-by-case basis.===Republic of Ireland===In Ireland, it was not possible for a transsexual person to alter their birth certificate until 2015.The High Court took a case by Lydia Foy in 2002 that was turned down, as a birth certificate was deemed to be a historical document.On 15 July 2015 Ireland passed the Gender Recognition Act, which allows legal gender changes without the requirement of medical intervention or assessment by the state.", "Such change is possible through self-determination for any person aged 18 or over resident in Ireland and registered on Irish registers of birth or adoption.", "Persons aged 16 to 18 years must secure a court order to exempt them from the normal requirement to be at least 18.Ireland is one of four legal jurisdictions in the world where people may legally change gender through self-determination.=== Malta ===Malta passed the 'Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sex Characteristics Act in 2015.This bill states that all citizens of Malta have the right to# The recognition of their gender identity;# The free development of their person according to their gender identity;# Be treated according to their gender identity and, particularly, to be identified in that way in the documents providing their identity therein; and# Bodily integrity and physical autonomy.This act protects the gender identity of a person at all times.", "It also states that \"person shall not be required to provide proof of a surgical procedure for total or partial genital reassignment, hormonal therapies or any other psychiatric, psychological or medical treatment to make use of the right to gender identity.\"", "The act allows parents to postpone listing gender on a child's birth certificate and prohibits \"non-medically necessary treatments on the sex characteristics of a person.", "\"===Nordic countries===The Nordic model approach to transgender rights emphasizes the human rights of transgender people and is based on legal equality and self-identification, which has been adopted in countries such as Denmark, Greenland, Norway and Iceland.", "In 2014, the Danish Parliament voted 59–52 to remove the requirement of a mental disorder diagnosis and surgery with irreversible sterilization for transgender people who wish to change their legal gender.", "A similar act was adopted in Greenland in 2016.In Norway the Gender Recognition Act, that introduced self-identification, was introduced by the Conservative-led government of Erna Solberg and adopted in 2016.The act received widespread support from most political parties, the LGBTIQ+ rights movement and the feminist movement, including the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights.", "Transgender people are also protected against discrimination and hate speech under discrimination and criminal law.", "Iceland adopted the Gender Autonomy Act that introduced self-identification and a third legal gender option in 2019, which received widespread support, including from the Icelandic Women's Rights Association.", "The women's rights movement in the Nordic countries strongly supports transgender rights.", "In 2021 the Icelandic Women's Rights Association in cooperation with the International Alliance of Women organized a forum on how the women's movement could counter \"anti-trans voices.\"", "Sweden has had a gender identity law since 1972, probably the first in the world.", "Since 2013, neither sterilization nor other treatment is required for trans people who need to change their legal sex, but a diagnosis is required.", "Finland changed its gender identity law in 2023 so that it no longer requires sterilization and is instead based on self-identification.===Poland===Anna Grodzka, the first transgender MP in EuropeThe first milestone sentence in the case of gender shifting was given by Warsaw's Voivode Court in 1964.The court reasoned that it be possible, in face of civil procedure and acting on civil registry records, to change one's legal gender after their genital reassignment surgery had been conducted.", "In 1983, the Supreme Court ruled that in some cases, when the attributes of the individual's preferred gender were predominant, it is possible to change one's legal gender even before genital reassignment surgery.In 2011, Anna Grodzka, the first transgender MP in the history of Europe who underwent a genital reassignment operation was appointed.", "In the Polish Parliamentary Election 2011 she gained 19,337 votes (45,079 voted for her party in the constituency) in the City of Kraków and came sixth in her electoral district (928,914 people, voter turnout 55.75%).", "Grodzka was reportedly the only transgender person with ministerial responsibilities in the world since 10 November 2011 (as of 2015).===Portugal===The law allows an adult person to change their legal gender without any requirements.", "Minors aged 16 and 17 are able to do so with parental consent and a psychological opinion, confirming that their decision has been taken freely and without any outside pressure.", "The law also prohibits both direct and indirect discrimination based on gender identity, gender expression and sex characteristics, and bans non-consensual sex assignment treatment and/or surgical intervention on intersex children.===Romania===In Romania it is legal for transgender people to change their first name to reflect their gender identity based on personal choice.", "Since 1996, it has been possible for someone who has gone through genital reassignment surgery to change their legal gender in order to reflect their post-operative sex.", "Transgender people then have the right to marry in accordance with their post-operative sex.===United Kingdom===The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 made it illegal to discriminate on the ground of anatomical sex in employment, education, and the provision of housing, goods, facilities and services.", "The Equality Act 2006 introduced the Gender Equality Duty in Scotland, which required public bodies to take seriously the threat of harassment or discrimination against transsexual people in various situations.", "In 2008 the Sex Discrimination (Amendment of Legislation) Regulations extended existing regulation to outlaw discrimination when providing goods or services to transsexual people.", "The Equality Act 2010 added \"gender reassignment\" as a \"protected characteristic\".The Gender Recognition Act 2004 effectively granted full legal recognition for binary transgender people.", "In contrast to some systems elsewhere in the world, the gender recognition process under the Act does not require applicants to be post-operative.", "There must, however, be significant medical explanation as to why an individual has not undergone sex reassignment surgery.", "They need only demonstrate that they have suffered gender dysphoria, have lived as \"your new gender\" for two years, and intend to continue doing so until death." ], [ "North America", "===Canada===Jurisdiction over legal classification of sex in Canada is assigned to the provinces and territories.", "This includes legal change of gender classification.On 19 June 2017 Bill C-16, after having passed the legislative process in the House of Commons of Canada and the Senate of Canada, became law upon receiving Royal Assent which put it into immediate force.", "The law updated the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Criminal Code to include \"gender identity and gender expression\" as protected grounds from discrimination, hate publications and advocating genocide.", "The bill also added \"gender identity and expression\" to the list of aggravating factors in sentencing, where the accused commits a criminal offence against an individual because of those personal characteristics.", "Similar transgender laws also exist in all the provinces and territories.", "Conversion therapy is banned in the provinces of Manitoba, Ontario, and Nova Scotia, and the city of Vancouver, though the Nova Scotia law includes a clause which allows \"mature minors\" between the ages of 16 and 18 to consent.===Mexico===Jurisdiction over legal classification of sex in Mexico is assigned to the states and Mexico City.", "This includes legal change of gender classification.On 13 March 2004, amendments to the Mexico City Civil Code that allow transgender people to change their gender and name on their birth certificates, took effect.In September 2008, the PRD-controlled Mexico City Legislative Assembly approved a law, in a 37–17 vote, making gender changes easier for transgender people.On 13 November 2014, the Legislative Assembly of Mexico City unanimously (46–0) approved a gender identity law.", "The law makes it easier for transgender people to change their legal gender.", "Under the new law, they simply have to notify the Civil Registry that they wish to change the gender information on their birth certificates.", "Sex reassignment surgery, psychological therapies or any other type of diagnosis are no longer required.", "The law took effect in early 2015.On 13 July 2017, the Michoacán Congress approved (22–1) a gender identity law.", "Nayarit approved (23–1) a similar law on 20 July 2017.===United States===On 15 June 2020, the Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) ruled in Bostock v. Clayton County that for the purposes of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, discrimination on the basis of transgender status is also discrimination because of sex.Regardless of the legal sex classification determined by a state or territory, the federal government may make its own determination of sex classification for federally issued documents.", "For instance, the U.S. Department of State requires a medical certification of \"appropriate clinical treatment for transition to the updated gender (male or female)\" to amend the gender designation on a U.S. passport, but sex reassignment surgery is not a requirement to obtain a U.S. passport in the updated gender.", "This leaves transgender Americans subject to inconsistent and often discriminatory regulations when seeking healthcare." ], [ "South America", "South America has some of the most progressive legislation in the world regarding transgender rights.", "Bolivia and Ecuador are among the few countries worldwide that offer constitutional protection against discrimination based on gender identity.", "Transgender persons are allowed to change their name and gender on legal documents in a majority of countries.", "Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Uruguay allow individuals to change their name and gender without undergoing medical treatment, sterilization or judicial permission.", "In Peru a judicial order is required.===Argentina===In 2012 the Argentine Congress passed the Ley de Género (Gender Law), which allows individuals over 18 to change the gender marker in their DNI (national ID) on the basis of a written declaration only.", "Argentina thus became the first country to adopt a gender recognition policy based entirely on individual autonomy, without any requirement for third party diagnosis, surgeries or obstacles of any type.===Bolivia===The Gender Identity law allows individuals over 18 to legally change their name, gender and photography on legal documents.", "No surgeries or judicial order are required.", "The law took effect on 1 August 2016.===Brazil===In 1971, Dr. Roberto Farina performed the first male-to-female gender-affirming surgery in Brazil.Changing legal gender assignment in Brazil is legal according to the Superior Court of Justice of Brazil, as stated in a decision rendered on 17 October 2009.And in 2008, Brazil's public health system started providing free sexual reassignment operations in compliance with a court order.", "Federal prosecutors had argued that sexual reassignment surgery was covered under a constitutional clause guaranteeing medical care as a basic right.Patients must be at least 18 years old and diagnosed as transsexuals with no other personality disorders, and must undergo psychological evaluation with a multidisciplinary team for at least two years, begins with 16 years old.", "The national average is of 100 surgeries per year, according to the Ministry of Health of Brazil.In December 2020, a bill was introduced that defines biological sex as the only factor in determining gender.===Chile===Chile bans all discrimination and hate crimes based on gender identity and gender expression.", "The Gender Identity Law, in effect since 2019, recognizes the right to self-perceived gender identity, allowing people over 14 years to change their name and gender on all official documents without prohibitive requirements.", "Since 1974, the change of gender had been possible in the country through a judicial process.===Colombia===Since 2015, a Colombian person may change their legal gender and name manifesting their solemn will before a notary, no surgeries or judicial order required.===Ecuador===Since 2016, Ecuadorians are allowed to change their birth name and gender identity (instead of the sex assigned at birth) on legal documents and national ID cards.", "The person who wants to change the word \"sex\" for \"gender\" in the identity card shall present two witnesses to accredit the self-determination of the applicant.===Peru===In Peru transgender persons can change their legal gender and name after complying with certain requirements that may become psychological and psychiatric evaluations, a medical intervention or sex reassignment surgery.", "A judicial permission is required.In November 2016, the Constitutional Court of Peru determined that transsexuality is not a pathology and recognized the right to gender identity.", "However, favorable judicial decisions on gender change have been appealed.===Uruguay===Since 2019, transgender people can self-identify their gender and update their legal name, without approval from a judge after the approval of the Comprehensive Law for Trans Persons.", "The new law creates scholarships for trans people to access education, a monthly pension for transgender people born before 1975 and also requires government services to employ a minimum of 1% of the transgender population.", "It also now acknowledges the self-identification of non-binary people.In October 2009, lawmakers passed the Gender identity law allowing transgender people over the age of 18 to change their name and legal gender on all official documents.", "Surgery, diagnosis or hormone therapy were not a requirement but a judicial permission was required." ], [ "Oceania", "===Australia===Birth certificates are regulated by the states and territories, whereas marriage and passports are matters for federal law.", "All Australian jurisdictions now recognise the affirmed sex of an individual, with varying requirements.", "In the landmark case ''New South Wales Registrar of Births, Deaths and Marriages v Norrie'' 2014 the High Court of Australia held that the ''Births Deaths and Marriages Registration Act 1995'' (NSW) did not require a person having undergone genital reassignment surgery to identify as either a man or a woman.", "The ruling permits a gender registration of \"non-specific\".Passports are issued in the preferred gender, without requiring a change to birth certificates or citizenship certificates.", "A letter is needed from a medical practitioner which certifies that the person has had or is receiving appropriate treatment.Australia was the only country in the world to require the involvement and approval of the judiciary (Family Court of Australia) with respect to allowing transgender children access to hormone replacement therapy.", "This ended in late 2017, when the Family Court issued a landmark ruling establishing that, in cases where there is no dispute between a child, their parents, and their treating doctors, hormone treatment can be prescribed without court permission.===Fiji===The Constitution of Fiji which was promulgated in September 2013 includes a provision banning discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity or expression.===Guam===Gender changes are legal in Guam.", "In order for transgender people to change their legal gender in Guam, they must provide the Office of Vital Statistics a sworn statement from a physician that they have undergone sex reassignment surgery.", "The Office will subsequently amend the birth certificate of the requester.===New Zealand===Currently, the Human Rights Act 1993 does not explicitly prohibit discrimination on the basis of gender.", "Whilst it is believed that gender identity is protected under the laws preventing discrimination on the basis of either sex or sexual orientation, it is not known how this applies to those who have not had, or will not have, gender reassignment surgery.===Northern Mariana Islands===Transgender persons in the Northern Mariana Islands may change their legal gender following sex reassignment surgery and a name change.", "The ''Vital Statistics Act of 2006'', which took effect in March 2007, states that: \"Upon receipt of a certified copy of an order of the CNMI Superior Court indicating the sex of an individual born in the CNMI has been changed by surgical procedure and whether such individual's name has been changed, the certificate of birth of such individual shall be amended as prescribed by regulation.", "\"===Samoa===In Samoa crimes motivated by sexual orientation and/or gender identity are criminalized under Section 7(1)(h) of the ''Sentencing Act 2016''." ], [ "Table and world map of legal status", "'''Laws concerning gender identity-expression by country or territory'''Part of the data is provided by Spartacus Gay Travel Index and highlights the legal status of gender identity change and expression.", "+LegendLegal status of Transgender peopleCountry Status" ], [ "See also", "* Gender Public Advocacy Coalition—Defunct US advocacy group working to end discrimination and violence caused by gender stereotypes by changing public attitudes, educating elected officials, and expanding human rights*''Legal Precedent'' (2009), Right to change legal names female to male and vice versa for people transgender and intersex by the approval of the 2008 Constitution of Ecuador.", "* Gender diversity* Legal recognition of non-binary gender* LGBT people in prison* LGBT rights by country or territory—including gender identity/expression* List of transgender-related topics* List of transgender-rights organizations* Transgender asylum seekers* Transgender inequality* Transgender rights movement* Transitioning (transgender)* Yogyakarta Principles* Human rights" ], [ "References", ";Notes;Footnotes" ], [ "Works cited", "* Chow, Melinda.", "(2005).", "\"Smith v. City of Salem: Transgendered Jurisprudence and an Expanding Meaning of Sex Discrimination under Title VII\".", "''Harvard Journal of Law & Gender''.", "Vol.", "28.Winter.", "207.", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ligase" ], [ "Introduction", "In biochemistry, a '''ligase''' is an enzyme that can catalyze the joining (ligation) of two molecules by forming a new chemical bond.", "This is typically via hydrolysis of a small pendant chemical group on one of the molecules, typically resulting in the formation of new C-O, C-S, or C-N bonds.", "For example, DNA ligase can join two complementary fragments of nucleic acid by forming phosphodiester bonds, and repair single stranded breaks that arise in double stranded DNA during replication.In general, a ligase catalyzes the following dehydration reaction, thus joining molecules A and B:A-OH + B-H → A–B + H2O" ], [ "Nomenclature", "The naming of ligases is inconsistent and so these enzymes are commonly known by several different names.", "Generally, the common names of ligases include the word \"ligase\", such as in DNA ligase, an enzyme commonly used in molecular biology laboratories to join together DNA fragments.", "However, many common names use the term \"synthetase\" or \"synthase\" instead, because they are used to synthesize new molecules.", "There are also some ligases that use the name \"carboxylase\" to indicate that the enzyme specifically catalyzes a carboxylation reaction.To note: biochemical nomenclature has sometimes distinguished synthetases from synthases and sometimes treated the words as synonyms.", "Commonly, the two terms are used interchangeably and are both used to describe ligases." ], [ "Classification", "Ligases are classified as '''EC 6''' in the EC number classification of enzymes.", "Ligases can be further classified into six subclasses:*EC 6.1 includes ligases used to form carbon-oxygen bonds*EC 6.2 includes ligases used to form carbon-sulfur bonds*EC 6.3 includes ligases used to form carbon-nitrogen bonds (including argininosuccinate synthetase)*EC 6.4 includes ligases used to form carbon-carbon bonds, such as acetyl-CoA carboxylase*EC 6.5 includes ligases used to form phosphoric ester bonds, such as DNA ligase*EC 6.6 includes ligases used to form nitrogen-metal bonds, as in the chelatases" ], [ "Membrane-associated ligases", "Some ligases associate with biological membranes as peripheral membrane proteins or anchored through a single transmembrane helix, for example certain ubiquitin ligase related proteins." ], [ "Etymology and pronunciation", "The word ''ligase'' uses combining forms of ''lig-'' (from the Latin verb ''ligāre'', \"to bind\" or \"to tie together\") + ''-ase'' (denoting an enzyme), yielding \"binding enzyme\"." ], [ "See also", "*DNA ligase*Acetyl-CoA carboxylase*Nuclease*Protease" ], [ "References", "* EC 6 Introduction from the Department of Chemistry at Queen Mary, University of London" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Logo (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "Symmetry around a point can be obtained using only a few instructions, allowing users to draw hypotrochoids like the one shown here.", "'''Logo''' is an educational programming language, designed in 1967 by Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert, and Cynthia Solomon.", "''Logo'' is not an acronym: the name was coined by Feurzeig while he was at Bolt, Beranek and Newman, and derives from the Greek ''logos'', meaning ''word'' or ''thought''.A general-purpose language, Logo is widely known for its use of turtle graphics, in which commands for movement and drawing produced line or vector graphics, either on screen or with a small robot termed a turtle.", "The language was conceived to teach concepts of programming related to Lisp and only later to enable what Papert called \"body-syntonic reasoning\", where students could understand, predict, and reason about the turtle's motion by imagining what they would do if they were the turtle.", "There are substantial differences among the many dialects of Logo, and the situation is confused by the regular appearance of turtle graphics programs that are named Logo.Logo is a multi-paradigm adaptation and dialect of Lisp, a functional programming language.", "There is no standard Logo, but UCBLogo has the best facilities for handling lists, files, I/O, and recursion in scripts, and can be used to teach all computer science concepts, as UC Berkeley lecturer Brian Harvey did in his ''Computer Science Logo Style'' trilogy.Logo is usually an interpreted language, although compiled Logo dialects (such as Lhogho and Liogo) have been developed.", "Logo is not case-sensitive but retains the case used for formatting purposes." ], [ "History", "Logo was created in 1967 at Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN), a Cambridge, Massachusetts research firm, by Wally Feurzeig, Cynthia Solomon, and Seymour Papert.", "Its intellectual roots are in artificial intelligence, mathematical logic and developmental psychology.", "For the first four years of Logo research, development and teaching work was done at BBN.", "The first implementation of Logo, called Ghost, was written in LISP on a PDP-1.The goal was to create a mathematical land where children could play with words and sentences.", "Modeled on LISP, the design goals of Logo included accessible power and informative error messages.", "The use of virtual Turtles allowed for immediate visual feedback and debugging of graphic programming.The first working Logo turtle robot was created in 1969.A display turtle preceded the physical floor turtle.", "Modern Logo has not changed very much from the basic concepts predating the first turtle.", "The first turtle was a tethered floor roamer, not radio-controlled or wireless.", "At BBN Paul Wexelblat developed a turtle named Irving that had touch sensors and could move forwards, backwards, rotate, and ding its bell.", "The earliest year-long school users of Logo were in 1968–69 at Muzzey Jr. High in Lexington, Massachusetts.", "The virtual and physical turtles were first used by fifth-graders at the Bridge School in the same city in 1970–71." ], [ "Turtle and graphics", " Animated gif with turtle in MSWLogo (Cardioid)Logo's most-known feature is the turtle (derived originally from a robot of the same name), an on-screen \"cursor\" that shows output from commands for movement and small retractable pen, together producing line graphics.", "It has traditionally been displayed either as a triangle or a turtle icon (though it can be represented by any icon).", "Turtle graphics were added to the Logo language by Seymour Papert in the late 1960s to support Papert's version of the turtle robot, a simple robot controlled from the user's workstation that is designed to carry out the drawing functions assigned to it using a small retractable pen set into or attached to the robot's body.As a practical matter, the use of turtle geometry instead of a more traditional model mimics the actual movement logic of the turtle robot.", "The turtle moves with commands that are relative to its own position, ''LEFT 90'' means spin left by 90 degrees.", "Some Logo implementations, particularly those that allow the use of concurrency and multiple turtles, support collision detection and allow the user to redefine the appearance of the turtle cursor, essentially allowing the Logo turtles to function as sprites.Turtle geometry is also sometimes used in environments other than Logo as an alternative to a strictly coordinate-addressed graphics system.", "For instance, the idea of turtle graphics is also useful in Lindenmayer system for generating fractals." ], [ "Implementations", " IBM LCSI Logo welcome screenSource code and output in IBM LCSI LogoSome modern derivatives of Logo allow thousands of independently moving turtles.", "There are two popular implementations: Massachusetts Institute of Technology's StarLogo and Northwestern University Center for Connected Learning's (CCL) NetLogo.", "They allow exploring emergent phenomena and come with many experiments in social studies, biology, physics, and other areas.", "NetLogo is widely used in agent-based simulation in the biological and social sciences.Although there is no agreed-upon standard, there is a broad consensus on core aspects of the language.", "In March 2020, there were counted 308 implementations and dialects of Logo, each with its own strengths.", "Most of those 308 are no longer in wide use, but many are still under development.", "Commercial implementations widely used in schools include ''MicroWorlds Logo'' and ''Imagine Logo''.Legacy and current implementations include:; First released in 1980s:* Apple Logo for the Apple II Plus and Apple Logo Writer for the Apple IIe, developed by Logo Computer Systems, Inc. (LCSI), were the most broadly used and prevalent early implementations of Logo that peaked in the early to mid-1980s.", "* Aquarius LOGO was released in 1982 on cartridge by Mattel for the Aquarius home computer.", "* Atari Logo was released on cartridge by Atari for the Atari 8-bit family.", "* Color Logo was released in 1983 on cartridge (26-2722) and disk (26-2721) by Tandy for the TRS-80 Color Computer.", "* Commodore Logo was released, with the subtitle \"A Language for Learning\", by Commodore International.", "It was based on MIT Logo and enhanced by Terrapin, Inc.", "The Commodore 64 version (C64105) was released on diskette in 1983; the Plus/4 version (T263001) was released on cartridge in 1984.", "* ExperLogo was released in 1985 on floppy by Expertelligence Inc. for the Macintosh 128K.", "* Hot-Logo was released in the mid-1980s by EPCOM for the MSX 8-bit computers with its own set of commands in Brazilian Portuguese.", "* TI Logo (for the TI-99/4A computer) was used in primary schools, emphasizing Logo's usefulness in teaching computing fundamentals to novice programmers.", "* Sprite Logo, also developed by Logo Computer Systems Inc., had ten turtles that could run as independent processes.", "It ran on Apple II computers, with the aid of a Sprite Card inserted in one of the computer's slots.", "* IBM marketed their own version of Logo (P/N 6024076), developed jointly by Logo Computer Systems, Inc. (LCSI), for their then-new IBM PC.", "* ObjectLOGO is a variant of Logo with object-oriented programming extensions and lexical scoping.", "Version 2.7 was sold by Digitool, Inc.", "It is no longer being developed or supported, and does not run on versions of the Mac operating system later than version 7.5.", "* Dr.", "Logo was developed by Digital Research and distributed in computers including the IBM PCjr, Atari ST and the Amstrad CPC.", "* Acornsoft Logo was released in 1985.It is a commercial implementation of Logo for the 8-bit BBC Micro and Acorn Electron computers.", "It was developed for Acorn Computers as a full implementation of Logo.", "It features multiple screen turtles and four-channel sound.", "It was provided on two 16kB ROMs, with utilities and drivers as accompanying software.", "; First released in 1990s:* In February 1990, ''Electron User'' published Timothy Grantham's simple implementation of Logo for the Acorn Electron under the article \"Talking Turtle\".", "* Comenius Logo is an implementation of Logo developed by Comenius University Faculty of Mathematics and Physics.", "It started development in December 1991, and is also known in other countries as SuperLogo, MultiLogo and MegaLogo.", "*Lego Logo is a version of Logo that can manipulate robotic Lego bricks attached to a computer.", "It was implemented on the Apple II computing platform and was used in American and other grade schools in the late 1980s and early 1990s.", "Lego Logo is a precursor to Scratch.", "* UCBLogo, also known as Berkeley Logo, is a free, cross-platform implementation of standard Logo last released in 2009.George Mills at MIT used UCBLogo as the basis for MSWLogo which is more refined and also free.", "Jim Muller wrote a book, ''The Great Logo Adventure'', which was a complete Logo manual and which used MSWLogo as the demonstration language.", "MSWLogo has evolved into FMSLogo.", "; First released from 2000 onwards:* aUCBLogo is a rewrite and enhancement of UCBLogo.", "* Imagine Logo is a successor of Comenius Logo, implemented in 2000.The English version was released by Logotron Ltd. in 2001.", "* LibreLogo is an extension to some versions of LibreOffice.", "Released in 2012, it is written in Python.", "It allows vector graphics to be written in Writer.", "* Logo3D is a tridimensional version of Logo.", "* POOL is a dialect of Logo with object-oriented extensions, implemented in 2014.POOL programs are compiled and run in the graphical IDE on Microsoft Windows.", "A simplified, cross-platform environment is available for systems supporting .NET Framework.", "* QLogo is an open-source and cross-platform rewrite of UCBLogo with nearly full UCB compatibility that uses hardware-accelerated graphics.", "* Lynx is an online version of Logo developed by Logo Computer Systems Inc.", "It can run a large number of turtles, supports animation, parallel processes, colour and collision detection.", "* LogoMor is an open-source online 3D Logo interpreter based on JavaScript and p5.js.", "It supports 3D drawings, animations, multimedia, 3D models and various tools.", "It also includes a fully-featured code editor based on CodeMirror* LbyM is an open-source online Logo interpreter based on JavaScript, created and actively developed (as of 2021) for Sonoma State University's ''Learning by Making'' program.", "It features traditional Logo programming, connectivity with a customized microcontroller and integration with a modern code editor." ], [ "Influence", "Logo was a primary influence on the Smalltalk programming language.", "It is also the main influence on the Etoys educational programming environment and language, which is essentially a Logo variant written in Squeak (itself a variant of Smalltalk).", "Logo influenced the procedure/method model in AgentSheets and AgentCubes to program agents similar to the notion of a turtle in Logo.", "Logo provided the underlying language for Boxer.", "Boxer was developed at University of California, Berkeley and MIT and is based on a ''literacy model'', making it easier to use for nontechnical people.KTurtle is a variation of Logo implemented at Qt for the KDE environment loosely based on Logo.Two more results of Logo's influence are Kojo, a variant of Scala, and Scratch, a visual, drag-and-drop language which runs in a web browser." