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[
[
"Leaf by Niggle"
],
[
"Introduction",
"\"'''Leaf by Niggle'''\" is a short story written by J. R. R. Tolkien in 1938–39 and first published in the ''Dublin Review'' in January 1945.It was reprinted in Tolkien's book ''Tree and Leaf'', and in several later collections.",
"Contrary to Tolkien's claim that he despised allegory in any form, the story is an allegory of Tolkien's own creative process, and, to an extent, of his own life, following the structure of Dante's ''Purgatorio''.",
"It also expresses his philosophy of divine creation and human sub-creation.",
"The story came to him in a dream."
],
[
"Context",
"J. R. R. Tolkien was a scholar of English literature, a philologist and medievalist interested in language and poetry from the Middle Ages, especially that of Anglo-Saxon England and Northern Europe.",
"His professional knowledge of works such as ''Beowulf'' shaped his fictional world of Middle-earth, including his high fantasy novel ''The Lord of the Rings''."
],
[
"Plot summary",
"In this story, an artist named Niggle lives in a society that does not value art.",
"Working only to please himself, he paints a canvas of a great tree with a forest in the distance.",
"He invests each and every leaf of his tree with obsessive attention to detail, making every leaf uniquely beautiful.",
"Niggle ends up discarding all his other artworks, or tacks them onto the main canvas, which becomes a single vast embodiment of his vision.However, mundane duties constantly prevent Niggle from giving his work the attention it deserves, so it remains incomplete and is not fully realised.",
"At the back of his head, Niggle knows that he has a great trip looming, and he must prepare for it, but Niggle's next door neighbour, a gardener named Parish, frequently drops by asking for assistance.",
"Parish is lame, has a sick wife, and genuinely needs help.",
"Niggle, having a good heart, takes time out to help—but he is also reluctant because he would rather work on his painting.",
"Niggle has other pressing work duties as well that require his attention.",
"Then Niggle himself catches a chill doing errands for Parish in the rain.Eventually, Niggle is forced to take his trip, and cannot get out of it.",
"He has not prepared, and as a result the trip goes wrong, and he ends up in a kind of institution, in which he must perform menial labour each day.",
"Back at the home to which he cannot return, Niggle's painting is abandoned, used to patch a damaged roof, and all but destroyed (except for the one perfect leaf of the story's title, which is placed in the local museum).In time, Niggle is paroled from the institution, and he is sent to a place \"for a little gentle treatment\".",
"He discovers that this new place is the country of the tree and forest of his great painting.",
"This place is the true realisation of his vision, not the flawed and incomplete version in his painting.Niggle is reunited with his old neighbour, Parish, who now proves his worth as a gardener, and together they make the tree and forest even more beautiful.",
"Finally, Niggle journeys farther and deeper into the Forest, and beyond into the great mountains that he only faintly glimpsed in his painting.Long after both Niggle and Parish have taken their journeys, the place that they created together becomes a destination for many travellers to visit before their final voyage into the mountains, and it earns the name \"Niggle's Parish\"."
],
[
"Publication history",
"\"Leaf by Niggle\" was first published in the ''Dublin Review'' in 1945.It first appeared in a book in 1964 alongside \"On Fairy-Stories\" in ''Tree and Leaf''.",
"It has been republished in the collections ''The Tolkien Reader'' (1966), ''Poems & Stories'' (1980), ''A Tolkien Miscellany'' (2002), and ''Tales from the Perilous Realm'' (2021)."
],
[
"Analysis",
"=== Allegory ===Tolkien made the general statement \"I dislike allegory\" in one of his letters, but in specific references to \"Leaf by Niggle\", he wrote that \"It is not really or properly an 'allegory' so much as 'mythical'\", and \"I tried to show allegorically how might come to be taken up into Creation in some plane in my 'purgatorial' story ''Leaf by Niggle''.",
"\"==== Of the journey of death ====The Tolkien scholar and fellow-philologist Tom Shippey states categorically that the story is \"quite certainly\" an allegory, and that its first words recall \"to any Anglo-Saxonist\" the opening lines of the Old Northumbrian poem ''Bede's Death Song''.",
"Those lines, he states, equate death to a journey, hinting to the reader to continue making such \"equations\" of things in the world to elements of the story; and further, that the reader of the story is meant to interpret the story in this way, every tiny detail exactly and entertainingly fitting the pattern.Dante's ''Purgatorio'', and fits Dante's romantic theology.",
"Here, Dante looks longingly at Beatrice (centre) as she strolls by the River Arno.",
"''Dante and Beatrice'', by Henry Holiday, 1883A religious reading could lead to the conclusion that the allegory of \"Leaf by Niggle\" is life, death, purgatory and paradise.",
"Niggle is not prepared for his unavoidable trip, as humans often are not prepared for death.",
"His time in the institution and subsequent discovery of his Tree represent purgatory and heaven; Sebastian Knowles writes that the story \"follows Dante's 'Purgatorio' in its general structure and in its smallest detail.",
"\"Michael Milburn argues that Charles Williams's view of Dante as romantic theology – which Milburn glosses as the serious theology of romantic experiences, including romantic love – can be applied to Tolkien's story.",
"Dante, he writes, has a \"glorious vision\" of Beatrice that is \"as real\" as the actual Beatrice.",
"She dies, leaving Dante with the inspiration to \"''be'' love\", to stay faithful to his vision of her.",
"This can be applied to art with \"a source text that not only takes art for its subject but locates the vision of great art in the afterlife with Beatrice, includes an experience analogous to the death of Beatrice, and explores the relationship between artistic beauty and ''caritas''.",
"Milburn states that Tolkien's \"Leaf by Niggle\" is just such a text, because Niggle's allegorical \"journey\" signifies death, the \"Workhouse\" signifies purgatory, and the place Niggle reaches after that is the Earthly Paradise, the place for Tolkien as for Dante of final purification before heaven, Niggle's \"mountains\".",
"Tolkien had met Williams, as they were both members of the Inklings literary group.",
"Further, Milburn notes, Tolkien, despite denying that Williams had been an influence, wrote a poem about him, in which he praises William's understanding of Dante, his romantic theology: \"But heavenly footsteps, too, can Williams trace, / and after Dante, plunging, soaring, race / up to the threshold of Eternal Grace\".==== Of Tolkien's life ====An autobiographical interpretation places Tolkien himself as Niggle—in mundane matters as well as spiritual ones.",
"Tolkien was compulsive in his writing, his endless revisions, his desire for perfection in form and in the \"reality\" of his invented world, its languages, its chronologies, its existence.",
"Like Niggle, Tolkien came to abandon other projects or graft them onto his \"Tree\", Middle-earth.",
"Like Niggle, Tolkien faced many chores and duties that kept him from the work he loved; and like Niggle, Tolkien was a confirmed procrastinator.",
"Shippey comments that whereas Tolkien had once felt that one could return to Faërie in some way, later in his life he came to doubt that he would \"rejoin his own creations after death, like Niggle; he felt they were lost, like the Silmarils.\"",
"He adds that when Tolkien presents images of himself in his writings, as with Niggle and Smith, there is \"a persistent streak of alienation\".",
"Shippey lists several elements of the allegory in \"Leaf by Niggle\".+ Tom Shippey's analysis of \"Leaf by Niggle\" as an allegory of Tolkien's life Story element Aspect of Tolkien's life Niggle the painter Tolkien the writer Niggle's \"leaf\" ''The Hobbit'', published 1937 Niggle's \"Tree\" ''The Lord of the Rings'', still in work when \"Leaf by Niggle\" was written The \"country\" that opens from it Middle-earth The \"other pictures ... tacked on to the edges of his great picture\" Tolkien's poems and other works which he fitted into his novel \"Potatoes\" sacrificed to \"paint\" Medievalist research articles sacrificed to ''The Lord of the Rings''==== Of creation and sub-creation ====\"Leaf by Niggle\" can be interpreted, too, as an illustration of Tolkien's religious philosophy of creation and sub-creation.",
"In this philosophy, true creation is the exclusive province of God, and those who aspire to creation can only make echoes (good) or mockeries (evil) of truth.",
"The sub-creation of works that echo the true creations of God is one way that mortals honour God.",
"This philosophy is evident in Tolkien's other works, especially ''The Silmarillion''—one Vala, Morgoth, creates the Orc race as a foul mockery of the Elves.",
"Another Vala, Aulë, creates the Dwarf race as an act of subcreation that honoured Eru Ilúvatar (the analogue of God in Tolkien's writings), and which Eru accepted and made real, just as Niggle's Tree was made real.",
"Niggle's yearnings after truth and beauty (God's creations) are echoed in his great painting.",
"After death, Niggle is rewarded with the realisation (the making-real) of his yearning; or, alternatively, Niggle's Tree always existed and he simply echoed it in his art.",
"From a metanarrative viewpoint, Tolkien's Arda is itself a subcreation designed to honour the true stories of the real world.",
"Thus, ''The Lord of the Rings'', despite its lack of overt religious elements, can be interpreted as a profoundly religious work.=== Surrealistic dream memory ===Michael Organ, writing in the ''Journal of Tolkien Research'', notes that Tolkien stated in a letter that the story came to him one morning in 1939, shortly before the start of the Second World War, when he woke up with the story, which he called \"that odd thing\", in his mind \"virtually\" complete.",
"Tolkien stated in another letter that he then wrote it out \"almost in a sitting and very nearly in the form in which it now appears\", commenting that looking back at the story, he thought it \"arose\" from a combination of his love of trees and his concern that ''The Lord of the Rings'' would never be finished.",
"Organ describes the birth of \"Leaf by Niggle\" as \"a frenzy of activity\" resembling the automatic writing \"popularised by proponents of Dada and Surrealism\" in the early 20th century.",
"He notes, too, that Tolkien knew that dreams had an irrational side, and had commented that it was \"exceptional\" for fantasy to appear in dreams, as \"Fantasy is a rational, not an irrational, activity\".",
"Organ comments that Tolkien may have resisted \"what he saw as the morbidity of surrealism\" in connection with his story, precisely because \"Leaf by Niggle\"'s message is so positive.=== Visual imagery ===Jeffrey MacLeod and Anna Smol write in ''Mythlore'' that while Tolkien defines sub-creation \"in linguistic terms\", he often links such verbal creation to visual images.",
"For instance, in his poem \"Mythopoeia\", he mentions \"script and limning packed of various hue\", which they gloss as \"writing and drawing, alphabet and image, the linguistic and the visual ... side by side.\"",
"Similarly, they comment, in \"Leaf by Niggle\", the allegory uses the image of a painter.",
"In his own life, Tolkien combined the writing of fiction with his artwork, while he defined imagination visually as the \"mental power of image-making\"."
],
[
"References",
"=== Primary ====== Secondary ==="
],
[
"Sources",
"* * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Leaf by Niggle – a symbolic story about a small painter at Tolkien Library"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Leet"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Kevin Mitnick\" sticker'''Leet''' (or \"'''1337'''\"), also known as '''eleet''' or '''leetspeak''', is a system of modified spellings used primarily on the Internet.",
"It often uses character replacements in ways that play on the similarity of their glyphs via reflection or other resemblance.",
"Additionally, it modifies certain words on the basis of a system of suffixes and alternative meanings.",
"There are many dialects or linguistic varieties in different online communities.The term \"leet\" is derived from the word ''elite'', used as an adjective to describe skill or accomplishment, especially in the fields of online gaming and computer hacking.",
"The leet lexicon includes spellings of the word as ''1337'' or ''leet''."
],
[
"History",
"Leet originated within bulletin board systems (BBS) in the 1980s, where having \"elite\" status on a BBS allowed a user access to file folders, games, and special chat rooms.",
"The Cult of the Dead Cow hacker collective has been credited with the original coining of the term, in their text-files of that era.",
"One theory is that it was developed to defeat text filters created by BBS or Internet Relay Chat system operators for message boards to discourage the discussion of forbidden topics, like cracking and hacking.",
"Creative misspellings and ASCII-art-derived words were also a way to attempt to indicate one was knowledgeable about the culture of computer users.",
"Once reserved for hackers, crackers, and script kiddies, leet later entered the mainstream.",
"It is now also used to mock newbies, also known colloquially as n00bs, or newcomers, on websites, or in gaming communities.",
"Some consider emoticons and ASCII art, like smiley faces, to be leet, while others maintain that leet consists of only symbolic word encryption.",
"More obscure forms of leet, involving the use of symbol combinations and almost no letters or numbers, continue to be used for its original purpose of encrypted communication.",
"It is also sometimes used as a scripting language.",
"Variants of leet have been used to evade censorship for many years; for instance \"@$$\" (ass) and \"$#!+\" (shit) are frequently seen to make a word appear censored to the untrained eye but obvious to a person familiar with leet.",
"This enables coders and programmers especially to circumvent filters and speak about topics that would usually get banned.",
"\"Hacker\" would end up as \"H4x0r\", for example.Various display devices showing 1337Leet symbols, especially the number 1337, are Internet memes that have spilled over into some culture.",
"Signs that show the numbers \"1337\" are popular motifs for pictures and are shared widely across the Internet.",
"=== Algospeak ===Algospeak shares conceptual similarities with leet, albeit with its primary purpose to circumvent algorithmic censorship online, \"algospeak\" deriving from ''algo'' of ''algorithm'' and ''speak''.",
"These are euphemisms that aim to evade automated online moderation techniques, especially those that are considered unfair or hindering free speech.",
"One prominent example is using the term \"unalive\" as opposed to the verb \"kill\" or even \"suicide,\" or \"seggs\" instead of \"sex.\"",
"These phrases are easily understandable to humans, providing either the same general meaning, pronunciation, or shape of the original word.",
"It is furthermore often employed as a more contemporary alternative to leet.",
"The approach has gained more popularity in 2023 and 2024 due to the rise in conflict between Israel and Gaza with the topic's contentious nature on the Internet, especially on Meta and TikTok platforms."
],
[
"Orthography",
"One of the hallmarks of leet is its unique approach to orthography, using substitutions of other letters, or indeed of characters other than letters, to represent letters in a word.",
"For more casual use of leet, the primary strategy is to use quasi-homoglyphs, symbols that closely resemble (to varying degrees) the letters for which they stand.",
"The choice of symbol is not fixed: anything the reader can make sense of is valid in leet-speak.",
"Sometimes, a gamer would work around a nickname being already taken (and maybe abandoned as well) by replacing a letter with a similar-looking digit.",
"* However, leet is also seen in situations where the argot (e.g.",
"secret language) characteristics of the system are required, either to exclude newbies or outsiders in general, i.e., anything that the ''average'' reader ''cannot'' make sense of is valid; a valid reader should themselves try to make sense, if deserving of the underlying message.",
"* Mild leet can be used to mess with frequency analysis \"as is\".Another use for leet orthographic substitutions is the creation of paraphrased passwords.",
"Limitations imposed by websites on password length (usually no more than 36) and the characters permitted (e.g.",
"alphanumeric and symbols) require less extensive forms when used in this application.The same sticker on one's laptop demonstrates upside-down \"1337\" as \"LEET\"Some examples of leet include:* ''B1ff''.",
"* ''n00b'' -- a term for \"noob\", the stereotypical newbie.",
"* The '''l33t''' programming language.",
"* ''\"E5C4P3\"'': stylized cover of Journey's Escape album.",
"* ''k3w1'' deciphers as \"kewl\" (which is derived from \"cool\").",
"* The web-comics ''Megatokyo'' and ''Homestuck'', which contain characters who speak variations of leet.",
"* The digit \"5\" in Deadmau5 nickname.",
"* Upside-down \"1337\" (with a bar under \"1\") also reads as \"LEET\" (example on the photo).",
"* \"DEF 4L7\" plates are used by Defalt, a hacker from the Watch Dogs videogame (the first in the series).",
"* \"1 (4/\\/\"7 |_|/\\/)3|2574/\\/) '/0|_51/\\/9\" is heavily leet-styled \"I can’t understand your writing.",
"It’s confusing\".",
"* Sometimes, a word can be typed in leet with digits only:** \"360\" codes word \"EGO\" in leet.",
"** \"1687\" or \"1987\" can be used to hint to IGBTs, e.g.",
"insulated-gate bipolar transistors.",
"** \"2007 2008\" deciphers as \"''qoot qoob''\" (which is derived from \"cute cube\").",
"** \"2077\" (as a hint to Cyberpunk 2077) can be jokingly used towards \"ZOTT\" dairy brand;** \"11363015\" means ''LIEGEOIS'', e.g.",
"Liège.",
"** \"4150\" may stand for \"ALSO\"** \"33571 - 18124\" unravels as \"''Eesti - Ibiza''\".",
"* Spelling given names in Leet in a way the output would reference to something is also possible.",
"** Say, girl name \"Marisa\" can be spelled as /\\/\\AR15/\\ - with a reference to the AR-15 platform.",
"* Alternatively, an abbreviation can be leet-ified into a valid hexadecimal color code** \"614D05\" is a valid color HEX-code, referencing to GLaDOS.However, leetspeak should not be confused with SMS-speak, characterized by using \"4\" as \"for\", \"2\" as \"to\", \"b&\" as \"ban'd\" (e.g.",
"\"banned\"), \"gr8 b8, m8, appreci8, no h8\" as \"great bait, mate, appreciate, no hate\", and so on.=== Table of leet-speak substitutes for normal letters ===ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 4 /\\ @ /-\\ ^ (L Д3 ß 3 (3 /3 )3 ¢ ( © 3 & £ € - =- = ƒ # ph /= v 6 & (_+ 9 C- gee (?, , {, (.",
"# /-/ \\-\\ - - ~ ._ _ ,_ /\\/\\ /V\\ V \\ \\/ nn 11 /\\/ \\ {\\} /V ^ ท И 0 () oh p Ø º ? \"",
"9 D ° 7 (_,) ()_ 2 0_ & 9 ¶ ⁋ ℗ ^ lz 7 2 12 ® z Я .- 2 3 5 $ z § ehs es 2 7 + '' † «|» ~|~ บ _/ \\_:_/ uu 2u \\\\//\\\\// พ ₩ > }{ ecks × ?",
"}{ )( / ¥ \\// _"
],
[
"Morphology",
"Text rendered in leet is often characterized by distinctive, recurring forms.",
";''-xor'' suffix:The meaning of this suffix is parallel with the English ''-er'' and ''-or'' suffixes (seen in ''hacker'' and ''lesser'') in that it derives agent nouns from a verb stem.",
"It is realized in two different forms: ''-xor'' and ''-zor'', and , respectively.",
"For example, the first may be seen in the word ''hax(x)or'' (''H4x0r'' in leet) and the second in ''pwnzor'' .",
"Additionally, this nominalization may also be inflected with all of the suffixes of regular English verbs.",
"The letter 'o' is often replaced with the numeral 0.;''-age'' suffix:Derivation of a noun from a verb stem is possible by attaching ''-age'' to the base form of any verb.",
"Attested derivations are ''pwnage'', ''skillage'', and ''speakage''.",
"However, leet provides exceptions; the word ''leetage'' is acceptable, referring to actively being ''leet''.",
"These nouns are often used with a form of \"to be\" rather than \"to have,\" e.g., \"that was pwnage\" rather than \"he has pwnage\".",
"Either is a more emphatic way of expressing the simpler \"he pwns,\" but the former implies that the person is ''embodying'' the trait rather than merely possessing it.",
";''-ness'' suffix:Derivation of a noun from an adjective stem is done by attaching ''-ness'' to any adjective.",
"This is entirely the same as the English form, except it is used much more often in Leet.",
"Nouns such as ''lulzness'' and ''leetness'' are derivations using this suffix.",
";Words ending in ''-ed'':When forming a past participle ending in ''-ed'', the Leet user may replace the ''-e'' with an apostrophe, as was common in poetry of previous centuries, (e.g.",
"\"pwned\" becomes \"pwn'd\").",
"Sometimes, the apostrophe is removed as well (e.g.",
"\"pwned\" becomes \"pwnd\").",
"The word ending may also be substituted by ''-t'' (e.g.",
"''pwned'' becomes ''pwnt'').",
";Use of the ''-&'' suffix:Words ending in ''-and'', ''-anned'', ''-ant'', or a similar sound can sometimes be spelled with an ampersand (''&'') to express the ending sound (e.g.",
"\"This is the s&box\", \"I'm sorry, you've been b&\", \"&hill/&farm\").",
"It is most commonly used with the word ''banned''.",
"An alternative form of \"B&\" is \"B7\", as the ampersand is with the \"7\" key on the standard US keyboard.",
"It is often seen in the abbreviation \"IBB7\" (in before banned), which indicates that the poster believes that a previous poster will soon be banned from the site, channel, or board on which they are posting."
],
[
"Grammar",
"Leet can be pronounced as a single syllable, , rhyming with ''eat,'' by way of apheresis of the initial vowel of \"elite\".",
"It may also be pronounced as two syllables, .",
"Like hacker slang, leet enjoys a looser grammar than standard English.",
"The loose grammar, just like loose spelling, encodes some level of emphasis, ironic or otherwise.",
"A reader must rely more on intuitive parsing of leet to determine the meaning of a sentence rather than the actual sentence structure.",
"In particular, speakers of leet are fond of verbing nouns, turning verbs into nouns (and back again) as forms of emphasis, e.g.",
"\"Austin rocks\" is weaker than \"Austin roxxorz\" (note spelling), which is weaker than \"Au5t1N is t3h r0xx0rz\" (note grammar), which is weaker than something like \"0MFG D00D /\\Ü571N 15 T3H l_l83Я 1337 Я0XX0ЯZ\" (OMG, dude, Austin is the über-elite rocks-er!).",
"In essence, all of these mean \"Austin rocks,\" not necessarily the other options.",
"Added words and misspellings add to the speaker's enjoyment.",
"Leet, like hacker slang, employs analogy in construction of new words.",
"For example, if ''haxored'' is the past tense of the verb \"to hack\" (hack → haxor → haxored), then ''winzored'' would be easily understood to be the past tense conjugation of \"to win,\" even if the reader had not seen that particular word before.binary and alternate mark inversionLeet has its own colloquialisms, many of which originated as jokes based on common typing errors, habits of new computer users, or knowledge of cyberculture and history.",
"Leet is not solely based upon one language or character set.",
"Greek, Russian, and other languages have leet forms, and leet in one language may use characters from another where they are available.",
"As such, while it may be referred to as a \"cipher\", a \"dialect\", or a \"language\", leet does not fit squarely into any of these categories.",
"The term ''leet'' itself is often written ''31337'', or ''1337'', and many other variations.",
"After the meaning of these became widely familiar, ''10100111001'' came to be used in its place, because it is the binary form of ''1337'' decimal, making it more of a puzzle to interpret.",
"An increasingly common characteristic of leet is the changing of grammatical usage so as to be deliberately incorrect.",
"The widespread popularity of deliberate misspelling is similar to the cult following of the \"All your base are belong to us\" phrase.",
"Indeed, the online and computer communities have been international from their inception, so spellings and phrases typical of non-native speakers are quite common."
],
[
"Vocabulary",
"A CCCamp t-shirt using leet to highlight password vulnerabilityMany words originally derived from leet have now become part of modern Internet slang, such as \"pwned\".",
"The original driving forces of new vocabulary in leet were common misspellings and typing errors such as \"teh\" (generally considered lolspeak), and intentional misspellings, especially the \"z\" at the end of words (\"skillz\").",
"Another prominent example of a surviving leet expression is ''w00t'', an exclamation of joy.",
"w00t is sometimes used as a backronym for \"We owned the other team.",
"\"New words (or corruptions thereof) may arise from a need to make one's username unique.",
"As any given Internet service reaches more people, the number of names available to a given user is drastically reduced.",
"While many users may wish to have the username \"CatLover,\" for example, in many cases it is only possible for one user to have the moniker.",
"As such, degradations of the name may evolve, such as \"C@7L0vr.\"",
"As the leet cipher is highly dynamic, there is a wider possibility for multiple users to share the \"same\" name, through combinations of spelling and transliterations.Additionally, ''leet''—the word itself—can be found in the screen-names and gamertags of many Internet and video games.",
"Use of the term in such a manner announces a high level of skill, though such an announcement may be seen as baseless hubris.",
"===Terminology and common misspellings===''Warez'' (nominally ) is a plural shortening of \"software\", typically referring to cracked and redistributed software.",
"''Phreaking'' refers to the hacking of telephone systems and other non-Internet equipment.",
"''Teh'' originated as a typographical error of \"the\", and is sometimes spelled ''t3h''.",
"''j00'' takes the place of \"you\", originating from the affricate sound that occurs in place of the palatal approximant, , when ''you'' follows a word ending in an alveolar plosive consonant, such as or .",
"Also, from German, is ''über'', which means \"over\" or \"above\"; it usually appears as a prefix attached to adjectives, and is frequently written without the umlaut over the ''u''.====Haxor and suxxor (suxorz)====''Haxor'', and derivations thereof, is leet for \"hacker\", and it is one of the most commonplace examples of the use of the ''-xor'' suffix.",
"''Suxxor'' (pronounced suck-zor) is a derogatory term which originated in warez culture and is currently used in multi-user environments such as multiplayer video games and instant messaging; it, like ''haxor'', is one of the early leet words to use the ''-xor'' suffix.",
"''Suxxor'' is a modified version of \"sucks\" (the phrase \"to suck\"), and the meaning is the same as the English slang.",
"''Suxxor'' can be mistaken with ''Succer/Succker'' if used in the wrong context.",
"Its negative definition essentially makes it the opposite of ''roxxor'', and both can be used as a verb or a noun.",
"The letters ''ck'' are often replaced with the Greek Χ (chi) in other words as well.====n00b====Within leet, the term ''n00b'', and derivations thereof, is used extensively.",
"The word means and derives from ''newbie'' (as in new and inexperienced or uninformed), and is used as a means of segregating them as less than the \"elite,\" or even \"normal,\" members of a group.====Owned and pwned====An example of the term ''pwned'' in a'' Laugh-Out-Loud Cats'' comic strip''Owned'' and ''pwned'' (generally pronounced \"poned\" pʰo͡ʊnd) both refer to the domination of a player in a video game or argument (rather than just a win), or the successful hacking of a website or computer.",
"It is a slang term derived from the verb ''own'', meaning to appropriate or to conquer to gain ownership.",
"As is a common characteristic of leet, the terms have also been adapted into noun and adjective forms, ''ownage'' and ''pwnage'', which can refer to the situation of ''pwning'' or to the superiority of its subject (e.g., \"He is a very good player.",
"He is pwnage.",
"\").The term was created accidentally by the misspelling of \"own\" due to the keyboard proximity of the \"O\" and \"P\" keys.",
"It implies domination or humiliation of a rival, used primarily in the Internet-based video game culture to taunt an opponent who has just been soundly defeated (e.g., \"You just got pwned!\").",
"In 2015 Scrabble added pwn to their Official Scrabble Words list.====Pr0n====''Pr0n'' is slang for ''pornography''.",
"This is a deliberately inaccurate spelling/pronunciation for ''porn'', where a zero is often used to replace the letter O.",
"It is sometimes used in legitimate communications (such as email discussion groups, Usenet, chat rooms, and Internet web pages) to circumvent language and content filters, which may reject messages as offensive or spam.",
"The word also helps prevent search engines from associating commercial sites with pornography, which might result in unwelcome traffic.",
"''Pr0n'' is also sometimes spelled backwards (n0rp) to further obscure the meaning to potentially uninformed readers.",
"It can also refer to ASCII art depicting pornographic images, or to photos of the internals of consumer and industrial hardware.",
"''Prawn'', a spoof of the misspelling, has started to come into use, as well; in ''Grand Theft Auto: Vice City'', a pornographer films his movies on \"Prawn Island\".",
"Conversely, in the RPG ''Kingdom of Loathing'', ''prawn'', referring to a kind of crustacean, is spelled ''pr0n'', leading to the creation of food items such as \"pr0n chow mein\".",
"Also see porm."
],
[
"See also",
"* Calculator spelling** 7-segment display* Geek Code* Hexspeak* Jargon File, a glossary and usage dictionary of computer programmer slang* SMS language* All your base are belong to us* Faux Cyrillic and Engrish* LOLCAT and its \"lolspeak\", a similar phenomenon in XXI century English language* Padonkaffsky jargon, a similar phenomenon in Russian language* Martian language, a similar phenomenon in Chinese language* Yaminjeongeum, a similar phenomenon in Korean language* Gyaru-moji, a similar phenomenon in Japanese language"
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"References",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lud"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lud''' or '''LUD''' may refer to:* Local usage details, a record of local calls made from and received by a particular phone number* Ludic language, a Finnic language spoken in Karelia"
],
[
"People",
"* Lud son of Heli, a legendary British king who in Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudohistorical ''Historia Regum Britanniae'' founded London and was buried at Ludgate* Lud, son of Shem, a grandson of Noah* Lludd Llaw Eraint, a mythical Welsh figure cognate with king Nuada Airgetlám* Lud Fiser (1908–1990), American football and baseball player and coach* Lud Gluskin (1898–1989), Russian jazz bandleader* Lud Kramer (1932–2004), American politician* Ned Ludd, founder of the Luddite movement in 18th- and 19th-century Britain"
],
[
"Places",
"* Lud River, a river of New Zealand's South Island* Ludlow railway station, England* River Lud, a river of England, canalised as the Louth Navigation* Stone Lud, a standing stone in Caithness, in the Highland area of Scotland* Lud Gate, a city gate in the London area of Ludgate* Lüderitz Airport, Namibia, IATA code"
],
[
"Fiction",
"* Lud (city), a city in Stephen King's ''Dark Tower'' series* Lobby Lud, a character used in British newspaper scavenger hunts in the 1920s* Lud-in-the-Mist, novel by British writer (Helen) Hope Mirrlees"
],
[
"See also",
"* Ludd (disambiguation)* Lod, a city in Israel (formerly Lydda)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lois Lane"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lois Lane''' is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics.",
"Created by writer Jerry Siegel and artist Joe Shuster, she first appeared in ''Action Comics'' #1 (June 1938).",
"Lois is an award-winning journalist for the Metropolis newspaper the ''Daily Planet'' and the primary love interest of the superhero Superman and his alter ego, Clark Kent.",
"In DC continuity, she is also his wife and the mother of their son, Jon Kent, the newest Superboy in the DC Universe.Lois' physical appearance was originally based on Joanne Carter, a model hired by Joe Shuster.",
"For her character, Jerry Siegel was inspired by actress Glenda Farrell's portrayal of the fictional reporter Torchy Blane in a series of films.",
"Siegel took her name from actress Lola Lane.",
"Depictions of the character have varied spanning the comics and other media adaptations.",
"The original Golden Age version of Lois Lane, as well as versions of her from the 1970s onwards, portrays Lois as a dauntless journalist and intellectually equal to Superman.",
"During the Silver Age of Comics, she was the star of ''Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane'', a comic book series that had a light and humorous tone.",
"Lois has appeared in various media adaptations and is among the best-known female comic book characters.",
"Actress Noel Neill first portrayed Lois Lane in the 1940s ''Superman'' film series and later reprised her role in the 1950s television series ''Adventures of Superman'', replacing Phyllis Coates from season two.",
"Margot Kidder played the character in four Superman films in the 1970s and 1980s, Kate Bosworth in the 2006 film ''Superman Returns'', and Amy Adams in the DC Extended Universe.",
"Teri Hatcher portrayed Lois in the 1990s television series ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'' and Erica Durance in the 2000s series ''Smallville''.",
"Elizabeth Tulloch currently plays the character in the television series ''Superman & Lois''.",
"Rachel Brosnahan is set to play the character in the upcoming film ''Superman: Legacy''."
],
[
"Creation",
"Writer Jerry Siegel first conceived Lois Lane in 1934, when Siegel and Joe Shuster were still developing Superman.",
"A major influence on Lois' characterization was actress Glenda Farrell and her portrayal of the fictional reporter Torchy Blane in a series of Warner Bros. films.",
"The Torchy Blane movies were popular second features during the later 1930s.",
"On the conception of Lois Lane, Siegel stated in the 1988 ''Time'' magazine:An early sketch of Lois Lane by Joe Shuster, modeled on Joanne Carter.Artist Joe Shuster based Lois' physical appearance on a model named Joanne Carter.",
"Carter had placed an ad in the ''Cleveland Plain Dealer'' newspaper in the Situation Wanted column, advertising herself as a model.",
"Shuster corresponded with her and hired her as the model for Lois Lane.",
"Shuster's depiction of Lois was modeled on her hairstyle and facial features.",
"\"To me she was Lois Lane.",
"She was a great inspiration for me, though.",
"She encouraged me, she was very enthusiastic about the strip; it meant a lot to me.\"",
"Shuster said about Joanne Carter.Joanne Carter married co-creator Jerry Siegel in 1948.On working with Joe Shuster for Lois Lane, Carter said in the 1983 ''Nemo'' magazine interview: \"Joe was redrawing the strip, and it was going to be more realistic, rather than cartoony.",
"I used to model for him every Saturday until he had enough drawings.",
"He made so many stock drawings that it got to a point where he didn't need any more.",
"We became such good friends by that time we decided we would always stay friends.\""
],
[
"Publication history",
"Lois Lane made her debut in ''Action Comics'' #1 (June 1938), the first published Superman story.",
"Lois is the daughter of Ella and Sam Lane, in earlier comics, her parents were farmers in a town called Pittsdale.",
"The modern comics depicts Lois as a former Army brat, born at Ramstein Air Base with Lois having been trained by her father, a US Army General, in areas such as hand-to-hand combat and the use of firearms.",
"She has one younger sibling, her sister Lucy Lane.",
"Lois is a journalist for the ''Daily Planet'', one of the best investigative reporters and the best at the newspaper she works at.",
"Lois has shown obtaining superpowers and becoming a superhero, some of her superhero identities are Superwoman and Red Tornado of Earth 2.Aspects of Lois' personality have varied over the years, depending on the comic book writers handling of the character and American social attitudes toward women at the time.",
"In most incarnations, she is shown to be an independent person who is smart, determined and strong-willed.",
"Her physical appearance has varied over the years, depending either on contemporary fashion or media adaptations.",
"In the 1990s, when the television series ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'' began airing Lois received a haircut that made her look more like actress Teri Hatcher, and her eyes were typically violet to match her character on ''Superman: The Animated Series''.",
"From the late 1980s through the 1990s she was depicted with auburn hair in the comic books.",
"In the 1940s, Lois had a newspaper comic strip, ''Lois Lane, Girl Reporter'', a direct spin-off of the Superman comic strip running at the time.",
"A similar title comic series began appearing in the ''Superman'' comic book in 1944, starting with ''Superman'' #28.In 1958, DC Comics gave Lois a comic book series, ''Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane''.",
"The series focuses on her solo adventures and start publication in April 1958.In the 1960s, the series was one of DC's most popular titles and was the top ten best-selling comic books in America.",
"She had a series featured in ''The Superman Family'' comic book from 1974 to 1982.Released in 2019, ''Lois Lane'', a 12-issue series by writer Greg Rucka and artist Mike Perkins investigates threats and conspiracies in the DC Universe.",
"Lois is the character most commonly associated with Superman, and throughout their long history, she has always been the most prominent love interest in Clark Kent/Superman's life.",
"In the 1990s, after Clark proposes to Lois and reveals to her that he is Superman, she married him in the comic book ''Superman: The Wedding Album'' (December 1996).",
"The couple's biological child in DC Comics canon was born in ''Convergence: Superman'' #2 (July 2015) a son named Jonathan Samuel Kent, who eventually becomes Superboy."
],
[
"Fictional character biography",
"===Golden Age===The Golden Age Lois Lane and Superman, from the cover of ''Superman'' #27 (March–April 1944), art by Wayne Boring.In the Golden Age comics, Lois was an aggressive, career-minded reporter for the ''Daily Star'' (the newspaper's name was changed to the ''Daily Planet'' in ''Action Comics'' #23 in 1940).",
"After Clark Kent joined the paper and Superman debuted around the same time, Lois found herself attracted to Superman but displeased with her new journalistic competition in the form of Kent.Starting early as the 1940s, Lois began to suspect that Clark Kent was Superman, and started to make various attempts at uncovering his secret identity, all of which backfired because of Superman's efforts.",
"The first such story appears in ''Superman'' #17 (July–August 1942).",
"This theme became particularly pronounced in the 1950s and 1960s Silver Age comic books.Lois gained her first series of stories (without Superman) starting with ''Superman'' #28 (May–June 1944), ''Lois Lane, Girl Reporter'', running in the ''Superman'' comic book for a number of years, had Lois defeating bad guys and getting front-page stories on her own, without any help from Superman.In the Golden Age comics, Lois had a niece named Susie Tompkins, whose main trait was getting into trouble by telling exaggerated tall tales and fibs to adults.",
"Susie's last appearance was in ''Superman'' #95 (February 1955).",
"Subsequent comics presented Lois' only sibling, Lucy, as single and childless.===Silver Age and Bronze Age===When the reading audience of superhero comic books became predominately young boys in the mid to late 1950s, the focus of Superman stories shifted toward science fiction inspired plots involving extraterrestrials, fantasy creatures, and bizarre plots.Lois' main interests in various late 1950s and 1960s stories became vying with her rival Lana Lang for Superman's affections, attempting to prove Clark Kent and Superman were one and the same or otherwise getting Superman into marriage.",
"Superman's rationale for resisting her matrimonial desires was that marrying her would put her in increased danger from his enemies and that she could not keep his secret identity hidden.",
"Regardless, Lois married several times in the Superman stories of this era, including to a Superman impostor from Kandor, the villainous Zak-Kul and a man from the future.",
"All these marriages were either annulled or otherwise forgotten.",
"''Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane'' #1 (April 1958) art by leftLois became more and more popular during the 1950s, and after appearing as the lead character in two issues of DC Comics' ''Showcase'' in 1957, DC created an ongoing series for Lois, titled ''Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane''.",
"The series ran for 137 issues, beginning in April 1958 to October 1974.Most stories were about Lois' romance with Superman, and were drawn by artist Kurt Schaffenberger.",
"Schaffenberger's rendition of Lois became cited by many as the \"definitive\" version of Lois, and he was often asked by DC editor Mort Weisinger to redraw other artists' depictions of Lois Lane in other DC titles where she appeared.",
"So many stories depicted Lois and marriage that the cover of a 1968 80-Page Giant that reprinted several such stories, the \"All-Wedding Issue\", described the magazine as \"featuring Lois' schemes and dreams to marry Superman!",
"\".The series ''Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane'' became one of DC's most popular titles, the third best-selling comic in 1962 and 1965.The title featured the first appearance of the Silver Age Catwoman, after an absence from the comics for over a decade.While Lois is suspicious of Superman's secret identity as early as ''Superman'' #7 (1940), her suspicions grew during the early Silver Age, with many stories in her series focusing on her attempts to prove Superman and Clark Kent were one and the same.",
"Stories showed Superman using various means to protect his secret identity from Lois, including his Superman robots or Batman disguising himself as Clark/Superman.By the end of the 1960s, as attitudes toward women's role in American society changed, Lois' character changed as well.",
"In ''Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane'' #80 (Jan. 1968), the character's fashions were updated to a then more contemporary look.",
"Stories in the 1970s depicted Lois again as fully capable and less reliant on Superman.",
"She engaged in more adventures without Superman being involved and was much less interested in discovering Superman's secret identity.Lois had a series featured in ''The Superman Family'' (an anthology title started in the mid-1970s after the cancellation of ''Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane'' and ''Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen'') from 1974 to 1982.In her series, Lois regularly battled criminals and often defeated them using her quick wits and considerable skill in the Kryptonian martial art of Klurkor, taught to her by Kryptonian survivors in the bottle city of Kandor.",
"There were several cameos of the New Gods, including Desaad and Darkseid.",
"Lois Lane was the backup series in ''The Daring New Adventures of Supergirl'' in 1982 to 1983.During the Silver and Bronze Age, Lois' backstory became more fully fleshed out, with various stories explaining her life before becoming employed at the ''Daily Planet''.",
"This backstory was attributed to the Lois Lane of Earth-One.As summarized in various stories, Lois was born to Sam and Ella Lane and grew up on their farm in the small town of Pittsdale.",
"At the age of two, Lois suffered measles, and at the age of three, whooping cough.",
"At an unspecified time during Lois' childhood, her younger sister Lucy Lane was born.",
"While Lois was a toddler, she encountered a rattlesnake in the woods near the Lane family farm.",
"The snake was scared away by one of Kal-El's baby toys which had landed nearby in one of Jor-El's experimental rockets.During Lois' adolescence, she won a youth contest run by the ''Daily Planet'', with the prize being a trip to Metropolis to spend a week working as a cub reporter for the newspaper.",
"There, she first met Clark Kent of Smallville, who was the other winner of the contest.",
"Lois found Clark dull and became more interested in asking him for information about Superboy after learning Clark came from Smallville.",
"During the week in Metropolis, Lois made a bet with Clark to see who would get the most scoops, which turned out to be Lois, as Clark was forced to constantly go into action as Superboy.",
"Lois met Superboy for the first time while uncovering a criminal enterprise for one of her stories.",
"At the end of the week, Clark paid off Lois' bet (an ice cream sundae), and the two returned to their respective hometowns.",
"Lois would meet Superboy (but not Clark Kent) again during her adolescence while attending an all-girls summer camp near Smallville.",
"There, Lois met Lana Lang, a fellow camper, for the first time.",
"Lois would make further attempts at landing a job with the ''Daily Planet'' during her teenage years and spent time writing for her hometown's newspaper, the ''Pittsdale Star''.Upon finishing high school, Lois left Pittsdale and attended Raleigh College to study journalism.",
"While in college, Lois worked for the student newspaper, the ''Raleigh Review'', as a reporter and eventually its co-editor.",
"After graduating from college, Lois became permanently employed at the ''Daily Planet''.",
"Clark Kent and Jimmy Olsen later joined the ''Planet''s staff but Lois remained the newspaper's star reporter, winning the Pulitzer Prize.",
"She was very dependent on Superman, however; he told her that having to rescue her so often from problems she caused prevented him from helping others.",
"For example, when late for a deadline Lois jumped off a cliff expecting Superman to catch her \"as he has done a thousand times\", and fly her to her destination.",
"When asked on a Sunday morning talk show what she would do if trapped in an underground mine with rescue impossible before the air ran out, Lois admitted that she would impatiently await Superman because \"I've got a deadline to meet.",
"\"Eventually, Lois realized that she had wasted a good part of her career by staying in Metropolis for Superman's sake and left.",
"As both a journalist and as a woman, she had to get on with her life.After the 1985–1986 miniseries ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' writer John Byrne revised the Superman legend and eliminated the Silver Age version of Lois from continuity.",
"Before this happened, a final non-canonical imaginary story ''Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?''",
"was written by Alan Moore, meant as a send-off for the pre-Crisis versions of the characters, including Lois.",
"Published at the same time but in Earth-One continuity was a two-issue miniseries, ''Lois Lane'', in which she investigates missing children.===Modern Age===The Man of Steel'' #2 (October 1986), art by John Byrne.Lois underwent a character alteration beginning with John Byrne's ''The Man of Steel'' miniseries, which significantly rewrote Superman's origin and history.",
"In this modern version of events, Lois was portrayed as a tough-as-nails reporter who rarely needed rescuing.",
"She was depicted as strong, opinionated, yet sensitive.Lois' first real relationship in this version was with Jose Delgado, who she later discovered acted as a vigilante.",
"José's legs are shattered in a battle with a Lexcorp cyborg/human hybrid gone amok.",
"Delgado eventually recovered.",
"He and Lois would have several on and off experiences together before the relationship completely disintegrated, due to Delgado accepting help from a Lexcorp subsidiary ARL.Another major change made was that Lois did not fall in love with just Superman, although she was attracted to him.",
"One reason was the revised nature of the Superman/Clark Kent relationship.",
"In the original Silver Age stories, Superman had been the man who disguised himself as Clark Kent.",
"In this newly revised concept, it was Clark Kent who lived a life in which his activity as Superman was decidedly secondary.",
"Lois initially resented the rookie Clark Kent getting the story on Superman as his first piece when she had spent ages trying to get an interview.",
"This sometimes ill-tempered rivalry remained the case until ''The Adventures of Superman'' #460–463 and ''Action Comics'' #650.Following Clark's brief rampage under the influence of the Eradicator, Lois was hesitant to forgive Clark for \"selling out\" to Collin Thornton and running ''Newstime'' Magazine, but forgave him in a span of mere minutes when he returned to ask for his job back.",
"Clark elected to repay Lois by finally letting go of his self-imposed inhibitions and passionately kissed her.",
"The two became a couple, and eventually, Lois accepted a proposal of marriage.",
"Clark shortly after revealed to her that he was Superman.DC Comics had planned on Lois and Clark being married in 1993's ''Superman vol.",
"2'' #75.With the then-upcoming television show ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'', DC decided they did not want to have the two married in the comics and not married on TV.",
"Partially as a result of this, Superman was killed in ''Superman'' #75 instead, dying in Lois' arms after a battle royal with the monster Doomsday.",
"After a period of time, Superman returned to life, and both he and Lois resumed their relationship, though not without a few problems (such as a brief reappearance of Clark's former college girlfriend, the mermaid Lori Lemaris).",
"Lois eventually decided to take an overseas assignment to assert her independence and not be dependent on Clark, who had begun to overprotect her.",
"When Clark became convinced Lois was in danger, he and her father Sam allied to aid her secretly.When Lois returned to Metropolis, she had been through several life-threatening exploits and was slightly amused when Clark informed her his powers had been depleted, and that he was her editor (due to Perry White's cancer).",
"Upon discovering Clark still had her wedding ring within a handkerchief, Lois warmly broke down, teasing Clark and finally agreeing to become his wife.Lois and Clark were finally married in the comic book ''Superman: The Wedding Album'' (December 1996), which featured the work of nearly every living artist who had ever worked on Superman.",
"The issue was published during the week of October 6, 1996, coinciding with an episode of the television series ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'', which featured the wedding of the two characters.",
"''The Wedding Album'' itself spent part of its opening pages accommodating and reconciling the then-current comic storyline of Lois and Clark having broken off their engagement.Since their marriage, Clark and Lois continue to be one of the strongest relationships in comics.",
"In 2006, the couple took the next step in adopting a newly arrived Kryptonian boy, who they named Chris Kent.",
"The boy is later discovered to be the son of Jor-El's foe, General Zod.",
"Although initially uneasy about raising a super-powered child, Lois has shown immense aptitude of being 'Mommy Lois.'",
"Following a devastating battle with Zod, Chris sacrificed himself to seal the Phantom Zone rift, trapping himself inside with Zod's forces, leaving Lois without her son.In the second issue of ''Final Crisis'', Lois and Perry are caught in an explosion triggered by Clayface destroying the ''Daily Planet'' and Lois is critically injured.",
"In the third issue, it is revealed that only Clark's heat vision is keeping her heart beating.",
"Clark is visited by a mysterious phantom who insists that he must depart Earth immediately if he is to save his wife's life.",
"The story is continued in the 3D tie-in comic ''Superman Beyond'', where the female Monitor Zillo Valla stops time around Lois, allowing Superman to leave her side for a while, recruiting him and several of his multiversal doppelgangers in a mission to save the entire Multiverse, promising care for Lois.",
"After defeating the dark Monitor Mandrakk, Superman brings back a distilled drop of The Bleed and administers it to Lois through a kiss, restoring her to full health.",
"Lois is later seen in ''Final Crisis'' #6, one of the few still free humans.After the events of ''Superman: New Krypton'' Superman must leave Earth for an undetermined amount of time swearing off his Earthly connections in the eyes of his fellow Kryptonians to keep an eye on General Zod the New Kryptonian military commander, but he secretly tells Lois he still considers her his wife and will come back to her.",
"In the issues of ''Action Comics'' Lois has reunited with Christopher Kent who has aged to adulthood in the past months and became the new Metropolis hero Nightwing.",
"Supergirl and Lana visit Lois' apartment to tell her the bad news that her sister Lucy Lane was killed during a battle with Supergirl.",
"Lois does not believe that her sister is dead and refuses to accept the news until she has irrefutable proof.",
"Lois asks Supergirl for a recovered piece of Superwoman's costume.Lois hands her exposé in and the government is after her for treason.",
"With agents on her tail, she makes a mad dash for it.",
"When Lois is in custody, her father Sam Lane is there to greet her in an interview room in an unnamed facility.",
"Sam tells Lois the only reason he has been lenient with her is because she is his daughter, while he does love her the planet will always come first over his family and threatens to make her disappear forever if she continues.",
"Lois returns to the ''Daily Planet'' under cover of night and explains all to Perry.",
"She points out the whole paper is at risk and everyone connected to it if her exposé runs.",
"Perry understands and though he must protect the paper he is first and foremost a good journalist and nudges Lois in the right direction; he will not run the story but noted it must get out to the people somehow.",
"Enlightened, she quits the ''Daily Planet'', as Lois gets her edge back.",
"It was later revealed she never really quit the ''Daily Planet''.Lois learns her father's forces destroyed New Krypton.",
"She is kidnapped by Lucy and taken to Sam's secret base.",
"There, Lois argues with her father, countering his insistence on regarding the Kryptonians as \"rabid dogs\" by pointing out that they naturally regard ''him'' as a genocidal maniac after he destroyed their planet.",
"In the war between New Krypton and Earth, Supergirl finds them and threatens to kill Sam.",
"Lois stops her, saying her father will be judged for his war crimes.",
"Refusing to go to trial, Sam takes a gun and commits suicide.",
"Later, Lois visits the imprisoned Lucy.",
"She expresses disbelief on what her sister has become.",
"Lois says while she will not miss her father, she will miss her sister.In ''Superman: Grounded'', Superman begins a journey through America to reconnect with the American people, and Lois, though confused at first, supports his choice.",
"Lois later travels to Rushmark and finds an old college friend Brian, who invites her to have dinner with him and his wife.",
"When Lois leaves Brian's home she is met by Superman.",
"The two reaffirm their love to each other and go to Chicago.",
"There, Lois helps Superman arrest a violent father who has been attacking his wife and son.",
"Later, Lois and Superman investigate a factory in Des Moines.",
"Lois wants to publish an article, which would reveal the workers' illegal activities, but Superman forces her not to.",
"Feeling betrayed, Lois returns to Metropolis and does not speak to Superman for a while.",
"When Lois is kidnapped by Lisa Jennings, a woman who wants to destroy Superman, he rescues her.",
"With the danger over.",
"Superman apologizes to Lois about what happened in Des Moines.",
"Lois replies that she wrote the article anyway, saying that she was a reporter before she was his wife.",
"Knowing that his wife did the right thing, Superman kisses her.",
"The two then return home.===The New 52===In 2011, DC Comics relaunched its titles and its main continuity was rebooted with the New 52.Lois now works for Morgan Edge heading up the media division of the ''Daily Planet''.",
"She views Clark as a friend and is unaware that he is Superman.Lois investigates the story of twenty people who developed metahuman powers after being kidnapped by Brainiac.",
"Her search leads her to a U.S. senator, who revealed to be one of the Twenty.",
"The senator dies, but not before transferring his powers to Lois, who falls into a coma.",
"Lois later awakes from her coma at the hospital, with Jonathan Carroll at her side.",
"Lois manifests psychic powers and helps Superman fight the Psychic Pirate.",
"During the fight, Lois learns that Clark is Superman but falls back into a coma.",
"After defeating the Psychic Pirate, Superman brings Lois back to the hospital.",
"Later, the Parasite attacks the hospital and attempts to steal Lois' powers.",
"Superman tricks the Parasite into absorbing Lois' psionic energy.",
"The power overwhelms the Parasite, causing him to collapse.",
"Lois awakens from her coma but she does not seem to remember Superman's identity.Lois is the main character in the ''Superman: Lois Lane'' #1 one-shot.",
"In this story, Lois' sister, Lucy, asks for her help in finding her roommate Amanda Suresh, who had been kidnapped by a mysterious group called \"the Cartel.\"",
"According to Lucy, Amanda had been taking a drug that transformed her into a monster.",
"As Lois investigates the Cartel, she gets captured and taken to the Cartel's headquarters.",
"There, Lois finds out the Cartel had been capturing people who had been mutated by the drug.",
"Lois escapes and rescues Amanda when the captured monsters cause a riot.",
"As she returns home, Lois finds out Lucy had been taking the drug.",
"As Lucy apologizes for putting all three in danger, Lois chooses to publish her story about the Cartel.Some time after this, an organisation led by the mysterious 'HODOR-ROOT' learn Superman's secret identity, prompting him to share that information with Lois.",
"When HODOR-ROOT try to analyse Clark's new 'Super-Flare' power, Lois reveals his identity to the public in the hope of removing their blackmail card, but this forces Clark to go on the run, hunted by criminals and law enforcement as some apparent side-effect of his Super-Flare has depleted his powers.",
"Superman eventually learns that his depleted powers are due to Vandal Savage infecting him with a form of radiation that inhibits his cells' ability to absorb solar radiation, subjecting himself to kryptonite as a form of chemotherapy.",
"With his powers restored, Clark reconciles with Lois, accepting that she exposed his identity for good reasons.In the ''New 52: Futures End'', set five years in the possible future of the New 52-verse.",
"Lois is considered the most successful freelance reporter on the planet and her blog \"The Fast Lane\" is one of the most read and well-respected sources of news in the world.The birth of Lois and Clark's son in ''Convergence: Superman'' #2 (July 2015), art by thumbIn the miniseries ''Convergence'', which featured many Post-''Crisis'' DC Universe characters, including a married Superman and his pregnant wife Lois Lane, deal with the impending birth of their child, as Superman is called to protect the city.",
"''Convergence'' shows the birth of their son, Jon Kent.Following ''Convergence'', DC announced the spin-off comic book series ''Superman: Lois and Clark'', debuting in October 2015 by Dan Jurgens and Lee Weeks.",
"The eight-issue series is set several years after the ''Convergence'' event, where Clark and Lois and their son Jon have been living and working in the New 52 universe.",
"The couple now lives in California and has changed their last name to White (a tribute to Perry White).",
"Lois has become an anonymous author, publishing several critically acclaimed books under the alias name \"Author X.\"",
"While Clark continues his superhero duty, protecting cities and civilians quietly behind the scenes.",
"Their son, Jonathan, eventually began to develop superpowers of his own (similar to those of his father Superman) and learned the truth about his parents' true origin.In ''The Final Days of Superman'', the pre-''Flashpoint'' Superman helps his ''New 52'' counterpart defeat a man who has become convinced that he is the 'true' Superman after exposure to some of Superman's excess energy.",
"''New 52''-Lois is present when 'her' Superman expires as recent energy exposures catch up with him, after he tells her his life story for posterity.===DC Rebirth===In June 2016, DC Comics relaunched its entire line of comic book titles with DC Rebirth.",
"The publisher once again re-established the Post-''Crisis'' Superman as the principal Superman in DC comics, along with his wife, Lois Lane, and their son, Jonathan.Lois began to investigate the disappearance of her New 52 counterpart, and after learning the apparent death of her other-self, she returns to the ''Daily Planet'' posing as her counterpart.",
"Following a confrontation with Mister Mxyzptlk, Lois and Superman's essence is merged with their New 52 counterpart, creating a new DC Universe.Released in July 2019 to July 2020, Lois stars in a 12-issue limited series ''Lois Lane'' written by Greg Rucka and art by Mike Perkins.",
"The series sees Lois as she investigates stories of conspiracy, intrigue and murder in the DC Universe.",
"Writer Greg Rucka intended for the series to focus on Lois' legacy as a hard-boiled journalist and the investigative world which she inhabits, with the series reflecting the state of modern journalism in the world today."
],
[
"Superhero identities",
"Lois Lane has become a superhero and gained superpowers several times in the comics, animation, and live-action series.===Superwoman===Lois Lane, first appearance as Superwoman in ''Action Comics'' #60 (May 1943), art by Joe Shuster.Lois was the first person to assume the Superwoman persona and has become the superheroine on several occasions.",
"Her first appearance as Superwoman (as well as Superwoman's first appearance in DC Comics) was in ''Action Comics'' #60 (May 1943).",
"The story is set in a dream sequence, where, after Lois is hit by a truck, she dreams a transfusion of Superman's blood gives her superpowers and she becomes Superwoman.",
"In ''Superman'' #45, Lois believes Hocus and Pocus—a pair of fraudulent magicians—have given her superpowers, and with Superman's help and intervention, Lois once again becomes Superwoman.",
"In ''Action Comics'' #156, Lois actually gains superpowers from one of Lex Luthor's inventions, which launches a short-lived career as \"Superwoman.\"",
"In ''The Superman Family'' #207, the Earth-Two Lois gained superpowers from her husband, after Superman brought an extraterrestrial plant into their home, with Lois losing the powers after the death of the plant.",
"Other stories have Lois transformed into Superwoman when Superman transfers some of his powers to Lois, or due to Mr. Mxyzptlk's interference.",
"On ''Smallville'' in the episode \"Prophecy,\" Jor-El gives Lois all of Clark's powers for one day.In the original Crime Syndicate of America on Earth-Three, Lois Lane and Superwoman were two separate individual characters.",
"Superwoman is a supervillain and Lois married Earth-Three's greatest champion, Alexander Luthor.",
"The pre-Crisis version of the characters perished when Earth-Three was destroyed during the events of ''Crisis on Infinite Earths''.",
"In the graphic novel ''JLA: Earth 2'', Superwoman, a member of the Crime Syndicate is the alternate version of Lois Lane.",
"She is an Amazon by birth and the chief editor of the ''Daily Planet''.",
"She inhabits the same antimatter universe which contains the planet Qward.",
"The New 52 version of Superwoman of Earth-3 is also named Lois Lane and is part of the Crime Syndicate.In ''All-Star Superman'', the 12-issue comic book series by Grant Morrison and Frank Quitely, Lois becomes a Kryptonian Superwoman for 24 hours.",
"In the story, Superman (who believed he was dying) revealed his secret identity to her and takes Lois to his Fortress of Solitude to spend her birthday.",
"While at his Arctic sanctuary, he presents Lois with her birthday present, a formula called \"Exo-Genes\" created by Superman from his own DNA, that allows Lois to have his powers for twenty-four hours.",
"With her new Kryptonian powers and new Superwoman costume (made by Superman), the two spend the whole day together on different adventures and shared a kiss on the moon.",
"At the end of the story, Superman proclaims his love for Lois, before he flies off into the sun to repair it.",
"Lois later appeared as Superwoman in the animated All-Star Superman film, voiced by Christina Hendricks.In DC Rebirth, the ''New 52'' Lois and Lana gained superpowers due to the solar energy explosion caused by the death of the New 52 Superman.",
"This results in both Lois and Lana becoming Superwoman, with Lois possessing all of Superman's traditional powers, while Lana has the ability to absorb solar energy and release it in other forms.",
"Lois later dies at the hands of a female Bizarro, being overloaded with solar energy the same way Superman was killed.===Red Tornado===Lois Lane as Red Tornado in ''Earth 2'' #17 (January 2014), art by leftFollowing the DC relaunch, the series ''Earth 2'' debuted in 2012, set on the parallel world of that name.",
"It depicts a modern take on the Golden Age world, starring the Justice Society of America and superheroes of that period.In ''Earth 2'', Lois Lane is married to Superman.",
"When Clark's cousin Kara arrived on earth, she stayed with Clark's parents, before moving in and living with Clark and Lois.",
"Lois considers Kara as her daughter and Kara calls Lois mom.",
"Five years prior to the start of the story, during the first Apokoliptian invasion of Earth 2, Lois was killed by one of Darkseid's assassins at the Daily Planet, she died in her husband's arms.",
"Superman and many other heroes of Earth 2 perished in the war.Five years later, as various heroes begin to rise and various gods from Apokolips begin to wreak havoc again.",
"Lois' consciousness is revealed to have survived and was downloaded into the robot body of Red Tornado by her father Sam Lane and Robert Crane.",
"Lois, now as Red Tornado, possessed the power of wind manipulation and cyclone generation abilities.",
"Lois bands together with Green Lantern (Alan Scott), Batman (Thomas Wayne), Accountable (Jimmy Olsen) and the other gathered heroes to fight against the forces of Apokolips.",
"After a protracted battle with what was thought to be a surviving brainwashed Superman, Lois realizes he is, in fact, a Bizarro, and takes advantage of his deteriorating form to disintegrate him with a cyclone blast.",
"In the story, Lois is referred to by Doctor Fate as the \"Resurrection hope\".During Superman's rampage and destruction on Earth 2, Lois is among a group that discovers Val-Zod, a Kryptonian, hidden in a cell beneath Arkham.",
"Lois helps Val feel accepted and welcomed on Earth 2, learn to control his superpower, and overcome his agoraphobia (due to his prolonged travel in space to Earth).",
"Val-Zod eventually becomes the new Superman of Earth 2.In the second Apokoliptian invasion of Earth 2, Lois and Kara are reunited, after Kara and Huntress return to Earth 2 from Prime Earth.",
"Lois, along with Kara, Val, Huntress, Batman and other heroes, fights against the armies of Apokolips and new villains appearing across Earth 2.While searching for Huntress beneath the fire pits of Earth 2 in DeSaad's cloning facility, Lois, Val, Kara and Batman found the real Superman who has been held captive for five years.",
"He was revived by DeSaad and was used as the genetic source for the Kryptonian clones.",
"The extraction of his DNA corrupted his body leaving him without any powers.",
"Lois and Superman reunite briefly, before he sacrificed himself one last time, destroying the Parademon facilities using his corrupt DNA.",
"After Superman's death, Lois gave Kara the symbol from his uniform, which was then worn by Kara in remembrance.In the final days of Earth 2, Lois' instincts as a journalist lead her to attempt to preserve and record the history and stories of Earth 2 in her large memory bank in the hope that someday, someone will read the data and rebuild this world.",
"After the destruction of Earth 2, Lois and the remaining civilians and heroes of Earth 2 relocated to a new world.The writer of ''Earth 2'', Tom Taylor, specifically resurrected Lois Lane on Earth 2 after he was told to kill off the character in the ''Injustice'' comic series.",
"Taylor stated \"bringing Lois in was quite a personal thing, because having to do such horrible, horrible things to her in Injustice, the first thing I asked when I got on the book was if I could bring back Lois.",
"Then it was just a matter of working out exactly how.\"",
"Taylor received \"Women in Refrigerators\" criticism for his ''Injustice'' comic stories.",
"Bringing back Lois as Red Tornado was Taylor's way to \"unfridge\" Lois.",
"As Taylor noted, in Lois' first appearance as Red Tornado, Lois literally came out of a blue refrigerator.",
"Other reasons for bringing back Lois involve Superman, Taylor commented \"While evil bastard Superman is out there killing and maiming and destroying, I wanted Lois to exist as the counterpoint to this.",
"She's the beating heart at the center.",
"She's the good Ying to Superman's evil Yang.",
"Where there's Lois, there's hope.",
"\"Nicola Scott, the long-time artist on Earth 2, on drawing Red Tornado Lois, \"I wanted Lois to be Lois, despite the fact that she's metal.",
"I wanted to make sure she looked really feminine and really beautiful, so all she'd need is a flesh coating and a wig and she'd be good to go.",
"\"===Other identities and powers===* '''Green Lantern''' – In ''Tangent Comics: Tales of the Green Lantern'' #1, Green Lantern of Earth-9 is introduced with three different origin tales.",
"In one origin story, Lois is an archaeologist, explorer, and adventurer hired by billionaire playboy Booster Gold to explore the underwater ruins off the coast of Florida.",
"She discovers a community of mutated life forms known as the Sea Devils and is murdered by Booster Gold when she tries to protect the Sea Devils.",
"Her body is taken to the underwater castle and resurrected as the Green Lantern.",
"* '''Elastic Lass''' – Lois becomes Elastic Lass, after borrowing Jimmy Olsen's Elastic Lad serum, given to him by Professor Potter, so she can catch the Wrecker, who has been blowing up statues around Metropolis.",
"* '''Isis''' – On the television series ''Smallville'', Lois is possessed by the spirit of the Egyptian goddess and hero Isis while wearing the Amulet of Isis in the tenth-season episode \"Isis.\"",
"This was based on the character of Isis who first appeared in an eponymous 1975-77 CBS television series, later known as ''The Secrets of Isis''.",
"Isis was then brought into DC comics canon, both as a superhero and as a separate goddess.",
"As Isis, Lois had super strength, speed, telekinesis, telepathy, energy projection, magic, and could fly.",
"*'''Krypton Girl''' – In the imaginary story in ''Superman's Girlfriend Lois Lane'' #47, Lois is from Krypton and takes the superhero name Krypton Girl on Earth; Clark Kent is an ordinary human.",
"*'''Leopard Lady''' – Lois becomes the supervillain Leopard Lady and marries Lex Luthor when a machine that can bring out evil in a person is used on her.",
"* '''Power Girl''' – In ''Superman'' #125, Lois dreams she and Clark gain superpowers and become Power-Girl and Power-Man.",
"* '''Stiletto''' – On ''Smallville'', Lois takes on the superhero persona of Stiletto, after saving Chloe from a carjacker in the eighth-season episode \"Stiletto.",
"\"*'''Super-Lois''' – The comic book ''Superman's Girlfriend Lois Lane'' featured several stories in which Lois gains superpowers and becomes Super-Lois.",
"In one, Lois gains superpower after Superman gives her a blood transfusion.",
"In another story, Lois is invited to visit Kandor with three other accomplished women of Earth; while there, a scientist gives her superpowers.",
"Lois uses her new superpowers to save Superman from a Kryptonite trap set by Mayhem, Inc.* '''Supermaid''' – In an imaginary story in ''Superman'' #158, Lois goes to Krypton as a child and becomes Supermaid.",
"Lois' father sent his infant daughter to Krypton in a starship, after discovering the Sun would go nova and destroy the Solar System.",
"Arriving on Krypton within a power beam modifies Lois' molecular biology, giving her superpowers.",
"Lois was adopted and raised by a zookeeper as Kandi Khan and became the Superheroine Supermaid.",
"* '''Ultra Woman''' – On the television series ''Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'' in the episode \"Ultra Woman\" Superman's powers are transferred to Lois when a red Kryptonite laser beam hit him.",
"Martha Kent makes Lois a new costume and Clark introduces her to Metropolis as Ultra Woman.",
"*'''Divine empowerment''' – Lois was briefly granted divine powers as the Goddess of Integrity by the war and death gods but gave the powers up at the urging of Wonder Woman.",
"Her powers include flight, enhanced intellect, teleportation and weather manipulation.",
"*'''Psychic powers''' – In ''The New 52'', Lois was given various psychic powers by Senator Hume; she has redeveloped and lost these powers numerous times.",
"Some of her powers are telepathy and astral projection."
],
[
"Earth-Two version",
"DC Comics instituted its multiverse system in the early 1960s for organizing its continuity and introduced the Earth-Two Superman in ''Justice League of America'' #73 (August 1969).",
"This retcon declared the Golden Age Superman and Lois Lane stories (i.e.",
"comics published from 1938 through the early 1950s) as having taken place on the parallel world of \"Earth-Two\" versus the then mainstream (Silver Age) universe of \"Earth-One\".The Earth-Two Lois Lane and Superman, from the cover of ''Action Comics'' #484 (June 1978), art by José Luis García-López and Dick Giordano.In ''Action Comics'' #484 (June 1978), a flashback story reveals Earth-Two's Lois became infatuated with Clark Kent after the latter lost his memory of his superheroic identity (thanks to a spell cast by the old Justice Society of America enemy Wizard working for Colonel Future), with the result of Clark acting more aggressive and extroverted.",
"Clark and Lois began to date each other and were soon married.",
"During the honeymoon, Lois discovered that Clark was indeed Superman.",
"After recruiting the aid of Wizard, Lois restored Clark's memory and Wizard surrendered to the authorities.The now-married Lois and Clark appeared in a series of stories in ''The Superman Family'' #195–199 and #201–222 titled ''Mr and Mrs Superman'', which presented their further adventures early in their marriage.",
"Susie Tompkins made a return as a recurring character.",
"Years later, Lois and Clark acted as parental figures for Power Girl, Superman's cousin, after she arrived on Earth.During the ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' miniseries, the Earth-Two Lois Lane was seemingly seen for the final time, as Lois, the Earth-Two Superman, and the Superboy of Earth-Prime are, at the end of the story, taken by Earth-Three's Alexander Luthor Jr. into a paradise-like dimension.",
"Following the events of ''Crisis on Infinite Earths,'' this version of Lois was retroactively removed from DC's continuity.In 2005's ''Infinite Crisis'' miniseries, it was revealed that the Earth-Two Lois Lane Kent, along with Superboy, Alexander Luthor Jr., and Superman, have been watching the events of the post-Crisis DC Universe from their pocket dimension.",
"Out of the four observers, she is the only one who still believes that the new universe is just going through a rough patch; Superboy-Prime and Alexander Luthor Jr. are convinced that Earth is utterly corrupt, and Kal-L is slowly becoming swayed to their way of thinking.",
"This version of Lois is frail, and dying for reasons not explicitly revealed, though possibly connected to her octogenarian status.",
"This was the main reason for Kal-L's determination to restore Earth-Two, as he believed that Lois' health would recover once back on her proper Earth.",
"Despite the restoration of Earth-Two, Lois Lane Kent died in the arms of her husband Superman regardless of Kal-L's protests that he could not let her die.",
"After Kal-L died at the hands of Superboy-Prime, he commented that he finally understood Lois' final words \"It's... not... going...\" as meaning that it would never end for them, and one day it would be understood that even the heroes who had been lost in the original Crisis were still out there somewhere.",
"After his demise, they are shown reunited in the stars, while their bodies are buried on Earth alongside Kon-El's, who gave his life to stop Superboy-Prime's attempts to restore his Earth.Lois later returns as a sinister Black Lantern with her husband in the ''Blackest Night'' crossover.",
"Her first task is to kidnap Martha Kent with her spouse and stating that she and Kal-L wish for Kal-El, Conner Kent, and Martha, to be reunited with Jonathan Kent in death.",
"She proved unable to deal with the resourcefulness of Martha Kent, and was set ablaze by the widow, but kept regenerating until Krypto intervened, ripping the black ring out of her hand and preventing regeneration for long enough to allow Superman and Conner Kent to destroy the Black Lantern powerhouses attacking Smallville, and reaching town to aid others unhindered.",
"Black Lantern Lois later appears to Power Girl, claiming that she has escaped the ring's corrupting influence, and needs her help.",
"This was just a ploy to get close enough to her husband's body, which was being held in the JSA headquarters after his black ring had been removed.",
"Black Lantern Lois \"sacrifices\" herself by removing her ring and giving it to Kal-L, restoring him to full undead status, and causing her own body to become inert."
],
[
"In other versions",
"During the years 1942–1985 Editora Brasil-América and Editora Abril which published the Brazilian versions of Superman comics, Lois Lane's name was translated to \"Miriam Lane\" and later to \"Miriam Lois Lane.\"",
"In Spanish speaking countries, her name was translated to \"Luisa Lane\" in comics, TV series and movies.===Elseworlds imprint===*''Superman: Speeding Bullets'', a 1993 Elseworlds story based on the concept of an amalgamation of Superman and Batman.",
"Martha and Thomas Wayne discovered Baby Kal-El, adopt and named him Bruce.",
"Bruce discovers his superpowers when his parents are killed and create the identity Batman to fight criminals in Gotham City.",
"Lois relocates to Gotham City after Lex Luthor buys the ''Daily Planet'', and soon forms a relationship with Bruce Wayne, the owner of her new job at the ''Gotham Gazette''.",
"She later convinces him to abandon the identity of Batman and adopt a more hopeful persona of Superman.",
"*''Superman: The Feral Man of Steel'', a 1994 Elseworlds special in ''Superman'' (vol.",
"2) Annual #6, based on The Jungle Book stories with elements from Tarzan.",
"Raised by wolves in 19th-century Indian Jungle and is given the name K'L'L.",
"Lois is an American girl who falls for K'L'L.",
"*In ''Superman: Kal'', Lady Loisse is the daughter of the late Lord Lane in the Middle Ages.",
"She is held captive by Baron Luthor, who hopes to make her his bride.",
"Lois falls for Kal, a blacksmith's apprentice after he wins a contest against Luthor's best fighters.",
"She accepts his request for her hand in marriage, as payment for him forging a suit of armour for Luthor from his rocket.",
"After their wedding, Loisse is taken from Kal by Luthor, who subsequently killed her.",
"*Lois is a teacher from the undercity in the 1996 series, ''Superman's Metropolis'', modelled on Fritz Lang's classic 1927 science-fiction film ''Metropolis''.",
"*''Superman: War of the Worlds'', a Superman story adapted into the H. G. Wells novel ''The War of the Worlds''.",
"Set in 1938, after applying for a job at the Daily Star, Clark and Lois witness the arrival of the Martian invasion of Earth.",
"Superman dies saving the Earth, and Lois marries Lex Luthor who becomes the Vice President.",
"* In the 1998 series, ''JLA: The Nail'', the Kents never found Clark, Lois is selected by Green Lantern to provide the Justice League with some positive media presentation after a recent propaganda campaign focuses on the idea that many modern metahumans are alien invaders.",
"Tracking recent kidnapped heroes to a secret base, Lois is introduced to the Kents, who provide a safe house for various heroes after Lana Lang smuggled them out of the facility, and later discovers that the true mastermind behind the conspiracy is Jimmy Olsen, mutated into a Kryptonian through genetic experiments carried out based on DNA samples found in Kal-El's crashed and abandoned ship.",
"Jimmy is finally defeated by Kal-El, who was here raised by an Amish couple until their deaths at Olsen's hands, with Lois writing about how Kal-El's time with the Kents helped him accept his abilities and grow into the Superman he should have been.",
"In the sequel, ''JLA: Another Nail'' Lois helps the Kents create Kal-El's 'Clark' disguise- albeit naming him 'Carl' on impulse- to give him a chance at a normal life outside of his role as Superman, reasoning that the simplicity of the glasses will stop people paying too much attention to him, while their original plan to completely cover him with a false beard would make people suspect that Kal-El had something to hide.",
"*John Byrne's ''Superman & Batman: Generations'' follow the life and families of Superman and Lois and their descendants over the course of three separate Elseworlds series.",
"*Published in 1999, ''The Superman Monster'' takes elements from Mary Shelley's novel ''Frankenstein'' where Superman is similar to the Frankenstein monster.",
"Set in Gotham City in 1888, Eloise Edge is the daughter of Burgomaster Edge and the fiancé of scientist Vicktor Luthor who creates the creature, Klaus, using Kryptonian technology.",
"Eloise develops an affection for Klaus, and after she is killed by a ricocheting bullet and revived in the same Matrix that created Klaus, she accompanies him to the Arctic to learn more about her new condition.",
"*In the series, ''Son of Superman'', fifteen years after the disappearance of Superman, Lois' teenage son Jon Kent begins to display superpowers and learns his father is Superman.",
"Jon joins the rebel organization to fight against the corrupt U.S.",
"government.",
"*In ''JLA: Created Equal'', all men on Earth except Superman and Lex Luthor are killed by a strange disease.",
"When Lois become pregnant, Superman is forced to leave Earth after Luthor reveals he is still a carrier for the disease.",
"Years later, Lois gives birth to her and Clark's son, Adam, who has various half-siblings conceived with the other females using sperm samples provided by Superman, but Adam accidentally kills his mother when he hugs her too hard.",
"*Lois is a captain in the military in series ''Superman: Last Son of Earth'' and ''Superman: Last Stand on Krypton''.",
"A reverse of the Superman origin with Kal-El being sent from Earth to Krypton, discovering the Green Lantern power ring, and journeys to Earth and help its people fight against the dictator Luthor.",
"*In ''Superman/Tarzan: Sons of the Jungle'', Kal-El, the last survivor of Krypton crash-lands in East Africa and is raised by apes to become the Lord of the Jungle; and meet the adventurer John Greystoke, Jane Clayton and her friend Metropolis reporter Lois Lane.",
"* In the 2003 Elseworlds series ''Superman: Red Son'', Superman's escape rocket did not land in Smallville, but in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.",
"Lois is married to Lex Luthor but still uses the surname Lane for her articles in the ''Daily Planet''.",
"Superman saves her life, and the two have an instant attraction with each other and Lois has feelings for him through the rest of the story.",
"After the fall of Superman's Greater Soviet Union and presumed death, he attends his \"funeral\" wearing a suit and glasses.",
"Superman's secret identity as Clark Kent does not exist on this alternate Earth.",
"*''Superman: True Brit'', the 2004 series re-imagines the origin of Superman, where his spaceship crashed in Weston-super-Mare in England instead of the town of Smallville in America.",
"A humorous look at Superman and the British tabloid press, it features Louisa Layne-Ferret, a hard-edged reporter.",
"Lois herself briefly appears to offer an American perspective on Superman and invites Colin Clark to visit America.===''Flashpoint''===In the alternate timeline of the ''Flashpoint'' event, a young Lois Lane sneaks into the facility where her father Sam Lane is stationed to bring him a birthday cake.",
"During a breakout, Lois briefly encounters Kal-El and Neil Sinclair.",
"Sinclair attempts to pursue revenge against her father for the experiments that were performed on him.",
"Sam traps Sinclair and himself in the Phantom Zone.Years later, Lois is reporting on a fashion show in Montmartre when the Atlanteans flooded Europe.",
"She is saved by the Amazons who take her to \"New Themiscyra\" (the United Kingdom).",
"Once there, she learns that Jimmy Olsen, who dies in the flood while trying to save an old man, was an agent of Cyborg.",
"Lois agrees to spy on the Amazons for Cyborg.",
"When the time comes for her to undergo a near-fatal \"conversion\" into the Amazonian ranks, she escapes, aided by Penny Black, who is wounded by Artemis in the process.During this time, Lois walks through the remains of the London Underground and encounters Grifter and the Resistance.",
"Lois soon joins the Resistance.",
"After meeting up with the recovering Penny, she uses Cyborg's device to locate her missing armor at Westminster.",
"Lois later broadcasts a message to the world that the Amazons have imprisoned people in internment.",
"The Amazons in Westminster attempt to kill her.",
"Lois is then rescued by Kal-El (who comes to protect her from Sinclair who has returned).",
"During the fight, Kal-El manages to destroy Sinclair, but Lois is caught in the blast.",
"Before Lois dies in the arms of Kal-El, she tells him to save the people.===''Injustice: Gods Among Us''===In the digital prequel comic to the video game ''Injustice: Gods Among Us'', Lois is married to Superman and is pregnant with their child.",
"While on a story at the docks with Jimmy Olsen, she is kidnapped by The Joker and Harley Quinn and taken to a submarine where they perform surgery on her.",
"When the Joker is captured by the Justice League, he informs them he has planted a nuclear bomb in Metropolis and wired the detonator to Lois's heart, set to go off when she dies.",
"While under the influence of Scarecrow's kryptonite-laced fear gas, Superman mistakes Lois for Doomsday and, in an attempt to protect his family, unknowingly flies up into space with her, killing both Lois and their unborn child in the process.",
"When she dies, a nuclear bomb obliterates Metropolis.",
"Superman, devastated by the death of Lois and their unborn child as well as his inadvertent role in destroying Metropolis, kills the Joker and begins his campaign for world domination.",
"Her death serves as the catalyst for Superman's new outlook, as he becomes more willing to kill to protect the world.In Year Three of the series, Superman was put in a magic comatose sleep, where events played out differently in his dream scenario.",
"In this dream world, Superman imagines he had broken free of the fear gas in time to save Lois and their unborn child.",
"Batman had killed Joker to prevent the possibility of another attack on Superman and his family.",
"Lois eventually gave birth to their daughter Lara Lane-Kent.",
"Superman and Lois live a happy and normal life, raising their daughter Lara, who eventually develops superpowers and with her father's guidance becomes a superhero of her own.",
"Superman is eventually awakened from his slumber by Ares and is left feeling angrier and more bitter after realizing and living the life he could have had with Lois and their child.",
"In Year Five, in an alternate world, Lois and Clark are shown happily visiting Clark's parents, telling them that she is pregnant.===''DC Comics Bombshells''===''DC Comics Bombshells'', a comic book series set in an alternate history of World War II, Eloisa \"Lois\" Lane is a mixed-race 17-year-old newspaper hawker from Metropolis' Cuban district.",
"When criminals working for Killer Frost kidnaps her, she is rescued by the Batgirls (a group of female vigilantes) and partners with them to defeat Hugo Strange, the man who crippled her mother.",
"Later in the series, she gets a job working at the ''Gotham Gazette'' for Vicki Vale and eventually begins dating Supergirl.===''Nightwing: The New Order''===In an alternate reality, Nightwing activates a device ending an ongoing war between the super-powered beings and depowers ninety percent of the superhero population and leads to a future where superpower is outlawed.",
"Lois is a Blue Lantern and a member of the Titans, who form a resistance against the anti-metahuman government.===''Superman: Secret Identity''===Published in 2004, ''Superman: Secret Identity'' is a four-issue miniseries written by Kurt Busiek and art by Stuart Immonen.",
"Set in the real world where superheroes only exist in comic books.",
"Clark Kent, living in a small town in Kansas, discovers that he has the same powers as Superman, the fictional superhero he was named after.",
"Years later, Clark moves to New York, working as a writer and secretly saving people with his abilities.",
"He meets Lois Chaudhari, an Indian American designer on a blind date (set up by friends because their names resemble the fictional couple Clark Kent and Lois Lane).",
"The two quickly fall in love, got married and had twin daughters Jane and Carol Kent, who also inherit their father's powers.===''Gotham City Garage''===''Gotham City Garage'', a digital-first comic book series written by Collin Kelly and Jackson Lanzing, reimagines DC superheroes and villains as bikers in a post-apocalyptic world.",
"Governor Lex Luthor controls the modern utopia Gotham City and the rest of the continent is a wasteland.",
"Lois Lane runs a rebel news radio station \"The Frequency\".",
"When Barda ask for help, Lois and Jimmy Olsen join her in the resistance.===Tales from the Dark Multiverse===''Tales from the Dark Multiverse: Death of Superman'', an anthology series that explores alternate takes on classic DC stories set in a different world in the Dark Multiverse.",
"After Superman is killed by Doomsday, filled with anger and grief, Lois merges with the Eradicator and gains Kryptonian powers so she can take revenge on the corrupt world and those who let Superman die.===Marvel Comics cameos===Lois Lane has had several (mostly cameo) appearances alongside Clark Kent in past works of Marvel Comics, namely in ''X-Men'' #98, ''Superman vs.",
"The Amazing Spider-Man'' (1976), ''The Mighty Thor'' #341 (1984), ''Excalibur'' #8, ''Ghost Rider'' (vol.",
"3) #66 (1995), and ''Marvels Epilogue'' (September 2019)."
],
[
"Newspaper comic strip",
"''Lois Lane, Girl Reporter'' is a newspaper comic strip featuring Lois Lane, a spin-off from the Superman comic strip and topper to the Superman Sunday strip in the ''Cleveland Plain Dealer''.",
"Twelve comic strips were produced and originally ran between October 24, 1943, to February 27, 1944.Lois also appears in the ''Superman'' daily newspaper comic strip, distributed by McClure Syndicate which ran continuously from January 1939 to May 1966 with a separate Sunday strip added on November 5, 1939."
],
[
"Books",
"===Comic books===Lois has appeared in several self-titled miniseries, one-shots and collected editions:*''Lois Lane'' – a two issue limited series published in August and September 1986.",
"*''Superman: Lois Lane'' – a one-shot published in June 1998 as part of the \"Girlfrenzy!\"",
"Fifth-week event.",
"*''Flashpoint: Lois Lane and the Resistance'' – a three-issue limited series published August 2011-October 2011 as part of the ''Flashpoint'' crossover.",
"*''DC Archive Editions: Superman's Girlfriend Lois Lane Archives Vol.",
"1'' – a collection of Silver Age Lois Lane stories.",
"Showcase #9-10 and ''Superman's Girlfriend, Lois Lane'' #1-8.Published in January 2012.",
"*''Lois Lane: A Celebration of 75 Years'' – special anniversary anthology celebrating Lois Lane's 75 years in comics.",
"Collects material from Action Comics #1-2, 6, 484, 600, 662, Adventures of Superman #631, All Star Superman #2-3, Man of Steel #2, Showcase #9, Superman #29, 33–34, 58, 168, Superman 80-page giant #1, Superman's Girlfriend, Lois Lane #1, 5, 16, 23, 42, 106, and Wonder Woman #170.Published in November 2013, the collection compiles stories from Golden Age to Silver Age and modern adventures.",
"*''Superman: Lois Lane'' #1 – a one-shot published in April 2014.",
"*''Superman: Lois and Clark'' – an eight-issue limited series, collects #1-8 published in August 2016.",
"* ''Lois Lane'' – a 12-issue limited series by writer Greg Rucka and artist Mike Perkins released in July 2019 to July 2020.===Graphic novels=======''Lois Lane and the Friendship Challenge''====A graphic novel by writer Grace Ellis and artist Brittney Williams, and focus on a 13-year-old Lois Lane as she navigates the confusing worlds of social media and friendship during summer break in the sleepy town of Liberty View.",
"Released in August 2020, it is part of DC's original graphic novels for young readers.====''Girl Taking Over: A Lois Lane Story''====DC graphic novels for young adults, ''Girl Taking Over: A Lois Lane Story'', written by Sarah Kuhn and art by Arielle Jovellanos was released in April 2023.===Novels=======''Lois Lane''====Lois is the protagonist in the young adult novel series, ''Lois Lane'', written by Gwenda Bond and published by Switch Press.",
"The series follows the adventures of Lois Lane as a savvy, whip-smart, and unafraid contemporary teenage high school girl.",
"The first book in the series, ''Fallout'', was revealed by the author in 2014 and was released on May 1, 2015.Bond revealed the second book, ''Double Down'', in July 2015, and the book was released on May 1, 2016.On the series, Bond said: \"Lois is an icon, of course, a superhero without any superpowers ... except her unmatched bravery and smarts.",
"Not to mention her sense of humor and her commitment to truth and justice.",
"She's also one of my all-time favorite characters—which is why I jumped at the chance to write a novel featuring a teen Lois, moving to Metropolis and becoming a reporter for the first time.",
"And, most of all, to get to put Lois front and center in the starring role, obviously.",
"\"*''Fallout'' – first novel in the ''Lois Lane'' series by Gwenda Bond.",
"The novel features a teenage Lois Lane, an Army brat, who has lived all over the world.",
"Lois is starting a new life in Metropolis with her family.",
"While attending a new high school, she tries to solve a mystery as a group known as the Warheads begins to tamper with people's minds via a high-tech immersive video game.",
"Two prequel short stories: ''Lois Lane: A Real Work of Art'' and ''Lois Lane: Cloudy With a Chance of Destruction'' was also published by Switch Press.",
"''Fallout'' received positive reviews and was named by Kirkus Reviews one of the \"Best Teen Books of 2015\" in the science fiction and fantasy category.",
"*''Double Down'' – second ''Lois Lane'' novel by Gwenda Bond and published by Switch Press in May 2016.The book also received positive reviews.",
"''Double Down'' continues to follow teenage Lois Lane as she settled into her new life in Metropolis, and has a job that challenges her.",
"Lois finds herself embroiled in a dangerous mystery that brings her closer to the dirty underbelly of Metropolis.",
"*''Triple Threat'' – Switch Press announced a third Lois Lane novel, ''Triple Threat'', in August 2016.The book was released in May 2017.====''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman''====Based on the ABC television series ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'' four original novels were published in 1996:* ''Heat Wave'' – written by author Michael Jan Friedman and published by HarperCollins.",
"* ''Exile'' – by Michael Jan Friedman* ''Deadly Games'' – by Michael Jan Friedman*''Lois & Clark: A Superman Novel'' – a full-length Lois and Clark novel by author C. J. Cherryh and published by Prima Lifestyles.===Non-fiction===* ''Examining Lois Lane: The Scoop on Superman's Sweetheart'' – an anthology exploring Lois Lane's many incarnations and multiple adaptations from comic book to various films and television series.",
"Analyzing the character in various media through the perspectives of feminism, gender studies, and cultural studies.",
"* ''Investigating Lois Lane: The Turbulent History of the Daily Planet's Ace Reporter'' – an in-depth look at the character and her history in different media by comic book historian Tim Hanley."
],
[
"In other media",
"Since her debut in the comic books in 1938, Lois has appeared in various media adaptations including radio, animations, films, television, video games and Broadway musical.",
"Actresses who have portrayed Lois Lane include Noel Neill, Phyllis Coates, Margot Kidder, Teri Hatcher, Erica Durance, Kate Bosworth, Amy Adams, and Elizabeth Tulloch, and voiced by actresses such as Joan Alexander, Dana Delany, Alice Lee and numerous others."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"*The American sitcom ''Seinfeld'' made numerous references to Lois Lane over its nine-year run:**In the episode \"The Outing\", Jerry tells a female reporter for a college newspaper \"I was attracted to you, too.",
"You remind me of Lois Lane\".",
"**In the episode \"The Marine Biologist\", when Elaine accuses Jerry of helping a strange woman just so he can take her out on a date, Jerry replies that Superman is never suspected of such intentions when saving a woman's life, prompting Elaine to comment \"Well, you're no Superman\", to which Jerry responds, \"Well, you're no Lois Lane\".",
"**The episode \"The Mom & Pop Store\" has Elaine tell Jerry she's been doing some snooping for him.",
"\"Ah!",
"What'd you find out, Lois?\"",
"he replies.",
"**In the episode \"The Race,\" Jerry dates a woman named \"Lois\" and enjoys frequently using her first name and slyly making Superman-related references in her presence.",
"**In the episode \"The Face Painter\".",
"George discovers that a woman he is dating is deaf in one ear and therefore might not have heard him tell her he loves her.",
"\"Don't you see what this means?\"",
"he says.",
"\"It's like the whole thing never happened.",
"It's like when Superman reversed the rotation of the Earth to save Lois Lane!\".",
"**The episode \"The Cartoon\" has Jerry make fun of Elaine's drawings, leading her to reply: \"It's better than your drawings of naked Lois Lane\".",
"*The Spin Doctors' 1991 album, ''Pocket Full of Kryptonite'', takes its title as a reference to the album's first song, \"Jimmy Olsen's Blues\".",
"The song is sung from the point of view of ''Daily Planet'' photojournalist Jimmy Olsen, who's in love with Lois Lane and jealous of Superman because of it.",
"*In the movie, ''A Time to Kill'' (1996) Jake Brigance consults with Ellen Roark about the case and the judge is clearly annoyed and says \"If Lois Lane will let us continue\".",
"*In the movie, ''One Fine Day'' (1996) the editor of the newspaper reporter Jack Taylor (George Clooney) has a cat named after Lois Lane.",
"*In the song \"Superman\" by the band Peggy Sue, Lois Lane is mentioned in the line: \"I'm in love with Lois Lane, but she doesn't even know my real name\".",
"*In the song \"Rapper's Delight\" by The Sugarhill Gang, she is mentioned in the line: \"I said, \"By the way, baby, what's your name?\"",
"She said, \"I go by the name of Lois Lane\".",
"According to the song, the rapper Big Bank Hank tells Lois Lane why he would make a better boyfriend than Superman.",
"*The 1967 show ''Underdog'' is a parody of Superman and its star reporter Sweet Polly Purebred is based on Lois Lane.",
"*Keone Madrid directed and choreography a dance video titled \"Lois Lane\" and features a poem by Rudy Francisco \"I'm a Superman, thanks to Lois Lane\" which includes the line, \"Superman...",
"The Man of steel, big Blue, the last son of Krypton, he is faster than a speeding bullet, stronger than a locomotive, he has Lasers for eyes, X-ray vision and can fly without even flapping his arms, but his most notable power... was Lois Lane, the love of an amazing woman is a phone booth, that can turn a man from a spineless news reporter into a symbol of justice, into the reason why it's safe to walk outside while the sun is sleeping.",
"\"* The That's Entertainment comic shop successfully petitioned the Worcester, Massachusetts City Council to change the name of the private street running alongside the store to \"Lois Lane\".",
"On December 28, 2012, the new sign was installed.",
"A celebration at the store followed on December 30, 2012, featuring an unveiling, free sketches of Lois by Paul Ryan, and a Lois Lane lookalike contest.",
"*\"To Lois\" a poem by Shane Koyczan is a love letter from Superman to Lois Lane, written from Clark's perspective.",
"*In the movie, ''Mermaids'' (1990) Kate Flax (Christina Ricci) asks her sister Charlotte (Winona Ryder) if her boyfriend has ever kissed her like Superman kisses Lois Lane.",
"*\"From the Backbeat\" by Lucy Hale includes the line \"And my dad was a Superman stick shift driver, stay at home Lois Lane beside him.",
"\"*\"Superhero\" by 5 Seconds of Summer includes the line \"She met him on the staircase, like Kent and Lois Lane.",
"\"*In the Mexican comedy TV series ''El Chapulín Colorado'', a parody of superhero shows, Captain Hopper says his mother is Lois Lane.",
"*\"Waiting for Superman\" by Daughtry includes the line \"She's just watching the clouds roll by and they spell her name like Lois Lane.",
"\"*\"Lois Lane\" a song by pop artist Noelle Bean, includes the line \"I'm so happy, and now we're flying, like Superman and Lois Lane.",
"\"*\"Lois Lane\" a song by British indie rock band Farrah from the album ''Moustache'' includes the line \"If you'll be my Lois Lane, I'll be your superman.",
"\"*Mandy Moore portrayed Lois Lane in the 2012 YouTube parody short film ''The Death and Return of Superman'', directed and narrated by Max Landis.",
"*In the movie ''It'' (2017), Mr. Keenes compares Beverly Marsh to Lois Lane when she tries his glasses after she tells him he looks like Clark Kent.",
"*Lois Lane is also the title of an important character in the musical ''Kiss Me, Kate''."
],
[
"See also",
"* The Dutch girl group Loïs Lane* Biblical/Greek origin of name Lois* Superman and Lois Lane"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Lois Lane at DC Database* Lois Lane at Smallville Wiki"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Linker (computing)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"static libraries are assembled into a new library or executableIn computing, a '''linker''' or '''link editor''' is a computer system program that takes one or more object files (generated by a compiler or an assembler) and combines them into a single executable file, library file, or another \"object\" file.A simpler version that writes its output directly to memory is called the ''loader'', though loading is typically considered a separate process."
],
[
"Overview",
"Computer programs typically are composed of several parts or modules; these parts/modules do not need to be contained within a single object file, and in such cases refer to each other by means of symbols as addresses into other modules, which are mapped into memory addresses when linked for execution.While the process of linking is meant to ultimately combine these independent parts, there are many good reasons to develop those separately at the source-level.",
"Among these reasons are the ease of organizing several smaller pieces over a monolithic whole and the ability to better define the purpose and responsibilities of each individual piece, which is essential for managing complexity and increasing long-term maintainability in software architecture.",
"Typically, an object file can contain three kinds of symbols:* defined \"external\" symbols, sometimes called \"public\" or \"entry\" symbols, which allow it to be called by other modules,* undefined \"external\" symbols, which reference other modules where these symbols are defined, and* local symbols, used internally within the object file to facilitate relocation.For most compilers, each object file is the result of compiling one input source code file.",
"When a program comprises multiple object files, the linker combines these files into a unified executable program, resolving the symbols as it goes along.Linkers can take objects from a collection called a library or runtime library.",
"Most linkers do not include all the object files in a static library in the output executable; they include only those object files from the library that are referenced by other object files or libraries directly or indirectly.",
"But for a shared library, the entire library has to be loaded during runtime as it is not known which functions or methods will be called during runtime.",
"Library linking may thus be an iterative process, with some referenced modules requiring additional modules to be linked, and so on.",
"Libraries exist for diverse purposes, and one or more system libraries are usually linked in by default.The linker also takes care of arranging the objects in a program's address space.",
"This may involve ''relocating'' code that assumes a specific base address into another base.",
"Since a compiler seldom knows where an object will reside, it often assumes a fixed base location (for example, zero).",
"Relocating machine code may involve re-targeting of absolute jumps, loads and stores.The executable output by the linker may need another relocation pass when it is finally loaded into memory (just before execution).",
"This pass is usually omitted on hardware offering virtual memory: every program is put into its own address space, so there is no conflict even if all programs load at the same base address.",
"This pass may also be omitted if the executable is a position independent executable.On some Unix variants, such as SINTRAN III, the process performed by a linker (assembling object files into a program) was called ''loading'' (as in loading executable code onto a file).",
"Additionally, in some operating systems, the same program handles both the jobs of linking and loading a program (dynamic linking)."
],
[
"Dynamic linking",
"Many operating system environments allow dynamic linking, deferring the resolution of some undefined symbols until a program is run.",
"That means that the executable code still contains undefined symbols, plus a list of objects or libraries that will provide definitions for these.",
"Loading the program will load these objects/libraries as well, and perform a final linking.This approach offers two advantages:* Often-used libraries (for example the standard system libraries) need to be stored in only one location, not duplicated in every single executable file, thus saving limited memory and disk space.",
"* If a bug in a library function is corrected by replacing the library or performance is improved, all programs using it dynamically will benefit from the correction after restarting them.",
"Programs that included this function by static linking would have to be re-linked first.There are also disadvantages:* Known on the Windows platform as \"DLL hell\", an incompatible updated library will break executables that depended on the behavior of the previous version of the library if the newer version is not correctly backward compatible.",
"* A program, together with the libraries it uses, might be certified (e.g.",
"as to correctness, documentation requirements, or performance) as a package, but not if components can be replaced (this also argues against automatic OS updates in critical systems; in both cases, the OS and libraries form part of a ''qualified'' environment).Contained or virtual environments may further allow system administrators to mitigate or trade-off these individual pros and cons."
],
[
"Static linking",
"Static linking is the result of the linker copying all library routines used in the program into the executable image.",
"This may require more disk space and memory than dynamic linking, but is more portable, since it does not require the presence of the library on the system where it runs.",
"Static linking also prevents \"DLL hell\", since each program includes exactly the versions of library routines that it requires, with no conflict with other programs.",
"A program using just a few routines from a library does not require the entire library to be installed."
],
[
"{{Anchor|Relaxation|Jump-sizing}}Relocation",
"As the compiler has no information on the layout of objects in the final output, it cannot take advantage of shorter or more efficient instructions that place a requirement on the address of another object.",
"For example, a jump instruction can reference an absolute address or an offset from the current location, and the offset could be expressed with different lengths depending on the distance to the target.",
"By first generating the most conservative instruction (usually the largest relative or absolute variant, depending on platform) and adding ''relaxation hints'', it is possible to substitute shorter or more efficient instructions during the final link.",
"In regard to jump optimizations this is also called ''automatic jump-sizing''.",
"This step can be performed only after all input objects have been read and assigned temporary addresses; the '''linker relaxation''' pass subsequently reassigns addresses, which may in turn allow more potential relaxations to occur.",
"In general, the substituted sequences are shorter, which allows this process to always converge on the best solution given a fixed order of objects; if this is not the case, relaxations can conflict, and the linker needs to weigh the advantages of either option.While instruction relaxation typically occurs at link-time, inner-module relaxation can already take place as part of the optimizing process at compile-time.",
"In some cases, relaxation can also occur at load-time as part of the relocation process or combined with dynamic dead-code elimination techniques."
],
[
"{{anchor|Consolidator}}Linkage editor",
"In IBM System/360 mainframe environments such as OS/360, including z/OS for the z/Architecture mainframes, this type of program is known as a ''linkage editor''.",
"As the name implies a linkage ''editor'' has the additional capability of allowing the addition, replacement, and/or deletion of individual program sections.",
"Operating systems such as OS/360 have format for executable load-modules containing supplementary data about the component sections of a program, so that an individual program section can be replaced, and other parts of the program updated so that relocatable addresses and other references can be corrected by the linkage editor, as part of the process.One advantage of this is that it allows a program to be maintained without having to keep all of the intermediate object files, or without having to re-compile program sections that haven't changed.",
"It also permits program updates to be distributed in the form of small files (originally card decks), containing only the object module to be replaced.",
"In such systems, object code is in the form and format of 80-byte punched-card images, so that updates can be introduced into a system using that medium.",
"In later releases of OS/360 and in subsequent systems, load-modules contain additional data about versions of components modules, to create a traceable record of updates.",
"It also allows one to add, change, or remove an overlay structure from an already linked load module.The term \"linkage editor\" should not be construed as implying that the program operates in a user-interactive mode like a text editor.",
"It is intended for batch-mode execution, with the editing commands being supplied by the user in sequentially organized files, such as punched cards, DASD, or magnetic tape.",
"''Linkage editing'' (IBM nomenclature) or ''consolidation'' or ''collection'' (ICL nomenclature) refers to the ''linkage editor's'' or ''consolidator's'' act of combining the various pieces into a relocatable binary, whereas the loading and relocation into an absolute binary at the target address is normally considered a separate step."
],
[
"Linker Control Scripts",
"In the beginning linkers gave users very limited control over the arrangement of generated output object files.",
"As the target systems became complex with different memory requirements such as embedded systems, it became necessary to give users control to generate output object files with their specific requirements such as defining base addresses' of segments.",
"Linkers control scripts were used for this."
],
[
"Common implementations",
"On Unix and Unix-like systems, the linker is known as \"ld\".",
"Origins of the name \"ld\" are \"LoaDer\" and \"Link eDitor\".",
"The term \"loader\" was used to describe the process of loading external symbols from other programs during the process of linking.=== GNU linker ===The GNU linker (or GNU ld) is the GNU Project's free software implementation of the Unix command ld.",
"GNU ld runs the linker, which creates an executable file (or a library) from object files created during compilation of a software project.",
"A ''linker script'' may be passed to GNU ld to exercise greater control over the linking process.",
"The GNU linker is part of the GNU Binary Utilities (binutils).",
"Two versions of ld are provided in binutils: the traditional GNU ld based on bfd, and a \"streamlined\" ELF-only version called gold.The command-line and linker script syntaxes of GNU ld is the ''de facto'' standard in much of the Unix-like world.",
"The LLVM project's linker, '''', is designed to be drop-in compatible, and may be used directly with the GNU compiler.",
"Another drop-in replacement, mold, is a highly parallelized and faster alternative which is also supported by GNU tools."
],
[
"See also",
"* Binary File Descriptor library (libbfd)* Compile and go system* DLL hell* Direct binding* Dynamic binding* Dynamic dead code elimination* Dynamic dispatch* Dynamic library* Dynamic linker* Dynamic loading* Dynamic-link library* External variable* Library* Loader* Name decoration* Prelinking (prebinding)* Relocation* Smart linking* Static library* Gold (linker)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * Code: Errata: * (19 pages)*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Ian Lance Justin's ''Linkers'' blog entries* Linkers and Loaders, a Linux Journal article by Sandeep Grover* Another Listing of Where to Get a Complete Collection of Free Tools for Assembly Language Development* GNU linker manual* LLD - The LLVM Linker*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Legendre symbol"
],
[
"Introduction",
"+ Legendre symbol ()for various ''a'' (along top) and ''p'' (along left side).",
"0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 0 1 −1 5 0 1 −1 −1 1 7 0 1 1 −1 1 −1 −1 11 0 1 −1 1 1 1 −1 −1 −1 1 −1Only 0 ≤ ''a'' < ''p'' are shown, since due to the first property below any other ''a'' can be reduced modulo ''p''.",
"Quadratic residues are highlighted in yellow, and correspond precisely to the values 0 and 1.In number theory, the '''Legendre symbol''' is a multiplicative function with values 1, −1, 0 that is a quadratic character modulo of an odd prime number ''p'': its value at a (nonzero) quadratic residue mod ''p'' is 1 and at a non-quadratic residue (''non-residue'') is −1.Its value at zero is 0.The Legendre symbol was introduced by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1798 in the course of his attempts at proving the law of quadratic reciprocity.",
"Generalizations of the symbol include the Jacobi symbol and Dirichlet characters of higher order.",
"The notational convenience of the Legendre symbol inspired introduction of several other \"symbols\" used in algebraic number theory, such as the Hilbert symbol and the Artin symbol."
],
[
"Definition",
"Let be an odd prime number.",
"An integer is a quadratic residue modulo if it is congruent to a perfect square modulo and is a quadratic nonresidue modulo otherwise.",
"The '''Legendre symbol''' is a function of and defined as:Legendre's original definition was by means of the explicit formula:By Euler's criterion, which had been discovered earlier and was known to Legendre, these two definitions are equivalent.",
"Thus Legendre's contribution lay in introducing a convenient ''notation'' that recorded quadratic residuosity of ''a'' mod ''p''.",
"For the sake of comparison, Gauss used the notation ''a''R''p'', ''a''N''p'' according to whether ''a'' is a residue or a non-residue modulo ''p''.",
"For typographical convenience, the Legendre symbol is sometimes written as (''a'' | ''p'') or (''a''/''p'').",
"For fixed ''p'', the sequence is periodic with period ''p'' and is sometimes called the '''Legendre sequence'''.",
"Each row in the following table exhibits periodicity, just as described."
],
[
"Table of values",
"The following is a table of values of Legendre symbol with ''p'' ≤ 127, ''a'' ≤ 30, ''p'' odd prime.12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728293031−101−101−101−101−101−101−101−101−101−1051−1−1101−1−1101−1−1101−1−1101−1−1101−1−110711−11−1−1011−11−1−1011−11−1−1011−11−1−1011111−1111−1−1−11−101−1111−1−1−11−101−1111−1−1−1131−111−1−1−1−111−1101−111−1−1−1−111−1101−1111711−11−1−1−111−1−1−11−111011−11−1−1−111−1−1−11191−1−11111−11−11−1−1−1−111−101−1−11111−11−11231111−11−111−1−111−1−11−11−1−1−1−101111−11−1291−1−11111−11−1−1−11−1−11−1−1−11−11111−1−11013111−111−11111−1−1−11−11−1111−1−1−1−11−1−11−1−1371−111−1−11−11111−1−1−11−1−1−1−11−1−1−11111−114111−111−1−1111−1−1−1−1−11−11−111−11−11−1−1−1−1−1431−1−11−11−1−1111−111111−1−1−11−1111−1−1−1−1−1471111−11111−1−11−11−1111−1−11−1−111−111−1−1531−1−11−111−1111−11−1111−1−1−1−1−1−111−1−111−1591−1111−11−11−1−11−1−1111−11111−1−111111−1611−1111−1−1−11−1−111111−1−111−11−1−11−11−1−1−1671−1−11−11−1−111−1−1−11111−11−1111111−1−11−171111111−1111−11−1−111−1111−1−1−111−11−111731111−11−111−1−11−1−1−11−111−1−1−1111−11−1−1−17911−111−1−11111−11−1−11−1111111−111−1−1−1−1831−111−1−11−11111−1−1−111−1−1−11−11−11111118911−111−1−11111−1−1−1−1111−1111−1−11−1−1−1−1−1971111−11−111−111−1−1−11−11−1−1−11−111−11−1−1−11011−1−1111−1−11−1−1−111−111−11111111−1−1−1−1110311−11−1−1111−1−1−11111111−1−1−11−111−11111071−111−1−1−1−1111111−11−1−11−1−1−11−11−11−1111091−1111−11−11−1−11−1−111−1−1−1111−1−111111−111311−11−1−1111−11−11111−11−1−1−11−1−111−11−1112711−11−1−1−111−11−11−111111−111−1−111−1−1−11"
],
[
"Properties of the Legendre symbol",
"There are a number of useful properties of the Legendre symbol which, together with the law of quadratic reciprocity, can be used to compute it efficiently.",
"* Given a generator , if , then is a quadratic residue if and only if is even.",
"This shows that half of the elements in are quadratic residues.",
"* If then the fact that *: gives us that is the square root of the quadratic residue .",
"* The Legendre symbol is periodic in its first (or top) argument: if ''a'' ≡ ''b'' (mod ''p''), then *:* The Legendre symbol is a completely multiplicative function of its top argument:*: * In particular, the product of two numbers that are both quadratic residues or quadratic non-residues modulo ''p'' is a residue, whereas the product of a residue with a non-residue is a non-residue.",
"A special case is the Legendre symbol of a square:*:* When viewed as a function of ''a'', the Legendre symbol is the unique quadratic (or order 2) Dirichlet character modulo ''p''.",
"* The first supplement to the law of quadratic reciprocity:*:* The second supplement to the law of quadratic reciprocity:*:* Special formulas for the Legendre symbol for small values of ''a'':** For an odd prime ''p'' ≠ 3, **:** For an odd prime ''p'' ≠ 5, **:* The Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, ... are defined by the recurrence If ''p'' is a prime number then*: :For example, :: * This result comes from the theory of Lucas sequences, which are used in primality testing.",
"See Wall–Sun–Sun prime."
],
[
"Legendre symbol and quadratic reciprocity",
"Let ''p'' and ''q'' be distinct odd primes.",
"Using the Legendre symbol, the quadratic reciprocity law can be stated concisely:: Many proofs of quadratic reciprocity are based on Euler's criterion:In addition, several alternative expressions for the Legendre symbol were devised in order to produce various proofs of the quadratic reciprocity law.",
"* Gauss introduced the quadratic Gauss sum and used the formula:::in his fourth and sixth proofs of quadratic reciprocity.",
"* Kronecker's proof first establishes that::: Reversing the roles of ''p'' and ''q'', he obtains the relation between () and ().",
"* One of Eisenstein's proofs begins by showing that::: Using certain elliptic functions instead of the sine function, Eisenstein was able to prove cubic and quartic reciprocity as well."
],
[
"Related functions",
"* The Jacobi symbol () is a generalization of the Legendre symbol that allows for a composite second (bottom) argument ''n'', although ''n'' must still be odd and positive.",
"This generalization provides an efficient way to compute all Legendre symbols without performing factorization along the way.",
"* A further extension is the Kronecker symbol, in which the bottom argument may be any integer.",
"* The power residue symbol () generalizes the Legendre symbol to higher power ''n''.",
"The Legendre symbol represents the power residue symbol for ''n'' = 2."
],
[
"Computational example",
"The above properties, including the law of quadratic reciprocity, can be used to evaluate any Legendre symbol.",
"For example::Or using a more efficient computation::The article Jacobi symbol has more examples of Legendre symbol manipulation.Since no efficient factorization algorithm is known, but efficient modular exponentiation algorithms are, in general it is more efficient to use Legendre's original definition, e.g.",
":using repeated squaring modulo 331, reducing every value using the modulus after every operation to avoid computation with large integers."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Jacobi symbol calculator"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"List of algorithms"
],
[
"Introduction"
],
[
"Broad definition of the term algorithm",
"An algorithm is fundamentally a set of rules or defined procedures that is typically designed and used to solve a specific problem or a broad set of problems.",
"Broadly, algorithms define process(es), sets of rules, or methodologies that are to be followed in calculations, data processing, data mining, pattern recognition, automated reasoning or other problem-solving operations.",
"With the increasing automation of services, more and more decisions are being made by algorithms.",
"Some general examples are; risk assessments, anticipatory policing, and pattern recognition technology.The following is a '''list of well-known algorithms''' along with one-line descriptions for each."
],
[
"Automated planning"
],
[
"Combinatorial algorithms",
"===General combinatorial algorithms===* Brent's algorithm: finds a cycle in function value iterations using only two iterators* Floyd's cycle-finding algorithm: finds a cycle in function value iterations* Gale–Shapley algorithm: solves the stable marriage problem* Pseudorandom number generators (uniformly distributed—see also List of pseudorandom number generators for other PRNGs with varying degrees of convergence and varying statistical quality):** ACORN generator** Blum Blum Shub** Lagged Fibonacci generator** Linear congruential generator** Mersenne Twister===Graph algorithms===* Coloring algorithm: Graph coloring algorithm.",
"* Hopcroft–Karp algorithm: convert a bipartite graph to a maximum cardinality matching* Hungarian algorithm: algorithm for finding a perfect matching* Prüfer coding: conversion between a labeled tree and its Prüfer sequence* Tarjan's off-line lowest common ancestors algorithm: computes lowest common ancestors for pairs of nodes in a tree* Topological sort: finds linear order of nodes (e.g.",
"jobs) based on their dependencies.====Graph drawing====* Force-based algorithms (also known as force-directed algorithms or spring-based algorithm)* Spectral layout====Network theory====* Network analysis** Link analysis*** Girvan–Newman algorithm: detect communities in complex systems*** Web link analysis**** Hyperlink-Induced Topic Search (HITS) (also known as Hubs and authorities)**** PageRank**** TrustRank* Flow networks** Dinic's algorithm: is a strongly polynomial algorithm for computing the maximum flow in a flow network.",
"** Edmonds–Karp algorithm: implementation of Ford–Fulkerson** Ford–Fulkerson algorithm: computes the maximum flow in a graph** Karger's algorithm: a Monte Carlo method to compute the minimum cut of a connected graph** Push–relabel algorithm: computes a maximum flow in a graph====Routing for graphs====* Edmonds' algorithm (also known as Chu–Liu/Edmonds' algorithm): find maximum or minimum branchings* Euclidean minimum spanning tree: algorithms for computing the minimum spanning tree of a set of points in the plane* Longest path problem: find a simple path of maximum length in a given graph* Minimum spanning tree** Borůvka's algorithm** Kruskal's algorithm** Prim's algorithm** Reverse-delete algorithm* Nonblocking minimal spanning switch say, for a telephone exchange* Shortest path problem** Bellman–Ford algorithm: computes shortest paths in a weighted graph (where some of the edge weights may be negative)** Dijkstra's algorithm: computes shortest paths in a graph with non-negative edge weights** Floyd–Warshall algorithm: solves the all pairs shortest path problem in a weighted, directed graph** Johnson's algorithm: all pairs shortest path algorithm in sparse weighted directed graph* Transitive closure problem: find the transitive closure of a given binary relation* Traveling salesman problem** Christofides algorithm** Nearest neighbour algorithm* Warnsdorff's rule: a heuristic method for solving the Knight's tour problem====Graph search====* A*: special case of best-first search that uses heuristics to improve speed* B*: a best-first graph search algorithm that finds the least-cost path from a given initial node to any goal node (out of one or more possible goals)* Backtracking: abandons partial solutions when they are found not to satisfy a complete solution* Beam search: is a heuristic search algorithm that is an optimization of best-first search that reduces its memory requirement* Beam stack search: integrates backtracking with beam search* Best-first search: traverses a graph in the order of likely importance using a priority queue* Bidirectional search: find the shortest path from an initial vertex to a goal vertex in a directed graph* Breadth-first search: traverses a graph level by level* Brute-force search: an exhaustive and reliable search method, but computationally inefficient in many applications* D*: an incremental heuristic search algorithm* Depth-first search: traverses a graph branch by branch* Dijkstra's algorithm: a special case of A* for which no heuristic function is used* General Problem Solver: a seminal theorem-proving algorithm intended to work as a universal problem solver machine.",
"* Iterative deepening depth-first search (IDDFS): a state space search strategy* Jump point search: an optimization to A* which may reduce computation time by an order of magnitude using further heuristics* Lexicographic breadth-first search (also known as Lex-BFS): a linear time algorithm for ordering the vertices of a graph* Uniform-cost search: a tree search that finds the lowest-cost route where costs vary* SSS*: state space search traversing a game tree in a best-first fashion similar to that of the A* search algorithm* F*: special algorithm to merge the two arrays====Subgraphs====* Cliques** Bron–Kerbosch algorithm: a technique for finding maximal cliques in an undirected graph** MaxCliqueDyn maximum clique algorithm: find a maximum clique in an undirected graph* Strongly connected components** Path-based strong component algorithm** Kosaraju's algorithm** Tarjan's strongly connected components algorithm* Subgraph isomorphism problem===Sequence algorithms=======Approximate sequence matching====* Bitap algorithm: fuzzy algorithm that determines if strings are approximately equal.",
"* Phonetic algorithms** Daitch–Mokotoff Soundex: a Soundex refinement which allows matching of Slavic and Germanic surnames** Double Metaphone: an improvement on Metaphone** Match rating approach: a phonetic algorithm developed by Western Airlines** Metaphone: an algorithm for indexing words by their sound, when pronounced in English** NYSIIS: phonetic algorithm, improves on Soundex** Soundex: a phonetic algorithm for indexing names by sound, as pronounced in English* String metrics: computes a similarity or dissimilarity (distance) score between two pairs of text strings** Damerau–Levenshtein distance: computes a distance measure between two strings, improves on Levenshtein distance** Dice's coefficient (also known as the Dice coefficient): a similarity measure related to the Jaccard index** Hamming distance: sum number of positions which are different** Jaro–Winkler distance: is a measure of similarity between two strings** Levenshtein edit distance: computes a metric for the amount of difference between two sequences* Trigram search: search for text when the exact syntax or spelling of the target object is not precisely known====Selection algorithms====* Quickselect* Introselect====Sequence search====* Linear search: locates an item in an unsorted sequence* Selection algorithm: finds the ''k''th largest item in a sequence* Ternary search: a technique for finding the minimum or maximum of a function that is either strictly increasing and then strictly decreasing or vice versa* Sorted lists** Binary search algorithm: locates an item in a sorted sequence** Fibonacci search technique: search a sorted sequence using a divide and conquer algorithm that narrows down possible locations with the aid of Fibonacci numbers** Jump search (or block search): linear search on a smaller subset of the sequence** Predictive search: binary-like search which factors in magnitude of search term versus the high and low values in the search.",
"Sometimes called dictionary search or interpolated search.",
"** Uniform binary search: an optimization of the classic binary search algorithm** Eytzinger binary search: cache friendly binary search algorithm ====Sequence merging====* Simple merge algorithm* k-way merge algorithm* Union (merge, with elements on the output not repeated)====Sequence permutations====* Fisher–Yates shuffle (also known as the Knuth shuffle): randomly shuffle a finite set* Schensted algorithm: constructs a pair of Young tableaux from a permutation* Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm (also known as the Johnson–Trotter algorithm): generates permutations by transposing elements* Heap's permutation generation algorithm: interchange elements to generate next permutation====Sequence combinations========Sequence alignment====* Dynamic time warping: measure similarity between two sequences which may vary in time or speed* Hirschberg's algorithm: finds the least cost sequence alignment between two sequences, as measured by their Levenshtein distance* Needleman–Wunsch algorithm: find global alignment between two sequences* Smith–Waterman algorithm: find local sequence alignment====Sequence sorting====* Exchange sorts** Bubble sort: for each pair of indices, swap the items if out of order** Cocktail shaker sort or bidirectional bubble sort, a bubble sort traversing the list alternately from front to back and back to front** Comb sort** Gnome sort** Odd–even sort** Quicksort: divide list into two, with all items on the first list coming before all items on the second list.",
"; then sort the two lists.",
"Often the method of choice* Humorous or ineffective** Bogosort** Slowsort** Stooge sort* Hybrid** Flashsort** Introsort: begin with quicksort and switch to heapsort when the recursion depth exceeds a certain level** Timsort: adaptative algorithm derived from merge sort and insertion sort.",
"Used in Python 2.3 and up, and Java SE 7.",
"* Insertion sorts** Insertion sort: determine where the current item belongs in the list of sorted ones, and insert it there** Library sort** Patience sorting** Shell sort: an attempt to improve insertion sort** Tree sort (binary tree sort): build binary tree, then traverse it to create sorted list** Cycle sort: in-place with theoretically optimal number of writes* Merge sorts** Merge sort: sort the first and second half of the list separately, then merge the sorted lists** Slowsort** Strand sort* Non-comparison sorts** Bead sort** Bucket sort** Burstsort: build a compact, cache efficient burst trie and then traverse it to create sorted output** Counting sort** Pigeonhole sort** Postman sort: variant of Bucket sort which takes advantage of hierarchical structure** Radix sort: sorts strings letter by letter* Selection sorts** Heapsort: convert the list into a heap, keep removing the largest element from the heap and adding it to the end of the list** Selection sort: pick the smallest of the remaining elements, add it to the end of the sorted list** Smoothgamersort* Other** Bitonic sorter** Pancake sorting** Spaghetti sort** Topological sort* Unknown class** Samplesort====Subsequences====* Longest common subsequence problem: Find the longest subsequence common to all sequences in a set of sequences* Longest increasing subsequence problem: Find the longest increasing subsequence of a given sequence* Ruzzo–Tompa algorithm: Find all non-overlapping, contiguous, maximal scoring subsequences in a sequence of real numbers* Shortest common supersequence problem: Find the shortest supersequence that contains two or more sequences as subsequences====Substrings====* Kadane's algorithm: finds the contiguous subarray with largest sum in an array of numbers* Longest common substring problem: find the longest string (or strings) that is a substring (or are substrings) of two or more strings* Substring search** Aho–Corasick string matching algorithm: trie based algorithm for finding all substring matches to any of a finite set of strings** Boyer–Moore string-search algorithm: amortized linear (sublinear in most times) algorithm for substring search** Boyer–Moore–Horspool algorithm: Simplification of Boyer–Moore** Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm: substring search which bypasses reexamination of matched characters** Rabin–Karp string search algorithm: searches multiple patterns efficiently** Zhu–Takaoka string matching algorithm: a variant of Boyer–Moore* Ukkonen's algorithm: a linear-time, online algorithm for constructing suffix trees* Matching wildcards** Rich Salz' wildmat: a widely used open-source recursive algorithm** Krauss matching wildcards algorithm: an open-source non-recursive algorithm"
],
[
"Computational mathematics",
"===Abstract algebra===* Chien search: a recursive algorithm for determining roots of polynomials defined over a finite field* Schreier–Sims algorithm: computing a base and strong generating set (BSGS) of a permutation group* Todd–Coxeter algorithm: Procedure for generating cosets.===Computer algebra===* Buchberger's algorithm: finds a Gröbner basis* Cantor–Zassenhaus algorithm: factor polynomials over finite fields* Faugère F4 algorithm: finds a Gröbner basis (also mentions the F5 algorithm)* Gosper's algorithm: find sums of hypergeometric terms that are themselves hypergeometric terms* Knuth–Bendix completion algorithm: for rewriting rule systems* Multivariate division algorithm: for polynomials in several indeterminates* Pollard's kangaroo algorithm (also known as Pollard's lambda algorithm ): an algorithm for solving the discrete logarithm problem* Polynomial long division: an algorithm for dividing a polynomial by another polynomial of the same or lower degree* Risch algorithm: an algorithm for the calculus operation of indefinite integration (i.e.",
"finding antiderivatives)===Geometry===* Closest pair problem: find the pair of points (from a set of points) with the smallest distance between them* Collision detection algorithms: check for the collision or intersection of two given solids* Cone algorithm: identify surface points* Convex hull algorithms: determining the convex hull of a set of points** Graham scan** Quickhull** Gift wrapping algorithm or Jarvis march** Chan's algorithm** Kirkpatrick–Seidel algorithm* Euclidean distance transform: computes the distance between every point in a grid and a discrete collection of points.",
"* Geometric hashing: a method for efficiently finding two-dimensional objects represented by discrete points that have undergone an affine transformation* Gilbert–Johnson–Keerthi distance algorithm: determining the smallest distance between two convex shapes.",
"* Jump-and-Walk algorithm: an algorithm for point location in triangulations* Laplacian smoothing: an algorithm to smooth a polygonal mesh* Line segment intersection: finding whether lines intersect, usually with a sweep line algorithm** Bentley–Ottmann algorithm** Shamos–Hoey algorithm* Minimum bounding box algorithms: find the oriented minimum bounding box enclosing a set of points* Nearest neighbor search: find the nearest point or points to a query point* Nesting algorithm: make the most efficient use of material or space* Point in polygon algorithms: tests whether a given point lies within a given polygon* Point set registration algorithms: finds the transformation between two point sets to optimally align them.",
"* Rotating calipers: determine all antipodal pairs of points and vertices on a convex polygon or convex hull.",
"* Shoelace algorithm: determine the area of a polygon whose vertices are described by ordered pairs in the plane* Triangulation** Delaunay triangulation*** Ruppert's algorithm (also known as Delaunay refinement): create quality Delaunay triangulations*** Chew's second algorithm: create quality constrained Delaunay triangulations** Marching triangles: reconstruct two-dimensional surface geometry from an unstructured point cloud** Polygon triangulation algorithms: decompose a polygon into a set of triangles** Voronoi diagrams, geometric dual of Delaunay triangulation*** Bowyer–Watson algorithm: create voronoi diagram in any number of dimensions*** Fortune's Algorithm: create voronoi diagram** Quasitriangulation===Number theoretic algorithms===* Binary GCD algorithm: Efficient way of calculating GCD.",
"* Booth's multiplication algorithm* Chakravala method: a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations, including Pell's equation* Discrete logarithm:** Baby-step giant-step** Index calculus algorithm** Pollard's rho algorithm for logarithms** Pohlig–Hellman algorithm* Euclidean algorithm: computes the greatest common divisor* Extended Euclidean algorithm: also solves the equation ''ax'' + ''by'' = ''c''* Integer factorization: breaking an integer into its prime factors** Congruence of squares** Dixon's algorithm** Fermat's factorization method** General number field sieve** Lenstra elliptic curve factorization** Pollard's ''p'' − 1 algorithm** Pollard's rho algorithm** prime factorization algorithm** Quadratic sieve** Shor's algorithm** Special number field sieve** Trial division* Multiplication algorithms: fast multiplication of two numbers** Karatsuba algorithm** Schönhage–Strassen algorithm** Toom–Cook multiplication* Modular square root: computing square roots modulo a prime number** Tonelli–Shanks algorithm** Cipolla's algorithm** Berlekamp's root finding algorithm* Odlyzko–Schönhage algorithm: calculates nontrivial zeroes of the Riemann zeta function* Lenstra–Lenstra–Lovász algorithm (also known as LLL algorithm): find a short, nearly orthogonal lattice basis in polynomial time* Primality tests: determining whether a given number is prime** AKS primality test** Baillie–PSW primality test** Fermat primality test** Lucas primality test** Miller–Rabin primality test** Sieve of Atkin** Sieve of Eratosthenes** Sieve of Sundaram===Numerical algorithms=======Differential equation solving====* Euler method* Backward Euler method* Trapezoidal rule (differential equations)* Linear multistep methods* Runge–Kutta methods** Euler integration* Multigrid methods (MG methods), a group of algorithms for solving differential equations using a hierarchy of discretizations* Partial differential equation:** Finite difference method** Crank–Nicolson method for diffusion equations** Lax–Wendroff for wave equations* Verlet integration (): integrate Newton's equations of motion====Elementary and special functions====* Computation of π:** Borwein's algorithm: an algorithm to calculate the value of 1/π** Gauss–Legendre algorithm: computes the digits of pi** Chudnovsky algorithm: a fast method for calculating the digits of π** Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula: (BBP formula) a spigot algorithm for the computation of the nth binary digit of π* Division algorithms: for computing quotient and/or remainder of two numbers** Long division** Restoring division** Non-restoring division** SRT division** Newton–Raphson division: uses Newton's method to find the reciprocal of D, and multiply that reciprocal by N to find the final quotient Q.",
"** Goldschmidt division* Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions:** BKM algorithm: computes elementary functions using a table of logarithms** CORDIC: computes hyperbolic and trigonometric functions using a table of arctangents* Exponentiation:** Addition-chain exponentiation: exponentiation by positive integer powers that requires a minimal number of multiplications** Exponentiating by squaring: an algorithm used for the fast computation of large integer powers of a number* Montgomery reduction: an algorithm that allows modular arithmetic to be performed efficiently when the modulus is large* Multiplication algorithms: fast multiplication of two numbers** Booth's multiplication algorithm: a multiplication algorithm that multiplies two signed binary numbers in two's complement notation** Fürer's algorithm: an integer multiplication algorithm for very large numbers possessing a very low asymptotic complexity** Karatsuba algorithm: an efficient procedure for multiplying large numbers** Schönhage–Strassen algorithm: an asymptotically fast multiplication algorithm for large integers** Toom–Cook multiplication: (Toom3) a multiplication algorithm for large integers* Multiplicative inverse Algorithms: for computing a number's multiplicative inverse (reciprocal).",
"** Newton's method* Rounding functions: the classic ways to round numbers* Spigot algorithm: a way to compute the value of a mathematical constant without knowing preceding digits* Square and Nth root of a number:** Alpha max plus beta min algorithm: an approximation of the square-root of the sum of two squares** Methods of computing square roots** ''n''th root algorithm** Shifting nth-root algorithm: digit by digit root extraction* Summation:** Binary splitting: a divide and conquer technique which speeds up the numerical evaluation of many types of series with rational terms** Kahan summation algorithm: a more accurate method of summing floating-point numbers* Unrestricted algorithm====Geometric====* Filtered back-projection: efficiently computes the inverse 2-dimensional Radon transform.",
"* Level set method (LSM): a numerical technique for tracking interfaces and shapes====Interpolation and extrapolation====* Birkhoff interpolation: an extension of polynomial interpolation* Cubic interpolation* Hermite interpolation* Lagrange interpolation: interpolation using Lagrange polynomials* Linear interpolation: a method of curve fitting using linear polynomials* Monotone cubic interpolation: a variant of cubic interpolation that preserves monotonicity of the data set being interpolated.",
"* Multivariate interpolation** Bicubic interpolation: a generalization of cubic interpolation to two dimensions** Bilinear interpolation: an extension of linear interpolation for interpolating functions of two variables on a regular grid** Lanczos resampling (\"Lanzosh\"): a multivariate interpolation method used to compute new values for any digitally sampled data** Nearest-neighbor interpolation** Tricubic interpolation: a generalization of cubic interpolation to three dimensions* Pareto interpolation: a method of estimating the median and other properties of a population that follows a Pareto distribution.",
"* Polynomial interpolation** Neville's algorithm* Spline interpolation: Reduces error with Runge's phenomenon.",
"** De Boor algorithm: B-splines** De Casteljau's algorithm: Bézier curves* Trigonometric interpolation====Linear algebra====* Eigenvalue algorithms** Arnoldi iteration** Inverse iteration** Jacobi method** Lanczos iteration** Power iteration** QR algorithm** Rayleigh quotient iteration* Gram–Schmidt process: orthogonalizes a set of vectors* Matrix multiplication algorithms** Cannon's algorithm: a distributed algorithm for matrix multiplication especially suitable for computers laid out in an N × N mesh** Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm: square matrix multiplication** Freivalds' algorithm: a randomized algorithm used to verify matrix multiplication** Strassen algorithm: faster matrix multiplication* Solving systems of linear equations** Biconjugate gradient method: solves systems of linear equations** Conjugate gradient: an algorithm for the numerical solution of particular systems of linear equations** Gaussian elimination** Gauss–Jordan elimination: solves systems of linear equations** Gauss–Seidel method: solves systems of linear equations iteratively** Levinson recursion: solves equation involving a Toeplitz matrix** Stone's method: also known as the strongly implicit procedure or SIP, is an algorithm for solving a sparse linear system of equations** Successive over-relaxation (SOR): method used to speed up convergence of the Gauss–Seidel method** Tridiagonal matrix algorithm (Thomas algorithm): solves systems of tridiagonal equations* Sparse matrix algorithms** Cuthill–McKee algorithm: reduce the bandwidth of a symmetric sparse matrix** Minimum degree algorithm: permute the rows and columns of a symmetric sparse matrix before applying the Cholesky decomposition** Symbolic Cholesky decomposition: Efficient way of storing sparse matrix====Monte Carlo====* Gibbs sampling: generates a sequence of samples from the joint probability distribution of two or more random variables* Hybrid Monte Carlo: generates a sequence of samples using Hamiltonian weighted Markov chain Monte Carlo, from a probability distribution which is difficult to sample directly.",
"* Metropolis–Hastings algorithm: used to generate a sequence of samples from the probability distribution of one or more variables* Wang and Landau algorithm: an extension of Metropolis–Hastings algorithm sampling====Numerical integration====* MISER algorithm: Monte Carlo simulation, numerical integration====Root finding====* Bisection method* False position method: and Illinois method: 2-point, bracketing* Halley's method: uses first and second derivatives* ITP method: minmax optimal and superlinear convergence simultaneously* Muller's method: 3-point, quadratic interpolation* Newton's method: finds zeros of functions with calculus* Ridder's method: 3-point, exponential scaling* Secant method: 2-point, 1-sided===Optimization algorithms===* Alpha–beta pruning: search to reduce number of nodes in minimax algorithm* Branch and bound* Bruss algorithm: see odds algorithm* Chain matrix multiplication* Combinatorial optimization: optimization problems where the set of feasible solutions is discrete** Greedy randomized adaptive search procedure (GRASP): successive constructions of a greedy randomized solution and subsequent iterative improvements of it through a local search** Hungarian method: a combinatorial optimization algorithm which solves the assignment problem in polynomial time* Constraint satisfaction** General algorithms for the constraint satisfaction*** AC-3 algorithm*** Difference map algorithm*** Min conflicts algorithm** Chaff algorithm: an algorithm for solving instances of the Boolean satisfiability problem** Davis–Putnam algorithm: check the validity of a first-order logic formula** Davis–Putnam–Logemann–Loveland algorithm (DPLL): an algorithm for deciding the satisfiability of propositional logic formula in conjunctive normal form, i.e.",
"for solving the CNF-SAT problem** Exact cover problem*** Algorithm X: a nondeterministic algorithm*** Dancing Links: an efficient implementation of Algorithm X* Cross-entropy method: a general Monte Carlo approach to combinatorial and continuous multi-extremal optimization and importance sampling* Differential evolution* Dynamic Programming: problems exhibiting the properties of overlapping subproblems and optimal substructure* Ellipsoid method: is an algorithm for solving convex optimization problems* Evolutionary computation: optimization inspired by biological mechanisms of evolution** Evolution strategy** Gene expression programming** Genetic algorithms*** Fitness proportionate selection – also known as roulette-wheel selection*** Stochastic universal sampling*** Truncation selection*** Tournament selection** Memetic algorithm** Swarm intelligence*** Ant colony optimization*** Bees algorithm: a search algorithm which mimics the food foraging behavior of swarms of honey bees*** Particle swarm* Frank-Wolfe algorithm: an iterative first-order optimization algorithm for constrained convex optimization* Golden-section search: an algorithm for finding the maximum of a real function* Gradient descent* Grid Search* Harmony search (HS): a metaheuristic algorithm mimicking the improvisation process of musicians* Interior point method* Linear programming** Benson's algorithm: an algorithm for solving linear vector optimization problems** Dantzig–Wolfe decomposition: an algorithm for solving linear programming problems with special structure** Delayed column generation** Integer linear programming: solve linear programming problems where some or all the unknowns are restricted to integer values*** Branch and cut*** Cutting-plane method** Karmarkar's algorithm: The first reasonably efficient algorithm that solves the linear programming problem in polynomial time.",
"** Simplex algorithm: an algorithm for solving linear programming problems* Line search* Local search: a metaheuristic for solving computationally hard optimization problems** Random-restart hill climbing** Tabu search* Minimax used in game programming* Nearest neighbor search (NNS): find closest points in a metric space** Best Bin First: find an approximate solution to the nearest neighbor search problem in very-high-dimensional spaces* Newton's method in optimization* Nonlinear optimization** BFGS method: a nonlinear optimization algorithm** Gauss–Newton algorithm: an algorithm for solving nonlinear least squares problems** Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm: an algorithm for solving nonlinear least squares problems** Nelder–Mead method (downhill simplex method): a nonlinear optimization algorithm* Odds algorithm (Bruss algorithm): Finds the optimal strategy to predict a last specific event in a random sequence event* Random Search* Simulated annealing* Stochastic tunneling* Subset sum algorithm"
],
[
"Computational science",
"===Astronomy===* Doomsday algorithm: day of the week* Zeller's congruence is an algorithm to calculate the day of the week for any Julian or Gregorian calendar date* various Easter algorithms are used to calculate the day of Easter===Bioinformatics===* Basic Local Alignment Search Tool also known as BLAST: an algorithm for comparing primary biological sequence information* Kabsch algorithm: calculate the optimal alignment of two sets of points in order to compute the root mean squared deviation between two protein structures.",
"* Velvet: a set of algorithms manipulating de Bruijn graphs for genomic sequence assembly* Sorting by signed reversals: an algorithm for understanding genomic evolution.",
"* Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics): an algorithm for finding the simplest phylogenetic tree to explain a given character matrix.",
"* UPGMA: a distance-based phylogenetic tree construction algorithm.",
"* Bloom Filter: probabilistic data structure used to test for the existence of an element within a set.",
"Primarily used in bioinformatics to test for the existence of a k-mer in a sequence or sequences.===Geoscience===* Vincenty's formulae: a fast algorithm to calculate the distance between two latitude/longitude points on an ellipsoid* Geohash: a public domain algorithm that encodes a decimal latitude/longitude pair as a hash string===Linguistics===* Lesk algorithm: word sense disambiguation* Stemming algorithm: a method of reducing words to their stem, base, or root form* Sukhotin's algorithm: a statistical classification algorithm for classifying characters in a text as vowels or consonants===Medicine===* ESC algorithm for the diagnosis of heart failure* Manning Criteria for irritable bowel syndrome* Pulmonary embolism diagnostic algorithms* Texas Medication Algorithm Project===Physics===* Constraint algorithm: a class of algorithms for satisfying constraints for bodies that obey Newton's equations of motion* Demon algorithm: a Monte Carlo method for efficiently sampling members of a microcanonical ensemble with a given energy* Featherstone's algorithm: computes the effects of forces applied to a structure of joints and links* Ground state approximation** Variational method*** Ritz method* ''n''-body problems** Barnes–Hut simulation: Solves the n-body problem in an approximate way that has the order instead of as in a direct-sum simulation.",
"** Fast multipole method (FMM): speeds up the calculation of long-ranged forces* Rainflow-counting algorithm: Reduces a complex stress history to a count of elementary stress-reversals for use in fatigue analysis* Sweep and prune: a broad phase algorithm used during collision detection to limit the number of pairs of solids that need to be checked for collision* VEGAS algorithm: a method for reducing error in Monte Carlo simulations* Glauber dynamics: a method for simulating the Ising Model on a computer===Statistics===* Algorithms for calculating variance: avoiding instability and numerical overflow* Approximate counting algorithm: allows counting large number of events in a small register* Bayesian statistics** Nested sampling algorithm: a computational approach to the problem of comparing models in Bayesian statistics* Clustering Algorithms** Average-linkage clustering: a simple agglomerative clustering algorithm** Canopy clustering algorithm: an unsupervised pre-clustering algorithm related to the K-means algorithm** Complete-linkage clustering: a simple agglomerative clustering algorithm** DBSCAN: a density based clustering algorithm** Expectation-maximization algorithm** Fuzzy clustering: a class of clustering algorithms where each point has a degree of belonging to clusters*** Fuzzy c-means*** FLAME clustering (Fuzzy clustering by Local Approximation of MEmberships): define clusters in the dense parts of a dataset and perform cluster assignment solely based on the neighborhood relationships among objects** KHOPCA clustering algorithm: a local clustering algorithm, which produces hierarchical multi-hop clusters in static and mobile environments.",
"** k-means clustering: cluster objects based on attributes into partitions** k-means++: a variation of this, using modified random seeds** k-medoids: similar to k-means, but chooses datapoints or medoids as centers** Linde–Buzo–Gray algorithm: a vector quantization algorithm to derive a good codebook** Lloyd's algorithm (Voronoi iteration or relaxation): group data points into a given number of categories, a popular algorithm for k-means clustering** OPTICS: a density based clustering algorithm with a visual evaluation method** Single-linkage clustering: a simple agglomerative clustering algorithm** SUBCLU: a subspace clustering algorithm** Ward's method: an agglomerative clustering algorithm, extended to more general Lance–Williams algorithms** WACA clustering algorithm: a local clustering algorithm with potentially multi-hop structures; for dynamic networks* Estimation Theory** Expectation-maximization algorithm A class of related algorithms for finding maximum likelihood estimates of parameters in probabilistic models*** Ordered subset expectation maximization (OSEM): used in medical imaging for positron emission tomography, single-photon emission computed tomography and X-ray computed tomography.",
"** Odds algorithm (Bruss algorithm) Optimal online search for distinguished value in sequential random input** Kalman filter: estimate the state of a linear dynamic system from a series of noisy measurements* False nearest neighbor algorithm (FNN) estimates fractal dimension* Hidden Markov model** Baum–Welch algorithm: computes maximum likelihood estimates and posterior mode estimates for the parameters of a hidden Markov model** Forward-backward algorithm: a dynamic programming algorithm for computing the probability of a particular observation sequence** Viterbi algorithm: find the most likely sequence of hidden states in a hidden Markov model* Partial least squares regression: finds a linear model describing some predicted variables in terms of other observable variables* Queuing theory** Buzen's algorithm: an algorithm for calculating the normalization constant G(K) in the Gordon–Newell theorem* RANSAC (an abbreviation for \"RANdom SAmple Consensus\"): an iterative method to estimate parameters of a mathematical model from a set of observed data which contains outliers* Scoring algorithm: is a form of Newton's method used to solve maximum likelihood equations numerically* Yamartino method: calculate an approximation to the standard deviation σθ of wind direction θ during a single pass through the incoming data* Ziggurat algorithm: generates random numbers from a non-uniform distribution"
],
[
"Computer science",
"===Computer architecture===* Tomasulo algorithm: allows sequential instructions that would normally be stalled due to certain dependencies to execute non-sequentially===Computer graphics===* Clipping** Line clipping*** Cohen–Sutherland*** Cyrus–Beck*** Fast-clipping*** Liang–Barsky*** Nicholl–Lee–Nicholl** Polygon clipping*** Sutherland–Hodgman*** Vatti*** Weiler–Atherton* Contour lines and Isosurfaces** Marching cubes: extract a polygonal mesh of an isosurface from a three-dimensional scalar field (sometimes called voxels)** Marching squares: generates contour lines for a two-dimensional scalar field** Marching tetrahedrons: an alternative to Marching cubes* Discrete Green's Theorem: is an algorithm for computing double integral over a generalized rectangular domain in constant time.",
"It is a natural extension to the summed area table algorithm* Flood fill: fills a connected region of a multi-dimensional array with a specified symbol* Global illumination algorithms: Considers direct illumination and reflection from other objects.",
"** Ambient occlusion** Beam tracing** Cone tracing** Image-based lighting** Metropolis light transport** Path tracing** Photon mapping** Radiosity** Ray tracing* Hidden-surface removal or Visual surface determination** Newell's algorithm: eliminate polygon cycles in the depth sorting required in hidden-surface removal** Painter's algorithm: detects visible parts of a 3-dimensional scenery** Scanline rendering: constructs an image by moving an imaginary line over the image** Warnock algorithm* Line Drawing: graphical algorithm for approximating a line segment on discrete graphical media.",
"** Bresenham's line algorithm: plots points of a 2-dimensional array to form a straight line between 2 specified points (uses decision variables)** DDA line algorithm: plots points of a 2-dimensional array to form a straight line between 2 specified points (uses floating-point math)** Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm: algorithm for line antialiasing.",
"* Midpoint circle algorithm: an algorithm used to determine the points needed for drawing a circle* Ramer–Douglas–Peucker algorithm: Given a 'curve' composed of line segments to find a curve not too dissimilar but that has fewer points* Shading** Gouraud shading: an algorithm to simulate the differing effects of light and colour across the surface of an object in 3D computer graphics** Phong shading: an algorithm to interpolate surface normal-vectors for surface shading in 3D computer graphics* Slerp (spherical linear interpolation): quaternion interpolation for the purpose of animating 3D rotation* Summed area table (also known as an integral image): an algorithm for computing the sum of values in a rectangular subset of a grid in constant time* Binary space partitioning===Cryptography===* Asymmetric (public key) encryption:** ElGamal** Elliptic curve cryptography** MAE1** NTRUEncrypt** RSA* Digital signatures (asymmetric authentication):** DSA, and its variants:*** ECDSA and Deterministic ECDSA*** EdDSA (Ed25519)** RSA* Cryptographic hash functions (see also the section on message authentication codes):** BLAKE** MD5 – Note that there is now a method of generating collisions for MD5** RIPEMD-160** SHA-1 – Note that there is now a method of generating collisions for SHA-1** SHA-2 (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512)** SHA-3 (SHA3-224, SHA3-256, SHA3-384, SHA3-512, SHAKE128, SHAKE256)** Tiger (TTH), usually used in Tiger tree hashes** WHIRLPOOL* Cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generators** Blum Blum Shub – based on the hardness of factorization** Fortuna, intended as an improvement on Yarrow algorithm** Linear-feedback shift register (note: many LFSR-based algorithms are weak or have been broken)** Yarrow algorithm* Key exchange** Diffie–Hellman key exchange** Elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH)* Key derivation functions, often used for password hashing and key stretching** bcrypt** PBKDF2** scrypt** Argon2* Message authentication codes (symmetric authentication algorithms, which take a key as a parameter):** HMAC: keyed-hash message authentication** Poly1305** SipHash* Secret sharing, Secret Splitting, Key Splitting, M of N algorithms** Blakey's Scheme** Shamir's Scheme* Symmetric (secret key) encryption:** Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), winner of NIST competition, also known as Rijndael** Blowfish** Twofish** Threefish** Data Encryption Standard (DES), sometimes DE Algorithm, winner of NBS selection competition, replaced by AES for most purposes** IDEA** RC4 (cipher)** Tiny Encryption Algorithm (TEA)** Salsa20, and its updated variant ChaCha20* Post-quantum cryptography* Proof-of-work algorithms===Digital logic===* Boolean minimization** Quine–McCluskey algorithm: also called as Q-M algorithm, programmable method for simplifying the Boolean equations** Petrick's method: another algorithm for Boolean simplification** Espresso heuristic logic minimizer: a fast algorithm for Boolean function minimization===Machine learning and statistical classification===* ALOPEX: a correlation-based machine-learning algorithm* Association rule learning: discover interesting relations between variables, used in data mining** Apriori algorithm** Eclat algorithm** FP-growth algorithm** One-attribute rule** Zero-attribute rule* Boosting (meta-algorithm): Use many weak learners to boost effectiveness** AdaBoost: adaptive boosting** BrownBoost: a boosting algorithm that may be robust to noisy datasets** LogitBoost: logistic regression boosting** LPBoost: linear programming boosting* Bootstrap aggregating (bagging): technique to improve stability and classification accuracy* Computer Vision** Grabcut based on Graph cuts* Decision Trees** C4.5 algorithm: an extension to ID3** ID3 algorithm (Iterative Dichotomiser 3): use heuristic to generate small decision trees* Clustering: a class of unsupervised learning algorithms for grouping and bucketing related input vector.",
"** k-nearest neighbors (k-NN): a method for classifying objects based on closest training examples in the feature space* Linde–Buzo–Gray algorithm: a vector quantization algorithm used to derive a good codebook* Locality-sensitive hashing (LSH): a method of performing probabilistic dimension reduction of high-dimensional data* Neural Network** Backpropagation: a supervised learning method which requires a teacher that knows, or can calculate, the desired output for any given input** Hopfield net: a Recurrent neural network in which all connections are symmetric** Perceptron: the simplest kind of feedforward neural network: a linear classifier.",
"** Pulse-coupled neural networks (PCNN): Neural models proposed by modeling a cat's visual cortex and developed for high-performance biomimetic image processing.",
"** Radial basis function network: an artificial neural network that uses radial basis functions as activation functions** Self-organizing map: an unsupervised network that produces a low-dimensional representation of the input space of the training samples* Random forest: classify using many decision trees* Reinforcement learning:** Q-learning: learns an action-value function that gives the expected utility of taking a given action in a given state and following a fixed policy thereafter** State–Action–Reward–State–Action (SARSA): learn a Markov decision process policy** Temporal difference learning* Relevance-Vector Machine (RVM): similar to SVM, but provides probabilistic classification* Supervised learning: Learning by examples (labelled data-set split into training-set and test-set)* Support Vector Machine (SVM): a set of methods which divide multidimensional data by finding a dividing hyperplane with the maximum margin between the two sets** Structured SVM: allows training of a classifier for general structured output labels.",
"* Winnow algorithm: related to the perceptron, but uses a multiplicative weight-update scheme===Programming language theory===* C3 linearization: an algorithm used primarily to obtain a consistent linearization of a multiple inheritance hierarchy in object-oriented programming* Chaitin's algorithm: a bottom-up, graph coloring register allocation algorithm that uses cost/degree as its spill metric* Hindley–Milner type inference algorithm* Rete algorithm: an efficient pattern matching algorithm for implementing production rule systems* Sethi-Ullman algorithm: generates optimal code for arithmetic expressions====Parsing====* CYK algorithm: an O(n3) algorithm for parsing context-free grammars in Chomsky normal form* Earley parser: another O(n3) algorithm for parsing any context-free grammar* GLR parser: an algorithm for parsing any context-free grammar by Masaru Tomita.",
"It is tuned for deterministic grammars, on which it performs almost linear time and O(n3) in worst case.",
"* Inside-outside algorithm: an O(n3) algorithm for re-estimating production probabilities in probabilistic context-free grammars* LL parser: a relatively simple linear time parsing algorithm for a limited class of context-free grammars* LR parser: A more complex linear time parsing algorithm for a larger class of context-free grammars.",
"Variants:** Canonical LR parser** LALR (look-ahead LR) parser** Operator-precedence parser** SLR (Simple LR) parser** Simple precedence parser* Packrat parser: a linear time parsing algorithm supporting some context-free grammars and parsing expression grammars* Recursive descent parser: a top-down parser suitable for LL(''k'') grammars* Shunting-yard algorithm: converts an infix-notation math expression to postfix* Pratt parser* Lexical analysis===Quantum algorithms===* Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm: criterion of balance for Boolean function* Grover's algorithm: provides quadratic speedup for many search problems* Shor's algorithm: provides exponential speedup (relative to currently known non-quantum algorithms) for factoring a number* Simon's algorithm: provides a provably exponential speedup (relative to any non-quantum algorithm) for a black-box problem===Theory of computation and automata===* Hopcroft's algorithm, Moore's algorithm, and Brzozowski's algorithm: algorithms for minimizing the number of states in a deterministic finite automaton* Powerset construction: algorithm to convert nondeterministic automaton to deterministic automaton.",
"* Tarski–Kuratowski algorithm: a non-deterministic algorithm which provides an upper bound for the complexity of formulas in the arithmetical hierarchy and analytical hierarchy"
],
[
"Information theory and signal processing",
"===Coding theory=======Error detection and correction====* BCH Codes** Berlekamp–Massey algorithm** Peterson–Gorenstein–Zierler algorithm** Reed–Solomon error correction* BCJR algorithm: decoding of error correcting codes defined on trellises (principally convolutional codes)* Forward error correction* Gray code* Hamming codes** Hamming(7,4): a Hamming code that encodes 4 bits of data into 7 bits by adding 3 parity bits** Hamming distance: sum number of positions which are different** Hamming weight (population count): find the number of 1 bits in a binary word* Redundancy checks** Adler-32** Cyclic redundancy check** Damm algorithm** Fletcher's checksum** Longitudinal redundancy check (LRC)** Luhn algorithm: a method of validating identification numbers** Luhn mod N algorithm: extension of Luhn to non-numeric characters** Parity: simple/fast error detection technique** Verhoeff algorithm====Lossless compression algorithms====* Burrows–Wheeler transform: preprocessing useful for improving lossless compression* Context tree weighting* Delta encoding: aid to compression of data in which sequential data occurs frequently* Dynamic Markov compression: Compression using predictive arithmetic coding* Dictionary coders** Byte pair encoding (BPE)** Deflate** Lempel–Ziv*** LZ77 and LZ78*** Lempel–Ziv Jeff Bonwick (LZJB)*** Lempel–Ziv–Markov chain algorithm (LZMA)*** Lempel–Ziv–Oberhumer (LZO): speed oriented*** Lempel–Ziv–Stac (LZS)*** Lempel–Ziv–Storer–Szymanski (LZSS)*** Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW)*** LZWL: syllable-based variant*** LZX*** Lempel–Ziv Ross Williams (LZRW)* Entropy encoding: coding scheme that assigns codes to symbols so as to match code lengths with the probabilities of the symbols** Arithmetic coding: advanced entropy coding*** Range encoding: same as arithmetic coding, but looked at in a slightly different way** Huffman coding: simple lossless compression taking advantage of relative character frequencies*** Adaptive Huffman coding: adaptive coding technique based on Huffman coding*** Package-merge algorithm: Optimizes Huffman coding subject to a length restriction on code strings** Shannon–Fano coding** Shannon–Fano–Elias coding: precursor to arithmetic encoding* Entropy coding with known entropy characteristics** Golomb coding: form of entropy coding that is optimal for alphabets following geometric distributions** Rice coding: form of entropy coding that is optimal for alphabets following geometric distributions** Truncated binary encoding** Unary coding: code that represents a number n with n ones followed by a zero** Universal codes: encodes positive integers into binary code words*** Elias delta, gamma, and omega coding*** Exponential-Golomb coding*** Fibonacci coding*** Levenshtein coding* Fast Efficient & Lossless Image Compression System (FELICS): a lossless image compression algorithm* Incremental encoding: delta encoding applied to sequences of strings* Prediction by partial matching (PPM): an adaptive statistical data compression technique based on context modeling and prediction* Run-length encoding: lossless data compression taking advantage of strings of repeated characters* SEQUITUR algorithm: lossless compression by incremental grammar inference on a string====Lossy compression algorithms====* 3Dc: a lossy data compression algorithm for normal maps* Audio and Speech compression** A-law algorithm: standard companding algorithm** Code-excited linear prediction (CELP): low bit-rate speech compression** Linear predictive coding (LPC): lossy compression by representing the spectral envelope of a digital signal of speech in compressed form** Mu-law algorithm: standard analog signal compression or companding algorithm** Warped Linear Predictive Coding (WLPC)* Image compression** Block Truncation Coding (BTC): a type of lossy image compression technique for greyscale images** Embedded Zerotree Wavelet (EZW)** Fast Cosine Transform algorithms (FCT algorithms): computes Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) efficiently** Fractal compression: method used to compress images using fractals** Set Partitioning in Hierarchical Trees (SPIHT)** Wavelet compression: form of data compression well suited for image compression (sometimes also video compression and audio compression)* Transform coding: type of data compression for \"natural\" data like audio signals or photographic images* Video compression* Vector quantization: technique often used in lossy data compression===Digital signal processing===* Adaptive-additive algorithm (AA algorithm): find the spatial frequency phase of an observed wave source* Discrete Fourier transform: determines the frequencies contained in a (segment of a) signal** Bluestein's FFT algorithm** Bruun's FFT algorithm** Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm** Fast Fourier transform** Prime-factor FFT algorithm** Rader's FFT algorithm* Fast folding algorithm: an efficient algorithm for the detection of approximately periodic events within time series data* Gerchberg–Saxton algorithm: Phase retrieval algorithm for optical planes* Goertzel algorithm: identify a particular frequency component in a signal.",
"Can be used for DTMF digit decoding.",
"* Karplus-Strong string synthesis: physical modelling synthesis to simulate the sound of a hammered or plucked string or some types of percussion====Image processing====* Contrast Enhancement** Histogram equalization: use histogram to improve image contrast** Adaptive histogram equalization: histogram equalization which adapts to local changes in contrast* Connected-component labeling: find and label disjoint regions* Dithering and half-toning** Error diffusion** Floyd–Steinberg dithering** Ordered dithering** Riemersma dithering* Elser difference-map algorithm: a search algorithm for general constraint satisfaction problems.",
"Originally used for X-Ray diffraction microscopy* Feature detection** Canny edge detector: detect a wide range of edges in images** Generalised Hough transform** Hough transform** Marr–Hildreth algorithm: an early edge detection algorithm** SIFT (Scale-invariant feature transform): is an algorithm to detect and describe local features in images.",
"** : is a robust local feature detector, first presented by Herbert Bay et al.",
"in 2006, that can be used in computer vision tasks like object recognition or 3D reconstruction.",
"It is partly inspired by the SIFT descriptor.",
"The standard version of SURF is several times faster than SIFT and claimed by its authors to be more robust against different image transformations than SIFT.",
"* Richardson–Lucy deconvolution: image de-blurring algorithm* Blind deconvolution: image de-blurring algorithm when point spread function is unknown.",
"* Median filtering* Seam carving: content-aware image resizing algorithm* Segmentation: partition a digital image into two or more regions** GrowCut algorithm: an interactive segmentation algorithm** Random walker algorithm** Region growing** Watershed transformation: a class of algorithms based on the watershed analogy"
],
[
"Software engineering",
"* Cache algorithms* CHS conversion: converting between disk addressing systems* Double dabble: Convert binary numbers to BCD* Hash Function: convert a large, possibly variable-sized amount of data into a small datum, usually a single integer that may serve as an index into an array** Fowler–Noll–Vo hash function: fast with low collision rate** Pearson hashing: computes 8 bit value only, optimized for 8 bit computers** Zobrist hashing: used in the implementation of transposition tables* Unicode Collation Algorithm* Xor swap algorithm: swaps the values of two variables without using a buffer"
],
[
"Database algorithms",
"* Algorithms for Recovery and Isolation Exploiting Semantics (ARIES): transaction recovery* Join algorithms** Block nested loop** Hash join** Nested loop join** Sort-Merge Join* The Chase"
],
[
"Distributed systems algorithms",
"* Clock synchronization** Berkeley algorithm** Cristian's algorithm** Intersection algorithm** Marzullo's algorithm* Consensus (computer science): agreeing on a single value or history among unreliable processors** Chandra–Toueg consensus algorithm** Paxos algorithm** Raft (computer science)* Detection of Process Termination** Dijkstra-Scholten algorithm** Huang's algorithm* Lamport ordering: a partial ordering of events based on the ''happened-before'' relation* Leader election: a method for dynamically selecting a coordinator** Bully algorithm* Mutual exclusion** Lamport's Distributed Mutual Exclusion Algorithm** Naimi-Trehel's log(n) Algorithm** Maekawa's Algorithm** Raymond's Algorithm** Ricart–Agrawala Algorithm* Snapshot algorithm: record a consistent global state for an asynchronous system** Chandy–Lamport algorithm* Vector clocks: generate a partial ordering of events in a distributed system and detect causality violations===Memory allocation and deallocation algorithms===* Buddy memory allocation: an algorithm to allocate memory such with less fragmentation* Garbage collectors** Cheney's algorithm: an improvement on the Semi-space collector** Generational garbage collector: Fast garbage collectors that segregate memory by age** Mark-compact algorithm: a combination of the mark-sweep algorithm and Cheney's copying algorithm** Mark and sweep** Semi-space collector: an early copying collector* Reference counting"
],
[
"Networking",
"* Karn's algorithm: addresses the problem of getting accurate estimates of the round-trip time for messages when using TCP* Luleå algorithm: a technique for storing and searching internet routing tables efficiently* Network congestion** Exponential backoff** Nagle's algorithm: improve the efficiency of TCP/IP networks by coalescing packets** Truncated binary exponential backoff"
],
[
"Operating systems algorithms",
"* Banker's algorithm: algorithm used for deadlock avoidance* Page replacement algorithms: for selecting the victim page under low memory conditions** Adaptive replacement cache: better performance than LRU** Clock with Adaptive Replacement (CAR): a page replacement algorithm with performance comparable to adaptive replacement cache===Process synchronization===* Dekker's algorithm* Lamport's Bakery algorithm* Peterson's algorithm===Scheduling===* Earliest deadline first scheduling* Fair-share scheduling* Least slack time scheduling* List scheduling* Multi level feedback queue* Rate-monotonic scheduling* Round-robin scheduling* Shortest job next* Shortest remaining time* Top-nodes algorithm: resource calendar management===I/O scheduling=======Disk scheduling====* Elevator algorithm: Disk scheduling algorithm that works like an elevator.",
"* Shortest seek first: Disk scheduling algorithm to reduce seek time."