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''To Artificial Intelligence'' (1976) Early AI textbook where Logo is used extensively.", "(Using the Edinburgh University dialect, AI2LOGO)* Turtle Geometry Abelson and diSessa* ''Children Designers'', Idit Harel Caperton, Ablex Publishing Corporation .", "Available online* ''Learning With Logo'', Daniel Watt, McGraw Hill, .", "Available Through Amazon* Teaching With Logo: Building Blocks For Learning, Molly Watt and Daniel Watt, Addison Wesley (now Pearson) 1986, Available through Amazon* (''Byte'' magazine special 1982 issue featuring multiple Logo articles)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Last rites" ], [ "Introduction", "Dutch School, c. 1600)The '''last rites''', also known as the '''Commendation of the Dying''', are the last prayers and ministrations given to an individual of Christian faith, when possible, shortly before death, especially in the Catholic Church.", "They may be administered to those awaiting execution, mortally injured, or terminally ill. Last rites cannot be performed on someone who has already died.", "Last rites, in sacramental Christianity, can refer to multiple sacraments administered concurrently in anticipation of an individual's passing." ], [ "Catholic Church", "Princess Maria Amélia of Brazil receiving her last rites, 1853 A Catholic chaplain, Lieutenant Commander Joseph T. O'Callahan, administering the last rites to an injured crewman aboard USS ''Franklin'', after the ship was set afire by a Japanese air attack, 19 March 1945The Latin Church of the Catholic Church defines Last Rites as Viaticum (Holy Communion administered to someone who is dying), and the ritual prayers of Commendation of the Dying, and Prayers for the Dead.The sacrament of Anointing of the Sick is usually postponed until someone is near death.", "Anointing of the Sick has been thought to be exclusively for the dying, though it can be received at any time.", "Extreme Unction (Final Anointing) is the name given to Anointing of the Sick when received during last rites.", "If administered to someone who is not just ill but near death, Anointing of the Sick is generally accompanied by celebration of the sacraments of Penance and Viaticum.", "The order of the three is important and should be given in the order of Penance (confessing one's sins), then Anointing of the Sick, and finally the Viaticum.", "The principal reason Penance is administered first to the seriously ill and dying is because the forgiveness of one's sins, and most especially one's serious (mortal) sins, is for Catholics necessary for being in a state of grace (in a full relationship with God).", "Dying while in the state of grace ensures that a Catholic will go to heaven (if they are in a state of grace but still attached to sin, they will eventually make it to heaven but must first go through a spiritual cleansing process called purgatory).", "Although these three (Penance, Anointing of the sick, and Viaticum) are not, in the proper sense, the Last Rites, they are sometimes spoken of as such; the Eucharist given as Viaticum is the only sacrament essentially associated with dying.", "\"The celebration of the Eucharist as Viaticum is the sacrament proper to the dying Christian\".In the Roman Ritual's ''Pastoral Care of the Sick: Rites of Anointing and Viaticum'', Viaticum is the only sacrament dealt with in ''Part II: Pastoral Care of the Dying''.", "Within that part, the chapter on Viaticum is followed by two more chapters, one on ''Commendation of the Dying'', with short texts, mainly from the Bible, a special form of the litany of the saints, and other prayers, and the other on ''Prayers for the Dead''.", "A final chapter provides ''Rites for Exceptional Circumstances'', namely, the ''Continuous Rite of Penance, Anointing, and Viaticum'', ''Rite for Emergencies'', and ''Christian Initiation for the Dying''.", "The last of these concerns the administration of the sacraments of Baptism and Confirmation to those who have not received them.In addition, the priest has authority to bestow a blessing in the name of the Pope on the dying person, to which a plenary indulgence is attached." ], [ "Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches", "Russian Orthodox priest administering the last rites to a soldier on the field of battleIn the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, the last rites consist of the Sacred Mysteries (sacraments) of Confession and the reception of Holy Communion.Following these sacraments, when a person dies, there are a series of prayers known as ''The Office at the Parting of the Soul From the Body''.", "This consists of a blessing by the priest, the usual beginning, and after the Lord's Prayer, Psalm 50.Then a Canon to the Theotokos is chanted, entitled, \"On behalf of a man whose soul is departing, and who cannot speak\".", "This is an elongated prayer speaking in the person of the one who is dying, asking for forgiveness of sin, the mercy of God, and the intercession of the saints.", "The rite is concluded by three prayers said by the priest, the last one being said \"at the departure of the soul.", "\"There is an alternative rite known as ''The Office at the Parting of the Soul from the Body When a Man has Suffered for a Long Time''.", "The outline of this rite is the same as above, except that Psalm 70 and Psalm 143 precede Psalm 50, and the words of the canon and the prayers are different.The rubric in the Book of Needs (priest's service book) states, \"With respect to the Services said at the parting of the soul, we note that if time does not permit to read the whole Canon, then customarily just one of the prayers, found at the end of the Canon, is read by the Priest at the moment of the parting of the soul from the body.", "\"As soon as the person has died the priest begins ''The Office After the Departure of the Soul From the Body'' (also known as ''The First Pannikhida'').In the Orthodox Church Holy Unction is not considered to be solely a part of a person's preparation for death, but is administered to any Orthodox Christian who is ill, physically or spiritually, to ask for God's mercy and forgiveness of sin.", "There is an abbreviated form of Holy Unction to be performed for a person in imminent danger of death, which does not replace the full rite in other cases." ], [ "Lutheran Churches", "In the Lutheran Churches, last rites are formally known as the Commendation of the Dying, in which the priest \"opens in the name of the triune God, includes a prayer, a reading from one of the psalms, a litany of prayer for the one who is dying, and recites the Lord’s Prayer\".", "The dying individual is then anointed with oil and receives the sacraments of Holy Absolution and Holy Communion." ], [ "Anglican Communion", "The proposed 1928 revision of the Church of England's ''Book of Common Prayer'' would have permitted reservation of the Blessed Sacrament for use in communing the sick, including during last rites.", "This revision failed twice in the Parliament of the United Kingdom's House of Commons." ], [ "See also", "* Anointing* Deathbed confession* Deathbed conversion* Excommunication" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Extreme Unction article in ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1909)* Preparation for Death article in ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1909)* * Sacramental Catechesis: An Online Resource for Dioceses" ] ]
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[ [ "Lamorna" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lamorna''' () is a village, valley and cove in west Cornwall, England, UK.", "It is on the Penwith peninsula approximately south of Penzance.", "Lamorna became popular with the artists of the Newlyn School, including Alfred Munnings, Laura Knight and Harold Knight, and is also known for former residents Derek and Jean Tangye who farmed land and wrote \"The Minack Chronicles\"." ], [ "Toponymy", "First recorded as ''Nansmorno'' (in 1305), than ''Nansmurnou'' (1309), ''Nansmorne'' (1319), ''Nansmornou'' (1339), ''Nansmorna'' (1387) and ''Namorna'' (1388).", "In Cornish ''Nans'' means valley, and the 2nd element is possibly ''mor'', which means sea." ], [ "Geography", "Lamorna Cove is at the SE end of a north-west to south-east valley.", "The cove is delineated by Carn-du (Black Rock) on the eastern side and Lamorna Point on the western side.", "The valley is privately owned from The Wink (public house) down to the cove, which is reached by a narrow lane to the car park and quay.", "The small village, half a mile inland, was originally known as Nantewas.", "The South West Coast Path passes around the cove.Lamorna lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB); almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation, with the same status and protection as a National Park." ], [ "History", "Lamorna Cove by A. R. Quinton, c. 1920The first record of tin streaming is in the 1380s when Alan Hoskyn was killed (murder was not proven) during a dispute with Trewoofe, after the stream was diverted.", "Mounds along the stream are evidence of past activity.", "Kemyel Mill was operated by the Hoskyn family from at least the 14th century until the 1920s, but is now a gift shop under different ownership.", "There were two mills: one milled corn for animal feed, and the other flour.", "Both mills are grade II listed buildings.In the 17th century a privateer vessel owned by the Penrose family was regularly moored in the cove and was wrecked during a storm.", "At one time five cannon were on the sea floor in of water, and one is now at Stoney Cove, Leicestershire where it is used at an underwater archaeological training area.", "A number of silver coins found in 1984 and 1985 include one dated 1653.The wreck is a popular diving site.A school for fifty to sixty infant boys and girls opened for the first time in the village in March 1881.The schoolroom, with a screen at the eastern end, was paid for by Canon Coulson and built on land on which he owned the freehold.", "The room converted to a mission room for Anglicans by removing a screen to reveal a chancel; the converted chapel had a capacity of 70–80 for services.", "Previously children had to go to St Buryan, some 4 km away, for schooling.The valley is now tree-covered, but until around the 1950s the stream- and hillside were grazed by cows, horses and pigs.", "On the slopes, daffodils and early potatoes were grown; the flowers were sent to markets at Covent Garden (London), Birmingham and Wales." ], [ "Community radio", "The local community radio station is Coast FM (formerly Penwith Radio), which broadcasts on 96.5 and 97.2 FM." ], [ "Quarries", "Waste tips on the eastern side of the cove are a reminder of the granite quarries first opened by John Freeman, on St Aubyn land, in 1849 and continued working until 1911.Famous buildings and constructions include Admiralty Pier at Dover, London County Council offices, the Thames Embankment and Portland Breakwater.", "Stone from the cove was also used locally to build the Bishop Rock Lighthouse, Mousehole north pier and the Wolf Rock Lighthouse.", "Granite was dragged by chains to an iron pier, where the stream enters the sea, and transported by ship.", "A plinth weighing 20 tons was sent to The Great Exhibition of 1851 by sea but eventually, due to the hazards of loading ships, granite was sent by road via Kemyal and Paul Hill through Newlyn, to the cutting yards in Wherrytown.", "The present quay was built in the late 19th century, possibly rebuilt on an older quay, and is a grade II listed building.", "A quarry on the west side of the cove failed due to the high quartz content of the granite.", "An area of and known as the ″Lamorna Harbour Works″ was put up for auction at the Mart, Tokenhouse Yard, City of London on 16 June 1881.The property, on both sides of the valley, included ″the exceedingly valuable″ granite quarry with harbour, wharf and pier, a powder magazine, lime and mill house, carpenter's shops, 12 horse-power water-wheel, foreman's residence and a \"substantial and superior\" dwelling-house.", "Despite the 1881 sale claiming the granite quarry was ″exceeding valuable″, Freeman and Sons only employed four men at the quarry two years later and the average-sized blocks were of inferior quality compared with the quarry at nearby Sheffield.The Lamorna Cove Hotel, built in the 1870s and known as Cliffe House, was originally the quarry manager's home, and had a school and chapel (with bell tower) for the quarry workers and their families.", "It was first used as a hotel in the 1920s.", "During the Second World War the hotel was occupied by seven French fishing families who fished out of Newlyn." ], [ "Newlyn School of Art and the Lamorna Colony", "In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Lamorna became popular with artists of the Newlyn School.", "It is particularly associated with the artist S J \"Lamorna\" Birch who lived there from 1908.The colony included Birch, Alfred Munnings, Laura Knight and Harold Knight.", "This period is dramatised in the 1998 novel ''Summer in February'' by Jonathan Smith, which was adapted for the 2013 movie directed by Christopher Menaul.", "Lamorna was also the home of the jeweller Ella Naper and her husband, the painter Charles, who built Trewoofe House.", "The Lamorna Arts Festival was launched in 2009 to celebrate the original Lamorna Colony and today's Lamorna art community." ], [ "Lamorna in culture", "Lamorna has been immortalised in the song \"Way Down to Lamorna\", about a wayward husband receiving his comeuppance from his wife.", "The song is beloved of many Cornish singers, including Brenda Wootton.The actor Robert Newton (1905–1956) was educated in Lamorna and his ashes were scattered in the sea off Lamorna by his son, Nicholas Newton.The authors Derek Tangye and Jean Tangye lived above Lamorna where he wrote his famous books \"The Minack Chronicles\".", "A piece of land called \"Oliver Land\" has been preserved as a wildlife sanctuary in memory of the couple.", "Lamorna was the village used in the novel ''The Memory Garden'' by Rachel Hore (2007) and was a location used for the shooting of Sam Peckinpah's 1971 thriller ''Straw Dogs''.", "''Lamorna Cove'' was the title of a poem by W. H. Davies published in 1929.The name of Lamorna's pub, The Wink, alludes to smuggling, \"the wink\" being a signal that contraband could be obtained.", "The pub is the subject of a novel by Martha Grimes, entitled ''The Lamorna Wink''.", "The interior contains an important collection of maritime artefacts.The Lamorna Pottery was founded in 1947 by Christopher James Ludlow (known as Jimmy) and Derek Wilshaw.", "It is currently a working pottery, gift shop and café." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Lamorna Cove Cornwall.jpg|Looking out from Lamorna Cove CornwallFile:Lamorna Cove Cornwall 2.jpg|Looking over to Lamorna Cove CornwallFile:Lamorna Cove Cornwall 3.jpg|Lamorna Cove harbour CornwallFile:Lamorna Cove Cornwall 4.jpg|Lamorna Cove CornwallFile:Colin CaffellNaiad greenwave.jpg|''Naiad'' by Lamorna artist Colin CaffellFile:Millennium Garden at Lamorna.jpg|Millennium gardens at Lamorna" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Minack Chronicles* Lamorna.info Community website* The Lamorna Society" ] ]
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[ [ "Law of multiple proportions" ], [ "Introduction", "John Dalton, the scientist who the law is sometimes named afterIn chemistry, the '''law of multiple proportions''' states that if two elements form more than one compound, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will always be ratios of small whole numbers.", "This law is also known as ''Dalton's Law'', named after John Dalton, the chemist who first expressed it.For example, Dalton knew that the element carbon forms two oxides by combining with oxygen in different proportions.", "A fixed mass of carbon, say 100 grams, may react with 133 grams of oxygen to produce one oxide, or with 266 grams of oxygen to produce the other.", "The ratio of the masses of oxygen that can react with 100 grams of carbon is 266:133 = 2:1, a ratio of small whole numbers.", "Dalton interpreted this result in his atomic theory by proposing (correctly in this case) that the two oxides have one and two oxygen atoms respectively for each carbon atom.", "In modern notation the first is CO (carbon monoxide) and the second is CO2 (carbon dioxide).John Dalton first expressed this observation in 1804.A few years previously, the French chemist Joseph Proust had proposed the ''law of definite proportions'', which expressed that the elements combined to form compounds in certain well-defined proportions, rather than mixing in just any proportion; and Antoine Lavoisier proved the law of conservation of mass, which also assisted Dalton.", "A careful study of the actual numerical values of these proportions led Dalton to propose his law of multiple proportions.", "This was an important step toward the atomic theory that he would propose later that year, and it laid the basis for chemical formulas for compounds.Another example of the law can be seen by comparing ethane (C2H6) with propane (C3H8).", "The weight of hydrogen which combines with 1 g carbon is 0.252 g in ethane and 0.224 g in propane.", "The ratio of those weights is 1.125, which can be expressed as the ratio of two small numbers 9:8." ], [ "Limitations", "The law of multiple proportions is best demonstrated using simple compounds.", "For example, if one tried to demonstrate it using the hydrocarbons decane (chemical formula C10H22) and undecane (C11H24), one would find that 100 grams of carbon could react with 18.46 grams of hydrogen to produce decane or with 18.31 grams of hydrogen to produce undecane, for a ratio of hydrogen masses of 121:120, which is hardly a ratio of \"small\" whole numbers.The law fails with non-stoichiometric compounds and also performs poorly with polymers and oligomers." ], [ "History", "The law of multiple proportions was a key proof of the atomic theory, but it is uncertain whether Dalton discovered the law of multiple proportions by accident and then used atomic theory to explain it, or whether his law was a hypothesis he proposed in order to investigate the validity of the atomic theory.In 1792, Bertrand Pelletier discovered that a certain amount of tin will combine with a certain amount of oxygen to form one tin oxide, or twice the amount of oxygen to form a different oxide.", "Joseph Proust confirmed Pelletier's discovery and provided measurements of the composition: one tin oxide is 87 parts tin and 13 parts oxygen, and the other is 78.4 parts tin and 21.6 parts oxygen.", "These were likely tin(II) oxide (SnO) and tin dioxide (SnO2), and their actual compositions are 88.1% tin—11.9% oxygen, and 78.7% tin—21.3% oxygen.Scholars who have reviewed the writings of Proust found that he had enough data to have discovered the law of multiple proportions himself, but somehow he did not.", "With regards to the aforementioned tin oxides, had Proust adjusted his figures for a tin content of 100 parts for both oxides, he would have noticed that 100 parts of tin will combine with either 14.9 or 27.6 parts of oxygen.", "14.9 and 27.6 form a ratio of 1:1.85, which is 1:2 if one forgives experimental error.", "It seems this did not occur to Proust, but it occurred to Dalton." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Bibliography", "****" ] ]
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[ [ "Law of averages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''law of averages''' is the commonly held belief that a particular outcome or event will, over certain periods of time, occur at a frequency that is similar to its probability.", "Depending on context or application it can be considered a valid common-sense observation or a misunderstanding of probability.", "This notion can lead to the gambler's fallacy when one becomes convinced that a particular outcome must come soon simply because it has not occurred recently (e.g.", "believing that because three consecutive coin flips yielded ''heads'', the next coin flip must be virtually guaranteed to be ''tails'').As invoked in everyday life, the \"law\" usually reflects wishful thinking or a poor understanding of statistics rather than any mathematical principle.", "While there is a real theorem that a random variable will reflect its underlying probability over a very large sample, the law of averages typically assumes that an unnatural short-term \"balance\" must occur.", "Typical applications also generally assume no bias in the underlying probability distribution, which is frequently at odds with the empirical evidence." ], [ "Examples", "===Gambler's fallacy===The gambler's fallacy is a particular misapplication of the law of averages in which the gambler believes that a particular outcome is more likely because it has not happened recently, or (conversely) that because a particular outcome has recently occurred, it will be less likely in the immediate future.As an example, consider a roulette wheel that has landed on red in three consecutive spins.", "An onlooker might apply the law of averages to conclude that on its next spin it is guaranteed (or at least is much more likely) to land on black.", "Of course, the wheel has no memory and its probabilities do not change according to past results.", "So even if the wheel has landed on red in ten or a hundred consecutive spins, the probability that the next spin will be black is still no more than 48.6% (assuming a ''fair'' European wheel with only one green zero; it would be exactly 50% if there were no green zero and the wheel were fair, and 47.4% for a fair American wheel with one green \"0\" and one green \"00\").", "Similarly, there is no statistical basis for the belief that lottery numbers which haven't appeared recently are due to appear soon.", "(There is some value in choosing lottery numbers that are, in general, less ''popular'' than others — not because they are any more or less likely to come up, but because the largest prizes are usually shared among all of the people who chose the winning numbers.", "The unpopular numbers are just as likely to come up as the popular numbers are, and in the event of a big win, one would likely have to share it with fewer other people.", "See parimutuel betting.", ")===Expectation values===Another application of the law of averages is a belief that a sample's behaviour must line up with the expected value based on population statistics.", "For example, suppose a fair coin is flipped 100 times.", "Using the law of averages, one might predict that there will be 50 heads and 50 tails.", "While this is the single most likely outcome, there is only an 8% chance of it occurring according to of the binomial distribution.", "Predictions based on the law of averages are even less useful if the sample does not reflect the population.===Repetition of trials===In this example, one tries to increase the probability of a rare event occurring at least once by carrying out more trials.", "For example, a job seeker might argue, \"If I send my résumé to enough places, the law of averages says that someone will eventually hire me.\"", "Assuming a non-zero probability, it is true that conducting more trials increases the overall likelihood of the desired outcome.", "However, there is no particular number of trials that guarantees that outcome; rather, the probability that it will already have occurred approaches but never quite reaches 100%.===Chicago Cubs===The Steve Goodman song \"A Dying Cub Fan's Last Request\" mentions the law of averages in reference to the Chicago Cubs lack of championship success.", "At the time Goodman recorded the song in 1981, the Cubs had not won a National League championship since 1945, and had not won a World Series since 1908.This futility would continue until the Cubs would finally win both in 2016." ], [ "See also", "*Law of large numbers*Gambler's fallacy*Regression toward the mean" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Outline of linguistics" ], [ "Introduction", "The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to linguistics:'''Linguistics''' is the scientific study of language.", "Someone who engages in this study is called a '''linguist'''.", "Linguistics can be theoretical or applied." ], [ "Branches of linguistics", "=== Subfields of linguistics ===* General linguistics** Syntax - the property of grammar that governs sentence structure ** Semantics - the study of meaning as encoded in grammar** Lexis - the complete set of words in a language** Morphology - the property of sound and meaning dynamics in language** Pragmatics - the study of how context contributes to meaning * Theoretical linguistics - the study of language as an abstract object** Generative linguistics - an approach which seeks to ground grammar in a specialized language module** Formalism (linguistics) - the theory of language as a formal system with mathematical-logical rules and a formal grammar** Functional linguistics - language as used and coming from use** Quantitative linguistics - the study of quantitative language laws and corresponding general theories** Formal semantics - the study of semantics through formal logic-based models* Descriptive linguistics - describing how a particular language is used** Anthropological linguistics - ''the place of language in its wider social and cultural context, and its role in making and maintaining cultural practices and societal structures''** Historical linguistics - study of historical language change over time *** Comparative linguistics - comparing languages to find similarities and historical connections** Phonology - the usage of vocalized sounds and systems of sounds to form language*** Graphemics - the study of language writing systems** Phonetics - the study of the speech faculty *** Graphetics - the study of writing shapes as assigned to sounds or ideas** Etymology - the study of word histories and origins ** Sociolinguistics - the study of society's effects on language* Applied linguistics - finding solutions to real-life problems related to language** Computational linguistics - the use of computation applied to language databasing, analysis, translation, and synthesis** Forensic linguistics - language science applied to the processes of law and justice** Internet linguistics - the study of language usage on the Internet ** Language assessment - assessing first or second language faculty in individuals ** Language documentation - comprehensive description of the grammar and use practices of languages of a particular group** Language revitalization - ''is an attempt to halt or reverse the decline of a language or to revive an extinct one''** Language education - teaching specific language and language science** Linguistic anthropology - ''study of how language influences social life''* Psycholinguistics - ''is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language''** Cognitive linguistics - an approach which seeks to ground grammar in general cognition** Language acquisition - the study of how children and adults acquire language knowledge and ability** Language development - the study of early language formation** Second-language acquisition - the study of how a second language is learned==== Subfields, by linguistic structures studied ====Sub-fields of structure-focused linguistics include:* Phonetics – study of the physical properties of speech (or signed) production and perception* Phonology – study of sounds (or signs) as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning* Morphology – study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified* Syntax – study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences* Semantics – study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these compose to form the meanings of sentences* Pragmatics – study of how utterances are used in communicative acts – and the role played by context and nonlinguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning* Discourse analysis – analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed)* Linguistic typology – comparative study of the similarities and differences between language structures in the world's languages.==== Subfields, by nonlinguistic factors studied ====* Applied linguistics – study of language-related issues applied in everyday life, notably language policies, planning, and education.", "(Constructed language fits under Applied linguistics.", ")* Biolinguistics – the study of the biological and evolutionary components of human language.", "* Clinical linguistics – application of linguistic theory to the field of Speech-Language Pathology.", "* Computational linguistics – study of linguistic issues in a way that is 'computationally responsible', i.e., taking careful note of computational consideration of algorithmic specification and computational complexity, so that the linguistic theories devised can be shown to exhibit certain desirable computational properties implementations.", "* Developmental linguistics – study of the development of linguistic ability in individuals, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood.", "* Historical linguistics – study of language change over time.", "Also called diachronic linguistics.", "* Language geography – study of the geographical distribution of languages and linguistic features.", "* Neurolinguistics – study of the structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication.", "* Psycholinguistics – study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use.", "* Sociolinguistics – study of variation in language and its relationship with social factors.", "* Stylistics – study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context.===Other subfields of linguistics===* Contrastive linguistics* Corpus linguistics* Dialectology* Discourse analysis* Grammar* Interlinguistics* Language learning* Language teaching* Language for specific purposes* Lexicology* Orthography* Rhetoric* Text linguistics===Schools, movements, and approaches of linguistics===* Cognitive linguistics* Danish functional linguistics* Functionalism* Generative grammar* Geneva School* Interactional linguistics* Kazan School* Neogrammarian* Prague linguistic circle* Prescription and description* Soviet linguistics* Stratificational linguistics* Structural linguistics* Systemic functional linguistics* SIL International* Tagmemics" ], [ "Related fields", "* Semiotics – investigates the relationship between signs and what they signify more broadly.", "From the perspective of semiotics, language can be seen as a sign or symbol, with the world as its representation.", "* Terminology - is the study of terms and their use.", "** Terminology science - study of special vocabulary* Philosophy of language - takes a philosophical approach to language.", "Many formal semanticists are philosophers of language, differing from linguist semanticists only in their metaphysical assumptions (if at all).", "** Philosophical logic" ], [ "History of linguistics", "===Timeline of discovery of basic linguistics concepts===''When were the basic concepts first described and by whom?", "''* Ancient Sanskrit grammarians* Ancient Greek study of language* Roman elaborations of Greek study* Medieval philosophical work in Latin* Beginnings of modern linguistics in the 19th century* Behaviorism and mental ''tabula rasa'' hypothesis* Chomsky and the cognitive revolution* The Linguistics Wars* Compositional formal semantics arises from the work of Richard Montague and Barbara Partee* Alternate syntactic systems develop in 80s* Computational linguistics becomes feasible the late 80s* Neurolinguistics and the biological basis of cognition* Deep learning in the 2010s" ], [ "Questions in linguistics", "# What is language?# How did it/does it evolve?# How does language serve as a medium of communication?# How does language serve as a medium of thinking?# What is common to all languages?# How do languages differ?" ], [ "Basic concepts", "''What basic concepts / terms do I have to know to talk about linguistics?", "''* Morphology** morpheme, inflection, paradigm, declension, derivation, compound* Phonology** phoneme, allophone, segment, mora, syllable, foot, stress, tone* Grammar** tense, aspect, mood and modality, grammatical number, grammatical gender, case* Syntax** phrase, clause, grammatical function, grammatical voice* Lexicology** word, lexeme, lemma, lexicon, vocabulary, terminology* Semantics** meaning, sense, entailment, truth condition, compositionality* Pragmatics** presupposition, implicature, deixis" ], [ "Languages of the world", "===Languages by continent and country===" ], [ "Linguistics scholars", "''People who had a significant influence on the development of the field''* J.L.", "Austin* Leonard Bloomfield* Franz Bopp* Noam Chomsky* Jean Berko Gleason* Joseph Greenberg* Paul Grice* M.A.K.", "Halliday* Louis Hjelmslev* Roman Jakobson* Sir William Jones* William Labov* George Lakoff* Ronald Langacker* Richard Montague* Pāṇini* Barbara Partee* Kenneth L. Pike* Rasmus Rask* Edward Sapir* Ferdinand de Saussure* August Schleicher* Lucien Tesnière* Nikolai Trubetzkoy* Benjamin Lee Whorf" ], [ "Linguistics lists", "* Languages** Language families and languages** ISO 639** Official languages** Definitions by language* Alphabets & Orthography Arabic Aramaic Armenian Braille Coptic Cyrillic Georgian Gothic Korean Hebrew IPA English IPA Kannada Hiragana Katakana Morse code ICAO spelling Phoenician Runic SAMPA chart English SAMPA Shavian Thai* Ideograms - Chinese and Japanese* Syllabaries - Korean * Mixed: Ancient Egyptian * Common misspellings* English words without rhymes* Acronym** Wiktionary:Definitions of acronyms and abbreviations" ], [ "The placement of linguistics within broader frameworks", "Linguistics can be described as an academic discipline and, at least in its theoretical subfields, as a field of science, being a widely recognized category of specialized expertise, embodying its own terminology, nomenclature, and scientific journals.", "Many linguists, such as David Crystal, conceptualize the field as being primarily scientific.", "Linguistics is a multi-disciplinary field of research that combines tools from natural sciences, social sciences, formal sciences, and the humanities.Historically, there has been some lack of consensus on the disciplinary classification of linguistics, particularly theoretical linguistics.", "Linguistic realists viewed linguistics as a formal science; linguistic nominalists (the American structuralists) viewed linguistics as an empirical or even physical science; linguistic conceptualists viewed linguistics as a branch of psychology and therefore a social science; others yet have argued for viewing linguistics as a mixed science.Linguistics is heterogeneous in its methods of research, so that each area of theoretical linguistics may resemble methodologically either formal science or empirical science, to different degrees.", "For example, phonetics uses empirical approaches to study the physical acoustics of spoken language.", "On the other hand, semantically and grammatically, the usability of a formal or natural language is dependent on a formal and arbitrary axiomatization of rules or norms.", "Furthermore, as studied in pragmatics and semiotics, linguistic meaning is influenced by social context.To enable communication by upholding a lexico-semantic norm, the speakers of a shared language need to agree on the meaning of a sequence of phonemes; for instance, \"aunt\" (/æ/, /n/, /t/) would be acknowledged to signify \"parent's sister or parent's sister-in-law\", instead of \"drummer\" or \"guest\".", "Likewise, grammatically, it may be necessary for the interlocutors to agree on the morphological and syntactic properties of the sequence; say, that the sequence (/æ/ , /n/, /t/) would be treated as a singular noun convertible morphologically to plurality by the addition of the suffix -s, or that as a noun it must not be modified syntactically by an adverb (for instance, \"Let's call our immediately aunt\" would thus be recognized as a grammatically incoherent structure, in a manner similar to a mathematically undefined expression)." ], [ "See also", "* Number of words in English* Lexicography" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Glottopedia, MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction* Subfields according to the Linguistic Society of America* Glossary of linguistic terms and FrenchEnglish glossary at SIL International* \"Linguistics\" section of A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed.", "J.", "A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain)* Linguistics and language-related wiki articles on Scholarpedia and Citizendium" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Outline of law" ], [ "Introduction", "The following outline is provided as an overview of and introduction to law:Law is the set of rules and principles (laws) by which a society is governed, through enforcement by governmental authorities.", "Law is also the field that concerns the creation and administration of laws, and includes any and all legal systems." ], [ "Nature of law", "Law can be described as all of the following:* Academic discipline – the body of knowledge given to - or received by - a disciple (student); a branch or sphere of knowledge, or field of study, that an individual has chosen to specialise in.", "** one of the humanities – an academic discipline that studies the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytical, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences.", "* System – set of elements (often called 'components' instead) and relationships which are different from relationships of the set or its elements to other elements or sets.", "** part of the legal system – legal scholarship and practice shapes how the law is interpreted and applied in societies" ], [ "Legal systems", "* List of national legal systems* Common law* Civil law (legal system)* Religious law** Bahá'í laws** Biblical law, in Judaism and Christianity** Canon law, in Christianity** Canon (canon law) - a certain rule or norm of conduct or belief prescribed by the Church.", "The word \"canon\" comes from the Greek ''kanon'', which in its original usage denoted a straight rod that was later the instrument used by architects and artificers as a measuring stick for making straight lines.", "*** Canons of the Apostles*** Canon law of the Anglican Communion****Canon law of the Church of England****Canon law of the Episcopal Church in the United States*** Canon law of the Catholic Church****Custom (Catholic canon law) - the repeated and constant performance of certain acts for a defined period of time, which, with the approval of the competent legislator, thereby acquire the force of law.", "A custom is an unwritten law introduced by the continuous acts of the faithful with the consent of the legitimate legislator.", "****Decree (Catholic canon law) - an order or law made by a superior authority for the direction of others.", "****Dispensation (Catholic canon law) - the exemption from the immediate obligation of law in certain cases.", "Its object is to modify the hardship often arising from the rigorous application of general laws to particular cases, and its essence is to preserve the law by suspending its operation in such cases.", "****Interpretation (Catholic canon law) - canonists provide and obey rules for the interpretation and acceptation of words, in order that legislation is correctly understood and the extent of its obligation is determined.", "****Obrogation - the enacting of a contrary law that is a revocation of a previous law.", "It may also be the partial cancellation or amendment of a law, decree, or legal regulation by the imposition of a newer one.", "****Promulgation (Catholic canon law) - the publication of a law by which it is made known publicly, and is required by canon law for the law to obtain legal effect.", "** Halakha, in Judaism** Hindu law** Jain law** Pāṭimokkha, in Theravada Buddhism** Sharia, in Islam*Traditional Chinese law" ], [ "Law by source", "*Canon (canon law)*Custom (customary law)**Custom (Catholic canon law)*Precedent of past judicial decisions (''stare decisis'')*Statutory law**Statute*Constitutional law**Constitution*Regulatory law*Juristic writings (such as legal treatises)*Sources of international law**Customary international law**Treaty" ], [ "Branches of law", "=== Public law ===Public law*Constitutional law*Tax law (revenue law)====Administrative law====*Administrative law====Criminal law====*Criminal law (penal law)*Criminal procedure===Substantive law and adjectival law===*Substantive law*Procedural law===Law of persons===*Person (Catholic canon law)===Civil law===*Civil law (common law)*Civil procedure*Civil rights*Common law*Environmental law*Family law*Tort law*Contract law*Property law*Agency law===Laws by jurisdictional scope===*International law**Public international law**Conflict of laws (Private international law)***Dualism (law)***Legal pluralism**Supranational law**Law of the European Union***Treaties of the European Union***Regulation (European Union)***Directive (European Union)***European Union decision***European Union legislative procedure*Municipal law**Federal law (National law)**State law**Local ordinance" ], [ "History", "History of law*Cuneiform law*Babylonian law*Ancient Greek law*Roman law*Early Germanic law*Legal history of the Catholic Church**''Jus antiquum''" ], [ "Basic legal concepts", "*''Ignorantia juris non excusat''*Presumption of innocence**Presumption (canon law)*Treason*Rights (Outline)*Rule of law" ], [ "People who have influenced law", "===Canon law===*Aquinas, St. Thomas (wrote influential ''Treatise on Law'')*Benedict XIV, Pope*Gratian (\"Father of Canon Law\", founder of canon law jurisprudence; canon law as legal system)*Hostiensis (most influential decretist)*Gregory IX, Pope (promulgated the ''Decretales Gregorii IX'')*Gasparri, Pietro (codified the 1917 Code of Canon Law)*John Paul II, Pope (promulgated the 1983 Code of Canon Law and the 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches)*Penyafort, Raymond of (patron of canon lawyers, codified ''Decretales Gregorii IX'')*Photios I of Constantinople (writer of a nomocanon)===Civil law===*Napoleon*Justinian===Common law===*Blackstone, Sir William*Holmes, Oliver Wendell===Other legal systems===*Hammurabi*Moses*Muhammad" ], [ "Lists", ";Sources of law*Lists of legislation*Lists of case law*List of treaties*'''Branches of law'''*List of areas of law;Legislatures*List of legislatures by country*List of legislative buildings*List of legislatures by number of members*List of legislatures by female members;Courts*List of ''ad hoc'' international criminal tribunals*List of constitutional courts*List of courthouses*List of courts in England and Wales*List of High Courts of India*List of special tribunals and courts*List of supreme courts by country;Prisons*List of prisons;International law*Environmental agreements*List of international public law topics*List of international trade topics*List of international declarations;Judges*Lists of supreme court justices;Privy council members*Historical lists of Privy Counsellors*List of current members of the British Privy Council*List of current members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada*List of members of the Privy Council of Northern Ireland*List of members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada;Caselaw*List of copyright case law*List of European Court of Human Rights judgments*List of European Court of Justice rulings*List of International Court of Justice cases*List of Judicial Committee of the Privy Council cases*List of United Kingdom House of Lords cases**List of notable United Kingdom House of Lords cases*List of Supreme Court of Canada cases*List of United States Supreme Court cases;Legislation*List of legislation named for a person*List of legislation named for a place*List of national constitutions*List of civil codes*List of criminal codes*List of codes of canon law*List of edicts*List of government gazettes*List of European Union directives*List of European Union regulations*List of Uniform Acts (United States)*List of United States federal legislation;Other*List of business law topics*Outline of criminal justice*List of topics in logic*List of environmental law journals*List of legal abbreviations*List of ayatollahs*List of individuals executed by the federal government of the United States*List of law journals*List of jurists*List of Latin phrases*List of Latin legal terms*List of largest law firms by revenue*Lists of law schools*List of national legal systems*List of protective service agencies*List of real estate topics*List of riots*List of software patents" ], [ "External links", "* Legal news and information network for attorneys and other legal professionals* Encyclopaedic project of the academic initiative in JurisPedia* Legal articles, news, and interactive maps* WorldLII – World Legal Information Institute* CommonLII – Commonwealth Legal Information Institute* AsianLII – Asian Legal Information Institute* AustLII – Australasian Legal Information Institute* BAILII – British and Irish Legal Information Institute* CanLII – Canadian Legal Information Institute* NZLII – New Zealand Legal Information Institute* PacLII – Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute" ], [ "Notes" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Outline of literature" ], [ "Introduction", "The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to literature:'''Literature''' – prose, written or oral, including fiction and non-fiction, drama, and poetry.", ": ''See also the Outline of poetry.''" ], [ "What ''type'' of thing is literature?", "Literature can be described as all of the following:* Communication – activity of conveying information.", "Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space.", "** Written communication (writing) – representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols (known as a writing system).", "* Subdivision of culture – shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization, or group.", "** One of the arts – imaginative, creative, or nonscientific branch of knowledge, especially as studied academically." ], [ "Essence of literature", "* Composition –* World literature –" ], [ "Forms of literature", "===Oral literary genres===Oral literature* Oral poetry – ** Epic poetry –*** Legend – *** Mythology – *** Ballad – * Folktale – * Oral Narrative – ** Oral History – ** Urban legend –===Written literary genres===* Cordel Literature* Children's literature – * Constrained writing – * Erotic literature – * Electronic literature – Literary fiction and poetry that uses the capabilities of computers and networks** Digital poetry – ** Interactive fiction – ** Hypertext fiction – literary fiction written with hypertextual links ** Fan fiction ** Cell phone novel * Poetry (see that article for an extensive list of subgenres and types)** Aubade – ** Clerihew – ** Epic – ** Grook – form of short aphoristic poem invented by the Danish poet and scientist Piet Hein, who wrote over 7,000 of them.", "** Haiku – form of short Japanese poetry consisting of three lines.", "** Instapoetry** Tanka – classical Japanese poetry of five lines.", "** Lied – ** Limerick – a kind of a witty, humorous, or nonsense poem,Vaughn, Stanton.", "Limerick Lyrics.", "1900.Retrieved from .", "especially one in five-line or meter with a strict rhyme scheme (aabba), which is sometimes obscene with humorous intent.", "** Lyric – ** Ode – ** Rhapsody – ** Song – ** Sonnet – ** Speculative poetry – * Prison literature – * Rhymed prose – ** Saj'*** Maqama** Fu (literature)** Rayok====Non-fiction====Non-fiction* Autobiography –* Biography – * Diaries and Journals – * Essay – * Literary criticism – * Memoir – * Outdoor literature – * Self-Help – * Spiritual autobiography – * Travel literature –==== Fiction genres ====Fiction* Manga –* Adventure novel –* Airport novels –* Comedy –* Parody – * Satire –*Crime fiction –** Detective fiction – *** Hardboiled – *** Whodunit –** Newgate novel –*Erotica –*Fable –*Fairy tale –*Family saga –*Gothic –** Southern Gothic –*Historical fiction –*Inspirational fiction –*Invasion literature –*Mystery –*Philosophical literature –:Inspirational fiction (religious literature) –*Psychological fiction –*Psychological thriller –*Romance (heroic literature) – *Romance –** Historical romance – *** Regency romance – ** Inspirational romance –** Paranormal romance –*Saga –*Speculative fiction –** Alternate history – ** Fantasy – (for more details see Fantasy subgenres, fantasy literature)*** Epic fantasy –*** Science fantasy – *** Steampunk – *** Urban fantasy – *** Weird fantasy –** Horror – *** Lovecraftian horror – *** Weird menace – ** Science fiction – (for more details see Science fiction genres and related topics*** Cyberpunk – *** Hard science fiction – *** Space opera – ** Supernatural fiction –*Sensation novel –*Slave narrative –*Thriller –** Conspiracy fiction – ** Legal thriller – ** Spy fiction/Political thriller –** Techno-thriller –*Western fiction –" ], [ "Literature by region and country", "=== Asia ===*East Asian literature**Chinese literature**Japanese literature**Korean literature**Mongolian literature**Taiwanese literature*South Asian literature**Bangladeshi literature**Bhutanese literature**Indian literature***Assamese literature***Bengali literature***Bhojpuri language#Bhojpuri literature***Indian English literature***Gujarati literature***Hindi literature***Kannada literature***Kashmiri literature***Konkani literature***Malayalam literature***Maithili literature***Meitei literature***Marathi literature***Mizo literature***Nepali literature***Odia literature***Punjabi literature***Rajasthani literature***Sanskrit literature***Sindhi literature***Tamil literature***Telugu literature***Urdu literature**Maldivian literature**Nepalese literature**Pakistani literature**Sri Lankan literature*Southeast Asian literature**Brunei literature**Burmese literature**Cambodian literature**Indonesian literature**Laotian literature**Malaysian literature**Philippine literature**Singaporean literature**Thai literature**Timoran literature**Vietnamese literature*Central Asian literature**Kazakh literature**Kyrgyz literature**Tajik literature **Turkmen literature**Uzbek literature=== Europe ===** Albanian literature** Andorran literature** Armenian literature ** Austrian literature** Azerbaijani literature** Basque literature** Belarusian literature** Belgian literature*** Flemish literature** Bosnian literature** Bulgarian literature** British literature*** Cornish literature*** English literature*** Manx literature*** Jèrriais literature*** Scottish literature**** Scots-language literature**** Scottish Gaelic literature*** Ulster literature*** Welsh literature in English*** Welsh-language literature** Croatian literature** Cypriot literature*** Turkish Cypriot literature** Czech literature** Danish literature*** Faroese literature*** Greenlandic literature** Dutch literature*** Frisian literature**Esperanto literature** Estonian literature** Finnish literature*** Åland literature** French literature - also Francophone literature*** Breton literature*** Occitan literature** Georgian literature *** Abkhaz literature*** Chechen literature*** Ossetian literature** German literature** Greek literature** Hungarian literature** Icelandic literature** Irish literature*** Gaelic literature*** Literature of Northern Ireland** Italian literature*** Friulian literature*** Sardinian literature*** Venetian literature*** Western Lombard literature** Kazakh literature** Kosovar literature** Latvian literature** Liechtensteiner literature** Lithuanian literature** Luxembourg literature** Macedonian literature** Maltese literature** Moldovan literature** Monégasque literature** Montenegrin literature** Norwegian literature** Polish literature** Portuguese literature** Romanian literature** Russian literature** Sammarinese literature** Serbian literature** Slovak literature** Slovene literature** Spanish literature*** Aragonese literature *** Asturian literature *** Catalan literature*** Galician-language literature** Swedish literature** Swiss literature** Turkish literature** Ukrainian literature** Yiddish literature=== Middle East and North Africa ===**Afghan literature**Algerian literature**Arabic literature**Bahraini literature**Egyptian literature**Ethiopian literature**Emirati literature**Iranian literature**Iraqi literature**Israeli literature**Jordanian literature**Kuwaiti literature**Kurdish literature**Lebanese literature**Libyan literature**Moroccan literature**Oman literature**Pakistani literature**Palestinian literature**Persian literature**Qatari literature**Saudi literature**Syrian literature**Tunisian literature**Turkish literature**Yemeni literature=== North and South America ===* North American literature** American literature***African American literature***Native American literature***Southern literature***Deaf American literature** Canadian literature***Quebec literature** Mexican literature*Caribbean literature**Cuban literature**Dominican Republic literature**Guadeloupean Literature**Haitian literature**Jamaican literature**Martinican Literature**Puerto Rican literature**Barthélemois literature**Trinidad and Tobago literature*Central American literature**Costa Rican literature**Salvadoran literature**Guatemalan literature**Honduran literature**Nicaraguan literature**Panamanian literature*South American literature**Argentine literature**Bolivian literature**Brazilian literature**Chilean literature**Colombian literature**Ecuadorean literature**Guyanese literature**Paraguayan literature**Peruvian literature**Uruguayan literature**Venezuelan literature=== Oceania ===* Oceanian literature** Australian literature** Fijian literature** Kiribati literature** Marshall Islands literature** Micronesian literature** Nauran literature** New Zealand literature** Papua New Guinean literature** Palau literature** Samoan literature** Solomon Islands literature** Tongan literature** Tuvalan literature** Vanuatu literature=== Sub-saharan Africa ===*East African literature**Burundian literature**Comorian literature**Djibouti literature**Eritrean literature \t**Kenyan literature \t**Madagascar literature**Malawian literature**Mauritian literature**Mozambique literature**Réunion literature**Rwandan literature**Seychelles literature**Somalian literature **Somaliland literature**South Sudanese literature**Sudanese literature**Tanzanian literature**Ugandan literature**Zambian literature**Zimbabwean literature*Central African literature**Angolan literature \t**Cameroon literature**Literature of Central African Republic**Chadian literature \t**Congolese literature**Equatorial Guinea literature**Gabon literature**São Tomé and Príncipe literature*Southern African literature**Botswanan literature**Swazi literature**Lesotho literature**Namibian literature **South African literature ***Afrikaans literature*West African literature**Beninese literature**Burkina Faso literature**Literature of Cape Verde**Gambian literature**Ghanan literature**Guinean literature**Guinea-Bissau literature**Ivory Coast literature**Liberian literature \t**Malian literature \t**Mauritanian literature**Literature of Niger**Nigerian literature***Yoruba literature **Senegalese literature**Sierra Leone literature**Togo literature" ], [ "History of literature", "History of literature* History of the book* History of theater* History of science fiction* History of ideas* Intellectual history=== Literature by written language ===* Bronze Age literature** Sumerian** Ancient Egyptian** Akkadian* Classical literature** Avestan** Chinese** Greek** Hebrew** Latin** Pali** Prakrit** Sanskrit** Syriac** Sangam literature** Middle Persian literature* '''Medieval literature'''** Medieval Dutch literature** Medieval French literature** Byzantine literature** Medieval Bulgarian literature** Old English literature** Middle English literature** Medieval German literature** Old Irish literature** Old Norse literature** Georgian literature** Catalan literature** Medieval Welsh literature** Renaissance literature** Early Modern literature** Baroque**English literature**French literature**German literature**Italian literature**Spanish literature** Bengali literature** Hindi literature** Kannada literature** Newari literature** Telugu literature**Chinese literature**Japanese literature**Korean literature** Arabic literature** Persian literature** Armenian literature** Turkish literature==== Literature by century ====* Ancient literature - until the 6th century CE* Early medieval literature - 6th through 9th centuries* 10th century in literature* 11th century in literature* 12th century in literature* 13th century in literature* 14th century in literature* 15th century in literature* 16th century in literature* 17th century in literature* 18th century in literature* 19th century in literature* 20th century in literature* 21st century in literature==== Literature by year ====* List of years in literature* Table of years in literature" ], [ "General literature concepts", "*Book *Western canon – * Teaching of writing:** Composition – ** Rhetoric – *Poetry – ** Prosody – ** Meter – ** Scansion – ** Constrained writing – *Poetics – **Villanelle – **Sonnet – **Sestina – **Ghazal – **Ballad – **Blank verse – **Free verse – **Epic poetry – * Prose – ** Fiction – ** Non-fiction – ** Biography – * Prose genres – ** Essay – ** Flash prose – ** Hypertext fiction – ** Journalism – ** Novel – ** Novella – ** Short story – *Theater – ** History of theater – *Rhetoric – ** Metaphor – ** Metonymy – ** Symbol – ** Allegory – * Basic procedural knowledge** Poetry analysis – ** effective reasoning in argument writing* Narratology** False document – ** Frame tale – ** Anecdote – ** In Medias Res – ** Point of view – * Literary criticism – an application of literary theory** Marxist literary criticism – ** Semiotic literary interpretation – ** Psychoanalytic literary interpretation – ** Feminist literary interpretation – ** New historicism – ** Queer literary interpretation –" ], [ "Literary awards", "* List of literary awards* List of poetry awards" ], [ "Persons influential in the field of literature", "* List of authors* :Category:Literary critics* List of writers** List of women writers" ], [ "Literature creation", "* Author* Publisher* Editor* Copy editor" ], [ "Literature distribution", "* Publishing* Library* Bookselling* Magazine" ], [ "See also", "* Index of literature articles* Lists of books* English studies* List of poems*List of poetry collections" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Internet Public Library listing for Literature* Nobel Prize in Literature" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "AvtoVAZ" ], [ "Introduction", "'''AvtoVAZ''' () is a Russian automobile manufacturing company owned by the state.", "It was formerly named as '''VAZ''' (), an acronym for '''Volga Automotive Plant''' in Russian ().", "AvtoVAZ is best known for its flagship series of Lada vehicles.", "In the Soviet Union, its products used various names, including Zhiguli, Oka, and Sputnik, which were phased out in the 1990s and replaced by Lada for the Russian market.", "From December 2019 to August 2020, AvtoVAZ sold Niva cars with Chevrolet branding.AvtoVAZ was established in 1966 by the Soviet government as a state-run car manufacturer.", "It was privatized in the 1990s and was a subsidiary of Renault from October 2016 to May 2022.In May 2022, it was re-acquired by the Russian government.", "The company is indirectly owned by Russian state enterprises through Lada Auto Holding." ], [ "History", "===Establishment===The VAZ plant was established in 1966 by the Soviet government in cooperation with the Italian car manufacturer Fiat.", "(later Minister of Automobile Industry) was named as director, and Vladimir Solovyov as chief designer.", "The plant intended to produce popular economy cars that would meet the growing demand for personal transport.", "It was built on the banks of the Volga in 1966.A new town, Tolyatti, named after Italian Communist Party leader Palmiro Togliatti, was built around the plant The cost of the VAZ plant was estimated at $800 million in 1970 (equivalent to $ billion in ).", "Early VAZ models (left to right): VAZ-2101 (1970), VAZ-2102 (1971) and VAZ-2103 (1972)The cars to be produced (designated as \"Zhiguli\") was envisaged as a \"people's car\" like the Citroën 2CV or the VW Type 1.Production was intended to be 220,000 units a year, beginning in 1971 (other sources listed 300,000 in 1971); car production actually began before the plant was finished in 1970.The VAZ trademark, at first, was a silver Volga boat on a red pentagonal background, with \"Togliatti\" superimposed in Cyrillic (Тольятти); the first badges, manufactured in Turin, mistakenly had the Cyrillic \"Я\" rendered \"R\", instead (Тольʀтти), making them collector's items.The company was not as vertically integrated as other Soviet enterprises; for example, it purchased components from a variety of suppliers over which it exerted little control; in the early years of the company certain parts and subassemblies were imported from Fiat's suppliers in Italy until they could be locally sourced.