],
[
"Other",
"*'For You' algorithm: a proprietary algorithm developed by the social media network Tik-Tok.",
"Uploaded videos are released first to a selection of users who have been identified by the algorithm as being likely to engage with the video, based on their previous web-site viewing patterns."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of data structures* List of machine learning algorithms* List of pathfinding algorithms* List of algorithm general topics* List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures* Heuristic"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Laconia incident"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''''Laconia'' incident''' was a series of events surrounding the sinking of a British passenger ship in the Atlantic Ocean on 12 September 1942, during World War II, and a subsequent aerial attack on German and Italian submarines involved in rescue attempts.",
", carrying 2,732 crew, passengers, soldiers, and prisoners of war, was torpedoed and sunk by , a German U-boat, off the West African coast.",
"Operating partly under the dictates of the old prize rules, the U-boat's commander, Werner Hartenstein, immediately commenced rescue operations.",
"''U-156'' broadcast her position on open radio channels to all Allied powers nearby, and was joined by the crews of several other U-boats in the vicinity.After surfacing and picking up survivors, who were accommodated on the foredeck, ''U-156'' headed on the surface under Red Cross banners to rendezvous with Vichy French ships and transfer the survivors.",
"En route, the U-boat was spotted by a B-24 Liberator bomber of the US Army Air Forces.",
"The aircrew, having reported the U-boat's location, declared intentions, and the presence of survivors, were then ordered to attack the sub.",
"The B-24 killed dozens of ''Laconia''s survivors with bombs and strafing attacks, forcing ''U-156'' to cast into the sea the remaining survivors that she had rescued and crash dive to avoid being destroyed.Rescue operations were continued by other vessels.",
"Another U-boat, , was also attacked by US aircraft and forced to dive.",
"A total of 976 to 1,083 people were eventually rescued; however, 1,658 to 1,757 were killed, mostly Italian POWs.",
"The event changed the general attitude of Germany's naval personnel towards rescuing stranded Allied seamen.",
"The commanders of the were quickly issued the Laconia Order by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, which specifically forbade any such attempt and ushered in unrestricted submarine warfare for the remainder of the war.The B-24 pilots mistakenly reported they had sunk , and were awarded medals for bravery.",
"Neither the US pilots nor their commander were punished or investigated, and the matter was quietly forgotten by the US military.",
"During the later Nuremberg trials, a prosecutor attempted to cite the Laconia Order as proof of war crimes by Dönitz and his submariners.",
"The ploy backfired, causing much embarrassment to the United States after the incident's full report had emerged to the public and the reason for the \"Laconia order\" was known."
],
[
"RMS ''Laconia''",
" on a Cunard Line postcard was built in 1921 as a civilian ocean liner by Swan, Hunter & Wigham Richardson Ltd, Wallsend, Northumberland.",
"In January 1923 Laconia began the first around-the-world cruise, which lasted 130 days and called at 22 ports.",
"On 8 September 1925, Laconia collided with the British schooner Lucia P. Dow in the Atlantic Ocean east of Nantucket, Massachusetts, United States.",
"Laconia towed the schooner for before handing the tow over to the American tug Resolute.",
"In 1934, her code letters were changed to GJCD.5 On 24 September 1934 Laconia was involved in a collision off the US coast, while travelling from Boston to New York in dense fog.",
"It rammed into the port side of Pan Royal, a US freighter.",
"6 Both ships suffered serious damage but were able to proceed under their own steam.",
"Laconia returned to New York for repairs, and resumed cruising in 1935.During World War II she was requisitioned for the war effort, and by 1942 had been converted into a troopship.",
"At the time of the incident she was transporting mostly Italian prisoners of war from Cape Town to Freetown, under the command of Captain Rudolph Sharp.",
"The ship was carrying 463 officers and crew, 87 civilians, 286 British soldiers, 1,793 Italian prisoners and 103 Polish soldiers acting as guards of the prisoners.Sharp had previously commanded , which had been sunk by German bombs on 17 June 1940, off the French port of Saint-Nazaire, while taking part in Operation Aerial, the evacuation of British nationals and troops from France, two weeks after the Dunkirk evacuation."
],
[
"Events",
"=== Attack on ''Laconia'' ===''Laconia''s armament, such as this BL 6-inch Mk VII gun, made her a legitimate targetAt 10 p.m., on 12 September 1942, was on patrol off the coast of western Africa, midway between Liberia and Ascension Island.",
"The submarine's commanding officer, Werner Hartenstein, spotted the large British ship sailing alone and attacked it.",
"Armed ships, which meant most merchantmen and troop transport, constituted legitimate targets for attack without warning.",
"Armed as such, the ''Laconia'' fell into this category, and at 10:22 p.m. she transmitted a message on the 600 m (500 kHz) band: \"SSS SSS 0434 South / 1125 West Laconia torpedoed.\"",
"\"SSS\" was the code signifying \"under attack by submarine\".",
"Additional messages were transmitted, but there is no record these were received by any other vessel or station.Although there were sufficient lifeboats for the entire ship's complement, including the Italian prisoners, heavy listing prevented half from being launched until the vessel had settled.",
"The prisoners were abandoned in the locked cargo holds as the ship sank, but most managed to escape by breaking down hatches or climbing up ventilation shafts.",
"Several were shot when a group of prisoners rushed a lifeboat, and a large number were bayoneted to death to prevent their boarding of one of the few lifeboats available.",
"The Polish guards were armed with rifles with fixed bayonets; however, they were not loaded and the guards carried no ammunition.",
"Witnesses indicate that few of the prisoners were shot.",
"Instead, most of the casualties were bayoneted.By the time the last lifeboats were launched most survivors had already entered the water, so some lifeboats had few passengers.",
"Only one life raft left the ship with prisoners on board; the rest jumped into the ocean.",
"Survivors later recounted how Italians in the water were either shot or had their hands severed by axes if they tried to climb into a lifeboat.",
"The blood soon attracted sharks.",
"Corporal Dino Monte, one of the few Italian survivors, stated \"… sharks darted among us.",
"Grabbing an arm, biting a leg.",
"Other larger beasts swallowed entire bodies.\"",
"As ''Laconia'' was going under, bow first, ''U-156'' surfaced to capture the ship's surviving senior officers.",
"To their surprise, they saw over 2,000 people struggling in the water.=== Rescue operation ===Realising that the passengers were primarily POWs and civilians, Hartenstein immediately began rescue operations whilst flying the Red Cross flag.",
"''Laconia'' sank at 11:23 p.m., over an hour after the attack.",
"At 1:25 a.m. on 13 September, Hartenstein sent a coded radio message to the alerting them to the situation.",
"It read: \"Sunk by Hartenstein, British Laconia, Qu FF7721, 310 deg.",
"Unfortunately with 1,500 Italian POWs; 90 fished out of the water so far.",
"Request orders.",
"\"The head of submarine operations, Admiral Karl Dönitz, immediately ordered seven U-boats from the wolfpack Eisbär, which had been gathering to take part in a planned surprise attack on Cape Town, to divert to the scene to pick up survivors.",
"Dönitz then informed Berlin of the situation and actions he had taken.",
"Hitler was furious and ordered that the rescue be abandoned.",
"Admiral Erich Raeder ordered Dönitz to disengage the Eisbär boats, which included Hartenstein's ''U-156'', and send them to Cape Town as per the original plan.",
"Raeder then ordered , commanded by Erich Würdemann, , under ''Korvettenkapitän'' Harro Schacht, and the Italian submarine to intercept Hartenstein to take on his survivors and then to proceed to the ''Laconia'' site and rescue any Italians they could find.",
"Raeder also requested the Vichy French to send warships from Dakar and Ivory Coast to collect the Italian survivors from the three submarines.The Vichy French, in response, sent the 7,600-ton cruiser from Dakar, and two sloops, the fast 660-ton ''Annamite'' and the slower 2,000-ton , from Conakry, French Guinea, and Cotonou, Dahomey, respectively.",
"Dönitz disengaged the Eisbär boats and informed Hartenstein of Raeder's orders, but he substituted ''Kapitänleutnant'' Helmut Witte's for ''U-156'' in the Eisbär group and sent the order: \"All boats, including Hartenstein, only take as many men into the boat as will allow it to be fully ready for action when submerged.",
"\"''U-156'' was soon crammed above and below decks with nearly 200 survivors, including five women, and had another 200 in tow aboard four lifeboats.",
"At 6 a.m. on 13 September, Hartenstein broadcast a message on the band in English—not in code—to all shipping in the area, giving his position, requesting assistance with the rescue effort, and promising not to attack.",
"It read: \"If any ship will assist the shipwrecked Laconia crew I will not attack her, providing I am not being attacked by ship or air force.",
"I picked up 193 men.",
"4°-53” South, 11°-26” West.",
"– German submarine.",
"\"The British in Freetown intercepted this message but, believing it might be a ruse of war, refused to credit it.",
"Two days later, on 15 September, a message was passed to the Americans that ''Laconia'' had been torpedoed and the British merchant ship was en route to pick up survivors.",
"The \"poorly composed message\" implied that ''Laconia'' had only been sunk that day and made no mention that the Germans were involved in a rescue attempt under a cease-fire or that neutral French ships were also en route.",
"''U-156'' remained on the surface at the scene for the next two-and-a-half days.",
"At 11:30 a.m. on 15 September, she was joined by ''U-506'', and a few hours later by both and the ''Comandante Cappellini''.",
"The four submarines, with lifeboats in tow and hundreds of survivors standing on their decks, headed for the African coastline and a rendezvous with the Vichy French surface warships that had set out from Senegal and Dahomey.=== First American attack ===During the night the submarines became separated.",
"On 16 September at 11:25 a.m., ''U-156'' was spotted by an American B-24 Liberator bomber flying from a secret airbase on Ascension.",
"The submarine was travelling with a Red Cross flag draped across her gun deck.",
"Hartenstein signalled to the pilot in both Morse code and English requesting assistance.",
"A British officer also messaged the aircraft: \"RAF officer speaking from German submarine, ''Laconia'' survivors on board, soldiers, civilians, women, children.",
"\"Lieutenant James D. Harden of the US Army Air Forces did not respond to the messages; turning away, he notified his base of the situation.",
"The senior officer on duty that day, Captain Robert C. Richardson III, who claimed that he did not know that this was a Red Cross-sanctioned German rescue operation, ordered the B-24 to \"sink the sub\".",
"Richardson later claimed he believed that the rules of war at the time did not permit a combat ship to fly Red Cross flags.",
"He feared that the German submarine would attack the two Allied freighters diverted by the British to the site.",
"He assumed that the German submarine was rescuing only the Italian POWs.",
"In his tactical assessment, he believed that the submarine might discover and shell the secret Ascension airfield and fuel tanks, thus cutting off a critical Allied resupply air route to British forces in Egypt and Soviet forces in Russia.Harden flew back to the scene of the rescue effort and, at 12:32 p.m., attacked with bombs and depth charges.",
"One landed among the lifeboats in tow behind ''U-156'', killing dozens of survivors, while others straddled the submarine itself, causing minor damage.",
"Hartenstein cast adrift those lifeboats still afloat and ordered the survivors on his deck into the water.",
"The submarine submerged slowly to give those still on the deck a chance to get into the water and escape.",
"According to Harden's report, he made four runs at the submarine.",
"On the first three the depth charges and bombs failed to release, on the fourth he dropped two bombs.",
"The crew of the Liberator were later awarded medals for the alleged sinking of ''U-156'', when they had in fact only sunk two lifeboats.Ignoring Hartenstein's request that they stay in the area to be rescued by the Vichy French, two lifeboats decided to head for Africa.",
"One, which began the journey with 68 people on board, reached the African coast 27 days later with only 16 survivors.",
"The other was rescued by a British trawler after 40 days at sea.",
"Only four of its 52 occupants were still alive.Unaware of the attack, ''U-507'', ''U-506'', and ''Cappellini'' continued to pick up survivors.",
"The following morning Commander Revedin of ''Cappellini'' found that he was rescuing survivors who had been set adrift by ''U-156.''",
"At 11:30 a.m. Revedin received the following message: \"Bordeaux to Cappellini: Reporting attack already undergone by other submarines.",
"Be ready to submerge for action against the enemy.",
"Put shipwrecked on rafts except women, children, and Italians, and make for minor grid-square 56 of grid-square 0971 where you will land remainder shipwrecked on to French ships.",
"Keep British prisoners.",
"Keep strictest watch enemy planes and submarines.",
"End of message.",
"\"''U-507'' and ''U-506'' received confirmation from headquarters of the attack on ''U-156'' and were asked for the number of survivors rescued.",
"Commander Schacht of ''U-507'' replied that he had 491, of whom 15 were women and 16 were children.",
"Commander Wurdemann of ''U-506'' confirmed 151, including nine women and children.",
"The next message from headquarters ordered them to cast adrift all the British and Polish survivors, mark their positions and instruct them to remain exactly where they were, then proceed with all haste to the rescue rendezvous.",
"The respective commanders chose not to cast any survivors adrift.The order given by Richardson and the resulting attack by Harden have been called Allied war crimes.",
"Under the conventions of war at sea, ships—including submarines—engaged in rescue operations are held to be immune from attack.=== Second American attack ===Five B-25s from Ascension's permanent squadron and Hardin's B-24 continued to search for submarines from dawn till dusk.",
"On 17 September, one B-25 sighted ''Laconia''s lifeboats and informed ''Empire Haven'' of their position.",
"Hardin's B-24 sighted ''U-506'', which had 151 survivors on board including nine women and children, and attacked.",
"On the first run the bombs failed to drop, ''U-506'' crash dived and on the second run the B-24 dropped two bombs and two depth charges but they caused no damage.",
"''Rescued British Sailors, Soldiers, Airmen and Merchant Seamen; on the French warship Gloire'' by Edward BawdenThat same day, the British at Freetown sent an ambiguous message to Ascension informing them that three French ships from Dakar were en route.",
"Captain Richardson assumed the French intended to invade Ascension so the submarine hunting was cancelled in order to prepare for an invasion.The French cruiser picked up 52 survivors, all British, while still from the rendezvous point.",
"''Gloire'' then met with the sloop ''Annamite'' with both meeting ''U-507'' and ''U-506'' at the rendezvous point at a little after 2 p.m. on 17 September.",
"With the exception of two British officers kept aboard ''U-507,'' the survivors were all transferred to the rescue ships.",
"''Gloire'' sailed off on her own and within four hours rescued another 11 lifeboats.",
"At 10 p.m., ''Gloire'' found another lifeboat and proceeded to a planned rendezvous with ''Annamite''.At 1 a.m., a lookout spotted a light on the horizon, which was investigated despite this meaning ''Gloire'' would not be able to make the rendezvous, and a further 84 survivors were rescued.",
"A new rendezvous was arranged, the ships meeting at 9:30 a.m. with ''Annamite'' transferring her survivors to ''Gloire''.",
"A count was then taken: 373 Italians, 70 Poles and 597 British who included 48 women and children.",
"''Gloire'' arrived at Dakar on 21 September to resupply before sailing for Casablanca, arriving there on 25 September.",
"On arrival, Colonel Baldwin, on behalf of all the British survivors, presented the captain of ''Cappellini'' with a letter that read as follows:The submarine ''Cappellini'' had been unable to find the French warships so radioed for instructions and awaited a response.",
"The French sloop ''Dumont-d’Urville'' was sent to rendezvous with ''Cappellini'' and by chance rescued a lifeboat from the British cargo ship ''Trevilley'', which had been torpedoed on 12 September.",
"After searching for other ''Trevilley'' survivors without luck, ''Dumont-d’Urville'' met ''Cappellini'' on 20 September.",
"With the exception of six Italians and two British officers, the remaining survivors were transferred to ''Dumont-d’Urville'', which later transferred the Italians to ''Annamite'', which transported them to Dakar on 24 September.",
"Of ''Laconia''’s original complement of 2,741, only 1,083 survived.",
"Of the 1,658 who died, 1,420 were Italian POWs.",
"Some estimates put the death toll as 1757.=== Conclusion ===From Casablanca, most of the survivors were taken to Mediouna to await transport to a prison camp in Germany.",
"On 8 November, the Allied invasion of North Africa began liberating the survivors, who were taken aboard the ship ''Anton'' which landed them in the United States.Doris Hawkins, a missionary nurse, survived the ''Laconia'' incident and spent 27 days adrift in Lifeboat Nine, finally coming ashore on the coast of Liberia.",
"She was returning to England after five years in Palestine with 14-month-old Sally Kay Readman, who was lost to the sea as they were transferred into the lifeboat.Doris Hawkins wrote a pamphlet titled \"Atlantic Torpedo\" after her eventual return to England, published by Victor Gollancz in 1943.In it she writes of the moments when Sally was lost: \"We found ourselves on top of the arms and legs of a panic-stricken mass of humanity.",
"The lifeboat, filled to capacity with men, women and children, was leaking badly and rapidly filling with water; at the same time it was crashing against the ship’s side.",
"Just as Sally was passed over to me, the boat filled completely and capsized, flinging us all into the water.",
"I lost her.",
"I did not hear her cry even then, and I am sure that God took her immediately to Himself without suffering.",
"I never saw her again.",
"\"Doris Hawkins was one of 16 survivors (out of 69 in the lifeboat when it was cast adrift from the U-boat).",
"She spent the remaining war years personally visiting the families of people who perished in the lifeboat, returning mementos entrusted to her by them in their dying moments.",
"In Doris's words, \"It is impossible to imagine why I should have been chosen to survive when so many did not.",
"I have been reluctant to write the story of our experiences, but in answer to many requests I have done so; and if it strengthens someone’s faith, if it is an inspiration to any, if it brings home to others, hitherto untouched, all that 'those who go down to the sea in ships' face for our sakes, hour by hour, day by day, year in and year out—it will not have been written in vain\".Survivor Jim McLoughlin states in ''One Common Enemy'' that after the incident Hartenstein asked him if he was in the Royal Navy, which he was, then why a passenger ship was armed, stating, \"If it wasn't armed, I would not have attacked.\"",
"McLoughlin believes this indicates Hartenstein had thought it was a troop transport rather than a passenger ship; by signalling to the Royal Navy, ''Laconia'' was acting as a auxiliary ship."
],
[
"Aftermath",
"The ''Laconia'' incident had far-reaching consequences.",
"Up until that point, it was common for U-boats to assist torpedoed survivors with food, water, simple medical care for the wounded, and a compass bearing to the nearest landmass.",
"It was extremely rare for survivors to be brought on board, as space on a U-boat was barely enough for its own crew.",
"On 17 September 1942, in response to the incident, Admiral Karl Dönitz issued an order named ''Triton Null'', later known as the Laconia Order.",
"In it, Dönitz prohibited U-boat crews from attempting rescues; survivors were to be left in the sea.",
"Even afterwards, U-boats still occasionally provided aid for survivors.At the Nuremberg trials held by the Allies in 1946, Dönitz was indicted for war crimes.",
"The issuance of the Laconia Order was the centrepiece of the prosecution case, a decision that backfired badly.",
"Its introduction allowed the defence to recount at length the numerous instances in which German submariners acted with humanity where in similar situations the Allies behaved callously.",
"Dönitz pointed out that the order itself was a direct result of this callousness and the attack by US aircraft on a rescue operation.The Americans had also practised unrestricted submarine warfare, under their own equivalent to the Laconia Order, which had been in force since they entered the war.",
"Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz, the wartime commander-in-chief of the US Pacific Fleet, provided unapologetic written testimony on Dönitz's behalf at his trial that the US Navy had waged unrestricted submarine warfare in the Pacific from the very first day the United States entered the war.",
"This testimony led the Nuremberg Tribunal not to impose a sentence upon Dönitz for this breach of law, even though he was convicted of the count.The Naval War College series International Law Studies covers interpretations of international law during armed conflicts and how these laws were applied by each party.",
"In volume 65, ''Targeting Enemy Merchant Shipping'', chapter three contains an examination of the ''Laconia'' incident in the context of the application of international law to World War II submarine warfare:"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Works cited",
"Bibliography*** *************Other sources*"
],
[
"External links",
"* The ''Laconia'' incident on Uboat.net* The ''Laconia'' incident on Uboataces.com"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Leon Theremin"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lev Sergeyevich Termen''' (, ; 18963 November 1993), better known as '''Leon Theremin''', was a Russian inventor, most famous for his invention of the theremin, one of the first electronic musical instruments and the first to be mass-produced.",
"He also worked on early television research.",
"His secret listening device, \"The Thing\", hung for seven years in plain view in the United States ambassador's Moscow office and enabled Soviet agents to eavesdrop on secret conversations."
],
[
"Early life",
"Leon Theremin was born in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire in 1896.His father was Sergei Emilievich Theremin, of French Huguenot descent.",
"His mother was Yevgenia Antonova Orzhinskaya and of German ancestry.",
"He had a sister named Helena.In the seventh class of his high school before an audience of students and parents he demonstrated various optical effects using electricity.By the age of 17 he was in his last year of high school, had his own laboratory at home for experimenting with high-frequency circuits, optics and magnetic fields.",
"His cousin, Kirill Fedorovich Nesturkh, then a young physicist, invited him to attend the defense of the dissertation of Abram Fedorovich Ioffe.",
"Physics lecturer Vladimir Konstantinovich Lebedinskiy had explained to Theremin the dispute over Ioffe's work on the electron.",
"On 9 May 1913 Theremin and his cousin attended Ioffe's dissertation defense.",
"Ioffe's subject was on the elementary photoelectric effect, the magnetic field of cathode rays and related investigations.",
"In 1917 Theremin wrote that Ioffe talked of electrons, the photoelectric effect and magnetic fields as parts of an objective reality that surrounds us every day, unlike others that talked more of somewhat abstract formulae and symbols.",
"Theremin wrote that he found this explanation revelatory and that it fit a scientific – not abstract – view of the world, different scales of magnitude, and matter.",
"From then on Theremin endeavoured to study the microcosm, in the same way he had studied the macrocosm with his hand-built telescope.",
"Later, Kyrill introduced Theremin to Ioffe as a young experimenter and physicist, and future student of the university.Theremin recalled that while still in his last year of school, he had built a million-volt Tesla coil and noticed a strong glow associated with his attempts to ionise the air.",
"He then wished to further investigate the effects using university resources.",
"A chance meeting with Abram Fedorovich Ioffe led to a recommendation to see Karl Karlovich Baumgart, who was in charge of the physics laboratory equipment.",
"Karl then reserved a room and equipment for Theremin's experiments.",
"Abram Fedorovich suggested Theremin also look at methods of creating gas fluorescence under different conditions and of examining the resulting light's spectra.",
"However, during these investigations Theremin was called up for World War I military service."
],
[
"World War I and Russian Civil War",
"Although only in his second academic year, the deanery of the Faculty of Physics and Astronomy recommended that Theremin go to the Nikolayevska Military Engineering School in Petrograd (previously Saint Petersburg), which usually only accepted students in their fourth year.",
"Theremin recalled that Ioffe reassured him that the war would not last long and that military experience would be useful for scientific applications.Beginning his military service in 1916, Theremin finished the Military Engineering School in six months, progressed through the Graduate Electronic School for Officers, and attained the military radio-engineer diploma in the same year.",
"In the course of the next three and a half years he oversaw the construction of a radio station in Saratov to connect the Volga area with Moscow, graduated from Petrograd University, became deputy leader of the new Military Radiotechnical Laboratory in Moscow, and finished as the broadcast supervisor of the radio transmitter at ''Tsarskoye Selo'' near Petrograd (then renamed ''Detskoye Selo'').During the Russian Civil War, in October 1919 White Army commander Nikolai Nikolayevich Yudenich advanced on Petrograd from the side of ''Detskoye Selo'', apparently intending to capture the radio station to announce a victory over the Bolsheviks.",
"Theremin and others evacuated the station, sending equipment east on rail cars.",
"Theremin then detonated explosives to destroy the 120-meter-high antennae mast before traveling to Petrograd to set up an international listening station.",
"There he also trained radio specialists but reported difficulties obtaining food and working with foreign experts whom he described as narrow-minded pessimists.Theremin recalled that on an evening when his hopes of overcoming these obstructing experts reached a low ebb, Abram Fedorovich Ioffe telephoned him.",
"Ioffe asked Theremin to come to his newly founded Physical Technical Institute in Petrograd, and the next day he invited him to start work at developing measuring methods for high-frequency electrical oscillations."
],
[
"Under Ioffe",
"The day after Ioffe's invitation, Theremin started at the institute.",
"He worked in diverse fields: applying the Laue effect to the new field of X-ray analysis of crystals; using hypnosis to improve measurement-reading accuracy; working with Ivan Pavlov's laboratory; and using gas-filled lamps as measuring devices.",
"He built a high-frequency oscillator to measure the dielectric constant of gases with high precision; Ioffe then urged him to look for other applications using this method, and shortly made the first motion detector for use as a \"radio watchman\".While adapting the dielectric device by adding circuitry to generate an audio tone, Theremin noticed that the pitch changed when his hand moved around.",
"In October 1920 he first demonstrated this to Ioffe who called in other professors and students to hear.",
"Theremin recalled trying to find the notes for tunes he remembered from when he played the cello, such as The Swan, by Saint-Saëns.",
"By November 1920, Theremin had given his first public concert with the instrument, now modified with a horizontal volume antenna replacing the earlier foot-operated volume control.",
"He named it the ''etherphone'', but it was known in the Soviet Union as the or , in Germany as the and later, in the USA, as the ''theremin.",
"''On 24 May 1924 Theremin married 20-year-old Katia () Konstantinova, and they lived together in his parents' apartment on Marat street.In 1925 Theremin went to Germany to sell both the radio watchman and Termenvox patents to the German firm Goldberg and Sons.",
"According to Glinsky, this was the Soviet's \"decoy for capitalists\" to obtain both Western profits from sales and technical knowledge.During this time Theremin was also working on a wireless television with 16 scan lines in 1925, improving to 32 scan lines and then 64 using interlacing in 1926, and he demonstrated moving, if blurry, images on 7 June 1927.His device was the first functioning television apparatus in Russia."
],
[
"United States",
"Clara Rockmore and Leon ThereminAfter being sent on a lengthy tour of Europe starting 1927 – including London, Paris and towns in Germany – during which he demonstrated his invention to full audiences, Theremin went to the United States, arriving on 30 December 1927 with his first wife Katia.",
"He performed the theremin with the New York Philharmonic in 1928.He patented his invention in the United States in 1928 and subsequently granted commercial production rights to RCA.Theremin set up a laboratory in New York in the 1930s, where he further refined the theremin and experimented with other inventions and new electronic musical instruments.",
"These included the Rhythmicon, commissioned by the composer Henry Cowell.In 1930, ten thereminists performed on stage at Carnegie Hall.",
"Two years later, Theremin conducted the first-ever electronic orchestra, featuring the theremin and other electronic instruments including a \"fingerboard\" theremin which resembled a cello in use (Theremin was a cellist).In 1931, he worked with composer Henry Cowell to build an instrument called the rhythmicon.",
"They were lucky to have gotten it to market as quickly as they did as brothers Otto and Benjamin Miessner had almost completed a similar instrument with the same name.Theremin's mentors during this time were some of society's foremost scientists, composers, and musical theorists, including composer Joseph Schillinger and physicist (and amateur violinist) Albert Einstein.At this time, Theremin worked closely with fellow Soviet émigré and theremin virtuoso Clara Rockmore (née Reisenberg).",
"Theremin had several times proposed to her, but she chose to marry attorney Robert Rockmore, and thereafter used his name professionally.The U.S. Federal Bureau of Prisons hired Theremin to build a metal detector for Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary.Theremin was interested in a role for the theremin in dance music.",
"He developed performance locations that could automatically react to dancers' movements with varied patterns of sound and light.The Soviet consulate had apparently demanded he divorce Katia.",
"Afterwards, while working with the American Negro Ballet Company, the inventor married a young African-American prima ballerina Lavinia Williams.",
"Their marriage caused shock and disapproval in his social circles, but the ostracized couple remained together."
],
[
"Return to the Soviet Union",
"Theremin abruptly returned to the Soviet Union in 1938.At the time, the reasons for his return were unclear; some claimed that he was homesick, while others believed that he had been kidnapped by Soviet officials.",
"Beryl Campbell, one of Theremin's dancers, said his wife Lavinia \"called to say that he had been kidnapped from his studio\" and that \"some Russians had come in\" and that she felt that he was going to be spirited out of the country.Many years later, it was revealed that Theremin had returned to his native land due to tax and financial difficulties in the United States.",
"However, Theremin himself once told Bulat Galeyev that he decided to leave himself because he was anxious about the approaching war.",
"Shortly after he returned he was imprisoned in the Butyrka prison and later sent to work in the Kolyma gold mines.",
"Although rumors of his execution were widely circulated and published, Theremin was put to work in a ''sharashka'' (a secret laboratory in the Gulag camp system), together with Andrei Tupolev, Sergei Korolev and other well-known scientists and engineers.",
"The Soviet Union rehabilitated him in 1956."
],
[
"Espionage",
"\"The Thing\"During his work at the ''sharashka'', where he was put in charge of other workers, Theremin created the Buran eavesdropping system.",
"A precursor to the modern laser microphone, it worked by using a low-power infrared beam from a distance to detect sound vibrations in glass windows.",
"Lavrentiy Beria, the head of the secret police organization NKVD (the predecessor of the KGB), used the Buran device to spy on the British, French and US embassies in Moscow.",
"According to Galeyev, Beria also spied on Stalin; Theremin kept some of the tapes in his flat.",
"In 1947, Theremin was awarded the Stalin prize for inventing this advance in Soviet espionage technology.Theremin invented another listening device called The Thing, hidden in a replica of the Great Seal of the United States carved in wood.",
"In 1945, Soviet school children presented the concealed bug to the U.S.",
"Ambassador as a \"gesture of friendship\" to the USSR's World War II ally.",
"It hung in the ambassador’s residential office in Moscow and intercepted confidential conversations there during the first seven years of the Cold War, until it was accidentally discovered in 1952."
],
[
"Later life",
"After his release from the ''sharashka'' in 1947, Theremin volunteered to remain working with the KGB until 1966.By 1947 Theremin had remarried, to Maria Guschina, his third wife, and they had two children: Lena and Natalia.Theremin worked at the Moscow Conservatory of Music for 10 years where he taught, and built theremins, electronic cellos and some terpsitones (another invention of Theremin).",
"There he was discovered by Harold Schonberg, the chief music critic of ''The New York Times'', who was visiting the Conservatory.",
"But when an article by Schonberg appeared mentioning Theremin, the Conservatory's Managing Director declared that \"electricity is not good for music; electricity is to be used for electrocution\" and had his instruments removed from the Conservatory.",
"Further electronic music projects were banned, and Theremin was summarily dismissed.In the 1970s, Leon Theremin was a Professor of Physics at Moscow State University (Department of Acoustics) developing his inventions and supervising graduate students.After 51 years in the Soviet Union Theremin started travelling, first visiting France in June 1989 and then the United States in 1991, each time accompanied by his daughter Natalia.",
"Theremin was brought to New York by filmmaker Steven M. Martin where he was reunited with Clara Rockmore.",
"He also made a demonstration concert at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague in early 1993 before dying in Moscow on Wednesday 3 November 1993 at the age of 97."
],
[
"Family",
"* Katia (Ekaterina Pavlovna) Konstantinova, first spouse* Lavinia Williams, second spouse (no children)* Maria Gushina, third spouse* Elena \"Lena\" Theremin - daughter;* Natalia Theremin - daughter;* Maria \"Masha\" Alekseyevna Theremin - granddaughter;* Olga Theremin - granddaughter;* Peter Theremin - great-grandson."
],
[
"Media",
"The feature-length documentary film ''Theremin: An Electronic Odyssey'' was released in 1993.His life story and his Great Seal bug invention were featured in a 2012 episode of the ''Dark Matters: Twisted But True''.In 2000, University of Illinois Press published ''Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage'' by Albert Glinsky, with a foreword by Robert Moog.In 2014, Canadian writer Sean Michaels published the novel ''Us Conductors'', which was inspired by the relationship between Leon Theremin and Clara Rockmore.",
"The novel won the 2014 Scotiabank Giller Prize.In 2022, French writer Emmanuel Villin published the novel La Fugue Thérémine (éditions Asphalte), which looks back on the life of Leon Theremin."
],
[
"Inventions",
"*Theremin (1920)*Burglar alarm, or \"Signalling Apparatus\" which used the Theremin effect (1920s).",
"*Electromechanical television – Nipkow disk with mirrors instead of slots (ca.",
"1925).",
"*Terpsitone – platform that converts dance movements into tones (1932).",
"*Theremin cello – an electronic cello with no strings and no bow, using a plastic fingerboard, a handle for volume and two knobs for sound shaping (ca.",
"1930).",
"*Keyboard theremin (ca.",
"1930), a small keyboard \"with hornlike tones\".",
"*Rhythmicon – world's first drum machine (1931).",
"*The Buran eavesdropping device (1947 or earlier).",
"*The Great Seal bug, also known as \"The Thing\" – one of the first passive covert listening devices; first used by the USSR for spying (1945 or earlier).",
"It is considered a predecessor of RFID technology."
],
[
"See also",
"*Spharophon, a Theremin-like instrument made by Jörg Mager around 1921*Lee de Forest, inventor of the amplifying vacuum tube*The Trautonium, an early electronic instrument contemporary with the theremin invented by Friedrich Trautwein and later developed by Oskar Sala*Maurice Martenot, inventor of the Ondes Martenot, a keyboard-based instrument using the heterodyning method*Robert Moog*Raymond Scott"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* Linked from ''LMJ'' '''6'''** * copied here Theremin Vox - An Interview with Leon Theremin* Sections translated by Felix Eder from the Russian originals in: *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Andrey Smirnov – theremin sensors workshop (selected demonstrations of Theremin sensors and laser bugging.)",
"Retrieved 2009-09-11* Theremin Centre, Moscow, holds Lev Sergeivitch Termen archives (Russian only)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Linear prediction"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Linear prediction''' is a mathematical operation where future values of a discrete-time signal are estimated as a linear function of previous samples.In digital signal processing, linear prediction is often called linear predictive coding (LPC) and can thus be viewed as a subset of filter theory.",
"In system analysis, a subfield of mathematics, linear prediction can be viewed as a part of mathematical modelling or optimization."
],
[
"The prediction model",
"The most common representation is:where is the predicted signal value, the previous observed values, with , and the predictor coefficients.",
"The error generated by this estimate is:where is the true signal value.These equations are valid for all types of (one-dimensional) linear prediction.",
"The differences are found in the way the predictor coefficients are chosen.For multi-dimensional signals the error metric is often defined as:where is a suitable chosen vector norm.",
"Predictions such as are routinely used within Kalman filters and smoothers to estimate current and past signal values, respectively, from noisy measurements.=== Estimating the parameters ===The most common choice in optimization of parameters is the root mean square criterion which is also called the autocorrelation criterion.",
"In this method we minimize the expected value of the squared error , which yields the equation:for 1 ≤ ''j'' ≤ ''p'', where ''R'' is the autocorrelation of signal ''x''''n'', defined as:,and ''E'' is the expected value.",
"In the multi-dimensional case this corresponds to minimizing the L2 norm.The above equations are called the normal equations or Yule-Walker equations.",
"In matrix form the equations can be equivalently written as:where the autocorrelation matrix is a symmetric, Toeplitz matrix with elements , the vector is the autocorrelation vector , and , the parameter vector.Another, more general, approach is to minimize the sum of squares of the errors defined in the form:where the optimisation problem searching over all must now be constrained with .On the other hand, if the mean square prediction error is constrained to be unity and the prediction error equation is included on top of the normal equations, the augmented set of equations is obtained as:where the index ranges from 0 to , and is a matrix.Specification of the parameters of the linear predictor is a wide topic and a large number of other approaches have been proposed.",
"In fact, the autocorrelation method is the most common and it is used, for example, for speech coding in the GSM standard.Solution of the matrix equation is computationally a relatively expensive process.",
"The Gaussian elimination for matrix inversion is probably the oldest solution but this approach does not efficiently use the symmetry of .",
"A faster algorithm is the Levinson recursion proposed by Norman Levinson in 1947, which recursively calculates the solution.",
"In particular, the autocorrelation equations above may be more efficiently solved by the Durbin algorithm.In 1986, Philippe Delsarte and Y.V.",
"Genin proposed an improvement to this algorithm called the split Levinson recursion, which requires about half the number of multiplications and divisions.",
"It uses a special symmetrical property of parameter vectors on subsequent recursion levels.",
"That is, calculations for the optimal predictor containing terms make use of similar calculations for the optimal predictor containing terms.Another way of identifying model parameters is to iteratively calculate state estimates using Kalman filters and obtaining maximum likelihood estimates within expectation–maximization algorithms.For equally-spaced values, a polynomial interpolation is a linear combination of the known values.",
"If the discrete time signal is estimated to obey a polynomial of degree then the predictor coefficients are given by the corresponding row of the triangle of binomial transform coefficients.",
"This estimate might be suitable for a slowly varying signal with low noise.",
"The predictions for the first few values of are:"
],
[
"See also",
"* Autoregressive model* Linear predictive analysis* Minimum mean square error* Prediction interval* Rasta filtering"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"****"
],
[
"External links",
"* PLP and RASTA (and MFCC, and inversion) in Matlab"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Leto"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In ancient Greek mythology and religion, '''Leto''' (; ) is a goddess and the mother of Apollo and Artemis.",
"She is the daughter of the Titans Coeus and Phoebe, and the sister of Asteria.In the Olympian scheme, the king of gods Zeus is the father of her twins, Apollo and Artemis, whom Leto conceived after her hidden beauty accidentally caught the eye of Zeus.",
"Classical Greek myths record little about Leto other than her pregnancy and search for a place where she could give birth to Apollo and Artemis, since Hera, the wife of Zeus, in her jealousy ordered all lands to shun her and deny her shelter.",
"Hera is also the one to have sent the monstrous Python, a giant serpent, against Leto to pursue and harm her.",
"Leto eventually found an island, Delos, that was not joined to the mainland or attached to the ocean floor, therefore it was not considered land or island and she could give birth.",
"In some stories, Hera further tormented Leto by delaying her labour, leaving Leto in agony for days before she could deliver the twins, especially Apollo.",
"Once Apollo and Artemis are born and grown, Leto withdraws, to remain a matronly figure upon Olympus, her part already played.Besides the myth of the birth of Artemis and Apollo, Leto appears in other notable myths, usually where she punishes mortals for their hubris against her.",
"After some Lycian peasants prevented her and her infants from drinking from a fountain, Leto transformed them all into frogs inhabiting the fountain.",
"In the story of Niobe, Queen Niobe boasts of being a better mother than Leto due to having given birth to fourteen children, as opposed to only two.",
"Leto asks her twin children to avenge her, and they respond by shooting all of Niobe's sons and daughters dead as punishment.",
"In another myth, the gigantic Tityos attempted to violate Leto, only for him to be slain by Artemis and Apollo.",
"Usually, Leto is found at Olympus among the other gods, having gained her seat next to Zeus, or accompanying and helping her son and daughter in their various endeavors.In antiquity, Leto was usually worshipped in conjunction with her twin children, particularly in the sacred island of Delos, as a ''kourotrophic'' deity, the goddess of motherhood; in Lycia she was a mother goddess.",
"In Roman mythology, Leto's Roman equivalent is '''Latona''', a Latinization of her name, influenced by Etruscan ''Letun''.",
"In ancient art, she is presented as a modest, veiled women in the presence of her children and Zeus, usually in the process of being carried off by Tityos."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Relief from the 2nd century, staging the marriage of Zeus and Leto, Hierapolis Museum.",
"'Leto' is Attic Greek; in the Doric Greek dialect, spoken in Sparta and the surrounding areas her name was spelled Lato with an alpha instead (; ).There are several explanations for the origin of the goddess and the meaning of her name.",
"Older sources speculated that the name is related to the Greek ''lḗthē'' (lethe, oblivion) and ''lotus'' (the fruit that brings oblivion to those who eat it).",
"It would thus mean \"the hidden one\".In 20th century sources ''Leto'' is traditionally derived from Lycian ''lada'', \"wife\", as her earliest cult was centered in Lycia.",
"Lycian ''lada'' may also be the origin of the Greek name ''Leda''.",
"Other scholars (Kretschmer, Bethe, Chantraine, and Beekes) have suggested a pre-Greek origin.In Mycenaean Greek her name has been attested through the form ''Latios'', meaning son of Leto (Linear B: , ''ra-ti-jo'') and ''Lato'' (Linear B: , ''ra-to'')."
],
[
"Origins",
"Statue of Leto in the Yelagin Palace, St. Petersburg.Leto was identified from the fourth century onwards as the principal local mother goddess of Anatolian Lycia, as the region became Hellenized.",
"In Greek inscriptions, the children of Leto are referred to as the \"national gods\" of the country.",
"Her sanctuary, the Letoon near Xanthos, predated Hellenic influence in the region, however, united the Lycian confederacy of city-states.",
"The Hellenes of Kos also claimed Leto as their own.",
"Another sanctuary, more recently identified, was at Oenoanda in the north of Lycia.",
"There was a further Letoon at Delos.Leto is exceptional among Zeus' divine lovers for being the only one who was tormented by Hera, who otherwise only directs her anger toward mortal women and nymphs, but not goddesses, thus being treated more in line with mortal women than divine beings in mythology.",
"Zeus had various affairs with goddesses like Themis, Nemesis, Dione, Thetis, Selene, Persephone, and more, which were never been harm by Hera; the sole exception (besides Leto) is found in the ''Suda'', a late Byzantine lexicon which recounts the story of Hera cursing a pregnant Aphrodite's belly, leading to the birth of Priapus.",
"Moreover, Leto's troubled childbirth bears resemblance to Alcmene's, as both suffered painful extended labours due to Hera not allowing Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to help them, and both stories overall are also thematically linked to the myth of Semele and her son Dionysus, another story of a mortal woman who bore an important son for Zeus and was punished by Hera for that.",
"Yet at the same time Hesiodic tradition makes her the daughter of two Titans, elder gods, and one of Zeus' first seven wives.",
"Leto's peculiar mythology and ontology has led to suggestions that she might be a composite of two figures, an immortal goddess who bore Artemis, and a mortal woman who gave birth to Apollo."
],
[
"Family and attributes",
"Leto is the daughter of the Titans Phoebe and Coeus.",
"Her sister is Asteria, who is, by the Titan Perses, the mother of Hecate.Leto is also sometimes called the daughter of Coeus with no mother specified.",
"The island of Kos, in the southeast Aegean, is claimed to be her birthplace.",
"However, Diodorus Siculus states clearly that Leto was born in Hyperborea and not in Kos.",
"Both sisters captured Zeus's heart; first Leto, and then Asteria, who caught his attention after Leto had already been impregnated with his twins.",
"Unlike Leto, Asteria did not reciprocate his love.",
"In Homeric texts, Leto is shown standing next to Zeus in the absence of Hera almost in the manner of a married wife, and not just one mistress among the many.Hesiod describes Leto as \"always mild, kind to men and to the deathless gods, mild from the beginning,\" the gentlest goddess in all Olympus.",
"Plato also makes references to Leto's softness when trying to link etymologically her name to the word ''ἐθελήμονα'' (\"willing\", i.e.",
"to assist those asking for her help), as well as ''λεῖον'' (\"mild\").",
"Next to Demeter, Leto was the most celebrated mother of the ancient world.Hesiod describes Leto as \"dark-gowned\" and the ''Orphic Hymn'' 35 ''to Leto'' describes her as \"dark-veiled\" and \"goddess who gave birth to twins\" (''θεός διδυματόκος'').",
"In the ''Homeric Hymn to Apollo'', she is described as golden-haired."
],
[
"Mythology",
"=== Birth of Artemis and Apollo ===Leto with her children, by William Henry Rinehart==== Earlier accounts ====Hesiod makes her the sixth out of the seven wives of Zeus, who bore his children before his marriage to Hera, however this element is absent in later accounts, all of which speak of a liaison between the two, that ended up in Leto falling pregnant.",
"When Hera, the goddess of marriage and family, queen of the gods and the wife of Zeus, figured it out, she pursued her relentlessly.The ''Homeric Hymn 3 to Apollo'' is the oldest extant account of Leto's wandering and birth of her children, but it is only concerned with the birth of Apollo, and treats Artemis as an afterthought; in fact the hymn does not even state that Leto's children are twins, and they are given different birthplaces (he in Delos, she in Ortygia).",
"The first to speak of Leto's children being twins is a slightly later poet, Pindar.",
"The two earliest poets, Homer and Hesiod, confirm Artemis and Apollo's status as full siblings born to Leto by Zeus, but neither explicitly makes them twins.leftAccording to the ''Homeric Hymn'' 3 ''to Delian Apollo'', Leto travelled far and wide to find a place to give birth, but none of them dared be the birthplace of Apollo.",
"After having arrived at Delos, she labored for nine nights and nine days, in the presence of Dione, Rhea, Ichnaea, Themis and the sea-goddess Amphitrite.",
"Only Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, was not present; she, unaware of the situation, was with jealous Hera on Olympus.",
"''Leto on the run with Artemis and Apollo'', Roman statue circa 350-400 ADHer absence, which was preventing Leto from giving birth, kept her in labor for nine days.",
"According to the Homeric hymn, the goddesses who assembled to witness the birth of Apollo were responding to a public occasion in the rites of a dynasty, where the authenticity of the child must be established beyond doubt from the first moment.The dynastic rite of the witnessed birth must have been familiar to the hymn's hearers.",
"The dynasty that is so concerned about being authenticated in this myth is the new dynasty of Zeus and the Olympian Pantheon, and the goddesses at Delos who bear witness to the rightness of the birth are the great goddesses of the old order.",
"Demeter was not present and Aphrodite was not either, but Rhea attended.",
"The goddess Dione (her name simply means \"divine\" or \"she-Zeus\") is sometimes taken by later mythographers as a mere feminine form of Zeus (see entry Dodona).",
"If that was the case, she would not have assembled there.",
"Then, on the ninth day, Eileithyia was sent for by the messenger goddess Iris, who persuaded her with a necklace and brought her to Delos.",
"As soon as Eileithyia arrived, Apollo was finally allowed to be born, and was given ambrosia and nectar by Themis, rather than breastmilk.",
"Preceding the myth of Apollo's birth, the preface of the hymn begins with the status quo that was then established, namely that Leto is now by the side of Zeus in Olympus, both proudly watching Apollo exercise his archery skills, and she is ever glad for having borne the king of gods such a splendid son and archer.==== Later accounts ====According to the ''Bibliotheca'', \"But Latona for her intrigue with Zeus was hunted by Hera over the whole earth, till she came to Delos and brought forth first Artemis, by the help of whose midwifery she afterwards gave birth to Apollo.",
"\"Antoninus Liberalis hints that Leto came down from Hyperborea in the guise of a she-wolf, or that she sought out the \"wolf-country\" of Lycia, formerly called Tremilis, which she renamed to honour wolves that had befriended her.",
"Another late source, Aelian, also links Leto with wolves and Hyperboreans:Wolves are not easily delivered of their young, only after twelve days and twelve nights, for the people of Delos maintain that this was the length of time that it took Leto to travel from the Hyperboreoi to Delos.",
"''The Birth of Apollo and Diana'', Marcantonio Franceschini, oil on canvas, ca 1692-1709,\tLiechtenstein Museum.Leto found the barren floating island of Delos, still bearing its archaic name of Asterios, which was neither mainland nor a real island and gave birth there, promising the island wealth from the worshippers who would flock to the obscure birthplace of the splendid god who was to come.",
"As a gesture of gratitude, Delos was secured with four pillars and later became sacred to Apollo.",
"''Latona with her children Apollo and Diana'', oil painting, Anton Raphael Mengs, 1769Callimachus states that not only did every place on earth refuse to give sanctuary to Leto out of fear of Hera, but the queen of gods had also deployed Ares and Iris to drive Leto away from anywhere she tried to settle in, so she would not give birth to her twins.",
"Leto considered the island of Kos for a birthplace, but Apollo, still in the womb, advised his mother against giving birth to him there, saying Kos was fated to be the birthplace of someone else.",
"He later urged his mother to go to Delos.",
"Callimachus wrote that it is remarkable that Leto brought forth Artemis, the elder twin, without travail.Libanius wrote that neither land nor visible islands would receive Leto, but by the will of Zeus Delos then became visible, and thus received Leto and the children.According to Hyginus, when Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant by Zeus, she banned Leto from giving birth on \"terra firma\", the mainland, any island at sea, or any place under the sun.",
"But Zeus then sent Boreas, the god of the north wind, to Leto, who brought her to Poseidon.",
"Poseidon then raised high waves above Ortygia, shielding it from the light of the sun with a water dome; it was later called the island of Delos.",
"There Leto, clinging to an olive tree, bore Apollo and Artemis after four days.According to the Homeric Hymn and the ''Orphic Hymn'' 35 ''to Leto'', Artemis was born on the island of Ortygia before Apollo was on Delos.",
"Stephanus of Byzantium also states that Artemis was born before Apollo, however he claims that she was born at Coressus.According to a local tradition, Apollo was not born on Delos at all, but in Tegyra, a town in Boeotia, where he was worshipped as Apollo Tegyraeus.Servius, a grammarian who lived during the late 300s AD and early 400s AD, wrote that Artemis was born first because first came the night, whose instrument is the moon, which Artemis represents, and then the day, whose instrument is the sun, which Apollo represents.",
"Pindar however writes that both twins shone like the sun when they came into the bright light.=== Chthonic assailants ===Apollo piercing with his arrows Tityos, who has tried to rape his mother Leto (c. 450–440 BC)Leto was threatened and assailed in her wanderings by ancient earth creatures that had to be overcome, chthonic monsters of the ancient earth and old ways, and these became the enemies of Apollo and Artemis for attempting to cause harm to their mother.The Rape of Leto by Tityos (c. 515 BC).",
"Leto is third from left.One of the monsters that came across Leto was the dragon Python, which lived in a cleft of the mother-rock beneath Delphi and beside the Castalian Spring.",
"Once Python knew that Leto was pregnant to Zeus, he hunted her down with the intention to harm her, and once he could not find her, he returned to Parnassus.",
"An epigram from 159 BC seems to imply that Python in particular wanted to rape Leto.",
"According to some, Python was sent by Hera herself to attack Leto, out of jealousy for having been preferred by Zeus and he knew of a prophecy that he would find death at the hands of Leto's unborn son.",
"According to Clearchus of Soli, while Python was pursuing them, Leto stepped on a stone and, holding her son in her hands, cried (''híe paî'', meaning \"shoot, child\") to Apollo, who was holding a bow and arrows.",
"Apollo slew it but had to do penance and be cleansed afterward, since though Python was a child of Gaia, it was necessary that the ancient Delphic Oracle passed to the protection of the new god.Another one was the giant Tityos, a phallic being who grew so vast that he split his mother's womb and had to be carried to term by Gaia (the Earth) herself.",
"He attempted to rape Leto near Delphi under the orders of Hera, like Python was, for having slept with Zeus, or alternatively he was simply overwhelmed with lust when he saw her.",
"Tityos took hold of Leto and attempted to force himself on her, but she called out for her children, and Tityos was laid low by the arrows of Apollo and/or Artemis, as Pindar recalled in a Pythian ode.",
"As he laid dying, his mother Gaia moaned over her slain son; Leto only laughed.",
"For the crime of having tried to rape Leto, one of Zeus' mistresses, he was punished by having his liver being constantly eaten by two vultures in the Underworld.=== Involvement in wars ===Leto fights Giants between her twins, Gigantomachy east frieze, Pergamon Altar, Pergamon Museum, Berlin.Leto fought alongside the other gods during the Gigantomachy, as evidenced from her depiction on the east frieze of the Pergamon Altar, fighting a Giant between her children Artemis and Apollo; None of the other Gigantomachy depictions includes Leto, although her presence is conjectured in one of the missing sections of the Siphnian frieze from Delphi, another relief depiction of the battle of the gods against the Giants.When the gigantic Typhon attacked Olympus, all the gods transformed into animals and fled to Egypt terrified, or alternatively Typhon attacked them once they had assembled in Egypt in great numbers.",
"Leto turned into a shrew mouse.",
"Leto was equated with the Egyptian goddess Wadjet, a cobra goddess, however other Egyptian gods and goddesses were also connected to shrew mice.",
"Additionally, the Egyptians would embalm small animals like ichneumons and shrew mice and put their mummies in bronze containers.",
"''Leto and her children come to Troy's aid'', Iliad engraving, John Flaxman.Leto also took part in the Trojan War, on the Trojans' side, along with her children Apollo and Artemis.",
"When Apollo saved Aeneas from the battlefield, he brought him to one of his own temples in nearby Pergamus, where he was healed by Artemis and Leto.",
"Later, when the gods battle each other, Leto supports the Trojans, standing opposite of Hermes, who supports the Achaeans.",
"After witnessing Hera defeat Artemis and beating her with her own bow, and Artemis fleeing in tears, Hermes refuses to challenge Leto, encouraging her to simply tell everyone she beat him fair and square.",
"Leto picks up Artemis's discarded bow and arrows and runs after her crying daughter.",
"According to a scholium on the ''Iliad'' that claims to report Theagenes's interpretation of the gods' battle, Hermes here represents reason and rationality ('''', \"logos\") as opposed to Leto, who stands in for forgetfulness ('''', \"lethe\", perhaps a wordplay on Leto's name).=== Favour myths ===After Orion's sight was restored, he met with Artemis and Leto and joined them in hunting, where he bragged about being such a great hunter he could kill every animal on earth, angering Gaia who sent a giant scorpion to kill him.",
"In one version, Orion dies after pushing Leto out of the scorpion's way.",
"Afterwards, Leto (and Artemis) placed Orion among the stars (the constellation Orion).Leto with Artemis and Apollo, votive relief, 5th century BC, National Archaeological Museum of Athens.Clinis was a rich Babylonian man who deeply respected Apollo.",
"Having witnessed the Hyperboreans sacrifice donkeys to Apollo, he attempted to do the same, only to be prohibited by the god himself under pain of death.",
"Clinis obeyed and sent the donkeys away, but two of his sons proceeded with the sacrifice anyway.",
"Apollo, enraged, drove the donkeys mad which then began to devour the entire family.",
"Leto and Artemis felt sorry for Clinis, his third son and his daughter, who had done nothing to deserve such fate.",
"Apollo allowed his mother and sister to save those three, and the goddesses changed them into birds before they could be killed by the donkeys.Leto with Zeus and their children, 420-410 BC, marble, Archaeological Museum of Brauron.In Crete lived a poor couple, Galatea and Lamprus.",
"When Galatea fell pregnant, Lamprus warned her that if the child turned out to be female, he would expose it.",
"Galatea gave birth while Lamprus was away, and the infant proved indeed to be a girl.",
"Galatea, fearing her husband, lied to him and told him it was a boy instead whom she named Leucippus (\"white horse\").",
"But as the years passed, Leucippus grew to be an exceptionally beautiful girl, and her true sex could no longer be concealed.",
"Galatea fled to the temple of Leto, and prayed to the goddess to change Leucippus into an actual boy.",
"Leto took pity in mother and child, and fulfilled Galatea's wish, changing Leucippus's sex into that of a boy's.",
"To celebrate this, the people at Phaistos sacrificed to Leto Phytia during the Ecdysia (\"stripping naked\") festival in her honour.In one version, Leto, along with her daughter Artemis, stood before Zeus with tearful eyes while her son Apollo pleaded with him to release Prometheus (the god who had stolen fire from the gods, give them to humans, and was subsequently chained in the Caucasus with an eagle feasting on his liver each day for punishment) from his eternal torment.",
"Zeus, moved by Artemis and Leto's tears and Apollo's words, agreed instantly and commanded Heracles to free Prometheus.When Apollo killed the Cyclopes in revenge for Zeus slaying his son Asclepius, a gifted healer who could bring the dead back to life, with a thunderbolt, Zeus was about to punish Apollo by throwing him into Tartarus, but Leto interceded for him, and Apollo became bondman to a mortal king named Admetus instead.",
"Apollo happily served Admetus, and enthusiastically undertook several domestic chores during his servitude with him.",
"Leto is said to have despaired at the sight of his unkempt and disheveled locks, which had been admired by even Hera.",
"Praxilla wrote that Carneus was a son of Zeus and Europa, and that he was brought up by Apollo and Leto.=== Wrath myths ===Phoebe pacifying Leto and Niobe while two Niobids play knucklebones, fresco of Herculaneum, 1st century AD, National Archaeological Museum, Naples.Leto's introduction into Lycia was met with resistance.",
"There, according to Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'', when Leto was wandering the earth after giving birth to Apollo and Artemis, she attempted to drink water from a pond in Lycia.",
"The peasants there refused to allow her to do so by stirring the mud at the bottom of the pond.",
"Leto turned them into frogs for their inhospitality, forever doomed to swim in the murky waters of ponds and rivers.",
"''Latona transforms theLycian peasants into frogs'', Palazzo dei Musei (Modena)Niobe was a queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion of whom Sappho wrote that \"Lato and Niobe were most dear friends\", although she is most famous for boasting of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven sons and seven daughters, while Leto had only two.",
"For her hubris, Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, and Artemis killed her daughters.",
"Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions a number of the Niobids were spared.",
"Other sources say that Artemis spared one of the girls (Chloris, usually).",
"Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Zeus after swearing revenge.",
"A devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylus in Asia Minor and either turned to stone as she wept or killed herself.",
"Her tears formed the river Achelous.",
"Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death when the gods themselves entombed them.The Niobe narrative appears in Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'' where Leto has demanded the women of Thebes to go to her temple and burn incense.",
"Niobe, queen of Thebes, enters in the midst of the worship and insults the goddess, claiming that having beauty, better parentage and more children than Leto, she is more fit to be worshipped than the goddess.",
"To punish this insolence, Leto begs Apollo and Artemis to avenge her against Niobe and to uphold her honor.",
"Obedient to their mother, the twins slay Niobe's seven sons and seven daughters, leaving her childless, and her husband Amphion kills himself.",
"Niobe is unable to move from grief and seemingly turns to marble, though she continues to weep, and her body is transported to a high mountain peak in her native land.=== Other works ===Apollo slays Tityos next to Leto, Attic red-figure kylix, 460–450 BC, by the Penthesilea Painter, Staatliche Antikensammlungen.Aelian writes that the rooster is Leto's sacred animal as he was by her side when she gave birth to her twins; this is why ancient women would have a rooster at hand while delivering their children, believing the bird to promote an easy childbirth.",
"He also wrote that the ichneumon (mongoose) is also sacred to her.Satirical author Lucian of Samosata featured Leto in one of his ''Dialogues of the Gods''.",
"There, Hera mocks Leto over the children she gave Zeus, downplaying Artemis and Apollo's importance while bringing up their flaws (such as the flaying of Marsyas, or the killing of the Niobids).",
"Leto sarcastically says that not all goddesses can be blessed to be the mother of gods like Hephaestus, and calmly tells Hera that she might feel confident belittling everyone due to her status as queen of the gods as the wife of Zeus, but she will cry and sob all the same the next time he shall abandon her for the love of some mortal woman.In one of his ''Idylls'', poet Theocritus asks Leto to bless the newlyweds Menelaus and Helen with children.In Orphism, there were several \"theogonies\" which, similar to Hesiod's ''Theogony'', told myths explaining and describing the origin of the world and the gods.These texts, though now no longer extant in their entirety, survive in fragments.One of these works, the \"Rhapsodic Theogony\", or Rhapsodies, (first century BC/AD) apparently called Leto the mother of Hecate.A fragment of Aeschylus possibly has Leto as the mother of the moon goddess Selene, as does a scholium on Euripides's tragedy ''The Phoenician Women'' which adds Zeus as the father.",
"In Virgil's epic the ''Aeneid'', when Nisus addresses the Moon/Luna, he calls her \"daughter of Latona.\""
],
[
"Worship",
"=== Lycian Letoon ===Ruined ancient sanctuary Letoon, next to the lakeLeto was intensely worshipped in Lycia, Anatolia, where worship was particularly strong and widespread.",
"In Delos and Athens she was worshipped primarily as an adjunct to her children.",
"Herodotus reported a temple to her in Egypt supposedly attached to a floating island called \"Khemmis\" in Buto, which also included a temple to an Egyptian god Greeks identified by ''interpretatio graeca'' as Apollo.",
"There, Herodotus was given to understand, the goddess whom Greeks recognised as Leto was worshipped in the form of Wadjet, the cobra-headed goddess of Lower Egypt.=== Mainland Greece and Anatolia ===Statue of Leto, from the Roman theatre, 2nd century AD, Hierapolis Archaeological Museum, Turkey.Leto had a temple in Attica as well as an altar, along with her children Apollo and Artemis in the village Zoster.",
"Pausanias also described statues of Leto and her twins in Megara.",
"Leto was worshipped in Boeotia in her children's temples.",
"In Phocis, she was revered in Delphi, sacred to her son Apollo.",
"She also had a temple in Cirrha.",
"In Argolis, Leto had a sanctuary with statues made by Praxiteles in Argos, and images of her were also found on the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, near Argos.",
"Leto had a sanctuary near Lete, Macedonia.",
"According to Stephanus of Byzantium, Theagenes in his ''Macedonica'' stated that the town had been named after the goddess.",
"Leto was also revered in Sparta and the rest of Laconia.",
"Leto also had a sanctuary in Mantineia, Arcadia.The ancient Greek colony of Physcus in Asia Minor also contained a magnificent harbour and a grove sacred to Leto.=== Aegean Islands ===Leto was usually not worshipped on her own account, but in conjunction with her children, especially in the island Delos, her chief center of worship and birthplace of her son Apollo as well as his sacred island, where she was represented in temple by a shapeless wooden image, in a Letoum situated in a plain.",
"Sacrifices to Artemis and Apollo were also made in Leto's name as well.",
"Poseidon agreed with Leto that she would have Delos, while he got to keep the island of Kelauria.",
"Leto was also worshipped in the island of Rhodes.",
"She might have had a cult center in Lesbos as well.",
"Leto was also worshipped in Crete, whether one of \"certain Cretan goddesses, or Greek goddesses in their Cretan form, influenced by the Minoan goddess\".",
"Veneration of a local Leto is attested at Phaistos (where it is purported that she gave birth to Apollo and Artemis at the islands known today as the Paximadia (also known as Letoai in ancient Crete) and at Lato, which bore her name.",
"As ''Leto Phytia'' she was a mother-deity.=== Epithets ===Pindar calls the goddess ''Leto Chryselakatos'', an epithet that was attached to her daughter Artemis as early as Homer.",
"\"The conception of a goddess enthroned like a queen and equipped with a spindle seems to have originated in Asiatic worship of the Great Mother\", O. Brendel notes, but a lucky survival of an inscribed inventory of her temple on Delos, where she was the central figures of the Delian trinity, records her cult image as sitting on a wooden throne, clothed in a linen ''chiton'' and a linen ''himation''."
],
[
"Art",
"''Latona and the Lycian Peasants'', ca.",
"1605, by Jan Brueghel the Elder.Python pursuing Leto and her children, engravings on wood from a vaseIn ancient Greek and Roman art, Leto was a common subject in vase painting, but she was hard to distinguish due to her not having any special or unique attributes.",
"Her capture by Tityus and subsequent rescue by Artemis and Apollo was also a very popular subject.",
"Ancient representations of Leto holding her infant children however are rare.",
"A lost vase, now known only through a drawing of Wilhelm Tischbein in his ''Collection of Engravings'' (published in 1795, volume III), shows Leto running away from the enormous Python in terror while holding her two young children in her arms; this is the only known classical representation of Leto escaping Python.The myth of Leto transforming the mortals into frogs of the pond became very popular in post-antiquity art.",
"This scene, usually called '''''Latona and the Lycian Peasants''''' or '''''Latona and the Frogs''''', was popular in Northern Mannerist art, allowing a combination of mythology with landscape painting and peasant scenes, thus combining history painting and genre painting.",
"It is represented in the central fountain, the ''Bassin de Latone'', in the garden terrace of Versailles.",
"In later art, this scene with the Lycian frogs is exclusively the one Leto appeared in.In Crete, at the city of Dreros, Spyridon Marinatos uncovered an eighth-century post-Minoan hearth house temple in which there were found three unique figures of Apollo, Artemis and Leto made of brass sheeting hammered over a shaped core (''sphyrelata'').",
"Walter Burkert notes that in Phaistos she appears in connection with an initiation cult."
],
[
"Legacy",
"The asteroid 68 Leto and the minor planet 639 Latona were both named after this Greek goddess."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Chiemsee Brunnen auf Herrenchiemsee 4.JPG|Leto in the Fountain on Herreninsel, Chiemsee.File:Leto, torso of cult statue, ivory, gold, 550 BC, AM Delphi, 060073.jpg|Cult statue of Leto at Delphi.File:Marble Relief Slab from the Revetment of a Pedestal or of an Altar, Found at Mantineia, Arkadia, c. 330-320 BC (28385081522).jpg|Marble relief from Mantinea, Arcadia.File:Roma Museo Etrusco Statua Latona.jpg|Etruscan statue of Leto holding the infant Apollo.File:Les metamorphoses d'Ovide - en latin et en françois (1767) (14579684100).jpg|Leto and the Lycian peasants.File:Othea's Epistle (Queen's Manuscript) 20.jpg|''Othea's Epistle'''s depiction of the Lycian frogs.File:Bassin Latone Jardin Château Versailles - Versailles (FR78) - 2021-12-19 - 6.jpg|Fountain of Latona, Versailles.File:Naissance de Diane et d'Apollon sous le palmier de l'île de Délos.jpg|Latona with the infants Apollo and Diana in Delos.File:Terracotta amphora (jar) MET DP115351.jpg|Leto on an ancient vase between Apollo and Hermes.File:Apollonian Triad, Leto, bronze statue, 750 BC, AMH 247, 145333.jpg|Bronze statuette of Leto.File:Apollo Tityos Met 08.258.21.jpg|Apollo holding his bow, Leto and Tityos.File:Brauron - Votive Relief2.jpg|Leto seated, relief from Brauron."
],
[
"Genealogy"
],
[
"See also",
"* Alcmene* Maia* Latona Fountain* Isis"
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"=== Primary Sources ===* Aelian, ''On Animals'', Volume I: Books 1-5.Translated by A. F. Scholfield.",
"Loeb Classical Library 446.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958.",
"* Aeschylus, ''Persians.",
"Seven against Thebes.",
"Suppliants.",
"Prometheus Bound.''",
"Edited and translated by Alan H. Sommerstein.",
"Loeb Classical Library No.",
"145.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.. Online version at Harvard University Press.",
"* Aeschylus, ''The Eumenides'' in ''Aeschylus, with an English translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph.D. in two volumes'', Vol 2, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1926, Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.",
"* * Apollodorus, ''Apollodorus, The Library'', Ed.",
"& Trans.",
"by Sir James George Frazer, Loeb Classical Library, No.",
"121–122, 2 vols.",
"(London: W. Heinemann, 1921).",
"Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.",
"* Callimachus.",
"''Hymns'', translated by Alexander William Mair (1875–1928).",
"London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P.",
"Putnam's Sons.",
"1921.Online version at the Topos Text Project.",
"* Diodorus Siculus, ''Library of History, Volume III: Books 4.59-8'', translated by C. H. Oldfather, Loeb Classical Library No.",
"340.Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1939.. Online version at Harvard University Press.",
"Online version by Bill Thayer.",
"* Herodotus, ''Histories'', A. D. Godley (translator), Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1920; .",
"Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.",
"* Hesiod, ''Theogony'', with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.",
"* Homer, ''The Iliad'' with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes.",
"Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.",
"* Hyginus, ''Astronomica from The Myths of Hyginus'' translated and edited by Mary Grant.",
"University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies.",
"Online version at the Topos Text Project.",
"* Hyginus, ''Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus'' translated and edited by Mary Grant.",
"University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies.",
"Online version at the Topos Text Project.",
"* ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica'' with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White.",
"Homeric Hymns.",
"Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd.",
"1914.",
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],
[
"External links",
"* LETO on The Theoi Project* LETO from Mythopedia* LETO on Greek Mythology Link* LETO from greekmythology.com* Pictures of the sanctuary for Leto at Letoum"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"La Malinche"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Marina''' or '''Malintzin''' ( 1500 – 1529), more popularly known as '''La Malinche''' , a Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast, became known for contributing to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521), by acting as an interpreter, advisor, and intermediary for the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés.",
"She was one of 20 enslaved women given to the Spaniards in 1519 by the natives of Tabasco.",
"Cortés chose her as a consort, and she later gave birth to his first son, Martín – one of the first ''Mestizos'' (people of mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry) in New Spain.",
"La Malinche's reputation has shifted over the centuries, as various peoples evaluate her role against their own societies' changing social and political perspectives.",
"Especially after the Mexican War of Independence, which led to Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821, dramas, novels, and paintings portrayed her as an evil or scheming temptress.",
"In Mexico today, La Malinche remains a powerful icon - understood in various and often conflicting aspects as the embodiment of treachery, the quintessential victim, or the symbolic mother of the new Mexican people.",
"The term ''malinchista'' refers to a disloyal compatriot, especially in Mexico."
],
[
"Name",
"Malinche is known by many names, though her birth name is unknown.",
"The Nahua called her ''Malintzin'', derived from ''Malina'', a Nahuatl rendering of her Spanish name, and the honorific suffix .",
"According to historian Camilla Townsend, the vocative suffix is sometimes added at the end of the name, giving the form ''Malintzine'', which would be shortened to ''Malintze'', and heard by the Spaniards as ''Malinche''.",
"Another possibility is that the Spaniards simply did not hear the “whispered” of the name ''Malintzin''.The title ''Tenepal'' was often assumed to be part of her name.",
"In the annotation made by Nahua historian Chimalpahin on his copy of Gómara's biography of Cortés, ''Malintzin Tenepal'' is used repeatedly about Malinche.",
"According to linguist and historian Frances Karttunen, ''Tenepal'' is probably derived from the Nahuatl root '''', which means \"lip-possessor, one who speaks vigorously\", or \"one who has a facility with words\", and postposition , which means \"through\".",
"Historian James Lockhart, however, suggests that ''Tenepal'' might be derived from , \"somebody’s tongue\".",
"In any case, ''Malintzin Tenepal'' appears to have been a literal translation of Spanish , with , \"the interpreter\", literally meaning \"the tongue\", being her Spanish sobriquet.Malinche was baptized in the Roman Catholic Church and given the Christian name \"Marina\", often preceded by the honorific .",
"Since at least the 19th century, she was believed to have originally been named ''Malinalli'', (Nahuatl for \"grass\"), after the day sign on which she was supposedly born.",
"Accordingly, Marina was chosen as her baptismal name because of its phonetic similarity.",
"Modern historians have rejected such mythic suggestions, noting that the Nahua associate the day sign ''Malinalli'' with bad or \"evil\" connotations, and they are known to avoid using such day signs as personal names.",
"Moreover, there would be little reason for the Spaniards to ask the natives what their names were before they were christened with new names after Catholic saints."