===1970s===The VAZ automaking plant in 1969The first car, the VAZ-2101 (a slightly modified and rebadged Fiat 124), was produced on 22 April 1970, the 100th anniversary of Lenin's birth.", "About 22,000 VAZ-2101s were built in 1970, with capacity at the end of 1973 reaching 660,000 a year; 21 December, the one-millionth 2101 was built.", "A third production line was added in October 1974, boosting output to 2,230 cars a day.", "The same year, total VAZ production reached 1.5 million.The VAZ plant trialled many of the new automation systems that Fiat was planning to introduce in its own factories, and was described as \"ultra-modern\" by the ''Chicago Tribune'' in a 1973 article.", "Production reached 750,000 cars a year in 1975, making the Tolyatti plant the third-most productive in the world.", "Between 1977 and 1981, AvtoVAZ acquired 30 welding robots from Japanese firms.In 1974, VAZ was given permission to begin producing Wankel engines under licence from NSU.", "Work began in 1976, with a single-rotor Lada appearing in 1978; the first 250 of these went on sale in the summer of 1980.After having built a number of prototypes and experimental vehicles, AvtoVAZ designers launched the first car entirely of their own design, the VAZ-2121 Niva, in 1977.This highly popular and innovative sport utility vehicle (SUV) was made with off-road use in mind, featuring a gearbox with a central differential lock lever, as well as a low- and high-range selector lever.The VAZ-2105, based on the Fiat 124 mechanicals, but modernised and restyled, was introduced in 1979 and marketed outside the Soviet Union under the Riva or Laika trade names, depending on the country.", "Square headlights and new body panels distinguish this car from the earlier models.", "The 2105 was third-best selling automobile platform after the Volkswagen Beetle and the Ford Model T, and one of the longest production run platforms alongside the Volkswagen Beetle, the Hindustan Ambassador, and the Volkswagen Type 2.In 1993, TTS, signed a contract with AvtoVAZ.", "In 1995, the first full—fledged LADA car center was opened in the city of Naberezhnye Chelny and started direct deliveries from the automobile plant.", "In 1995, an office was opened in Kazan.", "Until 1997, cars were driven from Naberezhnye Chelny.", "After that, they were transported by rail.===1980s===Technical and design centerIn May 1980, a series of mass strikes at the Togliatti plant involving hundreds of thousands of workers was reported by the western press.Based on the success of the Niva, the design department prepared a new family of front-wheel drive models by 1984, which was of a completely domestic design.", "Production started with the VAZ-2108 ''Sputnik'' three-door hatchback, the series was commercially known as Samara.", "It was the first front-wheel drive serial car built in the Soviet Union after the LuAZ-969V.", "A white 2108 became the nine-millionth Lada built, on 24 May 1985, with the ten-millionth, on 9 October 1986, also a 2108.The twelve-millionth, a right-hand drive 2109, was produced 6 July 1989.By the late 1980s, AvtoVAZ was suffering from the deterioration of its capital goods, such as tools and machinery, resulting from insufficient levels of investment over a long period.", "Unproductive and antiquated management techniques also contributed to the decline, as did the absence of market competition.", "The first privately owned AvtoVAZ dealership was established by Boris Berezovsky in 1989.Dealerships quickly turned into criminal rackets that at times simply stole cars from the factory.===After privatization===GM-AvtoVAZ plant in Tolyatti, RussiaIn June 1991, Bear Stearns was hired by the Soviet government to conduct an appraisal of AvtoVAZ and negotiate a venture with a Western partner, in preparation for the privatization of the company.", "An independent trade union was started during the same year, as workers deemed the traditional trade union to be too close to the interests of management.In January 1993, AvtoVAZ was re-established as a joint-stock company under Russian law.", "The company came to be controlled by the management, including Vladimir Kadannikov, head of AvtoVAZ.", "It was listed on the Moscow Exchange.", "As with many other privatized post-Soviet companies, the financial situation at AvtoVAZ was dire, with workers being unpaid for months at a time.In 1994, Boris Berezovsky's dealership company, called Logovaz, accounted for nearly 10% of the domestic sales of AvtoVAZ.", "Despite the state of the Russian economy at the time, demand for AvtoVAZ cars remained buoyant, but widespread corruption in the distribution network led the company to accumulate massive debts.The 110-series sedan was introduced in 1995, two years after its original 1993 deadline.", "Development costs for the car were estimated at $2 billion.", "The 2111 station wagon followed in 1998 and the 2112 hatchback completed the range in 2001.By 1995, car sales, distribution, and spare parts at AvtoVAZ were all controlled by criminal organizations.", "This situation was made possible by the close relationship that existed between the criminals and part of the management.", "Additionally, gangsters were used to control the workers and break strikes.By late 1996, AvtoVAZ had become the country's largest tax debtor, owing $2.4 billion in unpaid taxes.", "In 1997, the Ministry of Internal Affairs launched Operation Cyclone, an investigation that ultimately uncovered evidence that gangsters connected to AvtoVAZ had carried out at least 65 murders of company managers, dealers, and business rivals.The 1998 Russian financial crisis improved the company's market position, by improving the effectiveness of export sales and making imported cars too expensive for most Russians.", "The VAZ-2120 Nadezhda, a minivan based on the Lada Niva, was introduced in 1998.In the second half of the 1990s, some efforts were made to improve the quality of production, but in 1999, nearly 50,000 cases of cars were still being assembled with missing parts.In 2001, GM-AvtoVAZ, a joint venture with General Motors, was established.", "Increased competition from foreign car manufacturers had the company's share of the Russian market fall to 49% in 2002, compared to 56% four years earlier.", "In 2003, VAZ presented the concept car Lada Revolution, an open single-seater sports car powered by a 1.6-L engine producing .", "Production of the Wankel engine used on some Lada models (mostly the police versions) stopped in 2004.The introduction of the new Kalina B-segment lineup to the market occurred in 2005.AutoVAZ built a new modern plant for this model and was hoping to sell some 200,000 cars annually.", "The Kalina had been originally designed in the early 1990s, and its launch was repeatedly delayed, exemplifying the company's difficulty in bringing products to market in time.", "In October 2005, control of the company, which had until then been exercised by subsidiaries of AvtoVAZ connected to Kadannikov, was transferred to Rosoboronexport.", "March 2007 had the start of production of Lada Priora, a restyled and modernised 110-series model.===Involvement of Renault-Nissan===The first Lada Granta on the Tolyatti assembly line, 2011In March 2008, Renault purchased a 25% stake in AvtoVAZ in a US$1 billion deal, with Rostec retaining most of the remaining 75%.", "The deal was agreed at a time when the Russian car market was booming.The onset of the Great Recession caused considerable problems to the company.", "By April 2009, AvtoVAZ was on the verge of bankruptcy, which was only avoided because of a $600 million bailout from the Russian government.", "As an anticrisis measure, the Russian government introduced a car scrappage scheme in March 2010.Avtovaz sales doubled in the second quarter of 2010 as a result, and the company returned to profit.", "By the end of 2010, automotive production in Russia had returned to precrisis levels.In 2011, production of the classic Fiat 124-based 2105 and 2107 series models was completely moved from the Togliatti plant to the IzhAvto plant near Izhevsk, to make space for the company's forthcoming 2016 model.", "In April 2012, AvtoVAZ confirmed the end of the model 2107 (Lada Riva or Lada Nova), after more than 40 years.Sales of the Lada Granta, a subcompact car developed in collaboration with Renault, started in December 2011.The Lada Largus was launched in the Russian market in the middle of July 2012.In August 2012, the Lada XRAY concept car was launched at the Moscow International Automobile Salon.", "The XRAY was designed by chief designer Steve Mattin, formerly of Volvo and Mercedes-Benz.", "The second generation of the Lada Kalina, basically a facelifted first generation, was also revealed at the 2012 Moscow International Motor Show.", "The Kalina was also produced with a more powerful version named Lada Kalina Sport.", "On 3 May 2012, the Renault-Nissan alliance signed a letter of intent to raise its stake in Avtovaz to 51.01%.", "On 12 December 2012, the Renault–Nissan Alliance formed a joint venture with Roste (Alliance Rostec Auto BV) with the aim of becoming the long-term controlling shareholder of AvtoVAZ.", "In the same year, it was announced that Avtovaz and Sollers planned to jointly produce vehicles in Kazakhstan.", "The plant was set to open in 2016 and built in Ust-Kamenogorsk, in the eastern part of the country, to produce around 120,000 cars a year.===Later developments===AvtoVAZ plant in January 2016In November 2013, Bo Andersson joined AvtoVAZ as CEO, the first non-Russian to head the company.", "He became involved in conflicts with local suppliers, which he accused of supplying low-quality products.The takeover of AvtoVAZ was completed in June 2014, and the two companies of the Renault-Nissan Alliance took a combined 67.1% stake of Alliance Rostec, which in turn acquired 74.5% of AvtoVAZ, thereby giving Renault and Nissan indirect control over the Russian manufacturer.Employees of AvtoVAZ, 2004–14In 2014, AvtoVAZ sold 448,114 vehicles, down 16.3% comparing to the previous year, due to the overall market slowdown in Russia.", "The total production capacity of the Togliatti factory is 910,000 vehicles.", "By 2014, the company's liabilities exceeded assets by 68 billion rubles, for UK-based Ernst & Young to express \"significant doubt\" about the company's \"ability to continue as a going concern\".", "In 2014, the Largus got a new modification, the Lada Largus Cross.", "In the fall of 2014 AvtoVAZ began production of a new Kalina model, the Lada Kalina Cross.Production of the Lada Vesta, based on a new b\\C platform developed by AvtoVAZ in cooperation with Renault-Nissan Alliance, started on September 25, 2015, at Lada Izhevsk manufacturing site.", "For the first time in Lada history, only a year had passed between concept car and start of production.", "Lada XRAY was the first compact city crossover in company's history.", "Starts of sales was held on February 14, 2016.Total Lada sales in 2015 amounted to 269,096 cars, of which 207,389 were built by AvtoVAZ in Tolyatti, while the rest were made by Lada Izhevsk, giving the company a 17.9% share of the Russian automotive market.In March 2016, Nicolas Maure became the company's CEO.", "In April 2016, Carlos Ghosn, Renault-Nissan Chairman, ceded his AvtoVAZ chairmanship position to Sergey Skvortsov, Deputy General Director of Rostec, the minority shareholder in Avtovaz.", "Despite massive layoffs since 2008, in 2016, the company remained unprofitable.===Groupe Renault takeover===In October 2016, Renault invested $1.33 billion in another recapitalization of AvtoVAZ, this time without involvement from Nissan, making the company a subsidiary of the French group.", "In September 2017, Nissan sold its AvtoVAZ stake to Renault for €45 million.In December 2018, Renault and Rostec completed the acquisition of all AvtoVAZ shares through their Alliance Rostec venture.", "The company then delisted from the Moscow Exchange.", "In 2018, AvtoVAZ posted a net profit of $90.5 million, its first positive result in a decade.", "In June 2019, Rostec announced it would eventually reduce its stake in AvtoVAZ to 25%.", "In December 2021, Renault and Rostec transferred its shares from the Netherlands-registered Alliance Rostec to the Russia-registered Lada Auto Holding.", "The new holding kept the same Renault-Rostec shareholding ratio as its Dutch predecessor.", "In March 2022, following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and international pressure to doing so, Renault said it was \"assessing\" its AvtoVAZ ownership.In December 2019, AvtoVAZ acquired General Motors' stake in their GM-AvtoVAZ joint venture.", "As part of the deal, AvtoVAZ used Chevrolet branding for the Niva models until August 2020, before replacing it with Lada.In January 2021, following a company revamp, Renault said it would integrate Lada and sister Dacia brands into a new business unit.", "AvtoVAZ was made part of the business unit structure.", "In 2021, the company's revenue amounted to 301 billion rubles.===Effects stemming from the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine===On 3 March 2022 AvtoVAZ announced the suspension of the assembly of cars in Tolyatti and Izhevsk from 5 March.", "The company issued a press release blaming 'the ongoing crisis in the supply of electronic components.", "'===Re-nationalization===On 16 May 2022, Renault said it had sold its controlling stake in AvtoVAZ to the Central Research and Development Automobile and Engine Institute (NAMI), a state-owned research center, for one rouble.", "The agreement has a buyback option for Renault within six years after the sale.In November 2022, the controlling shareholder of AvtoVAZ, NAMI, acquired Nissan's Saint Petersburg facilities (including its assembly plant) for a \"symbolic price\" with a six-year buyback option.", "In February 2023, NAMI sold 99% of them in turn to AvtoVAZ for .", "AvtoVAZ plans to use the plant to assemble C and D-segment vehicle kits from other manufacturers, under the Lada badging." ], [ "Company structure", "The AvtoVAZ production complex in Tolyatti – December 2014===Ownership===After its re-establishment as a joint stock company in January 1993, the ownership structure of AvtoVAZ became opaque, with two different management groups controlling the majority of the shares, one led by company chairman Kadannikov, holding 33.2% through the AVVA company, while another group held 19.2% through the AFC company.", "AvtoVAZ, in turn, owned over 80% of AVVA, which was said to be under the influence of Boris Berezovsky., AvtoVAZ's owner is Lada Auto Holding, which is a joint venture between two state enterprises, NAMI and Rostec.", "===Subsidiaries and affiliates===Various AvtoVAZ's subsidiaries and affiliates produce vehicles within Russia.", "The main plant is the one in Tolyatti, with three assembly lines, which assembled 312,000 cars in 2016.Lada West Togliatti is a car manufacturing plant within the Tolyatti complex, formerly owned by GM-AvtoVAZ.", ", its production has been halted.", "Lada Izhevsk, a company established in 1965 and that adopted its present name in 2017, has one assembly line and produced 96,000 cars in 2016.VIS-AVTO is a company established in 1991.It converts AvtoVAZ cars into commercial vehicles and produces Bronto-badged Nivas.", "It assembled 4,146 vehicles in 2015.Lada Sport is AvtoVAZ's motorsport and performance subsidiary which produced 3,153 cars in 2015.AvtoVAZ also controls Lada Saint Petersburg, the Saint Petersburg plant operated by Nissan until 2022.Apart from its own facilities, AvtoVAZ has associated companies for production.", "CJSC Super-Avto, a company associated to AvtoVAZ and established in 1997, is focused on the modification of Lada cars.", "In 2015, it converted 569 of them.", "In June 2016, the company filed for bankruptcy, but it resumed business by late 2016.ChechenAvto, a state-owned enterprise based in Argun, produced 6,700 cars in 2016.AvtoVAZ has had overseas partners for assembly in Egypt, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan  and other countries., other relevant AvtoVAZ subsidiaries include JSC Lada-Service (a holding of the AvtoVAZ-controlled dealerships which exists in its present form since 2007), JSC Lada-Image (official spare parts distributor in Russia, established in 2003), PPPO LLC, ZAK LLC, LIN LLC, Sockultbilt-AvtoVAZ LLC, and Lada International Ltd.AvtoVAZ financial affiliate is Auto Finance Bank.", "The first financial affiliate for AvtoVAZ was AvtoVAZbank, which operated as such from 1988 to 1996.In 1997, it was replaced by Lada-Credit (originally named Automotive Banking House)." ], [ "Currently produced models", "*Lada Niva (off-road car, also known as VAZ-2121, VAZ-2131 and Lada 4x4, since 1977)*Lada Niva Travel (off-road car, since 2020)*Lada Granta (subcompact car, also known as VAZ-2190, VAZ-2191, VAZ-2192, and VAZ-2194 since 2011)*Lada Largus (since 2012)*Lada Vesta (compact car, since 2015)" ], [ "Export", "Exports of AvtoVAZ vehicles to the West began in 1974; Ladas were sold as in several Western nations during the 1970s and 1980s, though trade sanctions banned their export to the United States.Economic instability in the former Soviet Union in the 1990s, combined with tightening emissions regulations and increasing stringency of safety legislation, triggered the withdrawal of AvtoVAZ from most Western markets by late 1997.In later years, Lada again began exporting vehicles.", "Lada products are marketed in Russia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Chile, Egypt, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Lebanon, Moldova, Slovakia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Serbia, Syria, Peru, and Jordan.In 2015, 28,461 Lada cars were exported, mostly to Kazakhstan (14,278 vehicles), Azerbaijan (4,690), Belarus (2,360), Egypt (2,128), and Germany (1,515)." ], [ "Motorsport", "Lada Granta WTCCIn 1970, AvtoVAZ CEO Viktor Polyakov set the task to create sport versions of the Lada 2101.The engines were built in Italy, whereas fine tuning was done by engineers in Togliatti.", "In 1971, three sport cars based on the 2101 model took part in the Soviet Winter Rally Championship.", "Later in the same year, a VAZ-Autoexport team earned their first prize, the Silver Cup in the 1971 Tour d'Europe.In the 1970s–1980s, the Autoexport racing team, using different Lada models, participated in different motorsport competitions.", "A special Zhiguli class was created for the Soviet Rally Championship.", "There were different rally and track races featuring Avtovaz sports cars.", "In 1978, a Lada Niva took part in the famous Dakar Rally.", "It was also successful in a number of international competitions.", "In 1981, Guy Moerenhout Racing made two special models for Lada Belgium: Lada 21011 RS Sport, model with two Weber carburetors and special sport equipment, and Lada Niva Dream, with big wing extension, special colours and larger wheels.", "In the late 1990s, Lada Canada supported a rally operation in the Canadian Rally Championship, winning in the 'Production 1750' class on numerous occasions.In 2012, the Lada Granta Cup was launched.", "The first stage of the new race series began in Moscow on the Myachkovo race track.===World Touring Car Championship===The two Lada Vestas of Gabriele Tarquini and Hugo Valente being chased by Sabine Schmitz in the 2016 WTCC season.In the 2013 season, AvtoVAZ returned to the WTCC championship through Lada Sport.", "The team used a new car: the Lada Granta WTCC, driven by WTCC World Champion Robert Huff.The team returned for the 2014 World Touring Car Championship season, again fielding a Granta.", "Since the beginning of 2015, the Lada team took part in the WTCC as Lada Sport Rosneft.", "Starting in the 2015 season, Lada Sport used Lada Vestas.", "The official Lada Sport team left the category at the end of the 2016 season, although an unofficial entry by the RC Competition team kept the Vesta on the grid for another year.", "In 2021, Lada Sport had a one-off entry for the final race of the TCR-spec World Touring Car Cup at the Sochi Autodrom." ], [ "Sponsorship", "Lada sponsored the Renault F1 Team in 2010 after they signed Russia's first Formula One driver Vitaly Petrov." ], [ "See also", "* List of AvtoVAZ vehicles* Automotive industry in the Soviet Union* Automobile model numbering system in USSR and Russia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Lada official website * Lada official website * * Official history of Lada line-up * Specifications cars AvtoVAZ (Lada)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lundy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lundy''' is an English island in the Bristol Channel.", "It forms part of the district of Torridge in the county of Devon.About long and wide, Lundy has had a long and turbulent history, frequently changing hands between the British crown and various usurpers.", "In the 1920s, one self-proclaimed king, Martin Harman, tried to issue his own coinage and was fined by the House of Lords.", "In 1941, two German Heinkel He 111 bombers crash landed on the island, and their crews were captured.In 1969, Lundy was purchased by British millionaire Jack Hayward, who donated it to the National Trust.", "It is now managed by the Landmark Trust, a conservation charity that derives its income from day trips and holiday lettings, most visitors arriving by boat from Bideford or Ilfracombe.", "A local tourist curiosity is the special \"Puffin\" postage stamp, a category known by philatelists as \"local carriage labels\", a collectors' item.As a steep, rocky island, often shrouded by fog, Lundy has been the scene of many shipwrecks, and the remains of its old lighthouse installations are of both historic and scientific interest.", "Its present-day lighthouses are fully automated, one of which is solar-powered.", "Lundy has a rich bird life, as it lies on major migration routes, and attracts many vagrant as well as indigenous species.", "It also boasts a variety of marine habitats, with rare seaweeds, sponges and corals.", "In 2010, the island became Britain's first Marine Conservation Zone." ], [ "Profile", "Lundy's jetty and harbourLundy is the largest island in the Bristol Channel.", "It lies off the coast of Devon, England, about a third of the distance across the channel from Devon to Pembrokeshire in Wales.", "Lundy gives its name to a British sea area.", "Lundy is included in the district of Torridge in Devon.", "In 2007, it had a resident population of 28 people.", "These include a warden, a ranger, an island manager, a farmer, bar and housekeeping staff, and volunteers.", "Most live in and around the village at the south of the island.", "Visitors include day-trippers and holiday makers staying overnight in rental properties or camping.In a 2005 opinion poll of ''Radio Times'' readers, Lundy was named as Britain's tenth greatest natural wonder.", "The island has been designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest and it was England's first statutory Marine Nature reserve, and the first Marine Conservation Zone, because of its unique flora and fauna.", "It is managed by the Landmark Trust on behalf of the National Trust." ], [ "Etymology", "Map by Henry Mangles Denham (1832)The place-name 'Lundy' is first attested in 1189 in the ''Records of the Templars in England'', where it appears as (Insula de) ''Lundeia''.", "It appears in the Charter Rolls as ''Lundeia'' again in 1199, and as ''Lunday'' in 1281.The name means 'puffin island', from the Old Norse ''lundi'' meaning 'puffin' (compare Lundey in Iceland).", "The name is Scandinavian, and it appears in the 12th-century ''Orkneyinga saga'' as ''Lundey''.Lundy is known in Welsh as ''Ynys Wair'', 'Gwair's Island', in reference to an alternative name for the wizard Gwydion." ], [ "History", "Lundy has evidence of visitation or occupation from the Mesolithic period onward, with Neolithic flintwork, Bronze Age burial mounds, four inscribed gravestones from the early medieval period, and an early medieval monastery (possibly dedicated to St Elen or St Helen).===Beacon Hill Cemetery===Sketch of Beacon Hill CemeteryBeacon Hill Cemetery was excavated by Charles Thomas in 1969.The cemetery contains four inscribed stones, dated to the 5th or 6th century AD.", "The site was originally enclosed by a curvilinear bank and ditch, which is still visible in the southwest corner, however, the other walls were moved when the Old Light was constructed in 1819.Celtic Christian enclosures of this type were common in Western Britain and are known as '''' in Welsh and '''' in Cornish.", "There are surviving examples in Luxulyan, in Cornwall; Mathry, Meidrim and Clydau in the south of Wales; and Stowford, Jacobstowe, Lydford and Instow, in Devon.Thomas proposed the following sequence of site usage:# An area of round huts and fields.", "These huts may have fallen into disuse before the construction of the cemetery.# The construction of the focal grave, an rectangular stone enclosure containing a single cist grave.", "The interior of the enclosure was filled with small granite pieces.", "Two more cist graves located to the west of the enclosure may also date from this time.# Perhaps 100 years later, the focal grave was opened and the infill removed.", "The body may have been moved to a church at this time.# Two further stages of cist grave construction around the focal grave.Twenty-three cist graves were found during this excavation.", "Considering that the excavation only uncovered a small area of the cemetery, there may be as many as 100 graves.====Inscribed stones====Inscribed stonesFour Celtic inscribed stones have been found in Beacon Hill Cemetery:* 1400 OPTIMI, or TIMI; the name (or perhaps epithet) Optimus is Latin and male.", "Discovered in 1962 by D. B.", "Hague.", "* 1401 RESTEVTAE, or RESGEVTA, Latin, female i.e.", "Resteuta or Resgeuta.", "Discovered in 1962 by D. B.", "Hague.", "* 1402 POTITI, or POTIT, Latin, male.", "Discovered in 1961 by K. S. Gardener and A.", "Langham.", "* 1403 --IGERNI FILI TIGERNI, or—IGERNI FILI TIGERNI, Brittonic, male i.e.", "Tigernus son of Tigernus.", "Discovered in 1905.===Knights Templar===Lundy was granted to the Knights Templar by Henry II in 1160.The Templars were a major international maritime force at this time, with interests in North Devon, and almost certainly an important port at Bideford or on the River Taw in Barnstaple.", "This was probably because of the increasing threat posed by the Norse sea raiders; however, it is unclear whether they ever took possession of the island.", "Ownership was disputed by the Marisco family who may have already been on the island during King Stephen's reign.", "The Mariscos were fined, and the island was cut off from necessary supplies.", "Evidence of the Templars' weak hold on the island came when King John, on his accession in 1199, confirmed the earlier grant.===Marisco family===Marisco CastleIn 1235 William de Marisco was implicated in the murder of Henry Clement, a messenger of Henry III.", "Three years later, an attempt was made to kill Henry III by a man who later confessed to being an agent of the Marisco family.", "William de Marisco fled to Lundy where he lived as a virtual king.", "He built a stronghold in the area now known as Bulls' Paradise with walls.In 1242, Henry III sent troops to the island.", "They scaled the island's cliff and captured William de Marisco and 16 of his \"subjects\".", "Henry III built the castle (sometimes referred to as the Marisco Castle) in an attempt to establish the rule of law on the island and its surrounding waters.", "In 1275 the island is recorded as being in the Lordship of King Edward I but by 1322 it was in the possession of Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster and was among the large number of lands seized by Edward II following Lancaster's execution for rebelling against the King.", "At some point in the 13th century the monks of the Cistercian order at Cleeve Abbey held the rectory of the island.===Piracy===Over the next few centuries, the island was hard to govern.", "Trouble followed as both English and foreign pirates and privateers – including other members of the Marisco family – took control of the island for short periods.", "Ships were forced to navigate close to Lundy because of the dangerous shingle banks in the fast flowing River Severn and Bristol Channel, with its tidal range of , one of the greatest in the world.", "This made the island a profitable location from which to prey on passing Bristol-bound merchant ships bringing back valuable goods from overseas.In 1627 a group known as the Salé Rovers, from the Republic of Salé (now Salé in Morocco) occupied Lundy for five years.", "These Barbary Pirates, under the command of a Dutch renegade named Jan Janszoon, flew a Moorish flag over the island.", "Slaving raids were made embarking from Lundy by the Barbary Pirates, and captured Europeans were held on Lundy before being sent to Salé and Algiers to be sold as slaves.", "From 1628 to 1634, in addition to the Barbary Pirates, the island was plagued by privateers of French, Basque, English and Spanish origin targeting the lucrative shipping routes passing through the Bristol Channel.", "These incursions were eventually ended by Sir John Penington, but in the 1660s and as late as the 1700s the island still fell prey to French privateers.===Civil war===In the English Civil War, Thomas Bushell held Lundy for King Charles I, rebuilding Marisco Castle and garrisoning the island at his own expense.", "He was a friend of Francis Bacon, a strong supporter of the Royalist cause and an expert on mining and coining.", "It was the last Royalist territory held between the first and second civil wars.", "After receiving permission from Charles I, Bushell surrendered the island on 24 February 1647 to Richard Fiennes, representing General Fairfax.", "In 1656, the island was acquired by Lord Saye and Sele.Millcombe HouseInterior of St. Helen's Church, prior to the east window's restoration in 2018Exterior of St. Helen's Church, taken prior to the 2018 renovationsGovernment House, built in 1982===18th and 19th centuries===The late 18th and early 19th centuries were years of lawlessness on Lundy, particularly during the ownership of Thomas Benson (1708–1772), a Member of Parliament for Barnstaple in 1747 and Sheriff of Devon, who notoriously used the island for housing convicts whom he was supposed to be deporting.", "Benson leased Lundy from its owner, John Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Gower (1694–1754) (who was an heir of the Grenville family of Bideford and of Stowe, Kilkhampton in Cornwall), at a rent of £60 per annum and contracted with the Government to transport a shipload of convicts to Virginia, but diverted the ship to Lundy to use the convicts as his personal slaves.", "Later Benson was involved in an insurance swindle.", "He purchased and insured the ship ''Nightingale'' and loaded it with a valuable cargo of pewter and linen.", "Having cleared the port on the mainland, the ship put into Lundy, where the cargo was removed and stored in a cave built by the convicts, before setting sail again.", "Some days afterwards, when a homeward-bound vessel was sighted, the ''Nightingale'' was set on fire and scuttled.", "The crew were taken off the stricken ship by the other ship, which landed them safely at Clovelly.Sir Vere Hunt, 1st Baronet of Curragh, a rather eccentric Irish politician and landowner, and unsuccessful man of business, purchased the island from John Cleveland in 1802 for £5,270.Sir Vere Hunt planted in the island a small, self-contained Irish colony with its own constitution and divorce laws, coinage and stamps.", "The tenants came from Sir Vere Hunt's Irish estate and they experienced agricultural difficulties while on the island.", "This led Sir Vere Hunt to seek someone who would take the island off his hands, failing in his attempt to sell the island to the British Government as a base for troops.", "After the 1st Baronet's death his son, Sir Aubrey (Hunt) de Vere, 2nd Baronet, also had great difficulty in securing any profit from the property.", "In the 1820s John Benison agreed to purchase the island for £4,500 but then refused to complete the sale, as he felt that the 2nd Baronet could not make out a good title in respect of the sale terms, namely that the island was free from tithes and taxes.William Hudson Heaven purchased Lundy in 1834, as a summer retreat and for hunting, at a cost of 9,400 guineas (£9,870).", "He claimed it to be a \"free island\", and successfully resisted the jurisdiction of the mainland magistrates.", "Lundy was in consequence sometimes referred to as \"the kingdom of Heaven\".", "It belongs in fact to the county of Devon, and has always been part of the hundred of Braunton.", "Many of the buildings on the island, including St. Helen's Church, designed by the architect John Norton, and Millcombe House (originally known simply as the Villa), date from the Heaven period.", "The Georgian-style villa was built in 1836.However, the expense of building the road from the beach (no financial assistance being provided by Trinity House, despite their frequent use of the road following the construction of the lighthouses), the villa and the general cost of running the island had a ruinous effect on the family's finances, which had been diminished by reduced profits from their sugar plantations, rum production and livestock rearing in Jamaica.In 1957 a message in a bottle from one of the seamen of was washed ashore between Babbacombe and Peppercombe in Devon.", "The letter, dated 15 August 1843 read: \"Dear Brother, Please e God i be with y against Michaelmas.", "Prepare y search Lundy for y Jenny ivories.", "Adiue William, Odessa\".", "The bottle and letter are on display at the Portledge Hotel at Fairy Cross, in Devon, England.", "was a three-masted full-rigged ship reputed to be carrying ivory and gold dust that was wrecked on Lundy on 20 February 1797 at a place thereafter called Jenny's Cove.", "Some ivory was apparently recovered some years later but the leather bags supposed to contain gold dust were never found.===20th and 21st centuries===William Heaven was succeeded by his son the Reverend Hudson Grosset Heaven who, thanks to a legacy from Sarah Langworthy (née Heaven), was able to fulfill his life's ambition of building a stone church on the island.", "St Helen's was completed in 1896, and stands today as a lasting memorial to the Heaven period.", "It has been designated by English Heritage a Grade II listed building.", "He is said to have been able to afford either a church or a new harbour.", "His choice of the church was not however in the best financial interests of the island.", "The unavailability of the money for re-establishing the family's financial soundness, coupled with disastrous investment and speculation in the early 20th century, caused severe financial hardship.One Puffin coin of 1929, bearing the portrait of Martin Coles HarmanHudson Heaven died in 1916, and was succeeded by his nephew, Walter Charles Hudson Heaven.", "With the outbreak of the First World War, matters deteriorated seriously, and in 1918 the family sold Lundy to Augustus Langham Christie.", "In 1924, the Christie family sold the island along with the mail contract and the MV ''Lerina'' to Martin Coles Harman, who proclaimed himself a king.", "Harman issued two coins of Half Puffin and One Puffin denominations in 1929, nominally equivalent to the British halfpenny and penny, resulting in his prosecution under the United Kingdom's Coinage Act of 1870.The House of Lords found him guilty in 1931, and he was fined £5 with fifteen guineas (£5 + £15.75) expenses.", "The coins were withdrawn and became collectors' items.", "In 1965 a \"fantasy\" restrike four-coin set, a few in gold, was issued to commemorate 40 years since Harman purchased the island.", "Harman's son, John Pennington Harman was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross during the Battle of Kohima, India in 1944.There is a memorial to him at the VC Quarry on Lundy.", "Martin Coles Harman died in 1954.Residents did not pay taxes to the United Kingdom and had to pass through customs when they travelled to and from Lundy Island.", "Although the island was ruled as a virtual fiefdom, its owner never claimed to be independent of the United Kingdom, in contrast to later territorial \"micronations\".", "Following the death of Harman's son Albion in 1968, Lundy was put up for sale in 1969.Jack Hayward, a British millionaire, purchased the island for £150,000 (£ today) and gave it to the National Trust, who leased it to the Landmark Trust.", "The Landmark Trust has managed the island since then, deriving its income from arranging day trips, letting out holiday cottages and from donations.", "In May 2015 a sculpture by Antony Gormley was erected on Lundy.", "It is one of five life-sized sculptures, ''Land'', placed near the centre and at four compass points of the UK in a commission by the Landmark Trust, to celebrate its 50th anniversary.", "The others are at Lowsonford (Warwickshire), Saddell Bay (Scotland), the Martello Tower (Aldeburgh, Suffolk), and Clavell Tower (Kimmeridge Bay, Dorset).The island is visited by over 20,000 day trippers a year, but during September 2007 had to be closed for several weeks owing to an outbreak of norovirus.An inaugural Lundy Island half-marathon took place on 8 July 2018 with 267 competitors.===Wrecked ships and aircraft=======Wreck of ''Jenny''====Near the end of a voyage from Africa to Bristol, the British merchant ship was wrecked on the coast of Lundy in January 1797.Only her first mate survived.", "The site of the tragedy () has since been known as Jenny's Cove.====Wreck of Battleship ''Montagu''====HMS ''Montagu'' aground on Lundy in 1906Steaming in heavy fog, the Royal Navy battleship ran hard aground near Shutter Rock on Lundy's southwest corner at about 2:00 a.m. on 30 May 1906.Thinking they were aground at Hartland Point on the English mainland, a landing party went ashore for help, only finding out where they were after encountering the lighthouse keeper at the island's north light.HMS ''Montagu'' during the failed salvage attempts of the summer of 1906Strenuous efforts by the Royal Navy to salvage the badly damaged battleship during the summer of 1906 failed, and in 1907 it was decided to give up and sell her for scrap.", "''Montagu'' was scrapped at the scene over the next fifteen years.", "Diving clubs still visit the site, where armour plating remains among the rocks and kelp.====Remains of a German Heinkel 111H bomber====Remains of one of the Heinkels just south of Halfway WallDuring the Second World War two German Heinkel He 111 bombers crash landed on the island in 1941.The first was on 3 March, when all the crew survived and were taken prisoner.The second was on 1 April when the pilot was killed and the other crew members were taken prisoner.", "This plane had bombed a British ship and one engine was damaged by anti aircraft fire, forcing it to crash land.", "Most of the metal was salvaged, although a few remains can be found at the crash site to date.", "Reportedly, to avoid reprisals, the crew concocted the story that they were on a reconnaissance mission." ], [ "Geography", "jointsThe island of Lundy is long from north to south by a little over wide, with an area of .", "The highest point on Lundy is Beacon Hill, above sea level.", "A few yards off the northeastern coast is Seal's Rock which is so called after the seals which rest on and inhabit the islet.", "It is less than wide.", "Near the jetty is a small pocket beach.", "One of the Metreological Office's 31 sea areas announced on the BBC Radio 4 shipping forecast is named Lundy.===Geology===The island is primarily composed of granite of 59.8 ± 0.4 – 58.4 ± 0.4 million years (from the Palaeocene epoch), with slate at the southern end; the plateau soil is mainly loam, with some peat.", "Among the igneous dykes cutting the granite are a small number composed of a unique orthophyre.", "It is possible, based on emplacement of magmas of the basalt, trachyte and rhyolite types at a high levels in Earth's crust, that a volcano system existed above Lundy.", "This was given the name Lundyite in 1914, although the term – never precisely defined – has since fallen into disuse.===Climate===Lundy lies on the line where the North Atlantic Ocean and the Bristol Channel meet, so it has quite a mild climate.", "The island has cool, wet winters and mild, wet summers.", "It is often windy and fog is frequently experienced.", "The record high temperature is on 2 August 1990, and the record low temperature is recorded just six months later on 7 February 1991.Lundy is in the USDA 9a plant hardiness zone." ], [ "Ecology", "===Flora===Lundy cabbage (growing at Bristol Zoo)The vegetation on the plateau is mainly dry heath, with an area of waved Calluna heath; the northern end of the island is largely bare rock.", "This area is also rich in lichens, such as ''Teloschistes flavicans'' and several species of Cladonia and Parmelia.Other areas are either a dry heath/acidic grassland mosaic, characterised by heaths and western gorse (''Ulex gallii''), or semi-improved acidic grassland in which Yorkshire fog (''Holcus lanatus'') is abundant.", "Tussocky (Thrift) (Holcus/Armeria) communities occur mainly on the western side, and some patches of bracken (''Pteridium aquilinum'') on the eastern side.There is one endemic plant species, the Lundy cabbage ''(Coincya wrightii)'', a species of primitive brassica.By the 1980s the eastern side of the island had become overgrown by rhododendrons ''(Rhododendron ponticum)'' which had spread from a few specimens planted in the garden of Millcombe House in Victorian times, but in recent years significant efforts have been made to eradicate this non-native plant.===Fauna=======Terrestrial invertebrates====Two invertebrate taxa are endemic to Lundy, with both feeding on the endemic Lundy cabbage (''Coincya wrightii'').", "These are the Lundy cabbage flea beetle (''Psylliodes luridipennis''), a species of leaf beetle (family Chrysomelidae) and the Lundy cabbage weevil (''Ceutorhynchus contractus'' var.", "''pallipes''), a variety of true weevil (family Curculionidae).", "In addition, the Lundy cabbage is the main host of a flightless form of ''Psylliodes napi'' (another species of flea beetle) and a wide variety of other invertebrate species which are not endemic to the island.", "Another resident invertebrate of note is ''Atypus affinis'', the only British species of purseweb spider.====Birds====The population of puffins (''Fratercula arctica'') on the island declined in the late 20th and early 21st centuries as a consequence of depredations by brown and black rats (''Rattus rattus'') and possibly also as a result of commercial fishing for sand eels, the puffins' principal prey.", "Since the elimination of rats in 2006, seabird numbers have increased.", "By 2023 the number of puffins had risen to 1,355 and the number of Manx shearwater to 25,000, representing 95% of England's breeding population of this seabird.", "The island has since 2014 become colonised by European storm petrel.puffins on Lundy, June 2008As an isolated island on major migration routes, Lundy has a rich bird life and is a popular site for birdwatching.", "Large numbers of black-legged kittiwake (''Rissa tridactyla'') nest on the cliffs, as do razorbill (''Alca torda''), common guillemot (''Uria aalge''), herring gull (''Larus argentatus''), lesser black-backed gull (''Larus fuscus''), fulmar (''Fulmarus glacialis''), shag (''Phalacrocorax aristotelis''), oystercatcher (''Haematopus ostralegus''), skylark (''Alauda arvensis''), meadow pipit (''Anthus pratensis''), blackbird (''Turdus merula''), robin (''Erithacus rubecula'') and linnet (''Carduelis cannabina'').", "There are also smaller populations of peregrine falcon (''Falco peregrinus'') and raven (''Corvus corax'').Lundy has attracted many vagrant birds, in particular species from North America.", "As of 2007, the island's bird list totals 317 species.", "This has included the following species, each of which represents the sole British record: Ancient murrelet, eastern phoebe and eastern towhee.", "Records of bimaculated lark, American robin and common yellowthroat were also firsts for Britain (American robin has also occurred two further times on Lundy).", "Veerys in 1987 and 1997 were Britain's second and fourth records, a Rüppell's warbler in 1979 was Britain's second, an eastern Bonelli's warbler in 2004 was Britain's fourth, and a black-faced bunting in 2001 Britain's third.Other British Birds rarities that have been sighted (single records unless otherwise indicated) are: little bittern, gyrfalcon (3 records), little and Baillon's crakes, collared pratincole, semipalmated (5 records), least (2 records), white-rumped and Baird's (2 records) sandpipers, Wilson's phalarope, laughing gull, bridled tern, Pallas's sandgrouse, great spotted, black-billed and yellow-billed (3 records) cuckoos, European roller, olive-backed pipit, citrine wagtail, Alpine accentor, thrush nightingale, red-flanked bluetail, western black-eared (2 records) and desert wheatears, White's, Swainson's (3 records), and grey-cheeked (2 records) thrushes, Sardinian (2 records), Arctic (3 records), Radde's and western Bonelli's warblers, Isabelline and lesser grey shrikes, red-eyed vireo (7 records), two-barred crossbill, yellow-rumped and blackpoll warblers, yellow-breasted (2 records) and black-headed buntings (3 records), rose-breasted grosbeak (2 records), bobolink and Baltimore oriole (2 records).====Mammals====Sika deerLundy is home to an unusual range of introduced mammals, including a distinct breed of wild pony, the Lundy pony, as well as Soay sheep (''Ovis aries''), sika deer (''Cervus nippon''), feral goats (''Capra aegagrus hircus'') and rabbits, some of which are melanistic.Other mammals which have made the island their home include the grey seal (''Halichoerus grypus'') and the pygmy shrew (''Sorex minutus'').", "Until their elimination in 2006 in order to protect the nesting seabirds, Lundy was one of the few places in the UK where the black rat (''Rattus rattus'') could be found regularly.====Marine habitat====In 1971 a proposal was made by the Lundy Field Society to establish a marine reserve, and the survey was led by Dr Keith Hiscock, supported by a team of students from Bangor University.", "Provision for the establishment of statutory Marine Nature Reserves was included in the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, and on 21 November 1986 the Secretary of State for the Environment announced the designation of a statutory reserve at Lundy.There is an outstanding variety of marine habitats and wildlife, and a large number of rare and unusual species in the waters around Lundy, including some species of seaweed, branching sponges, sea fans and cup corals.In 2003 the first statutory No Take Zone (NTZ) for marine nature conservation in the UK was set up in the waters to the east of Lundy island.", "In 2008 this was declared as having been successful in several ways including the increasing size and number of lobsters within the reserve, and potential benefits for other marine wildlife.", "However, the no take zone has received a mixed reaction from local fishermen.On 12 January 2010 the island became Britain's first Marine Conservation Zone designated under the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009, designed to help to preserve important habitats and species.The harbour porpoise is probably the most common cetacean in the waters around Lundy.Three species of cetacean are regularly seen from the island; them being the bottlenose dolphin (''Tursiops truncatrus''), common dolphin (''Delphinus delphis''), and harbour porpoise (''Phocoena phocoena'').", "Other cetacean species that are sighted from Lundy, albeit more rarely, are the minke whale (''Balaenoptera acutorostrata''), Risso's dolphin (''Grampus griseus''), and long-finned pilot whale (''Globicephala melas'').", "Basking sharks (''Cetorhinus maximus''), ocean sunfish (''Mola mola''), and leatherback sea turtles (''Dermochelys coriacea'') are also seen around Lundy, especially off the more sheltered eastern coast and only during the warmer months.", "Furthermore, there is a grey seal (''Halichoerus grypus'') colony consisting of roughly 60 animals that live around the island." ], [ "Transport", "The Lundy ferry ''Oldenburg'' sails into Ilfracombe Harbour, North Devon, past inflatable ThunderCat powerboats waiting to begin an offshore race.===To the island===There are two ways to get to Lundy, depending on the time of year.", "In the summer months (April to October) visitors are carried on the Landmark Trust's own vessel, MS ''Oldenburg'', which sails from both Bideford and Ilfracombe.", "Sailings are usually three days a week, on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays, with additional sailings on Wednesdays during July and August.", "The voyage takes on average two hours, depending on ports, tides and weather.", "The ''Oldenburg'' was first registered in Bremen, Germany, in 1958 and has been sailing to Lundy since being bought by the Lundy Company Ltd in 1985.In the winter months (November to March) the island is served by a scheduled helicopter service from Hartland Point.", "The helicopter operates on Mondays and Fridays.", "A grass runway of is available, allowing access to small STOL aircraft.===On the island===In 2007, Derek Green, Lundy's general manager, launched an appeal to raise £250,000 to save the Beach Road, which had been damaged by heavy rain and high seas.", "The road was built in the first half of the 19th century to provide people and goods with safe access to the top of the island, above the only jetty.", "The fund-raising was completed on 10 March 2009.===Lighthouses===The island has a pair of active lights built in 1897 and an older lighthouse no longer in service." ], [ "Electricity supply", "There is a small power station comprising three Cummins B and C series diesel engines, offering an approximately 150 kVA 3-phase supply to most of the island buildings.", "Waste heat from the engine jackets is used for a district heating pipe.", "There are also plans to collect the waste heat from the engine exhaust heat gases to feed into the district heat network to improve the efficiency further.", "The power is normally switched off between 00:00 and 06:30." ], [ "Administration", "The island is an unparished area of Torridge district in the county of Devon.", "It forms part of the ward of Clovelly Bay.", "It is part of the constituency electing the Member of Parliament for Torridge and West Devon and was from 1999 to 2020 part of the South West England constituency for the European Parliament.In 2013 the island became a separate Church of England ecclesiastical parish.===Stamps===Owing to a decline in population and lack of interest in the mail contract, the GPO ended its presence on Lundy at the end of 1927.For the next two years Harman handled the mail to and from the island without charge.On 1 November 1929, he decided to offset the expense by issuing two postage stamps ( puffin in pink and 1 puffin in blue).", "One puffin is equivalent to one English penny.", "The printing of Puffin stamps continues to this day and they are available at face value from the Lundy Post Office.", "One used to have to stick Lundy stamps on the back of the envelope; but from 1962 Royal Mail allowed their use on the front of the envelope, but placed on the left side, with the right side reserved for the Royal Mail postage stamp or stamps.", "Lundy stamps are cancelled by a circular Lundy hand stamp.", "In 1974 the face value of the Lundy Island stamps was increased to include Royal Mail charges in addition to the charge for transporting mail to the mainland and so from that year it has not been necessary to affix a separate Royal Mail postage stamp.", "Lundy stamps are a type of postage stamp known to philatelists as \"local carriage labels\" or \"local stamps\".", "Issues of increasing value were made over the years, including air mail, featuring a variety of subjects.", "The market value of the early issues has risen substantially over the years.", "For the many thousands of annual visitors Lundy stamps have become part of the collection of the many British Local Posts collectors.", "The first catalogues of these stamps included Gerald Rosen's 1970 ''Catalogue of British Local Stamps''.", "Later specialist catalogues include ''Stamps of Lundy Island'' by Stanley Newman, first published in 1984, ''Phillips Modern British Locals CD Catalogue'', published since 2003, and ''Labbe's Specialised Guide to Lundy Island Stamps'', published since 2005 and now in its 11th Edition.", "Labbe's Guide is considered the gold standard of Lundy catalogues owing to its extensive approach to varieties, errors, specialised items and \"fantasy\" issues.There is a comprehensive collection of these stamps in the Chinchen Collection, donated by Barry Chinchen to the British Library Philatelic Collections in 1977 and now held by the British Library.", "This is also the home of the Landmark Trust Lundy Island Philatelic Archive which includes artwork, texts and essays as well as postmarking devices and issued stamps." ], [ "See also", "* Barbara Whitaker, former warden* Coins of Lundy* Puffin Island" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Davis, Tim & Jones, Tim (2007) ''The Birds of Lundy''; illustrated by Mike Langman.", "Berrynarbor: Devon Bird Watching & Preservation Society and Lundy Field Society, * (pp.", "38− 68: \"The murder of Henry Clement and the pirates of Lundy Island\")*" ], [ "External links", "* * * Lundy Field Society* Lundy Birds* Pete Robsons Lundy Island Site* LundyCam* Lundy Marine Reserve at Protect Planet Ocean* More pictures of Lundy Island* A trip to Devon's 'Puffin Island', Fast Track video feature story about Lundy, 4:15 (2011-09-23)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lindow Man" ], [ "Introduction", "Lindow Man on display at the British Museum in 2023'''Lindow Man''', also known as '''Lindow II''' and (in jest) as '''Pete Marsh''', is the preserved bog body of a man discovered in a peat bog at Lindow Moss near Wilmslow in Cheshire, North West England.", "The remains were found on 1 August 1984 by commercial peat cutters.", "Lindow Man is not the only bog body to have been found in the moss; Lindow Woman was discovered the year before, and other body parts have also been recovered.", "The find was described as \"one of the most significant archaeological discoveries of the 1980s\" and caused a media sensation.", "It helped invigorate study of British bog bodies, which had previously been neglected.Dating the body has proven problematic, but it is thought that he was deposited into Lindow Moss, face down, some time between 2 BC and 119 AD, in either the Iron Age or Romano-British period.", "At the time of death, Lindow Man was a healthy male in his mid-20s, and may have been of high social status as his body shows little evidence of having done heavy or rough physical labour during his lifetime.", "There has been debate over the reason for his death; his death was violent and perhaps ritualistic.The recovered body has been preserved by freeze-drying and is on permanent display at the British Museum, although it occasionally travels to other venues such as the Manchester Museum." ], [ "Background", "===Lindow Moss===Lindow Moss is a peat bog in Lindow, an area of Wilmslow, Cheshire, which has been used as common land since the medieval period.", "It formed after the last ice age, one of many such peat bogs in north-east Cheshire and the Mersey basin that formed in hollows caused by melting ice.", "Investigations have not yet discovered settlement or agricultural activity around the edge of Lindow Moss that would have been contemporary with Lindow Man; however, analysis of pollen in the peat suggests there was some cultivation in the vicinity.Once covering over , the bog has now shrunk to a tenth of its original size.", "It is a dangerous place; an 18th-century writer recorded people drowning there.", "For centuries the peat from the bog was used as fuel, and it continued to be extracted until the 1980s, by which time the process had been mechanised.", "Lindow Moss is a lowland raised mire; this type of peat bog often produces the best preserved bog bodies, allowing more detailed analysis.", "Lowland raised mires occur mainly in northern England and extend south to the Midlands.", "Lindow Man is one of 27 bodies to be recovered from such areas.