],
[
"Life",
"=== Background ===Codex Azcatitlan, Hernán Cortés and Malinche (far right), early 16th-century indigenous pictorial manuscript of the conquest of MexicoMalinche's birthdate is unknown, but it is estimated to be around 1500, and likely no later than 1505.She was born in an that was either a part or a tributary of a Mesoamerican state whose center was located on the bank of the Coatzacoalcos River to the east of the Aztec Empire.",
"Records disagree about the exact name of the where she was born.",
"In three unrelated legal proceedings that occurred not long after her death, various witnesses who claimed to have known her personally, including her daughter, said that she was born in Olutla.",
"The of her grandson also mentioned Olutla as her birthplace.",
"Her daughter added that the of Olutla was related to Tetiquipaque, although the nature of this relationship is unclear.",
"In the ''Florentine Codex'', Malinche's homeland is mentioned as \"Teticpac\", which is most likely the singular form of Tetiquipaque.",
"Gómara writes that she came from \"Uiluta\" (presumably a variant of ''Olutla'').",
"He departs from other sources by writing that it was in the region of Jalisco.",
"Díaz, on the other hand, gives \"Painalla\" as her birthplace.Her family is reported to have been of noble background; Gómara writes that her father was related to a local ruler, while Díaz recounts that her parents were rulers.",
"Townsend notes that while Olutla at the time probably had a Popoluca-speaking majority, the ruling elite, which Malinche supposedly belonged to, would have been Nahuatl-speaking.",
"Another hint that supports her noble origin is her apparent ability to understand the courtly language of (\"lordly speech\"), a Nahuatl register that is significantly different from the commoner's speech and has to be learned.",
"The fact that she was often referred to as a , at the time a term in Spain not commonly used when referring to someone outside of the aristocracy, indicates that she was viewed as a noblewoman.",
"But she may have been given this honorific by the Spanish because of recognition of her important role in the conquest.Malinche was probably between the ages of 8 and 12 when she was either sold or kidnapped into slavery.",
"Díaz wrote that after her father's death, she was given away to merchants by her mother and stepfather so that their son (Malinche's halfbrother) would have the rights of an heir.",
"Scholars, historians, and literary critics alike have cast doubt upon Díaz's account of her origin, in large part due to his strong emphasis on Catholicism throughout his narration of the events.",
"In particular, historian Sonia Rose de Fuggle analyzes Díaz's over-reliance on polysyndeton (which mimics the sentence structure of many Biblical stories) as well as his overarching portrayal of Malinche as an ideal Christian woman.",
"But Townsend believes that it was likely that some of her people were complicit in trafficking her, regardless of the reason.",
"Malinche was taken to Xicalango, a major port city in the region.",
"She was later purchased by a group of Chontal Maya who brought her to the town of Potonchán.",
"It was here that Malinche started to learn the Chontal Maya language, and perhaps also Yucatec Maya.",
"Her acquisition of the language later enabled her to communicate with Jerónimo de Aguilar, another interpreter for Cortes who also spoke Yucatec Maya, as well as his native Spanish.=== The Conquest of Mexico ===Early in his expedition to Mexico, Cortés was confronted by the Maya at Potonchán.",
"In the ensuing battle, the Mayas suffered significant loss of lives and asked for peace.",
"In the following days, they presented the Spaniards with gifts of food and gold, as well as twenty enslaved women, including Malinche.",
"The women were baptized and distributed among Cortés's men, who expected to use them as servants and sexual objects.",
"Malinche was given to Alonso Hernández Puertocarrero, one of Cortés' captains.",
"He was a first cousin to the count of Cortés's hometown, Medellín.Malinche's language skills were discovered when the Spaniards encountered the Nahuatl-speaking people at San Juan de Ulúa.",
"Moctezuma's emissaries had come to inspect the peoples, but Aguilar could not understand them.",
"Historian Gómara wrote that, when Cortés realized that Malinche could talk with the emissaries, he promised her \"more than liberty\" if she would help him find and communicate with Moctezuma.",
"Cortés took Malinche from Puertocarrero.",
"He was later given another Indigenous woman before he returned to Spain.",
"Aided by Aguilar and Malinche, Cortés talked with Moctezuma's emissaries.",
"The emissaries also brought artists to make paintings of Malinche, Cortés, and the rest of the group, as well as their ships and weapons, to be sent as records for Moctezuma.",
"Díaz later said that the Nahua addressed Cortés as \"Malinche\"; they took her as a point of reference for the group.From then on, Malinche worked with Aguilar to bridge communication between the Spaniards and the Nahua; Cortés would speak Spanish with Aguilar, who translated into Yucatec Maya for Malinche, who in turn translated into Nahuatl, before reversing the process.",
"The translation chain grew even longer when, after the emissaries left, the Spaniards met the Totonac, whose language was not understood by either Malinche or Aguilar.",
"There, Malinche asked for Nahuatl interpreters.",
"Karttunen remarks that \"it is a wonder any communication was accomplished at all\", for Cortés' Spanish words had to be translated into Maya, Nahuatl, and Totonac before reaching the locals, whose answers went back through the same chain.",
"Meeting with the Totonac was how the Spaniards first learned of opponents to Moctezuma.",
"Malinche depicted with weapons during the Battle of Tepotzotlán.After founding the town of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz to be freed from the legal restriction of what was supposed to be an exploratory mission, the Spaniards stayed for two months in a nearby Totonac settlement.",
"They secured a formal alliance with the Totonac and prepared for a march toward Tenochtitlan.The first major polity that they encountered on the way to Tenochtitlan was Tlaxcala.",
"Although the Tlaxcaltec were initially hostile to the Spaniards and their allies, they later permitted the Spaniards to enter the city.",
"The Tlaxcalans negotiated an alliance with the Spaniards through Malinche and Aguilar.",
"Later Tlaxcalan visual records of this meeting feature Malinche as a prominent figure.",
"She appears to bridge communication between the two sides, as the Tlaxcalan presented the Spaniards with gifts of food and noblewomen to cement the alliance.",
"After several days in Tlaxcala, Cortés continued the journey to Tenochtitlan by the way of Cholula.",
"By then he was accompanied by a large number of Tlaxcalan soldiers.The Spaniards were received at Cholula and housed for several days.",
"The explorers claimed that the Cholulans stopped giving them food, dug secret pits, built a barricade around the city, and hid a large Aztec army in the outskirts to prepare for an attack against the Spaniards.",
"Somehow, the Europeans learned of this and, in a preemptive strike, assembled and massacred the Cholulans.",
"Later accounts claimed that Malinche had uncovered the plot.",
"According to Díaz, she was approached by a Cholulan noblewoman who promised her a marriage to the woman's son if she were to switch sides.",
"Pretending to go along with the suggestion, Malinche was told about the plot and later reported all the details to Cortés.",
"In later centuries, this story has often been cited as an example of Malinche's \"betrayal\" of her people.",
"But modern historians such as Hassig and Townsend have suggested that Malinche's \"heroic\" discovery of the purported plot was likely already a fabricated story intended to provide Cortés with political justification for his actions, to distant Spanish authorities.",
"In particular, Hassig suggests that Cortés, seeking stronger native alliances leading to the invasion of Tenochtitlan, worked with the Tlaxcalans to coordinate the massacre.",
"Cholula had supported Tlaxcala before joining the Aztec Empire one or two years prior, and losing them as an ally had been a severe blow to the Tlaxcalans.",
"Their state was now completely encircled by the Aztecs.",
"Hassig and other historians assert that Tlaxcalans considered the attack on the Cholulans as a \"litmus test\" of the Spanish commitment to them.",
"The meeting of Cortés and Moctezuma II, with Malinche acting as interpreter.The combined forces reached Tenochtitlan in early November 1519, where they were met by Moctezuma on a causeway leading to the city.",
"Malinche was in the middle of this event, translating the conversation between Cortés and Moctezuma.",
"Gomara writes that Moctezuma was \"speaking through Malinche and Aguilar\", although other records indicate that Malinche was already translating directly, as she had quickly learned some Spanish herself.",
"Moctezuma's flowery speech, delivered through Malinche at the meeting, has been claimed by the Spaniards to represent a submission, but this interpretation is not followed by modern historians.",
"The deferential nature of the speech can be explained by Moctezuma's usage of , a Nahuatl register known for its indirection and complex set of reverential affixes.",
"Despite Malinche's apparent ability to understand , it is possible that some nuances were lost in translation.",
"The Spaniards, deliberately or not, may have misinterpreted Moctezuma's words.Tenochtitlán fell in late 1521 and Marina's son by Cortes, Martín Cortés was born in 1522.During this time Malinche or Marina stayed in a house Cortés built for her in the town of Coyoacán, eight miles south of Tenochtitlán.",
"The Aztec capital city was being redeveloped to serve as Spanish-controlled Mexico City.",
"Cortés took Marina to help quell a rebellion in Honduras in 1524–1526 when she again served as interpreter (she may have known Mayan languages beyond Chontal and Yucatec).",
"While in the mountain town of Orizaba in central Mexico, she married Juan Jaramillo, a Spanish hidalgo.",
"Some contemporary scholars have estimated that she died less than a decade after the conquest of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, at some point before February 1529.She was survived by her son Don Martín, who would be raised primarily by his father's family, and a daughter Doña María, who would be raised by Jaramillo and his second wife Doña Beatriz de Andrada.",
"Although Martín was Cortés's first-born son and eventual heir, his relation to Marina was poorly documented by prominent Spanish historians such as Francisco López de Gómara.",
"He never referred to Marina by name, even in her work as Cortés's translator.",
"Even during Marina's lifetime, she spent little time with Martín.",
"But many scholars and historians have marked her multiracial child with Cortés as the symbolic beginning of the large mestizo population that developed in Mesoamerica.=== Role in the conquest of Mexico ===Xaltelolco, in a drawing from the late 16th-century codex ''History of Tlaxcala''For the conquistadores, having a reliable interpreter was important enough, but there is evidence that Marina's role and influence were larger still.",
"Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a soldier who, as an old man, produced the most comprehensive of the eye-witness accounts, the ''Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España'' (\"True Story of the Conquest of New Spain\"), speaks repeatedly and reverentially of the \"great lady\" Doña Marina (always using the honorific title Doña).",
"\"Without the help of Doña Marina\", he writes, \"we would not have understood the language of New Spain and Mexico.\"",
"Rodríguez de Ocaña, another conquistador, relates Cortés' assertion that after God, Marina was the main reason for his success.The evidence from Indigenous sources is even more interesting, both in the commentaries about her role, and in her prominence in the codex drawings made of conquest events.",
"Although to some Marina may be known as a traitor, she was not viewed as such by all the Tlaxcalan.",
"In some depictions they portrayed her as \"larger than life,\" sometimes larger than Cortés, in rich clothing, and an alliance is shown between her and the Tlaxcalan instead of them and the Spaniards.",
"They respected and trusted her and portrayed her in this light generations after the Spanish conquest.In the ''Lienzo de Tlaxcala (History of Tlaxcala)'', for example, not only is Cortés rarely portrayed without Marina poised by his side, but she is shown at times on her own, seemingly directing events as an independent authority.",
"If she had been trained for court life, as in Díaz's account, her relationship with Cortés may have followed the familiar pattern of marriage among native elite classes.",
"The role of the Nahua wife acquired through an alliance would have been to assist her husband achieve his military and diplomatic objectives.Today's historians give great credit to Marina's diplomatic skills, with some \"almost tempted to think of her as the real conqueror of Mexico.\"",
"Old conquistadors on various occasions recalled that one of her greatest skills had been her ability to convince other natives of what she could perceive, that it was useless in the long run to stand against Spanish metal (arms) and Spanish ships.",
"In contrast to earlier parts of Díaz del Castillo's account, after Marina began assisting Cortés, the Spanish were forced into combat on one more occasion.Had La Malinche not been part of the Conquest of Mexico for her language skills, communication between the Spanish and the Indigenous peoples would have been much harder.",
"La Malinche knew how to speak in different registers and tones among certain Indigenous tribes and classes of people.",
"For the Nahua audiences, she spoke rhetorically, formally, and high-handedly.",
"This shift into formality gave the Nahua the impression that she was a noblewoman who knew what she was talking about."
],
[
"Image in contemporary Mexico",
"Modern statue of Cortés, Marina, and their son Martín, which was moved from a prominent place of display to an obscure one, due to protestsMalinche's image has become a mythical archetype that Hispanic-American artists have represented in various forms of art.",
"Her figure permeates historical, cultural, and social dimensions of Hispanic American cultures.",
"In modern times and several genres, she is compared with the La Llorona (folklore story of the woman weeping for lost children), and the Mexican soldaderas (women who fought beside men during the Mexican Revolution) for their brave actions.La Malinche's legacy is one of myth mixed with legend and the opposing opinions of the Mexican people about the legendary woman.",
"Some see her as a founding figure of the Mexican nation, while others continue to see her as a traitor—as may be assumed from a legend that she had a twin sister who went North, and from the pejorative nickname ''La Chingada'' associated with her twin.Feminist interventions into the figure of Malinche began in the 1960s.",
"The work of Rosario Castellanos was particularly significant; Chicanas began to refer to her as a \"mother\" as they adopted her as symbolism for duality and complex identity.",
"Castellanos's subsequent poem \"La Mallinche\" recast her not as a traitor but as a victim.",
"Mexican feminists defended Malinche as a woman caught between cultures, forced to make complex decisions, who ultimately served as a mother of a new race.Today in Mexican Spanish, the words ''malinchismo'' and ''malinchista'' are used to denounce Mexicans who are perceived as denying their cultural heritage by preferring foreign cultural expressions.Some historians believe that La Malinche saved her people from the Aztecs, who held a hegemony throughout the territory and demanded tribute from its inhabitants.",
"Some Mexicans also credit her with having brought Christianity to the New World from Europe, and for having influenced Cortés to be more humane than he would otherwise have been.",
"It is argued, however, that without her help, Cortés would not have been successful in conquering the Aztecs as quickly, giving the Aztec people enough time to adapt to new technology and methods of warfare.",
"From that viewpoint, she is seen as one who betrayed the Indigenous people by siding with the Spaniards.",
"Recently several feminist Latinas have decried such categorization as scapegoating.President José López Portillo commissioned a sculpture of Cortés, Doña Marina, and their son Martín, which was placed in front of Cortés' house in the Coyoacán section of Mexico City.",
"Once López Portillo left office, the sculpture was removed to an obscure park in the capital."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"La Malinche, as part of the ''Monumento al Mestizaje'' in Mexico City* A reference to La Malinche as Marina is made in the novel ''The Manuscript Found in Saragossa'' by the Polish author Jan Potocki, in which she is cursed for yielding her \"heart and her country to the hateful Cortez, chief of the sea-brigands.",
"\"* La Malinche appears in the adventure novel ''Montezuma's Daughter'' (1893) by H. Rider Haggard.",
"* Doña Marina appears in the Henry King film Adventure ''Captain from Castile'' (1947) played Estela Inda.",
"* La Malinche is portrayed as a Christian and protector of her fellow native Mexicans in the novel ''Tlaloc Weeps for Mexico'' (1939) by László Passuth, and is the main protagonist in such works as the novels ''The Golden Princess'' (1954) by Alexander Baron and ''Feathered Serpent: A Novel of the Mexican Conquest'' (2002) by Colin Falconer.",
"In contrast, she is portrayed as a duplicitous traitor in Gary Jennings' novel ''Aztec'' (1980).",
"A novel published in 2006 by Laura Esquivel portrays the main character as a pawn of history who becomes ''Malinche''.",
"* In 1949, choreographer José Limón premiered the dance trio \"La Milanche\" to music by Norman Lloyd.",
"It was the first work created by Limón for his company and was based on his memories as a child of Mexican fiestas.",
"* The story of La Malinche is told in ''Cortez and Marina'' (1963) by Edison Marshall.",
"* In the 1973 Mexican film ''Leyendas macabras de la colonia'', La Malinche's mummy is in the possession of Luisa, her daughter by Hernán Cortés, while her spirit inhabits a cursed painting.",
"* La Malinche is referred to in the songs \"Cortez the Killer\" from the 1975 album ''Zuma'' by Neil Young, and \"La Malinche\" by the French band Feu!",
"Chatterton from their 2015 album ''Ici le jour (a tout enseveli)''* In the animated television series ''The Mysterious Cities of Gold'' (1982), which chronicles the adventures of a Spanish boy and his companions traveling throughout South America in 1532 to seek the lost city of El Dorado, a woman called Marinche becomes a dangerous adversary.",
"The series was originally produced in Japan and then translated into English.",
"* In the fictional ''Star Trek'' universe, a starship, the USS ''Malinche'', was named for La Malinche and appeared in the 1997 \"For the Uniform\" episode of ''Star Trek: Deep Space Nine''.",
"This was done by Hans Beimler, a native of Mexico City, who together with friend Robert Hewitt Wolfe later wrote a screenplay based on La Malinche called ''The Serpent and the Eagle''.",
"* La Malinche is the main character in the 2002 French novel (English: ''Cortés' Indian Woman'') by Carole Achache.",
"* La Malinche is a key character in the opera ''La Conquista'' (2005) by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero.",
"* Malinalli is the main character in a 2011 historical novel by Helen Heightsman Gordon, ''Malinalli of the Fifth Sun: The Slave Girl Who Changed the Fate of Mexico and Spain''.",
"* Author Octavio Paz traces the root of mestizo and Mexican culture to La Malinche's child with Cortés in ''The Labyrinth of Solitude'' (1950).",
"He uses her relation to Cortés symbolically to represent Mexican culture as originating from rape and violation, but also holds Malinche accountable for her \"betrayal\" of the indigenous population, which Paz claims \"the Mexican people have not forgiven.",
"\"* The novel Night of Sorrows by Frances Sherwood is an account of the life of La Malinche (called Malitzín within the novel).",
"* Malinal is a character in Graham Hancock's series of novels ''War God: Nights of the Witch'' (2013) and ''War God: Return of the Plumed Serpent'' (2014), which is a fictional story describing the events related to the Hernan Cortés' expedition to Mexico and the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire.",
"* Malinche is a character in Edward Rickford's ''The Serpent and the Eagle'', referred to variously as ''Dona Marina'' and ''Malintze''.",
"The depiction of her character was praised by historical novelists and bloggers.",
"* La Malinche appears in the biographical Mexican series ''Malinche'' in 2018, where she is portrayed by María Mercedes Coroy.",
"* La Malinche appears in the Amazon Prime series ''Hernán''.",
"She is portrayed by Ishbel Bautista.",
"* ''Malintzin: The Story of an Enigma''.",
"Documentary of 2019 based on the life of La Malinche.",
"* La Malinche is referenced in the Disney+ series ''National Treasure: Edge of History''.",
"In the series, she is portrayed as a double agent working to protect Aztec treasures from Cortés.",
"* In 2022, Spanish musician Nacho Cano produced ''Malinche'', a stage musical in Madrid.",
"The show will be produced in Mexico with a Mexican cast."
],
[
"See also",
"* Felipillo* History of Mexico* Pocahontas – a Powhatan woman notable for her interaction as an interpreter for the English colonists of Jamestown, Virginia.",
"* Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire* Women in Mexico"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* \"Cortés girlfriend is not forgiven\".",
"The New York Times.",
"accessed 10 June 2019* Hernando Cortés on the Web : Malinche / Doña Marina (resources)* in defense of Malinche* Making Herself Indispensable, Condemned for Surviving: Doña Marina (Part 1)* Making Herself Indispensable, Condemned for Surviving: Doña Marina (Part 2)* La Malinche, an ambivalent interpreter from the past* Leyenda y nacionalismo: alegorías de la derrota en La Malinche y Florinda \"La Cava\", Spanish-language article by Juan F. Maura comparing La Cava and Mexican Malinche."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lusitania"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The Iberian Peninsula in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD) showing, in western Iberia, the imperial province of ''Lusitania'' (Portugal and Extremadura)'''Lusitania''' (; ) was an ancient Iberian Roman province encompassing most of modern-day Portugal (south of the Douro River) and a large portion of western Spain (the present Extremadura and Province of Salamanca).",
"Romans named the region after the Lusitanians, an Indo-European tribe inhabiting the lands.The capital Emerita Augusta was initially part of the Roman Republic province of Hispania Ulterior before becoming a province of its own during the Roman Empire.",
"After Romans arrived in the territory during the 2nd century BC, a war with Lusitanian tribes ensued between 155 and 139 BC, with the Roman province eventually established in 27 BC.In modern parlance, ''Lusitania'' is often synonymous with Portugal, despite the province's capital being located in modern Mérida, Spain."
],
[
"Origin of the name",
"The etymology of the name of the Lusitani (who gave the Roman province its name) remains unclear.",
"Popular etymology connected the name to a supposed Roman demigod Lusus, whereas some early-modern scholars suggested that ''Lus'' was a form of the Celtic Lugus followed by another (unattested) root ''*tan-'', supposed to mean \"tribe\", while others derived the name from ''Lucis'', an ancient people mentioned in Avienius' ''Ora Maritima'' (4th century AD) and from ''tan'' (-stan in Iranian), or from ''tain'', meaning \"a region\" or implying \"a country of waters\", a root word that formerly meant a prince or sovereign governor of a region.Ancient Romans, such as Pliny the Elder (''Natural History'', 3.5) and Varro (116 – 27 BC, cited by Pliny), speculated that the name ''Lusitania'' had Roman origins, as when Pliny says \"lusum enim Liberi Patris aut lyssam cum eo bacchantium nomen dedisse Lusitaniae et Pana praefectum eius universae\" Lusitania takes its name from the ''Lusus'' associated with Bacchus and the ''Lyssa'' of his Bacchantes, and Pan is its governor.",
"''Lusus'' is usually translated as \"game\" or \"play\", while ''lyssa'' is a borrowing from the Greek λυσσα, \"frenzy\" or \"rage\", and sometimes Rage personified; for later poets, Lusus and Lyssa become flesh-and-blood companions (even children) of Bacchus.",
"Luís de Camões' epic ''Os Lusíadas'' (1572), which portrays Lusus as the founder of Lusitania, extends these ideas, which have no connection with modern etymology.In his work, ''Geography'', the classical geographer Strabo (died ca.",
"24 AD) suggests a change had occurred in the use of the name \"Lusitanian\".",
"He mentions a group who had once been called \"Lusitanians\" living north of the Douro river but were called in his day \"Callacans\"."
],
[
"Lusitanians",
"Iberian Peninsula at about 300 BC.The Lusitani established themselves in the region in the 6th century BC, but historians and archeologists are still undecided about their ethnogenesis.",
"Some modern authors consider them to be an indigenous people who were Celticized culturally and possibly also through intermarriage.The archeologist Scarlat Lambrino defended the position that the Lusitanians were a tribal group of Celtic origin related to the Lusones (a tribe that inhabited the east of Iberia).",
"Some have claimed that both tribes came from the Swiss mountains.",
"Others argue that the evidence points to the Lusitanians being a native Iberian tribe, resulting from intermarriage between different local tribes.",
"The first area colonized by the Lusitani was probably the Douro valley and the region of Beira Alta (present day Portugal); in Beira, they stayed until they defeated the Celtici and other tribes, then they expanded to cover a territory that reached Estremadura before the arrival of the Romans."
],
[
"War against Rome",
"Roman conquest of HispaniaThe Lusitani are mentioned for the first time in Livy who describes them as fighting for the Carthaginians in 218 BCE; they are reported as fighting against Rome in 194 BC, sometimes allied with Celtiberian tribes.In 179 BC, the ''praetor'' Lucius Postumius Albinus celebrated a triumph over the Lusitani, but in 155 BC, on the command of Punicus (Πουνίκου, perhaps a Carthaginian) first and Caesarus (Καίσαρος) after, the Lusitani reached Gibraltar.",
"Here they were defeated by the ''praetor'' Lucius Mummius.From 152 BC onwards, the Roman Republic had difficulties in recruiting soldiers for the wars in Hispania, deemed particularly brutal.",
"In 150 BC, Servius Sulpicius Galba organised a false armistice.",
"While the Lusitani celebrated this new alliance, he massacred them, selling the survivors as slaves; this caused a new rebellion led by Viriathus, who was after many attempts killed by traitors paid by the Romans in 139 BC, after having led a successful guerrilla campaign against Rome and their local allies.",
"Two years after, in 137 BC Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus led a successful campaign against the Lusitani, reaching as far north as the Minho river.Romans scored other victories with ''proconsul'' Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus and Gaius Marius (elected in 113 BC), but still the Lusitani resisted with a long guerilla war; they later joined Sertorius' (a renegade Roman General) troops (around 80 BC) and Julius Caesar conducted a successful campaign against them in 61-60 BC, but they were not finally defeated until the reign of Augustus (around 28–24 BC)."
],
[
"Roman province",
"=== Territory ======= Under Augustus ====With Lusitania (and Asturia and Gallaecia), Rome had completed the conquest of the Iberian peninsula, which was then divided by Augustus (25–20 BC or 16-13 BC) into the eastern and northern ''Hispania Tarraconensis,'' the southwestern ''Hispania Baetica'' and the western ''Provincia Lusitana''.",
"Originally, Lusitania included the territories of Asturia and Gallaecia, but these were later ceded to the jurisdiction of the new ''Provincia Tarraconensis'' and the former remained as ''Provincia Lusitania et Vettones''.",
"Its northern border was along the Douro river, while on its eastern side its border passed through ''Salmantica'' (Salamanca) and ''Caesarobriga'' (Talavera de la Reina) to the ''Anas'' (Guadiana) river.Between 28 and 24 BC Augustus' military campaigns pacified all Hispania under Roman rule, with the foundation of Roman cities like ''Asturica Augusta'' (Astorga) and ''Bracara Augusta'' (Braga) to the north, and to the south ''Emerita Augusta'' (Mérida) (settled with the emeriti of the Legio V Alaudae and Legio X Gemina legions).==== ''Conventus Iuridicus'' ====Between the time of Augustus and Claudius, the province was divided into three conventus iuridicus, territorial units presided by capital cities with a court of justice and joint Roman/indigenous people assemblies (conventus), that counseled the Governor:*''Conventus Emeritensis'', with capital in ''Emerita Augusta'' (Mérida, Spain)*''Conventus Scalabitanus'', with capital in ''Scalabis Iulia'' (Santarém, Portugal)*''Conventus Pacensis'', with capital in ''Pax Iulia'' (Beja, Portugal)The ''conventus'' ruled of a total of forty-six populis.",
"Five were Roman colonies: ''Emerita Augusta'' (Mérida, Spain), ''Pax Iulia'' (Beja), ''Scalabis'' (Santarém), ''Norba Caesarina'' (Cáceres) and ''Metellinum'' (Medellín).",
"''Felicitas Iulia Olisipo'' (Lisbon, which was a Roman law municipality) and three other towns had the old Latin status: ''Ebora'' (Évora), ''Myrtilis Iulia'' (Mértola) and ''Salacia'' (Alcácer do Sal).",
"The other thirty-seven were of ''stipendiarii'' class, among which ''Aeminium'' (Coimbra), ''Balsa'' (Tavira), or ''Mirobriga'' (Santiago do Cacém).",
"Other cities include ''Ossonoba'' (Faro), ''Cetobriga'' (Setúbal), ''Collippo'' (Leiria) or ''Arabriga'' (Alenquer).==== Under Diocletian ====Under Diocletian, Lusitania kept its borders and was ruled by a ''praeses'', later by a ''consularis.",
"''==== Roman diocese ====Finally, in 298 AD, Lusitania was united with the other provinces to form the ''Diocesis Hispaniarum'' (\"Diocese of the Hispanias\").File:Hispania 2a division provincial.svg|Roman Hispania under Augustus: ''Tarraconensis,'' ''Baetica'' and ''Lusitana''File:Conventushispanus.svg|Roman Hispania after Claudius: ''Conventus juridici'' (''Emeritensis,'' ''Scalabitanus'' and ''Pacensis)''File:Iberia 293.svg|Roman Hispania under Diocletian: Lusitania found in the westFile:Roman Empire with dioceses in 300 AD.png|Roman Empire in 300 AD: ''Diocesis Hispaniarum'' in the west=== Known governors ======= 1st century BC ====* Quintus Acutius Faienanus, ''legatus Augusti pro praetore,'' 19 - 1 BC.",
"* Quintus Articuleius Regulus, 2 BC - AD 14.==== 1st century ====* Gaius Ummidius Durmius Quadratus, c. 37* Lucius Caecilius Rufus, early 1st century* Lucius Calventius Vetus Carminius, ''legatus Augusti pro praetore,'' 44 - 45*Marcus?",
"Porcius?",
"Cato, c. 46 * Marcus Salvius Otho Caesar Augustus, governor of Lusitania between 58 and 68.Marcus Salvius Otho Caesar Augustus, 58 - 68* Gaius Catellius Celer, 75/76 - 77/78* Quintus Acutius Faienanus, 78 - 119==== 2nd century ====* ?",
"Gaius Calpurnius Flaccus, 119/120 - 120/121* Gaius Oppius Sabinus Julius Nepos Manius Vibius Sollemnis Severus, 128 - 130* Lucius Roscius Maecius Celer Postumus Mamilianus Vergilius Staberianus, under Hadrian* Gaius Javolenus Calvinus, 138 - 140* Aulus Avillius Urinatius Quadratus, c.151 - c.154* Sextus Tigidius Perennis, before 185* ?",
"Cornelius Repentinus, c.185 - c.188* Publius Septimius Geta, c.188 - c.191* Gaius Caesonius Macer Rufinianus, 193/194 - 197* Gaius Junius Faustinus Postumianus|Gaius Junius Faustinus Placidus Postumianus, c.197 - c.200==== 3rd century ====* Decimus Iunius?",
"... Coelianus, c.201 - 209* Sextus Furnius Julianus, c.211* Rutilius Pudens Crispinus, c.225 - c.227* Aemilius Aemilianus, late 3rd century* Datianus, 286 - 293==== 4th century ====* Iulius Saturninus, c.337 - c. 340* Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, 361- 362===''Coloniae'' and ''Municipia''===* ''Colonia Augusta Emerita'' (Mérida) - provincial capital, * ''Colonia Metellinum'' (Medellín), * ''Colonia Norba Caesarina'' (Cáceres), * ''Colonia Civitas Pacensis'' (Beja), * ''Colonia Scalabis Praesidium Iulium'' (Santarém), * ''Municipium Caesarobriga'' (Talavera de la Reina), * ''Municipium Augustobriga'' (Talavera la Vieja), * ''Municipium Aeminium'' (Coimbra), * ''Municipium Conímbriga'' (Condeixa-a-Nova), * ''Municipium Salmantica'' (Salamanca), * ''Municipium Caurium'' (Coria), * ''Municipium Turgalium'' (Trujillo), * ''Municipium Capara'' (Cáparra), * ''Municipium Olisipo'' (Lisboa), * ''Municipium Egitandiorum'' (Idanha-a-Velha), * ''Municipium Regina Turdulorum'' (Casas de Reina), * ''Municipium Lacobriga'' (Lagos, Portugal), File:Merida Roman Theatre2.jpg|Roman Theatre of ''Augusta Emerita'' (Mérida)File:Teatro Romano de Medellín 23.jpg|Roman Theatre of ''Metellinum'' (Medellín)File:Arco Romano.jpg|Roman arch of ''Pax Iulia'' (Beja)File:Cryptoporticus of Aeminium - Museu Nacional de Machado de Castro - Coimbra, Portugal - DSC09856.jpg|Cryptoporticus of the ancient forum of ''Aeminium'' (Coimbra)File:Conimbriga.jpg|Ruins of ConimbrigaFile:Pont romain et cathédrales vieille et nouvelle de Salamanque (1967-08-07).jpg|Roman bridge of ''Salmantica'' (Salamanca)File:Coria - Murallas 1.jpg|Roman walls of ''Caurium'' (Coria)File:Ciudad Romana de Caparra - 011 (30618914251).jpg|Forum gate of ''Capara'' (Cáparra)File:Cerca Velha - Portas do Sol.JPG|Roman walls of ''Olisipo'' (Lisboa)File:Roman arch, Egitania, Idanha-a-Velha, Lusitania, Portugal (13249368064).jpg|Roman arch of ''Egitandiorum'' (Idanha-a-Velha)"
],
[
"Notable Lusitanians",
"*Viriathus*Gaius Appuleius Diocles*Pope Damasus I"
],
[
"Legacy of the name",
"As with the Roman names of many European countries, ''Lusitania'' was and is often used as an alternative name for Portugal, especially in formal or literary and poetic contexts.",
"The 16th-century colony that would eventually become Brazil was initially founded as \"New Lusitania\".",
"In common use are such terms as Lusophone, meaning Portuguese-speaking, and Lusitanic, referring to the Community of Portuguese Language Countries—once Portugal's colonies and presently independent countries still sharing some common heritage.",
"Prior to his invasion in 1807, Napoleon Bonaparte proposed the establishment of a French-backed puppet Kingdom of Northern Lusitania as one of the successor states to Portugal under the assumption that such a campaign would result in an easy French victory.The province was also the namesake of the North Atlantic Ocean liner RMS ''Lusitania'' infamous for being torpedoed by a German U-boat in 1915.The ship's owners, the Cunard Line, commonly named their vessels after Roman provinces with the ''Lusitania'' so being called after the Roman Iberian province to the north of the Strait of Gibraltar while her sister ship RMS ''Mauretania'' was named after the Roman North African province on the south side of the strait."
],
[
"See also",
"*Lusitanian mythology*Lusitanian language*National Archaeology Museum (Portugal)*Ophiussa*History of Portugal*Timeline of Portuguese history*History of Spain*Timeline of Spanish history*Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula*Romanization of Hispania*Balsa (Roman town)"
],
[
"References",
"* An etymological lexicon of Proto-Celtic"
],
[
"External links",
"* Lusitania, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography* Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)* Southern Star Article: Crewman's strange foreboding of disaster"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Limited-stop"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In public transit, particularly bus, tram, or train transportation, a '''limited-stop''' (or sometimes referred to as '''semi-fast''') service is a trip pattern that stops less frequently than a local service.",
"Many limited-stop or semi-fast services are a combination of commuter rail and express train.The term is normally used on routes with a mixture of fast and slow services, and can differ in meaning, depending on how it is used by different transit agencies.",
"The main benefits of limited-stop or semi-fast services is the ability to utilise skip-stop calling pattern to maximise capacity along the line, as opposed to a commuter service stopping at every station which slows trailing express trains down."
],
[
"Railways",
"This approaching train will not stop at this station.On railways, the layout of the tracks and number and length of platforms at stations normally limit the extent to which a blend of fast/semi-fast/slow services can be operated.===Australia===In Australia, particularly in Brisbane and Sydney, limited stop services are formed by commuter trains that run as limited stops or express services from the city centre to the edge of the suburban area and then as all stops in the interurban area (an example of such an express pattern can be seen on the Gold Coast line and the East Hills line).=== Finland ===In Helsinki, Finland, VR commuter rail services are formed by trains that run as limited stops or express from the city centre and then stop all stations in the interurban area.",
"The Y train is one such example.=== Japan ===In Japan, the limited stops train is known as a '''semi-express train''' ( ''Junkyū'').",
"An example is applied to Nankai Railway's Koya Line.===United Kingdom===In the United Kingdom, some railway stations have tracks for which there are no platforms, allowing a larger number of fast trains to pass them without stopping.",
"They may go down the middle of the station or down the side such as at , , and (the middle track at Totnes is used only in the summer by Great Western Railway services between and ).===United States===In the United States, some railway stations have tracks for which there are no platforms.",
"For instance, various commuter rail services run along the same tracks as Amtrak's Acela Express and Northeast Corridor routes with four rails, two in the middle for Amtrak, and two on either side for the commuter rail.",
"There are also Express services within those, as at many smaller stations, the Northeast Corridor trains will split off onto the commuter rail tracks to make a stop, and the Acela trains will continue.====Subways====Map of the Broad Street Line in PhiladelphiaThe United States also uniquely has subways that use this method.",
"In New York City, they are numbered as separate lines, which are often part-express, part-local, while others are only express at certain times of day.",
"In Philadelphia, they are considered the same line, but with a few different types of services.",
"The Broad Street Line has the local, which makes all stops; the express, which has an early Southern terminus in the city center; the spur, which makes a few more stops than the express but less than the local, and then branches out to service two other stations), and the special, which is run only during sporting events, and runs as the express but then continues nonstop down to the southern terminus of the local, sharing tracks with the local."
],
[
"Buses",
"Traditionally, limited-stop bus services usually operate on an identical or similar route to one or more local bus routes, only serving primary stops, and skipping the others served by local routes.",
"Typically, the stops that are served by limited stop routes are chosen so that stops are evenly spaced or are transfer points, major intersections, or popular destinations.",
"Within downtowns, limited-stop services may stop more frequently.",
"Depending on the transit agency, this can sometimes be referred to as express service.",
"For example, Chicago Transit Authority refers to both this type and non-stop services as express.Limited-stop bus service is a core component of bus rapid transit (BRT), but differs by not sharing most of the common features of bus rapid transit such as unique route branding, off-vehicle fare collection, signal preemption, frequent all-day service, and dedicated right-of-way.",
"For example, the RapidRide lines in Seattle, Washington are existing local King County Metro routes but with fewer stops and some BRT features being adopted at some stations.",
"In other cities, such as Hong Kong, limited stop bus service currently uses the same branding and has the same features (except stopping less frequently) as regular bus routes.Other forms of limited-stop bus service other than the traditional type characterized by serving only some of the stops.",
"Some bus routes with portions of the route are non-stop are referred to as limited stop by the transit agency that operates the route.One form is a route that operates partially on a highway.",
"It is more similar to an express bus route than the traditional limited stop route.",
"However, the non-stop portion of the route is typically shorter than that of an express route, and the fare structure of the transit agency cause a limited stop route to have a lower fare than an express route.One example of this type of route would be Metro Transit Route 114 in Minneapolis, MN.",
"The route originates at the University of Minnesota campus in Minneapolis, then it travels several miles on Interstates 35W and 94, before it begins to operate as local service through the Uptown area of Minneapolis.Another form of limited stop bus service includes local routes that may operate certain trips with limited or non-stop sections.",
"For example, to aid commute times for downtown workers, Metro Transit Route 12 in Minneapolis operates during peak hours as non-stop for approximately eight blocks between Franklin Avenue and Uptown Transit Station, but the route serves all stops along that section at other times."
],
[
"See also",
"* Bus rapid transit* Express bus service* Express train* Limited express* Skip-stop"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Limburg"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Limburg''' or '''Limbourg''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Regions",
"* Limburg (Belgium), a province since 1839 in the Flanders region of Belgium* Limburg (Netherlands), a province since 1839 in the south of the Netherlands* Diocese of Limburg, Roman Catholic Diocese in Germany* Province of Limburg (1815–1839), a former province of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands* Duchy of Limburg (1065–1794), a state in the Holy Roman Empire* Duchy of Limburg (1839–1867), a part of the German Confederation* Limburg of the States (1633–1685), one of the Generality Lands, a dependent territory of the United Provinces of the Netherlands"
],
[
"Other places",
"* Limbourg, a town in Liège, Wallonia, Belgium* Limburg (Weilheim an der Teck), a mountain in Baden-Württemberg, Germany* Limburg an der Lahn, a city, the district seat of Limburg-Weilburg, Hesse, Germany* Limburg an der Lenne, now called Hagen-Hohenlimburg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, the former chief town of the county of Limburg-Hohenlimburg* Limburg, a castle in Sasbach am Kaiserstuhl, Baden-Württemberg, Germany* Limburg Abbey, a ruined abbey near Bad Dürkheim, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany* Limburg Airfield, an abandoned World War II military airfield near Limburg an der Lahn, Hessen, Germany"
],
[
"People",
"* Limbourg brothers (fl.",
"1385–1416), Dutch painters Herman, Paul, and Johan* Various members of the German higher nobility and mediatised House of Limburg-Stirum* Baermann of Limburg, German writer * Helge Limburg (born 1982), German politician* Olga Limburg (1881–1970), German actor* Peter Limbourg (born 1960), German journalist"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* ''Limburg'' (tanker), a French oil tanker bombed off Yemen* HNLMS Limburg (D814), a destroyer of the Dutch navy"
],
[
"See also",
"* Limberg (disambiguation)* Limburg-Weilburg, a Kreis (district) in the west of Hesse, Germany* Limburgish, a language* Limburger* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Limburg (Netherlands)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Limburg''' (, ) is the southernmost of the twelve provinces of the Netherlands.",
"It is bordered by Gelderland to the north and by North Brabant to its west.",
"Its long eastern boundary forms the international border with the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany.",
"To the west is the international border with the similarly named Belgian province of Limburg, part of which is delineated by the river Meuse.",
"To the South, Limburg is bordered by the Belgian province of Liège.",
"The Vaalserberg is on the extreme southeastern point, marking the tripoint of the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium.Limburg's main municipalities are the provincial capital Maastricht (population 120,837 as of January 2022), Venlo (population 102,176) in the northeast, as well as Sittard-Geleen (population 91,760, bordering both Belgium and Germany) and Heerlen (population 86,874) in the south.",
"More than half of the population, approximately 650,000 people, live in the south of Limburg, which corresponds to roughly one-third of the province's area proper.",
"In South Limburg, most people live in the urban agglomerations of Maastricht, Parkstad and Sittard-Geleen."
],
[
"Name",
"Limburg's name derives from the Belgian fortified town of the same name, Limbourg-sur-Vesdre, now in the nearby Liège Province, immediately south of Limburg.",
"The name of Limbourg-sur-Vesdre was important to the region because it had been the seat of the medieval Duchy of Limburg.",
"There are several proposals concerning the etymology of Limbourg.",
"The second part, \"bourg\" or \"burg\" is common in placenames, and refers to a fortified town.",
"The first part is often suggested to refer to lime or linden trees (species of ''Tilia'').",
"The historian Jean-Louis Kupper has proposed that its founder Frederick, Duke of Lower Lorraine named it after Limburg Abbey in Germany.",
"He favours a derivation from a Germanic word \"lint\" meaning \"dragon\".Map showing the two contemporary provinces called \"Limburg\" as well as the medieval duchy they are both named after.",
"The small overlap is Teuven and Remersdaal, two villages in the eastern part of Voeren, a municipality in Belgian Limburg since 1977.Ironically the area under the direct lordship of the old Duchy did not overlap at all with the modern Belgian and Dutch provinces named after it today, though the medieval Duchy was a high status title in the region.",
"On the other hand, while the Duchy's effective power was limited, the Duchy and what is now South Limburg (referred to as Overmaas) did have a long history of connection under the lordship of the Dukes of Brabant.",
"During this long period, from the Middle Ages until the French Revolution, they were sometimes referred to collectively under one name (Overmaas or Limburg).After 1794, it was the French Republic which unified the region, along with Belgian Limburg, and removed all ties to the old feudal society (the ''ancien regime'').",
"The new name, as with all the names of the ''départements'', was based on natural features such as rivers, in this case Meuse-Inférieure or Neder-Maas (\"Lower Meuse\").",
"After the defeat of Napoleon the newly created United Kingdom of the Netherlands desired a new name for this province.",
"It was decided that the historic connection to the duchy of Limburg was to be restored, albeit only in name."
],
[
"History",
"The current province Limburg of the Netherlands only came into existence in 1839, after the finalization of the separation of Belgium from the Netherlands which had begun in 1830.The two Limburgs had been brought together under French revolutionary administration some decades earlier, but they and the surrounding region shared much of their history.",
"For long periods of history however, the region was not united under the same rule.For centuries, the strategic location of the current province, stretching along the Maas river route, made it a much-coveted region among Europe's major powers.",
"Romans, Carolingians, Habsburg Spaniards, Prussians, Habsburg Austrians and France have all ruled parts of Limburg.",
"The first inhabitants of whom traces have been found were Neanderthals who camped in South Limburg.",
"In Neolithic times, flint was mined in underground mines.===Roman era===Julius Caesar conquered the area in 53 BC, and wrote that he had extinguished the name of the Eburones, the inhabitants of most of the area of current Limburg, as a punishment for their revolt under Ambiorix.The north–south route along the Maas was crossed by the Via Belgica, a road crossing South Limburg and connecting the two local capitals of Tongeren and Cologne.",
"''Mosa Trajectum'' (Maastricht) and ''Coriovallum'' (Heerlen) were founded by the Romans upon this route.",
"The area became strongly Romanized.",
"Bishop Servatius introduced Christianity in Roman Maastricht, where he died in 384.Maastricht appears to have taken over from Tongeren for some time as regional capital for the Romanized and Christian population, before the bishopric was re-established in Liège, south of Maastricht.===Medieval era===As Roman authority in the area weakened, Franks took over from the Romans, but the area came to flourish under their rule, with Cologne continuing to be the most important local capital.",
"The Maas valley, especially the middle and southern part of the current province, formed an important part of the heartland of Merovingian Austrasia.With the rise of the Carolingian dynasty, who were themselves from this region, the Maas valley became more culturally and politically one of the most important regions in Europe.",
"In 714 Susteren Abbey was founded, as far as is known the first proprietary abbey in the current Netherlands.",
"The main benefactor was Plectrude, the consort of Pepin of Herstal.",
"Charles Martel was born in nearby Herstal.",
"Charlemagne made Aachen, today a German city which has suburban sprawl stretching into South Limburg, the capital of the Frankish empire.",
"After the death of Charlemagne, the Frankish dominions were again split between kings.",
"While the Austrasian lands remained a separate \"Middle Kingdom\", sometimes now referred to as Lotharingia, in the treaties of Verdun (843), and Prüm (855), in the 870 Treaty of Meerssen, signed in South Limburg itself, Lotharingia was divided.",
"The river Meuse became the border between the Western- and Eastern Frankish kingdoms, placing most of the current Dutch province of Limburg on the western boundary of the Eastern Frankish kingdom, with Belgian Limburg in the Western Kingdom.",
"In the Treaty of Ribemont of 888, the Eastern Kingdom was granted control of the whole of Lotharingia, including all of the modern Netherlands and Luxembourg, and most of modern Belgium.The region of Thorn, Netherlands was drained and about 975 a swamp nearby the Roman road between Maastricht and Nijmegen.",
"Bishop Ansfried of Utrecht founded a Benedictine nunnery.",
"This developed from the 12th century into a secular or convent.",
"The principal of the was the abbess.",
"She was assisted by a chapter of at most twenty ladies of the highest nobility.",
"During the period of West Frankish control under the Treaty of Meerssen, effective Frankish power in the area of the current Netherlands more or less collapsed.",
"For two or more years a large Viking army, operating from a place on or near the Meuse called Ascloa (or Hasloa or Haslon), wrought havoc in the neighbourhood.",
"The damage was such that the emperor, Charles the Fat was forced to assemble a large multinational army, that in 882 unsuccessfully besieged this island.In the 10th century, the Eastern kingdom consolidated its control of Lotharingia and became the Holy Roman Empire.",
"In the first decades of this empire the founding imperial family had close ties to areas in what is today northern Limburg.",
"The emperor Otto III for instance was born in 980 in Kessel, practically on the current border between Limburg and North Rhine-Westphalia, just east from Gennep.",
"In 1080 in , just north of Gennep, Norbert of Gennep was born as a son of the count of Gennep.",
"He was the founder of the order of the Premonstratensians.Map showing the medieval \"lands of Overmaas\" and the Duchy of Limburg, both in the Middle Ages possessed by the Dukes of Brabant.",
"Together these two counties formed one province in the Seventeen Provinces.",
"(The dark lines are the modern borders).South Limburg in the early Middle Ages was mainly made up of the lordships of , Dalhem, and Herzogenrath.",
"All of these lands were, however, united with the Duchy of Limburg, under the rule of the Duchy of Brabant, when they were known collectively as the .The Duchy of Limburg and its dependencies first came under Brabantian control in 1288, as a result of the Battle of Worringen, then in the 15th century under the Duchy of Burgundy.",
"By 1473, the Lands of Overmaas and the Duchy of Limburg formed one unified delegation to the States General of the Burgundian Netherlands.",
"Both the terms Overmaas and Limburg came to be used loosely to refer to this sparsely populated province of the so-called Seventeen Provinces.",
"Maastricht was never part of this polity: as a condominium, sovereignty over this city was held jointly by the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and the Duchy of Brabant.",
"Also, the central and northern part of present-day Limburg belonged to different political entities, notably the Duchy of Jülich and the Duchy of Guelders.By the late Middle Ages most of the present day territory of Limburg had been partitioned to the Duchy of Brabant, the Duchy of Gelderland, the Duchy of Jülich, the Prince-Bishopric of Liège or the Electorate of Cologne.",
"These dukes, prince-bishops and prince-electors were nominal subordinates of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, but in practice acted as independent sovereigns who were often at war with each other.",
"These conflicts were often fought in and over Limburg, contributing to its fragmentation and a loss of economic importance.Limburg was the scene of many bloody battles during the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), in which the Dutch Republic threw off Habsburg Spanish rule.",
"At the Battle of Mookerheyde (14 April 1574), two brothers of Prince William of Orange-Nassau and thousands of \"Dutch\" mercenaries died.",
"Most Limburgians fought on the Spanish side, being Catholics and being opposed to the Calvinist Hollanders.===Early modern era===In the early modern era, Limburg was largely divided between the Spanish Netherlands (the Austrian Netherlands after 1714), Prussia, the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and many small independent fiefs.",
"In 1673, Louis XIV personally commanded the siege of Maastricht by French troops.",
"During the siege, one of his brigadiers, Charles de Batz-Castelmore d'Artagnan, perished.",
"He subsequently became known as a major character in ''The Three Musketeers'' by Alexandre Dumas, père (1802–1870).===19th century===The modern boundaries of Dutch Limburg, along with its neighbour, Belgian Limburg, were basically set during the period after the French Revolution, which erased much of the \"\" of Europe, with all its old boundaries and titles.",
"These two provinces were part of a new French , named (like many ) after the river running through it, \"\", meaning simply \"lower Maas\".Following the Napoleonic Era, the great powers (the United Kingdom, Prussia, the Austrian Empire, the Russian Empire and France) left the region to the new United Kingdom of the Netherlands in the Congress of Vienna in 1815.A new province was formed which was to receive the name \"Maastricht\" after its capital.",
"The first king, William I, who did not want the medieval name to be lost, insisted that it be changed to \"Province of Limburg\".",
"As such, the name of the new province was derived from the old Duchy of Limburg that had existed until 1795 on the east bank of the Meuse river.When the Catholic and French-speaking Belgians split away from the mainly Calvinist northern Netherlands in the Belgian Revolution of 1830, the Province of Limburg was at first almost entirely under Belgian rule.",
"However, by the 1839 Treaty of London, the province was divided in two, with the eastern part going to the Netherlands and the western part to Belgium, a division that remains today.With the Treaty of London, what is now the Belgian Province of Luxembourg was handed over to Belgium and removed from the German Confederation.",
"To appease Prussia, which had also lost access to the Meuse after the Congress of Vienna, the Dutch province of Limburg (excluding the cities of Maastricht and Venlo because without them Limburg's population equalled that of the Province of Luxembourg, 150,000), was joined to the German Confederation between 5 September 1839 and 23 August 1866 as the Duchy of Limburg.",
"On 11 May 1867, the Duchy, which from 1839 on had been ''de jure'' a separate polity in personal union with the Kingdom of the Netherlands, was reincorporated into the latter with the 1867 Treaty of London, though the term \"Duchy of Limburg\" remained in some official use until February 1907.Another idiosyncrasy survives today: the head of the province, referred to as the \"King's Commissioner\" in other provinces, is addressed as \"Governor\" in Limburg.===20th century===The Second World War cost the lives of many civilians in Limburg, and a large number of towns and villages were destroyed by bombings and artillery battles.",
"Various cemeteries, too, bear witness to this dark chapter in Limburg's history.",
"Almost 8,500 American soldiers, who perished during the liberation of the Netherlands, lie buried at the Netherlands American Cemetery and Memorial in Margraten.",
"Other big war cemeteries are to be found at Overloon (British soldiers) and the Ysselsteyn German war cemetery was constructed in the Municipality of Venray for the 31,000 German soldiers who died.According to the research of Herman van Rens, the residents of Limburg were especially active in hiding local and refugee Jews during the Holocaust, to the extent that the Jewish population even increased during the war.",
"Jews in hiding were three times as likely to survive in Limburg as in Amsterdam.In December 1991, the European Community (now European Union) held a summit in Maastricht.",
"At that summit, the \"Treaty on European Union\" or so-called Maastricht Treaty was signed by the European Community member states.",
"With that treaty, the European Union came into existence.View of the river Meuse and the Medieval Sint Servaasbrug in Maastricht, Limburg's capitalWalemHuis Bloemendaal in Vaals, an 18th-century stately home, also used as a monastery, now a hotel===Anthem===''Limburg mijn Vaderland'' (Limburg my Fatherland) is the official anthem of both Belgian and Dutch Limburg."
],
[
"Language",
"Although standard Dutch is the official language and the one most used, Limburgish is currently considered a regional language as described in the a page of the Dutch Government.",
"It has been an official regional language since 1997 and it receives moderate protection under Chapter 2 of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.",
"The German and Belgian governments do not recognise it as an official language.",
"Before the 20th century, most newspapers were in French or in German, and schools in Maastricht taught French, as the city has historic ties with the Belgian city of Liège.",
"Other parts of the province taught German.Limburgish is spoken by an estimated 1.6 million people in Dutch Limburg, Belgian Limburg, and Germany.",
"There are many different dialects of Limburgish; almost every town and village has its own.",
"A lot of isoglosses cross through Limburg.",
"No single dialect can fully represent Limburgish as a whole.",
"Dialects in the north, nearby Venray and Gennep, are classified as Kleverlandish and are closely connected to the dialects in the northeast of Brabant (Land van Cuijk) and the region of Nijmegen.",
"Dialects in the southeast (near Aachen) are closer to Ripuarian and are sometimes classified as Southeast Limburgish.",
"Dialects in the western part of Limburg, surrounding Weert, are influenced by the neighbouring dialects of southeast Brabant, which means that the tone is more Brabantic than in the rest of Limburg."
],
[
"Politics",
"Provincial Government Buildings in MaastrichtThe provincial council (States-Provincial - ''Provinciale Staten'') has 47 seats, and is headed by a King's Commissioner (''Commissaris van de Koning'') who unofficially is called the Governor.",
"While the provincial council is elected by the inhabitants, the King's Commissioner is appointed by the King and the cabinet of the Netherlands.",
"Since December 2021 Emile Roemer (SP) has been holding the office of 'Governor'.Since the 2011 elections the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) was the largest party in the council, although the Party for Freedom (PVV) won the most votes during the election.",
"However, two members of the PVV left the party, taking their seats with them, which lost the PVV their number one status.Since the 2015 elections the CDA (11 seats) has again been the largest party, followed by the PVV (9 seats) and the Socialist Party (SP) (8 seats).The province's daily affairs are taken care of by the Provincial-Executive (''Gedeputeerde Staten''), which are also headed by the King's Commissioner; its members (''gedeputeerden'') can be compared with ministers.=== States-Provincial ===Results of the elections for the States-Provincial:Parties20072011201520192023CDA 18 10 11 9 5PVV - 10 9 7 6SP 9 6 8 4 3VVD 7 8 5 5 5D66 1 2 4 3 3PvdA 8 6 4 3 3GreenLeft 2 3 2 4 450PLUS - 2 1 1 1Party for the Animals 1 0 1 2 2People's Party Limburg - - 1 - -Local-Limburg - - 1 2 2Party New Limburg 1 0 - - -FvD - - - 7 1BBB - - - - 10JA21 - - - - 2Total 47 47 47 47 47* See also: States of Limburg'' (more information)=== Provincial-Executive ===The Provincial-Executive 2023-2027 consists of the following parties: BBB, CDA, VVD, PvdA and SP."
],
[
"Geography",
"Cities and villages in Limburg including the outlying areas.Limburg is a salient of the Netherlands into Belgium.Compared to the rest of the Netherlands the southern part of Limburg is less flat, slightly undulated.",
"The highest point in the continental Netherlands is the Vaalserberg (meaning 'mountain' of Vaals) with a height of 322.4 metres (1,058 ft) above NAP, rising approximately 110 metres above the village Vaals, where three countries (Netherlands, Belgium and Germany) border each other at the so-called \"Three-country-point\".Limburg's main river is the Meuse, which passes through the province's entire length from south to north.Limburg's surface is largely formed by deposits from the Meuse, consisting of river clay, fertile loessial soil and large deposits of pebblestone, currently being quarried for the construction industry.",
"In the north of the province, further away from the riverbed, the soil primarily consists of sand and peat.Limburg makes up one region of the International Organization for Standardization world region code system, having the code ISO 3166-2:NL-LI.===Municipalities===The province of Limburg has 31 municipalities.",
"*North Limburg COROP group**Beesel**Bergen**Gennep**Horst aan de Maas**Mook en Middelaar**Peel en Maas**Venlo**Venray*Mid Limburg COROP group**Echt-Susteren**Leudal**Maasgouw**Nederweert**Roerdalen**Roermond**Weert*South Limburg COROP group**Beek**Beekdaelen**Brunssum**Eijsden-Margraten**Gulpen-Wittem**Heerlen**Kerkrade**Landgraaf**Maastricht**Meerssen**Simpelveld**Sittard-Geleen**Stein**Vaals**Valkenburg aan de Geul**VoerendaalMap of Limburg (2019)=== Cities ===From North to South: Gennep, Venray, Venlo, Weert, Roermond, Thorn, Sittard, Geleen, Heerlen, Valkenburg, Kerkrade, Maastricht, Vaals.",
"ThornVenloRoermondSittardMaastrichtValkenburgHeerlenKerkrade Vaals"
],
[
"Economy",
"Apples, with cherries, pears and prunes, are the major produce of Limburgian fruit-growing businessesBlooming fruit trees, a tourist attraction in southern Limburg The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was €44.5 billion in 2018, accounting for 5.7% of the Netherlands economic output.",
"GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was €34,700 or 115% of the EU27 average in the same year.In the past peat and coal were mined in Limburg.",
"In 1965–75 the coal mines were finally closed.",
"As a result, 60,000 people lost their jobs in the two coal mining areas, Heerlen-Kerkrade-Brunssum and Sittard-Geleen.",
"A difficult period of economic readjustment started.",
"The Dutch government partly eased the pain by moving several government offices (including Stichting Pensioenfonds ABP and CBS Statistics Netherlands) to Heerlen.The state-owned corporation that once mined in Limburg, DSM, is now a major chemical company, still operating in Limburg.",
"In 2002 DSM sold its petrochemical division (naphtha crackers and polyolefin plants) to SABIC of Saudi Arabia.",
"In 2010, the agro and melamine business groups were sold to OCI Nitrogen.",
"SABIC is located on the Chemelot campus in Sittard-Geleen, which is bounded by the Chemelot Industrial Park, one of Western Europe's biggest industrial sites.",
"At this moment 8000 people work at Chemelot, of which 1000 are active at the Campus.",
"The innovation and licensing division Stamicarbon of DSM was sold in 2009 to Maire Tecnimont, the parent company of an engineering, main contracting and licensing group that operates worldwide in the oil, gas & petrochemicals, power, infrastructure and civil engineering sectors.",
"Stamicarbon is based in Sittard-Geleen.VDL Nedcar in Born (Sittard-Geleen) is the only large-scale car manufacturer in the Netherlands, currently manufacturing MINIs and BMW X1s.",
"Other industries include rockwool in Roermond, Océ copiers and printers manufacturers in Venlo and a paper factory in Maastricht.",
"There are four large beer breweries in Limburg.Southern Limburg has long been one of the country's two main fruit-growing areas, but over the last four decades, many fruit-growing areas have been replaced by water as a result of gravel quarrying near the Meuse.Limburg is one of the most important provinces when it comes to Dutch wine production.",
"South Limburg has the highest concentration of vineyards in the Netherlands.",
"Limburg's wine regions have 3 Appellations: Maasvallei, Mergelland and Vijlen.",
"Voerendaalse bergen is expected to be recognized somewhere in 2021.Tourism is an essential sector of the economy, especially in the hilly southern part of the province.",
"The town of Valkenburg is the main centre.In 2005, the two provincial newspapers, ''De Limburger'' and ''Limburgs Dagblad'', merged."
],
[
"Culture",
"Gronsveld castleEijsden town hallTypical half-timbered housesFolkloreBicycle-racingSquare in front of the Munsterchurch at Roermond, where the provincial diocese of the Roman Catholic church seatsEssential elements in Limburgian culture are * Music;* Religion (predominantly Roman Catholic);* Folklore (in especially the southern part of the province);* Carnival;* Sports, of which especially bicycle racing and soccer are most popular;* Art (architecture, among others).===Music===Choral singing is popular in Limburg.",
"One of its best-known choruses is the Mastreechter Staar (Maastricht Star), which performs nationally and internationally.Every four years the World Music Contest, a competition for professional, amateur and military band sometimes called the Olympic Games of brass band music is held in Kerkrade.In 2013 and 2009 the winner in the World Concert Division was the Koninklijke Harmonie Sainte Cécile, from Eijsden (Limburg).Also held in Kerkrade (situated on the German border) is the Schlagerfestival, a nationally broadcast event presenting singers of German-language pop music called Schlagers.Since 1969 yearly on the Pentecost weekend an international pop music festival called Pinkpop Festival takes place in the southern part of Limburg; initially at Geleen, since 1988 at Schaesberg.More nationally or internationally known musicians from this province are mentioned hereunder in section \"Famous Limburgians\".The Limburg Symphony Orchestra, that resided and rehearsed in Maastricht, and was the oldest symphony orchestra of the Netherlands (founded in 1883) following elimination of government grants merged with ''Het Brabants Orkest'' to form a single ensemble with the new name of the ''philharmonie zuidnederland'', as of April 2013.===Folklore===Many places in both Netherlands' and Belgian Limburg still have their own (by now folkloristic) schutterij.",
"An annual festival is held in which all 160 of them compete for the highest honours to be gained, in the \"OLS\" (Oud Limburgs Schuttersfeest), which is held somewhere in either Belgian or Netherlands' Limburg.===Sports=======Football====In Limburg there are currently four professional Football clubs; Roda JC Kerkrade, VVV-Venlo, MVV Maastricht and Fortuna Sittard.",
"Fortuna Sittard competes in the highest Dutch division, the Eredivisie.",
"The others compete in the second highest division.====Cycling====The annual bike classic Amstel Gold Race is run in the southern part of Limburg.",
"The area has also staged the UCI Road World Championships six times, once hosted by Heerlen and five times by Valkenburg.====Handball====Team handball is the third-most popular sport in Limburg.",
"The women's team, HV Swift Roermond, has won the national championship in the highest division 19 times.",
"The male teams, Sittardia (Sittard), Vlug en Lenig (Geleen) and BFC (Beek), which in 2008 merged as the ''Limburg Lions'', have in total won the national championship 25 times."
],
[
"Religion",
"Limburg is one of two Dutch provinces (North Brabant being the other) that has historically been dominated by the Roman Catholic faith.",
"Diocese statistics of the Diocese of Roermond which covers the entire province of Limburg reports that out of a population of 1,115,895 people, roughly 1,071,000 or 96% of them were Catholics in 2022.In 2015, 64.5% of the population of Limburg identified as Catholic, while 3.3% identified as Muslim, 2.2% with the Protestant Church in the Netherlands, and 2.1% with other churches or faiths.",
"Over a quarter (27.9%) of the population reported being non-religious."
],
[
"Famous Limburgians",
"'''Politics, science, religion'''* Louis Beel (1902–1977) - Politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands* Jo Cals (1914–1971) - Politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands* Jacob Chimarrhaeus (1542–1614) - Grand almoner* Jan van der Croon (c. 1600–1665) - Military commander* Eduard Cuypers (1859–1927) - Architect* Pierre Cuypers (1827–1921) - Architect (designer of a.o.",
"Amsterdam Rijksmuseum)* Peter 'Pie' Debye (1884–1966) - Physicist, Nobel prize winner* Hub van Doorne (1900–1979) - Founder of DAF* Eugène Dubois (1858–1940) - Anatomist* Camiel Eurlings (1973) - Politician* Saint Gerlach (c. 1100–c.",
"1170) - Hermit, saint* Gerard III (1185–1229) - Count of Guelders* Jeanine Hennis-Plasschaert (1973) - Politician and diplomat* Godfrey Henschen (1601–1681) - Hagiographer* Willem van Heythuysen (1590s–1650) - Cloth merchant and hofje founder* Cesar van Hoensbroeck (1724–1792) - Ecclesiastic, Prince-bishop of Liège * Maria van der Hoeven (1949) - Politician* Auguste Kerckhoffs (1835–1903) - Linguist and cryptographer * Jan Gerard Kerkherdere (1677–1738) - Latinist* Lambert of Maastricht (c. 1100–c.",
"1170) - Bishop, saint* Annemarie Mol (1943) - Ethnographer and philosopher* Rene van der Linden (1943) - Politician* Joep Lange (1954–2014) - Clinical researcher specializing in HIV therapy* Pierre Lardinois (1924–1987) - Politician* Gerd Leers (1951) - Politician, Minister of Immigration and Asylum* Jan Pieter Minckeleers (1748–1824) - Physician, inventor* Philip de Montmorency (c. 1524–1568) - Victim of the Inquisition in the Spanish Netherlands* Charles of Mount Argus (1821–1893) - Priest, saint* Johannes Murmellius (c. 1480–1517) - Teacher and humanist* Erycius Puteanus (1574–1646) - Humanist* Christian Quix (1773–1844) - Priest, historian, director of the city library of Aachen* Richardis of Bavaria (1173–1231) - Abbess* Ria Oomen-Ruijten (1950) - Politician and member of the European Parliament* Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck (1873–1936) - Politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands* Jolande Sap (1963) - Politician* Frans Schraven (1873–1937) - Bishop in China* François Vincent Henri Antoine de Stuers (1792–1881) - Dutch general and commander of the East Indies Army* H. J. J. L. de Stuers (1788–1861) - Dutch general and commander of the East Indies Army* Victor de Stuers (1843–1916) - Historian, lawyer, civil servant and politician* Frans Timmermans (1961) - Politician, current First Vice President of the European Commission and former Minister of Foreign Affairs* Yvonne Timmerman-Buck (1956) - Politician, President of the Senate of the Netherlands* Jac.",
"P. Thijsse (1865–1945) - Biologist, ecologist* Johannes Herman Frederik Umbgrove (1899–1954) - Geologist and earth scientist* Maxime Verhagen (1956) - Politician, former Minister of Economic Affairs* Waleran III (c. 1165–1226) - Count of Arlon and Duke of Limburg* Frans de Wever (1869–1940) - General practitioner* Geert Wilders (1963) - Politician'''Entertainment, arts'''* Jean-Eugène-Charles Alberti (1777–c.",
"1850) - Painter* Willem Victor Bartholomeus (1825–1892) - Organist and conductor* Jan van Cleve (1646–1716) - Painter* Jean-Baptiste Coclers (1696–1772) - Painter* Louis Bernard Coclers (1740–1817) - Painter* Jo Coenen (1949) - Architect and urban planner* Gerrit Gerritsz Cuyp (c. 1565–1644) - Glazier and painter* Mike van Diem (1959) - Film director* Rineke Dijkstra (1959) - Photographer* Carach Angren - Band* Jan Frans van Douven (1656–1727) - Painter* Epica - Band* Hendrick Fromantiou (1633–1693) - Painter* Hendrick Goltzius (1558–1617) - Painter and printmaker* Marleen Gorris (1948) - Film director* Koen Heldens (1986) - Mixing engineer* Wilhelm of Herle (fl.",
"1370) - Painter* Toon Hermans (1916–2000) - Comedian, singer and writer* Jan Baptist Herregouts (c. 1640–1721) - Painter* Francine Houben (1955) - Architect* Chantal Janzen (1979) - Actress* Pierre Kemp (1886–1967) - Poet and painter* Mathieu Kessels (1784–1836) - Sculptor* Limbourg brothers (fl.",
"1385 – 1416) - Miniature painters* Henk van der Linden (1925–2021) - Film director* Marjon Lambriks (1949) - Soprano singer* Henri Linssen (1805–1869) - Painter* Pierre Lyonnet (1706–1789) - Artist, engraver and illustrator* David de Meyne (c. 1569–1620) - Painter* Hadewych Minis (1959) - Actress, Golden Calf for Best Actress winner* Connie Palmen (1955) - Writer* Frits Peutz (1896–1974) - Architect* Guido Pieters (1948) - Film director* Pussycat - Band* Christoffel Puytlinck (1640–c.",
"1679) - Painter* Louis Raemaekers (1869–1956) - Painter and editorial cartoonist* André Rieu (1949) - Musician, bandleader* Frank Scheffer (1956) - Documentary film producer* Heintje Simons (1955) - Singer and actor* Simone Simons (1985) - Singer* Huub Stapel (1954) - Actor* Jan van Steffeswert (c. 1460–c.",
"1531) - Sculptor* Johann Friedrich August Tischbein (1750–1812) - Painter* Lotte Verbeek (1982) - Actress* Jacques Verheyen (1911–1989) - Glazier and painter* Carel de Vogelaer (1653–1695) - Painter* Hubert Vos (1855–1935) - Painter* Jeroen Willems (1962–2012) - Actor, Golden Calf and Louis d'Or winner'''Sports'''* Gerard Bergholtz (1939) - Football player* Eddy Beugels (1944–2018) - Cyclist* Rens Blom (1977) - Athlete* Mark van Bommel (1977) - Football player* Jo Bonfrère (1946) - Football player and coach* Antonius Bouwens (1876–1963) - Sport shooter* Bart Brentjens (1968) - Cyclist* Willy Brokamp (1946) - Football player* Roel Brouwers (1981) - Football player* Jeu van Bun (1918–2002) - Football player* Bart Carlier (1929–2017) - Football player* Wiel Coerver (1924–2011) - Football manager* Annemarie Cox (Anna Wood) (1966) - Canoer* Annemiek Derckx (1954) - Sprint canoer* Willy Dullens (1945) - Football player* Tom Dumoulin (1990) - Cyclist* Mark Flekken (1993) - Football player* Mia Gommers (1939) - Athlete* Jorrit Hendrix (1995) - Football player* Max van Heeswijk (1973) - Cyclist* Wim Hof (1959) - Extreme athlete and motivational speaker* Kevin Hofland (1979) - Football player* Pieter van den Hoogenband (1978) - Swimmer* Leo Horn (1916–1995) - Football referee* Dominique Janssen (1995) - Football player* Sjefke Janssen (1919–2014) - Cyclist* Pierre Kerkhoffs (1936–2021) - Football player* Jan Klaassens (1931–1983) - Football player* Coy Koopal (1932–2003) - Football player* Jan Krekels (1947) - Cyclist* Jan Lambrichs (1915–1990) - Cyclist* Vanity Lewerissa (1991) - Football player* Marie-Louise Linssen-Vaessen - Freestyle swimmer* René Lotz (1938) - Cyclist* Eric van der Luer (1965) - Football player* Jo Maas (1954) - Cyclist* Dirk Marcellis (1988) - Football player* Lieke Martens (1992) - Football player* Pierre Massy (1900–1958) - Football player* Erik Meijer (1969) - Football player* Manoe Meulen (1978) - Football player* Danny Nelissen (1970) - Cyclist* Jean Nelissen (1936–2010) - Sports journalist* Jan Nolten (1930–2014) - Cyclist* Jan Notermans (1933) - Football player* Joep Packbiers (1875–1957) - Archer* Maartje Paumen (1985) - Hockey player* Wout Poels (1987) - Cyclist* Fernando Ricksen (1976–2019) - Football player* Gonnelien Rothenberger (1969) - Equestrian* Sjeng Schalken (1976) - Tennis player* Lisa Scheenaard (1988) - Rower* Perr Schuurs (1999) - Football player* Kay Smits (1997) - Handball player* Jeu Sprengers (1938–2008) - KNVB football chairman* Huub Stevens (1953) - Football player and coach* Karin Stevens (1989) - Football player* Wilbert Suvrijn (1962) - Football player* Arjen Teeuwissen (1971) - Equestrian* Stan Valckx (1963) - Football player* Arnold Vanderlyde (1963) - Boxer* Mark Veens (1978) - Freestyle swimmer* Lambert Verdonk (1944) - Football player* Sef Vergoossen (1947) - Football manager* Joeri Verlinden (1988) - Swimmer* Pierre Vermeulen (1956) - Football player* Jos Verstappen (1972) - Racing driver* Ronald Waterreus (1970) - Football player* Steve Wijler (1996) - Archer* Ad Wijnands (1959) - Cyclist* Lynn Wilms (2000) - Football player* Peter Winnen (1957) - Cyclist* Fons van Wissen (1933–2015) - Football player* Boudewijn Zenden (1976) - Football player(''List of famous Belgian Limburgians: Famous Limburgians (Belgium)'')"
],
[
"Nature",
"In 2012, from April 5 to October 7, the ten-yearly world horticulture expo \"Floriade\" was held in Venlo.Nationally and internationally known are nature films and nature television series produced by filmdirector Maurice Nijsten and nature protector Jo Erkens.Eijsden-Grenspaal 47 (NL).JPG|At Eijsden the river Meuse enters this province as well as the countryRavensbosjsjtraobaekwkped07.JPG|Path in Southern Limburgian RavensbosGulp-Slenaken.jpg|River Gulp near SlenakenMookerheide near Molenhoek.jpg|Site at the Mooker heath in Northern LimburgView from the Schneeberg in Germany to Oud-Lemiers in the Netherlands.jpg|Oud-Lemiers near Vaals, as seen from the Schneeberg in GermanyBrunssummerheideoverview2.jpg|Brunssummer heath in South Eastern Limburg"
],
[
"See also",
"* Buckriders* Campine (De Kempen)* Peel (De Peel)* Salient"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Province of Limburg (in Dutch and English)* Limburg Tourist Information (in English)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Leon"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Leon''', '''Léon''' (French) or '''León''' (Spanish) may refer to:"
],
[
"Places",
"===Europe===* León, Spain, capital city of the Province of León* Province of León, Spain* Kingdom of León, an independent state in the Iberian Peninsula from 910 to 1230 and again from 1296 to 1301* León (historical region), composed of the Spanish provinces León, Salamanca, and Zamora* Viscounty of Léon, a feudal state in France during the 11th to 13th centuries* Saint-Pol-de-Léon, a commune in Brittany, France* Léon, Landes, a commune in Aquitaine, France* Isla de León, a Spanish island* Leon (Souda Bay), an islet in Souda Bay, Chania, on the island of Crete===North America===* León, Guanajuato, Mexico, a large city* Leon, California, United States, a ghost town* Leon, Iowa, United States* Leon, Kansas, United States* Leon, New York, United States* Leon, Oklahoma, United States* Leon, Virginia, United States* Leon, West Virginia, United States* Leon, Wisconsin (disambiguation), United States, several places* New Kingdom of León, a territory of Spain (1582-1821) in Mexico, roughly corresponding in area to modern Nuevo León* Leon County, Florida* Leon County, Texas* Leon Township, Clearwater County, Minnesota* Leon Township, Goodhue County, Minnesota* Leon River, Texas===Central America===* León Department, Nicaragua* León, Nicaragua, capital city of the León Department===Other places===* Leon, Iloilo, Philippines, a 2nd class municipality* Leon, Togo, a village* Leon River (Colombia)"
],
[
"People",
"===People with the nickname or stage name===* Leon (Japanese wrestler), (born 1980), Japanese professional wrestler* Leon Robinson (born 1962), African-American actor and singer usually credited as \"Leon\"* Leon (German singer) (born 1969), German performer in the 1996 Eurovision Song Contest* Léon (Swedish singer) (born 1993), Swedish singer* El León, (born 1975), Puerto Rican professional wrestler* Frère León (1871–1955), Franco-Cuban botanist, born Joseph Sylvestre Sauget, known by the botanical author abbreviation León* Leon Boga, nickname of Aromanian writer, schoolteacher and archivist in Romania Leonida T. Boga (1886–1974)* Leon Russell (1942–2016), American singer and songwriter===People with the name===* Leon (given name), people whose first name is Leon* Leon (surname)"
],
[
"Arts and entertainment",
"=== Fictional characters ===* Leon (''Dead or Alive'')* Leon (''Squirrel Boy'')* Leon, main character from the game ''The Legend of Oasis''* Leon, a character on ''The Andy Griffith Show''* Leon, a character from the game ''Pokémon Sword and Shield''*''Leon'', from the Supercell game ''Brawl Stars''*Leon, from the game ''Rune Factory 4''*Léon, a young male cyclops created by Annie Groovie* Leon, a ''Battle Arena Toshinden'' character* Leon Garcia de Asturias, on ''Trinity Blood''*Leon Belmont, a ''Castlevania'' character* Leon Elliott, a ''Black Cat'' character* Leon D. Geeste, a ''Star Ocean 2'' character* Leon Jefferson III, in ''Baby Driver''* Leon Karp, a ''Roseanne'' character* Leon S. Kennedy, a ''Resident Evil'' character* Leon Kowalski, a ''Blade Runner'' character*Leon Kuwata, from the game ''Danganronpa: Trigger Happy Havoc''* Squall Leonhart, aka Leon, a ''Final Fantasy'' character* Leon Magnus, a ''Tales of Destiny'' character* Leone \"Léon\" Montana, the titular protagonist of ''Léon: The Professional''* Leon Powalski, a ''Star Fox'' character* Leongar, aka Leon, a character in ''Kirby and the Forgotten Land''===Works===* ''Leon'' (TV series), an animated TV series for children* ''Léon: The Professional'', a 1994 thriller film directed by Luc Besson* \"Leon\", a track on the album ''Oui Oui Si Si Ja Ja Da Da'' by Madness"
],
[
"Businesses",
"* Léon & Lévy, French maker of stereoscopic views and postcards, founded 1864* Leon Restaurants, fast food chain based in the United Kingdom* Leon's, a Canadian furniture retailer"
],
[
"Ships",
"* Greek destroyer ''Leon'' (1912)* Greek destroyer ''Leon'' (D54) (1951–1992)* , a World War II attack transport"
],
[
"Sports clubs",
"* Club León, Mexican professional football club from León, Guanajuato* León de Huánuco, Peruvian professional football club from Huánuco, Huánuco Region"
],
[
"Technology",
"* Leon (software), a vocal for Vocaloid software* LEON, a microprocessor* SEAT León, a car from the Spanish manufacturer SEAT"
],
[
"See also",
"* De León (disambiguation)* Leon Airport (disambiguation)* Winter Storm Leon* Kings of Leon, American rock band*Leonard (disambiguation)* Leno (disambiguation)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Ligand"
],
[
"Introduction",
"HCo(CO)4 with five ligandsIn coordination chemistry, a '''ligand''' is an ion or molecule with a functional group that binds to a central metal atom to form a coordination complex.",
"The bonding with the metal generally involves formal donation of one or more of the ligand's electron pairs, often through Lewis bases.",
"The nature of metal–ligand bonding can range from covalent to ionic.",
"Furthermore, the metal–ligand bond order can range from one to three.",
"Ligands are viewed as Lewis bases, although rare cases are known to involve Lewis acidic \"ligands\".Metals and metalloids are bound to ligands in almost all circumstances, although gaseous \"naked\" metal ions can be generated in a high vacuum.",
"Ligands in a complex dictate the reactivity of the central atom, including ligand substitution rates, the reactivity of the ligands themselves, and redox.",
"Ligand selection requires critical consideration in many practical areas, including bioinorganic and medicinal chemistry, homogeneous catalysis, and environmental chemistry.Ligands are classified in many ways, including: charge, size (bulk), the identity of the coordinating atom(s), and the number of electrons donated to the metal (denticity or hapticity).",
"The size of a ligand is indicated by its cone angle."
],
[
"History",
"The composition of coordination complexes have been known since the early 1800s, such as Prussian blue and copper vitriol.",
"The key breakthrough occurred when Alfred Werner reconciled formulas and isomers.",
"He showed, among other things, that the formulas of many cobalt(III) and chromium(III) compounds can be understood if the metal has six ligands in an octahedral geometry.",
"The first to use the term \"ligand\" were Alfred Werner and Carl Somiesky, in relation to silicon chemistry.",
"The theory allows one to understand the difference between coordinated and ionic chloride in the cobalt ammine chlorides and to explain many of the previously inexplicable isomers.",
"He resolved the first coordination complex called hexol into optical isomers, overthrowing the theory that chirality was necessarily associated with carbon compounds."
],
[
"Strong field and weak field ligands",
"In general, ligands are viewed as electron donors and the metals as electron acceptors, i.e., respectively, Lewis bases and Lewis acids.",
"This description has been semi-quantified in many ways, e.g.",
"ECW model.",
"Bonding is often described using the formalisms of molecular orbital theory.Ligands and metal ions can be ordered in many ways; one ranking system focuses on ligand 'hardness' (see also hard/soft acid/base theory).",
"Metal ions preferentially bind certain ligands.",
"In general, 'hard' metal ions prefer weak field ligands, whereas 'soft' metal ions prefer strong field ligands.",
"According to the molecular orbital theory, the HOMO (Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital) of the ligand should have an energy that overlaps with the LUMO (Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital) of the metal preferential.",
"Metal ions bound to strong-field ligands follow the Aufbau principle, whereas complexes bound to weak-field ligands follow Hund's rule.Binding of the metal with the ligands results in a set of molecular orbitals, where the metal can be identified with a new HOMO and LUMO (the orbitals defining the properties and reactivity of the resulting complex) and a certain ordering of the 5 d-orbitals (which may be filled, or partially filled with electrons).",
"In an octahedral environment, the 5 otherwise degenerate d-orbitals split in sets of 3 and 2 orbitals (for a more in-depth explanation, see crystal field theory):*3 orbitals of low energy: d''xy'', d''xz'' and d''yz'' and*2 orbitals of high energy: d''z''2 and d''x''2−''y''2.The energy difference between these 2 sets of d-orbitals is called the splitting parameter, Δo.",
"The magnitude of Δo is determined by the field-strength of the ligand: strong field ligands, by definition, increase Δo more than weak field ligands.",
"Ligands can now be sorted according to the magnitude of Δo (see the table below).",
"This ordering of ligands is almost invariable for all metal ions and is called spectrochemical series.For complexes with a tetrahedral surrounding, the d-orbitals again split into two sets, but this time in reverse order:*2 orbitals of low energy: d''z''2 and d''x''2−''y''2 and*3 orbitals of high energy: d''xy'', d''xz'' and d''yz''.The energy difference between these 2 sets of d-orbitals is now called Δt.",
"The magnitude of Δt is smaller than for Δo, because in a tetrahedral complex only 4 ligands influence the d-orbitals, whereas in an octahedral complex the d-orbitals are influenced by 6 ligands.",
"When the coordination number is neither octahedral nor tetrahedral, the splitting becomes correspondingly more complex.",
"For the purposes of ranking ligands, however, the properties of the octahedral complexes and the resulting Δo has been of primary interest.The arrangement of the d-orbitals on the central atom (as determined by the 'strength' of the ligand), has a strong effect on virtually all the properties of the resulting complexes.",
"E.g., the energy differences in the d-orbitals has a strong effect in the optical absorption spectra of metal complexes.",
"It turns out that valence electrons occupying orbitals with significant 3 d-orbital character absorb in the 400–800 nm region of the spectrum (UV–visible range).",
"The absorption of light (what we perceive as the color) by these electrons (that is, excitation of electrons from one orbital to another orbital under influence of light) can be correlated to the ground state of the metal complex, which reflects the bonding properties of the ligands.",
"The relative change in (relative) energy of the d-orbitals as a function of the field-strength of the ligands is described in Tanabe–Sugano diagrams.In cases where the ligand has low energy LUMO, such orbitals also participate in the bonding.",
"The metal–ligand bond can be further stabilised by a formal donation of electron density back to the ligand in a process known as ''back-bonding.''",
"In this case a filled, central-atom-based orbital donates density into the LUMO of the (coordinated) ligand.",
"Carbon monoxide is the preeminent example a ligand that engages metals via back-donation.",
"Complementarily, ligands with low-energy filled orbitals of pi-symmetry can serve as pi-donor.Metal–EDTA complex, wherein the aminocarboxylate is a hexadentate (chelating) ligand Cobalt(III) complex containing six ammonia ligands, which are monodentate.",
"The chloride is not a ligand."
],
[
"Classification of ligands as L and X",
"Ligands are classified according to the number of electrons that they \"donate\" to the metal.",
"L ligands are Lewis bases.",
"L ligands are represented by amines, phosphines, CO, N2, and alkenes.",
"Examples of L ligands extend to include dihydrogen and hydrocarbons that interact by agostic interactions.",
"X ligands are halides and pseudohalides.",
"X ligands typically are derived from anionic precursors such as chloride but includes ligands where salts of anion do not really exist such as hydride and alkyl.Especially in the area of organometallic chemistry, ligands are classified according to the \"CBC Method\" for Covalent Bond Classification, as popularized by M. L. H. Green and \"is based on the notion that there are three basic types of ligands... represented by the symbols L, X, and Z, which correspond respectively to 2-electron, 1-electron and 0-electron neutral ligands.\""
],
[
"Polydentate and polyhapto ligand motifs and nomenclature",
"===Denticity===Many ligands are capable of binding metal ions through multiple sites, usually because the ligands have lone pairs on more than one atom.",
"Such ligands are polydentate.",
"Ligands that bind via more than one atom are often termed ''chelating''.",
"A ligand that binds through two sites is classified as ''bidentate'', and three sites as ''tridentate''.",
"The \"bite angle\" refers to the angle between the two bonds of a bidentate chelate.",
"Chelating ligands are commonly formed by linking donor groups via organic linkers.",
"A classic bidentate ligand is ethylenediamine, which is derived by the linking of two ammonia groups with an ethylene (−CH2CH2−) linker.",
"A classic example of a polydentate ligand is the hexadentate chelating agent EDTA, which is able to bond through six sites, completely surrounding some metals.",
"The number of times a polydentate ligand binds to a metal centre is symbolized by \"''κn''\", where ''n'' indicates the number of sites by which a ligand attaches to a metal.",
"EDTA4−, when it is hexidentate, binds as a ''κ''6-ligand, the amines and the carboxylate oxygen atoms are not contiguous.",
"In practice, the n value of a ligand is not indicated explicitly but rather assumed.",
"The binding affinity of a chelating system depends on the chelating angle or bite angle.Denticity (represented by ''κ'') is nomenclature that described to the number of noncontiguous atoms of a ligand bonded to a metal.",
"This descriptor is often omitted because the denticity of a ligand is often obvious.",
"The complex tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) could be described as Co(κ2-en)33+.Complexes of polydentate ligands are called ''chelate'' complexes.",
"They tend to be more stable than complexes derived from monodentate ligands.",
"This enhanced stability, called the ''chelate effect'', is usually attributed to effects of entropy, which favors the displacement of many ligands by one polydentate ligand.Related to the chelate effect is the macrocyclic effect.",
"A macrocyclic ligand is any large ligand that at least partially surrounds the central atom and bonds to it, leaving the central atom at the centre of a large ring.",
"The more rigid and the higher its denticity, the more inert will be the macrocyclic complex.",
"Heme is an example, in which the iron atom is at the centre of a porphyrin macrocycle, bound to four nitrogen atoms of the tetrapyrrole macrocycle.",
"The very stable dimethylglyoximate complex of nickel is a synthetic macrocycle derived from dimethylglyoxime.=== Hapticity ==='''Hapticity''' (represented by Greek letter ''η'') refers to the number of ''contiguous'' atoms that comprise a donor site and attach to a metal center.",
"The ''η-notation'' applies when multiple atoms are coordinated.",
"For example, ''η''2 is a ligand that coordinates through two contiguous atoms.",
"Butadiene forms both ''η''2 and ''η''4 complexes depending on the number of carbon atoms that are bonded to the metal."
],
[
"Ligand motifs",
"===Trans-spanning ligands===Trans-spanning ligands are bidentate ligands that can span coordination positions on opposite sides of a coordination complex.===Ambidentate ligand===In contrast to polydentate ligands, ambidentate ligands can attach to the central atom in either one of two (or more) places, but not both.",
"An example is thiocyanate, SCN−, which can attach at either the sulfur atom or the nitrogen atom.",
"Such compounds give rise to linkage isomerism.Polydentate and ambidentate are therefore two different types of polyfunctional ligands (ligands with more than one functional group) which can bond to a metal center through different ligand atoms to form various isomers.",
"Polydentate ligands can bond through one atom AND another (or several others) at the same time, whereas ambidentate ligands bond through one atom OR another.",
"Proteins are complex examples of polyfunctional ligands, usually polydentate.===Bridging ligand===A bridging ligand links two or more metal centers.",
"Virtually all inorganic solids with simple formulas are coordination polymers, consisting of metal ion centres linked by bridging ligands.",
"This group of materials includes all anhydrous binary metal ion halides and pseudohalides.",
"Bridging ligands also persist in solution.",
"Polyatomic ligands such as carbonate are ambidentate and thus are found to often bind to two or three metals simultaneously.",
"Atoms that bridge metals are sometimes indicated with the prefix \"''μ''\".",
"Most inorganic solids are polymers by virtue of the presence of multiple bridging ligands.",
"Bridging ligands, capable of coordinating multiple metal ions, have been attracting considerable interest because of their potential use as building blocks for the fabrication of functional multimetallic assemblies.===Binucleating ligand===Binucleating ligands bind two metal ions.",
"Usually binucleating ligands feature bridging ligands, such as phenoxide, pyrazolate, or pyrazine, as well as other donor groups that bind to only one of the two metal ions.===Metal–ligand multiple bond===Some ligands can bond to a metal center through the same atom but with a different number of lone pairs.",
"The bond order of the metal ligand bond can be in part distinguished through the metal ligand bond angle (M−X−R).",
"This bond angle is often referred to as being linear or bent with further discussion concerning the degree to which the angle is bent.",
"For example, an imido ligand in the ionic form has three lone pairs.",
"One lone pair is used as a sigma X donor, the other two lone pairs are available as L-type pi donors.",
"If both lone pairs are used in pi bonds then the M−N−R geometry is linear.",
"However, if one or both these lone pairs is nonbonding then the M−N−R bond is bent and the extent of the bend speaks to how much pi bonding there may be.",
"''η''1-Nitric oxide can coordinate to a metal center in linear or bent manner.===Spectator ligand===A spectator ligand is a tightly coordinating polydentate ligand that does not participate in chemical reactions but removes active sites on a metal.",
"Spectator ligands influence the reactivity of the metal center to which they are bound.===Bulky ligands===Bulky ligands are used to control the steric properties of a metal center.",
"They are used for many reasons, both practical and academic.",
"On the practical side, they influence the selectivity of metal catalysts, e.g., in hydroformylation.",
"Of academic interest, bulky ligands stabilize unusual coordination sites, e.g., reactive coligands or low coordination numbers.",
"Often bulky ligands are employed to simulate the steric protection afforded by proteins to metal-containing active sites.",
"Of course excessive steric bulk can prevent the coordination of certain ligands.",
"''N''-heterocyclic carbene ligand called IMes is a bulky ligand by virtue of the pair of mesityl groups.===Chiral ligands===Chiral ligands are useful for inducing asymmetry within the coordination sphere.",
"Often the ligand is employed as an optically pure group.",
"In some cases, such as secondary amines, the asymmetry arises upon coordination.",
"Chiral ligands are used in homogeneous catalysis, such as asymmetric hydrogenation.===Hemilabile ligands===Hemilabile ligands contain at least two electronically different coordinating groups and form complexes where one of these is easily displaced from the metal center while the other remains firmly bound, a behaviour which has been found to increase the reactivity of catalysts when compared to the use of more traditional ligands.===Non-innocent ligand===Non-innocent ligands bond with metals in such a manner that the distribution of electron density between the metal center and ligand is unclear.",
"Describing the bonding of non-innocent ligands often involves writing multiple resonance forms that have partial contributions to the overall state."
],
[
"Common ligands",
"Virtually every molecule and every ion can serve as a ligand for (or \"coordinate to\") metals.",
"Monodentate ligands include virtually all anions and all simple Lewis bases.",
"Thus, the halides and pseudohalides are important anionic ligands whereas ammonia, carbon monoxide, and water are particularly common charge-neutral ligands.",
"Simple organic species are also very common, be they anionic (RO− and ) or neutral (R2O, R2S, R3−''x''NH''x'', and R3P).",
"The steric properties of some ligands are evaluated in terms of their cone angles.Beyond the classical Lewis bases and anions, all unsaturated molecules are also ligands, utilizing their pi electrons in forming the coordinate bond.",
"Also, metals can bind to the σ bonds in for example silanes, hydrocarbons, and dihydrogen (see also: Agostic interaction).In complexes of non-innocent ligands, the ligand is bonded to metals via conventional bonds, but the ligand is also redox-active.===Examples of common ligands (by field strength)===In the following table the ligands are sorted by field strength (weak field ligands first): Ligand formula (bonding atom(s) in bold) Charge Most common denticity Remark(s) Iodide (iodo) '''I'''− monoanionic monodentate Bromide (bromido) '''Br'''− monoanionic monodentate Sulfide (thio or less commonly \"bridging thiolate\") '''S'''2− dianionic monodentate (M=S), or bidentate bridging (M−S−M') Thiocyanate (''S''-thiocyanato) '''S'''−CN− monoanionic monodentate ambidentate (see also isothiocyanate, below) Chloride (chlorido) '''Cl'''− monoanionic monodentate also found bridging Nitrate (nitrato) '''O'''− monoanionic monodentate Azide (azido) '''N'''− monoanionic monodentate Very Toxic Fluoride (fluoro) '''F'''− monoanionic monodentate Hydroxide (hydroxido) '''O'''−H− monoanionic monodentate often found as a bridging ligand Oxalate (oxalato) '''O'''−CO−CO−'''O'''2− dianionic bidentate Water (aqua) '''O'''−H2 neutral monodentate Nitrite (nitrito) '''O'''−N−O− monoanionic monodentate ambidentate (see also nitro) Isothiocyanate (isothiocyanato) '''N'''=C=S− monoanionic monodentate ambidentate (see also thiocyanate, above) Acetonitrile (acetonitrilo) CH3C'''N''' neutral monodentate Pyridine (py) C5H5'''N''' neutral monodentate Ammonia (ammine or less commonly \"ammino\") '''N'''H3 neutral monodentate Ethylenediamine (en) '''N'''H2−CH2−CH2−'''N'''H2 neutral bidentate 2,2'-Bipyridine (bipy) '''N'''C5H4−C5H4'''N''' neutral bidentate easily reduced to its (radical) anion or even to its dianion 1,10-Phenanthroline (phen) C12H8'''N2''' neutral bidentate Nitrite (nitro) '''N'''− monoanionic monodentate ambidentate (see also nitrito) Triphenylphosphine '''P'''−(C6H5)3 neutral monodentate Cyanide (cyano) '''C'''≡N−'''N'''≡C− monoanionic monodentate can bridge between metals (both metals bound to C, or one to C and one to N) Carbon monoxide (carbonyl) –'''C'''O, others neutral monodentate can bridge between metals (both metals bound to C)The entries in the table are sorted by field strength, binding through the stated atom (i.e.",
"as a terminal ligand).",
"The 'strength' of the ligand changes when the ligand binds in an alternative binding mode (e.g., when it bridges between metals) or when the conformation of the ligand gets distorted (e.g., a linear ligand that is forced through steric interactions to bind in a nonlinear fashion).===Other generally encountered ligands (alphabetical)===In this table other common ligands are listed in alphabetical order.",
"Ligand Formula (bonding atom(s) in bold) Charge Most common denticity Remark(s) Acetylacetonate (acac) CH3−C'''O'''−CH2−C'''O'''−CH3 monoanionic bidentate In general bidentate, bound through both oxygens, but sometimes bound through the central carbon only, see also analogous ketimine analogues Alkenes R2'''C=C'''R2 neutral compounds with a C−C double bond Aminopolycarboxylic acids (APCAs) BAPTA (1,2-bis(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid) Benzene '''C6'''H6 neutral and other arenes 1,2-Bis(diphenylphosphino)ethane (dppe) (C6H5)2'''P'''−C2H4−'''P'''(C6H5)2 neutral bidentate 1,1-Bis(diphenylphosphino)methane (dppm) (C6H5)2'''P'''−CH2−'''P'''(C6H5)2 neutral Can bond to two metal atoms at once, forming dimers Corroles tetradentate Crown ethers neutral primarily for alkali and alkaline earth metal cations 2,2,2-cryptand hexadentate primarily for alkali and alkaline earth metal cations Cryptates neutral Cyclopentadienyl (Cp) monoanionic Although monoanionic, by the nature of its occupied molecular orbitals, it is capable of acting as a tridentate ligand.",
"Diethylenetriamine (dien) C4H13'''N3''' neutral tridentate related to TACN, but not constrained to facial complexation Dimethylglyoximate (dmgH−) monoanionic 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA) Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) (pentetic acid) Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) (edta4−) (−O'''O'''C−CH2)2'''N'''−C2H4−'''N'''(CH2-C'''O'''O−)2 tetraanionic hexadentate Ethylenediaminetriacetate −O'''O'''C−CH2'''N'''H−C2H4−'''N'''(CH2-C'''O'''O−)2 trianionic pentadentate Ethyleneglycolbis(oxyethylenenitrilo)tetraacetate (egta4−) (−O'''O'''C−CH2)2'''N'''−C2H4−'''O'''−C2H4−'''O'''−C2H4−'''N'''(CH2−C'''O'''O−)2 tetraanionic octodentate Fura-2 Glycinate (glycinato) '''N'''H2CH2C'''O'''O− monoanionic bidentate other α-amino acid anions are comparable (but chiral) Heme dianionic tetradentate macrocyclic ligand Iminodiacetic acid (IDA) tridentate Used extensively to make radiotracers for scintigraphy by complexing the metastable radionuclide technetium-99m.",
"For example, in cholescintigraphy, HIDA, BrIDA, PIPIDA, and DISIDA are used Nicotianamine Ubiquitous in higher plants Nitrosyl '''N'''O+ cationic bent (1e−) and linear (3e−) bonding mode Nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) Oxo '''O'''2− dianion monodentate sometimes bridging Pyrazine '''N'''2C4H4 neutral ditopic sometimes bridging Scorpionate ligand tridentate Sulfite '''O'''−'''S'''− monoanionic monodentate ambidentate 2,2';6',2″-Terpyridine (terpy) '''N'''C5H4−C5H3'''N'''−C5H4'''N''' neutral tridentate meridional bonding only Triazacyclononane (tacn) (C2H4)3('''N'''R)3 neutral tridentate macrocyclic ligand see also the ''N'',''N''′,''N''″-trimethylated analogue Tricyclohexylphosphine '''P'''(C6H11)3 or '''P'''Cy3 neutral monodentate Triethylenetetramine (trien) C6H18'''N4''' neutral tetradentate Trimethylphosphine '''P'''(CH3)3 neutral monodentate Tris(o-tolyl)phosphine '''P'''(''o''-tolyl)3 neutral monodentate Tris(2-aminoethyl)amine (tren) ('''N'''H2CH2CH2)3'''N''' neutral tetradentate Tris(2-diphenylphosphineethyl)amine (np3) neutral tetradentate Tropylium cationic Carbon dioxide –'''C'''O2, others neutral see metal carbon dioxide complexPhosphorus trifluoride (trifluorophosphorus) –'''P'''F3 neutral"
],
[
"Ligand exchange",
"A '''ligand exchange''' (also called '''ligand substitution''') is a chemical reaction in which a ligand in a compound is replaced by another.",
"Two general mechanisms are recognized: associative substitution or by dissociative substitution.A generalized example of ligand associationAssociative substitution closely resembles the SN2 mechanism in organic chemistry.",
"A typically smaller ligand can attach to an unsaturated complex followed by loss of another ligand.",
"Typically, the rate of the substitution is first order in entering ligand L and the unsaturated complex.A generalized example of ligand dissociationDissociative substitution is common for octahedral complexes.",
"This pathway closely resembles the SN1 mechanism in organic chemistry.",
"The identity of the entering ligand does not affect the rate."
],
[
"Ligand–protein binding database",
"BioLiP is a comprehensive ligand–protein interaction database, with the 3D structure of the ligand–protein interactions taken from the Protein Data Bank.",
"MANORAA is a webserver for analyzing conserved and differential molecular interaction of the ligand in complex with protein structure homologs from the Protein Data Bank.",
"It provides the linkage to protein targets such as its location in the biochemical pathways, SNPs and protein/RNA baseline expression in target organ."
],
[
"See also",
"* Bridging carbonyl* Crystal field theory* DNA binding ligand* Inorganic chemistry* Josiphos ligands* Ligand dependent pathway* Ligand field theory* Ligand isomerism* Spectrochemical series"
],
[
"Explanatory notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* See the modeling of ligand–receptor–ligand binding in Vu-Quoc, L., Configuration integral (statistical mechanics), 2008.This wiki site is down; see this article in the Internet Archive from 2012 April 28."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lincos language"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lincos''' (an abbreviation of the Latin phrase ''lingua cosmica'') is a constructed language first described in 1960 by Dr. Hans Freudenthal in his book ''Lincos: Design of a Language for Cosmic Intercourse, Part 1''.",
"It is a language designed to be understandable by any possible intelligent extraterrestrial life form, for use in interstellar radio transmissions.",
"Freudenthal considered that such a language should be easily understood by beings not acquainted with any Earthling syntax or language.",
"Lincos was designed to be capable of encapsulating \"the whole bulk of our knowledge\"."
],
[
"Concepts and range",
"The Lincos \"dictionary\" is intended to be transmitted first before any additional messages.",
"It teaches natural numbers by a series of repeated pulses, separated by pauses.",
"It then teaches >, .",
".",
".'''",
"More of a pause than he shows around > would be needed to show an alien that > is a new separate symbol.",
"Otherwise, an alien might think that the whole pattern is a new symbol of unknown meaning.",
"Having introduced =, he shows unary notation for numbers '''.'''",
"= 1, '''.",
".'''",
"= 2 and so on.",
"He goes on to multiplication, division, variables and constants, then propositional logic, set theory, and first-order logic.",
"He tries to introduce questions by leaving mathematical expressions unsolved (e.g., ?",
"x x + 101 = 11).The next section of the Lincos dictionary introduces a word for second, \"Sec,\" by playing pulses of various lengths, followed by Sec, and the number of seconds, \"until the receiver may be expected to remark that the numbers... are proportional to the durations\", thus teaching both that Sec is a unit of time, and exactly how long it is.",
"He then introduces means for measuring durations, referring to moments in time, and talking about past and future events.The third section is perhaps the most complex, and attempts to convey the concepts and language necessary to describe behavior and conversation between individuals.",
"It uses examples to introduce actors speaking to each other, asking questions, disapproving, quoting other people, knowing and wanting things, promising, and playing.",
"The first steps (since he has introduced sets of numbers and questions) are to introduce some new symbols (distinctive patterns of pulses), say they are NOT numbers, and transmit sequences showing two of these new symbols separated by the word \"Inq\", and followed by a question about an equation, then the symbols reversed, followed by the answer (example below).",
"He expects that after many repetitions, the recipient will decide these new symbols are entities asking and answering the questions, rather than some other context for the questions.Finally, the fourth section describes the concepts and language relating to mass, space, and motion.",
"This last section goes so far as to describe physical features of human beings and of the Solar System.A second book was planned but never written that would have added four more sections to the dictionary: \"Matter\"; \"Earth\"; \"Life\"; and \"Behavior 2\".",
"Other researchers have since extended the language somewhat on their own.",
"One example is CosmicOS.",
"Another is a second-generation ''Lingua Cosmica'' developed by the Dutch-Swedish astronomer and mathematician Alexander Ollongren of Leiden University, using constructive logic.Freudenthal's book on Lincos discusses it with many technical words from linguistic and logical theory, usually without defining them, which may have reduced its general interest, though the main chapters can be understood without these technical terms: appellatives, binding, formalization, function, lexicology, logistical, ostensive, quasi-general, semantics, syntax, variables, etc."
],
[
"Use",
"For decades, no actual transmissions were made using Lincos; it remained largely a theoretical exercise, until Canadian astrophysicists Yvan Dutil and Stéphane Dumas, working at the Canadian Defense Research Establishment, created a noise-resistant coding system for messages aimed at communicating with extraterrestrial civilizations.",
"In 1999, the astrophysicists encoded a message in Lincos and used the Yevpatoria RT-70 radio telescope in Ukraine to beam it towards close stars.",
"This is known as Cosmic Call.",
"The experiment was repeated (using other close stars as target) in 2003.The message was a series of pages describing some basic mathematics, physics and astronomy.",
"The Dutil–Dumas experiment was promoted by an organization called ''Encounter 2001''.Some researchers have explored the similar issues in communicating with intelligent animals such as cetaceans.",
"Lincos messages (even if sent by pulses of sound rather than radio) are complex and need to reach the most patient, logically oriented members of the target species.",
"A far simpler approach aimed at average members of a species can cover numbers, >, <, =, +, -, and time."
],
[
"Examples",
"An example of Lincos from section 3 of Freudenthal's book, showing one individual asking another individual questions: Lincos text Meaning ''Ha'' Inq ''Hb'' ?",
"''x'' 2''x''=5 Ha says to Hb: What is the x such that 2x=5?",
"''Hb'' Inq ''Ha'' 5/2 Hb says to Ha: 5/2.",
"''Ha'' Inq ''Hb'' Ben Ha says to Hb: Good.",
"''Ha'' Inq ''Hb'' ?",
"''x'' 4''x''=10 Ha says to Hb: What is the x such that 4x=10?",
"''Hb'' Inq ''Ha'' 10/4 Hb says to Ha: 10/4.",
"''Ha'' Inq ''Hb'' Mal Ha says to Hb: Bad.",
"''Hb'' Inq ''Ha'' 1/4 Hb says to Ha: 1/4.",
"''Ha'' Inq ''Hb'' Mal Ha says to Hb: Bad.",
"''Hb'' Inq ''Ha'' 5/2 Hb says to Ha: 5/2.",
"''Ha'' Inq ''Hb'' Ben Ha says to Hb: Good.Note the difference between \"good\" and \"bad\" as compared to \"true\" and \"false\"; 10/4 is a true answer to the question, so ''Ver'' (\"true\") would be a valid response, but since it wasn't reduced to lowest terms, it wasn't what Ha wanted and so he responded ''Mal'' (\"bad\") instead.",
"The book separately teaches Ver and Fal for true and false.Another example, showing meta-conversation: Lincos text Meaning ''Ha'' Inq ''Hb'' ?",
"''x'' 4''x''=10 Ha says to Hb: What is the x such that 4x=10?",
"''Hb'' Inq ''Hc'' ?",
"''y'' ''y'' Inq ''Hb'' ?",
"''x'' 4''x''=10 Hb says to Hc: Who asked me for the x such that 4x=10?",
"''Hc'' Inq ''Hb'' ''Ha'' Hc says to Hb: Ha."
],
[
"Popular culture",
"In the motion picture ''Contact'' (1997), SETI astronomers receive a radio transmission from space that has a Lincos-like dictionary embedded in the message.In the Stanisław Lem novel ''His Master's Voice'', Lincos is mentioned together with Loglan.Olivia, a character in Asobi Asobase, was the subject of a classroom rumor that she was fluent in Lincos.In episode 12, season four of ''Star Trek: Discovery'', \"Species Ten-C\", in an attempt to communicate with the far more advanced species, after receiving mathematical equations in the form of hydrocarbon patterns, Captain Saru suggests that the Ten-C are trying to teach them a \"bridge language\" like Lincos, which Captain Burnham describes as a language based on math from the \"21st-century Earth organization METI\" who predicted, \"would be helpful in extraplanetary communication\"."
],
[
"See also",
"* Active SETI* Alien language* METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence)* SETI"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Were it Perfect, Would it Work Better?",
"Survey of a Language for Cosmic Intercourse (Bruno Bassi)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lascaux"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lascaux''' ( , ; , \"Lascaux Cave\") is a network of caves near the village of Montignac, in the department of Dordogne in southwestern France.",
"Over 600 parietal wall paintings cover the interior walls and ceilings of the cave.",
"The paintings represent primarily large animals, typical local contemporary fauna that correspond with the fossil record of the Upper Paleolithic in the area.",
"They are the combined effort of many generations and, with continued debate, the age of the paintings is now usually estimated at around 17,000 years (early Magdalenian).",
"Because of the outstanding prehistoric art in the cave, Lascaux was inducted into the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979, as an element of the ''Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley''.The original caves have been closed to the public since 1963, as their condition was deteriorating, but there are now a number of replicas."
],
[
"History since rediscovery",
"Modern entrance to the Lascaux caveOn 12 September 1940, the entrance to the Lascaux Cave was discovered on the La Rochefoucauld-Montbel lands by 18-year-old Marcel Ravidat when his dog, Robot, investigated a hole left by an uprooted tree (Ravidat would embellish the story in later retellings, saying Robot had fallen into the cave.)",
"Ravidat returned to the scene with three friends, Jacques Marsal, Georges Agnel, and Simon Coencas.",
"They entered the cave through a shaft that they believed might be a legendary secret passage to the nearby Lascaux Manor.",
"The teenagers discovered that the cave walls were covered with depictions of animals.",
"Galleries that suggest continuity, context or simply represent a cavern were given names.",
"Those include the ''Hall of the Bulls'', the ''Passageway'', the ''Shaft'', the ''Nave'', the ''Apse'', and the ''Chamber of Felines''.",
"They returned along with the Abbé Henri Breuil on 21 September 1940; Breuil would make many sketches of the cave, some of which are used as study material today due to the extreme degradation of many of the paintings.",
"Breuil was accompanied by Denis Peyrony, curator of Les eyzies (Prehistory Museum) at Les Eyzies, Jean Bouyssonie and Dr Cheynier.The cave complex was opened to the public on 14 July 1948, and initial archaeological investigations began a year later, focusing on the Shaft.",
"By 1955, carbon dioxide, heat, humidity, and other contaminants produced by 1,200 visitors per day had visibly damaged the paintings.",
"As air condition deteriorated, fungi and lichen increasingly infested the walls.",
"Consequently, the cave was closed to the public in 1963, the paintings were restored to their original state, and a monitoring system on a daily basis was introduced.===Replicas===Part of Lascaux IVConservation problems in the original cave have made the creation of replicas more important.====Lascaux II====''Lascaux II'', an exact copy of the ''Great Hall of the Bulls'' and the ''Painted Gallery'' was displayed at the Grand Palais in Paris, before being displayed from 1983 in the cave's vicinity (about away from the original cave), a compromise and attempt to present an impression of the paintings' scale and composition for the public without harming the originals.",
"A full range of Lascaux's parietal art is presented a few kilometres from the site at the ''Centre of Prehistoric Art'', Le Parc du Thot, where there are also live animals representing ice-age fauna.The paintings for this site were duplicated with the same type of materials (such as iron oxide, charcoal, and ochre) which were believed to be used 19,000 years ago.",
"Other facsimiles of Lascaux have also been produced over the years.====Lascaux III===='' Lascaux III'' is a series of five exact reproductions of the cave art (the Nave and Shaft) that, since 2012, have traveled around the world allowing knowledge of Lascaux to be shared far from the original.====Lascaux IV====''Lascaux IV'' is a new copy of all the painted areas of the cave that forms part of the International Centre for Parietal Art (Centre International de l'Art Pariétal).",
"Since December 2016 this larger and more accurate replica which integrates digital technology into the display is presented in a new museum built by Snøhetta inside the hill overlooking Montignac."
],
[
"Geographic setting",
"Reproduction of Lascaux artwork in Lascaux IIIn its sedimentary composition, the Vézère drainage basin covers one fourth of the ''département'' of the Dordogne, the northernmost region of the Black Périgord.",
"Before joining the Dordogne River near Limeuil, the Vézère flows in a south-westerly direction.",
"At its centre point, the river's course is marked by a series of meanders flanked by high limestone cliffs that determine the landscape.",
"Upstream from this steep-sloped relief, near Montignac and in the vicinity of Lascaux, the contours of the land soften considerably; the valley floor widens, and the banks of the river lose their steepness.The Lascaux valley is located some distance from the major concentrations of decorated caves and inhabited sites, most of which were discovered further downstream.",
"In the environs of the village of Eyzies-de-Tayac Sireuil, there are no fewer than 37 decorated caves and shelters, as well as an even greater number of habitation sites from the Upper Paleolithic, located in the open, beneath a sheltering overhang, or at the entrance to one of the area's karst cavities.",
"This is the highest concentration in Europe."
],
[
"Images",
"''Megaloceros'' with line of dotsThe cave contains nearly 6,000 figures, which can be grouped into three main categories: animals, human figures, and abstract signs.",
"The paintings contain no images of the surrounding landscape or the vegetation of the time.",
"Most of the major images have been painted onto the walls using red, yellow, and black colours from a complex multiplicity of mineral pigments including iron compounds such as iron oxide (ochre), hematite, and goethite, as well as manganese-containing pigments.",
"Charcoal may also have been used but seemingly to a sparing extent.",
"On some of the cave walls, the colour may have been applied as a suspension of pigment in either animal fat or calcium-rich cave groundwater or clay, making paint, that was swabbed or blotted on, rather than applied by brush.",
"In other areas, the colour was applied by spraying the pigments by blowing the mixture through a tube.",
"Where the rock surface is softer, some designs have been incised into the stone.",
"Many images are too faint to discern, and others have deteriorated entirely.Over 900 can be identified as animals, and 605 of these have been precisely identified.",
"Out of these images, there are 364 paintings of equines as well as 90 paintings of stags.",
"Also represented are cattle and bison, each representing 4 to 5% of the images.",
"A smattering of other images includes seven felines, a bird, a bear, a rhinoceros, and a human.",
"There are no images of reindeer, even though that was the principal source of food for the artists.",
"Geometric images have also been found on the walls.The most famous section of the cave is The Hall of the Bulls where bulls, equines, aurochs, stags, and the only bear in the cave are depicted.",
"The four black bulls, or aurochs, are the dominant figures among the 36 animals represented here.",
"One of the bulls is long, the largest animal discovered so far in cave art.",
"Additionally, the bulls appear to be in motion.A painting referred to as \"The Crossed Bison\", found in the chamber called the Nave, is often submitted as an example of the skill of the Paleolithic cave painters.",
"The crossed hind legs create the illusion that one leg is closer to the viewer than the other.",
"This visual depth in the scene demonstrates a primitive form of perspective which was particularly advanced for the time.===Parietal representation===The Hall of the Bulls presents the most spectacular composition of Lascaux.",
"Its calcite walls are not suitable for engraving, so it is only decorated with paintings, often of impressive dimensions: some are up to five metres long.Two rows of aurochs face each other, two on one side and three on the other.",
"The two aurochs on the north side are accompanied by about ten horses and a large enigmatic animal, with two straight lines on its forehead that earned it the nickname \"unicorn\".",
"On the south side, three large aurochs are next to three smaller ones, painted red, as well as six small deer and the only bear in the cave, superimposed on the belly of an aurochs and difficult to read.The Axial Diverticulum is also decorated with cattle and horses accompanied by deer and ibex.",
"A drawing of a fleeing horse was brushed with manganese pencil 2.50 metres above the ground.",
"Some animals are painted on the ceiling and seem to roll from one wall to the other.",
"These representations, which required the use of scaffolding, are intertwined with many signs (sticks, dots, and rectangular signs).The Passage has a highly degraded decoration, notably through air circulation.The Nave has four groups of figures: the Empreinte panel, the Black Cow panel, the Deer swimming panel, and the Crossed Buffalo panel.",
"These works are accompanied by many enigmatic geometric signs, including coloured checkers that H. Breuil called \"coats of arms\".The Feline Diverticulum owes its name to a group of felines, one of which seems to urinate to mark its territory.",
"Very difficult to access, one can see there engravings of wild animals of a rather naive style.",
"There are also other animals associated with signs, including a representation of a horse seen from the front, exceptional in Paleolithic art where animals are generally represented in profiles or from a \"twisted perspective\".The Apse contains more than a thousand engravings, some of which are superimposed on paintings, corresponding to animals and signs.",
"There is the only reindeer represented in Lascaux.The Well presents the most enigmatic scene of Lascaux: an ithyphallic man with a bird's head seems to lie on the ground, perhaps knocked down by a buffalo gutted by a spear; at his side is represented an elongated object surmounted by a bird, on the left a rhinoceros moves away.",
"Various interpretations of what is represented have been offered.",
"A horse is also present on the opposite wall.",
"Two groups of signs are to be noted in this composition:* between man and rhinos, three pairs of digitized punctuation marks found at the bottom of the Cat Diverticulum, in the most remote part of the cave;* under man and bison, a complex barbed sign that can be found almost identically on other walls of the cave, and also on paddle points and on the sandstone lamp found nearby.===Interpretation===The interpretation of Palaeolithic Art is problematic, as it can be influenced by our own prejudices and beliefs.",
"Some anthropologists and art historians theorize the paintings could be an account of past hunting success, or could represent a mystical ritual in order to improve future hunting endeavors.",
"The latter theory is supported by the overlapping images of one group of animals in the same cave location as another group of animals, suggesting that one area of the cave was more successful for predicting a plentiful hunting excursion.Applying the iconographic method of analysis to the Lascaux paintings (studying position, direction and size of the figures; organization of the composition; painting technique; distribution of the color planes; research of the image center), Thérèse Guiot-Houdart attempted to comprehend the symbolic function of the animals, to identify the theme of each image and finally to reconstitute the canvas of the myth illustrated on the rock walls.dun horse (equine) at LascauxJulien d'Huy and Jean-Loïc Le Quellec showed that certain angular or barbed signs of Lascaux may be analysed as \"weapon\" or \"wounds\".",
"These signs affect dangerous animals—big cats, aurochs, and bison—more than others and may be explained by a fear of the animation of the image.",
"Another finding supports the hypothesis of half-alive images.",
"At Lascaux, bison, aurochs, and ibex are not represented side by side.",
"Conversely, one can note a bison-horses-lions system and an aurochs-horses-deer-bears system, these animals being frequently associated.",
"Such a distribution may show the relationship between the species pictured and their environmental conditions.",
"Aurochs and bison fight one against the other, and horses and deer are very social with other animals.",
"Bison and lions live in open plains areas; aurochs, deer and bears are associated with forests and marshes; ibex habitat is rocky areas, and horses are highly adaptive for all these areas.",
"The Lascaux paintings' disposition may be explained by a belief in the real life of the pictured species, wherein the artists tried to respect their real environmental conditions.Less known is the image area called the ''Abside'' (Apse), a roundish, semi-spherical chamber similar to an apse in a Romanesque basilica.",
"It is approximately 4.5 metres in diameter (about 5 yards) and covered on every wall surface (including the ceiling) with thousands of entangled, overlapping, engraved drawings.",
"The ceiling of the Apse, which ranges from 1.6 to 2.7 metres high (about 5.2 to 8.9 feet) as measured from the original floor height, is so completely decorated with such engravings that it indicates that the prehistoric people who executed them first constructed a scaffold to do so.The famous shaft scene of Lascaux: a man with a bird head and a bisonAccording to David Lewis-Williams and Jean Clottes who both studied presumably similar art of the San people of Southern Africa, this type of art is spiritual in nature relating to visions experienced during ritualistic trance-dancing.",
"These trance visions are a function of the human brain and so are independent of geographical location.",
"Nigel Spivey, a professor of classical art and archeology at the University of Cambridge, has further postulated in his series, ''How Art Made the World'', that dot and lattice patterns overlapping the representational images of animals are very similar to hallucinations provoked by sensory-deprivation.",
"He further postulates that the connections between culturally important animals and these hallucinations led to the invention of image-making, or the art of drawing.André Leroi-Gourhan studied the cave from the 1960s; his observation of the associations of animals and the distribution of species within the cave led him to develop a Structuralist theory that posited the existence of a genuine organization of the graphic space in Palaeolithic sanctuaries.",
"This model is based on a masculine/feminine duality – which can be particularly observed in the bison/horse and aurochs/horse pairs – identifiable in both the signs and the animal representations.",
"He also defined an ongoing evolution through four consecutive styles, from the Aurignacian to the Late Magdalenian.",
"Leroi-Gourhan did not publish a detailed analysis of the cave's figures.",
"In his work Préhistoire de l'art occidental, published in 1965, he nonetheless put forward an analysis of certain signs and applied his explanatory model to the understanding of other decorated caves."
],
[
"Threats",
"The conservation room at LascauxThe opening of Lascaux Cave after World War II changed the cave environment.",
"The exhalations of 1,200 visitors per day, presence of light, and changes in air circulation have created a number of problems.",
"Lichens and crystals began to appear on the walls in the late 1950s, leading to closure of the caves in 1963.This led to restriction of access to the real caves to a few visitors every week, and the creation of a replica cave for visitors to Lascaux.",
"In 2001, the authorities in charge of Lascaux changed the air conditioning system which resulted in regulation of the temperature and humidity.",
"When the system had been established, an infestation of ''Fusarium solani'', a white mold, began spreading rapidly across the cave ceiling and walls.",
"The mold is considered to have been present in the cave soil and exposed by the work of tradesmen, leading to the spread of the fungus which was treated with quicklime.",
"In 2007, a new fungus, which has created grey and black blemishes, began spreading in the real cave.As of 2008, the cave contained black mold.",
"In January 2008, authorities closed the cave for three months, even to scientists and preservationists.",
"A single individual was allowed to enter the cave for twenty minutes once a week to monitor climatic conditions.",
"Now only a few scientific experts are allowed to work inside the cave and just for a few days a month, but the efforts to remove the mold have taken a toll, leaving dark patches and damaging the pigments on the walls.",
"In 2009 the mold problem was pronounced stable.",
"In 2011 the fungus seemed to be in retreat after the introduction of an additional, even stricter conservation program.",
"Two research programs have been instigated at the CIAP concerning how to best treat the problem, and the cave also now possesses a climatisation system designed to reduce the introduction of bacteria.Organized through the initiative of the French Ministry of Culture, an international symposium titled \"Lascaux and Preservation Issues in Subterranean Environments\" was held in Paris on 26 and 27 February 2009, under the chairmanship of Jean Clottes.",
"It brought together nearly three hundred participants from seventeen countries with the goal of confronting research and interventions conducted in Lascaux Cave since 2001 with the experiences gained in other countries in the domain of preservation in subterranean environments.",
"The proceedings of this symposium were published in 2011.Seventy-four specialists in fields as varied as biology, biochemistry, botany, hydrology, climatology, geology, fluid mechanics, archaeology, anthropology, restoration and conservation, from numerous countries (France, United States, Portugal, Spain, Japan, and others) contributed to this publication.In May 2018 ''Ochroconis lascauxensis'', a species of fungus of the Ascomycota phylum, was officially described and named after the place of its first emergence and isolation, the Lascaux cave.",
"This followed on from the discovery of another closely related species ''Ochroconis anomala'', first observed inside the cave in 2000.The following year black spots began to appear among the cave paintings.",
"No official announcement on the effect or progress of attempted treatments has ever been made.The problem is ongoing, as are efforts to control the microbial and fungal growths in the cave.",
"The fungal infection crises have led to the establishment of an International Scientific Committee for Lascaux and to rethinking how, and how much, human access should be permitted in caves containing prehistoric art."
],
[
"See also",
"* Art of the Upper Paleolithic* Cave of Altamira* Chauvet Cave* Cave painting* List of archaeological sites by country* List of caves* List of Stone Age art* Prehistoric art* ''The Thread of Art'', 2012 and 2015 book"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * — (1980) ''Prehistoric Painting: Lascaux or the Birth of Art''.",
"Trans.",
"Austryn Wainhouse.",
"Geneva: Skira first published, 1955.",
"* Joseph Nechvatal, ''Immersive Excess in the Apse of Lascaux'', Technonoetic Arts 3, no3.2005* B.et G. Delluc (dir.",
"), ''Le Livre du Jubilé de Lascaux 1940–1990'', Société historique et archéologique du Périgord, supplément au tome CXVII, 1990, 155 p., ill.* B. et G. Delluc, 2003: ''Lascaux retrouvé.",
"Les recherches de l'abbé André Glory'', Pilote 24 édition, 368 p., ill.* B. et G. Delluc, 2006: ''Discovering Lascaux'', Sud Ouest, nouvelle édition entièrement revue et très augmentée, 80 p., ill. plans et coupe.",
"* B. et G. Delluc, 2008: ''Dictionnaire de Lascaux'', Sud Ouest, Bordeaux.",
"Plus de 600 entrées et illustrations.",
"Bibliographie (450 références).",
".",
"* B. et G. Delluc, 2010: ''Lascaux et la guerre.",
"Une galerie de portraits'', Bull.",
"de la Soc.",
"historique et arch.",
"du Périgord, CXXXVI, 2e livraison, 40 p., ill., bibliographie.",
"* A.",
"Glory, 2008: ''Les recherches à Lascaux (1952–1963).",
"Documents recueillis et présentés par B. et G. Delluc'', XXXIXe suppl.",
"à Gallia-Préhistoire, CNRS, Paris.",
"* Joseph Nechvatal, 2011: ''Immersion into Noise'', University of Michigan Library's Scholarly Publishing Office.",
"Ann Arbor.",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * The microbiology of Lascaux Cave* Lascaux Cave Art Symposium The Bradshaw Foundation* Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).",
"* Discussion of paintings by Janina Ramirez and Alice Roberts: Art Detective Podcast, 8 February 2017"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lex Luthor"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Alexander Joseph''' \"'''Lex'''\" '''Luthor''' () is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics.",
"The character was created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster.",
"Lex Luthor originally appeared in ''Action Comics'' #23 (cover dated: April 1940).",
"He has since endured as the archnemesis of the superhero Superman.Lex Luthor was depicted as a narcissistic and egotistical mad scientist from the 1960s to the mid-1980s.",
"Since the mid-late 1980s, he has more often been portrayed as the power-mad CEO of LexCorp.",
"He wishes to rid the world of Superman, ostensibly because he views Superman as a threat to humanity, but in reality envies Superman's popularity and influence.",
"Given his high profile as a supervillain, however, he has often come into conflict with Batman and other superheroes in the DC Universe.",
"Lex Luthor is physically an ordinary human and has no natural superpowers, but he is a genius with a high aptitude for business, politics, science, and technology.",
"He is typically portrayed as a mad scientist lacking a secret identity, costume, or other elements of supervillains, but he occasionally wears his warsuit, a suit of mechanized armor that gives him enhanced strength, flight, advanced weaponry, and other capabilities.",
"While Lex is primarily depicted as a supervillain allied with other villains, such as Metallo, Parasite and Bizarro, and frequently leading DC supervillain teams such as the Legion of Doom, he has also been portrayed as an antihero who will ally himself with Superman and other heroes when the situation calls for it.The character was ranked 4th on ''IGN''s list of the Top 100 Comic Book Villains of All Time and as the 8th Greatest Villain by ''Wizard'' on its 100 Greatest Villains of All Time list.",
"Luthor is one of a few genre-crossing villains whose adventures take place \"in a world in which the ordinary laws of nature are slightly suspended\".",
"Scott James Wells, Sherman Howard, John Shea, Michael Rosenbaum, Jon Cryer, Titus Welliver, and Michael Cudlitz have portrayed the character in television series, while Lyle Talbot, Gene Hackman, Kevin Spacey, and Jesse Eisenberg have portrayed the character in films, and Nicholas Hoult is set to play him in the upcoming ''Superman: Legacy''.",
"Several actors have provided Luthor's voice in animated adaptations, including Clancy Brown, Mark Rolston, James Marsters, Giancarlo Esposito, and Marc Maron."
],
[
"Publication history",
"===Creation and development===Luthor, during his debut in ''Action Comics'' #23 (April 1940).",
"Art by Joe Shuster.In his first story appearance, ''Action Comics'' #23 (April 1940), Luthor is depicted as a diabolical genius and is referred to only by his surname.",
"He resides in a flying city suspended by a dirigible and plots to provoke a war between two European nations.",
"Lois Lane and Clark Kent investigate, which results in Lois being kidnapped.",
"Luthor battles Superman with a green ray but he is ultimately defeated, and Lois is rescued.",
"Superman destroys Luthor's dirigible with him still on it, implying Luthor may have died.",
"Stories ending with Luthor's apparent death become common in his earliest appearances, with him turning up alive later on.Superman'' #4 (1940)Luthor returns in ''Superman'' #4 and steals a weapon from the U.S. Army capable of causing earthquakes.",
"Superman battles and defeats Luthor, then destroys the earthquake device.",
"The scientist who made the device commits suicide to prevent its reinvention.",
"In a story in the same issue, Luthor creates a city on the sunken Lost continent of Pacifo and populates it with recreated prehistoric monsters he plans to unleash upon the world.",
"Superman thwarts his plans and Luthor is seemingly killed by the dinosaurs he created.",
"Luthor returns in ''Superman'' #5 with a plan to place hypnotic gas in the offices of influential people so he can throw the nation into a depression with the help of corrupt financier Moseley.",
"The story ends with Superman defeating him.In these early stories, Luthor's schemes are centered around financial gain or megalomaniacal ambitions; unlike most later incarnations, he demonstrates no strong animosity toward Superman beyond inevitable resentment of the hero's constant interference with his plans.",
"Luthor's obsessive hatred of Superman came later in the character's development.In Luthor's earliest appearances, he is shown as a middle-aged man with a full head of red hair.",
"Less than a year later however, an artistic mistake resulted in Luthor being depicted as completely bald in a newspaper strip.",
"The original error is attributed to Leo Nowak, a studio artist who illustrated for the ''Superman'' dailies during this period.",
"One hypothesis is that Nowak mistook Luthor for the Ultra-Humanite, a recurring mad scientist foe of Superman who, in his Golden Age incarnation, resembled a balding, elderly man.",
"Other evidence suggests Luthor's design was confused with that of a stockier, bald henchman in ''Superman'' #4 (Spring 1940); Luthor's next appearance occurs in ''Superman'' #10 (May 1941), in which Nowak depicted him as significantly heavier, with visible jowls.",
"The character's abrupt hair loss has been made reference to several times over the course of his history.",
"In 1960, writer Jerry Siegel altered Luthor's backstory to incorporate his hair loss into his origin.During World War II, the War Department asked for dailies of the ''Superman'' comic strip to be pulled.",
"The strips in question were created in April 1945 and depicted Lex Luthor bombarding Superman with the radiation from a cyclotron.",
"This violated wartime voluntary censorship guidelines meant to help conceal the Manhattan Project.===Silver Age Lex Luthor===In 1956, DC Comics reimagined the Flash with a new secret identity, costume and origin.",
"This led to the new Silver Age of Comics and the first DC Comics reboot, with characters across the board being reimagined or having their histories and nature redefined.",
"The earlier Golden Age stories of Superman and Batman were later said to have taken place on Earth-Two, a parallel universe that was part of the larger DC Multiverse.The Silver Age version of Luthor was introduced in ''Adventure Comics'' #271 (April 1960), now given the first name \"Lex\" (later said to be short for Alexis, eventually retconned as Alexander) and an origin story.",
"Originally hero-worshiping Superboy, teenage Lex Luthor of Smallville is determined to prove he is Earth's greatest scientist by creating artificial life.",
"His recklessness and inexperience causes a fire in his lab and he calls on Superboy to save him.",
"The Boy of Steel puts out the fire but in the process accidentally destroys the artificial life form and the years of research notes that led to its creation, while fumes from the chemical fire cause Luthor's hair to fall out.",
"Unwilling to hold himself responsible for the lab fire and the destruction of his own life's work, Luthor decides that Superboy was jealous of his intellect and caused the fire himself.",
"Believing he's been betrayed by his hero and friend, Lex swears revenge.This revised origin makes Luthor's fight with Superman a personal one and suggests that if events had unfolded differently, Luthor might have grown to be a more noble person.",
"Luthor's ego preventing him from personal growth and the tragedy that he and Clark could have been a force for good together are played up in various stories throughout the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in Elliot S. Maggin's novels ''Last Son of Krypton'' and ''Miracle Monday''.The Golden Age version of Luthor appears again as a villain still alive and well on Earth-Two.",
"To distinguish him from the modern-day Lex Luthor, the original incarnation is shown as having kept his red hair and is retroactively given the first name Alexei.",
"In ''DC Comics Presents'' Annual #1 (1982), Alexei Luthor of Earth-Two and Lex Luthor of Earth-One team up.",
"It is shown that Alexei is arguably colder and more villainous, perfectly willing to destroy all of Earth in order to prove his superiority, whereas Lex hesitates to do so because he had no desire to rule a lifeless world and doesn't want his sister to die.Years later, Lex Luthor and the villain Brainiac recruit an army of super-villains during ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'', including Alexei Luthor from Earth-Two.",
"When Alexei argues that the army doesn't need two Luthors, Brainiac agrees and executes him.===Post-''Crisis'' reboot===The Man of Steel'' #4 (1986), art by John ByrneFollowing ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' (1985-1986), DC rebooted its universe yet again, creating the \"Post-''Crisis''\" reality.",
"In the 1986 limited series ''The Man of Steel'', John Byrne redesigned Lex Luthor from scratch, intending to make him a villain that the 1980s would recognize: an evil corporate executive.",
"Byrne intentionally chose to base this new depiction of Luthor on the businessmen Donald Trump, Ted Turner, and Howard Hughes as well as Satan.",
"Initially brutish and overweight, the character later evolved into a sleeker, more athletic version of his old self.",
"Luthor is no longer recounted as having lost his hair in a chemical fire; rather, his hairline is shown to be receding naturally over time.",
"Marv Wolfman, a writer on ''Action Comics'' who had one conversation with Byrne prior to Luthor's reboot recalled:As originally presented in the Post-''Crisis'' version of the DC Comics Universe, Lex Luthor is a product of child abuse and early poverty.",
"Born in the Suicide Slum district of Metropolis, he is instilled with a desire to become a self-made man of great power and influence.",
"As a teenager, he takes out a large life insurance policy on his parents without their knowledge, then sabotages their car's brakes, causing their deaths.",
"Upon graduating from MIT, Luthor founds his own business, LexCorp, which grows to dominate much of Metropolis.Luthor does not fully appear in ''The Man of Steel'' mini-series until the fourth issue, which takes place over a year after Superman's arrival in Metropolis.",
"Terrorists seize Luthor's yacht, forcing Superman to intervene.",
"Satisfied at the hero's performance, Luthor attempts to hire him, admitting he knew about the incoming attack and allowed it to occur so he could see how Superman responded (assuming that the Man of Steel would arrive in time).",
"Enraged, the Mayor deputizes Superman to arrest Luthor for reckless endangerment.",
"Although Luthor is released from jail quickly and has the charges dropped, the humiliation of being publicly arrested and processed, coupled with indignation that Superman refused to work for him, results in the villain pledging to destroy Superman simply to prove his power.Despite general acceptance of Byrne's characterization, which led to its influence in media adaptations, DC Comics writers began bringing back his quality of being a scientific genius in the 1990s in stories such as ''The Final Night''.",
"By 2000, it was said that Luthor's genuine accomplishments in several scientific fields is what helped create LexCorp and make it so successful so quickly (in early Post-Crisis stories, Byrne suggested that Luthor was recognized as a brilliant inventor and great scientific mind, but had largely withdrawn from his laboratory in favor of the boardroom).",
"Regarding the character being a corrupt billionaire rather than a mad scientist, author Neil Gaiman commented:Luthor's romantic aspirations toward Lois Lane, established early on in the series, become a focal point of the stories immediately following it.",
"He is shown making repeated attempts to court her during ''The Man of Steel'', though Lois plainly does not return his feelings.In the ''Superman Adventures'' comic line based on the TV series of the same name, Luthor's backstory is identical to that of the Post-Crisis origin with slight changes.",
"Luthor is shown originating in Suicide Slum, his intelligence outshining other children, fueling his ambition to have all of Metropolis look up to him one day.",
"Luthor's baldness is never explained, save for a brief depiction of him with blond hair in childhood; it is assumed the hair loss was natural.",
"Luthor's parents die during his teenage years, however, their deaths are indeed accidental.",
"Lex uses the insurance to pay for his tuition to MIT and then founds LexCorp.",
"His hatred of Superman is explained as the citizens of Metropolis have admired the Man of Steel more than him.===Modern depictions==='''''Superman: Birthright'',''' a limited series written by Mark Waid in 2004, offers an alternate look at Luthor's history, including his youth in Smallville, and his first encounter with Superman.",
"The story has similarities to the 2001 television series ''Smallville'', which follows Clark Kent's life as a teenager and into early adulthood.",
"One plot element shared by the comic and the show is the problematic relationship between Lex and his father Lionel.",
"Along with this, ''Birthright'' restores the Silver Age concept of Luthor befriending Clark Kent as a young man.",
"The two find a kinship in both feeling like outsiders and sharing a wish to explore outer space and discover alien alife, despite one resenting humanity and the other hoping to understand and be accepted by it.",
"Lex discovers kryptonite samples in Smallville and uses them as a power source for a machine he hopes will pierce space and time so he can communicate with Krypton.",
"When Clark falls ill approaching the machine, Lex mistakes his reaction as doubt in the young scientist's ability and sanity.",
"Feeling betrayed, Lex continues the experiment but an explosion erupts, the radiation blast causing his hair to fall out.",
"Luthor leaves Metropolis and years later his scientific work, largely based on his ideas about alien life, results in a fortune he uses to create LexCorp.",
"When Superman appears, Lex is angry that the powerful alien, the kind of companion he'd often hoped for, looks on him with disapproval and openly disrespects him in front of the media.",
"For this and his interference with Luthor's criminal operations, the scientist businessman decides to humiliate and destroy the alien.Waid's original intention was to jettison the notion of Lex Luthor being an evil businessman, restoring his status as a mad scientist.",
"He ultimately conceded, however, that the CEO Luthor would be easier for readers to recognize.",
"In ''Birthright'', Luthor remains a wealthy corporate magnate; in contrast to Byrne's characterization, however, LexCorp is founded upon Luthor's study of extraterrestrial life, thereby providing a link between him and Superman.",
"In the retrospective section of the ''Superman: Birthright'' trade paperback, Waid explains:''Birthright'' was initially intended to establish a new origin for Superman and Luthor.",
"Immediately, the Superman comics and the series Superman/Batman made references to the canonicity of the new origin series.",
"But after ''Infinite Crisis'' ended in 2006, new stories discredited parts of it and it was officially replaced by the 2009–2010 series '''''Superman: Secret Origin''.'''",
"''Superman: Secret Origin'' revised Lex's backstory so that he now again had a sister Lena.",
"While he knew Clark as a teenager in Smallville, he rejected the other boy's attempts to form a friendship.",
"Resentful toward his alcoholic and abusive father, Lex arranges his parents to die in a car accident and uses the insurance money to leave Smallville and start a better life.",
"After studying under the villains Ra's al Ghul and Darkseid, he founds LexCorp and uses his PR, resources, and media control to set himself up as a near-savior in Metropolis.",
"The ''Daily Planet'' opposes Luthor and he retaliates in ways that leave the newspaper almost bankrupt.",
"Superman's arrival challenges Luthor's image and brings renewed interest to the ''Planet'' when he does exclusive interviews with their staff.",
"Clark Kent, Jimmy Olsen, and Lois Lane work together to oppose Luthor's power and Superman tells the public they should strive to achieve great things themselves and not wait for others to be their saviors.",
"Angry at Superman's interference and blaming him for losing the love of the public, Luthor swears vengeance.Following changes to continuity in 2016's '''''DC Rebirth''''', the history from ''Superman: Secret Origin'' is still largely intact, though it has also been revealed that for a time Lionel Luthor worked as a scientist for Vandal Savage and that this led to a brief friendship between Lex and J'onn J'onzz, the Martian Manhunter, when both were children."
],
[
"Fictional character biography",
"Whether he is a mad scientist, corrupt businessman, or both, Luthor's ego is a defining trait in all his incarnations; he believes he is entitled to both popularity and power.",
"While each incarnation initially wants the adoration of others and control over either Smallville or Metropolis, the goal eventually rises to control over Earth and possibly universal domination.",
"Luthor's other defining trait is his obsession to destroy Superman and humiliate the alien hero, either by displaying his own superiority by achieving victory without the benefit of superpowers or to prove the Man of Steel is motivated by selfish desire rather than altruism.",
"Many times, Luthor has claimed he could create a better way of life for the entire human race if not for Superman's interference with his work; he has even argued that the Man of Tomorrow's presence not only invites danger, it actually ''encourages'' human society not to strive for greatness because a powerful alien is around to protect them and solve problems.",
"During the ''Blackest Night'' crossover, Wonder Woman restrains Luthor with her magic lasso and under its spell of truth he confesses he secretly wants to be Superman, revealing that beneath all his blustering, Luthor covets Superman's powers for himself.",
"When Superman was out of sight for a year, Luthor used the time to create the \"Everyman\" project intending to create new superheroes to replace the Kryptonian, then later attacks Metropolis with a long-buried Kryptonian warship.",
"Returning to action, Superman points out that Luthor had a year to prove his old argument that he could help others and improve Earth if Superman didn't interfere with his life, but instead of curing disease or making technological breakthroughs, all he did was focus on increasing his power and finding \"a big destructive machine so he could break things.\"",
"In the storyline \"The Black Ring\", Luthor is endowed with cosmic powers that could enable him to bring peace and bliss to the entire universe and therefore achieve his dream of being more respected than Superman, but he ultimately chooses to renounce his new powers when he realizes that his greatest enemy would never suffer again if he used them.At times, Lex has been shown evidence that Clark Kent is Superman and almost always he denies this possibility, unable to imagine a man of such power spending half his time pretending to be average since in his mind, such a possibility would be too humiliating to bear.",
"In stories appearing in ''JLA'' and ''52'' by Grant Morrison, Luthor cannot bring himself to believe Superman is truly altruistic and deeply cares about a planet that is not his native world, concluding the hero's good deeds are often actually passive-aggressive ways of flaunting his power and popularity to Lex.",
"When the hero joins forces with others to form a new, powerful version of the Justice League of America, Lex decides this is Superman's direct challenge to his own power, and establishes an \"Injustice League\" composed of various supervillains to rival them.===Silver Age===While the Golden Age Luthor (later named Alexei Luthor) is simply an amoral and brilliant man driven by a simple desire for power, the Silver Age incarnation was given a more developed personality and backstory.",
"Teenage Lex Luthor is an aspiring scientist who resides in Smallville and greatly admires its local hero Superboy.",
"After Lex saves him from kryptonite, the Boy of Steel builds him a private laboratory in gratitude.",
"After \"thousands of experiments,\" the young scientist creates an artificial life-form of \"primitive protoplasm.\"",
"Overjoyed, he accidentally causes a chemical fire in the lab.",
"Superboy puts out the fire, inadvertently spilling other chemicals, destroying the artificial life-form and the accumulated research notes that led to its creation.",
"The chemical fumes also cause Lex's hair to completely fall out.",
"Enraged he has lost years of research but unwilling to accept responsibility for the fire, Luthor concludes Superboy intentionally sabotaged his work, jealous of the young scientist's achievements, and swears revenge.Luthor creates grandiose engineering projects to prove his superiority over the superhero, but each one fails and causes problems that Superboy then solves.",
"Luthor then makes his first attempt to murder the Last Son of Krypton and fails.",
"Instead of bringing him to the authorities, Superboy declares they are even now and expresses hope Lex will \"straighten out\" and use his intelligence to help humanity rather than try to prove his superiority or waste time seeking power and vengeance.",
"''Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane'' #23 (1961) reveals the Silver Age Lex Luthor parents are Jules and Arlene and that he has a younger sister Lena.",
"When Lex becomes a criminal, the family moves away from Smallville and changes its name to Thorul (an anagram) to start a new life free of him.",
"Lena Thorul is a toddler at the time and grows up not remembering her real last name, while her parents say her older brother died in a mountain climbing accident.",
"Lex later watches over the adult Lena, making sure she does not discover her connection to one of Earth's greatest villains.As an adult, Lex Luthor's driving ambitions are to kill Superman and rule Earth, a stepping stone to dominating the universe, believing a man of his intellect deserves such power.",
"On several occasions he joins forces with Superman's enemy Brainiac (though the two often betray each other as well).",
"Lex is repeatedly imprisoned, but his genius allows him to routinely escape.",
"He also makes it a point to be out of prison on the birthday of Albert Einstein, regarding it as a holiday.",
"A famous non-canonical \"imaginary story\" from 1961 entitled \"The Death of Superman\" has Luthor finally succeed in killing Superman after pretending to reform and befriend him.On a distant arid planet orbiting a red star, Luthor challenges Superman to a fight since Kryptonians lose power when exposed to red sun radiation.",
"Befriending the planet's inhabitants, Luthor aids them in rediscovering lost technology that restores the water supply and helps the society rebuild.",
"As a result, Luthor becomes a hero in the eyes of the planet, whereas his enemy Superman is detested as a villain.",
"The people rename the planet Lexor and it becomes a regular home base and retreat for Luthor in-between his efforts to fight Superman and take over Earth.",
"He later meets a local woman named Ardora (first called \"Tharla\" but renamed \"Ardora\" in later stories as well as the reprint of her first appearance).",
"The two eventually fall in love and marry.===Bronze Age===Lex Luthor in his Lexorian warsuit from ''Action Comics'' #544 (June 1983), art by George PerezDeciding to retire permanently, Luthor returns to Lexor and learns he has fathered a son by Ardora, Lex Luthor Jr.",
"He spends the next several weeks with his new family before discovering Lexor suffers from the same planetary instability that destroyed Krypton.",
"While creating a \"Neutrarod\" tower to stabilize the planetary core, Luthor's pathological hatred for Superman resurfaces and he reflects on feeling unsatisfied in life without their conflict.",
"The villain then unearths an ancient underground laboratory of great technology, a relic from Lexor's lost age.",
"After one of Luthor's still-active satellites threatens the people of Earth, he concludes Superman will soon come to Lexor to take him back to Earth authorities.",
"With the underground lab's resources, he spends weeks creating a highly destructive, flight-capable \"war-suit\" (later simply called a \"'''warsuit'''\") to finally match the Kryptonian in physical combat and counter his powers.",
"To test the suit, Luthor performs several acts of destruction on Lexor, feigning ignorance when he hears about the \"mystery marauder\" and telling Ardora he has no knowledge of the armored man.When Superman arrives, Luthor dons his warsuit and attacks, now obsessed with the need to best the hero in combat and prove his superiority.",
"The people of Lexor are shocked to realize he is the mystery marauder and does not care about the harm he has caused them.",
"During the battle, Luthor releases an energy salvo that accidentally overloads the Neutrarod, resulting in the complete destruction of the planet Lexor and all its inhabitants, including Ardora and Lex Jr..",
"Similar to how he reacted after the destruction of his lab in Smallville, Lex is unable to process his grief and accept his responsibility for Lexor's destruction.",
"He psychologically blocks part of his own memory to convince himself Superman is at fault, renewing his need for vengeance.",
"In his subsequent stories, he regularly uses the Lexorian warsuit.",
"The warsuit was designed by George Pérez as part of the Super Powers toyline in the early 1980s before being introduced into the comics in 1983.The suit vanished in 1986 after ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' rebooted DC Comics continuity, but was reintroduced in 2004, now said to be built with a combination of Earth and alien technology (including tech from the other-dimensional world Apokolips) and armed with different forms of kryptonite in the gauntlet.Lex Luthor of Earth-One teams up with Alexei Luthor of Earth-Two.",
"It is shown that Alexei is arguably colder and more villainous, perfectly willing to destroy all of Earth in order to prove his superiority, whereas Lex hesitates to do so because he had no desire to rule a lifeless world and doesn't want his sister to die.",
"They even extend their alliance to Ultraman when Earth-Three's Lex Luthor is a good guy.",
"All three villains were defeated by Superman of Earth-One, Superman of Earth-Two, and Lex Luthor of Earth-Three.During the 12-issue limited series ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'', Luthor allies himself with fellow Superman foe Brainiac to recruit an army of supervillains spanning the DC Multiverse.",
"Alexei Luthor is present and complains this army does not need two Luthors; Brainiac kills Alexei in response.",
"At the conclusion of the series, reality is altered so that each of the different universes converge into one.",
"Luthor is subsequently returned to prison with all his memories of the Crisis forgotten.This incarnation of Lex Luthor met his end in the non-canonical two-part story \"Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?\"",
"that closed out the Pre-''Crisis'' Superman continuity of the Silver and Bronze Age.",
"Luthor finds Brainiac's robotic head, hoping to revive the villain for a new team-up.",
"Instead, Brainiac takes control of Luthor's body, forcing him to be a host as he attempts to destroy Superman.",
"Luthor later begs a superpowered Lana Lang to kill him, who does so.",
"Brainiac retains control of the body for a short period of time before rigor mortis sets in, then abandons it, running out of power shortly afterward.===Post-''Crisis''===As part of the continuity changes which followed ''The Man of Steel'' and ''Superman: Secret Origin'', Alexander \"Lex\" Joseph Luthor is corrupt businessman profiting from many hidden criminal operations.",
"This Luthor grew up a poor child alongside Perry White, later causing his parents' death via a car accident so he can inherit their life insurance and create a better life for himself, creating LexCorp.",
"He marries and divorces several times and desires a romance with Lois Lane.",
"When Superman appears, Luthor takes advantage of a terrorist attack to see the hero in action and then attempts to make him an employee.",
"But the Man of Steel, acting as a special deputy of Metropolis, arrests him for endangering people by not warning authorities of the impending terrorist attack.",
"Humiliated, Luthor swears revenge, repeatedly letting Superman know about his criminal schemes but never leaving him enough evidence to bring the man to justice again.",
"Luthor becomes obsessed with Superman and gathers all information on him and his associates, leading a computer analysis to conclude Clark Kent and Superman are the same person.",
"Unable to believe someone as powerful as Superman regularly hides his powers and pretends to be average, as that is something he would never do himself, Luthor dismisses the computer's findings and concludes both the machine and its programmer are at fault.As a nod to the previous continuity, Luthor has his lab create high-tech armor that resembles the Lexorian warsuit.",
"Rather than act directly, he has an employee don the armor and attack Superman for him.",
"The man is defeated and cannot testify against Luthor because the armor's neural control unit destroys his mind.",
"Along with this, Luthor participates in the creation of two ''Superman'' villains, Parasite (indirectly) and Bizarro (a failed attempt by Luthor's scientists to clone Superman).Cover of ''Supergirl and Team Luthor'' #1 (April 1993), art by Kerry GammillWhen Superman fights the cyborg Metallo, Luthor intervenes.",
"In ''Superman'' (vol.",
"2) #2, discovering Metallo is powered by a 'heart' of kryptonite that can hurt and potentially kill Superman, Luthor steals it and a creates a kryptonite ring for himself.",
"He wears the radioactive ore around his finger as a symbol that he is untouchable, causing the Man of Tomorrow pain and weakness whenever he approaches.",
"Not realizing humans can be affected by severe or long-term meteoric radiation exposure, Luthor eventually suffers from Kryptonite poisoning.",
"He had his right hand amputated to prevent the cancer's spread, and not long afterwards, said kryptonite ring (which he kept in cold storage prior to the surgery) would be stolen.",
"Eventually coming into the possession of Superman, who in turn entrusts it to Batman, tasking the Dark Knight to use it if the Man of Steel ever becomes corrupt or falls under the control of another.",
"But removing the tainted limb was a mere half measure, as his affliction had already metastasized rendering Lex's condition terminal.Luthor fakes his death in a plane crash in the Andes and secretly has his brain transferred to a cloned body, one younger, taller, with full hair, and more physically fit.",
"With aid from trusted assistants, the now physically 21-year-old Luthor presents himself to the world as his own hitherto unknown, illegitimate son and heir from Australia, '''Lex Luthor II''', who only wishes to do good and can't be judged by the actions of his father.",
"He quickly manipulates and recruits the new Supergirl (a protoplasmic being), who falls in love with him due to his resemblance to her lost love and creator, the Luthor of a parallel Earth.",
"When Superman is seemingly killed by the living weapon Doomsday, the genetic research facility Project Cadmus creates a seeming clone of the hero called Superboy (Kon-El).",
"As Earth science cannot perfectly replicate Kryptonian DNA, Superboy is created by genetic manipulation, essentially giving him 50% Superman's DNA and 50% DNA of a human being, revealed years later to be Luthor himself.Luthor's clone body eventually begins to deteriorate, causing him to lose his hair and age at an accelerated rate, a side-effect of a disease affecting all clones.",
"Lois Lane discovers proof of Luthor's clone harvesting and false identity and exposes him with help from Superman.",
"Desperate to evade arrest, Luthor activates technology left on Earth by Brainiac, destroying large sections of Metropolis in the process.",
"In the end, Luthor becomes a prisoner in his own body, unable to move or even blink, internally swearing vengeance on Superman.",
"During the crossover ''Underworld Unleashed'', the demon lord Neron offers Luthor full health and vitality in exchange for services and his soul.",
"Not believing in the existence of souls, Lex agrees and is restored, regaining the physical fitness of his Lex II body but again lacking head and facial hair, and is physically approximately in his true age.",
"His soul is later restored after Neron is defeated by Captain Marvel and the Trickster.",
"Returning to Metropolis, Luthor submits to a trial.",
"He claims all his crimes were committed by a violent clone created by renegade scientists from Cadmus Labs who secretly held the true Luthor hostage.",
"Luthor is acquitted of all charges.",
"He later arranges to reacquire his old kryptonite ring.When Superman and others form a new, powerful version of the Justice League of America, Lex decides this is Superman's direct challenge to his own power, so he creates a new Injustice Gang in response.",
"Along with his new teammates, Lex acquires a powerful artifact known as the Worlogog, which can warp space and time.",
"The Injustice Gang kills several people while attacking the League then lures the heroes into a trap, but then is defeated.",
"The Joker gains control of the Worlogog, but is then telepathically attacked, becoming temporarily sane and remorseful.",
"Before the killer's mind reverts, Luthor has Joker use the Worlogog to revise history so that those killed no longer died.",
"With the deaths removed and little physical evidence linking him to any wrongdoing, Luthor is free to go.",
"While Batman concludes Luthor simply used Joker to avoid murder charges, Superman believes it is a sign Luthor does not truly desire the deaths of innocents and still has the potential to be a good man.Luthor marries Contessa Erica Alexanda Del Portenza, a near-immortal and formidable woman with her own agenda.",
"After the birth of their daughter Lena, Luthor attempts to raise the girl without her interference.",
"After several clashes, Luthor has the Contessa seemingly killed by a missile barrage.",
"Later on, the time-traveling villain Brainiac 13 infuses Metropolis with technology from the future while his ancestor Brainiac, in need of a new physical vessel, mentally inhabits young Lena's body.",
"Brainiac 13 offers Luthor control of the technology if Luthor turns over Brainiac and hands over his daughter.",
"He later tells Superman that he has a \"kingdom\" now as a result of his deal, adding \"As for my princess...",
"I can always make another.",
"\"====President of the United States====''Lex 2000'' #1, featuring Lex Luthor as President of the United States, cover art by Glen OrbikDeciding to turn to politics, Luthor becomes President of the United States, winning the election on a platform of promoting technological progress.",
"His first action as president is to take a proposed moratorium on fossil-based fuels to the U.S. Congress.",
"On the night of the election, Batman threatens that Luthor can keep the kryptonite ring or the White House but not both.",
"Later on, Superman, Batman and Lois Lane seemingly try to steal the ring only to be thwarted.",
"In actuality, they manipulated Luthor into retrieving a fake while Batman keeps the actual ring.",
"Superman, upon learning that Lex Luthor was about to be elected president, flew off in a fit of rage and split one of Saturn's small moons in half with one fly through.Before he takes office in the White House, Luthor cuts ties with his own company LexCorp, turning over leadership to Talia al Ghul, using the alias Talia Head, daughter of international terrorist cult leader Ra's al Ghul, one of Batman's greatest enemies.",
"Luthor's popularity is assisted by the extreme unpopularity of the previous administration's mishandling of the Gotham City earthquake crisis (as depicted in the ''No Man's Land'' storyline in the Batman titles), and his own seemingly heroic efforts to rebuild Gotham before it rejoins the United States.",
"Batman learns Luthor attempted to take control of Gotham by forging deeds for its lands in his own name.",
"This results in Bruce Wayne severing all commercial ties between the U.S. government and his company, Wayne Enterprises.",
"In response to Wayne Enterprises severing ties with his government, Luthor arranges the murder of Wayne's lover, Vesper Fairchild, and frames Wayne for the murder (as seen in ''Bruce Wayne: Fugitive''), the plan being more successful than Luthor anticipated when his chosen assassin of David Cain realizes Wayne's identity as Batman and sets up a complex frame.Soon after Luthor discovers evidence that leads him to conclude Clark Kent is Superman, the 2001 ''Our Worlds at War'' saga begins, in which Topeka, Kansas is destroyed in an attack by the alien Imperiex.",
"Luthor is warned of the impending attack beforehand but alerts no one so Earth can enter a great war and he can prove his leadership to the world.",
"Luthor coordinates the U.S. Army, Earth's superheroes, and a number of untrustworthy alien forces to battle the main villain of the story arc.",
"Although Lex Luthor is able to devise a plan to destroy Imperiex's body, the plan is subsequently hijacked by Brainiac 13, requiring Superman to propose a new plan where Darkseid and Luthor coordinate their efforts to defeat Imperiex by sending him back in time.",
"Following the battle, Superman retrieves Lena and returns her to Lex, advising Luthor to stop trying to be a god and just be a man.",
"Soon afterward, Superman's confronts the telepathic Manchester Black.",
"Realizing Superman is a true hero and therefore true heroism is possible, Black decides to make up for his actions against the Man of Steel and Lois Lane by removing Lex Luthor's knowledge that the Man of Steel is Clark Kent.=====Presidential appointees=====;Cabinet officials;Other appointmentsOfficeNameTermUnited States Secretary of Metahuman AffairsAmanda Waller2001–2003White House Press SecretaryCat Grant2001–2003====Revised backstory and removal from office====Following the publication of '''''Superman: Birthright''''' in 2003–2004, Luthor's history is altered (and the new canon is quickly referenced in both Superman comics and the series ''Superman/Batman'' that begins in 2004).",
"In the new history, Luthor is only a few years older than Clark Kent and his family moves to Smallville when he is a teenager.",
"Possibly abused by his father Lionel, and alienated from others by his intelligence and his ignorance of certain social cues and behaviors (he does not understand why gifts are given on birthdays without a promise of payment of some kind), Lex only finds friendship with Clark, impressed by the young man's knowledge though also finding him naive.",
"Luthor discovers kryptonite meteors in Smallville and uses the radioactive mineral as a power source for his experiments.",
"When Clark sees the machine and feels ill from proximity to kryptonite, Luthor mistakes his reaction to mean the young man doesn't believe in the experiment, that he also thinks Lex is lying or \"crazy\" as others do.",
"The machine then explodes and Luthor survives but loses his hair as a result of radiation.",
"Years later, his scientific research, largely based on his ideas about alien life, results in a small fortune that he uses to create LexCorp.",
"When Superman appears in Metropolis, Lex is angered the man won't bow to his control and takes it very personally that a powerful alien, the kind of companion Luthor had often hoped for and believed would see him as a peer, instead looks on him with disapproval and moral judgment.",
"This, along with Superman interfering with his criminal agenda and openly disrespecting Luthor in front of the media, motivates Lex to humiliate and destroy the alien hero.The initial story arc of the ''Superman/Batman'' ongoing series depicts the fall of Luthor's reign as U.S. president before he finishes his first term of office.",
"In \"The World's Finest\" (more commonly referred to as \"Public Enemies\"), a kryptonite asteroid threatens Earth with its incoming impact and intense radiation.",
"Luthor has been secretly injecting himself with a new version of the \"super-steroid\" Venom (a chemical associated with the Batman villain Bane) mixed with liquified synthetic kryptonite of his own design.",
"While increasing his physical strength and speed, it starts making him irrational and more prone to aggression.",
"Seeing an opportunity with the appearance of the asteroid, Luthor decides to finally end Superman and tells the media that he has evidence the Man of Steel himself is drawing the deadly radioactive rock towards Earth.",
"He offers a billion-dollar reward for the Last Son of Krypton's capture.",
"As these efforts fail and the meteorite is destroyed, an enraged Luthor decides to fight Superman directly, injecting himself with more of the synthetic kryptonite-laced Venom and donning a high-tech warsuit.Maddened by the Venom, Luthor admits during the battle that he has no real proof Superman is the cause of the deadly asteroid heading to Earth and reveals he traded the creature Doomsday, a living weapon of mass destruction, to Darkseid in return for weapons during the ''Our Worlds at War'' crisis and Apokoliptian technology to create a new warsuit, a deal that was done illegally and would be considered immoral by many.",
"After Superman damages his warsuit, Luthor retreats to LexCorp HQ only to discover that Talia has sold the entire company to the Wayne Foundation.",
"Without resources and realizing his confession to criminal acts and conspiring with a hostile power was recorded and broadcast, Luthor flees, now a wanted fugitive.",
"Vice President Pete Ross briefly assumes his place as president.",
"While on the run, Luthor takes a renewed interest in his \"son\" Superboy, hoping to corrupt the young Kon-El into being his soldier.In 2009, the story of Luthor's rise and fall as U.S. president was adapted as a direct-to-video animated film entitled ''Superman/Batman: Public Enemies''.====''Infinite Crisis''====Alexander Luthor, Jr. (the son of Earth-Three's version of Luthor) returns to the DC Universe along with other survivors from ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' as part of a scheme to replace it with a perfect Earth.",
"He masquerades as the mainstream Lex Luthor and creates a new Secret Society of Super Villains.",
"In response, the real Luthor takes on the identity of '''Mockingbird''' and forms the third incarnation of the Secret Six to counter the Society.",
"The two have a confrontation during the main ''Infinite Crisis'' story and the mainstream Lex Luthor helps Earth's heroes locate young Alexander Jr. After Infinite Crisis ends, Luthor oversees Alexander's execution at the hands of the Joker in Crime Alley.====''52''====''52'' Week 39, cover art by J.G.",
"JonesIn the 2006 – 2007 series ''52'', Lex takes advantage of the presence of Alexander Jr.'s body.",
"He convinces the public that it was not him who committed crimes and fled the White House but rather this man, a Luthor from a parallel Earth who masqueraded as him.",
"While some in the public don't believe this, it is enough to provide reasonable doubt and clear Lex of all charges again.",
"With Superman now missing (due to losing his powers at the end of ''Infinite Crisis''), Luthor pursues a new agenda.",
"He creates the Luthoran Church and becomes spokesman for the Everyman Project, which offers superpowers to ordinary citizens through artificial metagene treatment.",
"With several Everyman volunteers (including Natasha Irons, niece of John Henry Irons), Luthor forms his own team of superheroes, the new Infinity Inc.",
"When the team battles the villain Blockbuster (whom Luthor empowered as well), Lex demonstrates he can 'shut off' the powers of any of his Everyman agents; this results in the death of his speedster, Trajectory.At the stroke of midnight on New Year's Eve, Luthor sets in motion a calculated plot to discredit Supernova, a new hero defending Metropolis in Superman's absence.",
"Luthor triggers a mass-shutdown of the powers of everyone who has undertaken the Everyman program, except for the members of Infinity Inc, causing widespread death, injury, and millions of dollars worth of damage.",
"Luthor's plot ultimately fails when Supernova is able to minimize the disaster with a spectacular rescue.While investigating Luthor, Natasha Irons discovers he has experimented on himself with artificial metagene treatment.",
"After developing nearly all of Superman's powers himself, Luthor considers conquering Earth and renaming it Lexor.",
"However, Natasha triggers an electromagnetic pulse which shuts down the synthetic metagene and her uncle Steel knocks Lex out.",
"Publicly disgraced, Lex faces indictment for over 120 criminal counts relating to what is now called \"the New Year's Eve massacre\", ranging from malfeasance to first-degree murder.",
"The full nature of his crimes are brought to public attention through various articles written by Clark Kent.====''One Year Later'' and ''Countdown''====One year after the events of \"Infinite Crisis\", weeks after the New Year's Eve Massacre, Luthor is cleared of all criminal charges in the \"One Year Later\" storyline.",
"Despite this, his public image is ruined and, thanks to the machinations of the villain Doctor Sivana, he has lost most of his wealth and had no control over the newly reformed LexCorp, now being run by Lana Lang.",
"He blames Clark Kent for swaying public opinion and pledges vengeance on Metropolis after an angry mob jeers him.",
"Amassing large quantities of kryptonite and kidnapping the super-villains Metallo and the Kryptonite Man, Lex uses them to power a Kryptonian warship controlled through a \"sunstone\" crystal.",
"Having recently regained his powers, Superman destroys the kryptonite-powered ship and confronts Lex with the fact that, despite his claims that Superman is what prevents him from helping humanity, the only thing he accomplished during the Man of Steel's absence was to cause pain and acquire a machine that could cause more destruction.",
"Enraged, Lex manages to escape custody yet again.Lex Luthor continues his open campaigns against Superman and Earth's heroes, working with Bizarro, a new Revenge Squad, and the Kryptonian General Zod.",
"Alongside Joker and Cheetah III, Luthor (once again wearing his warsuit) organizes a new Injustice League to help destroy the reformed Justice League.",
"During this period, he creates the third Shaggy Man and the third Blockbuster.Luthor plays a large role in the ''Countdown to Final Crisis'' tie-in series ''Salvation Run''.",
"Exiled to a distant planet along with many of Earth's villains, Lex quickly assumes command and convinces many to follow him as he finds a way home.",
"He is opposed by those who join forces with Joker and Gorilla Grodd.",
"Eventually, the villains are attacked by Darkseid's shock troopers the Parademons.",
"Luthor manages to get the villains off the planet with a makeshift teleporter, using the villains Neutron, Heatmonger, Plasmus, Warp, and Thunder and Lightning as unwilling power sources.",
"When called a \"monster\" by Thunder, Luthor claims the ones who exiled them are the real monsters and he is the hero.",
"He sets the teleporter to self-destruct after he uses it, killing the Parademons as well as his living batteries.====''Final Crisis''====In the ''Final Crisis'' crossover, Luthor joins the Inner Circle of Libra's Secret Society of Super Villains.",
"After learning Libra is a prophet of Darkseid, Lex Luthor opposes him, unwilling to be a mindless slave while Earth is largely destroyed.",
"Working with Doctor Sivana, Luthor seemingly destroys Libra and overrides the will-destroying Anti-Life Equation being broadcast into the helmets of the Justifiers, humans forced to obey Darkseid.",
"Luthor subsequently assists Superman in leading the assault against Darkseid's forces, noting that Superman can consider this a legendary first team-up between \"good\" and \"bad.\"",
"Luthor joins those assisting Superman and his remaining allies in constructing a new wish-granting Miracle Machine, which is later used to reset the universe without Darkseid's presence.====''New Krypton''====Luthor is finally found guilty for his crimes.",
"Rather than spend life in prison, he is recruited by General Sam Lane to serve out his sentence by working for the secretive Project 7734, accessing the knowledge stored within the captured Brainiac.",
"Luthor successfully accesses Brainiac's brain, using it to activate the villain's ship and robotic drones.",
"Luthor is then tasked with studying the genetic potential of the seemingly dead body of Doomsday.Luthor later manages to use Brainiac's ship to kill the soldiers assigned to watch him.",
"Brainiac frees himself from Luthor's control and the two make their escape.",
"Forming an alliance, Brainiac promises Luthor can have Earth when he is done with it.",
"Lex returns to Smallville, where it is revealed his sister Lena is alive, physically and mentally handicapped, and living with her daughter Lori.",
"In an effort to prove his abilities to Superboy, Lex manages to counter Lena's disabilities, allowing her to walk and regain greater mental awareness, then quickly reverses the process, leaving her completely catatonic.",
"Luthor then informs Superboy that so long as Superman is alive, he will never reveal how he helped Lena.",
"Seeing Superboy now as a failed experiment due to having 50% \"wrong alien DNA\", Luthor and Brainiac create another binary clone with their own genetics.====''Last Stand of New Krypton'' and ''War of the Supermen''====As part of his participation in Project 7734, Luthor sends a robot double of himself with Brainiac on a mission to attack New Krypton.",
"While there, the Luthor robot tampers with the body chemistry of the previously captured villain Reactron.",
"Reactron then kills himself, initiating a chain reaction which destroys New Krypton and all but a handful of its 100,000 Kryptonian inhabitants.",
"Supergirl's mother Alura is among the casualties.",
"Since Earth is at war with New Krypton at the time, Luthor is praised for this action and receives a presidential pardon for all his past crimes.====''Blackest Night''====During the ''Blackest Night'' storyline, when the public learned that everyone who has died are rising as undead Black Lanterns, Luthor isolates himself in his safehouse in fear that ''all'' the people he has murdered over the years will reanimate and seek revenge.",
"Several victims, including his deceased father, arrive but he escapes after receiving a power ring fueled by the orange light of avarice, becoming an Orange Lantern deputy.",
"Luthor arrives at Coast City and joins the battle against the Black Lantern Corps, fighting Black Lantern versions of Superman and Superboy.",
"Luthor is quickly overwhelmed by his greed and sets out to steal the rings of his fellow inducted Lanterns, taking Scarecrow's yellow fear-powered ring before being held back.",
"Wonder Woman restrains Luthor with her magic lasso and under its spell of truth he confesses he secretly wants to be Superman.",
"When Nekron is defeated, Larfleeze the Orange Lantern takes Luthor's ring, as there can only be one avarice-powered ring.Still craving the power of the orange light, Luthor recovers and operates on the remains of Black Lanterns.",
"He is visited by Larfleeze, who demands to know what is important to the people of Earth.",
"Luthor responds with \"power\" (which Larfleeze already possesses) and \"land\" (which intrigues the alien).====''Superman: Secret Origin'' Revision====The 2009-2010 mini-series '''''Superman: Secret Origin''''' alters Lex's history again.",
"He now grows up in Smallville with his younger sister Lena and abusive, alcoholic father.",
"He meets Clark Kent on a few occasions but is defensive and insulted when he realizes Clark desires a friendship.",
"While in high school, Lex arranges for his parents to die in a car accident, after which he uses the money to travel the world.",
"''Action Comics'' Annual #13 in 2011 reveals that after leaving Smallville, Lex spent some time studying under Ra's al Ghul and later spent time working as a weapons maker for Darkseid, learning the technology of Apokolips.Lex's scientific work and other factors lead him to create a fortune and found LexCorp.",
"Luthor's public relations paints him as a savior to Metropolis, which suffers greatly from crime, and he makes a display of regularly granting good fortune to a random citizen.",
"When Superman appears, Luthor's secret criminal operations are threatened and Luthor is no longer considered a great savior or power in the city, particularly after the hero tells the public that they should look to themselves to be heroes and not look to others to be their saviors.",
"Luthor begins a quest for vengeance, aiding (indirectly and directly) in the origins of Parasite and Metallo.====\"The Black Ring\"====After the conclusion of the ''New Krypton'' event, Luthor became the lead character in ''Action Comics'' until issue No.",
"900.Written by Paul Cornell, the first storyline \"The Black Ring\" explores Luthor's new desire to locate the energy of the Black Lantern Corps.",
"Aiding him in this quest is a robot duplicate of Lois Lane.",
"To distract Superman and his closest allies from interrupting him, Luthor releases several Doomsday duplicates.Luthor's quest involves a conversation with Death herself and finally leads him to face a powerful and deadly entity released from the Phantom Zone.",
"Luthor infuses himself with Kryptonian technology and grapples with the creature.",
"The two fuse and Luthor learns it evolved in the Phantom Zone and now seeks to escape, driven mad by sensing the grief and anger of the Zone prisoners.",
"With the creature's power at his command, Luthor draws out Superman to him and attempts to drive the hero mad by forcing him to experience real human emotions, believing the Last Son of Krypton only fakes humanity in order to be trusted.",
"The ploy fails and Luthor's new abilities reveal that Superman is really Clark Kent, a well-meaning man raised by Earth people who loved him and who still mourns the loss of his beloved human father Jonathan Kent.",
"Luthor is enraged by how this upbringing and emotional nature clashes with his own motivations, unhappy childhood and anger towards his own father.It becomes clear that the Phantom Zone entity has the power to create a feeling of peace and bliss throughout the entire universe, at the cost of never allowing him to cause any harm to another being.",
"Superman appeals to Luthor to make this a reality, thus giving the universe a gift and achieving something beyond the Man of Steel's abilities.",
"Unwilling to create a universe of bliss when it would mean Superman would also be rewarded instead of suffering, Luthor loses his connection to the entity and its power, as well as his memory of everything he learned merged with it.",
"The entity departs for another reality and Lex falls into a Phantom Zone portal.",
"Shortly afterward, the ''Flashpoint'' timeline is created and afterward the DC Universe is replaced by the New 52 reality.===''The New 52''===In 2011, DC Comics implemented ''The New 52'', a relaunch of its titles and a reboot of its fictional continuity.",
"In the new reality, Lex Luthor has no childhood association with Smallville or Clark Kent.",
"As an adult in Metropolis with the resources of LexCorp, he sets up himself as a scientific troubleshooter for the military, working with government scientist John Henry Irons to create high-tech armor called \"Metal-Zero\" (which is later used to create the villain Metallo).",
"When Superman appears in Metropolis and clashes with local authorities, Luthor works with the military to bring in the superhuman being, arguing that alien vigilante is an inherent threat since history has shown that introducing new life forms into other environments often causes the local environment to destabilize and suffer.",
"Luthor tortures Superman to test his power, justifying his actions by looking at the hero as an alien rather than a human being whose well being should be considered.",
"Superman laughs at Lex, infuriating the scientist, then escapes.",
"Insulted by Superman's mocking laughter and his failure to contain the alien, and determined to learn more secrets from the Kryptonian's biology and technology, Luthor becomes determined to best the Man of Steel.Unknown to the U.S. military, Lex Luthor has been in contact with the \"Collector of Worlds\" (a version of Brainiac) and makes a deal with the alien, who wishes to collect specimens from Earth for his collection of inhabitants and artifacts from different planets.",
"Luthor intends to increases his power in Metropolis and to aid this he also supplies social justice blogger and journalist Clark Kent with information regarding the corrupt activities of powerful media mogul Glen Glennmorgan of Galaxy Inc. Clark is unaware his informant is Luthor, knowing him only as \"Icarus\".The ''New 52'' Lex Luthor on the cover of ''Superman Unchained'' #4 (Dec. 2013), art by Jim Lee, Scott Williams and Alex SinclairAfter the Collector attacks Metropolis and Luthor's deal with the villain is exposed, Luthor is fired as a consultant to the U.S. military by General Sam Lane himself.",
"He is later instrumental in the creation of the ''New 52'' version of the Kryptonite Man, known in this world primarily as the K-Man.",
"A few years later, Luthor's schemes against Superman and some of his crimes are exposed.",
"He is arrested and imprisoned in a special U.S. government prison.Lex Luthor in his warsuit as a member of the Justice League, art by Ivan Reis, Joe Prado and Rod Reis (2014)In the \"Forever Evil\" storyline, Luthor plays a major role in opposing the Crime Syndicate, an evil version of the Justice League from a parallel Earth.",
"He founds the New 52 incarnation of the Injustice League, helping Batman to free their world from the Syndicate's control and saving Superman's life from a kryptonite attack by Syndicate member Atomica.",
"Public opinion of Lex Luthor becomes favorable.",
"After learning an entity destroyed the Crime Syndicate's Earth, Luthor wants to prepare for the possibility that his Earth could be threatened next.",
"To aid him in this and continue his new role as a hero, he requests Justice League membership.",
"The Justice League are not sure about his altruism but decides his membership would make it easier to monitor him.",
"While a Leaguer, Luthor helps against several threats, wearing a high-tech warsuit created by reverse-engineering Kryptonian technology, and builds a new Watchtower for the team.When the New God Darkseid is seemingly killed, his \"Omega Effect\" is contained in Lex Luthor, temporarily turning him into a God of Apokolips.The ''New 52'' Superman's identity is revealed to the world and the hero subsequently loses most of his powers.",
"Superman consults Luthor for help, but the villain cannot believe that someone as powerful as Superman would pretend to be someone as ordinary as Clark Kent.",
"He decides that Superman's loss of power is a convenient lie to hide the fact that Clark Kent is not really the Man of Steel, that he is only dressing like him and has found a way to acquire limited powers of his own.",
"Luthor asks Clark to tell him the truth of why he and Superman are lying to the world, but the Man of Steel has no answers for him.===''DC Rebirth''===Following the death of the ''New 52'' Superman, Luthor creates a new warsuit decorated by Superman's S-shield, deciding he is the new protector of Metropolis.",
"He is confronted by the Pre-''Flashpoint'' version of Superman, who refuses to believe Luthor's intentions are noble.",
"In DC's 2016 line-wide relaunch ''DC Rebirth'', large parts of the New 52 canon are removed (later said to have occurred in a different timeline) while large parts of the Post-Crisis canon are restored to the DC Universe.",
"Eventually, this affects the Superman comics as well, in the wake of the 2017 storyline \"Superman Reborn\" Luthor's backstory from ''Superman: Secret Origin'' and large parts of his Post-''Crisis'' continuity are restored, while the ''New 52'' events are largely removed.",
"The canon says that Luthor still served in the Justice League for a time.In the ''Watchmen'' sequel ''Doomsday Clock'', Luthor is approached by Adrian Veidt, who attempts to enlist his aid in finding Doctor Manhattan.",
"He is then attacked by a seemingly-revived Comedian.",
"After recovering from surgery, he reveals he has been investigating claims that many heroes and villains did not gain their powers from accidents, but were actually the results of government experiments.",
"He later provides Lois Lane with footage of the Justice Society of America, who in the new canon were not the publicly known superheroes of World War II, but were clandestine heroes whose existence was largely denied.",
"Doomsday Clock ends with Luthor considering utilizing and improving Veidt's methods for his own personal use.",
"It is also revealed the New 52 Luthor and history still exist in a parallel universe.====''Year of the Villain''====Lex Luthor's childhood is fleshed our further in the pages of ''Justice League''.",
"Before he ever met Clark Kent, it is said his father Lionel Luthor was a scientist working with the Legionnaires Club, an organization created by the immortal villain Vandal Savage to unlock the secrets of the universe.",
"At one point, Lionel is able to reach through space and time to bring a Martian child named J'onn J'onzz to Earth.",
"Lex and J'onn form a brief friendship.",
"When the heroic Blackhawks attacks the operations of the Legionnaires' Club, Lex sends J'onn back home to Mars to protect him.",
"Many years later, he will meet J'onn again when the alien operates on Earth as the Martian Manhunter.",
"To protect his secrets, Vandal Savage has Lionel's memories altered.",
"As a result of this psychological trauma, Lionel becomes a \"broken man\" and an alcoholic.",
"Lex comes to hate his father and only feels family love for his sister Lena, who is increasingly ill and whom he wishes to help.After the universal barrier known as the Source Wall is broken during the events of \"No Justice,\" Luthor forms a new Legion Of Doom to track down the secrets that were once pursued by the Legionnaires' Club, discovering they are connected to the god-like Perpetua, Mother of Forgers.",
"In the ''Year of the Villain'' special, Luthor commits suicide to gain favor with Perpetua, who resurrects him as her acolyte/child, becoming a powerful Martian/human hybrid called '''Apex Lex'''.",
"He then offers power to many DC Universe villains."