===Preservation of bog bodies===The preservation of bog bodies is dependent on a set of specific physical conditions, which can occur in peat bogs.", "A sphagnum moss bog must have a temperature lower than 4 °C at the time of deposition of the body.", "The subsequent average annual temperature must be lower than 10 °C.", "Moisture must be stable in the bog year-round: it cannot dry out.Sphagnum moss affects the chemistry of nearby water, which becomes highly acidic (a pH of roughly 3.3 to 4.5) relative to a more ordinary environment.", "The concentration of dissolved minerals also tends to be low.", "Dying moss forms layers of sediment and releases sugars and humic acids which consume oxygen.", "Since the surface of the water is covered by living moss, water becomes anaerobic.", "As a result, human tissues buried in the bog tend to tan rather than decay.===Lindow Woman===On 13 May 1983, two peat workers at Lindow Moss, Andy Mould and Stephen Dooley, noticed an unusual object—about the size of a football—on the elevator taking peat to the shredding machine.", "They removed the object for closer inspection, joking that it was a dinosaur egg.", "Once the peat had been removed, their discovery turned out to be a decomposing, incomplete human head with one eye and some hair intact.Forensics identified the skull as belonging to a European woman, probably aged 30–50.Police initially thought the skull was that of Malika Reyn-Bardt, who had disappeared in 1960 and was the subject of an ongoing investigation.", "While in prison on another charge, her husband, Peter Reyn-Bardt, had boasted that he had killed his wife and buried her in the back garden of their bungalow, which was on the edge of the area of mossland where peat was being dug.", "The garden had been examined but no body was found.", "When Reyn-Bardt was confronted with the discovery of the skull from Lindow Moss, he confessed to the murder of his wife.The skull was later radiocarbon dated, revealing it to be nearly 2,000 years old.", "\"Lindow Woman\", as it became known, dated from around 210 AD.", "This emerged shortly before Reyn-Bardt went to trial, but he was convicted on the evidence of his confession." ], [ "Discovery", "The area of Lindow Moss where Lindow Man was discoveredA year later, a further discovery was made at Lindow Moss, just south-west of the Lindow Woman.", "On 1 August 1984, Andy Mould, who had been involved in the discovery of Lindow Woman, took what he thought was a piece of wood off the elevator of the peat-shredding machine.", "He threw the object at Eddie Slack, his workmate.", "When it hit the ground, peat fell off the object and revealed it to be a human foot.", "The police were called and the foot was taken away for examination.Rick Turner, the Cheshire County Archaeologist, was notified of the discovery and succeeded in finding the rest of the body, which later became known as Lindow Man.", "Some skin had been exposed and had started to decay, so to prevent further deterioration of the body, it was re-covered with peat.", "The complete excavation of the block containing the remains was performed on 6 August.", "Until it could be dated, it was moved to the Macclesfield District General Hospital for storage.", "As the body of Malika Reyn-Bardt had still not been found, it was initially thought possible the body might be hers, until it was determined to be male, and radiocarbon dated.The owners of the land where Lindow Man was found donated the body to the British Museum, and on 21 August it was transported to London.At the time, the body was dubbed \"Pete Marsh\" by Middlesex Hospital radiologists, a name subsequently adopted by local journalists, as was the similar \"Pete Bogg\".The find was announced to the press during the second week of investigation.", "As the best preserved bog body found in Britain, its discovery caused a domestic media sensation and received global coverage.", "Sparking excitement in the country's archaeological community, who had long expected such a find, it was hailed as one of the most important archaeological discoveries of the 1980s.", "A ''Q.E.D.''", "documentary about Lindow Man broadcast by the BBC in 1985 attracted 10 million viewers.Lindow Man's official name is Lindow II, as there are other finds from the area: Lindow I (Lindow Woman) refers to a human skull, Lindow III to a \"fragmented headless body\", and Lindow IV to the upper thigh of an adult male, possibly that of Lindow Man.", "After the discovery of Lindow Man, there were no further archaeological excavations at Lindow Moss until 1987.A large piece of skin was found by workmen on the elevator on 6 February 1987.On this occasion, the police left the investigation to the archaeologists.", "Over 70 pieces were found, constituting Lindow III.", "Although the bone was not as well preserved as that of Lindow Man, the other tissues survived in better condition.", "The final discovery was that of Lindow IV on 14 June 1988.Part of a left leg and buttocks were found on the elevator, from a site just west of where Lindow Man was found.", "Nearly three months later, on 12 September, a right thigh was discovered in the peat on the bucket of a digger.", "The proximity of the discovery sites, coupled with the fact that the remains were shown to come from an adult male, means that Lindow IV is probably part of Lindow Man." ], [ "Remains and investigation", "Lindow Man's right footLindow Man's faceLindow Man marked the first discovery in Britain of a well-preserved bog body; its condition was comparable to that of Grauballe Man and Tollund Man from Denmark.", "Before Lindow Man was found, it was estimated that 41 bog bodies had been found in England and Wales and 15 in Scotland.", "Encouraged by the discovery of Lindow Man, a gazetteer was compiled, which revealed a far higher number of bog bodies: over 85 in England and Wales and over 36 in Scotland.", "Prior to the discovery of the bodies in Lindow Moss, British bog bodies had been a relatively neglected subject compared to European examples.", "The interest caused by Lindow Man led to more in-depth research of accounts of discoveries in bogs since the 17th century; by 1995, the numbers had changed to 106 in England and Wales and 34 in Scotland.", "The remains covered a large time frame.In life, Lindow Man would have measured between 5'6\" and 5'8\" (1.68 and 1.73 m) tall and weighed about .", "It was possible to ascertain that his age at death was around the mid-20s.", "The body retains a trimmed beard, moustache, and sideburns of brown hair, as well as healthy teeth with no visible cavities, and manicured fingernails, indicating he did little heavy or rough work.", "Apart from a fox-fur armband, Lindow Man was discovered completely naked.", "When he died, Lindow Man was suffering from slight osteoarthritis and an infestation of whipworm and maw worm.", "As a result of decalcification of the bones and pressure from the peat under which Lindow Man was buried, his skull was distorted.", "While some preserved human remains may contain DNA, peat bogs such as Lindow Moss are generally poor for such a purpose, and it is unlikely that DNA could be recovered from Lindow Man.Lindow Man and Lindow III were found to have elevated levels of copper on their skin.", "The cause for this was uncertain as there could have been natural causes, although a study by Pyatt ''et al.''", "proposed that the bodies may have been painted with a copper-based pigment.", "To test this, skin samples were taken from places likely to be painted and tested against samples from areas where painting was unlikely.", "It was found that the copper content of the skin of the torso was higher than the control areas, suggesting that the theory of Pyatt ''et al.''", "may have been correct.", "However, the conclusion was ambiguous as the overall content was above that expected of a male, and variations across the body may have been due to environmental factors.", "Similarly, green deposits were found in the hair, originally thought to be a copper-based pigment used for decoration, but it was later found to be the result of a reaction between the keratin in the hair and the acid of the peat bog.The reconstructed face of Lindow Man.", "For the process, a replica of his skull was created from radiographs.Dating Lindow Man is problematic as samples from the body and surrounding peat have produced dates spanning a 900-year period.", "Although the peat encasing Lindow Man has been radiocarbon dated to about 300 BC, Lindow Man himself has a different date.", "Early tests at different laboratories returned conflicting dates for the body; later tests suggested a date between 2 BC and 119 AD.", "There has been a tendency to ascribe the body to the Iron Age period rather than Roman due to the interpretation that Lindow Man's death may have been a ritual sacrifice or execution.", "Explanations for why the peat in which he was found is much older have been sought.", "Archaeologist P. C. Buckland suggests that as the stratigraphy of the peat appears undisturbed, Lindow Man may have been deposited into a pool that was already some 300 years old.", "Geographer K. E. Barber has argued against this hypothesis, saying that pools at Lindow Moss would have been too shallow, and suggests that the peat may have been peeled back to allow the burial and then replaced, leaving the stratigraphy apparently undisturbed.Lindow Man's last meal was preserved in his stomach and intestines and was analysed in some detail.", "It was hoped that investigations into the contents of the stomach would shed light on the contemporary diet, as was the case with Grauballe Man and Tollund Man in the 1950s.", "The analysis of the contents of the digestive system of bog bodies had become one of the principal endeavours of investigating such remains.", "Analysis of the grains present revealed his diet to be mostly of cereals.", "He probably ate slightly charred bread, although the burning may have had ritual significance rather than being an accident.", "Some mistletoe pollen was also found in the stomach, indicating that Lindow Man died in March or April.One of the conclusions of the study was that the people buried in Lindow Moss may have had a less varied diet than their European counterparts.", "According to Jody Joy, curator of the Iron Age collection at the British Museum, the importance of Lindow Man lies more in how he lived rather than how he died, as the circumstances surrounding his demise may never be fully established.===Cause of death===The top of the Lindow Man's head.", "The V-shaped cut can be seen at the lower centre.As the peat was cleaned off the body in the laboratory, it became clear that Lindow Man had suffered a violent death.", "The injuries included a V-shaped, cut on top of his head; a possible laceration at the back of the head, ligature marks on the neck where a sinew cord was found, a possible wound on the right side of the neck, a possible stab wound in the upper right chest, a broken neck, and a fractured rib.", "Xeroradiography revealed that the blow on top of the head (causing the V-shaped cut) was caused by a relatively blunt object; it had fractured the skull and driven fragments into the brain.", "Swelling along the edges of the wound indicated that Lindow Man had lived after being struck.", "The blow, possibly from a small axe, would have caused unconsciousness, but the victim could have survived for several hours afterwards.", "The ligature marks on the neck were caused by tightening the sinew cord found around his neck, possibly a garrotte or necklace.It is not possible to confirm whether some injuries took place before or after death, due to the body's state of decay.", "This is the case for the wound in the upper right chest and the laceration on the back of the skull.", "The cut on the right of the neck may have been the result of the body becoming bloated, causing the skin to split; however, the straight edges to the wound suggest that it may have been caused by a sharp instrument, such as a knife.", "The ligature marks on the neck may have occurred after death.", "In some interpretations of Lindow Man's death, the sinew is a garrotte used to break the victim's neck.", "However, Robert Connolly, a lecturer in physical anthropology, suggests that the sinew may have been ornamental and that ligature marks may have been caused by the body swelling when submerged.", "The rib fracture may also have occurred after death, perhaps during the discovery of the body, but is included in some narratives of the Lindow Man's death.", "The broken neck would have proven the fatal injury, whether caused by the sinew cord tightening around the neck or by blows to the back of the head.", "After death, Lindow Man was deposited into Lindow Moss face down." ], [ "Hypothesis", "Archaeologist Don Brothwell considers that many of the older bodies need re-examining with modern techniques, such as those used in the analysis of Lindow Man.", "The study of bog bodies, including these found in Lindow Moss, has contributed to a wider understanding of well-preserved human remains, helping to develop new methods in analysis and investigation.", "The use of sophisticated techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) scans, has marked the investigation of the Lindow bodies as particularly important.", "Such scans allow the reconstruction of the body and internal examination.", "Of the 27 bodies recovered from lowland raised mires in England and Wales, only those from Lindow Moss and the remains of Worsley Man have survived, together with a shoe from another body.", "The remains have a date range from the early 1st to the 4th centuries.", "Investigation into the other bodies relies on contemporary descriptions of the discovery.The physical evidence allows a general reconstruction of how Lindow Man was killed, although some details are debated, but it does not explain why he was killed.", "In North West England, there is little evidence for religious or ritual activity in the Iron Age period.", "What evidence does survive is usually in the form of artefacts recovered from peat bogs.", "Late Iron Age burials in the region often took the form of a crouched inhumation, sometimes with personal ornaments.", "Although dated to the mid-1st century AD, the type of burial of Lindow Man was more common in the pre-historic period.", "In the latter half of the 20th century, scholars widely believed that bog bodies demonstrating injuries to the neck or head area were examples of ritual sacrifice.", "Bog bodies were associated with Germanic and Celtic cultures, specifically relating to head worship.According to Brothwell, Lindow Man is one of the most complex examples of \"overkill\" in a bog body, and possibly has ritual meaning as it was \"extravagant\" for a straightforward murder.", "Archaeologists John Hodgson and Mark Brennand suggest that bog bodies may have been related to religious practice, although there is division in the academic community over this issue.", "In the case of Lindow Man, scholars debate whether the killing was murder or done as part of ritual.", "Anne Ross, an expert on Iron Age religion, proposed that the death was an example of human sacrifice and that the \"triple death\" (throat cut, strangled, and hit on the head) was an offering to several different gods.", "The wide date range for Lindow Man's death (2 BC to 119 AD) means he may have met his demise after the Romans conquered northern England in the 60s AD.", "As the Romans outlawed human sacrifice, such timing would open up other possibilities.", "This conclusion was emphasised by historian Ronald Hutton, who challenged the interpretation of sacrificial death.", "Connolly suggests that as Lindow Man was found naked, he could have been the victim of a violent robbery.Joy said,\"The jury really is still out on these bodies, whether they were aristocrats, priests, criminals, outsiders, whether they went willingly to their deaths or whether they were executed – but Lindow was a very remote place in those days, an unlikely place for an ambush or a murder\".According to Anne Ross, a scholar of Celtic history and Don Robins, a chemist at the University of London, Lindow Man was likely a sacrifice victim of extraordinary importance.", "They identified his stomach contents as including the undigested remains of a partially burned barley griddle cake of a kind used by the ancient Celts to select victims for sacrifice.", "Such cakes were torn into fragments and placed in a sack, after which all candidates for sacrifice would withdraw a piece, with the one withdrawing the burnt piece being the one who would be sacrificed.", "They argued that Lindow Man was likely a high-ranking Druid who was sacrificed in a last-ditch effort to call upon the aid of three Celtic gods to stop a Roman offensive against the Celts in AD 60." ], [ "Conservation", "Lindow Man on display at the British Museum in 1996.Environment and situation are the crucial factors that determine how corpses decay.", "For instance, corpses will decay differently depending on the weather, the way they are buried, and the medium in which they are buried.", "Peat slows the decay of corpses.", "It was feared that, once Lindow Man was removed from that environment, which had preserved the body for nearly 2,000 years, the remains would rapidly start to deteriorate, so steps were taken to ensure preservation.", "After rejecting methods that had been used to maintain the integrity of other bog bodies, such as the \"pit-tanning\" used on Grauballe Man, which took a year and a half, scientists settled on freeze-drying.", "In preparation, the body was covered in a solution of 15% polyethylene glycol 400 and 85% water to prevent its becoming distorted.", "The body was then frozen solid and the ice vaporised to ensure Lindow Man did not shrink.", "Afterwards, Lindow Man was put in a specially constructed display case to control the environment, maintaining the temperature at and the humidity at 55%.Lindow Man is held in the British Museum.", "Before the remains were transferred there, people from North West England launched an unsuccessful campaign to keep the body in Manchester.", "The bog body has been on temporary display in other venues: at the Manchester Museum on three occasions, April to , March to , and to ; and at the Great North Museum in Newcastle from August to .", "The 2008–09 Manchester display, titled ''Lindow Man: A Bog Body Mystery Exhibition at the Manchester Museum'', won the category \"Best Archaeological Innovation\" in the 2010 British Archaeological Awards, run by the Council for British Archaeology.Critics have complained that, by museum display of the remains, the body of Lindow Man has been objectified rather than treated with the respect due the dead.", "This is part of a wider discussion about the scientific treatment of human remains and museum researchers and archaeologists using them as information sources." ], [ "Cultural references", "British archaeologist and anthropologist Don Brothwell’s ''The Bog Man and the Archaeology of People'' provides an account of the modern scientific techniques employed to conserve and analyse Lindow Man.", "Celtic history, language and lore scholar Anne Ross and archaeological chemist Don Robins's ''The Life and Death of a Druid Prince'' provides an account of the circumstances surrounding Lindow Man's life and death, in part hypothesising that he had lived as a highborn, perhaps even as a druid who was sacrificed to the gods at the time of the Menai Massacre and Boudica’s rebellion." ], [ "See also", "* Haraldskær Woman* List of bog bodies* Ötzi" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Footnotes======Bibliography===*******************" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lombok" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lombok''' is an island in West Nusa Tenggara province, Indonesia.", "It forms part of the chain of the Lesser Sunda Islands, with the Lombok Strait separating it from Bali to the west and the Alas Strait between it and Sumbawa to the east.", "It is roughly circular, with a \"tail\" (Sekotong Peninsula) to the southwest, about across and a total area of about including smaller offshore islands.", "The provincial capital and largest city on the island is Mataram.Lombok is somewhat similar in size and density, and shares some cultural heritage with the neighboring island of Bali to the west.", "However, it is administratively part of West Nusa Tenggara, along with the larger and more sparsely populated island of Sumbawa to the east.", "Lombok is surrounded by a number of smaller islands locally called Gili.The island was home to some 3,168,692 people as recorded in the decennial 2010 census and 3,758,631 in the 2020 Census; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 3,869,194.", "''Lomboq'' is Sasak for ''straight, honest''." ], [ "Administration", "Lombok is under the administration of the Governor of the province of West Nusa Tenggara (''Nusa Tenggara Barat'').", "The province is administered from the provincial capital of Mataram in West Lombok.The island is administratively divided into four ''kabupaten'' (regencies) and one ''kota'' (city).", "They are as follows, with their areas and populations at the 2010 Census and the 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2022.Name Area in km2 Population 2010Census Population 2020Census Population mid 2022estimate Capital North Lombok Regency (Lombok Utara) Tanjung West Lombok Regency (Lombok Barat) Gerung Central Lombok Regency (Lombok Tengah) Praya East Lombok Regency (Lombok Timur) Selong Mataram City Mataram '''''Totals'''''" ], [ "History", "The Sasak chiefs of Lombok who allied with the Dutch to resist Balinese occupation.A 75 carat diamond on exhibit at the Museum Volkenkunde, Leiden.", "It was taken, together with of gold, of silver and three chests of jewels and precious stones from the royal palace of Lombok after a Dutch invasion in 1894.Only part of the treasure was handed back to Indonesia in 1977.The 14th century Majapahit manuscript Nagarakretagama canto 14 mentioned \"Lombok Mirah\" as one of island identified under Majapahit suzerainty.", "Other than the ''Babad Lombok'' document which records the 1257 Samalas eruption, little is known about Lombok before the seventeenth century.", "Before this time it was made up of numerous competing and feuding petty states, each of which was presided over by a Sasak 'prince'.", "This disunity was taken advantage of by the neighbouring Balinese who took control of western Lombok in the early seventeenth century.The Makassarese meanwhile invaded eastern Lombok from their colonies in neighbouring Sumbawa.", "The Dutch had first visited Lombok in 1674 and the Dutch East India Company concluded its first treaty with the Sasak Princess of Lombok.", "The Balinese had managed to take over the whole island by 1750, but Balinese infighting resulted in the island being split into four feuding Balinese kingdoms.", "In 1838, the Mataram kingdom brought its rivals under control.Relations between the Sasak and Balinese in western Lombok were largely harmonious and intermarriage was common.", "In the island's east, however, relations were less cordial and the Balinese maintained control from garrisoned forts.", "While Sasak village government remained in place, the village head became little more than a tax collector for the Balinese.", "Villagers became a kind of serf and Sasak aristocracy lost much of its power and land holdings.Dutch intervention in Lombok and Karangasem against the Balinese in 1894.During one of the many Sasak peasant rebellions against the Balinese, Sasak chiefs sent envoys to the Dutch in Bali and invited them to rule Lombok.", "In June 1894, the governor general of the Dutch East Indies, Van der Wijck, signed a treaty with Sasak rebels in eastern Lombok.", "He sent a large army to Lombok and the Balinese raja capitulated to Dutch demands.", "(see Dutch intervention in Lombok) The younger princes however overruled the raja and attacked and pushed back the Dutch.", "The Dutch counterattacked overrunning Mataram and the raja surrendered.", "The entire island was annexed to the Netherlands East Indies in 1895.The Dutch ruled over Lombok's 500,000 people with a force of no more than 250 by cultivating the support of the Balinese and Sasak aristocracy.", "The Dutch are remembered in Lombok as liberators from Balinese hegemony.During World War II a Japanese invasion force comprising elements of the 2nd Southern Expeditionary Fleet invaded and occupied the Lesser Sunda Islands, including the island of Lombok.", "They sailed from Soerabaja harbour at 09:00 hrs on 8 March 1942 and proceeded towards Lombok Island.", "On 9 March 1942 at 17:00 hrs the fleet sailed into port of Ampenan on Lombok Island.", "The Dutch defenders were soon defeated and the island occupied.Following the cessation of hostilities the Japanese forces occupying Indonesia were withdrawn and Lombok returned temporarily to Dutch control.", "Following the subsequent Indonesian independence from the Dutch, the Balinese and Sasak aristocracy continued to dominate Lombok.", "In 1958, the island was incorporated into the province of West Nusa Tenggara with Mataram becoming the provincial capital.", "Mass killings of communists occurred across the island following the abortive coup attempt in Jakarta and Central Java.", "During President Suharto's New Order administration (1967–1998), Lombok experienced a degree of stability and development but not to the extent of the boom and wealth in Java and Bali.", "Crop failures led to famine in 1966 and food shortages in 1973.The national government's ''transmigrasi'' program moved a lot of people out of Lombok.", "The 1980s saw external developers and speculators instigate a nascent tourism boom although local's share of earnings was limited.", "Indonesia's political and economic crises of the late 1990s hit Lombok hard.", "In January 2000, riots broke out across Mataram with Christians and ethnic Chinese the main victims, with alleged ''agents provocateur'' from outside Lombok.", "Tourism slumped, but in recent years has seen a renewed growth.President Joko Widodo examining the earthquake damage.=== 2018 earthquakes ===The July 2018 Lombok earthquake killed 20 people and injured hundreds more.", "The earthquake caused significant damage to Lombok island and was the foreshock of a larger earthquake that followed eight days later.", "The 5 August 2018 Lombok earthquake had a moment magnitude of 7.0, and it caused catastrophic damage to North Lombok and also caused damage to nearby Bali.", "In total, it caused over 550 deaths and more than 7000 were injured.", "Another Lombok earthquake occurred on 19 August 2018, killing 13 people and damaging 1800 buildings.Initially, the Indonesian National Board for Disaster Management refused international aid, claiming \"earthquakes did not constitute a national emergency\" and that locals were capable enough to respond without help.", "However, the infrastructure for disaster management and relief was not adequately in place in and around Lombok; therefore, the first responders to the disaster were stretched local government agencies such as police & military personnel, domestic volunteers and business owners in the parts of Lombok that were less affected by the quakes, including the Gili islands.", "Small scale international fundraising initiatives were organised through social networks and the web to help source basic resources such as food & clean water, and begin assisting with temporary and permanent shelter.", "This was vital in the early stages of the disaster, before larger scale government assistance arrived." ], [ "Geography", "Mount Rinjani seen from Gili AirLake Segara Anak on top of Mt.", "RinjaniThe island is to the immediate east of the Lombok Strait which marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan realm and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia; this distinction, known as the \"Wallace Line\" (or \"Wallace's Line\") takes its name from Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913).", "Wallace was the first person to comment on the division between the two regions, as well as on the abrupt boundary between the two biomes.", "Lombok is part of the Lesser Sundas deciduous forests ecoregion.To the east of Lombok lies the Alas Strait, a narrow body of water separating the island of Lombok from the nearby island of Sumbawa.The island's topography is dominated by the centrally-located stratovolcano Mount Rinjani, the second-highest volcano in Indonesia, which rises to , making Lombok the 8th-highest island.", "The most recent eruption of Rinjani occurred in September 2016 at Gunung Barujari.", "In a 2010 eruption, ash was reported as rising into the atmosphere from the Barujari cone in Rinjani's caldera lake of Segara Anak.", "Lava flowed into the caldera lake, raising its temperature, while ash fall damaged crops on the slopes of Rinjani.", "The volcano and its crater lake, Segara Anak (child of the sea), are protected by the Gunung Rinjani National Park established in 1997.Recent evidence indicates an ancient volcano, Mount Samalas, of which now only a caldera remains, was the source of the 1257 Samalas eruption, one of the largest volcanic eruptions in recorded history, which caused worldwide changes in weather.The highlands of Lombok are forest-clad and mostly undeveloped.", "The lowlands are highly cultivated.", "Rice, soybeans, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cinnamon, cacao, cloves, cassava, corn, coconuts, copra, bananas and vanilla are the major crops grown in the fertile soils of the island.", "The southern part of the island is fertile but drier, especially toward the southern coastline.===List of islands===Lombok is surrounded by many islets, including:* Northwest: colloquially the Gili Islands (North Lombok Regency)** Gili Trawangan** Gili Meno** Gili Air* Northeast (East Lombok Regency)** Gili Lawang** Gili Sulat** Gili Petagan** Gili Bidara (Pasaran)** Gili Lampu** Gili Puyu** Gili Kondo** East Coast of Nusa Tenggara** Gili Puyuh** Gili Sulat* Southeast (East Lombok Regency)** Gili Indah** Gili Merengke** Gili Belek** Gili Ular* South Coast (West Lombok Regency)** Gili Solet** Gili Sarang Burung** Gili Kawu** Gili Puyuh* Southwest (Sekotong Peninsula, West Lombok Regency)** Gili Nanggu** Gili Sudak** Gili Tangkong** Gili Kedis** Gili Poh** Gili Genting** Gili Lontar** Gili Layar** Gili Amben** Gili Gede** Gili Anyaran** Gili Layar** Gili Asahan" ], [ "Water problem", "The water supply in Lombok is stressed and this places strain both upon the water supply of the provincial capital, Mataram, and upon that of the island in general.", "The southern and central areas are reported to be the most critically affected.", "West Nusa Tenggara province in general is threatened with a water crisis caused by increasing forest and water table damage and degradation, and increased human population demands.", "160 thousand hectares of a total of 1960 thousand hectares are thought to have been affected.", "The Head of Built Environment and Security Forest Service Forest West Nusa Tenggara Andi Pramari stated in Mataram on Wednesday, May 6, 2009, that, \"If this situation is not addressed it can be expected that within five years it may be difficult for people to obtain water in this part of NTB (West Nusa Tenggara).", "Not only that, the productivity of agriculture in value added will fall, and the residents are experiencing water deficiency in their wells\".", "High cases of timber theft in the region of NTB are contributing to this problem.In September 2010 in Central Lombok, some villagers reportedly walked for several hours to fetch a single pail of water.", "Nieleando, a small coastal village about 50 kilometers from the provincial capital, Mataram, has seen dry wells for years.", "It has been reported that occasionally the problem escalates sufficiently for disputes and fighting between villagers to occur.", "The problems have been reported to be most pronounced in the districts of Jonggat, Janapria, Praya Timur, Praya Barat, Praya Barat Daya and Pujut.", "In 2010 provincial authorities declared all six districts drought areas.", "Sumbawa, the other main island of the province, also experienced severe drought in 2010, making it a province-wide issue.Areas in southern Lombok Island were classified as arid and prone to water shortages due to low rainfall and lack of water sources.", "In May 2011, groundbreaking began on Pandanduri dam construction, which will span about 430 hectares and cost an estimated Rp.800 billion ($92.8 million).", "When finished, the dam will accommodate about 25.7 million cubic meters of water and be able to irrigate 10,350 hectares of farmland.", "Project construction was expected to last five years." ], [ "Demographics", "The island's inhabitants are 85% Sasak, whose ancestors are thought to have migrated from Java in the first millennium BC.", "Other residents include an estimated 10–15% Balinese, with the small remainder being Chinese-peranakan Indonesians, Javanese, Sumbawa and Arab Indonesians.The Sasak population are culturally and linguistically closely related to the Balinese, but unlike the Hindu Balinese, the majority are Muslim and the landscape is punctuated with mosques and minarets.", "Islamic traditions and holidays influence the Island's daily activities.In 2008 the Island of Lombok had 866,838 households and an average of 3.635 persons per household.The 2020 census recorded a population of 5,320,092 people in the province of NTB; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 5,473,671 of which over 70% reside on Lombok, giving it a population of 3,869,194 at that date." ], [ "Religion", "Traditional Sasak houses.The oldest mosque dating from 1634 in Bayan.Mataram, a Hindu temple built in 1720.Buddhist Temple near Tanjung on the north coast.Indigenous Sasak dancers performing traditional Lombok wardance The island's indigenous Sasak people are predominantly Muslim however before the arrival of Islam Lombok experienced a long period of Hindu and Buddhist influence that reached the island through Java.", "A minority Balinese Hindu culture remains in Lombok.", "Islam may have first been brought to Lombok by traders arriving from Sumbawa in the 17th century who then established a following in eastern Lombok.", "Other accounts describe the first influences arriving in the first half of the sixteenth century.", "The palm leaf manuscript Babad Lombok which contains the history of Lombok describes how Sunan Prapen was sent by his father The Susuhunan Ratu of Giri on a military expedition to Lombok and Sumbawa in order to convert the population and propagate the new religion.", "However, the new religion took on a highly syncretistic character, frequently mixing animist and Hindu-Buddhist beliefs and practices with Islam.A more orthodox version of Islam increased in popularity in the early twentieth century.", "The Indonesian government religionization programs (acquiring of a religion) in Lombok during 1967 and 1968 led to a period of some considerable confusion in religious allegiances and practices.", "These religionization programs later led to the emergence of more conformity in religious practices in Lombok.", "The Hindu minority religion is still practised in Lombok alongside the majority Muslim religion.Hinduism is followed by ethnic Balinese and by a minority of the indigenous Sasak.", "All the main Hindu religious ceremonies are celebrated in Lombok and there are many villages throughout Lombok that have a Hindu majority population.", "According to local legends two of the oldest villages on the island, Bayan, and Sembalun, were founded by a prince of Majapahit.", "According to the 2010 population census declared adherents of Hinduism numbered 101,000 people with the highest concentration in the Mataram Regency where they accounted for 14% of the population.", "The Ditjen Bimas Hindu (DBH)/ Hindu Religious Affairs Directorate's own analysis conducted in close association with Hindu communities throughout the country found that the number of Hindus in the population is much higher than counted in the government census.", "The survey carried out in 2012 found the Hindu population of Lombok to be 445,933.This figure is more in line with the commonly stated view that 10–15% of the Islands population is Hindu.The Nagarakertagama, the 14th-century palm leaf poem that was found on Lombok places the island as one of the vassals of the Majapahit empire.", "This manuscript contained detailed descriptions of the Majapahit Kingdom and also affirmed the importance of Hindu-Buddhism in the Majapahit empire by describing temple, palaces and several ceremonial observances.Christianity is practised by a small minority including some ethnic Chinese and immigrants from Bali and East Nusa Tenggara.", "There are Roman Catholic churches and parishes in Ampenan, Mataram, Praya and Tanjung.", "There is a catholic hospital in Mataram as well.", "Two Buddhist temples can be visited in and around Tanjung where about 800 Buddhists live.The history of a small Arab community in Lombok has history dating back to early settlement by traders from Yemen.", "The community is still evident mainly in Ampenan, the old Port of Mataram.", "Due to the siting of a UNHCR refugee centre in Lombok some refugees from middle eastern countries have intermarried with Lombok people.A non-orthodox Islamic group found only on Lombok are the Wektu Telu (\"Three times\"), who performed three obligatory daily prayers (Salah) instead of five observed by majority of Muslim elsewhere.", "Waktu Telu beliefs are entwined with animism, and is influenced not only by Islam, but also Hinduism and pantheistic beliefs.", "There are also remnants of Boda who maintain native Sasak beliefs and could be representative of an original Sasak culture, undiluted by later Islamic influences.Many influences of animist belief prevail within the Sasak people, most of whom believe in the existence of spirits or ''ghosts''.", "They regard both food and prayer as indispensable whenever they seek to communicate with spirits, including the dead and ritualistic traditional practices endure.", "Traditional magic is practised to ward off evil and illness and to seek solutions to disputations and antipathy.", "Magic may be practised by an individual alone but normally a person experienced in such things is sought out to render a service.", "Normally money or gifts are made to this person and the most powerful practitioners are treated with considerable respect." ], [ "Economy and politics", "Many of the visitors to Lombok and much of the islands goods come across the Lombok Strait by sea or air links from Bali.", "Only separate the two islands.", "Lombok is often marketed as \"an unspoiled Bali,\" or \"Bali's sister island.\"", "With support from the central government, Lombok and Sumbawa are being developed as Indonesia's second destination for international and domestic tourism.", "Lombok has retained a more natural, uncrowded and undeveloped environment, which attract travelers who come for its relaxed pace and the opportunity to explore the island's unspoiled natural environment.", "The more contemporary marketing campaigns for Lombok/Sumbawa seek to differentiate from Bali and promote the island of Lombok as a standalone destination.", "The opening of the Lombok International Airport on 1 October 2011 assisted in this endeavor.Local Sasak children ()Nusa Tenggara Barat and Lombok may be considered economically depressed by First World standards and a large majority of the population live in poverty.", "Still, the island is fertile, has sufficient rainfall in most areas for agriculture, and possesses a variety of climate zones.", "Consequently, food in abundant quantity and variety is available inexpensively at local farmer's markets, though locals still suffer from famine due to drought and subsistence farming.", "A family of 4 can eat rice, vegetables, and fruit for as little as US$0.50.Even though a family's income may be as small as US$1.00 per day from fishing or farming, many families are able to live a contented and productive life on a low income.", "However, the people of Lombok are coming under increasing pressure from rising food and fuel prices.", "Access to housing, education and health services remains difficult for many of the island's indigenous population although public education is free throughout the province and elementary schools are tried to be present in even remote areas.The percentage of the population living in poverty in urban areas of Nusa Tenggara Barat in 2008 was 29.47% and in 2009 it was 28.84%.", "For those living in rural areas in 2008 it was 19.73% and in 2009 it reduced marginally to 18.40%.", "For combined urban and village the figures were 23.81% and in 2009 it fell slightly to 22.78%.In Mataram in 2008 the percentage of the population that was unmarried was 40.74%, married 52.01%, divorced 2.51% and widowed 4.75%.Illegal cage bird trade has been observed in the city of Mataram and during five market visits in 2018 and 2019, 10,326 birds of 108 species were observed, with 18 of these species being nationally protected and many others harvested from the wild in violation of national harvest and trade quotas." ], [ "Tourism", "One of the unique traditional crafts from LombokThe Gili IslandsManta ray Biorock reef in Gili IslandsMawun BeachHarbour of Labuhan LombokSeger Beach, overlooked by the Mandalika International Street Circuit=== Pre-1997 ===Tourist development started in the mid-1980s when Lombok attracted attention as an 'unspoiled' alternative to Bali.", "Initially, low budget bungalows proliferated at places like the Gili islands and Kuta, Lombok on the South Coast.", "These tourist accommodations were largely owned by and operated by local business entrepreneurs.", "Areas in proximity to the airport, places like Senggigi, experienced rampant land speculation for prime beachfront land by big businesses from outside Lombok.In the 1990s the national government in Jakarta began to take an active role in planning for and promoting Lombok's tourism.", "Private organizations like the Bali Tourism Development Corporation (BTDC) and the Lombok Tourism Development Corporation (LTDC) were formed.", "LTDC prepared detailed land use plans with maps and areas zoned for tourist facilities.", "Large hotels provide primary employment for the local population.", "Ancillary business, ranging from restaurants to art shops have been started by local businessmen.", "These businesses provide secondary employment for local residents.=== 1997 to 2007 ===The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis and the fall of Suharto regime in 1998 marked the beginning a decade of setbacks for tourism.", "Spurred by rapid devaluation of the currency and the transition to true democracy caused all of Indonesia to experience a period of domestic unrest.", "Many of Indonesian Provinces struggled with elements of the population desiring autonomy or independence from the Republic of Indonesia.", "At the same time, fanatical Islamic terrorism in Indonesia further aggravated domestic unrest across the archipelago.In January 2000, radical Islamic agitators from the newly formed Jemaah Islamiyah provoked religious and ethnic violence in the Ampenan area of Mataram and the southern area of Senggigi.", "Many foreign expatriates and tourists were temporarily evacuated to Bali.", "Numerous foreign embassies issued Travel Warnings advising of the potential danger of traveling to Indonesia.Subsequently, the 2002 Bali bombings, the 2005 Bali bombings and the Progress of the SARS outbreak in Asia all dramatically impacted tourism activities in Lombok.", "Tourism was slow to return to Lombok, provoked in part by a worldwide reluctance to travel because of global tensions.", "Only since 2007–2008, when most developed countries lifted their Travel Warnings has tourism recovered to pre-2000 levels.=== Present ===The years leading up to 2010 saw a rapid revival and promotion of tourism recovery in the tourism industry.", "The number of visitors far surpassed pre-2000 levels.The Indonesian government has actively promoted both Lombok and neighboring Sumbawa as Indonesia's number two tourist destination after Bali.", "In 2009.then President of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, the Ministry of Cultural and Tourism and the regional Governor had made public statements supporting the development of Lombok as a tourism destination and setting a goal of 1 million visitors annually by the year 2012 for the combined destination of Lombok and Sumbawa.", "This has seen infrastructure improvements to the island including road upgrades and the construction of a much delayed new International airport in the islands south.", "Bali Tourism Development Corporation (BTDC) has been empowered to develop Mandalika Resort Area at southern part of the island, extending from Kuta along of sandy beach.Tourism is an important source of income on Lombok.", "The most developed tourism area of the island is on the west coast of the island and is centered about the township of Senggigi.", "The immediate surrounds of the township contain the most developed tourism facilities.", "The west coast coastal tourism strip is spread along a strip following the coastal road north from Mataram and the old airport at Ampenan.", "The principal tourism area extends to Tanjung in the northwest at the foot of Mount Rinjani and includes the Sire and Medana Peninsulas and the highly popular Gili Islands lying immediately offshore.", "These three small islands are most commonly accessed by boat from Bangsal near Pemenang, Teluk Nare a little to the south, or from further south at Senggigi and Mangsit beach.", "Many hotels and resorts offer accommodations ranging from budget to luxurious.", "Recently direct fast boat services have been running from Bali making a direct connection to the Gili islands.", "Although rapidly changing in character, the Gili islands still provide both a lay-back backpacker's retreat and a high-class resort destination.Other tourist destinations include Mount Rinjani, Gili Bidara, Gili Lawang, Narmada Park and Mayura Park and Kuta (distinctly different from Kuta, Bali).", "Sekotong, in southwest Lombok, is popular for its numerous and diverse scuba diving locations.The Kuta area is also famous for its largely deserted, white sand beaches.", "The Smalltown is rapidly developing since the opening of the International airport in Praya.", "Increasing amounts of surfers from around the globe come here seeking out perfect surf and the slow and rustic feel of Lombok.", "South Lombok surfing is considered some of the best in the world.", "Large polar lows push up through the Indian Ocean directing long range, high period swell from as far south as Heard Island from late March through to September or later.", "This coincided with the dry season and South-East trade winds that blow like clockwork.", "Lombok is famous for its diversity of breaks, which includes world-renowned ''Desert Point'' at Banko Banko in the southwest of the island.The northern west coast near Tanjung has many new upmarket hotel and villa developments centered about the Sire and Medana peninsular nearby to the Gili islands and a new boating marina at Medana Bay.", "These new developments complement the already existing five-star resorts and a large golf course already established there.=== Promoting Halal tourism ===In 2019, Lombok received a score of 70, the highest among the assessed top 10 halal tourist destinations in Indonesia in study conducted by the Tourism Ministry.", "The Indonesian Government was hoping to attract some of the anticipated 230 million Muslim travellers across the world in 2026, with potential spending of up to .According to the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, halal (or Islamic) tourism components are halal hotels (no alcohol, gambling, etc.", "; Quran, prayer mats and arrows indicating the direction of Mecca in every room), halal transport (cleanliness; non-alcoholic drinks; publications coherent with Islam), halal food premises, halal (Islamic-themed) tour packages and halal finance (the financial resources of the hotel, restaurant, travel agency and the airlines have to fit with Islamic principles)." ], [ "Transport", "Lombok International Airport (''Bandara Internasional Lombok'') is south west of the small regional city of Praya in South central Lombok.", "It commenced operations on 1 October 2011.It replaced Selaparang airport near Ampenan.", "It is the only operational international airport within the province of West Nusa Tenggara (''Nusa Tenggara Barat'').Selaparang Airport in Ampenan was closed for operations on the evening of 30 September 2011.It previously provided facilities for domestic services to Java, Bali, and Sumbawa and international services to Singapore to Kuala Lumpur via Surabaya and Jakarta.", "It was the island's original airport and is situated on Jalan Adi Sucipto on the north western outskirts of Mataram.", "The terminals and basic airport infrastructure remain intact but it is closed to all civil airline traffic.Lembar Harbor seaport in the southwest has shipping facilities and a ferry for road vehicles and passenger services.", "In 2013, the gross tonnage is 4.3 million Gross Tonnages or increase by 72 percent from 2012 data means in Lombok and West Nusa Tenggara the economy progress significantly.Labuhan Lombok ferry port on the east coast provides a ferry for road vehicles and passenger services to Poto Tano on Sumbawa.Pelni Shipping Line provides a national network of passenger ship services throughout the Indonesian archipelago.", "Pelni has offices in Ampenan.Pedasbet Shipping Line provides a national network of passenger ship services throughout the Indonesian archipelago.", "Pedasbet has offices in Ampenan.=== Transport between Bali and Lombok ===Lombok \"Zainuddin Abdul Madjid International\" AirportFlights from Ngurah Rai International Airport to Lombok \"Zainuddin Abdul Madjid\" International Airport take about 40 minutes.", "Lombok International Airport is located in southwest Lombok, 1.5 hours drive to Senggigi main tourist areas in the west Lombok, 2 hours drive to the jetty of Teluk Nara before you cross to Gili Islands and about 30 minutes drive to Kuta south Lombok.Public ferries depart from Padang Bai (Southeast Bali) and Lembar (Southwest Lombok) every hour, taking a minimum of 4–5 hours to make the crossing in either direction.Fast boat services are available from various departure points on Bali and principally serve the Gili Islands, with some significant onward traffic to the Lombok mainland.", "Arrival points on Lombok are dependent upon the operator, at either Teluk Nare/Teluk Kodek, Bangsal harbour or the township of Senggigi, all on the northwest coast.", "Operating standards vary widely." ], [ "Festivals", "A traditional event called the '''Nyale Festival''', or Bau Nyale (meaning \"to catch the sea worms), is held between February and March.", "The event focuses on catching the spawning parts of ''Palola viridis'', which are known as ''nyale'' or ''wawo''.", "In local legend, nyale are believed to be the reincarnation of the beautiful Princess Mandalika, who had jumped into the sea to drown herself off Seger beach, after her father had set up a contest for potential suitors to fight one another to win her hand in marriage." ], [ "See also", "*" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * Tropenmuseum Collection of historic photos from Lombok* Lombok Indonesia Tourism* Mount Rinjani Lombok National Park* NY Times on Lombok* The Australian reports on Lombok: The New Bali* Kabupaten Lombok Utara the Regency of North Lombok* Kabupaten Lombok Tengah, the Regency of Central Lombok* Kabupaten Lombok Timur, the Regency of East Lombok* Kabupaten Lombok Barat, the Regency of West Lombok* Kota Mataram, City of Mataram* Gili Asahan* Attractions and Activities" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lego" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lego''' ( , ; stylized as '''LEGO''') is a line of plastic construction toys manufactured by the Lego Group, a privately held company based in Billund, Denmark.", "Lego consists of variously coloured interlocking plastic bricks made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene that accompany an array of gears, figurines called minifigures, and various other parts.", "Its pieces can be assembled and connected in many ways to construct objects, including vehicles, buildings, and working robots.", "Anything constructed can be taken apart again, and the pieces reused to make new things.The Lego Group began manufacturing the interlocking toy bricks in 1949.Moulding is done in Denmark, Hungary, Mexico, and China.", "Brick decorations and packaging are done at plants in the former three countries and in the Czech Republic.", "Annual production of the bricks averages approximately 36 billion, or about 1140 elements per second.", "One of Europe's biggest companies, Lego is the largest toy manufacturer in the world by sales.", ", 600 billion Lego parts had been produced.", "Films, games competitions, and eight Legoland amusement parks have been developed under the brand." ], [ "History", "Hilary Fisher Page's ''Interlocking Building Cubes'' by Kiddicraft, 1939The Lego Group began in the workshop of Ole Kirk Christiansen (1891–1958), a carpenter from Billund, Denmark, who began making wooden toys in 1932.In 1934, his company came to be called \"Lego\", derived from the Danish phrase , which means \"play well\".", "In 1947, Lego expanded to begin producing plastic toys.", "In 1949 the business began producing, among other new products, an early version of the now familiar interlocking bricks, calling them \"Automatic Binding Bricks\".", "These bricks were based on the Kiddicraft Self-Locking Bricks, invented by Hilary Page in 1939 and patented in the United Kingdom in 1940 before being displayed at the 1947 Earl's Court Toy Fair.", "Lego had received a sample of the Kiddicraft bricks from the supplier of an injection-molding machine that it purchased.", "The bricks, originally manufactured from cellulose acetate, were a development of the traditional stackable wooden blocks of the time.Boy from the UK playing with Lego in 1957.First sold in Denmark, the company expanded its sales across Europe in the 1950s, before expanding outside the continent from the 1960s.The home factory at Højmarksvej, Billund, Denmark (pictured in 1973)The Lego Group's motto, \"only the best is good enough\" (, literally \"the best isn't excessively good\") was created in 1936.Christiansen created the motto, still used today, to encourage his employees never to skimp on quality, a value he believed in strongly.", "By 1951, plastic toys accounted for half of the company's output, even though the Danish trade magazine ''Legetøjs-Tidende'' (\"Toy Times\"), visiting the Lego factory in Billund in the early 1950s, wrote that plastic would never be able to replace traditional wooden toys.", "Although a common sentiment, Lego toys seem to have become a significant exception to the dislike of plastic in children's toys, due in part to the high standards set by Ole Kirk.By 1954, Christiansen's son, Godtfred, had become the junior managing director of the Lego Group.", "It was his conversation with an overseas buyer that led to the idea of a toy system.", "Godtfred saw the immense potential in Lego bricks to become a system for creative play, but the bricks still had some problems from a technical standpoint: Their locking ability was still limited, and they were not yet versatile.", "In 1958, the modern brick design was developed; it took five years to find the right material for it, ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) polymer.", "A patent application for the modern Lego brick design was filed in Denmark on 28 January 1958 and in various other countries in the subsequent few years.Lego bricksTwo Lego Duplo bricks with a standard brick for comparisonThe Lego Group's Duplo product line was introduced in 1969 and is a range of blocks whose lengths measure twice the width, height, and depth of standard Lego blocks and are aimed towards younger children.", "In 1978, Lego produced the first minifigures, which have since become a staple in most sets.In May 2011, Space Shuttle Endeavour mission STS-134 brought 13 Lego kits to the International Space Station, where astronauts built models to see how they would react in microgravity, as a part of the Lego Bricks in Space program.", "In May 2013, the largest model ever created, made of over 5 million bricks, was displayed in New York City; a one-to-one scale model of a ''Star Wars'' X-wing fighter.", "Other record breakers include a tower and a railway.In February 2015, marketing consulting company Brand Finance ranked Lego as the \"world's most powerful brand\", overtaking Ferrari.Lego bricks have acquired a reputation for causing extreme pain when stepped on." ], [ "Design", "Lego pieces of all varieties constitute a universal system.", "Despite variations in the design and the purposes of individual pieces over the years, each remains compatible in some way with existing pieces.", "Lego bricks from 1958 still interlock with those made presently, and Lego sets for young children are compatible with those made for teenagers.", "Six bricks of 2 × 4 studs can be combined in 915,103,765 ways.Each piece must be manufactured to an exacting degree of precision.", "When two pieces are engaged, they must fit firmly, yet be easily disassembled.", "The machines that manufacture Lego bricks have tolerances as small as 10 micrometres.Dimensions of some standard Lego bricks and platesPrimary concept and development work for the toy takes place at the Billund headquarters, where the company employs approximately 120 designers.", "The company also has smaller design offices in the UK, Spain, Germany, and Japan which are tasked with developing products aimed specifically at their respective national markets.", "The average development period for a new product is around twelve months, split into three stages.", "The first is to identify market trends and developments, including contact by the designers directly with the market; some are stationed in toy shops close to holidays, while others interview children.", "The second stage is the design and development of the product based on the results of the first stage.", "the design teams use 3D modelling software to generate CAD drawings from initial design sketches.", "The designs are then prototyped using an in-house stereolithography machine.", "These prototypes are presented to the entire project team for comment and testing by parents and children during the \"validation\" process.", "Designs may then be altered in accordance with the results from the focus groups.", "Virtual models of completed Lego products are built concurrently with the writing of the user instructions.", "Completed CAD models are also used in the wider organisation for marketing and packaging.Lego Digital Designer is an official piece of Lego software for Mac OS X and Windows which allows users to create their own digital Lego designs.", "The program once allowed customers to order custom designs with a service to ship physical models from Digital Designer to consumers; the service ended in 2012." ], [ "Manufacturing", "The Lego factory in Kladno, Czech Republic in 2008Lego injection moulding machines, made by the German company ArburgSince 1963, Lego pieces have been manufactured from acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS).", ", Lego engineers use the NX CAD/CAM/CAE PLM software suite to model the elements.", "The software allows the parts to be optimised by way of mould flow and stress analysis.", "Prototype moulds are sometimes built before the design is committed to mass production.", "The ABS plastic is heated to until it reaches a dough-like consistency.", "It is then injected into the moulds using forces of between 25 and 150 tonnes and takes approximately 15 seconds to cool.", "The moulds are permitted a tolerance of up to twenty micrometres to ensure the bricks remain connected.", "Human inspectors check the output of the moulds to eliminate significant variations in colour or thickness.", "According to the Lego Group, about eighteen bricks out of every million fail to meet the standard required.Lego factories recycle all but about 1 percent of their plastic waste from the manufacturing process.", "If the plastic cannot be re-used in Lego bricks, it is processed and sold on to industries that can make use of it.", "Lego, in 2018, set a self-imposed 2030 deadline to find a more eco-friendly alternative to the ABS plastic.Manufacturing of Lego bricks occurs at several locations around the world.", "Moulding is done in Billund, Denmark; Nyíregyháza, Hungary; Monterrey, Mexico; and most recently in Jiaxing, China.", "Brick decorations and packaging are done at plants in the former three countries and in Kladno in the Czech Republic.", "The Lego Group estimates that in five decades it has produced 400 billion Lego blocks.", "Annual production of the bricks averages approximately 36 billion, or about 1140 elements per second.", "According to an article in ''BusinessWeek'' in 2006, Lego could also be considered the world's number-one tyre manufacturer; the factory produces about 306 million small rubber tyres a year.", "The claim was reiterated in 2012.In December 2012, the BBC's ''More or Less'' radio program asked the Open University's engineering department to determine \"how many Lego bricks, stacked one on top of the other, it would take for the weight to destroy the bottom brick?