],
[
"Relationships and family",
"===Pre-''Crisis'' continuity===In the Pre-''Crisis'' continuity, Luthor is shown as having very few personal attachments.",
"Shamed by his crimes, his parents Jules and Arlene disown him, move away, cut off all ties to Smallville, and change their name to the anagram \"Thorul\".",
"Jules and Arlene take their younger child Lena with them, who is only a toddler at the time and later does not remember her real last name.",
"'''Lena Thorul''' is told her older brother died in a mountain climbing accident.",
"Not long after their departure from Smallville, Jules and Arlene die in a car accident, leaving Lena to grow up alone.",
"Like her brother, she attends Regis High School and then later becomes a librarian.",
"Lena meets Lois Lane, who plans to mention the young woman in a story but is then warned not to by Lex Luthor.",
"Superman and Lois discover the truth but agree to Lex's request that Lena not learn about their connection.",
"Later on, Lena moves to Midvale and befriends Superman's cousin Supergirl, who also winds up helping to make sure Lena doesn't learn the truth about her brother.Exposure to one of Luthor's inventions later grants Lena ESP, making her an empath.",
"Lena Thorul marries FBI agent Jeff Colby (who had once arrested Lex) and they have a son, '''Val Colby'''.",
"Jeff Colby dies some time later.",
"After Lena has brain surgery, the decision is made to reveal the truth about Luthor to her.",
"Luthor then discovers he was an unwitting party to a conspiracy against Lena masterminded by his own cellmate \"Sam\", who wanted revenge against Colby.",
"Deeply remorseful about this, he apologizes to Lena and the two attempt to make amends with each other.The Pre-Crisis Luthor also has a niece named '''Nasthalthia Luthor''', the child of an older unnamed sister of Lex's who had run away and eloped in Europe when she was a teenager.",
"\"Nasty\" Luthor is an occasional thorn in Supergirl's side, at one point forming a gang called Nasty's Nasties.",
"Nasthalthia is removed from canon following the reboot of ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'', but does appear in the critically acclaimed ''All-Star Superman''.Lex Luthor himself later marries Ardora of the planet Lexor and, in ''Action Comics'' #544 (June 1983), learns he has an infant son by Ardora, Lex Luthor, Jr..",
"Almost two months later, Luthor accidentally causes the destruction of Lexor, and Ardora and Lex, Jr. die as a direct result.===Post-''Crisis'' continuity===In the Post-''Crisis'' continuity, Lena is the name of Lex's adopted sister when he was living in a foster home.",
"She is accidentally killed by their foster father when she refuses to try to trick Lex out of his inheritance.",
"Lex later names his baby daughter after her.Following the events of the ''Infinite Crisis'', Luthor's history was again altered, re-introducing Lena as his blood sister.",
"Unlike the Pre-''Crisis'' version, Lena is well aware of her history with Lex, having grown up alongside him, with only an abusive father.",
"Lex and Lena's mother is named Letitia and is presumed deceased.",
"She has no empathic abilities, and is a paraplegic with a teenaged daughter, Lori, both of whom still live in Smallville.",
"Unlike his Pre-''Crisis'' version, Lex has little love for his sister, having abandoned her with an unnamed aunt after their father dies of a heart attack.",
"Lex even goes so far as to cure Lena's illness, and then immediately undoes the process, leaving her completely catatonic, solely to make a mocking point to Superboy and Superman.",
"Lena is currently under the care of the best doctors from Wayne Enterprises, hired by Red Robin.In the post-''The Man of Steel'' continuity, Luthor is childhood friends with Perry White and it is revealed Luthor is the biological father of Perry's son Jerry White, conceived during a period when Perry was believed dead.",
"Luthor, Perry and Alice only learned the truth shortly before Jerry was killed by a gang war that Luthor had triggered.",
"Post-Crisis Lex Luthor has been married eight times, though the first seven marriages occurred off-panel in Luthor's past.",
"His eighth marriage to Contessa Erica Alexandra Del Portenza (a.k.a.",
"the \"Contessa\") is based on mutual greed; the Contessa buys controlling interest in LexCorp after Luthor is indicted, compelling him to marry her in order to regain control of his company.",
"The Contessa becomes pregnant and starts using the unborn child to dominate Lex into doing her bidding.",
"Luthor's response is to imprison her while she is drugged during childbirth, keeping her in a permanently unconscious state.",
"The Contessa later escapes to an island mansion, but upon being elected president, Luthor targets her home with a barrage of missiles and destroys it.",
"Luthor's daughter Lena was the avatar of The Tech, the remnant cyberware of Metropolis after Brainiac 13's advancing the city to a futuristic state was undone.James D. Hudnall's ''Lex Luthor: The Unauthorized Biography'' further expands on Luthor's origin.",
"The story details how Luthor was sent to live with a foster family following the sabotage of his parents' car.",
"His foster parents, Casey and Emily Griggs, conspire to embezzle his insurance and coerce their daughter, Lena, into seducing Lex to learn the location of the money.",
"Due to her genuine romantic feelings toward Lex, Lena refuses and is beaten to death by her father.",
"Lex is absent from the home at the time of the murder, having been talked into going to a football game by his schoolmate Perry White.",
"Once he has established his preeminence in Metropolis, Luthor takes vengeance on Griggs, secretly hiring him to assassinate Frank Berkowitz, the city's popular four-term mayor, who refuses to knuckle under to Luthor's dominance, then personally killing him once the deed is done.As an adult, Perry's unwitting 'role' in Lena's death motivates Luthor to have an affair with Perry's wife Alice during a period when Perry is missing and assumed dead.",
"Alice becomes pregnant shortly afterward, though the timing of the conception means an equal possibility of either Luthor or White being the father.",
"The child, Jerry White, later learns his true parentage during his late teens, shortly before being killed by a local street gang he is associated with.",
"The loss of a potential heir weighs heavily on Luthor's mind, particularly when he is dying of cancer; while mulling over his fate, Luthor visits Jerry's gravesite.Luthor has shown an unusual level of compassion for Conner Kent, a hybrid clone created from the DNA of Superman and Luthor himself.",
"After Conner's death at the conclusion of the ''Infinite Crisis'', Luthor is shown visiting a memorial statue of Conner in Metropolis and placing flowers there.",
"More than once Luthor addresses Conner as his son.",
"Following Conner's resurrection, Luthor is shocked and decides to locate him.",
"When Brainiac accuses him of showing paternal feelings for Conner though, Luthor denies it, saying that he only wants his property back, and has no fatherly feelings towards Superboy.",
"After Superboy and Luthor visit Lena, Luthor makes it clear he now sees Kon-El as an inherently \"failed experiment\" due to having 50% \"wrong alien DNA.\"",
"Luthor then works with Brainiac to create a binary clone with their own genetics, a possible threat to Superboy.Lena Luthor was revealed to have mothered a daughter named '''Lori Luthor''' making her Lex Luthor's niece.In the alternate future timeline of ''Titans Tomorrow'', Conner becomes an uncompromising and dictatorial successor to Superman, while Luthor acts as a caring, father figure to him.During the \"Blackest Night\" storyline, Lex Luthor's father '''Lionel Luthor''' was featured where it was revealed that he died of an allergic reaction to his medicine during Clark Kent's days as Superboy.",
"He is reanimated as a member of the Black Lantern Corps where he is amongst its members that try to attack Lex Luthor.",
"After the events of \"Blackest Night'\", Luthor went on to build a gynoid version of Lois Lane using Brainiac technology.",
"His primary purpose for creating her was to have a companion who would voice honest opinions and provide an extra voice of reason to counsel him on his obsessive quest for the Black Lantern energy.",
"Luthor also had a pseudo-romantic relationship with the \"Loisbot\", and regularly slept with it."
],
[
"Powers and abilities",
"Lex Luthor has the physical capabilities of a normal adult human with no metahuman abilities.",
"However, for virtually his entire publication history, he has been depicted as the most intelligent human in the DC Universe, and one of the most intelligent beings of any planet.",
"He possesses an eidetic memory and has mastered seemingly every known form of science, including space travel, extra-dimensional travel, biochemistry, robotics, nanotechnology, computer engineering, synthetic polymers, communication technologies, genetic mutation, holography, energy generation, spectral analysis, and time travel.",
"With the exception of the extraterrestrial entity known as Brainiac (and occasionally Batman), Luthor does not view any other being as an intellectual peer.",
"His exceptional intellectual gifts act as his \"superpowers\", allowing him to craft advanced weapons and equipment, outthink opponents much stronger and more powerful than himself, and manipulate others into doing his bidding.His genius also extends to business (he is one of the world's wealthiest people) and politics (he was elected U.S. president, and he is often the leader of super-villain groups he has belonged to).",
"When posing as Lex Luthor II, Luthor is granted a peaked physical condition and has been trained in hand-to-hand combat, specifically Karate, which he continued even after he reverted to his true age.",
"He has also been occasionally trained by rogue Amazons of Themyscira.===Weaponry===Over the years, Luthor has created (either on his own, using alien technology he acquires, or with the resources of LexCorp and the military) many highly advanced weapons, machines, and robots to carry out his plans or destroy his enemies.",
"He has made liberal use of kryptonite weapons capable of injuring Superman and other Kryptonians, and he has often created synthetic kryptonite (not as lethal as real green kryptonite but still capable of weakening a Kryptonian).",
"Since the Bronze Age, he has also utilized various high-tech \"war-suits\" in many stories.",
"The first warsuit, introduced in 1983, was a product of lost science from an earlier age in the planet Lexor's history when technology was highly advanced.",
"Its Lexorian materials can withstand several attacks by Superman before sustaining damage and its force field offers further protection still.",
"Wearing it grants Lex great superhuman strength, not equal to Superman but still enough to overpower many of Earth's heroes.",
"The suit can deliver powerful energy blasts and a molecular sheath capable of blocking Superman's body from absorbing energy from solar radiation, meaning his powers will weaken over time.",
"Powered by red solar radiation, the suit can also deliver red solar beams to directly weaken Superman.",
"The suit has other features including advanced sensor systems, a hypnotism weapon, and illusion casting technology.The warsuit introduced in 2004 is built with technology from Apokolips, granting greater superhuman strength and resistance to injury, a powerful force field, flight, electrical weapons, and a variety of kryptonite-based weaponry such as energy cannons, axes, and a collapsible sword.",
"Its power is great enough that Luthor could fly for several days without interruption.",
"The gauntlets hold different forms of kryptonite stones.",
"After reality is altered by ''Flashpoint'', Luthor uses a new warsuit similar to the 2004 one but slimmer and built by reverse-engineering Kryptonian technology.",
"When he temporarily attempts to act as a hero and works alongside the Justice League, Luthor uses a similar warsuit with non-lethal weaponry and no kryptonite-based features.Luthor often wore a kryptonite ring on his right hand in Post-''Crisis'' stories, but abandoned this tactic after prolonged exposure to its radiation resulted in cancer, requiring him to transplant his brain into a cloned body to survive.",
"While masquerading as his own son Lex Luthor II, Lex occasionally wore high-tech \"LX-20 body armor.\"",
"During the ''Blackest Night'' crossover, he wore an orange power ring of avarice created by Ganthet, a former member of the Guardians of the Universe."
],
[
"LexCorp",
"LexCorp Tower in JLA #83 (September 2003), art by Christopher Williams.LexCorp is the fictional organized crime company owned by Luthor.",
"The company is based in Metropolis and is headquartered in LexCorp Tower.The establishment of LexCorp by Lex Luthor is a stark departure from earlier portrayals of the company's founder, transitioning the character from a warlord and would-be dictator into a power-mad business magnate.",
"LexCorp was founded primarily to serve as a front to Lex Luthor's criminal enterprise while simultaneously being a symbol of Luthor's victory over Superman, as Luthor values defeating the Superman over financial gain (illustrated by abandoning a hollow victory after plundering Fort Knox).",
"Luthor intends to convert LexCorp into a legitimate operation after his retirement from crime, and in the future it is shown being a highly successful non-criminal enterprise, to Superman's pleasure.LexCorp was originally organized as an aerospace engineering firm started in the top floor offices of the Daily Planet building in Metropolis, and has since become one of the world's largest, most diversified multinational conglomerates.The company grew by acquisition, starting with struggling airlines \"Inter-Continental Airlines\" and \"Atlantic Coast Air Systems\", renaming them to \"LexAir\".",
"When rising profits were threatened by fuel shortages, LexCorp bought out Southwestern Petroleum and renamed it \"LexOil\".",
"This pattern of acquisition continued to include the ''Daily Planet'' and several Metropolis businesses before LexCorp sold the unprofitable ''Daily Planet'' and its building to TransNational Enterprises, establishing an L-shaped 96-story high-rise as its new headquarters.LexCorp grew rapidly into a diverse international conglomerate with interests in utilities, waste management, industrial manufacturing, computer hardware and software, chemicals, retail, bio-engineering, weapons, pharmaceuticals, oil, communications, airlines, real estate, hotels, restaurants, technology, media, financial services, robotics, security, transportation, satellites, stock brokerage houses, cash businesses, and food.",
"By the timeframe of the Alliance invasion it was estimated that LexCorp either directly or indirectly employed nearly two-thirds of Metropolis' population of 11 million people, dominating commerce around much of the world.",
"Among those many subsidiaries are such diverse businesses as Advanced Research Laboratories, Secur-Corp Armored Car Service, North American Robotics, Hell's Gate Disposal Services, and the Good Foods Group, owners of Ralli's Family Restaurants, Big Belly Burger and the Koul-Brau Breweries.",
"LexCorp's major subsidiary companies include LexComp, LexChemical, LexEl Investments, LexMart, LexComm, FedLex, LexOil, LexAir, and TelLex.When CEO Lex Luthor was elected President of the United States, he divested from LexCorp to avoid a conflict of interest and Talia al Ghul became the company's CEO.",
"Al Ghul donated a large portion of its profits to the Wayne Foundation during Superman and Batman's year-long absences.",
"Following his dismissal as president he fired her and took back his place, though she secretly kept a portion of stock.Competitors include Wayne Enterprises, Kord Enterprises, Queen Industries and S.T.A.R.",
"Labs.",
"LexCorp provides sponsorship to the superhero team The Conglomerate along with American Steel, Dante Foods, Dupree Chemical, Ferris Aircraft, S.T.A.R.",
"Labs, Ovel Oil, Pax Entertainment, and Stagg Enterprises.Following Luthor's public acquittal from criminal charges Lana Lang became LexCorp's new CEO and LexCorp began its decline.",
"Lana Lang was dismissed from her post due to a contractual clause in all LexCorp employment charters forbidding aiding Superman in any way, after she attempted to use a LexCorp security unit to aid Superman in a battle against Atlas.A year after the events of ''Infinite Crisis'', Lex Luthor had been stripped of his wealth and assets; LexCorp was dissolved and sold off to several competitors, most notably to Wayne Enterprises.Lex Luthor secretly owns the powerful and legitimate Thunder Corporation which he controls through a false identity, maintaining the illusion of the chairman/principal stockholder \"Lucius D. Tommytown\" through fake magazine articles and actors because he thought himself too honest to be anything but a criminal.",
"The Thunder Corporation headquarters \"Zephrymore Building\" fronts Lex Luthor's criminal operations and penthouse.=== LexCorp in other media ======= Television ====* LexCorp is depicted in the Ruby-Spears ''Superman'' cartoons.",
"* LexCorp appears in the ''Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'' television series.",
"* LexCorp has been shown in episodes of ''Superman: The Animated Series'' and ''Justice League'', with it being one of the tallest buildings in Metropolis.",
"* The major conglomerate featured regularly on ''Smallville'' is LuthorCorp, an agricultural conglomerate which was founded by Lionel Luthor with interest from meteor rocks and scientific experiments.",
"Following Lionel's incarceration in the fourth season, LuthorCorp comes under Lex's control and gradually turns into a corporation with several subsidiaries and divisions.",
"After his disappearance, Tess Mercer takes control and forms a partnership with Zod to develop a Solar Tower.",
"In the series finale, the LuthorCorp tower is damaged by several explosions which disfigure the corporate logo on the side of the building, with the scarred remains spelling out \"LexCorp\".",
"* In the cartoon ''Krypto the Superdog'', LexCorp is shown to be the home of Luthor's pet lizard Ignatius.",
"* In ''The Batman'', LexCorp is shown in the two part episode \"The Superman/Batman Story\".",
"* In ''Young Justice'', LexCorp is featured prominently in the series, including its subsidiaries, LexCorp Robotics and LexCorp Farms.",
"Speedy went missing three years prior to the events of the series while investigating a LexCorp shell company after he was captured and used to perfect the Light's cloning process, creating Red Arrow and Jim Harper.",
"In Season 2, when Red Arrow finds and rescues Speedy, Speedy immediately goes after Lex Luthor and attacks LexCorp, only for Luthor to offer a robotic prosthetic arm to Speedy, who decides to spare Luthor.",
"Luthor then partners with the Reach, creating LexCorp Farms.",
"In Season 3, after Luthor becomes the Secretary-General of the U.N., Lex's sister, Lena Luthor is revealed to have taken over as CEO of LexCorp.",
"* LexCorp is featured in the TV shows set in the Arrowverse:** ''The Flash'' co-creator Andrew Kreisberg revealed that LexCorp was going to appear in the pilot episode as an Easter egg, but was cut.",
"** In season 2 of ''Supergirl'', LexCorp appears under the name \"Luthor Corp\".",
"Lex Luthor's sister Lena takes over the company after Lex's imprisonment and renames it to \"'''L-Corp'''\" to distance the company from her brother's reputation.",
"This also makes her the target of assassin John Corben, whom Lex hires to assassinate her.",
"** In season 3 of ''Supergirl'', Lena relegates much of her L-Corp responsibilities to her new CFO Samantha Arias.",
"When Arias is revealed to be a Kryptonian villain named Reign, L-Corp begins experimenting with synthetic Kryptonite to combat her.",
"** In season 4 of ''Supergirl'', L-Corp focuses its research on Harun-El (Black Kryptonite) as a possible miracle cure for all ailments.",
"Lex is released from prison on a medical furlough and uses his influence within the company to ally with Kasnia and AmerTek to instigate a false-flag operation to make himself look like a hero.",
"** In season 5 of ''Supergirl'', the events of \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" drastically affect the history and current standing of the company.",
"In the new reality, Lex was never arrested and the company never became L-Corp, retaining the Luthor Corp name.",
"Lex has always been CEO and now owns the D.E.O., but Leviathan has infiltrated the Board of Directors and use the company to spread their Obsidian Platinum virtual reality lenses to conquer the planet.",
"** In season 6 of ''Supergirl'', following Leviathan's defeat, Lex is arrested for various crimes in association with them.",
"He is able to receive an acquittal and returns as CEO.",
"Lena tries to combat his influences by embezzling his funds for better causes.",
"In retaliation, he bombed a children's hospital that Lena paid for.",
"This causes her to resign and leave Lex in total control of the company.",
"After Lex unintentionally imprisoned himself and Nyxlygsptlnz in the Phantom Zone, Lena reclaimed the company and established the Lena Luthor Foundation.",
"* In the third episode of ''Powerless'', the team of Wayne Security loses their contract with Ace Chemicals due to their own CEO's incompetence.",
"The CEO of Ace Chemicals decides to go with LexCorp instead.",
"* LexCorp is featured in the ''Harley Quinn'' episode \"Bachelorette\".",
"Eris had plans to sell Themyscira to Lex Luthor and LexCorp.",
"This plan was thwarted by Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy.",
"* LexCorp appears in the TV series ''DC Super Hero Girls'' episode \"#SweetJustice\", where Lex presents the best technological advances of his company to improve the world, until his younger sister Lena hacks the system of his inventions, uses the robots and Lex's battle suit to destroy the fun places in Metropolis, but after the Super Hero Girls defeat her, the company fixes all the damage Lena caused.",
"The company appears in the episode \"#AllyCat\" where Catwoman and the Super Hero Girls (except Batgirl) go under cover to retrieve the Book of Eternity, which gives its possessor the ability to see and control the future, and insists that it is too dangerous for any mortal to possess.==== Film ====* LexCorp is shown in the animated film ''Justice League: The New Frontier'', where it is referred to as \"LexCo\".",
"* LexCorp is mentioned in a piece of scrolling text in one of the web pages for ''The Dark Knight'''s viral marketing.",
"* LexCorp's logo can be seen during the beginning of the DVD feature ''Superman/Batman: Public Enemies''.",
"It also marked on Lex Luthor's armor as well.",
"* Vandal Savage hired LexCorp to make a device that could steal information (in a discussion with Mirror Master) from the Batcomputer in ''Justice League: Doom''.LexCorp logo from the DC Extended Universe.",
"* LexCorp appears in the DC Extended Universe:** In the 2013 film ''Man of Steel'', LexCorp is shown both on the skyline of Metropolis and Smallville and on several trucks that appear throughout the film.",
"** LexCorp appears in ''Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice''.",
"In the film, it is mentioned that LexCorp was founded by Alexander Luthor Sr., Lex Luthor's father.",
"Senators Finch and Barrows visit Lex who tells them his idea of using the recently acquired kryptonite xenomineral as an official \"silver bullet\" deterrent against Superman, if the alien superhero decides to turn against humanity.",
"He also keeps General Zod's corpse in his laboratory and uses his remains to access the Kryptonian scout ship.",
"After the destruction of the US Capitol, Batman breaks into the well-guarded LexCorp building, successfully stealing the Kryptonite from the inside, exactly what Lex wanted.",
"Following the death of Superman and the exposure of Lex Luthor by Lois Lane as the primary supercriminal culprit behind the numerous unspeakable crimes against peace and humanity, Lex is arrested and deposed as CEO of LexCorp.",
"** LexCorp appears in the background of Palmera City next to Kord Industries in the film Blue Beetle.",
"* LexCorp appears in the films set in DC Animated Movie Universe:** In ''Justice League: War'', an oil tanker is seen with the LexCorp logo during a battle between Superman, Batman, and Green Lantern.",
"During the fight, the tanker is blown up.",
"** LexCorp building appears in ''The Death of Superman''.",
"* LexCorp appears in ''DC League of Super-Pets''.==== Video games ====* In ''Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe'', the background of LexCorp is seen when players fight in Metropolis.",
"* LexCorp appears in ''DC Universe Online''.",
"LexCorp Tower is located in Downtown Metropolis.",
"The soldiers of LexCorp consist of Lexcorp Shock Troopers, Lexcorp Heavy Troopers, Lexcorp Security Guards, Lexcorp Enforcers, and Lexcorp Gladiators.",
"* LexCorp appears in ''Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes''.",
"In this adaptation, LexCorp is featured as the main area for the level ''Research and Development''.",
"In addition, robots called LexBots are frequent enemies in the game as well as playable characters.",
"\"LexCorp Security\" and \"LexCorp Heavy\" are also two minor playable characters in the handheld versions of the game.",
"* LexCorp is referenced in ''Batman: Arkham Origins''.",
"In Penguin's office, there is list of companies which includes LexCorp.",
"Two of LexCorp subsidiaries, Big Belly Burger and Koul-Brau Breweries, appear in the game.",
"* In ''Batman: Arkham Knight'', numerous buildings and billboards with LexCorp on them are seen.",
"Lex leave a voicemail for Bruce asking if LexCorp can purchase Wayne Enterprises' Applied Sciences division.",
"* In ''Lego Dimensions'', LexCorp is temporally seen in the game when Lord Sauron retrieves the Locate Keystone and uses it to plant his lair on top of the building.",
"* In ''Lego DC Super-Villains'', LexCorp is featured in the Metropolis portion and in game as a level as Luthor and the Legion of Doom break in and battle Deathstorm.",
"A portal to Apokolips is accessible as well at the top of LexCorp Tower."
],
[
"Alternate versions",
"DC Comics often depicts its stories as taking place in a wide multiverse, with many parallel realities where familiar characters have slightly or drastically different lives.",
"Likewise, there are some comics published under the ''Elseworlds'' label, meaning it is a story that is outside of canon and does not necessarily have a specific universe designation (such as \"Earth-3\" or \"Earth-X\").",
"The point of ''Elseworlds'' stories is to reimagine familiar characters in new settings.",
"While many versions of Luthor are similar to the mainstream one, simply existing in different settings, some significant, famous and/or recurring alternate versions of the character include:===Earth-Three===Earth-Three was introduced during the Silver Age of Comics as a mirror version of the DC Comics Earth where Americans colonized Europe and actor Abraham Lincoln shot President John Wilkes Booth.",
"An evil version of the Justice League known as the Crime Syndicate of America terrorizes this world.",
"Eventually, a heroic scientist named Alexander Luthor opposes them, donning a high-tech red, yellow and blue \"supersuit.\"",
"During his initial adventure he is aided by the Supermen of Earth-One and Earth-Two, as well as Earth-Three's noble reporter Lois Lane, as they face off against Ultraman, Lex Luthor of Earth-One, and Alexei Luthor of Earth-Two.",
"Later, Alex and Lois marry and have a child, Alexander Luthor Jr., who aids Earth's heroes during the ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' and then opposes them in the crossover ''Infinite Crisis''.====Earth-3====''The New 52'' timeline introduced its own version of Earth-3 in the crossover ''Forever Evil'' (2014).",
"The Alexander Luthor of this Earth-3 is his world's version of Shazam.",
"Called '''Mazahs''', he takes the superpowers of those he kills and is the father of Superwoman's child.",
"He is later killed by the ''New 52'' version of Lex Luthor.Following the reboot of the Multiverse at the end of \"Dark Nights: Death Metal\" as seen during the \"Infinite Frontier\", Earth-3 is recreated with a new version of Alexander Luthor.",
"This version is a non-superpowered African-American man who wears a suit of high-tech armour.",
"He is the sworn enemy of Ultraman, the self-appointed ruler and \"protector\" of Metropolis, and one of the few people with the courage to defy him directly.",
"He is depicted as well intentioned and compassionate but largely ineffectual.",
"He is horrified when Earth-3's evil metahumans are hailed as heroes for defeating the invading Starros.",
"Aided by former Emerald Knight Thaal Sinestro and a New God named Lonar, he begins recruiting good metahumans into a Legion of Justice.",
"Most of the group is defeated and Luthor is imprisoned by Ultraman.====Anti-Matter Earth====The anti-matter universe is a dark, often opposite reflection of the mainstream DC Universe that is similar to Earth-Three.",
"Armed with a green and purple high-tech warsuit, the Alexander Luthor of this reality regularly opposes the Crime Syndicate of Amerika, a group of villains who rule over his Earth through fear and coercion.",
"At one point, this Luthor journeys to the mainstream DC Comics Earth (which he decides to call \"Earth 2\") in hopes that the Justice League can save his world.",
"The team tries, but realize that they cannot win for long on the anti-matter Earth because evil holds sway in this universe (metaphysically because Lucifer defeated archangel Michael) and thus wins more often, meaning heroes are fated to ultimately fail or die.",
"This idea, presented in the graphic novel ''JLA: Earth 2'', was a meta-commentary by writer Grant Morrison on the fact that in the main DC Universe, it is accepted by readers that good tends to triumph over evil.===''Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again''===In ''Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again'', set in a world where heroes have been publicly 'retired' for years, Lex Luthor is depicted as obese with a hunchback.",
"He has teamed up with Brainiac and controls the U. S. government using a hologram known as \"President Rickard\" as a figurehead.",
"He has also blackmailed Superman, Wonder Woman, and Captain Marvel into doing the government's bidding by holding their loved ones hostage.",
"When Batman and Catgirl emerge from hiding, they take on Luthor and Batman slashes a Z into Luthor's face before leaving.",
"In retaliation, he orders Superman and Wonder Woman to kill an alien, which is really Brainiac hoping Superman would get killed.",
"That plan, however, failed when Superman and Wonder Woman's daughter, Lara, saved him.",
"Then Luthor launched satellites to destroy most of the world's population, but they were destroyed by the Green Lantern.",
"Lex Luthor is eventually killed by the son of Hawkman and Hawkgirl.===Bizarro Luthor===In multiple versions of DC Comics canon, Superman's imperfect duplicate Bizarro (sometimes called Bizarro #1) creates an entire Bizarro World (\"Htrae\") populated by imperfect and backwards thinking duplicates of the people of Earth.",
"One such duplicate is Bizarro Luthor.Another version of Bizarro Luthor is said to exist on Earth-29, a parallel reality called the \"Bizarroverse.",
"\"===Earth-47===Introduced in ''Year of the Villain: Lex Luthor'' #1 (2019), this Lex Luthor studies and uses the Black Mercy, an alien plant that feeds off an organism's psychic energy while distracting them with an illusion of the life they want.",
"Through repeated use, Lex experiences multiple scenarios where he acquires the great power and/or superpowers he always wanted, but finds he is never satisfied.",
"Realizing his ambitions are based on ego, while Superman regularly considers how his actions will affect or benefit others, this Luthor spends the rest of his life creating new ways for people to heal and live better lives.===Amalgam Comics===During the crossover ''DC vs. Marvel,'' the realities of DC Comics and Marvel Comics temporarily merged, resulting in the Amalgam Comics universe.",
"In this reality, Lex Luthor's person and history merged with that of the Red Skull, creating the Green Skull.",
"A war profiteer during World War II, this Lex Luthor later injects himself with a chemical agent derived from a radioactive green meteorite, extending his lifespan while giving him green skin and his head a skull-like appearance.",
"In multiple Amalgam Comics stories, he opposes Super-Soldier (a combination of Superman and Captain America).===Earth C Minus===There is a version of Lex Luthor who is a villainous lemur that inhabits Earth C Minus (or Earth C−), a parallel world populated by anthropomorphic animals and protected by Super-Squirrel.===Pocket Universe version===Inhabiting a \"pocket universe\" created by the villainous Time Trapper, this young Luthor never loses his hair and admires the exploits of Superboy (a teenage Clark Kent) on his world.",
"After Superboy's death, Luthor explores the hero's lab and accidentally frees three pocket universe Kryptonian villains from the Phantom Zone.",
"To help the situation, Luthor creates an artificial life form out of a \"pseudo-plasm matrix\", based on the physical traits of Lana Lang.",
"The life form is called Supergirl.",
"After the Kryptonian villains kill Luthor and all other life forms on Earth, the pocket universe Supergirl makes a new home on the mainstream DC Comics Earth, where she becomes a hero.===Superman: Earth One===In the second of the ''Superman: Earth One'' graphic novels, '''Dr.",
"Alexandra Luthor''' and her husband '''Dr.",
"Alexander Luthor''' are a pair of brilliant scientists who refer to themselves as Lex2 Incorporated.",
"While working with the military, Alexandra researches ways of killing Superman as an intellectual exercise, while Alexander is more compassionate and questions the ethics of developing weapons to harm a man who has not given cause to be feared.",
"In the third installment, Alexander sacrifices himself to help Superman battle Zod.",
"Alexandra is consumed by grief, blaming the Man of Steel and vowing to destroy him.",
"Claiming the \"old Alexandra\" died alongside her husband, she adopts the new name \"Lex.",
"\"===Elseworlds===Versions of Lex Luthor have appeared in different ''Elseworlds'' stories:*In the ''Elseworlds'' graphic novel ''Speeding Bullets'', Kal-El is adopted by Thomas and Martha Wayne, who have no other son and name him Bruce.",
"Years after witnessing his parents' murder, Bruce becomes a super-powered Batman in Gotham City, while Lex Luthor operates without interference in Metropolis, acquiring great power and influence.",
"An accident at a chemical plant leads Luthor to acquire chalk-white skin and blood-red lips.",
"Initially hiding his disfigurement, he later reveals his new appearance and adopts the name the Joker.",
"A similar character, simply called Lex Joker, appears in a dream-reality where familiar DC characters are combined with each other.",
"*A four-issue ''Elsewords'' miniseries titled \"Kingdom Come\" is later said to take place on Earth-22.After a rise of violent anti-heroes and vigilantes is embraced by the public, Superman and many other traditional heroes retire or leave.",
"Later, when Superman and many of his former allies return to action, now acting more authoritative and militaristic, an older Lex Luthor argues this is the first step towards superhumans ruling Earth.",
"He gathers the Mankind Liberation Front to oppose Superman's Justice League.",
"To protect himself from enemies, Luthor brainwashes the hero Captain Marvel into becoming his bodyguard.",
"*A three-issue ''Elseworlds'' miniseries titled \"Superman: Red Son\" is later said to take place on Earth-30.Kal-L's vessel lands in Ukraine in 1938 and he later becomes Premier of the Soviet Union.",
"He is opposed by Lex Luthor, a respected scientific prodigy in America who is married to ''Daily Planet'' reporter Lois Lane-Luthor.",
"This Superman acts as a powerful political figure on his world, while Luthor is increasingly convinced that the Kryptonian's presence is halting human progress.",
"He engineers several schemes to destroy the Man of Steel, all of which fail, before finally convincing Superman that he has no right to interfere in human affairs.",
"Superman fakes his death to live as a normal man and Luthor turns his attention to advancing the human race, ultimately becoming mankind's greatest mind and savior."
],
[
"In other media"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Boucher, Ian.",
"\"Forging Kryptonite: Lex Luthor’s Xenophobia as Societal Fracturing, from ''Batman v Superman'' to ''Supergirl''.\"",
"''Adapting Superman: Essays on the Transmedia Man of Steel'', edited by John Darowski, McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2021, pp.",
"216-234.",
"*Daniels, Les.",
"''Superman: The Complete History: The Life and Times of the Man of Steel''.",
"Chronicle Books, 1998.",
"*Peretti, Daniel.",
"\"Through the Lens of Dr. Frankenstein: Luthor as Prometheus.\"",
"''Adapting Superman: Essays on the Transmedia Man of Steel'', edited by John Darowski, McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2021, pp.",
"173-184."
],
[
"External links",
"* DCComics.com – Origin of Lex Luthor* Lex Luthor chronology index* Superman Homepage – Lex Luthor biography* The Justice League Watchtower – Lex Luthor** Luthor (1940) at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.",
"at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.",
"from the original on November 16, 2015.",
"* Lex Luthor (1986) at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.",
"at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.",
"from the original on October 25, 2015."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lute"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''lute ''' ( or ) is any plucked string instrument with a neck and a deep round back enclosing a hollow cavity, usually with a sound hole or opening in the body.",
"It may be either fretted or unfretted.More specifically, the term \"lute\" commonly refers to an instrument from the family of European lutes.",
"The term also refers generally to any necked string instrument having the strings running in a plane parallel to the sound table (in the Hornbostel–Sachs system).The strings are attached to pegs or posts at the end of the neck, which have some type of turning mechanism to enable the player to tighten the tension on the string or loosen the tension before playing (which respectively raise or lower the pitch of a string), so that each string is tuned to a specific pitch (or note).",
"The lute is plucked or strummed with one hand while the other hand \"frets\" (presses down) the strings on the neck's fingerboard.",
"By pressing the strings on different places of the fingerboard, the player can shorten or lengthen the part of the string that is vibrating, thus producing higher or lower pitches (notes).The European lute and the modern Near-Eastern ''oud'' descend from a common ancestor via diverging evolutionary paths.",
"The lute is used in a great variety of instrumental music from the Medieval to the late Baroque eras and was the most important instrument for secular music in the Renaissance.",
"During the Baroque music era, the lute was used as one of the instruments that played the ''basso continuo'' accompaniment parts.",
"It is also an accompanying instrument in vocal works.",
"The lute player either improvises (\"realizes\") a chordal accompaniment based on the figured bass part, or plays a written-out accompaniment (both music notation and tablature (\"tab\") are used for lute).",
"As a small instrument, the lute produces a relatively quiet sound.",
"The player of a lute is called a ''lutenist'', ''lutanist'' or ''lutist'', and a maker of lutes (or any similar string instrument, or violin family instruments) is referred to as a ''luthier''."
],
[
"History and evolution of the lute",
"===First lutes===Curt Sachs defined ''lute'' in the terminology section of ''The History of Musical Instruments'' as \"composed of a body, and of a neck which serves both as a handle and as a means of stretching the strings beyond the body\".",
"His definition focused on body and neck characteristics and not on the way the strings were sounded, so the fiddle counted as a \"bowed lute\".",
"Sachs also distinguished between the \"long-necked lute\" and the short-necked variety.",
"The short-necked variety contained most of our modern instruments, \"lutes, guitars, hurdy-gurdies and the entire family of viols and violins\".The long lutes were the more ancient lutes; the \"Arabic tanbūr ... faithfully preserved the outer appearance of the ancient lutes of Babylonia and Egypt\".",
"He further categorized long lutes with a \"pierced lute\" and \"long neck lute\".",
"The ''pierced lute'' had a neck made from a stick that pierced the body (as in the ancient Egyptian long-neck lutes, and the modern African gunbrī).The ''long lute'' had an attached neck, and included the sitar, tanbur and tar: the dutār had two strings, setār three strings, čārtār four strings, pančtār five strings.Sachs's book is from 1941, and the archaeological evidence available to him placed the early lutes at about 2000 BC.",
"Discoveries since then have pushed the existence of the lute back to .Musicologist Richard Dumbrill today uses the word lute more categorically to discuss instruments that existed millennia before the term \"lute\" was coined.",
"Dumbrill documented more than 3,000 years of iconographic evidence of the lutes in Mesopotamia, in his book ''The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East''.",
"According to Dumbrill, the lute family included instruments in Mesopotamia before 3000 BC.",
"He points to a cylinder seal as evidence; dating from about 3100 BC or earlier and now in the possession of the British Museum, the seal depicts on one side what is thought to be a woman playing a stick \"lute\".",
"Like Sachs, Dumbrill saw length as distinguishing lutes, dividing the Mesopotamian lutes into a long variety and a short.",
"His book does not cover the shorter instruments that became the European lute, beyond showing examples of shorter lutes in the ancient world.",
"He focuses on the longer lutes of Mesopotamia, various types of necked chordophones that developed throughout the ancient world: Greek, Egyptian (in the Middle Kingdom), Iranian (Elamite and others), Jewish/Israelite, Hittite, Roman, Bulgar, Turkic, Indian, Chinese, Armenian/Cilician cultures.",
"He names among the long lutes, the pandura and the tanburThe line of short-necked lutes was further developed to the east of Mesopotamia, in Bactria and Gandhara, into a short, almond-shaped lute.",
"Curt Sachs talked about the depictions of Gandharan lutes in art, where they are presented in a mix of \"Northwest Indian art\" under \"strong Greek influences\".",
"The short-necked lutes in these Gandhara artworks were \"the venerable ancestor of the Islamic, the Sino-Japanese and the European lute families\".",
"He described the Gandhara lutes as having a \"pear-shaped body tapering towards the short neck, a frontal stringholder, lateral pegs, and either four or five strings\".===Persian barbat===Bactria and Gandhara became part of the Sasanian Empire (224–651).",
"Under the Sasanians, a short almond-shaped lute from Bactria came to be called the barbat or barbud, which was developed into the later Islamic world's ''oud'' or ''ud''.",
"When the Moors conquered Andalusia in 711, they brought their ud or quitra along, into a country that had already known a lute tradition under the Romans, the pandura.During the 8th and 9th centuries, many musicians and artists from across the Islamic world flocked to Iberia.",
"Among them was Abu l-Hasan 'Ali Ibn Nafi' (789–857), a prominent musician, who had trained under Ishaq al-Mawsili (d. 850) in Baghdad and was exiled to Andalusia before 833.He taught and has been credited with adding a fifth string to his oud and with establishing one of the first schools of music in Córdoba.By the 11th century, Muslim Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments.",
"These goods spread gradually to Provence, influencing French troubadours and trouvères and eventually reaching the rest of Europe.",
"While Europe developed the lute, the ''oud'' remained a central part of Arab music, and broader Ottoman music, undergoing a range of transformations.Beside the introduction of the lute to Spain (Andalusia) by the Moors, another important point of transfer of the lute from Arabian to European culture was Sicily, where it was brought either by Byzantine or later by Muslim musicians.",
"There were singer-lutenists at the court in Palermo after the Norman conquest of the island from the Muslims, and the lute is depicted extensively in the ceiling paintings in the Palermo's royal Cappella Palatina, dedicated by the Norman King Roger II of Sicily in 1140.His Hohenstaufen grandson Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (1194–1250) continued integrating Muslims into his court, including Moorish musicians.",
"Frederick II made visits to the Lech valley and Bavaria between 1218 and 1237 with a \"Moorish Sicilian retinue\".",
"By the 14th century, lutes had spread throughout Italy and, probably because of the cultural influence of the Hohenstaufen kings and emperor, based in Palermo, the lute had also made significant inroads into the German-speaking lands.",
"By 1500, the valley and Füssen had several lute-making families, and in the next two centuries the area hosted \"famous names of 16th and 17th century lutemaking\".Although the major entry of the short lute was in Western Europe, leading to a variety of lute styles, the short lute entered Europe in the East as well; as early as the sixth century, the Bulgars brought the short-necked variety of the instrument called komuz to the Balkans.=== From Middle Ages to Baroque ===Medieval lutes were four- and five-course instruments, plucked with a quill as a plectrum.",
"There were several sizes and, by the end of the Renaissance, seven sizes (up to the great octave bass) are documented.",
"Song accompaniment was probably the lute's primary function in the Middle Ages, but very little music securely attributable to the lute survives from before 1500.Medieval and early-Renaissance song accompaniments were probably mostly improvised, hence the lack of written records.In the last few decades of the fifteenth century, to play Renaissance polyphony on a single instrument, lutenists gradually abandoned the quill in favor of plucking the instrument with the fingers.",
"The number of courses grew to six and beyond.",
"The lute was the premier solo instrument of the sixteenth century, but continued to accompany singers as well.About 1500, many Iberian lutenists adopted vihuela de mano, a viol-shaped instrument tuned like the lute; both instruments continued in coexistence.",
"This instrument also found its way to parts of Italy that were under Spanish domination (especially Sicily and the papal states under the Borgia pope Alexander VI who brought many Catalan musicians to Italy), where it was known as the viola da mano.By the end of the Renaissance, the number of courses had grown to ten, and during the Baroque era the number continued to grow until it reached 14 (and occasionally as many as 19).",
"These instruments, with up to 35 strings, required innovations in the structure of the lute.",
"At the end of the lute's evolution the archlute, theorbo and torban had long extensions attached to the main tuning head to provide a greater resonating length for the bass strings, and since human fingers are not long enough to stop strings across a neck wide enough to hold 14 courses, the bass strings were placed outside the fretboard, and were played ''open'', i.e., without pressing them against the fingerboard with the left hand.",
"\"The lute is a very fragile instrument and so, although there are many surviving old lutes, very few with their original soundboards are in playable condition,\" which makes the Rauwolf Lute so notable.Over the course of the Baroque era, the lute was increasingly relegated to the continuo accompaniment, and was eventually superseded in that role by keyboard instruments.",
"The lute almost fell out of use after 1800.Some sorts of lute were still used for some time in Germany, Sweden, and Ukraine."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The words ''lute'' and ''oud'' possibly derive from Arabic ''al-ʿoud'' (- literally means \"the wood\").",
"It may refer to the wooden plectrum traditionally used for playing the oud, to the thin strips of wood used for the back, or to the wooden soundboard that distinguished it from similar instruments with skin-faced bodies.Many theories have been proposed for the origin of the Arabic name.",
"Music scholar Eckhard Neubauer suggested that ''oud'' may be an Arabic borrowing from the Persian word ''rōd'' or ''rūd'', which meant string.",
"Another researcher, archaeomusicologist Richard J. Dumbrill, suggests that ''rud'' came from the Sanskrit ''rudrī'' (रुद्री, meaning \"string instrument\") and transferred to Arabic and European languages by way of a Semitic language.",
"However another theory, according to Semitic language scholars, is that the Arabic ''ʿoud'' is derived from Syriac ''ʿoud-a'', meaning \"wooden stick\" and \"burning wood\"—cognate to Biblical Hebrew '''ūḏ'', referring to a stick used to stir logs in a fire.",
"Henry George Farmer notes the similarity between '' ''and ''al-ʿawda'' (\"the return\" – of bliss)."
],
[
"Construction",
"=== Soundboard ===A lute being made in a workshopLutes are made almost entirely of wood.",
"The soundboard is a teardrop-shaped thin flat plate of resonant wood (typically spruce).",
"In all lutes the soundboard has a single (sometimes triple) decorated sound hole under the strings called the ''rose''.",
"The sound hole is not open, but rather covered with a grille in the form of an intertwining vine or a decorative knot, carved directly out of the wood of the soundboard.The geometry of the lute soundboard is relatively complex, involving a system of barring that places braces perpendicular to the strings at specific lengths along the overall length of the belly, the ends of which are angled to abut the ribs on either side for structural reasons.",
"Robert Lundberg, in his book ''Historical Lute Construction'', suggests ancient builders placed bars according to whole-number ratios of the scale length and belly length.",
"He further suggests the inward bend of the soundboard (the \"belly scoop\") is a deliberate adaptation by ancient builders to afford the lutenist's right hand more space between the strings and soundboard.Soundboard thickness varies, but generally hovers between .",
"Some luthiers tune the belly as they build, removing mass and adapting bracing to produce desirable sonic results.",
"The lute belly is almost never finished, but in some cases the luthier may size the top with a very thin coat of shellac or glair to help keep it clean.",
"The belly joins directly to the rib, without a lining glued to the sides, and a cap and counter cap are glued to the inside and outside of the bottom end of the bowl to provide rigidity and increased gluing surface.After joining the top to the sides, a half-binding is usually installed around the edge of the soundboard.",
"The half-binding is approximately half the thickness of the soundboard and is usually made of a contrasting color wood.",
"The rebate for the half-binding must be extremely precise to avoid compromising structural integrity.===Back===The ''back'' or the shell is assembled from thin strips of hardwood (maple, cherry, ebony, rosewood, gran, wood and/or other tonewoods) called ''ribs'', joined (with glue) edge to edge to form a deep rounded body for the instrument.",
"There are braces inside on the soundboard to give it strength.===Neck===The ''neck'' is made of light wood, with a veneer of hardwood (usually ebony) to provide durability for the ''fretboard'' beneath the strings.",
"Unlike most modern stringed instruments, the lute's fretboard is mounted flush with the top.",
"The ''pegbox'' for lutes before the Baroque era was angled back from the neck at almost 90° (see image), presumably to help hold the low-tension strings firmly against the ''nut'' which, traditionally, is not glued in place but is held in place by string pressure only.",
"The ''tuning pegs'' are simple pegs of hardwood, somewhat tapered, that are held in place by friction in holes drilled through the pegbox.As with other instruments that use friction pegs, the wood for the pegs is crucial.",
"As the wood suffers dimensional changes through age and loss of humidity, it must retain a reasonably circular cross-section to function properly—as there are no gears or other mechanical aids for tuning the instrument.",
"Often pegs were made from suitable fruitwoods such as European pearwood, or equally dimensionally stable analogues.",
"Matheson, 1720, said, \"If a lute-player has lived eighty years, he has surely spent sixty years tuning.",
"\"===Bridge===The bridge, sometimes made of a fruitwood, is attached to the soundboard typically between a fifth and a seventh of the belly length.",
"It does not have a separate saddle but has holes bored into it to which the strings attach directly.",
"The bridge is made so that it tapers in height and length, with the small end holding the trebles and the higher and wider end carrying the basses.",
"Bridges are often colored black with carbon black in a binder, often shellac and often have inscribed decoration.",
"The scrolls or other decoration on the ends of lute bridges are integral to the bridge, and are not added afterwards as on some Renaissance guitars (cf Joachim Tielke's guitars).===Frets===The frets are made of loops of gut tied around the neck.",
"They fray with use, and must be replaced from time to time.",
"A few additional partial frets of wood are usually glued to the body of the instrument, to allow stopping the highest-pitched courses up to a full octave higher than the open string, though these are considered anachronistic by some (though John Dowland and Thomas Robinson describe the practice of gluing wooden frets onto the soundboard).",
"Given the choice between nylon and gut, many luthiers prefer to use gut, as it conforms more readily to the sharp angle at the edge of the fingerboard.===Strings===Strings were historically made of animal gut, usually from the small intestine of sheep (sometimes in combination with metal) and are still made of gut or a synthetic substitute, with metal windings on the lower-pitched strings.",
"Modern manufacturers make both gut and nylon strings, and both are in common use.",
"Gut is more authentic for playing period pieces, though unfortunately it is also more susceptible to irregularity and pitch instability owing to changes in humidity.",
"Nylon offers greater tuning stability, but is seen as anachronistic by purists, as its timbre differs from the sound of earlier gut strings.",
"Such concerns are moot when more recent compositions for the lute are performed.Of note are the ''catlines'' used as basses on historical instruments.",
"Catlines are several gut strings wound together and soaked in heavy metal solutions to increase the string mass.",
"Catlines can be quite large in diameter compared to wound nylon strings of the same pitch.",
"They produce a bass that differs somewhat in timbre from nylon basses.The lute's strings are arranged in ''courses'', of two strings each, though the highest-pitched course usually consists of only a single string, called the ''chanterelle''.",
"In later Baroque lutes two upper courses are single.",
"The courses are numbered sequentially, counting from the highest pitched, so that the ''chanterelle'' is the ''first course'', the next pair of strings is the ''second course'', etc.",
"Thus an 8-course Renaissance lute usually has 15 strings, and a 13-course Baroque lute has 25.The courses are tuned in unison for high and intermediate pitches, but for lower pitches one of the two strings is tuned an octave higher (the course where this split starts changed over the history of the lute).",
"The two strings of a course are virtually always stopped and plucked together, as if a single string—but in rare cases, a piece requires that the two strings of a course be stopped or plucked separately.",
"The tuning of a lute is a complicated issue, described in a section of its own below.",
"The lute's design makes it extremely light for its size."
],
[
"Lute in the modern world",
"The lute enjoyed a revival with the awakening of interest in historical music around 1900 and throughout the century.",
"That revival was further boosted by the early music movement in the twentieth century.",
"Important pioneers in lute revival were Julian Bream, Hans Neemann, Walter Gerwig, Suzanne Bloch and Diana Poulton.",
"Lute performances are now not uncommon; there are many professional lutenists, especially in Europe where the most employment is found, and new compositions for the instrument are being produced by composers.Man playing a Renaissance lute (holding position), 2006During the early days of the early music movement, many lutes were constructed by available luthiers, whose specialty was often classical guitars.",
"Such lutes were heavily built with construction similar to that of classical guitars, with fan bracing, heavy tops, fixed frets, and lined sides, all of which are anachronistic to historical lutes.",
"As lutherie scholarship increased, makers began constructing instruments based on historical models, which have proven lighter and more responsive instruments.Lutes built at present are invariably replicas or near copies of those surviving historical instruments that are in museums or private collections.",
"Many are custom-built, but there is a growing number of luthiers who build lutes for general sale, and there is a fairly strong, if small, second-hand market.",
"Because of this fairly limited market, lutes are generally more expensive than mass-produced modern instruments.",
"Factory-made guitars and violins, for example, can be purchased more cheaply than low-end lutes, while at the highest level of modern instruments, guitars and violins tend to command the higher prices.Unlike in the past, there are many types of lutes encountered today: 5-course medieval lutes, renaissance lutes of 6 to 10 courses in many pitches for solo and ensemble performance of Renaissance works, the archlute of Baroque works, 11-course lutes in d-minor tuning for 17th-century French, German and Czech music, 13/14-course d-minor tuned German Baroque Lutes for later High Baroque and Classical music, theorbo for basso continuo parts in Baroque ensembles, gallichons/mandoras, bandoras, orpharions and others.Lutenistic practice has reached considerable heights in recent years, thanks to a growing number of world-class lutenists: Rolf Lislevand, Hopkinson Smith, Paul O'Dette, Christopher Wilke, Andreas Martin, Robert Barto, Eduardo Egüez, Edin Karamazov, Nigel North, Christopher Wilson, Luca Pianca, Yasunori Imamura, Anthony Bailes, Peter Croton, Xavier Diaz-Latorre, Evangelina Mascardi and Jakob Lindberg.",
"Singer-songwriter Sting has also played lute and archlute, in and out of his collaborations with Edin Karamazov, and Jan Akkerman released two albums of lute music in the 1970s while he was a guitarist in the Dutch rock band Focus.",
"Lutenist/Composer Jozef van Wissem composed the soundtrack to the Jim Jarmusch film ''Only Lovers Left Alive''."
],
[
"Repertoire",
"Orazio Gentileschi's young lutenist, painted 1626, plays a 10-course lute, typical of the time from around 1600 through the 1630sLutes were in widespread use in Europe at least since the 13th century, and documents mention numerous early performers and composers.",
"However, the earliest surviving lute music dates from the late 15th century.",
"Lute music flourished during the 16th and 17th centuries: numerous composers published collections of their music, and modern scholars have uncovered a vast number of manuscripts from the era—however, much of the music is still lost.",
"In the second half of the 17th century lutes, vihuelas and similar instruments started losing popularity, and little music was written for the instrument after 1750.The interest in lute music was revived only in the second half of the 20th century.Improvisation (making up music on the spot) was, apparently, an important aspect of lute performance, so much of the repertoire was probably never written down.",
"Furthermore, it was only around 1500 that lute players began to transition from plectrum to plucking.",
"That change facilitated complex polyphony, which required that they develop notation.",
"In the next hundred years, three schools of tablature notation gradually developed: Italian (also used in Spain), German, and French.",
"Only the last survived into the late 17th century.",
"The earliest known tablatures are for a six-stringed instrument, though evidence of earlier four- and five-stringed lutes exists.",
"Tablature notation depends on the actual instrument the music is written for.",
"To read it, a musician must know the instrument's tuning, number of strings, etc.Renaissance and Baroque forms of lute music are similar to keyboard music of the periods.",
"Intabulations of vocal works were very common, as well as various dances, some of which disappeared during the 17th century, such as the piva and the saltarello.",
"The advent of polyphony brought about ''fantasias'': complex, intricate pieces with much use of imitative counterpoint.",
"The improvisatory element, present to some degree in most lute pieces, is particularly evident in the early ricercares (not imitative as their later namesakes, but completely free), as well as in numerous preludial forms: preludes, tastar de corde (\"testing the strings\"), etc.",
"During the 17th century keyboard and lute music went hand in hand, and by 1700 lutenists were writing suites of dances quite akin to those of keyboard composers.",
"The lute was also used throughout its history as an ensemble instrument—most frequently in songs for voice and lute, which were particularly popular in Italy (see frottola) and England.The earliest surviving lute music is Italian, from a late 15th-century manuscript.",
"The early 16th century saw Petrucci's publications of lute music by Francesco Spinacino ( 1507) and Joan Ambrosio Dalza ( 1508); together with the so-called Capirola Lutebook, these represent the earliest stage of written lute music in Italy.",
"The leader of the next generation of Italian lutenists, Francesco Canova da Milano (1497–1543), is now acknowledged as one of the most famous lute composers in history.",
"The bigger part of his output consists of pieces called fantasias or ricercares, in which he makes extensive use of imitation and sequence, expanding the scope of lute polyphony.",
"In the early 17th century Johannes Hieronymus Kapsberger ( 1580–1651) and Alessandro Piccinini (1566–1638) revolutionized the instrument's technique and Kapsberger, possibly, influenced the keyboard music of Girolamo Frescobaldi.French written lute music began, as far as we know, with Pierre Attaingnant's ( 1494 – 1551) prints, which comprised preludes, dances and intabulations.",
"Particularly important was the Italian composer Albert de Rippe (1500–1551), who worked in France and composed polyphonic fantasias of considerable complexity.",
"His work was published posthumously by his pupil, Guillaume de Morlaye (born 1510), who, however, did not pick up the complex polyphony of de Rippe.",
"French lute music declined during the second part of the 16th century; however, various changes to the instrument (the increase of diapason strings, new tunings, etc.)",
"prompted an important change in style that led, during the early Baroque, to the celebrated style brisé: broken, arpeggiated textures that influenced Johann Jakob Froberger's suites.",
"The French Baroque school is exemplified by composers such as Ennemond Gaultier (1575–1651), Denis Gaultier (1597/1603–1672), François Dufaut (before 1604 – before 1672) and many others.",
"The last stage of French lute music is exemplified by Robert de Visée ( 1655–1732/3), whose suites exploit the instrument's possibilities to the fullest.The history of German written lute music started with Arnolt Schlick ( 1460–after 1521), who, in 1513, published a collection of pieces that included 14 voice and lute songs, and three solo lute pieces, alongside organ works.",
"He was not the first important German lutenist, because contemporaries credited Conrad Paumann ( 1410–1473) with the invention of German lute tablature, though this claim remains unproven, and no lute works by Paumann survive.",
"After Schlick, a string of composers developed German lute music: Hans Judenkünig ( 1445/50 – 1526), the Neusidler family (particularly Hans Neusidler ( 1508/09 – 1563)) and others.",
"During the second half of the 16th century, German tablature and German repertoire were gradually replaced by Italian and French tablature and international repertoire, respectively, and the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) effectively stopped publications for half a century.",
"German lute music was revived much later by composers such as Esaias Reusner ( 1670), however, a distinctly German style came only after 1700 in the works of Silvius Leopold Weiss (1686–1750), one of the greatest lute composers, some of whose works were transcribed for keyboard by none other than Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), who composed a few pieces for the lute himself (though it is unclear whether they were really intended for the lute, rather than another plucked string instrument or the lautenwerk).Of other European countries, particularly important are England and Spain.",
"English-written lute music began only around 1540; however, the country produced numerous lutenists, of which John Dowland (1563–1626) is perhaps the most famous.",
"His influence spread very far: variations on his themes were written by keyboard composers in Germany decades after his death.",
"Dowland's predecessors and colleagues, such as Anthony Holborne ( 1545–1602) and Daniel Bacheler (1572–1619), were less known.",
"Spanish composers wrote mostly for the vihuela; their main genres were polyphonic fantasias and (variations).",
"Luys Milan (c. 1500 – after 1560) and Luys de Narváez ( 1526–1549) were particularly important for their contributions to the development of lute polyphony in Spain.Finally, perhaps the most influential European lute composer was the Hungarian Bálint Bakfark ( 1526/30–1576), whose contrapuntal fantasias were much more difficult and tighter than those of his Western European contemporaries.Ottorino Respighi's famous orchestral suites called ''Ancient Airs and Dances'' are drawn from various books and articles on 16th- and 17th-century lute music transcribed by the musicologist Oscar Chilesotti, including eight pieces from a German manuscript ''Da un Codice Lauten-Buch'', now in a private library in northern Italy."
],
[
"20th century revival and composers",
"The revival of lute-playing in the 20th century has its roots in the pioneering work of Arnold Dolmetsch (1858–1940); whose research into early music and instruments started the movement for authenticity.",
"The revival of the lute gave composers an opportunity to create new works for it.One of the first such composers was Johann Nepomuk David in Germany.",
"Composer Vladimir Vavilov was a pioneer of the lute revival in the USSR, he was also the author of numerous musical hoaxes.",
"Sandor Kallos and Toyohiko Satoh applied modernist idiom to the lute, Elena Kats-Chernin, Jozef van Wissem and Alexandre Danilevsky minimalist and post-minimalist idiom, Roman Turovsky-Savchuk, Paulo Galvão, Robert MacKillop historicist idiom, and Ronn McFarlane New Age.",
"This active movement by early music specialists has inspired composers in different fields; for example, in 1980, Akira Ifukube, a classical and film composer best known for the Godzilla's theme, wrote the Fantasia for Baroque Lute with the historical tablature notation, rather than the modern staff one."
],
[
"Tuning conventions",
"Lutes were made in a large variety of sizes, with varying numbers of strings/courses, and with no permanent standard for tuning.",
"However, the following seems to have been ''generally'' true of the Renaissance lute.A 6-course Renaissance tenor lute would be tuned to the same intervals as a tenor viol, with intervals of a ''perfect fourth'' between all the courses except the third and fourth, which differed only by a ''major third''.",
"The tenor lute was usually tuned nominally \"in G\" (there was no pitch standard before the 20th century), named after the pitch of the highest course, yielding the pattern from the lowest course to the highest.",
"(Much renaissance lute music can be played on a guitar by tuning the guitar's third string down by a half tone.",
")For lutes with more than six courses, the extra courses would be added on the low end.",
"Because of the large number of strings, lutes have very wide necks, and it is difficult to stop strings beyond the sixth course, so additional courses were usually tuned to pitches useful as bass notes rather than continuing the regular pattern of fourths, and these lower courses are most often played without stopping.",
"Thus an 8-course tenor Renaissance lute would be tuned to , and a 10-course to .However, none of these patterns were ''de rigueur'', and a modern lutenist occasionally retunes one or more courses between pieces.",
"Manuscripts bear instructions for the player, e.g., ''7e chœur en fa'' = \"seventh course in ''fa''\" (= F in the standard C scale).The early 17th century was a period of considerable development for the lute, particularly with new tuning schemes developed in France.",
"At this time French lutenists began to explore the expressive capabilities of the lute through experimentation in tuning schemes on the instrument.",
"Today these tunings are often labeled as transitional tunings or Accords nouveaux (French: “new tunings”).",
"Transitional tunings document the transition from the established Renaissance lute tuning, to the later established Baroque d-minor tuning scheme.",
"This development in tuning is credited to French lutenists of the early 17th century, who began increasing the number of major or minor thirds on the adjacent open strings of the 10-course lute.",
"As a result the French lutenist found a more sonorous sound and increased sympathetic vibration on the instrument.",
"This led to new compositional styles and playing techniques on the instrument, most notably the Style brisé (French: \"broken style\").",
"Manuscript sources from the first half of the 17th century provide evidence that French transitional tunings gained popularity and were adopted across much of continental Europe.",
"The most used transitional tunings during this time were known as the \"sharp\" and \"flat\" tunings.",
"Read from the tenth to the first course on a 10-course lute, the sharp tuning reads: C, D, E, F, G, C, F, A, C, E. The flat tuning reads, C, Db, Eb, F, G, C, F, Ab, C, Eb.",
"However, by around 1670 the scheme known today as the \"Baroque\" or \"D minor\" tuning became the norm, at least in France and in northern and central Europe.",
"In this case, the first six courses outline a d-minor triad, and an additional five to seven courses are tuned generally scalewise below them.",
"Thus the 13-course lute played by composer Sylvius Leopold Weiss would have been tuned or with sharps or flats on the lower 7 courses appropriate to the key of the piece.Modern lutenists tune to a variety of pitch standards, ranging from A = 392 to 470 Hz, depending on the type of instrument they are playing, the repertory, the pitch of other instruments in an ensemble and other performing expediencies.",
"No attempt at a universal pitch standard existed during the period of the lute's historical popularity.",
"The standards varied over time and from place to place."
],
[
"See also",
"* String instruments* Stringed instrument tunings* Turkish music* Greek music* Cretan music* Early music** Medieval music*** Tablature** Renaissance music** Baroque music** Classical music=== Instruments ==='''European Lutes''':* Angélique* Archlute* Bouzouki* Cobza* Kobza* Laouto* Mandola* Mandolin* Mandore* Mandora or Gallichon* Oúti* Swedish lute* Torban* Theorbo* Vihuela'''African Lutes''':* Kwitra* Masenqo* Ngoni* Xalam* Akonting'''Asian Lutes''':* Barbat* Bipa* Biwa* Dombra* Dutar* Dramyin* Komuz* Kutiyapi* Oud* Panduri* Pipa* Qinqin* Rubab* Sanshin* Sanxian* Sapeh* Setar* Shamisen* Sitar* Sueng* Swarabat* Tanbur* Tar* Veena* Yueqin"
],
[
"Players",
"* Robert Barto* Timothy Burris* François de Chancy* Xavier Díaz-Latorre* Thomas Dunford* Eduardo Eguez* Johann Georg Hamann* Lutz Kirchhof* Rolf Lislevand* Nigel North* Paul O'Dette* Hopkinson Smith* Christopher Wilke* Jozef van Wissem* Evangelina Mascardi"
],
[
"Makers",
"* Cezar Mateus* Stephen Murphy* David Rubio* Andrew Rutherford* Antonio Stradivari* Tieffenbrucker* Joachim Tielke"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* Articles in '' Journal of the Lute Society of America'' (1968–), ''The Lute'' (1958–), and other journals published by the various national lute societies.",
"* * * * * * * * * The Lute Corner * Lute Society of America * *"
],
[
"External links",
"'''Societies'''* The Lute Society of America (America)* The Belgian Lute Society (Belgium)* The French Lute Society (France)* The German Lute Society (Germany)* The Lute Society of Japan (Japan)* The Lute and Early Guitar Society (Japan, Founded by Toyohiko Satoh)* The Dutch Lute Society (the Netherlands)* The Lute Society (UK)'''Online music and other useful resources'''* reneszanszlant.lap.hu collection of many useful links: luthiers/lute makers, lute players, tablatures, etc.",
"(in English and Hungarian)* ABC Classic FM presents: Lute Project videos Watch Tommie Andersson play the theorbo, 7-course & 10-course lutes.",
"* Wayne Cripps' lute pages* Joachim Tielke The website for the great Hamburg lute maker Joachim Tielke* Musick's Handmade Facsimiles/Scans (Dowland, etc.)",
"and pdfs - by Alain Veylit* Sarge Gerbode's Lute Page 7000+ lute solo and ensemble pieces by 300+ composers in midi, PDF, TAB, and Fronimo formats* Another Lute Website Categorized view on youtube videos of over 250 lute composers* Contemporary and Modern Lute Music Modern (post 1815) and Contemporary Lute Music.",
"A list of modern lute music written after 1815* Music Collection in Cambridge Digital Library.",
"One of the most important collections of manuscript music in Cambridge University Library is the group of nine lute manuscripts copied by Mathew Holmes in the early years of the seventeenth century.",
"* Le Luth Doré Urtext music editions The most important collection of modern Urtext music editions for lute.",
"'''Photos of historic instruments'''* Photos of historic lutes at the ''Cité de la Musique'' in Paris:: Instruments et oeuvres d'art – search-phrase: Mot-clé(s) : ''luth'':: Facteurs d'instruments – search-phrase: Instrument fabriqué : ''luth'':: Photothèque – search-phrase: Instrument de musique, ville ou pays : ''luth''* Lutes at the Metropolitan Museum of Art'''Articles and resources'''* ''Pioneers of the Lute Revival'' by Jo Van Herck (Belgian Lute Academy):Original: ''Over de pioniers van de luitrevival''; Luthinerie / Geluit no.",
"15 (September 2001) and no.",
"16 (December 2001)* Photos and Paintings* French Lutenists and French Lute Music in Sweden* La Rhétorique des Dieux* Lautenweltadressbuch: A List of Extant Historical Lutes from Lute Society of America"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Little Boy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Little Boy''' was the name of the type of atomic bomb used in the bombing of the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 during World War II, making it the first nuclear weapon used in warfare.",
"The bomb was dropped by the Boeing B-29 Superfortress ''Enola Gay'' piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Jr., commander of the 509th Composite Group, and Captain Robert A. Lewis.",
"It exploded with an energy of approximately and caused widespread death and destruction throughout the city.",
"The Hiroshima bombing was the second nuclear explosion in history, after the Trinity nuclear test.Little Boy was developed by Lieutenant Commander Francis Birch's group at the Manhattan Project's Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II, a reworking of their abandoned Thin Man nuclear bomb.",
"Like Thin Man, it was a gun-type fission weapon.",
"It derived its explosive power from the nuclear fission of uranium-235, whereas Thin Man was based on fission of plutonium-239.Fission was accomplished by shooting a hollow cylinder (the \"bullet\") onto a solid cylinder of the same material (the \"target\") by means of a charge of nitrocellulose propellant powder.",
"Little Boy contained of highly enriched uranium, although less than a kilogram underwent nuclear fission.",
"Its components were fabricated at three different plants so that no one would have a copy of the complete design.",
"Unlike the implosion design, which required sophisticated coordination of shaped explosive charges, the gun-type design was considered almost certain to work so it was never tested before its first use at Hiroshima.After the war, a number of components for further Little Boy bombs were built.",
"By 1950, only five complete weapons had been created, and these were retired by November 1950."
],
[
"Naming",
"Robert Serber claims that the original gun-type design, Thin Man, was named after the series of noir films based on the work of Dashiell Hammett that were popular in the 1930s and 1940s.",
"\"Little Boy\" was itself derived from the earlier design codenames of \"Thin Man\" and \"Fat Man\".There are two primary accounts of how the first atomic bombs got their names.Los Alamos and Project Alberta physicist Robert Serber claimed, many decades after the fact, to have named the first two atomic bomb designs during World War II based on their shapes: Thin Man and Fat Man.",
"The \"Thin Man\" was a long, thin device and its name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel and series of movies about ''The Thin Man''.",
"The \"Fat Man\" was round and fat so it was named after Kasper Gutman, a rotund character in Hammett's 1930 novel ''The Maltese Falcon'', played by Sydney Greenstreet in the 1941 film version.",
"Little Boy was named by others as an allusion to Thin Man since it was based on its design.In September 1945, another Project Alberta physicist, Norman F. Ramsey, claimed in his brief \"History of Project A,\" that the early bomb ballistic test shapes designs were referred to as \"Thin Man\" and \"Fat Man\" by (unspecified) \"Air Force representatives\" for \"security reasons,\" so that their communications over telephones sounded \"as if they were modifying a plane to carry Roosevelt (the Thin Man) and Churchill (the Fat Man),\" as opposed to modifying the B-29s to carry the two atomic bomb shapes as part of Project Silverplate in the fall of 1943.Another explanation of the names, from a classified United States Air Force history of Project Silverplate from the 1950s, implies a possible reconciliation of the two versions above: that the terms \"Thin Man\" and \"Fat Man\" were first developed by someone at or from Los Alamos (i.e., Serber), but were consciously adopted by the officers in Silverplate when they were adopting their own codenames for their own project (including \"Silverplate\").",
"As Silverplate involved modifying B-29s for a secret purpose, deliberately using codenames that would align with modifying vehicles for Roosevelt and Churchill would serve their needs well."
],
[
"Development",
"===Early gun-type design work===alt=A series of doodlesBecause of its perceived simplicity, the gun-type nuclear weapon design was the first approach pursued by the scientists working on bomb design during the Manhattan Project.",
"In 1942, it was not yet known which of the two fissile materials pathways being simultaneously pursued — uranium-235 or plutonium-239 — would be successful, or if there were significant differences between the two fuels that would impact the design work.",
"Coordination with British scientists in May 1942 convinced the American scientists, led by J. Robert Oppenheimer, that the atomic bomb would not be difficult to design, and that the difficulty would lie only in the production of fuel.",
"Early calculations in the summer of 1942 by theoretical physicists working on the project reinforced the idea that an ordinary artillery gun barrel would be able to impart sufficient velocity to the fissile material projectile.Several different weapon designs, including autocatalytic assembly, a nascent version of implosion, and alternative gun designs (e.g., using high explosives as a propellent, or creating a \"double-gun\" with two projectiles) were pursued in the early years of the project, while the facilities to manufacture fissile material were being constructed.",
"The belief that the gun design would be an easy engineering task once fuel was available led to a sense of optimism at Los Alamos, although Oppenheimer established a small research group to study implosion as a fallback in early 1943.A full ordnance program for gun-design development was established by March 1943, with expertise provided by E.L. Rose, an experienced gun-designer and engineer.",
"Work was begun to study the properties of barrels, internal and external ballistics, and tampers of gun weapons.",
"Oppenheimer himself led aspects of the effort, telling Rose that \"at the present time May 1945 our estimates are so ill founded that I think it better for me to take responsibility for putting them forward.\"",
"He would soon delegate the work to Naval Captain William Sterling Parsons, who, along with Ed McMillan, Charles Critchfield, and Joseph Hirschfelder would be responsible for rendering the theory into practice.Wendover Army Air Field, as part of Project Alberta in the Manhattan Project, illustrating their relative length and size.Concern that impurities in reactor-bred plutonium would make predetonation more likely meant that much of the gun-design work was focused on the plutonium gun.",
"To achieve high projectile velocities, the plutonium gun was long with a narrow diameter — suggesting its code-name as the Thin Man — which created considerable difficulty in its ballistics dropping from aircraft and fitting it into the bomb bay of a B-29.In the spring of 1944, Emilio G. Segrè and his P-5 Group at Los Alamos received the first samples of plutonium produced from a nuclear reactor, the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge.",
"Analyzing it, they discovered that the presence of the isotope plutonium-240 raised the rate of spontaneous fission of the plutonium to an unacceptable amount.",
"Previous analyses of plutonium had been made from samples created by cyclotrons, and did not have as much of the contaminating isotope.",
"If reactor-bred plutonium were to be used in a gun-type design, they concluded, it would predetonate, causing the weapon to destroy itself before achieving the conditions for a large-scale explosion.As part of Project Alberta, Commander A. Francis Birch (left) assembles the bomb while physicist Norman Ramsey watches.",
"This is one of the rare photos where the inside of the bomb can be seen.=== From Thin Man to Little Boy ===As a consequence of the discovery of the Pu-240 contamination problem, in July 1944 almost all research at Los Alamos was redirected to the implosion-type plutonium weapon, and the laboratory itself was entirely reorganized around the implosion problem.",
"Work on the gun-type weapon continued under Person's Ordnance (O) Division, for use exclusively with highly enriched uranium as a fuel.",
"All the design, development, and technical work at Los Alamos was consolidated under Lieutenant Commander Francis Birch's group.",
"In contrast to the plutonium implosion-type nuclear weapon and the plutonium gun-type fission weapon, the uranium gun-type weapon was much simpler to design.",
"As a high-velocity gun was no longer required, the overall length of the gun barrel could be dramatically decreased, and this allowed the weapon to fit into a B-29 bomb bay without difficulty.",
"Though not an optimal use of fissile material compared to the implosion design, it was seen as a nearly guaranteed weapon.",
"Because of its smaller size compared to the Thin Man, it was given the code-name \"Little Boy,\" while the plutonium implosion bomb was given the name \"Fat Man.\"",
"It was also sometimes referred to as the \"Mark I\" nuclear bomb design, with \"Mark II\" referring to the abandoned Thin Man, and \"Mark III\" to the \"Fat Man.",
"\"The design specifications were completed in February 1945, and contracts were let to build the components.",
"Three different plants were used so that no one would have a copy of the complete design.",
"The gun and breech were made by the Naval Gun Factory in Washington, D.C.; the target case and some other components by the Naval Ordnance Plant in Center Line, Michigan; and the tail fairing and mounting brackets by the Expert Tool and Die Company in Detroit, Michigan.",
"The bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945.Manhattan District Engineer Kenneth Nichols expected on 1 May 1945 to have enriched uranium \"for one weapon before August 1 and a second one sometime in December\", assuming the second weapon would be a gun type; designing an implosion bomb for enriched uranium was considered, and this would increase the production rate.",
"The enriched uranium projectile was completed on 15 June, and the target on 24 July.",
"The target and bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, California, on 16 July aboard the heavy cruiser , arriving on 26 July.",
"The target inserts followed by air on 30 July.Although all of its components had been individually tested, no full test of a gun-type nuclear weapon occurred before the Little Boy was dropped over Hiroshima.",
"The only test explosion of a nuclear weapon concept had been of an implosion-type device employing plutonium as its fissile material, and took place on 16 July 1945 at the Trinity nuclear test.",
"There were several reasons for not testing a Little Boy type of device.",
"Primarily, there was the issue of fissile material.",
"Oak Ridge was designed to produce around 30 kilograms of enriched uranium per month, and the Little Boy design used over 60 kilograms per bomb.",
"So testing the weapon would incur a considerable delay in use of the weapon.",
"(By comparison, the Hanford plant was designed to produced around 20 kilograms of plutonium per month, and each Fat Man bomb used only around 6 kilograms of material.)",
"Because of the simplicity of the gun-type design, laboratory testing could establish that its parts worked correctly on their own — for example, dummy projectiles could be shot down the gun barrel to make sure they were \"seated\" correctly onto a dummy target.",
"By comparison, with the implosion design it was much more difficult to establish absence of a full-scale test whether the necessary simultaneity of compression had been achieved.",
"While there was at least one prominent scientist (Ernest O. Lawrence) who advocated for a full-scale test, by the spring of 1945 Little Boy was regarded as nearly a sure-thing, and was expected to have a higher-yield than the first-generation implosion bombs.Though Little Boy incorporated various safety mechanisms, an accidental detonation of a fully-assembled weapon was very possible.",
"For example, should the bomber carrying the device crash then the hollow \"bullet\" could be driven into the \"target\" cylinder, possibly detonating the bomb from gravity alone (though tests suggested this was unlikely), but easily creating a critical mass that would release dangerous amounts of radiation.",
"And crash of the B-29 and subsequent fire could trigger the explosives, causing the weapon to detonate.",
"If immersed in water, the uranium components were subject to a neutron moderator effect, which would not cause an explosion but would release radioactive contamination.",
"For this reason, pilots were advised to crash on land rather than at sea.",
"Ultimately, Parsons opted to keep the explosives out of the Little Boy bomb until after the B-29 had taken off, to avoid the risk of a crash that could destroy or damage the military base the weapon was being launched from."
],
[
"Design",
"The \"gun\" assembly method.",
"When the hollow uranium projectile was driven onto the target cylinder, a nuclear explosion resulted.Two Little Boy type bomb assemblies on Tinian, with casings open.",
"For unit L-1, in the foreground, boxes containing hardware for the clock timers, radar fuzing units, and batteries are visible and arranged around the central gun tube.",
"Pull-out wires are visible on top.",
"L-1 was test-dropped without nuclear fuel on July 23, 1945, to gain experience in assembling, handling, and using the weapons prior to the actual strike (which used unit L-11).The Little Boy was in length, in diameter and weighed approximately .",
"The design used the gun method to explosively force a hollow sub-critical mass of enriched uranium and a solid target cylinder together into a super-critical mass, initiating a nuclear chain reaction.",
"This was accomplished by shooting one piece of the uranium onto the other by means of four cylindrical silk bags of cordite powder.",
"This was a widely used smokeless propellant consisting of a mixture of 65 percent nitrocellulose, 30 percent nitroglycerine, 3 percent petroleum jelly, and 2 percent carbamite that was extruded into tubular granules.",
"This gave it a high surface area and a rapid burning area, and could attain pressures of up to .",
"Cordite for the wartime Little Boy was sourced from Canada; propellant for post-war Little Boys was obtained from the Picatinny Arsenal.",
"The bomb contained of enriched uranium.",
"Most was enriched to 89% but some was only 50% uranium-235, for an average enrichment of 80%.",
"Less than a kilogram of uranium underwent nuclear fission, and of this mass only was transformed into several forms of energy, mostly kinetic energy, but also heat and radiation.===Assembly details===Inside the weapon, the uranium-235 material was divided into two parts, following the gun principle: the \"projectile\" and the \"target\".",
"The projectile was a hollow cylinder with 60% of the total mass ().",
"It consisted of a stack of nine uranium rings, each in diameter with a bore in the center, and a total length of , pressed together into the front end of a thin-walled projectile long.",
"Filling in the remainder of the space behind these rings in the projectile was a tungsten carbide disc with a steel back.",
"At ignition, the projectile slug was pushed along the , smooth-bore gun barrel.",
"The slug \"insert\" was a 4-inch cylinder, 7 inches in length with a axial hole.",
"The slug comprised 40% of the total fissile mass ().",
"The insert was a stack of six washer-like uranium discs somewhat thicker than the projectile rings that were slid over a 1-inch rod.",
"This rod then extended forward through the tungsten carbide tamper plug, impact-absorbing anvil, and nose plug backstop, eventually protruding out of the front of the bomb casing.",
"This entire target assembly was secured at both ends with locknuts.When the hollow-front projectile reached the target and slid over the target insert, the assembled super-critical mass of uranium would be completely surrounded by a tamper and neutron reflector of tungsten carbide and steel, both materials having a combined mass of .",
"Neutron initiators inside the assembly were activated by the impact of the projectile into the target.center===Counter-intuitive design===The material was split almost in half, with at one end a group of rings of U-235 with 40% of the supercritical mass, and at the other end another group of slightly larger rings with 60% of the supercritical mass, which was fired onto the smaller group, with a polonium-breryllium “initiator” to make the supercritical mass explode.",
"A hole in the center of the larger piece dispersed the mass and increased the surface area, allowing more fission neutrons to escape, thus preventing a premature chain reaction.",
"But, for this larger, hollow piece to have minimal contact with the tamper, it must be the projectile, since only the projectile's back end was in contact with the tamper prior to detonation.",
"The rest of the tungsten carbide surrounded the sub-critical mass target cylinder (called the \"insert\" by the designers) with air space between it and the insert.",
"This arrangement packs the maximum amount of fissile material into a gun-assembly design.For the first fifty years after 1945, every published description and drawing of the Little Boy mechanism assumed that a small, solid projectile was fired into the center of a larger, stationary target.",
"However, critical mass considerations dictated that in Little Boy the more extensive, hollow piece would be the projectile.",
"The assembled fissile core had more than two critical masses of uranium-235.This required one of the two pieces to have more than one critical mass, with the larger piece avoiding criticality prior to assembly by means of shape and minimal contact with the neutron-reflecting tungsten carbide tamper.",
"In 2004, John Coster-Mullen, a truck driver and modelmaker from Illinois who had studied every photograph and document on the Hiroshima bomb to make an accurate model, corrected earlier published accounts.",
"===Fuze system===Arming plugs for a Little Boy type atomic bomb on display at the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy CenterThe fuzing system was designed to trigger at the most destructive altitude, which calculations suggested was .",
"It employed a three-stage interlock system:* A timer ensured that the bomb would not explode until at least fifteen seconds after release, one-quarter of the predicted fall time, to ensure the safety of the aircraft.",
"The timer was activated when the electrical pull-out plugs connecting it to the airplane pulled loose as the bomb fell, switching it to its internal 24-volt battery and starting the timer.",
"At the end of the 15 seconds, the bomb would be from the aircraft, and the radar altimeters were powered up and responsibility was passed to the barometric stage.",
"* The purpose of the barometric stage was to delay activating the radar altimeter firing command circuit until near detonation altitude.",
"A thin metallic membrane enclosing a vacuum chamber (a similar design is still used today in old-fashioned wall barometers) gradually deformed as ambient air pressure increased during descent.",
"The barometric fuze was not considered accurate enough to detonate the bomb at the precise ignition height, because air pressure varies with local conditions.",
"When the bomb reached the design height for this stage (reportedly ), the membrane closed a circuit, activating the radar altimeters.",
"The barometric stage was added because of a worry that external radar signals might detonate the bomb too early.",
"* Two or more redundant radar altimeters were used to reliably detect final altitude.",
"When the altimeters sensed the correct height, the firing switch closed, igniting the three BuOrd Mk15, Mod 1 Navy gun primers in the breech plug, which set off the charge consisting of four silk powder bags each containing of WM slotted-tube cordite.",
"This launched the uranium projectile towards the opposite end of the gun barrel at an eventual muzzle velocity of .",
"Approximately 10 milliseconds later the chain reaction occurred, lasting less than 1 microsecond.",
"The radar altimeters used were modified U.S. Army Air Corps APS-13 tail warning radars, nicknamed \"Archie\", normally used to warn a fighter pilot of another plane approaching from behind."
],
[
"Rehearsals",
"Little Boy in the bomb pit on Tinian island, before being loaded into ''Enola Gay''s bomb bay.",
"A section of the bomb bay door is visible on the top right.The Little Boy pre-assemblies were designated L-1, L-2, L-3, L-4, L-5, L-6, L-7, and L-11.Of these, L-1, L-2, L-5, and L-6 were expended in test drops.",
"The first drop test was conducted with L-1 on 23 July 1945.It was dropped over the sea near Tinian in order to test the radar altimeter by the B-29 later known as ''Big Stink'', piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, the commander of the 509th Composite Group.",
"Two more drop tests over the sea were made on 24 and 25 July, using the L-2 and L-5 units in order to test all components.",
"Tibbets was the pilot for both missions, but this time the bomber used was the one subsequently known as ''Jabit''.",
"L-6 was used as a dress rehearsal on 29 July.",
"The B-29 ''Next Objective'', piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney, flew to Iwo Jima, where emergency procedures for loading the bomb onto a standby aircraft were practiced.",
"This rehearsal was repeated on 31 July, but this time L-6 was reloaded onto a different B-29, ''Enola Gay'', piloted by Tibbets, and the bomb was test dropped near Tinian.",
"L-11 was the assembly used for the Hiroshima bomb, and was fully assembled with its nuclear fuel by 31 July."
],
[
"Bombing of Hiroshima",
"''Enola Gay'' after Hiroshima mission, entering hardstand.",
"It is in its 6th Bombardment Group livery, with victor number 82 visible on fuselage just forward of the tail fin.Parsons, the ''Enola Gay''s weaponeer, was concerned about the possibility of an accidental detonation if the plane crashed on takeoff, so he decided not to load the four cordite powder bags into the gun breech until the aircraft was in flight.",
"After takeoff, Parsons and his assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, made their way into the bomb bay along the narrow catwalk on the port side.",
"Jeppson held a flashlight while Parsons disconnected the primer wires, removed the breech plug, inserted the powder bags, replaced the breech plug, and reconnected the wires.",
"Before climbing to altitude on approach to the target, Jeppson switched the three safety plugs between the electrical connectors of the internal battery and the firing mechanism from green to red.",
"The bomb was then fully armed.",
"Jeppson monitored the bomb's circuits.The mushroom cloud over Hiroshima after the detonation of Little Boy on 6 August 1945.A separation between the upper mushroom head and the stem is visible.",
"This photograph and its vaguely question mark appearance was used as the inspiration for the insignia of the Manhattan Engineer District, and was widely reprinted globally within days of the attack.The bomb was dropped at approximately 08:15 (JST) on 6 August 1945.After falling for 44.4 seconds, the time and barometric triggers started the firing mechanism.",
"The detonation happened at an altitude of .",
"It was less powerful than the Fat Man, which was dropped on Nagasaki, but the damage and the number of victims at Hiroshima were much higher, as Hiroshima was on flat terrain, while the hypocenter of Nagasaki lay in a small valley.",
"According to figures published in 1945, 66,000 people were killed as a direct result of the Hiroshima blast, and 69,000 were injured to varying degrees.",
"Later estimates put the deaths as high as 140,000 people.",
"The United States Strategic Bombing Survey estimated that out of 24,158 Imperial Japanese Army soldiers in Hiroshima at the time of the bombing, 6,789 were killed or missing as a result of the bombing.The exact measurement of the explosive yield of the bomb was problematic since the weapon had never been tested.",
"President Harry S. Truman officially announced that the yield was .",
"This was based on Parsons's visual assessment that the blast was greater than what he had seen at the Trinity nuclear test.",
"Since that had been estimated at , speech writers rounded up to 20 kilotons.",
"Further discussion was then suppressed, for fear of lessening the impact of the bomb on the Japanese.",
"Data had been collected by Luis Alvarez, Harold Agnew, and Lawrence H. Johnston on the instrument plane, ''The Great Artiste'', but this was not used to calculate the yield at the time.",
"More rigorous estimates of the bomb yield and conventional bomb equivalent were made when more data was acquired following the end of the war.",
"A 1985 study estimated the bomb's yield was around ."
],
[
"Physical effects",
"''The General Effects of the Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki'', a U.S. Air Force filmAfter being selected in April 1945, Hiroshima was spared conventional bombing to serve as a pristine target, where the effects of a nuclear bomb on an undamaged city could be observed.",
"While damage could be studied later, the energy yield of the untested Little Boy design could be determined only at the moment of detonation, using instruments dropped by parachute from a plane flying in formation with the one that dropped the bomb.",
"Radio-transmitted data from these instruments indicated a yield of about 15 kilotons.Comparing this yield to the observed damage produced a rule of thumb called the lethal area rule.",
"Approximately all the people inside the area where the shock wave carried such an overpressure or greater would be killed.",
"At Hiroshima, that area was in diameter.The damage came from three main effects: blast, fire, and radiation.===Blast===The blast from a nuclear bomb is the result of X-ray-heated air (the fireball) sending a shock wave or pressure wave in all directions, initially at a velocity greater than the speed of sound, analogous to thunder generated by lightning.",
"Knowledge about urban blast destruction is based largely on studies of Little Boy at Hiroshima.",
"Nagasaki buildings suffered similar damage at similar distances, but the Nagasaki bomb detonated from the city center over hilly terrain that was partially bare of buildings.psi overpressureIn Hiroshima, almost everything within of the point directly under the explosion was completely destroyed, except for about 50 heavily reinforced, earthquake-resistant concrete buildings, only the shells of which remained standing.",
"Most were completely gutted, with their windows, doors, sashes, and frames ripped out.",
"The perimeter of severe blast damage approximately followed the contour at .Later test explosions of nuclear weapons with houses and other test structures nearby confirmed the 5 psi overpressure threshold.",
"Ordinary urban buildings experiencing it were crushed, toppled, or gutted by the force of air pressure.",
"The picture at right shows the effects of a nuclear bomb-generated 5 psi pressure wave on a test structure in Nevada in 1953.A major effect of this kind of structural damage was that it created fuel for fires that were started simultaneously throughout the severe destruction region.===Fire===The first effect of the explosion was blinding light, accompanied by radiant heat from the fireball.",
"The Hiroshima fireball was in diameter, with a surface temperature of , about the same temperature as at the surface of the sun.",
"Near ground zero, everything flammable burst into flame.",
"One famous, anonymous Hiroshima victim, sitting on stone steps from the hypocenter, left only a shadow, having absorbed the fireball heat that permanently bleached the surrounding stone.",
"Simultaneous fires were started throughout the blast-damaged area by fireball heat and by overturned stoves and furnaces, electrical shorts, etc.",
"Twenty minutes after the detonation, these fires had merged into a firestorm, pulling in surface air from all directions to feed an inferno which consumed everything flammable.Hiroshima blast and fire damage, U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey mapThe Hiroshima firestorm was roughly in diameter, corresponding closely to the severe blast-damage zone.",
"(See the USSBS map, right.)",
"Blast-damaged buildings provided fuel for the fire.",
"Structural lumber and furniture were splintered and scattered about.",
"Debris-choked roads obstructed firefighters.",
"Broken gas pipes fueled the fire, and broken water pipes rendered hydrants useless.",
"At Nagasaki, the fires failed to merge into a single firestorm, and the fire-damaged area was only one-quarter as great as at Hiroshima, due in part to a southwest wind that pushed the fires away from the city.As the map shows, the Hiroshima firestorm jumped natural firebreaks (river channels), as well as prepared firebreaks.",
"The spread of fire stopped only when it reached the edge of the blast-damaged area, encountering less available fuel.",
"The Manhattan Project report on Hiroshima estimated that 60% of immediate deaths were caused by fire, but with the caveat that \"many persons near the center of explosion suffered fatal injuries from more than one of the bomb effects.",
"\"===Radiation===Local fallout is dust and ash from a bomb crater, contaminated with radioactive fission products.",
"It falls to earth downwind of the crater and can produce, with radiation alone, a lethal area much larger than that from blast and fire.",
"With an air burst, the fission products rise into the stratosphere, where they dissipate and become part of the global environment.",
"Because Little Boy was an air burst above the ground, there was no bomb crater and no local radioactive fallout.However, a burst of intense neutron and gamma radiation came directly from the fission of the uranium.",
"Its lethal radius was approximately , covering about half of the firestorm area.",
"An estimated 30% of immediate fatalities were people who received lethal doses of this direct radiation, but died in the firestorm before their radiation injuries would have become apparent.",
"Over 6,000 people survived the blast and fire, but died of radiation injuries.",
"Among injured survivors, 30% had radiation injuries from which they recovered, but with a lifelong increase in cancer risk.",
"To date, no radiation-related evidence of heritable diseases has been observed among the survivors' children.After the surrender of Japan was finalized, Manhattan Project scientists began to immediately survey the city of Hiroshima to better understand the damage, and to communicate with Japanese physicians about radiation effects in particular.",
"The collaboration became the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission in 1946, a joint U.S.–Japanese project to track radiation injuries among survivors.",
"In 1975 its work was superseded by the Radiation Effects Research Foundation.In 1962, scientists at Los Alamos created a mockup of Little Boy known as \"Project Ichiban\" in order to answer some of the unanswered questions about the exact radiation output of the bomb, which would be useful for setting benchmarks for interpreting the relationship between radiation exposure and later health outcomes.",
"But it failed to clear up all the issues.",
"In 1982, Los Alamos created a replica Little Boy from the original drawings and specifications.",
"This was then tested with enriched uranium but in a safe configuration that would not cause a nuclear explosion.",
"A hydraulic lift was used to move the projectile, and experiments were run to assess neutron emission.===Conventional weapon equivalent===After hostilities ended, a survey team from the Manhattan Project that included William Penney, Robert Serber, and George T. Reynolds was sent to Hiroshima to evaluate the effects of the blast.",
"From evaluating the effects on objects and structures, Penney concluded that the yield was 12 ± 1 kilotons.",
"Later calculations based on charring pointed to a yield of 13 to 14 kilotons.",
"In 1953, Frederick Reines calculated the yield as .",
"Based on the Project Ichiban data, and the pressure-wave data from ''The Great Artiste'', the yield was estimated in the 1960s at 16.6 ± 0.3 kilotons.",
"A review conducted by a scientist at Los Alamos in 1985 concluded, on the basis of existing blast, thermal, and radiological data, and then-current models of weapons effects, that the best estimate of the yield was with an uncertainty of 20% (±3 kt).",
"By comparison, the best value for the Nagasaki bomb was evaluated as with an uncertainty of 10% (±2 kt), the difference in uncertainty owing to having better data on the latter.",
"Although Little Boy exploded with the energy equivalent of around 15 kilotons of TNT, in 1946 the Strategic Bombing Survey estimated that the same blast and fire effect could have been caused by 2.1 kilotons of conventional bombs: \"220 B-29s carrying 1.2 kilotons of incendiary bombs, 400 tons of high-explosive bombs, and 500 tons of anti-personnel fragmentation bombs.\"",
"Since the target was spread across a two-dimensional plane, the vertical component of a single spherical nuclear explosion was largely wasted.",
"A cluster bomb pattern of smaller explosions would have been a more energy-efficient match to the target."
],
[
"Post-war",
"One of five casings built for the Little Boy bomb used on Hiroshima on display at the Imperial War Museum in London during 2015Graph of cumulative shipments of U-235 from the Y-12 electromagnetic enrichment plant at Oak Ridge to Los Alamos, 1944-1946When the war ended, it was not expected that the inefficient Little Boy design would ever again be required, and many plans and diagrams were destroyed.",
"However, by mid-1946 the Hanford Site reactors were suffering badly from the Wigner effect.",
"Faced with the prospect of no more plutonium for new cores and no more polonium for the initiators for the cores that had already been produced, the Director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves, ordered that some Little Boys be prepared as an interim measure until a solution could be found.",
"No Little Boy assemblies were available, and no comprehensive set of diagrams of the Little Boy could be found, although there were drawings of the various components, and stocks of spare parts.At Sandia Base, three Army officers, Captains Albert Bethel, Richard Meyer, and Bobbie Griffin attempted to re-create the Little Boy.",
"They were supervised by Harlow W. Russ, an expert on Little Boy who served with Project Alberta on Tinian, and was now leader of the Z-11 Group of the Los Alamos Laboratory's Z Division at Sandia.",
"Gradually, they managed to locate the correct drawings and parts, and figured out how they went together.",
"Eventually, they built six Little Boy assemblies.",
"Although the casings, barrels, and components were tested, no enriched uranium was supplied for the bombs.",
"By early 1947, the problem caused by the Wigner effect was on its way to solution, and the three officers were reassigned.The Navy Bureau of Ordnance began in 1947 to produce 25 \"revised\" Little Boy mechanical assemblies for use by the nuclear-capable Lockheed P2V Neptune aircraft carrier aircraft (which could be launched from, but not land, on the ''Midway''-class aircraft carriers).",
"Components were produced by the Naval Ordnance Plants in Pocatello, Idaho, and Louisville, Kentucky.",
"Enough fissionable material was available by 1948 to build ten projectiles and targets, although there were only enough initiators for six.",
"However, no actual fissionable components were produced by the end of 1948, and only two outer casings were available.",
"By the end of 1950, only five complete Little Boy assemblies had been built.",
"All were retired by November 1950.The Smithsonian Institution displayed a Little Boy (complete, except for enriched uranium), until 1986.The Department of Energy took the weapon from the museum to remove its inner components, so the bomb could not be stolen and detonated with fissile material.",
"The government returned the emptied casing to the Smithsonian in 1993.Three other disarmed bombs are on display in the United States; another is at the Imperial War Museum in London."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * This report can also be found here and here.",
"* * * * * * This report can also be found here.",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Little Boy description at Carey Sublette's NuclearWeaponArchive.org* Nuclear Files.org Definition and explanation of 'Little Boy'* The Nuclear Weapon Archive* Simulation of \"Little Boy\" an interactive simulation of \"Little Boy\"* Little Boy 3D Model* Hiroshima & Nagasaki Remembered information about preparation and dropping the Little Boy bomb* Little boy Nuclear Bomb at Imperial War museum London UK (jpg)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lebanon War"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The term '''Lebanon War''' can refer to any of the following wars, fought in Lebanon:*Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990)**Hundred Days' War,1978 (part of the Lebanese Civil War)**1978 South Lebanon conflict**1982 Lebanon War (part of the Lebanese Civil War, also known as the ''First Lebanon War'')**Mountain War (Lebanon) 1983–1984 (part of the Lebanese Civil War)**War of the Camps 1984–1989 (part of the Lebanese Civil War)*South Lebanon conflict (disambiguation)**South Lebanon conflict (1982–2000)*2006 Lebanon War, known in Israel as \"the Second Lebanon War\"*2007 Lebanon conflict *2008 conflict in Lebanon*Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon*2023 Israel–Hamas war*2023 Israel–Lebanon border conflict"
],
[
"See also",
"*Israel–Syria incident (disambiguation)*1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lester Bangs"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Leslie Conway''' \"'''Lester'''\" '''Bangs''' (December 14, 1948 – April 30, 1982) was an American music journalist.",
"He wrote for ''Creem'' and ''Rolling Stone'' magazines, and was a leading influence in rock music criticism.",
"The music critic Jim DeRogatis called him \"America's greatest rock critic\"."
],
[
"Early life",
"Bangs was born in Escondido, California.",
"He was the son of Norma Belle (''née'' Clifton) and Conway Leslie Bangs, a truck driver.",
"Both of his parents were from Texas: his father from Enloe and his mother from Pecos County.",
"Norma Belle was a devout Jehovah's Witness.",
"Conway died in a fire when his son was young.",
"When Bangs was 11, he moved with his mother to El Cajon, also in San Diego County.",
"His early interests and influences ranged from the Beats (particularly William S. Burroughs) and jazz musicians John Coltrane and Miles Davis, to comic books and science fiction.",
"He had a connection with ''The San Diego Door'', an underground newspaper of the late 1960s."
],
[
"Career",
"===''Rolling Stone'' magazine===Bangs became a freelance writer in 1969, after reading an ad in ''Rolling Stone'' soliciting readers' reviews.",
"His first accepted piece was a negative review of the MC5 album ''Kick Out the Jams'', which he sent to ''Rolling Stone'' with a note requesting, if the magazine were to decline to publish the review, that he be given a reason for the decision; no reply was forthcoming, as the magazine did indeed publish the review.His 1970 review of Black Sabbath's first album in ''Rolling Stone'' was scathing, rating them as imitators of the band Cream:Bangs wrote about the death of Janis Joplin in 1970 from a drug overdose: \"It's not just that this kind of early death has become a fact of life that has become disturbing, but that it's been accepted as a given so quickly.",
"\"In 1973, Jann Wenner fired Bangs from ''Rolling Stone'' for \"disrespecting musicians\" after a particularly harsh review of the group Canned Heat.=== ''Creem'' magazine ===Bangs began freelancing for Detroit-based ''Creem'' in 1970.In 1971, he wrote a feature for ''Creem'' on Alice Cooper, and soon afterward he moved to Detroit.",
"Named ''Creem''s editor in 1971, Bangs fell in love with Detroit, calling it \"rock's only hope\", and remained there for five years.During the early 1970s, Bangs and some other writers at ''Creem'' began using the term ''punk rock'' to designate the genre of 1960s garage bands and more contemporary acts, such as MC5 and Iggy and the Stooges.",
"Their writings would provide some of the conceptual framework for the later punk and new wave movements that emerged in New York, London, and elsewhere later in the decade.",
"They would be quick to pick up on these new movements at their inception and provide extensive coverage of the phenomenon.",
"Bangs was enamored of the noise music of Lou Reed, and ''Creem'' gave significant exposure to artists such as Reed, David Bowie, Roxy Music, Captain Beefheart, Blondie, Brian Eno, and the New York Dolls years earlier than the mainstream press.",
"Bangs wrote the essay/interview \"Let Us Now Praise Famous Death Dwarves\" about Reed in 1975.",
"''Creem'' was also among the earliest publications to give sizable coverage to hard rock and metal artists such as Motörhead, Kiss, Judas Priest, and Van Halen.=== Subsequent career ===After leaving ''Creem'' in 1976, he wrote for ''The Village Voice'', ''Penthouse'', ''Playboy'', ''New Musical Express'', and many other publications.",
"He won a 1984 Grammy Award for his liner notes on ''The Fugs Greatest Hits, Volume 1''."
],
[
"Death",
"Bangs died in New York City on April 30, 1982, at the age of 33; he was self-medicating a bad case of the flu and accidentally overdosed on dextropropoxyphene (an opioid analgesic), diazepam (a benzodiazepine), and NyQuil.At the time of his death, Bangs appeared to be listening to music.",
"Earlier that day he had bought a copy of ''Dare'' by the English synth-pop band the Human League, according to ''Let It Blurt'', Jim DeRogatis's biography of Bangs.",
"Later that night, Bangs's friend found him unresponsive, lying on a couch in his apartment.",
"\"''Dare'' was spinning on the turntable, and the needle was stuck on the end groove\", DeRogatis wrote."
],
[
"Writing style and cultural commentary",
"Bangs's criticism was filled with cultural references, not only to rock music but also to literature and philosophy.",
"His radical and confrontational style influenced others in the punk rock and related social and political movements.",
"In a 1982 interview, he said:A performer with his own band, he also appeared on stage with others at times.",
"On one occasion, while the J. Geils Band were playing in concert, Bangs climbed onto the stage, typewriter in hand, and proceeded to type a supposed review of the event, in full view of the audience, banging the keys in rhythm with the music.In 1979, writing for ''The Village Voice'', Bangs wrote a piece about racism in the punk music scene, called \"The White Noise Supremacists\", wherein he re-examined his own actions and words, and those of his peers, in light of some bands using Nazi symbolism, and other racist speech and imagery, \"for shock value\".",
"He came to the conclusion that generating outrage for attention was not worth the harm it was causing fellow members of the community, and expressed his personal shame and embarrassment about having engaged in these racist behaviors himself.",
"He praised the efforts of activist groups like Rock Against Racism and Rock Against Sexism as \"an attempt at simple decency by a lot of people whom one would think too young and naive to begin to appreciate the contradictions.\""
],
[
"Music",
"Bangs was also a musician.",
"In 1976, he and Peter Laughner recorded an acoustic improvisation in the ''Creem'' office.",
"The recording included covers/parodies of songs like \"Sister Ray\" and \"Pale Blue Eyes\", both by the Velvet Underground.In 1977, Bangs recorded, as a solo artist, a 7\" vinyl single named \"Let It Blurt/Live\", mixed by John Cale and released in 1979.In 1977, at the New York City nightclub CBGB, while Bangs was talking to guitarist Mickey Leigh, Joey Ramone's brother, the idea for a band named \"Birdland\" came to fruition.",
"Although they both had their roots in jazz, the two wanted to create an old school rock & roll group.",
"Leigh brought in his post-punk band, The Rattlers (David Merrill on bass; Matty Quick on drums), and cut \"Birdland with Lester Bangs\".",
"The recording took place at the under renovation Electric Lady Studios.",
"Bassist David Merrill, who was working on the construction of the studio, had the keys to the building and they snuck the band in on April Fool's Day 1979 for an impromptu and late night recording session.",
"The result was a completely uncut and un-dubbed recording that displayed raw music.",
"Birdland broke up within two months of the recording (in which the cassette tape from the session became the master, mixed by Ed Stasium and released by Leigh in 1986).Reviewing the 1986 LP ''\"Birdland\" with Lester Bangs'', Robert Christgau gave it a B-plus and said, \"musically he always had the instincts, and words were no problem.",
"\"In 1980 Bangs traveled to Austin, Texas, where he met a surf/punk rock group, The Delinquents.",
"In early December of the same year, they recorded an album as \"Lester Bangs and the Delinquents\", titled ''Jook Savages on the Brazos'', released the following year.In 1990 the Mekons released the EP ''F.U.N.",
"90'' with Bangs's declamation in the song \"One Horse Town\"."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"* Bangs is mentioned in the R.E.M.",
"single \"It's the End of the World as We Know It\" from their 1987 album ''Document''.",
"* Bangs is the subject of the song by Scott B.",
"Sympathy \"Lester Bangs Stereo Ghost\" on the 1992 album ''Drinking With The Poet''.",
"* Excerpts from an interview with Lester Bangs appeared in the last two episodes of Tony Palmer's seventeen-episode television documentary ''All You Need Is Love: The Story of Popular Music''.",
"* The Ramones name check Bangs in their 1981 song \"It's Not My Place\"* In the 2000 movie ''Almost Famous'', directed by Cameron Crowe (himself a former writer for ''Rolling Stone''), Bangs is portrayed by actor Philip Seymour Hoffman as a mentor to the film's protagonist William Miller.",
"Bangs is also a major character in the 2019 stage musical version, in which he was played by Rob Colletti.",
"* The 2013 documentary ''A Box Full of Rocks: The El Cajon Years of Lester Bangs'', directed by Raul Sandelin, discusses Bangs's childhood and formative writing career.",
"* In 2018 an Off-Broadway play about Bangs, ''How to Be a Rock Critic'', premiered and was performed at several venues around the US.",
"It starred Erik Jensen as Bangs, and was directed by Jessica Blank, with music by Steve Earle."
],
[
"Selected works",
"===By Lester Bangs===* Review of The MC5's debut album, ''Kick Out The Jams'' — Bangs's first piece for ''Rolling Stone''* \"How Long Will We Care?\"",
"Elvis Presley obituary.",
"''The Village Voice'', August 29, 1977* \"The Greatest Album Ever Made\", ''Creem'' magazine (1976) — about the 1975 Lou Reed album ''Metal Machine Music''* \"Stranded\", (1979) — about the 1968 album ''Astral Weeks'', by Van Morrison* ''Blondie'', Fireside Book, 1980., 91 p.* ''Rod Stewart'', Paul Nelson & Lester Bangs, Putnam Group, 1981., 159 p.* ''Psychotic Reactions and Carburetor Dung: The Work of a Legendary Critic'', collected writings, Greil Marcus, ed.",
"Anchor Press, 1987.",
"()* ''Main Lines, Blood Feasts, and Bad Taste: A Lester Bangs Reader'', collected writings, John Morthland, ed.",
"Anchor Press, 2003.",
"()===About Lester Bangs===* ''Let it Blurt: The Life and Times of Lester Bangs, America's Greatest Rock Critic'', biography, Jim Derogatis.",
"Broadway Books, 2000.().",
"* ''How To Be A Rock Critic'', play, Jessica Blank and Erik Jensen.",
"Kirk Douglas Theater, Steppenwolf Theatre Company, Public Theater, more; 2015–2018.===Works citing Lester Bangs===* ''Please Kill Me: The Uncensored Oral History of Punk'', biography, Legs McNeil and Gillian McCain.",
"Penguin Books, 1997.",
"()."
],
[
"See also",
"*Jeffrey Morgan*Greil Marcus*Dave Marsh*Greg Shaw*Lenny Kaye*Robert Christgau*Ellen Willis*Lillian Roxon"
],
[
"References",
"=== Notes ====== Sources ===*"
],
[
"External links",
"* by Jeffrey Morgan of ''Creem''.",
"* 1980 interview with Bangs posted at rockcritics.com* May 13, 1980 Interview with Lester Bangs by Sue Mathews of ABC Radio (Australia) Complete transcript plus MP3 stream of the interview.",
"* Richard Hell remembers Lester Bangs in ''The Village Voice'', August 7, 2003*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lydia Kavina"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lydia Evgenevna Kavina''' (; born 8 September 1967) is a Russian-British theremin player, based in Oxfordshire, UK.",
"The granddaughter of Léon Theremin's first cousin, Soviet anthropologist and primatologist Mikhail Nesturkh, Kavina was born in Moscow and began studying the instrument under the direction of Léon Theremin when she was nine years old.",
"Five years later, she gave her first theremin concert, which marked the beginning of a musical career that has led to numerous concert, theatre, radio and television performances around the world.Kavina has appeared as a solo performer at such prestigious venues as the ''Royal Albert Hall'' in London, ''Elbphilharmonie'' in Hamburg, ''Royal Concertgebouw'' in Amsterdam, ''Bolshoi Zal'' (Great Hall) of the Moscow Conservatory, Moscow International Art Centre with National Philharmonic of Russia under Vladimir Spivakov and Bellevue Palace in Berlin, the residence of the German President.",
"She has also performed at leading festivals, including Caramoor with the Orchestra St. Luke's, New York's Lincoln Center Festival, Holland Music Festival, Martinu Festival, Electronic Music Festival in Burge and Moscow “Avantgarde”.Kavina performs most of the classical theremin repertoire, including popular works for theremin by Bohuslav Martinů, Joseph Schillinger, and ''Spellbound'' by Miklos Rozsa, as well as ''Equatorial'' by Edgard Varèse and the lesser known ''Testament'' by Nicolas Obouchov.In addition to giving concerts, Kavina is a composer of music for theremin and teaches the instrument in Western Europe, Russia and the United States.",
"Carolina Eyck was one of her students.",
"Together with the London Philharmonic Orchestra, she played theremin for Howard Shore's soundtrack of the Oscar-winning film ''Ed Wood'', as well as for ''eXistenZ'' (also by Shore), ''The Machinist'' and ''The Electrical Life of Louis Wain''.",
"She played the role of theremin performer in the film ''Me and Kaminski'' (2015) Additionally, Kavina has recorded several compact discs and is the subject of an instructional video from the theremin manufacturer Moog Music.",
"She was also featured in stage productions such as ''Alice'' and ''The Black Rider'' (both conceived and directed by Robert Wilson, with music by Tom Waits) at the Thalia Theater in Hamburg, and in collaboration with the Russian experimental surf band Messer Chups.Lydia Kavina is an active promoter of new experimental music for the theremin.",
"Her recent project '' Nicht zu fassen'' for theremin and accordion, together with Roman Yusipey, includes works by S.Gubaidulina, J.Cage, V.Poleva, as well as Kavina's compositions, it was performed in Germany and Ukraine.",
"In collaboration with Barbara Buchholz and Kamerensemble Neue Musik Berlin, Kavina performed a number of concerts of contemporary works for theremin in Germany in 2005–2007 as part of the ''Touch!",
"Don't Touch!",
"– Music for Theremin'' project.The most notable project of her recent career is her theremin solo in 4th Symphony by Ch.",
"Ives, under Kent Nagano (Hamburg and Zurich, 2018-2019), '' Bählamms Fest'', an opera by Olga Neuwirth (Vienna, Hamburg, Luzern, Bochum, 1999-2021) ''The Little Mermaid'', a ballet by Lera Auerbach, choreographed by John Neumeier in Copenhagen New Opera Haus (2005), Hamburg State Opera (2007-2015) and The National Ballet of China in Beijing (2012).",
"Kavina also played the solo in Danny Elfman's UK concert tour with BBC concert orchestra and London Concert orchestra (2013-2014).Kavina has completed a number of her own compositions for theremin including a Concerto for Theremin and Symphony Orchestra, first performed by the Boston Modern Orchestra under the direction of Gil Rose.Kavina holds a degree in composition from The Moscow Conservatory, where she also completed a postgraduate assistantship program."
],
[
"CDs",
"* ''Music from the Ether'', Mode records, 1999* ''Concerto per Theremin.",
"Live in Italy'', Teleura, 2000* ''Touch!",
"Don't Touch!",
"– Music for Theremin'' with Barbara Buchholz, Wergo, 2006* ''Spellbound!",
"'', Mode records, 2008* '' Waves&Strings'', with Sviatoslav Belonogov, Art service, 2020'''Collaborations'''* ''Music for Films III'' Music by Brian Eno, Opal Records, 1988* ''Ed Wood: Original Soundtrack Recording'' Music by Howard Shore, Hollywood Records, 1994* ''eXistenZ, Soundtrack'' Music by Howard Shore, RCA Victor, 1999* ''Black Black Magic'' Music by Messer Chups, Solnze Records, 2002* ''Crazy Price'' Music by Messer Chups, Solnze Records, 2003* ''Vamp Babes, Upgrade Version'' Music by Messer Chups, Solnze Records, 2004* ''Baehlamms Fest'' Music by Olga Neuwirth, Kairos, 2003* ''The Machinist, Soundtrack'' Music by Roque Baños, Melodramma Records, 2005* '' Theremin 100'' by The NY Theremin society, 2020"
],
[
"Videos",
"* ''Mastering the Theremin'', Big Briar, 1995* ''Concerto per Theremin.",
"Live in Italy'', Teleura, 2001* ''Making the Steamroller Fly, 1997, as herself."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website* LYDIA KAVINA PLAYS THEREMIN Channel on YouTube* An interview with Lydia Kavina* Lydia Kavina at Mode Records* Concerto per Theremin: the Live CD from Lydia Kavina* * Lydia Kavina performing Debussy's \"Claire de Lune\" on YouTube*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam''' ('''LTTE'''; , ; also known as the '''Tamil Tigers''') was a Tamil militant organization that was based in northeastern Sri Lanka.",
"The LTTE fought to create an independent Tamil state called Tamil Eelam in the northeast of the island, due to the continuous discrimination and violent persecution against Sri Lankan Tamils by the Sinhalese-dominated Sri Lankan Government.Its leader Velupillai Prabhakaran cited violent incidents of the 1958 anti-Tamil pogrom during his childhood that led him to militancy.",
"In 1975, he assassinated the Mayor of Jaffna Alfred Duraiappah in revenge for the 1974 Tamil conference incident.",
"The LTTE was subsequently founded in 1976 as a reaction to the Sri Lankan Constitution of 1972 which prescribed Buddhism as the primary religion of the country, and Sinhala language its national language.",
"The LTTE was involved in attacks on government targets, policemen and local politicians and moved on to armed clashes against the armed forces.",
"Oppression against Sri Lankan Tamils continued by Sinhalese mobs, notably during the 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom and the 1981 burning of the Jaffna Public Library.",
"Following the week-long July 1983 anti-Tamil pogrom carried out by Sinhalese mobs that came to be known as Black July, the LTTE's escalation of intermittent conflict into a full-scale nationalist insurgency began, which started the Sri Lankan Civil War.",
"By this time, the LTTE was widely regarded as the most dominant Tamil militant group in Sri Lanka and among the most feared guerrilla forces in the world.Initially starting out as a guerrilla force, the LTTE increasingly came to resemble conventional armed forces with a well-developed military wing that included a navy, an airborne unit, an intelligence wing, and a specialised suicide attack unit.",
"The LTTE popularised and perfected the use of a suicide vest as a weapon, a tactic now used by many current militant organisations.In particular, India's relationship with the LTTE was complex, as it went from initially supporting the organisation to engaging it in direct combat through the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), owing to changes in the former's foreign policy during the phase of the conflict.",
"The LTTE gained notoriety for using women and children in combat and carrying out a number of high-profile assassinations, including former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1991 and Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa in 1993.Consequently, the LTTE has been designated as a terrorist organisation by 33 countries, including the European Union, Canada, the United States, and India.Over the course of the conflict, the LTTE frequently exchanged control of territory in the north-east with the Sri Lankan military, with the two sides engaging in intense military confrontations.",
"It was involved in four unsuccessful rounds of peace talks with the Sri Lankan government and at its peak in 2000, the LTTE was in control of 76% of the landmass in the Northern and Eastern provinces of Sri Lanka.",
"Prabhakaran headed the organisation from its inception until his death in 2009.Between 1983 and 2009, at least 100,000 were killed in the civil war, of which many were Sri Lankan Tamils.",
"800,000 Sri Lankan Tamils also left Sri Lanka for various destinations, including Europe, North America, and Asia."
],
[
"History",
"===Background===Historical inter-ethnic imbalances between the Sinhalese and Tamil populations are alleged to have created the background of the LTTE.",
"Post independent Sri Lankan governments attempted to reduce the increased presence of the Tamil minority in government jobs, which led to ethnic discrimination, seeded hatred and division policies including the \"Sinhala Only Act\" and anti-Tamil riots, which gave rise to separatist ideologies among many Tamil leaders.",
"By the 1970s, initial non-violent political struggle for an independent Tamil state was used as justification for a violent secessionist insurgency led by the LTTE.In the early 1970s, United Front government of Sirimavo Bandaranaike introduced the policy of standardisation to curtail the number of Tamil students selected for certain faculties in the universities.",
"In 1972, the government added a district quota as a parameter within each language.",
"A student named Satiyaseelan formed ''Tamil Manavar Peravai'' (Tamil Students League) to counter this.",
"This group comprised Tamil youth who advocated the rights of students to have fair enrolment.",
"Inspired by the failed 1971 insurrection of Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, it was the first Tamil insurgent group of its kind.",
"It consisted of around 40 Tamil youth, including Ponnuthurai Sivakumaran (later, the leader of the Sivakumaran group), K. Pathmanaba (one of the founder members of EROS) and Velupillai Prabhakaran, an 18-year-old youth from Valvettithurai (VVT).In 1972, Prabhakaran teamed up with Chetti Thanabalasingam, Jaffna to form the Tamil New Tigers (TNT), with Thanabalasingham as its leader.",
"After he was killed, Prabhakaran took over.",
"At the same time, Nadarajah Thangathurai and Selvarajah Yogachandran (better known by his ''nom de guerre'' Kuttimani) were also involved in discussions about an insurgency.",
"They would later (in 1979) create a separate organisation named Tamil Eelam Liberation Organisation (TELO) to campaign for the establishment of an independent Tamil Eelam.",
"These groups, along with another prominent figure of the armed struggle, Ponnuthurai Sivakumaran, were involved in several hit-and-run operations against pro-government Tamil politicians, Sri Lanka Police and civil administration during the early 1970s.",
"These attacks included throwing bombs at the residence and the car of SLFP Jaffna Mayor, Alfred Duraiyappah, placing a bomb at a carnival held in the stadium of Jaffna city (now \"Duraiyappah stadium\") and Neervely bank robbery.",
"The 1974 Tamil conference incident during which intervention by Sri Lankan police resulted in 11 dead also sparked the anger of these militant groups.",
"Both Sivakumaran and Prabhakaran attempted to assassinate Duraiyappah in revenge for the incident.",
"Sivakumaran committed suicide on 5 June 1974, to evade capture by Police.",
"On 27 July 1975, Prabhakaran assassinated Duraiyappah, who was branded as a \"traitor\" by TULF and the insurgents alike.",
"Prabhakaran shot and killed the Mayor when he was visiting the Krishnan temple at Ponnalai.===Founding and rise to power===TL: Ground Troops, TR:Air Force, BL: Black Tigers (Suicide Bombers) and BR: Naval ForcesThe LTTE was founded on 5 May 1976 as the successor to the Tamil New Tigers.",
"Uma Maheswaran became its leader, and Prabhakaran its military commander.",
"A five-member committee was also appointed.",
"It has been stated that Prabhakaran sought to \"refashion the old TNT/new LTTE into an elite, ruthlessly efficient, and highly professional fighting force\", by the terrorism expert Rohan Gunaratna.",
"Prabhakaran kept the numbers of the group small and maintained a high standard of training.",
"The LTTE carried out low-key attacks against various government targets, including policemen and local politicians.====TULF support====Tamil United Liberation Front leader Appapillai Amirthalingam, who was in 1977 elected as the Opposition leader of Sri Lanka Parliament, clandestinely supported the LTTE.",
"Amirthalingam believed that if he could exercise control over the Tamil insurgent groups, it would enhance his political position and pressure the government to agree to grant political autonomy to the Tamils.",
"Thus, he provided letters of reference to the LTTE and to other Tamil insurgent groups to raise funds.",
"Both Uma Maheswaran (a former surveyor) and Urmila Kandiah, the first female member of the LTTE, were prominent members of the TULF youth wing.",
"Maheswaran was the secretary of TULF Tamil Youth Forum, Colombo branch.",
"Amirthalingam introduced Prabhakaran to N. S. Krishnan, who later became the first international representative of LTTE.",
"It was Krishnan who introduced Prabhakaran to Anton Balasingham, who later became the chief political strategist and chief negotiator of LTTE, which split for the first time in 1979.Uma Maheswaran was found to be having a love affair with Urmila Kandiah, which was against the code of conduct of LTTE.",
"Prabhakaran expelled him and Maheswaran formed People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE) in 1980.In 1980, Junius Richard Jayewardene's government agreed to devolve power by the means of District Development Councils upon the request of TULF.",
"By this time, LTTE and other insurgent groups wanted a separate state.",
"They had no faith in any sort of political solution.",
"Thus the TULF and other Tamil political parties were steadily marginalized and insurgent groups emerged as the major force in the north.",
"During this period of time, several other insurgent groups came into the arena, such as EROS (1975), TELO (1979), PLOTE (1980), EPRLF (1980) and TELA (1982).",
"LTTE ordered civilians to boycott the local government elections of 1983 which TULF contested.",
"Voter turnout became as low as 10%.",
"Thereafter, Tamil political parties were largely unable to represent the Tamil people as insurgent groups took over their position.====Thirunelveli attack, 1983====RAW (from L to R, weapon carrying is included within brackets) – Lingam; Prabhakaran's bodyguard (Hungarian AK), Batticaloa commander Aruna (Beretta Model 38 SMG), LTTE founder-leader Prabhakaran (pistol), Trincomalee commander Pulendran (AK-47), Mannar commander Victor (M203) and Chief of Intelligence Pottu Amman (M 16).The LTTE carried out its first major attack on 23 July 1983, when they ambushed Sri Lanka Army patrol Four Four Bravo at Thirunelveli, Jaffna.",
"Thirteen Sri Lankan servicemen were killed in the attack, leading to the Black July pogrom where up to 3000 Tamil civilians were killed across the island.Many consider Black July to be a planned rampage against the Tamil community of Sri Lanka, in which sections of the government were implicated.Thousands of outraged Tamil youths joined Tamil militant groups to fight the Sri Lankan government, in what is considered a major catalyst to the insurgency in Sri Lanka.====Indian support====In reaction to various geo-political (''see Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War'') and economic factors, from August 1983 to May 1987, India, through its intelligence agency Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), provided arms, training and monetary support to six Sri Lankan Tamil insurgent groups including the LTTE.",
"During that period, 32 camps were set up in India to train these 495 LTTE insurgents, including 90 women who were trained in 10 batches.",
"The first batch of Tigers were trained in Establishment 22 based in Chakrata, Uttarakhand.",
"The second batch, including LTTE intelligence chief Pottu Amman, trained in Himachal Pradesh.",
"Prabakaran visited the first and the second batch of Tamil Tigers to see them training.",
"Eight other batches of LTTE were trained in Tamil Nadu.",
"Thenmozhi Rajaratnam ''alias'' Dhanu, who carried out the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi and Sivarasan—the key conspirator were among the militants trained by RAW, in Nainital, India.In April 1984, the LTTE formally joined a common militant front, the Eelam National Liberation Front (ENLF), a union between LTTE, the Tamil Eelam Liberation Organisation (TELO), the Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students (EROS), the People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE) and the Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF).====Clashes with other insurgent groups====TELO usually held the Indian view of problems and pushed for India's view during peace talks with Sri Lanka and other groups.",
"LTTE denounced the TELO view and claimed that India was only acting on its own interest.",
"As a result, the LTTE broke from the ENLF in 1986.Soon fighting broke out between the TELO and the LTTE and clashes occurred over the next few months.",
"As a result, almost the entire TELO leadership and at least 400 TELO militants were killed by the LTTE.",
"The LTTE attacked training camps of the EPRLF a few months later, forcing it to withdraw from the Jaffna peninsula.",
"Notices were issued to the effect that all remaining Tamil insurgents join the LTTE in Jaffna and in Madras, where the Tamil groups were headquartered.",
"With the major groups including the TELO and EPRLF eliminated, the remaining 20 or so Tamil insurgent groups were then absorbed into the LTTE, making Jaffna an LTTE-dominated city.Another practice that increased support by Tamil people was LTTE's members taking an oath of loyalty which stated LTTE's goal of establishing a state for the Sri Lankan Tamils.",
"In 1987 LTTE established the Black Tigers, a unit responsible for conducting suicide attacks against political, economic, and military targets, and launched its first suicide attack against a Sri Lankan Army camp, killing 40 soldiers.",
"LTTE members were prohibited from smoking cigarettes and consuming alcohol in any form.",
"LTTE members were required to avoid their family members and avoid communication with them.",
"Initially, LTTE members were prohibited from having love affairs or sexual relationships as it could deter their prime motive, but this policy changed after Prabhakaran married Mathivathani Erambu in October 1984.===IPKF period===In July 1987, faced with growing anger among its own Tamils and a flood of refugees, India intervened directly in the conflict for the first time by initially airdropping food parcels into Jaffna.",
"After negotiations, India and Sri Lanka entered into the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord.",
"Though the conflict was between the Tamil and Sinhalese people, India and Sri Lanka signed the peace accord instead of India influencing both parties to sign a peace accord among themselves.",
"The peace accord assigned a certain degree of regional autonomy in the Tamil areas, with Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF) controlling the regional council and called for the Tamil militant groups to surrender.",
"India was to send a peacekeeping force, named the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), part of the Indian Army, to Sri Lanka to enforce the disarmament and to watch over the regional council.====War against IPKF====Although the Tamil militant organizations did not have a role in the Indo-Lanka agreement, most groups, including EPRLF, TELO, EROS, and PLOTE, accepted it.",
"LTTE rejected the accord because they opposed EPRLF's Varadaraja Perumal as the chief ministerial candidate for the merged North Eastern Province.",
"The LTTE named three alternate candidates for the position, which India rejected.",
"The LTTE subsequently refused to hand over their weapons to the IPKF.",
"The LTTE's political leader for Jaffna peninsula Thileepan died during a hunger strike directed at the Indian government after it had failed to meet his demands; and on 5 October 12 LTTE cadres detained by the Sri Lankan Navy committed suicide when the Sri Lankan Army attempted to take them to Colombo for interrogation after the IPKF refused to intervene and secure their release under the accord.",
"Major General Harkirat Singh J.N.Dixit and Depinder Singh were against handing over the LTTE cadres to the Sri Lankan Army but due to orders from New Delhi they agreed.",
"The LTTE walked out of the accord after the mass suicide.",
"Harkirat Singh blamed the diplomats and the Army headquarters for the turn of events leading to the conflict.Thus LTTE engaged in military conflict with the Indian Army, and launched its first attack on an Indian army rations truck on 8 October, killing five Indian para-commandos who were on board by strapping burning tires around their necks.",
"The government of India stated that the IPKF should disarm the LTTE by force.",
"The Indian Army launched assaults on the LTTE, including a month-long campaign, ''Operation Pawan'' to win control of the Jaffna Peninsula.",
"The ruthlessness of this campaign, and the Indian army's subsequent anti-LTTE operations, which included civilian massacres and rapes made it extremely unpopular among many Tamils in Sri Lanka.====Premadasa government support====The Indian intervention was also unpopular among the Sinhalese majority.",
"Prime Minister Ranasinghe Premadasa pledged to withdraw IPKF as soon as he was elected president during his presidential election campaign in 1988.After being elected, in April 1989, he started negotiations with LTTE.",
"President Premadasa ordered the Sri Lanka Army to clandestinely hand over arms consignments to the LTTE to fight the IPKF and its proxy, the Tamil National Army (TNA).",
"These consignments included RPGs, mortars, self-loading rifles, Type 81 assault rifle, T56 automatic rifles, pistols, hand grenades, ammunition, and communications sets.",
"Moreover, millions of dollars were also passed on to the LTTE.===After IPKF===The last members of the IPKF, which was estimated to have had a strength of well over 100,000 at its peak, left the country in March 1990 upon the request of President Premadasa.",
"Unstable peace initially held between the government and the LTTE, and peace talks progressed towards providing devolution for Tamils in the north and east of the country.",
"A ceasefire held between LTTE and the government from June 1989 to June 1990, but broke down as LTTE massacred 600 police officers in the Eastern Province.Fighting continued throughout the 1990s, and was marked by two key assassinations carried out by the LTTE: those of former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1991, and Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa in 1993, using suicide bombers on both occasions.",
"The fighting briefly halted in 1994 following the election of Chandrika Kumaratunga as President of Sri Lanka and the onset of peace talks, but fighting resumed after LTTE sacked two SLN gunboats on 19 April 1995.In a series of military operations that followed, the Sri Lanka Armed Forces recaptured the Jaffna Peninsula.",
"Further offensives followed over the next three years, and the military captured large areas in the north of the country from the LTTE, including areas in the Vanni region, the town of Kilinochchi, and many smaller towns.",
"From 1998 onward, the LTTE regained control of these areas, which culminated in the capture in April 2000 of the strategically important Elephant Pass base complex, located at the entrance of the Jaffna Peninsula, after prolonged fighting against the Sri Lanka Army.Mahattaya, a one-time deputy leader of LTTE, was accused of treason by the LTTE and killed in 1994.He is said to have collaborated with the Indian Research and Analysis Wing to remove Prabhakaran from the LTTE leadership.===2002 ceasefire===An LTTE bicycle infantry platoon north of Kilinochchi in 2004In 2002, the LTTE dropped its demand for a separate state, instead demanding a form of regional autonomy.",
"Following the landslide election defeat of Kumaratunga and Ranil Wickramasinghe coming to power in December 2001, the LTTE declared a unilateral ceasefire.",
"The Sri Lankan Government agreed to the ceasefire, and in March 2002 the Ceasefire Agreement (CFA) was signed.",
"As part of the agreement, Norway and other Nordic countries agreed to jointly monitor the ceasefire through the Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission.Six rounds of peace talks between the Government of Sri Lanka and LTTE were held, but they were temporarily suspended after the LTTE pulled out of the talks in 2003 claiming \"certain critical issues relating to the ongoing peace process\".",
"In 2003 the LTTE proposed an Interim Self Governing Authority (ISGA).",
"This move was approved of by the international community but rejected by the Sri Lankan President.",
"The LTTE boycotted the presidential election in December 2005.While LTTE claimed that the people under its control were free to vote, it is alleged that they used threats to prevent the population from voting.",
"The United States condemned this.Tamil Eelam flag on Maaveerar Naal 2002 in GermanyThe new government of Sri Lanka came into power in 2006 and demanded to abrogate the ceasefire agreement, stating that the ethnic conflict could only have a military solution, and that the only way to achieve this was by eliminating the LTTE.",
"Further peace talks were scheduled in Oslo, Norway, on 8 and 9 June 2006, but cancelled when the LTTE refused to meet directly with the government delegation, stating its fighters were not being allowed safe passage to travel to the talks.",
"Norwegian mediator Erik Solheim told journalists that the LTTE should take direct responsibility for the collapse of the talks.",
"Rifts grew between the government and LTTE, and resulted in a number of ceasefire agreement violations by both sides during 2006.Suicide attacks, military skirmishes, and air raids took place during the latter part of 2006.Between February 2002 to May 2007, the Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission documented 3,830 ceasefire violations by the LTTE, with respect to 351 by the security forces.",
"Military confrontation continued into 2007 and 2008.In January 2008 the government officially pulled out of the Cease Fire Agreement.===Dissension===In the most significant show of dissent from within the organisation, a senior LTTE commander named Colonel Karuna (''nom de guerre'' of Vinayagamoorthi Muralitharan) broke away from the LTTE in March 2004 and formed the TamilEela Makkal Viduthalai Pulikal (later Tamil Makkal Viduthalai Pulikal), amid allegations that the northern commanders were overlooking the needs of the eastern Tamils.",
"The LTTE leadership accused him of mishandling funds and questioned him about his recent personal behaviour.",
"He tried to take control of the eastern province from the LTTE, which caused clashes between the LTTE and TMVP.",
"The LTTE has suggested that TMVP was backed by the government, and the Nordic SLMM monitors corroborated this.",
"It was later revealed that UNP Member of Parliament Seyed Ali Zahir Moulana had played an important role in the defection of Colonel Karuna from the LTTE to the Government.===Military defeat===Mahinda Rajapaksa was elected as the president of Sri Lanka in 2005.After a brief period of negotiations, LTTE pulled out of peace talks indefinitely.",
"Sporadic violence had continued and on 25 April 2006, LTTE tried to assassinate Sri Lankan Army Commander Lieutenant General Sarath Fonseka.",
"Following the attack, the European Union proscribed the LTTE as a terrorist organisation.",
"A new crisis leading to the first large-scale fighting since signing of the ceasefire occurred when the LTTE closed the sluice gates of the Mavil Oya (Mavil Aru) reservoir on 21 July 2006, and cut the water supply to 15,000 villages in government controlled areas.",
"This dispute developed into a full-scale war by August 2006.After the breakdown of the peace process in 2006, the Sri Lankan military launched a major offensive against the Tigers, defeating the LTTE militarily and bringing the entire country under its control.",
"Human rights groups criticised the nature of the victory which included the internment of Tamil civilians in concentration camps with little or no access to outside agencies.",
"Victory over the Tigers was declared by Sri Lankan President Mahinda Rajapaksa on 16 May 2009, and the LTTE admitted defeat on 17 May 2009.Prabhakaran was killed by government forces on 19 May 2009.Selvarasa Pathmanathan succeeded Prabhakaran as leader of the LTTE, but he was later arrested in Malaysia and handed over to the Sri Lankan government in August 2009.====Defeat in the East====Eelam War IV had commenced in the East.",
"Mavil Aru came under the control of the Sri Lanka Army by 15 August 2006.Systematically, Sampoor, Vakarai, Kanjikudichchi Aru and Batticaloa also came under military control.",
"The military then captured Thoppigala, the Tiger stronghold in Eastern Province on 11 July 2007.IPKF had failed to capture it from LTTE during its offensive in 1988.====Defeat in the North====Sporadic fighting had been happening in the North for months, but the intensity of the clashes increased after September 2007.Gradually, the defence lines of the LTTE began to fall.",
"The advancing military confined the LTTE into rapidly diminishing areas in the North.",
"Prabhakaran was seriously injured during air strikes carried out by the Sri Lanka Air Force on a bunker complex in Jayanthinagar on 26 November 2007.Earlier, on 2 November 2007, S. P. Thamilselvan, who was the head of the rebels' political wing, was killed during another government air raid.",
"On 2 January 2008, the Sri Lankan government officially abandoned the ceasefire agreement.",
"By 2 August 2008, LTTE lost the Mannar District following the fall of Vellankulam town.",
"Troops captured Pooneryn and Mankulam during the final months of 2008.On 2 January 2009, the President of Sri Lanka, Mahinda Rajapaksa, announced that the Sri Lankan troops had captured Kilinochchi, the city which the LTTE had used for over a decade as its de facto administrative capital.",
"On the same day, President Rajapaksa called upon LTTE to surrender.",
"It was stated that the loss of Kilinochchi had caused substantial damage to the LTTE's public image, and that the LTTE was likely to collapse under military pressure on multiple fronts.",
"As of 8 January 2009, the LTTE abandoned its positions on the Jaffna peninsula to make a last stand in the jungles of Mullaitivu, their last main base.",
"The Jaffna Peninsula was captured by the Sri Lankan Army by 14 January.",
"On 25 January 2009, SLA troops \"completely captured\" Mullaitivu town, the last major LTTE stronghold.President Mahinda Rajapaksa declared military victory over the Tamil Tigers on 16 May 2009, after 26 years of conflict.",
"The rebels offered to lay down their weapons in return for a guarantee of safety.",
"On 17 May 2009, LTTE's head of the Department of International Relations, Selvarasa Pathmanathan conceded defeat, saying in an email statement, \"this battle has reached its bitter end\".====Aftermath====With the end of the hostilities, 11,664 LTTE members, including 595 child soldiers surrendered to the Sri Lankan military.",
"Approximately 150 hardcore LTTE cadres and 1,000 mid-level cadres escaped to India.",
"The government took action to rehabilitate the surrendered cadres under a National Action Plan for the Re-integration of Ex-combatants while allegations of torture, rape, and murder were reported by international human rights bodies.",
"They were divided into three categories; hardcore, non-combatants, and those who were forcibly recruited (including child soldiers).",
"Twenty-four rehabilitation centres were set up in Jaffna, Batticaloa, and Vavuniya.",
"Among the apprehended cadres, there had been about 700 hardcore members.",
"Some of these cadres were integrated into the State Intelligence Service to tackle the internal and external networks of LTTE.",
"By August 2011, the government had released more than 8,000 cadres, and 2,879 remained.===Continued operations===After the death of LTTE leader Prabhakaran and the most powerful members of the organisation, Selvarasa Pathmanathan (alias ''KP'') was its sole first generation leader left alive.",
"He assumed duty as the new leader of LTTE on 21 July 2009.A statement was issued, allegedly from the executive committee of the LTTE, stating that Pathmanathan had been appointed leader of the LTTE.",
"15 days after the announcement, on 5 August 2009, a Sri Lankan military intelligence unit, with the collaboration of local authorities, captured Pathmanathan in the Tune Hotel, in downtown Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.",
"Sri Lanka Ministry of Defence alleges that Perinpanayagam Sivaparan ''alias'' Nediyavan of the Tamil Eelam People's Alliance (TEPA) in Norway, Suren Surendiran of British Tamils Forum (BTF), Father S. J. Emmanuel of Global Tamil Forum (GTF), Visvanathan Rudrakumaran of Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam (TGTE) and Sekarapillai Vinayagamoorthy ''alias'' Kathirgamathamby Arivazhagan ''alias'' Vinayagam, a former senior intelligence leader are trying to revive the organisation among the Tamil diaspora.",
"Subsequently, in May 2011, Nediyavan, who advocates an armed struggle against the Sri Lankan state, was arrested and released on bail in Norway, pending further investigation."