\"", "Using a hydraulic testing machine, members of the department determined the average maximum force a 2×2 Lego brick can stand is 4,240 newtons.", "Since an average 2×2 Lego brick has a mass of , according to their calculations it would take a stack of 375,000 bricks to cause the bottom brick to collapse, which represents a stack in height.Private tests have shown several thousand assembly-disassembly cycles before the bricks begin to wear out, although Lego tests show fewer cycles.In 2018, Lego announced that it will be using bio-derived polyethylene to make its botanical elements (parts such as leaves, bushes and trees).", "''The New York Times'' reported the company's footprint that year was \"about a million tons of carbon dioxide each year\" and that it was investing about 1 billion kroner and hiring 100 people to work on changes.", "The paper reported that Lego's researchers \"have already experimented with around 200 alternatives.\"", "In 2020, Lego announced that it would cease packaging its products in single-use plastic bags and would instead be using recyclable paper bags.", "In 2021, the company said it would aim to produce its bricks without using crude oil, by using recycled polyethylene terephthalate bottles, but in 2023 it reversed this decision, having found that this did not reduce its carbon dioxide emissions." ], [ "Set themes", "Lego sets of the Lego City themeSince the 1950s, the Lego Group has released thousands of sets with a variety of themes, including space, pirates, trains, (European) castle, dinosaurs, undersea exploration, and wild west, as well as wholly original themes like ''Bionicle'' and ''Hero Factory''.", "Some of the classic themes that continue to the present day include Lego City (a line of sets depicting city life introduced in 1973) and Lego Technic (a line aimed at emulating complex machinery, introduced in 1977).Over the years, the company has licensed themes from numerous cartoon and film franchises and some from video games.", "These include ''Batman'', ''Indiana Jones'', ''Pirates of the Caribbean'', ''Harry Potter'', ''Star Wars'', ''Marvel'', and ''Minecraft''.", "Although some of these themes, Lego Star Wars and Lego Indiana Jones, had highly successful sales, the company expressed in 2015 a desire to rely more upon their own characters and classic themes and less upon such licensed themes.", "Some sets include references to other themes such as a Bionicle mask in one of the Harry Potter sets.", "Discontinued sets may become a collectable and command value on the black market.For the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Lego released a special Team GB Minifigures series exclusively in the United Kingdom to mark the opening of the games.", "For the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2016 Summer Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro, Lego released a kit with the Olympic and Paralympic mascots Vinicius and Tom.One of the largest commercially produced Lego sets was a minifigure-scaled edition of the ''Star Wars'' Millennium Falcon.", "Designed by Jens Kronvold Fredericksen, it was released in 2007 and contained 5,195 pieces.", "It was surpassed by a 5,922-piece Taj Mahal.", "A redesigned Millennium Falcon retook the top spot in 2017 with 7,541 pieces.", "Since then, the Millennium Falcon has been superseded by the Lego Art World Map at 11,695 pieces, the Lego Titanic at 9,090 pieces, and the Lego Architect Colosseum at 9,036 pieces.In 2022, Lego introduced its Eiffel Tower.", "The set consists of 10,000 parts and reaches a height of 149 cm, which makes it the tallest set and tower but the second in number of parts after the World Map.=== Robotics themes ===The company also initiated a robotics line of toys called 'Mindstorms' in 1999, and has continued to expand and update this range ever since.", "The roots of the product originate from a programmable brick developed at the MIT Media Lab, and the name is taken from a paper by Seymour Papert, a computer scientist and educator who developed the educational theory of constructionism, and whose research was at times funded by the Lego Group.The programmable Lego brick which is at the heart of these robotics sets has undergone several updates and redesigns, with the latest being called the 'EV3' brick, being sold under the name of Lego Mindstorms EV3.The set includes sensors that detect touch, light, sound and ultrasonic waves, with several others being sold separately, including an RFID reader.The intelligent brick can be programmed using official software available for Windows and Mac computers, and is downloaded onto the brick via Bluetooth or a USB cable.", "There are also several unofficial programs and compatible programming languages that have been made to work with the brick, and many books have been written to support this community.There are several robotics competitions which use the Lego robotics sets.", "The earliest is Botball, a national U.S. middle- and high-school competition stemming from the MIT 6.270 Lego robotics tournament.", "Other Lego robotics competitions include FIRST LEGO League Discover for children ages 4–6, FIRST LEGO League Explore for students ages 6–9 and FIRST Lego League Challenge for students ages 9–16 (age 9–14 in the United States, Canada, and Mexico).", "These programs offer real-world engineering challenges to participants.", "FIRST LEGO League Challenge uses LEGO-based robots to complete tasks, FIRST LEGO League Explore participants build models out of Lego elements, and FIRST LEGO League Discover participants use Duplo.", "In its 2019–2020 season, there were 38,609 FIRST LEGO League Challenge teams and 21,703 FIRST LEGO League Explore teams around the world.", "The international RoboCup Junior football competition involves extensive use of Lego Mindstorms equipment which is often pushed to its extreme limits.The capabilities of the Mindstorms range have now been harnessed for use in Iko Creative Prosthetic System, a prosthetic limbs system designed for children.", "Designs for these Lego prosthetics allow everything from mechanical diggers to laser-firing spaceships to be screwed on to the end of a child's limb.", "Iko is the work of the Chicago-based Colombian designer Carlos Arturo Torres, and is a modular system that allows children to customise their own prosthetics with the ease of clicking together plastic bricks.", "Designed with Lego's Future Lab, the Danish toy company's experimental research department, and Cirec, a Colombian foundation for physical rehabilitation, the modular prosthetic incorporates myoelectric sensors that register the activity of the muscle in the stump and send a signal to control movement in the attachment.", "A processing unit in the body of the prosthetic contains an engine compatible with Lego Mindstorms, the company's robotics line, which lets the wearer build an extensive range of customised, programmable limbs.=== In popular culture ===Lego's popularity is demonstrated by its wide representation and usage in many cultural works, including books, films, and art.", "It has even been used in the classroom as a teaching tool.", "In the US, Lego Education North America is a joint venture between Pitsco, Inc. and the educational division of the Lego Group.In 1998, Lego bricks were one of the original inductees into the National Toy Hall of Fame at The Strong in Rochester, New York.", "\"Lego\" is commonly used as a mass noun (\"some Lego\") or, in American English, as a countable noun with plural \"Legos\", to refer to the bricks themselves, but as is common for trademarks, Lego group insists on the name being used as an adjective when referring to a product (as in \"LEGO bricks\")." ], [ "Clones", "The last significant patent for Lego bricks expired in 1978.Since then, competitors have produced blocks of similar dimensions and design that can be connected with Lego bricks.", "In 2002, Lego sued the CoCo Toy Company in Beijing for copyright infringement over its \"Coko bricks\" product.", "CoCo was ordered to cease manufacture of the products, publish a formal apology and pay damages.", "Lego sued the English company Best-Lock Construction Toys in German courts in 2004 and 2009; the Federal Patent Court of Germany denied Lego trademark protection for the shape of its bricks for the latter case.", "In 2005, the Lego Company sued Canadian company Ritvik Holdings Inc., which makes Mega Bloks, for trademark violation.", "However, the Supreme Court of Canada upheld Ritvik Holdings Inc.'s rights to sell its product.", "In 2010, the European Court of Justice ruled that the eight-peg design of the original Lego brick \"merely performs a technical function and cannot be registered as a trademark.", "\"In 2020 and 2021, Lego sent cease and desist letters to small toy retailers and popular YouTubers in Germany.", "In 2021, the situation escalated when Lego let a container delivered by clone producer Qman block in the harbor of Bremen for trademark infringement, and to test for contamination with dangerous materials.", "The recipient toy retailer initiated an appeal for donations to import containers of Lego clones from China to Germany and donate them to children's homes, which received more than within a couple of weeks." ], [ "Related services", "=== Official website ===First launched in 1996, the Lego website has developed over the years, and provides many extra services beyond an online store and a product catalogue.", "There are also moderated message boards that were founded in 2001.The site also includes instruction booklets for all Lego sets dating back to 2002.The Lego website features a social media app named Lego Life, which is designed for children under 13 years of age.", "The app is available as a free download and only features Lego-related content.", "It was designed to be a social network for children to be inspired, create and share their Lego builds, photos and videos with a like-minded community, whilst also providing Lego content in the form of product advertising, images, videos, campaigns and competitions.", "The app incorporates a variety of child safety features to provide a safe digital environment for children, including the protection of personal information and the heavy moderation of all uploaded user-generated content and communication.", "''My Lego Network'' was a social networking site that involved items, blueprints, ranks, badges which were earned for completing certain tasks, trading and trophies called masterpieces which allowed users to progress to go to the next rank.", "The website had a built-in inbox which allowed users to send pre-written messages to one another.", "The Lego Network included automated non-player characters within called \"Networkers\", who were able to do things which normal users could not do, sending custom messages, and selling masterpieces and blueprints.", "The site also had modules which were set up on the user's page that gave the user items, or that displayed picture compositions.", "My Lego network closed in 2015.Before My Lego Network, there were Lego Club Pages, which essentially held the same purpose, although the design lacked complex interaction.=== Theme parks ===A model of Trafalgar Square, London in Legoland WindsorMerlin Entertainments operates eight Legoland amusement parks, the original in Billund, Denmark, the second in Windsor, England, the third in Günzburg, Germany, the fourth in Carlsbad, California, the fifth in Winter Haven, Florida, the sixth in Iskandar Puteri, Malaysia, the seventh in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, and the eighth in Nagoya, Japan.", "A ninth is planned to open in 2020 in Goshen, New York, United States, and a tenth in 2022 in Shanghai, China.", "On 13 July 2005, the control of 70% of the Legoland parks was sold for $460 million to the Blackstone Group of New York while the remaining 30% is still held by Lego Group.", "There are also eight Legoland Discovery Centres, two in Germany, four in the United States, one in Japan and one in the United Kingdom.", "Two Legoland Discovery Centres opened in 2013: one at the Westchester Ridge Hill shopping complex in Yonkers, New York, and one at the Vaughan Mills in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada.", "Another opened at American Dream Meadowlands in East Rutherford, New Jersey, in 2021.=== Retail stores ===A Lego store in Toronto, CanadaThe world's largest Lego store in Leicester Square, LondonThe first Lego store to open anywhere in the world was in Sydney, Australia, in 1984.Located in the Birkenhead Point Outlet Centre it was not only the first dedicated Lego retail outlet, but it also had displays including many iconic Australian items such as the Holden FJ, Sydney Harbour Bridge, and the Sydney Opera House as well as buildings from Amsterdam, dinosaurs and an English Village.", "Known as The LEGO® Centre, Birkenhead Point, the store closed in the early 1990s., Lego operates 904 retail shops, called Lego Stores, globally.", "The world's largest Lego store is located in Leicester Square, London.", "The U.S. stores include the Downtown Disney shopping complexes at Disneyland and Walt Disney World Resorts as well as in Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota.", "The opening of each new store is celebrated with a weekend-long event in which a Master Model Builder creates, with the help of volunteers—a larger-than-life Lego statue, which is then displayed at the new store for several weeks.=== Business consultancy ===Since around 2000, the Lego Group has been promoting \"Lego Serious Play\", a form of business consultancy fostering creative thinking, in which team members build metaphors of their organizational identities and experiences using Lego bricks.", "Participants work through imaginary scenarios using visual three-dimensional Lego constructions, imaginatively exploring possibilities in a serious form of play." ], [ "Related products", "=== Video games ===Lego branched out into the video game market in 1997 by founding Lego Media International Limited, and ''Lego Island'' was released that year by Mindscape.", "After this Lego released titles such as ''Lego Creator'' and ''Lego Racers''.After Lego closed down their publishing subsidiary, they moved on to a partnership with Traveller's Tales, and went on to make games like ''Lego Star Wars'', ''Lego Indiana Jones'', ''Lego Batman'', and many more including the very well-received ''Lego Marvel Super Heroes'' game, featuring New York City as the overworld and including Marvel characters from the Avengers, the Fantastic Four, the X-Men, and more.", "In 2014, Lego created a game based on ''The Lego Movie'', due to its popularity.=== Board games ===Lego Games launched in 2009, was a series of Lego-themed board games designed by Cephas Howard and Reiner Knizia in which the players usually build the playing board out of Lego bricks and then play with Lego-style players.", "Examples of the games include \"Minotaurus\", in which players roll dice to move characters within a brick-build labyrinth, \"Creationary\", in which players must build something which appears on a card, or \"Ramses Pyramid\", in which players collect gems and climb up a customizable pyramid.", "Like many board games, the games use dice.", "In Lego Games, the dice are Lego, with Lego squares with symbols on Lego studs on the dice, surrounded by rubber.", "The games vary from simple to complex; some are similar to \"traditional\" board games, while others are completely different.=== Films and television ===The first official Lego film was the straight-to-DVD release of ''Bionicle: Mask of Light'' in 2003 developed by Creative Capers Entertainment and distributed by Miramax Home Entertainment.", "Several other straight-to-DVD computer-animated Bionicle sequels and Hero Factory movies were produced in the following years.", "''Lego: The Adventures of Clutch Powers'' was released on DVD in February 2010, a computer-animated film made by Tinseltown Toons.", "A computer-generated animated series titled ''Lego Ninjago: Masters of Spinjitzu'' began in January 2011 for the Lego Ninjago brand.", "Another television series titled ''Legends of Chima'' began in 2013 for the Legends of Chima brand.", "In December 2015, a television series titled ''Nexo Knights'' made its debut for the Lego Nexo Knights brand.", "An animated series titled ''Lego Elves'' was released in 2015 and another titled ''Lego Elves: Secrets of Elvendale'' was released in 2017 for the Lego Elves brand.", "In 2016, ''Lego Bionicle: The Journey To One'' was released for the Bionicle franchise and ''Lego Friends: The Power of Friendship'' for the Lego Friends brand.", "In June 2019, an animated series titled ''Lego City Adventures'' was released for the Lego City brand.", "In 2021, an animated series titled ''Lego Monkie Kid'' was released to support the Lego brand of the same name.", "''The Lego Movie'', a feature film based on Lego toys, was released by Warner Bros. in February 2014.It featured Chris Pratt in the lead role, with substantial supporting characters voiced by Elizabeth Banks, Will Arnett, Morgan Freeman, Liam Neeson, Alison Brie, Will Ferrell and Nick Offerman.", "A contest was held for contestants to submit designs for vehicles to be used in the film.", "After the release of ''The Lego Movie'', independent Canadian toy retailers reported issues with shortages of Lego products and cited cancellations of Lego pre-orders without warning as a motive to stock compatible, rival products.A spin-off of ''The Lego Movie'', entitled ''The Lego Batman Movie'', directed by Chris McKay was released in the US in February 2017.A sequel to ''The Lego Batman Movie'' was planned and later cancelled.In June 2013, it was reported that Warner Bros. was developing a feature film adaptation of Lego Ninjago.", "Brothers Dan Hageman and Kevin Hageman were attached to write the adaptation, while Dan Lin and Roy Lee, along with Phil Lord and Chris Miller, were announced as producers.", "The film, ''The Lego Ninjago Movie'', was released in September 2017.In February 2019, ''The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part'' was released, which was a direct sequel to the original film and starred Chris Pratt in the lead role.=== Books and magazines ===Lego has an ongoing deal with British multinational publisher Dorling Kindersley (DK), who have produced a series of illustrated hardback books looking at different aspects of the construction toy.", "The first was ''The Ultimate Lego Book'', published in 1999.In 2009, the same publisher produced ''The LEGO Book'', which was sold within a slipcase along with ''Standing Small: A celebration of 30 years of the LEGO minifigure'', a smaller book focused on the minifigure.", "In 2012, a revised edition was published.", "Also in 2009, DK also published books on Lego Star Wars and a range of Lego-based sticker books.Although no longer being published in the United States by Scholastic, books covering events in the Bionicle storyline are written by Greg Farshtey.", "They are still being published in Europe by AMEET.", "Bionicle comics, also written by Farshtey, are compiled into graphic novels and were released by Papercutz.", "This series ended in 2009, after nine years.There is also the Lego Club and Brickmaster magazine, the latter discontinued in 2011.The ''Lego Life Magazine'' was released in 2017 and serves as a replacement for the ''Lego Club Magazine''.=== Clothing ===Kabooki, a Danish company founded in 1993, produces children's clothes branded as \"Lego Wear\" under licence from the Lego Group.", "In 2020, Lego announced collaborations with Adidas and Levi's.", "In 2021, Lego announced collaborations with Justhype and Adidas to produce apparel inspired by the Lego Ninjago theme.", "In May 2021, Lego announced collaborations with Adidas to produce products inspired by the Lego Vidiyo theme." ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Lego sets guide and database" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hlai people" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hlai''', also known as '''Li''' or '''Lizu''', are a Kra–Dai-speaking ethnic group, one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.", "The vast majority live off the southern coast of China on Hainan Island, where they are the largest minority ethnic group.", "Divided into the five branches of the Qi (Gei), Ha, Run (Zwn), Sai (Tai, Jiamao) and Meifu (Moifau), the Hlai have their own distinctive culture and customs.Traditional weaving methods of the Hlai on Hainan Island, China.", "The worker uses her feet to stretch the handloom." ], [ "Names", "黎 (Lí), which was pronounced /lei/ in Middle Chinese is the Chinese transcription of their native name, which is Hlai.", "They are sometimes also known as the \"Sai\" or \"Say\".", "During China's Sui Dynasty, their ancestors were known by various names, including ''Lǐliáo'' (), a general term encompassing several non-Han ethnic groups in Southern China.", "The name Li first is recorded during the Later Tang period (923–937 CE)." ], [ "History", "Liang & Zhang (1996:18–21) believe that the original homeland of the Hlai languages was the Leizhou Peninsula, and estimate that the Hlai had migrated across the Hainan Strait to Hainan island about 4,000 years before present.", "According to Schafer, the Li people were originally spread out across the continental coastline, covering Northern Vietnam and the area west of Guangzhou, including Hainan.", "Their names were converted into the Chinese clan name Li.", "The earliest mention of the term Li as an ethnonym was in the Han dynasty, referring to people of the highlands of Central Vietnam at Jiuzhen (Vietnamese: Cửu Chân).", "After the Han dynasty these people were primarily located in Guangxi and western Guangdong.", "The 3rd century ''Nanzhou Yiwuzhi'' mentioned bandits called ''Lǐ'' (俚) who lived south of Guangzhou in the five commanderies: Cangwu, Yulin, Hepu, Ningpu and Gaoliang.", "They lived in villages with no walls and took refuge in the mountains and narrow passes.", "They did not have commanders or lords.", "In the early 6th century, the Liang dynasty waged war on the Li people, calling it the \"pacification of the Li ''dong''\".", "In the Tang dynasty, the Li people of northern Vietnam were assigned a separate administrative status among the populace of the Annan protectorate, only paying half the taxes of ordinary subjects.", "By the 11th century, records no longer mention the Li on the mainland.State administration of Hainan's lowlands was indirect until the Song dynasty and state control of the inland mountains was indirect until the 1950s.", "By the 11th century, Chinese records state that Hlai people were living close to Chinese settlements and paid taxes to the central state.", "However by the end of the Ming dynasty in the mid-17th century, virtually all areas of Hainan capable of intense cultivation had been settled by Han Chinese, while the Hlai filled the niche of supplying mountain products.", "By 1700, the Qing dynasty had re-established administration over Hainan.", "Migrant merchants started entering Hainan and threatened the economic niche of the Hlai, who broke out in violent protest against these \"guest merchants\" in 1766.In 1751, He Xiang wrote an essay titled \"Arguments against Settling the Li and Establishing Counties.\"", "In it he explained that Hainan was dangerous not because the Hlai people were fierce, but because of malaria and poisonous animals.", "He mocked previous campaigns against the Hlai for conquering hamlets of no value or significance while several thousand troops died of malaria.", "The highlands inhabited by the Hlai were also not economically valuable, and therefore had not yet been transformed.", "While many Chinese generals had made a name for themselves by \"settling Guangdong\", they all left the Hlai alone.During the Japanese occupation of Hainan (1939–1945), the Hlai suffered extremely heavily due to their communist resistance activities especially in western Hainan.", "Hlai villages were frequently targeted for extermination and rape by Kuomintang and Japanese soldiers.", "In four towns alone, the Japanese slaughtered more than 10,000 Hlai people.", "The Hlai were persecuted by the Nationalists partly due to their support of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).", "Nationalist forces massacred over 7,000 Hlai in a village.", "Nationalist officers had 9,000 Hlai and 3,000 Miao executed after tricking them to the war fronts during a fake conscription campaign.", "As the Nationalists retreated with over 1.5 million civilians that they evacuated to the hills with, they massacred and stole food from the ethnic Hlai as well as other tribal peoples.", "The Nationalists executed 2,180 Miao women and children of Baisha and Baoting uprising origin.Because the Hlai sided with the CCP during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalists, the Hlai are looked upon favorably by the government of the People's Republic of China." ], [ "Language", "The Hlai speak the Hlai languages, a member of the Kra–Dai language family, but most can understand or speak Hainanese and Standard Chinese.", "The Jiamao language spoken natively by the Sai (also known as Tai or Jiamao) subgroup has been noted for its dissimilarity to the dialects or languages spoken by the other subgroups of the Hlai.A Qing dynasty report on the Hlai dated 1756 claimed that they did not have a writing system." ], [ "Culture", "Women were able to become political leaders in Hlai society.", "In 1171, a Hlai woman by the name of Wang Erniang was bestowed the title of \"Lady of Suitability\" by the Song court and given the post of commander-general over 36 ethnic groups in the south.", "She was the headwoman of the Hlai people and had a husband but nobody knew his name.", "She was very wealthy and adept at keeping order over her people.", "The Song dynasty communicated with non-Chinese southerners by relaying their orders through her.", "In 1181, her daughter inherited her position, and in 1216, another daughter inherited the position.Among the Hlai, the women have a custom of tattooing their arms and backs after a certain age is reached.The Hlai play a traditional wind instrument called ''kǒuxiāo'' () and another called ''lìlāluó'' ().", "The Hlai in Wenchang assimilated into the local population and admixed with the Hainanese while most of the Hlai population was exterminated in most other parts of Hainan only a small portion of the Hlai survived and fled to the mountains where they still maintain a Hlai identity." ], [ "Religion", "The Hlai were primarily animists.", "According to Hlai legends, their clans each originated from the marriage of a woman and an animal.", "The most prominent animal is the snake.", "Leigong, the God of Thunder, laid a snake on Li Mountain.", "From the egg hatched a woman named Limu (literally \"mother of the Li\") who lived off of wild fruits and nested in the trees.", "Eventually she married and their descendants became the Hlai people.", "Another version says that the woman arrived on a ship and married a dog, giving birth to the Hlai.", "The Hlai also worshiped other animals such as the ox, which was represented in each house by a stone that they called the \"soul of the ox.\"", "The \"Oxen's Festival\" was celebrated on the eighth day of the third lunar month every year.", "On that day the oxen were forbidden to be killed or worked.", "They stayed at home and were fed liquor believed to protect the ox and guarantee plentiful harvest.", "The \"najiaxila\" bird of legend was worshiped as a protector god for taking care of an ancestor woman of the Hlai.", "Dragons and cats were worshiped as well since they are considered to be ancestors." ], [ "Genetics", "The Hlai are believed to be descendants of the Rau people, Kra–Dai-speaking tribes of ancient China, who settled on the island thousands of years ago.", "DNA analysis carried out amongst the modern Hlai population indicate a close relationship with populations in the Southern Chinese province of Guangxi, most of them have Y-DNA O1a and O1b." ], [ "Notable people", "*Su Yunying, singer" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "****" ] ]
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