],
[
"Divisions",
"LTTE women's wing marching in a parade.The LTTE was viewed as a disciplined and militarised group with a leader of a significant military and organisational skills.",
"Three major divisions of the LTTE were the military, intelligence, and political wings.The military wing consisted of at least 11 separate divisions including the conventional fighting forces, Charles Anthony Brigade and Jeyanthan Brigade; the suicide wing called the Black Tigers; naval wing Sea Tigers, air-wing Air Tigers, LTTE leader Prabhakaran's personal security divisions, Imran Pandian regiment and Ratha regiment; auxiliary military units such as Kittu artillery brigade, Kutti Sri mortar brigade, Ponnamman mining unit and hit-and-run squads like Pistol gang.",
"Charles Anthony brigade was the first conventional fighting formation created by LTTE.",
"Sea Tiger division was founded in 1984, under the leadership of Thillaiyampalam Sivanesan ''alias'' Soosai.",
"LTTE acquired its first light aircraft in the late 1990s.",
"Vaithilingam Sornalingam ''alias'' Shankar was instrumental in creating the Air Tigers.",
"It carried out nine air attacks since 2007, including a suicide air raid targeting Sri Lanka Air Force headquarters, Colombo in February 2009.LTTE was the only terrorist-proscribed organisation to acquire aircraft.",
"LTTE intelligence wing consisted of Tiger Organisation Security Intelligence Service ''aka'' TOSIS, run by Pottu Amman, and a separate military intelligence division.",
"The LTTE cadres were required to follow a strict code of conduct which included prohibition on smoking and consumption of alcohol, with sexual relationships also being regulated.",
"Each member carried a cyanide capsule to commit suicide in case of capture.+ Aircraft that had been in LTTE possession by 2006Type of Aircraft QuantityMicrolight aircraft2Zlín Z 1435Helicopters2Unmanned aerial vehicles2The LTTE operated a systematic and powerful political wing, which functioned like a separate state in the LTTE controlled area.",
"In 1989, it established a political party named People's Front of Liberation Tigers, under Gopalaswamy Mahendraraja ''alias'' Mahattaya.",
"It was abandoned soon after.",
"Later, S. P. Thamilselvan was appointed the head of the political wing.",
"He was also a member of the LTTE delegation for Norwegian brokered peace talks.",
"After the death of Thamilselvan in November 2007, Balasingham Nadesan was appointed as its leader.",
"Major sections within the political wing include International peace secretariat, led by Pulidevan, LTTE Police, LTTE court, Bank of Tamil Eelam, Sports division and the \"Voice of Tigers\" radio broadcasting station of LTTE.LTTE used female cadres for military engagements.",
"Its women's wing consisted of Malathi and Sothiya Brigades.The LTTE also controlled a powerful international wing called the \"KP branch\", controlled by Selvarasa Pathmanathan, \"Castro branch\", controlled by Veerakathy Manivannam ''alias'' Castro, and \"Aiyannah group\" led by Ponniah Anandaraja ''alias'' Aiyannah."
],
[
"Governance",
"Kilinochchi District court in LTTE-administered Tamil EelamDuring its active years, the LTTE had established and administered a de facto state under its control, named Tamil Eelam with Kilinochchi as its administrative capital, and had managed a government in its territory, providing state functions such as courts, a police force, a human rights organisation, and a humanitarian assistance board, a health board, and an education board.",
"However, the court system, composed of young judges with little or no legal training had operated without codified or defined legal authority, and essentially operated as agents of the LTTE rather than as an independent judiciary.",
"It ran a bank (Bank of Tamil Eelam), a radio station (Voice of Tigers) and a television station (National Television of Tamil Eelam).",
"In the LTTE-controlled areas, women reported lower levels of domestic violence because \"the Tigers had a de facto justice system to deal with domestic violence.\"",
"The United States Department of State Human Rights Reports have described LTTE's governance as an authoritarian military rule, denying the people under its authority the right to change their government, infringing on their privacy rights, routinely violating their civil liberties, operating an unfair court system, restricting freedom of movement and severely discriminating against ethnic and religious minorities.In 2003, the LTTE issued a proposal to establish an Interim Self Governing Authority in the 8 districts of the North and East which it controlled.",
"The ISGA was to be entrusted with powers such as the right to impose law, collect taxes and oversee the rehabilitation process until a favourable solution was reached after which elections would be held.",
"The ISGA would consist of members representing the LTTE, GoSL and the Muslim community.",
"According to the proposal, this LTTE administration intended to be a secular one with principal emphasis on prohibition of discrimination and protection of all communities.===Local perception and support===Due to its military victories, policies, call for national self-determination and constructive Tamil nationalist platform, the LTTE was supported by major sections of the Tamil community.",
"Based on the survey of the Jaffna population by the BBC and Reuters journalists, a U.S. diplomatic cable from 1994 stated that support for the LTTE was fairly strong among the Jaffna population who admired the discipline of the LTTE's administrative service, and that majority of Jaffna residents would choose the LTTE over the Sri Lankan Army given the choice.",
"According to the assessments by independent observers, the LTTE administration of justice gained \"significant social acceptance\", and its courts were broadly seen as \"more efficient, less expensive, and less vulnerable to corruption than their Sri Lankan counterparts.\"",
"The LTTE police force also had \"a high degree of legitimacy\" among Tamil civilians who viewed it as \"an uncorrupt and important stabilizing factor in the region.\"",
"A survey carried out by the Centre for Policy Alternatives in 2002 from a sample of 89 Sri Lankan Tamils found that 89% regarded the LTTE as their sole representatives.",
"However, University Teachers for Human Rights (Jaffna), a local human rights NGO that that has been accused of anti-LTTE bias by some critics, claimed that \"by combination of internal terror and narrow nationalist ideology the LTTE succeeded in atomising the community.",
"It took away not only the right to oppose but even the right to evaluate, as a community, the course they were taking.",
"This gives a semblance of illusion that the whole society is behind the LTTE.\"",
"After meeting with the Tamil civil society in Jaffna in 2001, Jehan Perera, the executive director of the National Peace Council of Sri Lanka, observed that fear was not the only factor that impelled civic groups in Jaffna to speak in favour of the LTTE but that the Jaffna people had recognized the LTTE's military strength and pragmatically accepted it as the main player in achieving a negotiated settlement."
],
[
"Ideology",
"The LTTE was a self-styled national liberation organisation with the primary goal of establishing an independent Tamil state.",
"Tamil nationalism was the primary basis of its ideology.",
"LTTE claimed to strive for a democratic, secular state that is based on socialism.",
"Its leader Velupillai Prabhakaran was influenced by Indian freedom fighters such as Subhas Chandra Bose.",
"The organisation denied being a separatist movement and saw itself as fighting for self-determination and restoration of sovereignty in what it recognised as Tamil homeland.",
"Although most Tigers were Hindus, the LTTE was an avowedly secular organisation; religion did not play any significant part in its ideology.",
"Prabhakaran criticised what he saw as the oppressive features of traditional Hindu Tamil society, such as the caste system and gender inequality.",
"The LTTE presented itself as a revolutionary movement seeking widespread change within Tamil society, not just independence from the Sri Lankan state.",
"Therefore, its ideology called for the removal of caste discrimination and support for women's liberation.",
"Prabhakaran described his political philosophy as \"revolutionary socialism\", with the goal of creating an \"egalitarian society\".",
"However, by 2002 with the shift in geopolitical climate, Prabhakaran endorsed \"open market economy\", but he pointed out that the question about the proper economic system can be considered only after the ethnic problem has been solved."
],
[
"Global network",
"LTTE had developed a large international network since the days of N. S. Krishnan, who served as its first international representative.",
"In the late 1970s, TULF parliamentarian and opposition leader A. Amirthalingam provided letters of reference for fundraising, and V. N. Navaratnam, who was an executive committee member of the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), introduced many influential and wealthy Tamils living overseas to Tamil insurgent leaders.",
"Navaratnam also introduced LTTE members to the members of Polisario Front, a national liberation movement in Morocco, at a meeting held in Oslo, Norway.",
"In 1978, during the world tour of Amirthalingam (with London-based Eelam activist S. K. Vaikundavasan), he formed the World Tamil Coordinating Committee (WTCC), which was later found to be an LTTE front organisation.",
"The global contacts of LTTE grew steadily since then.",
"At the height of its power, LTTE had 42 offices worldwide.",
"The international network of LTTE engages in propaganda, fundraising, arms procurement, and shipping.There were three types of organisations that engage in propaganda and fund raising—Front, Cover, and Sympathetic.",
"Prior to the ethnic riots of 1983, attempts to raise funds for a sustaining military campaign were not realised.",
"It was the mass exodus of Tamil civilians to India and western countries following the Black July ethnic riots, which made this possible.",
"As the armed conflict evolved and voluntary donations lessened, LTTE used force and threats to collect money.",
"LTTE was worth US$200–300 million at its peak.",
"The group's global network owned numerous business ventures in various countries.",
"These include investment in real estate, shipping, grocery stores, gold and jewellery stores, gas stations, restaurants, production of films, mass media organisations (TV, radio, print), and industries.",
"It was also in control of numerous charitable organisations including Tamils Rehabilitation Organisation, which was banned and had its funds frozen by the United States Treasury in 2007 for covertly financing terrorism.Arms Procurement and shipping activities of LTTE were largely clandestine.",
"Prior to 1983, it procured weapons mainly from Afghanistan via the Indo-Pakistani border.",
"Explosives were purchased from commercial markets in India.",
"From 1983 to 1987, LTTE acquired a substantial amount of weapons from RAW and from Lebanon, Cyprus, Singapore, and Malaysia-based arms dealers.",
"LTTE received its first consignment of arms from Singapore in 1984 on board the MV ''Cholan'', the first ship owned by the organisation.",
"Funds were received and cargo cleared at Chennai Port with the assistance of M. G. Ramachandran, the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu.",
"In November 1994, the LTTE was able to purchase 60 tonnes of explosives (50 tonnes of TNT and 10 tonnes of RDX) from Rubezone Chemical plant in Ukraine, providing a forged Bangladeshi Ministry of Defense end-user certificate.",
"Payments for the explosives were made from a Citibank account in Singapore held by Selvarasa Pathmanathan.",
"Consignment was transported on board MV Sewne.",
"The same explosives were used for the Central Bank bombing in 1996.Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia and Indonesia remained the most trusted outposts of LTTE, after India alienated it following the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi.A LTTE Sea Tiger fast attack fiberglass boat passing a Sri Lankan freighter sunk by the Sea Tigers just north of the village of Mullaitivu, North-eastern Sri LankaSince late 1997, North Korea became the principal country to provide arms, ammunition, and explosives to the LTTE.",
"The deal with North Korean government was carried out by Ponniah Anandaraja ''alias'' Aiyannah, a member of World Tamil Coordinating Committee of the United States and later, the accountant of LTTE.",
"He worked at the North Korean embassy in Bangkok since late 1997.LTTE had nearly 20-second-hand ships, which were purchased in Japan, and registered in Panama and other Latin American countries.",
"These ships mostly transported general cargo, including paddy, sugar, timber, glass, and fertilizer.",
"But when an arms deal was finalized, they travelled to North Korea, loaded the cargo and brought it to the equator, where the ships were based.",
"Then on board merchant tankers, weapons were transferred to the sea of Alampil, just outside the territorial waters in Sri Lanka's exclusive economic zone.",
"After that, small teams of Sea Tigers brought the cargo ashore.",
"The Sri Lanka Navy, during 2005–08 destroyed at least 11 of these cargo ships belonged to LTTE in the international waters.LTTE's last shipment of weapons was in March 2009, towards the end of the war.",
"The merchant vessel ''Princess Iswari'' went from Indonesia to North Korea under captain Kamalraj Kandasamy ''alias'' Vinod, loaded the weapons and came back to international waters beyond Sri Lanka.",
"But due to the heavy naval blockades set up by the Sri Lankan Navy, it could not deliver the arms consignment.",
"Thus it dumped the weapons in the sea.",
"The same ship, after changing its name to MV ''Ocean Lady'', arrived in Vancouver with 76 migrants, in October 2009.In December 2009, The Sri Lankan Navy apprehended a merchant vessel belonging to LTTE, ''Princess Chrisanta'' in Indonesia and brought it back to Sri Lanka.The United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (USSFRC) and Ethiopian based Jimma Times claimed that the Eritrean government had provided direct military assistance, including light aircraft to LTTE, during the 2002–03 period when the LTTE was negotiating with the Sri Lankan government via the Norwegian mediators.",
"It was also alleged that Erik Solheim, the chief Norwegian facilitator, helped LTTE to establish this relationship.",
"These allegations and a suspicion from within the Sri Lankan armed forces, that LTTE had considerable connections and assets in Eritrea and that its leader Prabhakaran might try to flee to Eritrea in the final stages of war, prompted the Sri Lankan government to establish diplomatic relations with Eritrea in 2009.In 2013, Thiruthanikan Thanigasalam and Sahilal Sabaratnam were sentenced to 25 years in prison in Brooklyn in connection of attempting to purchase high-powered weaponry for the LTTE.",
"They were caught in a FBI undercover sting operation while attempting to purchase surface-to-air missiles, missile launchers, and assault rifles."
],
[
"Proscription as a terrorist group",
"33 countries currently list the LTTE as a terrorist organization.",
"As of October 2019, these include:* (since 1992)* (designated as Foreign Terrorist Organizations by the Department of State since 8 October 1997.Named as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist (SDGT) since 2 November 2001)* (designated a Proscribed Terrorist Group under the Terrorism Act 2000 since 29 March 2001)* (since 2006; 27 countries)* (since 2006) * (from January 1998 to 4 September 2002, and again from 7 January 2009)* (since 2014)The first country to ban the LTTE was its brief one-time ally, India.",
"The Indian change of policy came gradually, starting with the IPKF-LTTE conflict, and culminating with the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi.",
"India opposes the new state Tamil Eelam that LTTE wants to establish, saying that it would lead to Tamil Nadu's separation from India, despite the leaders and common populace of Tamil Nadu considering themselves Indian.",
"Sri Lanka itself lifted the ban on the LTTE before signing the ceasefire agreement in 2002.This was a prerequisite set by the LTTE for the signing of the agreement.",
"The Indian Government extended the ban on the LTTE on the grounds of \"their strong anti-India posture and threat to the security of Indian nationals\".The United States proscribed the LTTE as a foreign terrorist organization in October 1997.A U.S. ambassador later explained that the main rationale behind the ban was to prevent LTTE's fundraising and for it to negotiate with the Sri Lankan government.",
"The Pentagon had launched a military programme in March 1996 to train the Sri Lankan military after a series of LTTE attacks which affected U.S. commercial interests on the island but it failed to weaken the LTTE due to its procurement of conventional weapons with funds raised overseas.",
"In 2003, the U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Richard Armitage stipulated that if the LTTE were to be considered for removal from the list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations and be considered as a legitimate political organization, it must renounce \"terrorism\" and the use of \"violence as a political weapon\" and demonstrate that it was committed to a political solution within a united Sri Lanka which included disarmament.The European Union (EU) banned LTTE as a terrorist organization on 17 May 2006.In a statement, the European Parliament said that the LTTE did not represent all Tamils and called on it to \"allow for political pluralism and alternate democratic voices in the northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka\".",
"Pressure from the United States, which assisted Sri Lanka's war efforts, played a critical role in getting Canada and the European Union to ban the LTTE.",
"The then Sri Lankan Foreign Minister Mangala Samaraweera later recounted that there was a difficulty in adopting the ban as a unanimous decision due to the opposition from seven countries in the 25-member EU and that consensus was finally achieved only after he had met with the US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice several times.",
"Swedish Major General Ulf Henricsson, the head of the Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission (SLMM) whom the EU had consulted before the ban, opposed the ban, warning it gave the Sri Lankan government \"carte blanche\" to seek a military solution.",
"He warned the EU in a memo that a ban would lead to an increase in attacks and violence.",
"He later described the ban as a decision made in the \"coffee shops in Brussels\" where EU members had failed to read the memo carefully.",
"He further stated that as part of the global war on terrorism the EU listened to only the Sri Lankan government's version of events and that the government should have also been listed as it \"used the same methods\".",
"In October 2014, the European Court of Justice annulled the anti-terrorism sanctions and several other restrictions placed on the LTTE in 2006.The court noted that the basis of proscribing the LTTE had been based on \"imputations derived from the press and the Internet\" rather than on direct investigation of the group's actions, as required by law.",
"Later, in March 2015, the EU reimposed the sanctions and restrictions.In July 2017, the LTTE was removed from the terrorism blacklist of European Union's top court, stating that there was no evidence to show of LTTE carrying out attacks after its military defeat in 2009.However, despite the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruling, the European Union stated the LTTE organization remains listed as a terrorist organization by the EU.On 12 November 2014, the Malaysian government listed the by-then defunct LTTE as a terrorist group amid allegations of its revival attempts in the country.",
"Referring to a letter he purportedly wrote on 12 February 2020 as the Prime Minister to the Ministry of Home Affairs requesting the LTTE's removal from its list of terrorist groups, former Malaysian premier Mahathir Mohamad later explained that the LTTE hadn't harmed Malaysia and that a group shouldn't be labelled as terrorists simply because other countries do so, since he had met with the leader of the Hamas despite the U.S. having banned it as a terrorist organization.",
"However, responding to the suggestion of the Attorney General (AG) to review the list of gazetted terrorist organizations after the AG dropped charges against 12 alleged LTTE sympathizers, then Minister of Home Affairs Muhyiddin Yassin stated on 22 February 2020 that the LTTE would remain listed as a terrorist organization since its \"ideology\" posed threat to Malaysia's public order and security.",
"Yassin, a Malay nationalist, has been accused of using the ban to mastermind the \"politically motivated\" arrests of Indian Tamil members of the Democratic Action Party over alleged LTTE links.The LTTE leader Prabhakaran contested the terrorist designation of his organization, asserting that the international community had been influenced by the \"false propaganda\" of the Sri Lankan state and said that there was no coherent definition of the concept of terrorism.",
"He also maintained that the LTTE was a national liberation organization fighting against \"state terrorism\" and \"racist oppression\".",
"Following 9/11, in an effort to distance his organization from the \"real terrorists\", the LTTE leader expressed sympathy to the Western powers engaged in a war against international terrorism and urged them to provide \"a clear and comprehensive definition of the concept of terrorism that would distinguish between freedom struggles based on the right to self-determination and blind terrorist acts based on fanaticism.\"",
"He also expressed concern over states with human rights abuses like Sri Lanka joining the alliance in the war against terrorism as \"posing a threat to the legitimate political struggles of the oppressed humanity subjected to state terror.\""
],
[
"Suicide attacks",
"Kopay memorial for fallen Tamil combatantsOne of the main divisions of LTTE included the Black Tigers, an elite fighting wing of the movement, whose mission included carrying out suicide attacks against enemy targets.",
"From ancient times, the Tamil civilization saw war as an honorable sacrifice, and fallen heroes were revered and worshiped in the form of a hero stone.",
"Heroic martyrdom was glorified in ancient Tamil literature.",
"The Tamil kings and warriors followed an honor code similar to that of the Japanese Samurai and committed suicide to preserve their honor.",
"The Black Tigers wing of the LTTE is said to reflect some of elements of Tamil martial traditions including the practice of the worship of fallen heroes (Maaveerar Naal) and martial martyrdom.",
"All soldiers of LTTE carried a suicide pill (Cyanide Kuppi) around their necks to escape captivity and torture by enemy forces.According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, LTTE was the first insurgent organization to use concealed explosive belts and vests.",
"According to the information published by the LTTE, the Black Tigers carried out 378 suicide attacks between 5 July 1987 and 20 November 2008.Out of the deceased, 274 were male and 104 were female.",
"Experts estimated that the Black Tigers had carried out most of the suicide attacks recorded around the world by the time the Sri Lankan civil war ended in 2009.Most of these attacks targeted military objectives in the north and east of the country, such as the first Black Tiger attack carried out on 5 July 1987 by Captain Miller.",
"Miller drove a bomb filled vehicle into the heart of a Sri Lankan Army military base in Jaffna.",
"Scores of soldiers were killed and wounded.",
"Sometimes civilians were also killed.",
"The LTTE was responsible for a 1998 attack on the Buddhist shrine and UNESCO World Heritage Site Sri Dalada Maligawa in Kandy that killed eight worshippers.",
"The attack was symbolic in that the shrine, which houses a tooth of the Buddha, is the holiest Buddhist shrine in Sri Lanka.",
"Other Buddhist shrines have been attacked, notably the Sambuddhaloka Temple in Colombo, in which nine worshippers were killed.",
"Riaz Hassan, an expert on suicide missions, stated that the LTTE were mainly responsible for \"developing suicide bombings as a terrorist weapon\" which was mimicked by \"terrorist groups\" in other countries such as Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iraq.The Black Tiger wing carried out attacks on various high-profile leaders both inside and outside Sri Lanka.",
"It successfully targeted three world leaders, the only insurgent group to do so.",
"That includes the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi, the former Prime Minister of India on 21 May 1991, the assassination of Ranasinghe Premadasa, the President of Sri Lanka on 1 May 1993, and the failed assassination attempt of Chandrika Kumaratunga, the Sri Lankan President on 18 December 1999, which resulted in the loss of her right eye.Black Tiger cadres killed in action were highly glorified and their families were given the \"Maaveerar family\" status, just like normal LTTE cadres.",
"Also, these families were honored with the \"''Thamizheezha Maravar pathakkam''\" (Warrior medal of Tamil Eelam), one of the higher honors of Tamil Eelam.",
"Black Tiger members were given a chance to have his/her last supper with the LTTE leader Prabhakaran, which was a rare honor, motivating LTTE cadres to join the Black Tiger wing.On 28 November 2007, an LTTE suicide bomber named Sujatha Vagawanam detonated a bomb hidden inside her bra in an attempt to kill Sri Lankan minister Douglas Devananda.",
"This was recorded in the security cameras inside Devananda's office.",
"It is one of the few detonations of an explosive by a suicide bomber recorded on camera."
],
[
"Assassinations",
"+ Political figures who were considered as assassinated by LTTE (Source: Sri Lankan Ministry of Defence)Position/Status NumberPresident of Sri Lanka1Ex-Prime Minister of India1Presidential candidate1Leaders of political parties10Cabinet ministers7Members of Parliament37Members of provincial councils6Members of Pradeshiya Sabha22Political party organisers17Mayors4The LTTE has been condemned by various groups for assassinating political and military opponents.",
"The victims include Tamil dissenters who coordinated with the Sri Lanka Government and Tamil paramilitary groups assisting the Sri Lankan Army.",
"The assassination of the Sri Lankan president Ranasinghe Premadasa is attributed to LTTE.",
"The seventh Prime Minister of the Republic of India, Rajiv Gandhi, was assassinated by an LTTE suicide bomber Thenmozhi Rajaratnam on 21 May 1991.On 24 October 1994, LTTE detonated a bomb during a political rally in Thotalanga-Grandpass, which killed most of the prominent politicians of the United National Party, including presidential candidate Gamini Dissanayake MP, Cabinet ministers Weerasinghe Mallimarachchi and G. M. Premachandra, Ossie Abeygunasekara MP and Gamini Wijesekara MP.LTTE sympathisers justify some of the assassinations by arguing that the people attacked were combatants or persons closely associated with Sri Lankan military intelligence.",
"Specifically in relation to the TELO, the LTTE has said that it had to perform preemptive self-defence because the TELO was in effect functioning as a proxy for India."
],
[
"Human rights violations",
"The United States Department of State states that its reason for banning LTTE as a proscribed terrorist group is based on allegations that LTTE does not respect human rights and that it does not adhere to the standards of conduct expected of a resistance movement or what might be called \"freedom fighters\".",
"Other countries have also proscribed LTTE under the same rationale.",
"Numerous countries and international organizations have accused the LTTE of attacking civilians and recruiting children.",
"Despite the allegations of human rights abuses, the LTTE has been noted for its general lack of use of sexual violence or rape as a tactic, though there have been isolated instances of rape by LTTE members.",
"The LTTE raped Sinhalese women during a massacre of Sinhalese in October 1995.Some LTTE members accused of rape faced execution from the leadership.===Attacks on civilians===The LTTE has launched attacks on civilian targets several times.",
"Attacks were often alleged to be carried out in revenge for attacks committed by the Sri Lankan Army, such as the Anuradhapura massacre which immediately followed the Valvettithurai massacre.",
"Notable attacks include the Aranthalawa massacre, Anuradhapura massacre, Kattankudy mosque massacre, the Kebithigollewa massacre, and the Dehiwala train bombing.",
"Civilians have also been killed in attacks on economic targets, such as the Central Bank bombing.",
"According to Udalagama and de Silva, between 3,700 and 4,100 civilians were killed in \"terrorist acts\" attributed to the LTTE, a small proportion of the overall civilian death toll during the war.",
"The LTTE leader Prabhakaran denied allegations of killing innocent Sinhalese civilians, claiming to condemn such acts of violence; and claimed that LTTE had instead attacked armed Home Guards who were \"death-squads let loose on Tamil civilians\" and Sinhalese settlers who were \"brought to the Tamil areas to forcibly occupy the land.\"",
"The continuous inflow of Sinhalese settlers into Tamil areas since the 1950s, encouraged by the government to undermine claims of a Tamil homeland had become a source of inter-ethnic violence and had been one of the major grievances expressed by the LTTE.",
"The LTTE also denied massacring Muslims, stating that they were allies against the Sinhalese state.",
"===Child soldiers===The LTTE has been accused of recruiting and using child soldiers to fight against Sri Lankan government forces.",
"The LTTE was accused of having up to 5,794 child soldiers in its ranks since 2001.Amid international pressure, the LTTE announced in July 2003 that it would stop conscripting child soldiers, but UNICEF and Human Rights Watch have accused it of reneging on its promises, and of conscripting Tamil children orphaned by the tsunami.",
"On 18 June 2007, the LTTE released 135 children under 18 years of age.",
"UNICEF, along with the United States, states that there has been a significant drop in LTTE recruitment of children, but claimed in 2007 that 506 child recruits remain under the LTTE.",
"A report released by the LTTE's Child Protection Authority (CPA) in 2008 stated that less than 40 soldiers under age 18 remained in its forces.",
"In 2009 a Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the United Nations said the Tamil Tigers \"continue to recruit children to fight on the frontlines\", and \"use force to keep many civilians, including children, in harm's way\".",
"During the violent parts of the war, though some children were forcefully recruited, many voluntarily joined the LTTE after witnessing or experiencing abuses by Sri Lankan security forces, seeking to \"protect their families or to avenge real or perceived abuses.\"",
"However, the Sri Lankan government's National Child Protection Authority alleged that since the ceasefire children were more likely to be forcibly recruited.",
"Many children have been used in human rights violations such as the torture of political prisoners and massacres in Muslim and Sinhalese villages.The LTTE argues that instances of child recruitment occurred mostly in the east, under the purview of former LTTE regional commander Colonel Karuna.",
"After leaving the LTTE and forming the TMVP, it is alleged that Karuna continued to forcibly kidnap and induct child soldiers.",
"Soon after Karuna's defection, the LTTE began an intensive campaign to re-recruit Karuna's former cadres, including child soldiers.",
"Many of the former child soldiers were re-recruited by the LTTE, often by force.===Accusations of ethnic cleansing===In October 1987, the LTTE took advantage of communal violence in the Eastern Province, particularly in the Trincomalee District, where Tamils had previously been driven out by security forces and Sinhalese mobs in 1985.LTTE gunmen led Tamil rioters and ordered Sinhalese to leave, threatening their lives.",
"By 4 October, 5,000 Sinhalese were made homeless.",
"Following the suicide of 12 LTTE detainees under the Sri Lankan Army custody, LTTE massacres of Sinhalese civilians throughout the Eastern Province occurred.",
"By the end of the week, about 200 Sinhalese were dead and 20,000 had fled the Eastern Province.The LTTE is responsible for forcibly removing Sinhalese and Muslim inhabitants from areas under its control.",
"Some observers described the expulsion of Muslims from the Northern Province in 1990 as \"ethnic cleansing\", and the Sri Lankan Defence Ministry accused the LTTE of having carried out \"ethnic cleansing raids\" against both groups.",
"Human Rights Watch has noted that LTTE had \"engaged in \"ethnic cleansing\" of Sinhalese and Muslim villagers\".The eviction of Muslim residents happened in the north in 1990, and the east in 1992.Yogi, the LTTE's political spokesman, stated that this expulsion was carried out in retaliation for the atrocities committed against Tamils in the Eastern Province by Muslims, who were seen by the LTTE as collaborators with the Sri Lankan Army.During peace talks in 2002, the LTTE formally apologised to the Muslims for the expulsion and invited them back, stating that the north-east also belonged to them.",
"In 2003, the LTTE formally recognised the rights of the Muslim and Sinhalese communities to be present in the north-east in their ISGA proposals.===Mistreatment of prisoners======= Executions====LTTE executed prisoners of war on a number of occasions despite its declaration in 1988 that it would abide by the Geneva Conventions.",
"One such incident was the mass murder of 600 unarmed Sri Lankan Police officers in 1990, in Eastern Province, after they surrendered to the LTTE on the request of President Ranasinghe Premadasa.",
"In 1993, LTTE killed 200 Sri Lanka Army soldiers, captured in the naval base at Pooneryn, during the Battle of Pooneryn.",
"Few months earlier they had executed an officer and several soldiers captured during the Battle of Janakapura.",
"In 1996, LTTE executed 207 military officers and soldiers who had surrendered to the LTTE during Battle of Mullaitivu (1996).The LTTE has also been accused of executing civilian Tamils accused of dissent.",
"Rajan Hoole of UTHR(J) claims that various dissident sources allege that the number of Tamil dissenters and prisoners from rival armed groups clandestinely killed by the LTTE in detention or otherwise ranges from 8,000 - 20,000, although he later stated that western agencies dismissed his figures as exaggeration.==== Torture====The LTTE has also tortured its prisoners.",
"One Tamil prisoner held by the LTTE from 1992 to 1995 showed \"clear signs of burning with heated metalon his genitals, thigh, buttocks and back\".",
"Other methods of torture included hanging the victim upside down and beating them, forcible inhalation of chili fumes, inserting pins underneath fingernails, slashing with razors, and electroshocking.",
"The LTTE tortured suspects based on the victim's refusal to co-operate and for giving information to the Sri Lankan army or IPKF.",
"Torture was also practiced on child soldiers who attempted to flee military service.",
"One girl was left out in the sun for two days after being caught during an attempted escape.",
"Sri Lankan soldiers and police officers were also tortured by the LTTE after being taken prisoner.",
"One lance corporal captured during the Battle of Janakapura was stripped naked and then beaten repeatedly all over his body for half an hour by child soldiers.",
"LTTE prison conditions were often poor, leading to physical and mental health issues among the detainees.",
"Many died due to infections from their wounds.",
"Prisoners were given little food, and sometimes, rotten food was intentionally given.",
"The LTTE used torture during interrogations, where prisoners were interrogated after sleep deprivation and tortured if there were any discrepancies in their story.===War crimes during the Mullivaikkal massacre===There are allegations that war crimes were committed by the Sri Lankan military and the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam during the Sri Lankan Civil War, particularly during the final months of the conflict in 2009.The alleged war crimes include attacks on civilians and civilian buildings by both sides; executions of combatants and prisoners by both sides; forced disappearances by the Sri Lankan military and paramilitary groups backed by them; acute shortages of food, medicine, and clean water for civilians trapped in the war zone; and recruitment of child soldiers by both the Tamil Tigers, and the TMVP, a Sri Lankan Army paramilitary group.A panel of experts appointed by UN Secretary-General (UNSG) Ban Ki-moon to advise him on the issue of accountability with regard to any alleged violations of international human rights and humanitarian law during the final stages of the civil war found \"credible allegations\" which, if proven, indicated that war crimes and crimes against humanity were committed by the Sri Lankan military and the Tamil Tigers.",
"The panel has called on the UNSG to conduct an independent international inquiry into the alleged violations of international law."
],
[
"See also",
"* Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism* Black July* Eelam War* 2009 Tamil diaspora protests* List of assassinations of the Sri Lankan Civil War* List of attacks attributed to the LTTE* List of attacks on civilians attributed to Sri Lankan government forces* Militant use of children in Sri Lanka* Sri Lankan Tamil militant groups* Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * **===Reviews===* *"
],
[
"External links",
"===LTTE web sites===* * Tamilnet Pro Rebel Website* Tamil Eelam News Tamil Eelam news site===Sri Lanka Government===* Humanitarian Operation – Factual Analysis, July 2006 – May 2009 A report on strength and impact of LTTE from Sri Lanka Ministry of Defense* Humanitarian Operation timeline, 1981–2009 The history of Sri Lankan armed forces operations and area controlled by LTTE* Sri Lanka Ministry of Defence LTTE in Brief An overview of LTTE by Sri Lanka Ministry of Defense===International organisations===* An analysis of Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam organization and operations by Federation of American Scientists* Sri Lankan Tamil Diaspora After LTTE Relationship between LTTE and the Tamil diaspora, and consequences of LTTE defeat, by International Crisis Group* Background information on the Tamil Tigers by Council on Foreign Relations* Overview of Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam by Anti-Defamation League* Funding the \"Final War\" A Human Rights Watch report on LTTE's fund raising strategies* Trapped and Mistreated Human rights violations of LTTE, a Human Rights Watch report===International press===* Sri Lankan Civilians Trapped by Tamil Tigers 'Last Stand' Article appeared on The Christian Science Monitor, 3 May 2009* Guerrilla Tactics – How the Tamil Tigers Were Beaten in an 'Unwinnable' War Article appeared on The Times, 19 May 2009* Rise and Fall of the LTTE – An Overview A Sri Lanka Guardian article on characteristics of LTTE"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Laplace transform"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In mathematics, the '''Laplace transform''', named after its discoverer Pierre-Simon Laplace (), is an integral transform that converts a function of a real variable (usually , in the ''time domain'') to a function of a complex variable (in the complex-valued frequency domain, also known as '''''s''-domain''', or '''s-plane''').The transform is useful for converting differentiation and integration in the time domain into much easier multiplication and division in the Laplace domain (analogous to how logarithms are useful for simplifying multiplication and division into addition and subtraction).",
"This gives the transform many applications in science and engineering, mostly as a tool for solving linear differential equations and dynamical systems by simplifying ordinary differential equations and integral equations into algebraic polynomial equations, and by simplifying convolution into multiplication.",
"Once solved, the inverse Laplace transform reverts to the original domain.The Laplace transform is defined (for suitable functions ''f'') by the integral:"
],
[
"History",
"Pierre-Simon, marquis de LaplaceThe Laplace transform is named after mathematician and astronomer Pierre-Simon, Marquis de Laplace, who used a similar transform in his work on probability theory.",
"Laplace wrote extensively about the use of generating functions (1814), and the integral form of the Laplace transform evolved naturally as a result.Laplace's use of generating functions was similar to what is now known as the z-transform, and he gave little attention to the continuous variable case which was discussed by Niels Henrik Abel.",
"The theory was further developed in the 19th and early 20th centuries by Mathias Lerch, Oliver Heaviside, and Thomas Bromwich.The current widespread use of the transform (mainly in engineering) came about during and soon after World War II, replacing the earlier Heaviside operational calculus.",
"The advantages of the Laplace transform had been emphasized by Gustav Doetsch, to whom the name Laplace transform is apparently due.From 1744, Leonhard Euler investigated integrals of the formas solutions of differential equations, but did not pursue the matter very far.",
"Joseph-Louis Lagrange was an admirer of Euler and, in his work on integrating probability density functions, investigated expressions of the formwhich some modern historians have interpreted within modern Laplace transform theory.These types of integrals seem first to have attracted Laplace's attention in 1782, where he was following in the spirit of Euler in using the integrals themselves as solutions of equations.",
"However, in 1785, Laplace took the critical step forward when, rather than simply looking for a solution in the form of an integral, he started to apply the transforms in the sense that was later to become popular.",
"He used an integral of the formakin to a Mellin transform, to transform the whole of a difference equation, in order to look for solutions of the transformed equation.",
"He then went on to apply the Laplace transform in the same way and started to derive some of its properties, beginning to appreciate its potential power.Laplace also recognised that Joseph Fourier's method of Fourier series for solving the diffusion equation could only apply to a limited region of space, because those solutions were periodic.",
"In 1809, Laplace applied his transform to find solutions that diffused indefinitely in space."
],
[
"Formal definition",
"The Laplace transform of a function , defined for all real numbers , is the function , which is a unilateral transform defined bywhere ''s'' is a complex frequency domain parameter with real numbers and .An alternate notation for the Laplace transform is instead of .The meaning of the integral depends on types of functions of interest.",
"A necessary condition for existence of the integral is that must be locally integrable on .",
"For locally integrable functions that decay at infinity or are of exponential type (), the integral can be understood to be a (proper) Lebesgue integral.",
"However, for many applications it is necessary to regard it as a conditionally convergent improper integral at .",
"Still more generally, the integral can be understood in a weak sense, and this is dealt with below.One can define the Laplace transform of a finite Borel measure by the Lebesgue integralAn important special case is where is a probability measure, for example, the Dirac delta function.",
"In operational calculus, the Laplace transform of a measure is often treated as though the measure came from a probability density function .",
"In that case, to avoid potential confusion, one often writeswhere the lower limit of is shorthand notation forThis limit emphasizes that any point mass located at is entirely captured by the Laplace transform.",
"Although with the Lebesgue integral, it is not necessary to take such a limit, it does appear more naturally in connection with the Laplace–Stieltjes transform.=== Bilateral Laplace transform ===When one says \"the Laplace transform\" without qualification, the unilateral or one-sided transform is usually intended.",
"The Laplace transform can be alternatively defined as the ''bilateral Laplace transform'', or two-sided Laplace transform, by extending the limits of integration to be the entire real axis.",
"If that is done, the common unilateral transform simply becomes a special case of the bilateral transform, where the definition of the function being transformed is multiplied by the Heaviside step function.The bilateral Laplace transform is defined as follows:An alternate notation for the bilateral Laplace transform is , instead of .=== Inverse Laplace transform ===Two integrable functions have the same Laplace transform only if they differ on a set of Lebesgue measure zero.",
"This means that, on the range of the transform, there is an inverse transform.",
"In fact, besides integrable functions, the Laplace transform is a one-to-one mapping from one function space into another in many other function spaces as well, although there is usually no easy characterization of the range.Typical function spaces in which this is true include the spaces of bounded continuous functions, the space , or more generally tempered distributions on .",
"The Laplace transform is also defined and injective for suitable spaces of tempered distributions.In these cases, the image of the Laplace transform lives in a space of analytic functions in the region of convergence.",
"The inverse Laplace transform is given by the following complex integral, which is known by various names (the '''Bromwich integral''', the '''Fourier–Mellin integral''', and '''Mellin's inverse formula'''):where is a real number so that the contour path of integration is in the region of convergence of .",
"In most applications, the contour can be closed, allowing the use of the residue theorem.",
"An alternative formula for the inverse Laplace transform is given by Post's inversion formula.",
"The limit here is interpreted in the weak-* topology.In practice, it is typically more convenient to decompose a Laplace transform into known transforms of functions obtained from a table, and construct the inverse by inspection.=== Probability theory ===In pure and applied probability, the Laplace transform is defined as an expected value.",
"If is a random variable with probability density function , then the Laplace transform of is given by the expectation*where is the expectation of random variable .",
"By convention, this is referred to as the Laplace transform of the random variable itself.",
"Here, replacing by gives the moment generating function of .",
"The Laplace transform has applications throughout probability theory, including first passage times of stochastic processes such as Markov chains, and renewal theory.Of particular use is the ability to recover the cumulative distribution function of a continuous random variable , by means of the Laplace transform as follows:=== Algebraic construction ===The Laplace transform can be alternatively defined in a purely algebraic manner by applying a field of fractions construction to the convolution ring of functions on the positive half-line.",
"The resulting space of abstract operators is exactly equivalent to Laplace space, but in this construction the forward and reverse transforms never need to be explicitly defined (avoiding the related difficulties with proving convergence)."
],
[
"Region of convergence",
"If is a locally integrable function (or more generally a Borel measure locally of bounded variation), then the Laplace transform of converges provided that the limitexists.The Laplace transform converges absolutely if the integralexists as a proper Lebesgue integral.",
"The Laplace transform is usually understood as conditionally convergent, meaning that it converges in the former but not in the latter sense.The set of values for which converges absolutely is either of the form or , where is an extended real constant with (a consequence of the dominated convergence theorem).",
"The constant is known as the abscissa of absolute convergence, and depends on the growth behavior of .",
"Analogously, the two-sided transform converges absolutely in a strip of the form , and possibly including the lines or .",
"The subset of values of for which the Laplace transform converges absolutely is called the region of absolute convergence, or the domain of absolute convergence.",
"In the two-sided case, it is sometimes called the strip of absolute convergence.",
"The Laplace transform is analytic in the region of absolute convergence: this is a consequence of Fubini's theorem and Morera's theorem.Similarly, the set of values for which converges (conditionally or absolutely) is known as the region of conditional convergence, or simply the '''region of convergence''' (ROC).",
"If the Laplace transform converges (conditionally) at , then it automatically converges for all with .",
"Therefore, the region of convergence is a half-plane of the form , possibly including some points of the boundary line .In the region of convergence , the Laplace transform of can be expressed by integrating by parts as the integralThat is, can effectively be expressed, in the region of convergence, as the absolutely convergent Laplace transform of some other function.",
"In particular, it is analytic.There are several Paley–Wiener theorems concerning the relationship between the decay properties of , and the properties of the Laplace transform within the region of convergence.In engineering applications, a function corresponding to a linear time-invariant (LTI) system is ''stable'' if every bounded input produces a bounded output.",
"This is equivalent to the absolute convergence of the Laplace transform of the impulse response function in the region .",
"As a result, LTI systems are stable, provided that the poles of the Laplace transform of the impulse response function have negative real part.This ROC is used in knowing about the causality and stability of a system."
],
[
"Properties and theorems",
"The Laplace transform's key property is that it is converts differentiation and integration in the time domain into multiplication and division in the Laplace domain.",
"Thus, the Laplace variable is also known as ''operator variable'' in the Laplace domain: either the ''derivative operator'' or (for the ''integration operator''.Given the functions and , and their respective Laplace transforms and ,the following table is a list of properties of unilateral Laplace transform:+ Properties of the unilateral Laplace transform Property Time domain domain Comment Linearity Can be proved using basic rules of integration.",
"Frequency-domain derivative is the first derivative of with respect to .",
"Frequency-domain general derivative More general form, th derivative of .",
"Derivative is assumed to be a differentiable function, and its derivative is assumed to be of exponential type.",
"This can then be obtained by integration by parts Second derivative is assumed twice differentiable and the second derivative to be of exponential type.",
"Follows by applying the Differentiation property to .",
"General derivative is assumed to be -times differentiable, with th derivative of exponential type.",
"Follows by mathematical induction.",
"Frequency-domain integration This is deduced using the nature of frequency differentiation and conditional convergence.",
"Time-domain integration is the Heaviside step function and is the convolution of and .",
"Frequency shifting Time shifting , is the Heaviside step function Time scaling Multiplication The integration is done along the vertical line that lies entirely within the region of convergence of .",
"Convolution Circular convolution For periodic functions with period .",
"Complex conjugation Cross-correlation Periodic function is a periodic function of period so that , for all .",
"This is the result of the time shifting property and the geometric series.",
"Periodic summation ; Initial value theorem:; Final value theorem:, if all poles of are in the left half-plane.",
":The final value theorem is useful because it gives the long-term behaviour without having to perform partial fraction decompositions (or other difficult algebra).",
"If has a pole in the right-hand plane or poles on the imaginary axis (e.g., if or ), then the behaviour of this formula is undefined.=== Relation to power series ===The Laplace transform can be viewed as a continuous analogue of a power series.",
"If is a discrete function of a positive integer , then the power series associated to is the serieswhere is a real variable (see ''Z-transform'').",
"Replacing summation over with integration over , a continuous version of the power series becomeswhere the discrete function is replaced by the continuous one .Changing the base of the power from to givesFor this to converge for, say, all bounded functions , it is necessary to require that .",
"Making the substitution gives just the Laplace transform:In other words, the Laplace transform is a continuous analog of a power series, in which the discrete parameter is replaced by the continuous parameter , and is replaced by .=== Relation to moments ===The quantitiesare the ''moments'' of the function .",
"If the first moments of converge absolutely, then by repeated differentiation under the integral, This is of special significance in probability theory, where the moments of a random variable are given by the expectation values .",
"Then, the relation holds=== Computation of the Laplace transform of a function's derivative ===It is often convenient to use the differentiation property of the Laplace transform to find the transform of a function's derivative.",
"This can be derived from the basic expression for a Laplace transform as follows:yieldingand in the bilateral case,The general resultwhere denotes the th derivative of , can then be established with an inductive argument.=== Evaluating integrals over the positive real axis ===A useful property of the Laplace transform is the following:under suitable assumptions on the behaviour of in a right neighbourhood of and on the decay rate of in a left neighbourhood of .",
"The above formula is a variation of integration by parts, with the operators and being replaced by and .",
"Let us prove the equivalent formulation:By plugging in the left-hand side turns into:but assuming Fubini's theorem holds, by reversing the order of integration we get the wanted right-hand side.This method can be used to compute integrals that would otherwise be difficult to compute using elementary methods of real calculus.",
"For example,"
],
[
"Relationship to other transforms",
"=== Laplace–Stieltjes transform ===The (unilateral) Laplace–Stieltjes transform of a function is defined by the Lebesgue–Stieltjes integralThe function is assumed to be of bounded variation.",
"If is the antiderivative of :then the Laplace–Stieltjes transform of and the Laplace transform of coincide.",
"In general, the Laplace–Stieltjes transform is the Laplace transform of the Stieltjes measure associated to .",
"So in practice, the only distinction between the two transforms is that the Laplace transform is thought of as operating on the density function of the measure, whereas the Laplace–Stieltjes transform is thought of as operating on its cumulative distribution function.=== Fourier transform ===The Fourier transform is a special case (under certain conditions) of the bilateral Laplace transform.",
"While the Fourier transform of a function is a complex function of a ''real'' variable (frequency), the Laplace transform of a function is a complex function of a ''complex'' variable.",
"The Laplace transform is usually restricted to transformation of functions of with .",
"A consequence of this restriction is that the Laplace transform of a function is a holomorphic function of the variable .",
"Unlike the Fourier transform, the Laplace transform of a distribution is generally a well-behaved function.",
"Techniques of complex variables can also be used to directly study Laplace transforms.",
"As a holomorphic function, the Laplace transform has a power series representation.",
"This power series expresses a function as a linear superposition of moments of the function.",
"This perspective has applications in probability theory.The Fourier transform is equivalent to evaluating the bilateral Laplace transform with imaginary argument or when the condition explained below is fulfilled,This convention of the Fourier transform ( in ) requires a factor of on the inverse Fourier transform.",
"This relationship between the Laplace and Fourier transforms is often used to determine the frequency spectrum of a signal or dynamical system.The above relation is valid as stated if and only if the region of convergence (ROC) of contains the imaginary axis, .For example, the function has a Laplace transform whose ROC is .",
"As is a pole of , substituting in does not yield the Fourier transform of , which contains terms proportional to the Dirac delta functions .However, a relation of the formholds under much weaker conditions.",
"For instance, this holds for the above example provided that the limit is understood as a weak limit of measures (see vague topology).",
"General conditions relating the limit of the Laplace transform of a function on the boundary to the Fourier transform take the form of Paley–Wiener theorems.=== Mellin transform ===The Mellin transform and its inverse are related to the two-sided Laplace transform by a simple change of variables.If in the Mellin transformwe set we get a two-sided Laplace transform.=== Z-transform ===The unilateral or one-sided Z-transform is simply the Laplace transform of an ideally sampled signal with the substitution ofwhere is the sampling interval (in units of time e.g., seconds) and is the sampling rate (in samples per second or hertz).Letbe a sampling impulse train (also called a Dirac comb) andbe the sampled representation of the continuous-time The Laplace transform of the sampled signal isThis is the precise definition of the unilateral Z-transform of the discrete function with the substitution of .Comparing the last two equations, we find the relationship between the unilateral Z-transform and the Laplace transform of the sampled signal,The similarity between the Z- and Laplace transforms is expanded upon in the theory of time scale calculus.=== Borel transform ===The integral form of the Borel transformis a special case of the Laplace transform for an entire function of exponential type, meaning thatfor some constants and .",
"The generalized Borel transform allows a different weighting function to be used, rather than the exponential function, to transform functions not of exponential type.",
"Nachbin's theorem gives necessary and sufficient conditions for the Borel transform to be well defined.=== Fundamental relationships ===Since an ordinary Laplace transform can be written as a special case of a two-sided transform, and since the two-sided transform can be written as the sum of two one-sided transforms, the theory of the Laplace-, Fourier-, Mellin-, and Z-transforms are at bottom the same subject.",
"However, a different point of view and different characteristic problems are associated with each of these four major integral transforms."
],
[
"Table of selected Laplace transforms",
"The following table provides Laplace transforms for many common functions of a single variable.",
"For definitions and explanations, see the ''Explanatory Notes'' at the end of the table.Because the Laplace transform is a linear operator,* The Laplace transform of a sum is the sum of Laplace transforms of each term.",
"* The Laplace transform of a multiple of a function is that multiple times the Laplace transformation of that function.Using this linearity, and various trigonometric, hyperbolic, and complex number (etc.)",
"properties and/or identities, some Laplace transforms can be obtained from others more quickly than by using the definition directly.The unilateral Laplace transform takes as input a function whose time domain is the non-negative reals, which is why all of the time domain functions in the table below are multiples of the Heaviside step function, .The entries of the table that involve a time delay are required to be causal (meaning that ).",
"A causal system is a system where the impulse response is zero for all time prior to .",
"In general, the region of convergence for causal systems is not the same as that of anticausal systems.+ Selected Laplace transforms Function Time domain Laplace -domain Region of convergence Reference unit impulse all inspection delayed impulse time shift ofunit impulse unit step integrate unit impulse delayed unit step time shift ofunit step product of delayed function and delayed step u-substitution, rectangular impulse ramp integrate unitimpulse twice th power (for integer ) () integrate unitstep times th power (for complex ) th root Set above.",
"th power with frequency shift Integrate unit step,apply frequency shift delayed th power with frequency shift integrate unit step,apply frequency shift,apply time shift exponential decay Frequency shift ofunit step two-sided exponential decay (only for bilateral transform) Frequency shift ofunit step exponential approach unit step minusexponential decay sine cosine hyperbolic sine hyperbolic cosine exponentially decaying sine wave exponentially decaying cosine wave natural logarithm Bessel function of the first kind, of order () Error function '''Explanatory notes:'''* represents the Heaviside step function.",
"* represents the Dirac delta function.",
"* represents the gamma function.",
"* is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.",
"* , a real number, typically represents ''time'', although it can represent ''any'' independent dimension.",
"* is the complex frequency domain parameter, and is its real part.",
"* are real numbers.",
"* is an integer."
],
[
"''s''-domain equivalent circuits and impedances",
"The Laplace transform is often used in circuit analysis, and simple conversions to the -domain of circuit elements can be made.",
"Circuit elements can be transformed into impedances, very similar to phasor impedances.Here is a summary of equivalents:: -domain equivalent circuitsNote that the resistor is exactly the same in the time domain and the -domain.",
"The sources are put in if there are initial conditions on the circuit elements.",
"For example, if a capacitor has an initial voltage across it, or if the inductor has an initial current through it, the sources inserted in the -domain account for that.The equivalents for current and voltage sources are simply derived from the transformations in the table above."
],
[
"Examples and applications",
"The Laplace transform is used frequently in engineering and physics; the output of a linear time-invariant system can be calculated by convolving its unit impulse response with the input signal.",
"Performing this calculation in Laplace space turns the convolution into a multiplication; the latter being easier to solve because of its algebraic form.",
"For more information, see control theory.",
"The Laplace transform is invertible on a large class of functions.",
"Given a simple mathematical or functional description of an input or output to a system, the Laplace transform provides an alternative functional description that often simplifies the process of analyzing the behavior of the system, or in synthesizing a new system based on a set of specifications.The Laplace transform can also be used to solve differential equations and is used extensively in mechanical engineering and electrical engineering.",
"The Laplace transform reduces a linear differential equation to an algebraic equation, which can then be solved by the formal rules of algebra.",
"The original differential equation can then be solved by applying the inverse Laplace transform.",
"English electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside first proposed a similar scheme, although without using the Laplace transform; and the resulting operational calculus is credited as the Heaviside calculus.=== Evaluating improper integrals ===Let .",
"Then (see the table above)From which one gets:In the limit , one getsprovided that the interchange of limits can be justified.",
"This is often possible as a consequence of the final value theorem.",
"Even when the interchange cannot be justified the calculation can be suggestive.",
"For example, with , proceeding formally one hasThe validity of this identity can be proved by other means.",
"It is an example of a Frullani integral.Another example is Dirichlet integral.=== Complex impedance of a capacitor ===In the theory of electrical circuits, the current flow in a capacitor is proportional to the capacitance and rate of change in the electrical potential (with equations as for the SI unit system).",
"Symbolically, this is expressed by the differential equationwhere is the capacitance of the capacitor, is the electric current through the capacitor as a function of time, and is the voltage across the terminals of the capacitor, also as a function of time.Taking the Laplace transform of this equation, we obtainwhereandSolving for we haveThe definition of the complex impedance (in ohms) is the ratio of the complex voltage divided by the complex current while holding the initial state at zero:Using this definition and the previous equation, we find:which is the correct expression for the complex impedance of a capacitor.",
"In addition, the Laplace transform has large applications in control theory.=== Impulse response ===Consider a linear time-invariant system with transfer functionThe impulse response is simply the inverse Laplace transform of this transfer function:;Partial fraction expansionTo evaluate this inverse transform, we begin by expanding using the method of partial fraction expansion,The unknown constants and are the residues located at the corresponding poles of the transfer function.",
"Each residue represents the relative contribution of that singularity to the transfer function's overall shape.By the residue theorem, the inverse Laplace transform depends only upon the poles and their residues.",
"To find the residue , we multiply both sides of the equation by to getThen by letting , the contribution from vanishes and all that is left isSimilarly, the residue is given byNote thatand so the substitution of and into the expanded expression for givesFinally, using the linearity property and the known transform for exponential decay (see ''Item'' #''3'' in the ''Table of Laplace Transforms'', above), we can take the inverse Laplace transform of to obtainwhich is the impulse response of the system.",
";ConvolutionThe same result can be achieved using the convolution property as if the system is a series of filters with transfer functions and .",
"That is, the inverse ofis=== Phase delay === Time function Laplace transform Starting with the Laplace transform,we find the inverse by first rearranging terms in the fraction:We are now able to take the inverse Laplace transform of our terms:This is just the sine of the sum of the arguments, yielding:We can apply similar logic to find that=== Statistical mechanics ===In statistical mechanics, the Laplace transform of the density of states defines the partition function.",
"That is, the canonical partition function is given byand the inverse is given by===Spatial (not time) structure from astronomical spectrum===The wide and general applicability of the Laplace transform and its inverse is illustrated by an application in astronomy which provides some information on the ''spatial distribution'' of matter of an astronomical source of radiofrequency thermal radiation too distant to resolve as more than a point, given its flux density spectrum, rather than relating the ''time'' domain with the spectrum (frequency domain).Assuming certain properties of the object, e.g.",
"spherical shape and constant temperature, calculations based on carrying out an inverse Laplace transformation on the spectrum of the object can produce the only possible model of the distribution of matter in it (density as a function of distance from the center) consistent with the spectrum.",
"When independent information on the structure of an object is available, the inverse Laplace transform method has been found to be in good agreement."
],
[
"Gallery"
],
[
"See also",
"* Analog signal processing* Bernstein's theorem on monotone functions* Continuous-repayment mortgage* Hamburger moment problem* Hardy–Littlewood Tauberian theorem* Laplace–Carson transform* Moment-generating function* Nonlocal operator* Post's inversion formula* Signal-flow graph* Transfer function"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Modern ===* * * * * * * === Historical ===* * * , Chapters 3–5* * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* .",
"* * * * * Mathews, Jon; Walker, Robert L. (1970), ''Mathematical methods of physics'' (2nd ed.",
"), New York: W. A. Benjamin, * * * - See Chapter VI.",
"The Laplace transform.",
"* * * J.A.C.Weidman and Bengt Fornberg: \"Fully numerical Laplace transform methods\", Numerical Algorithms, vol.92 (2023), pp.",
"985–1006.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11075-022-01368-x ."
],
[
"External links",
"* * Online Computation of the transform or inverse transform, wims.unice.fr* Tables of Integral Transforms at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.",
"* * Good explanations of the initial and final value theorems * Laplace Transforms at MathPages* Computational Knowledge Engine allows to easily calculate Laplace Transforms and its inverse Transform.",
"* Laplace Calculator to calculate Laplace Transforms online easily.",
"* Code to visualize Laplace Transforms and many example videos."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Liberal arts college"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Pomona College in Claremont, CaliforniaAshesi University in Accra, GhanaA '''liberal arts college''' or '''liberal arts institution of higher education''' is a college with an emphasis on undergraduate study in liberal arts and general sciences.",
"Such colleges aim to impart a broad general knowledge and develop general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional or vocational curriculum.",
"Students in a liberal arts college generally major in a particular discipline while receiving exposure to a wide range of academic subjects, including general sciences as well as the traditional humanities subjects taught as liberal arts.",
"Although it draws on European antecedents, the liberal arts college is strongly associated with American higher education, and most liberal arts colleges around the world draw explicitly on the American model.There is no formal definition of a liberal arts college, but one American authority defines them as schools that \"emphasize undergraduate education and award at least half of their degrees in the liberal arts fields of study.\"",
"Other researchers have adopted similar definitions.Although many liberal arts colleges are exclusively undergraduate, some also offer graduate programs that lead to a master's degree or doctoral degree in subjects such as English, general biology, fine arts, and law.",
"Similarly, the term \"liberal arts college\" most commonly refers to an independent institution with a specialty in non-technical coursework.",
"It may also sometimes refer to a university college within or affiliated with a larger university.",
"Most liberal arts colleges outside the United States follow this model."
],
[
"Distinguishing characteristics",
"Discussion class at Shimer College in Chicago ( to 2006)Liberal arts colleges are distinguished from other types of higher education chiefly by their generalist curricula and small size.",
"These attributes have various secondary effects in terms of administration as well as student experience.",
"For example, class size is usually much lower at liberal arts colleges than at universities, and faculty at liberal arts colleges typically focus on teaching more than research.From a student perspective, a liberal arts college typically differs from other forms of higher education in the following areas: higher overall student satisfaction, a general feeling that professors take a personal interest in the student's education, and perception of encouragement to participate in discussion.",
"Many students select liberal arts colleges with precisely this sense of personal connection in mind.From an administrative standpoint, the small size of liberal arts colleges contributes to their cohesion and ability to survive through difficult times.",
"Job satisfaction is also typically higher in liberal arts colleges, for both faculty and staff.",
"The smaller size also makes it feasible for liberal arts colleges to adopt relatively experimental or divergent approaches, such as the Great Books curriculum at St. John's or Shimer, or the radically interdisciplinary curriculum of Marlboro.In addition, most liberal arts colleges are primarily residential, which means students live and learn away from home, often for the first time.The distinctiveness of these attributes is somewhat eroded by the tendency of universities to adopt aspects of the liberal arts college, and vice versa.",
"For example, several American universities, including the University of California campuses in Santa Cruz and San Diego, developed a cluster colleges model in which small liberal-arts-college-like units within a larger university form a \"honeycomb of residential colleges\".",
"In addition, some universities have maintained a sub-unit that preserves many aspects of the liberal arts college, such as Columbia College within Columbia University.Liberal arts colleges themselves sometimes cluster to offer greater curricular breadth or share other resources (for instance Colgate University and Hamilton College in New York allow cross enrollment)."
],
[
"Liberal arts and liberal arts college",
"In academia, liberal arts generally refer to subjects or skills that aim to provide general knowledge and comprise the arts, humanities, general sciences, and social sciences (rather than professional or technical skills).",
"Most liberal arts colleges, however, also offer courses in subjects that are not traditionally considered part of the liberal arts, such as computer science."
],
[
"Globally",
"Mount Allison has been ranked the top undergraduate school in Canada more times than any other universityLiberal arts colleges are found in all parts of the world.",
"Notwithstanding the European origins of the concept of liberal arts education, today the term is largely associated with the United States, and most self-identified liberal arts colleges worldwide are built on the American model.",
"The Global Liberal Arts Alliance, which incorporates institutions on five continents, refers to itself as \"an international, multilateral partnership of American style liberal arts institutions.",
"\"In 2009, liberal arts colleges from around the world formed the Global Liberal Arts Alliance, an international consortium and \"matching service\" to help liberal arts colleges in different countries deal with their shared problems.Keep in mind, ''U.S.",
"News & World Report'' no longer provides rankings for liberal arts colleges at \"global\" universities.",
"These colleges are members of the top 2,000 universities ''U.S.",
"News & World Report'' ranks around the world.===In North America===Williams College is one of the top ranked liberal arts college in the United StatesThe liberal arts college model took root in the United States in the 19th century, as institutions spread that followed the model of early schools like Harvard, Yale, and Dartmouth, although none of these early American schools are regarded as liberal arts colleges today.",
"These colleges served as a means of spreading a basically European cultural model across the new country.",
"The model proliferated in the 19th century; some 212 small liberal arts colleges were established between 1850 and 1899.As of 1987, there were about 540 liberal arts colleges in the United States.The oldest liberal arts college in America is considered to be Washington College, the first college chartered after American independence.",
"Other prominent examples in the United States include the so-called Little Ivy colleges in New England, the surviving predominantly female Seven Sisters colleges along the northeastern seaboard, the Claremont Colleges in Southern California, and the Ohio Five, but similar institutions are found all over the country.",
"The Maple League in Canada is a consortium of four universities – Acadia, Bishop's, Mount Allison and St. Francis Xavier – who together form an alliance of small, rural, undergraduate liberal arts education institutions with Francophone heritage and a commitment to truth and reconciliation with indigenous communities.Most liberal arts colleges are private institutions, but a handful of public liberal arts schools exist (such as the University of Mary Washington in Fredericksburg, Virginia).According to ''U.S.",
"News & World Report'', the top ten ranked Liberal Arts Colleges in America for 2022 are: Williams College, Amherst College, Swarthmore College, Pomona College, Wellesley College, Bowdoin College, United States Naval Academy, Claremont McKenna College, Carleton College, and Middlebury College, based on institutional stats and proprietary questionnaires .Liberal arts colleges in Canada include Acadia University, Bishop's University, Glendon College of York University, Mount Allison University, St. Francis Xavier University, Trent University, University of Lethbridge, and the University of King's College.===In South America===The leading organization is the National Institute of Educators of Liberal Arts and Artistic Education \"Instituto Nacional Superior del Profesorado en Artes\" located in Buenos Aires, Argentina, initially created in 1923 by Ernesto de la Cárcova, under the name \"Escuela Nacional Superior de Bellas Artes\", the original school of Liberal Arts building became the Ernesto de la Cárcova Museum.",
"From 1983 to 2013 the institute was part of the IUNA National University Institute for the Arts, and since 2014, the Ruanova Institute of Performing Arts and Higher Education, named after Maria Ruanova, became part of the UNA Universidad Nacional de las Artes, (UNA) National University of the Arts===In Europe===Class at Bard College Berlin, in EuropeWith the exception of pioneering institutions such as Franklin University Switzerland, established as a Europe-based, US-style liberal arts college in 1969, Saint Louis University Madrid Campus, established in 1967, and Richmond, The American International University in London, established in 1972 only recently have efforts been made to import the American liberal arts college model to Europe.In the Netherlands, universities have opened constituent liberal arts colleges under the terminology \"university college\" since the late 1990s.",
"This trend was spearheaded by Dutch sociologist Hans Adriaansens, who was \"frustrated with the large-scale climate of university education in the Netherlands\".",
"Dutch university colleges of this kind include Leiden University College The Hague, University College Utrecht, University College Maastricht, Amsterdam University College, University College Roosevelt, Erasmus University College, University College Groningen and University College Tilburg.Other liberal arts colleges in continental Europe include The American University of Paris, Bratislava International School of Liberal Arts in Slovakia, Jacobs University Bremen, Bard College Berlin, the Leuphana University of Lüneburg with their Bachelor program Studium Individuale and the University College Freiburg in Germany.",
"Bard College Berlin was founded in Berlin in 1999 as the European College of Liberal Arts, and in 2009 it introduced a 4-year Bachelor of Arts program in Value Studies taught in English and leading to an interdisciplinary degree in the humanities.",
"In the Czech Republic, the Faculty of Humanities, Charles University, a part of Charles University started providing liberal arts education in 1994 as the Institute for Liberal Education and gained full academic autonomy in 2000.Although liberal arts colleges as such remain rare, liberal arts degree programs are beginning to establish themselves in Europe.",
"For example, University College Dublin offers the degree, as does St. Marys University College Belfast, both institutions coincidentally on the island of Ireland.",
"In 2010 the University of Winchester introduced its Modern Liberal Arts undergraduate program, the first of its kind in the UK.",
"In 2012, University College London began its interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences BASc degree (which has kinship with the liberal arts model) with 80 students.",
"King's College London launched the BA Liberal Arts, which has a slant towards arts, humanities and social sciences subjects.",
"The New College of the Humanities also launched a new liberal education programme.",
"The four-year bachelor's degree in Liberal Arts and Sciences at University College Freiburg is the first of its kind in Germany.",
"It started in October 2012 with 78 students.",
"The first Liberal Arts degree program in Sweden was established at Gothenburg University in 2011, followed by a Liberal Arts Bachelor Programme at Uppsala University's Campus Gotland in the autumn of 2013.Liberal arts colleges in Italy include John Cabot University and The American University of Rome in Rome.",
"The University College of North Staffordshire, founded in 1950 in the United Kingdom, was frequently referred to as the \"Keele Experiment\" because of its innovative curriculum and emphasis on a scholarly community resident together on campus.",
"The college became Keele University in 1962 and continues to reflect many features of the liberal arts college model.",
"It has been described as the closest example of a liberal arts college in the UK.",
"This distinctiveness was reinforced with the opening of the new Keele Institute of Liberal Arts and Sciences in 2016.In September 2016 Chavagnes Studium, a Liberal Arts centre in France, began offering a 2-year intensive BA in the Liberal Arts with a Catholic perspective.===In Asia===International Christian University in JapanHabib University in KarachiLingnan University in Hong Kong was established as a liberal arts college in the early 20th century, although it subsequently became a full-fledged university.",
"Ginling College in Nanjing similarly followed the model of an American liberal arts college from its founding in 1915 until forced to conform with the Nationalist educational system in the 1930s.",
"In Zhuhai City, Hong Kong Baptist University and Beijing Normal University opened United International College, which adopted the liberal arts college education system.International Christian University in Tokyo, which opened in 1953, defines itself as \"Japan's first liberal arts college.\"",
"Other Japanese liberal arts programs include the other four members of the Global Five which includes School of International Liberal Studies at Waseda University, Akita International University, Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University and Sophia University's Faculty of Liberal Arts.Yale-NUS College was started in 2011 as Singapore's first liberal arts college as a collaboration between Yale University in the United States and the National University of Singapore.",
"It attracted controversy over concerns that Yale was compromising on its liberal values by opening a college in a country where there are strong curbs on freedom of speech and assembly, with Yale faculty members expressing their \"concern regarding the history of lack of respect for civil and political rights in the state of Singapore\".",
"In response, many existing faculty and students have noted that there has been little repression of freedom of expression at the college and that it provides a great opportunity to promote the liberal arts in Asia.",
"In August 2021, NUS announced the closure of Yale-NUS College, with the Class of 2025 being the last cohort to receive an NUS degree.",
"It will be replaced by NUS College, a merger between Yale-NUS College and the NUS University Scholars Programme.Kalayaan College in the Philippines is one of the best examples of a liberal arts college in the country.",
"Located in the New Manila district of Quezon City, it was founded in 2000 by former educators from the University of the Philippines led by José Abueva, President of the University from 1987 to 1993 and current Chairman of the KC Board of Trustees.",
"It offers the same kind of education provided by UP to qualified students who are unable to enter the country's premier state university because of its limited college quotas.",
"The curriculum and grading system is patterned after the academic programs and the grade structure offered by the University of the Philippines and is composed of administrators and faculty members who graduated from UP, and/or are also members of the UP academic community.Sogang University was founded as South Korea's first liberal arts college.",
"In 1960, Jesuits founded Sogang College.",
"Although, it became Sogang University in 1970, it is still following model of American liberal arts college in many aspects.",
"Seoul National University in South Korea established the College of Liberal Studies in 2007, initially as an educational project.",
"However, after being established as a proper college in the SNU, it has become the only college that allows students to create their own major.Liberal arts colleges in India include undergraduate UG or bachelor's degree/diploma and postgraduate PG or master's degree/diploma as well as doctoral PhD and postdoctoral studies and research, in this academic discipline.",
"The highly ranked IIT Guwahati offers a There are also programs such as Ajeenkya DY Patil University in Pune, India, Forman Christian College in Lahore, Pakistan, Habib University in Karachi, Pakistan and FLAME University in Pune, Maharashtra, India, referred to as India's 'first college of Liberal Education'.",
"The University is a member of the Global Liberal Arts Alliance has also recently signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Nuffield College, University of Oxford.Also, Ahmedabad University, a private, non-profit university offers its students a liberal education which is focused on research and interdisciplinary learning''.",
"''Shalem College in Israel.Baghdad College has offered a liberal arts curriculum since the early 20th century, but despite its name it has never offered more than a high school education.",
"Effat University in Saudi Arabia, a women's institution, is a member of the Global Liberal Arts Alliance.",
"Israel's first liberal arts college, Shalem College, was established in 2013.===In Africa===Al Akhawayn University in Morocco.Three institutions in Africa are members of the Global Liberal Arts Alliance: Al Akhawayn University in Morocco, American University of Cairo in Egypt, and American University of Nigeria.",
"The Egyptian and Nigerian schools are universities with a liberal arts component, but Al Akhawayn was founded on the model of an American liberal arts college.Ashesi University is a liberal arts college located in Berekuso, Ghana, established in 2002.The school's president, Patrick Awuah, described the school's mission as \"educating a new generation of leaders in Africa who think ethically and who are problem solvers and have the ability and the desire to confront problems on the continent.",
"\"===In Australia===Campion College is a Roman Catholic dedicated liberal arts college located in the western suburbs of Sydney.",
"Founded in 2006, it is the first tertiary educational liberal arts college of its kind in Australia.",
"Campion offers a Bachelor of Arts in the Liberal Arts as its sole undergraduate degree.",
"The key disciplines studied are history, literature, philosophy and theology.The Millis Institute is the School of Liberal Arts at Christian Heritage College located in Brisbane.",
"It offers a Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts in which students can choose to major in Philosophy, Theology, History or Literature.A new School of Liberal Arts has been formed in the University of Wollongong; the new Arts course entitled 'Western Civilisation' was first offered in 2020.The interdisciplinary curriculum focuses on the classic intellectual and artistic literature of the Western tradition.",
"Courses in the liberal arts have also been developed at the University of Sydney and University of Notre Dame."
],
[
"Lists of schools",
"* List of liberal arts colleges* List of liberal arts colleges in the United States"
],
[
"See also",
"* Liberal arts education* Bachelor of Liberal Arts* College of Arts and Sciences* Liberal arts colleges in the United States"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Works cited",
"* * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Morris, Edward. ''",
"The Lindenwood Model: An Antidote for What Ails Undergraduate Education''.",
"University Press (2007)* Pfnister, Allen O. \"",
"The Role of the Liberal Arts College.\"",
"''The Journal of Higher Education''.",
"Vol.",
"55, No.",
"2 (March/April 1984): 145–170.",
"* Reeves, Floyd W. \" The Liberal-Arts College.\"",
"''The Journal of Higher Education''.",
"Vol.",
"1, No.",
"7 (1930): 373–380.",
"* Seidel, George. \"",
"Saving the Small College.\"",
"''The Journal of Higher Education''.",
"Vol.",
"39, No.",
"6 (1968): 339–342."
],
[
"External links",
"* Global Liberal Arts Alliance* Council of Public Liberal Arts Colleges* Consortium of Liberal Arts Colleges* How many (U.S.) colleges and universities have closed since 2016?",
"A list maintained by Education Drive and updated in real time."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Language acquisition"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Language acquisition''' is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language (in other words, gain the ability to be aware of language and to understand it), as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate.Language acquisition involves structures, rules, and representation.",
"The capacity to use language successfully requires one to acquire a range of tools including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and an extensive vocabulary.",
"Language can be vocalized as in speech, or manual as in sign.",
"Human language capacity is represented in the brain.",
"Even though human language capacity is finite, one can say and understand an infinite number of sentences, which is based on a syntactic principle called recursion.",
"Evidence suggests that every individual has three recursive mechanisms that allow sentences to go indeterminately.",
"These three mechanisms are: ''relativization'', ''complementation'' and ''coordination''.There are two main guiding principles in first-language acquisition: speech perception always precedes speech production, and the gradually evolving system by which a child learns a language is built up one step at a time, beginning with the distinction between individual phonemes.Linguists who are interested in child language acquisition have for many years questioned how language is acquired.",
"Lidz et al.",
"state \"The question of how these structures are acquired, then, is more properly understood as the question of how a learner takes the surface forms in the input and converts them into abstract linguistic rules and representations.",
"\"Language acquisition usually refers to '''first-language acquisition''', which studies infants' acquisition of their native language, whether that be spoken language or signed language, though it can also refer to '''bilingual first language acquisition''' (BFLA), which refers to an infant's simultaneous acquisition of two native languages.",
"This is distinguished from ''second-language acquisition'', which deals with the acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional languages.",
"In addition to speech, reading and writing a language with an entirely different script compounds the complexities of true foreign language literacy.",
"Language acquisition is one of the quintessential human traits."
],
[
"History",
"Some early observation-based ideas about language acquisition were proposed by Plato, who felt that word-meaning mapping in some form was innate.",
"Additionally, Sanskrit grammarians debated for over twelve centuries whether humans' ability to recognize the meaning of words was god-given (possibly innate) or passed down by previous generations and learned from already established conventions: a child learning the word for ''cow'' by listening to trusted speakers talking about cows.Philosophers in ancient societies were interested in how humans acquired the ability to understand and produce language well before empirical methods for testing those theories were developed, but for the most part they seemed to regard language acquisition as a subset of man's ability to acquire knowledge and learn concepts.Empiricists, like Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, argued that knowledge (and, for Locke, language) emerge ultimately from abstracted sense impressions.",
"These arguments lean towards the \"nurture\" side of the argument: that language is acquired through sensory experience, which led to Rudolf Carnap's Aufbau, an attempt to learn all knowledge from sense datum, using the notion of \"remembered as similar\" to bind them into clusters, which would eventually map into language.Proponents of behaviorism argued that language may be learned through a form of operant conditioning.",
"In B. F. Skinner's ''Verbal Behavior'' (1957), he suggested that the successful use of a sign, such as a word or lexical unit, given a certain stimulus, reinforces its \"momentary\" or contextual probability.",
"Since operant conditioning is contingent on reinforcement by rewards, a child would learn that a specific combination of sounds stands for a specific thing through repeated successful associations made between the two.",
"A \"successful\" use of a sign would be one in which the child is understood (for example, a child saying \"up\" when they want to be picked up) and rewarded with the desired response from another person, thereby reinforcing the child's understanding of the meaning of that word and making it more likely that they will use that word in a similar situation in the future.",
"Some empiricist theories of language acquisition include the statistical learning theory.",
"Charles F. Hockett of language acquisition, relational frame theory, functionalist linguistics, social interactionist theory, and usage-based language acquisition.Skinner's behaviorist idea was strongly attacked by Noam Chomsky in a review article in 1959, calling it \"largely mythology\" and a \"serious delusion.\"",
"Arguments against Skinner's idea of language acquisition through operant conditioning include the fact that children often ignore language corrections from adults.",
"Instead, children typically follow a pattern of using an irregular form of a word correctly, making errors later on, and eventually returning to the proper use of the word.",
"For example, a child may correctly learn the word \"gave\" (past tense of \"give\"), and later on use the word \"gived\".",
"Eventually, the child will typically go back to using the correct word, \"gave\".",
"Chomsky claimed the pattern is difficult to attribute to Skinner's idea of operant conditioning as the primary way that children acquire language.",
"Chomsky argued that if language were solely acquired through behavioral conditioning, children would not likely learn the proper use of a word and suddenly use the word incorrectly.",
"Chomsky believed that Skinner failed to account for the central role of syntactic knowledge in language competence.",
"Chomsky also rejected the term \"learning\", which Skinner used to claim that children \"learn\" language through operant conditioning.",
"Instead, Chomsky argued for a mathematical approach to language acquisition, based on a study of syntax."
],
[
"As a typically human phenomenon",
"The capacity to acquire and use language is a key aspect that distinguishes humans from other beings.",
"Although it is difficult to pin down what aspects of language are uniquely human, there are a few design features that can be found in all known forms of human language, but that are missing from forms of animal communication.",
"For example, many animals are able to communicate with each other by signaling to the things around them, but this kind of communication lacks the arbitrariness of human vernaculars (in that there is nothing about the sound of the word \"dog\" that would hint at its meaning).",
"Other forms of animal communication may utilize arbitrary sounds, but are unable to combine those sounds in different ways to create completely novel messages that can then be automatically understood by another.",
"Hockett called this design feature of human language \"productivity\".",
"It is crucial to the understanding of human language acquisition that humans are not limited to a finite set of words, but, rather, must be able to understand and utilize a complex system that allows for an infinite number of possible messages.",
"So, while many forms of animal communication exist, they differ from human language in that they have a limited range of vocabulary tokens, and the vocabulary items are not combined syntactically to create phrases.Victor of AveyronHerbert S. Terrace conducted a study on a chimpanzee known as Nim Chimpsky in an attempt to teach him American Sign Language.",
"This study was an attempt to further research done with a chimpanzee named Washoe, who was reportedly able to acquire American Sign Language.",
"However, upon further inspection, Terrace concluded that both experiments were failures.",
"While Nim was able to acquire signs, he never acquired a knowledge of grammar, and was unable to combine signs in a meaningful way.",
"Researchers noticed that \"signs that seemed spontaneous were, in fact, cued by teachers\", and not actually productive.",
"When Terrace reviewed Project Washoe, he found similar results.",
"He postulated that there is a fundamental difference between animals and humans in their motivation to learn language; animals, such as in Nim's case, are motivated only by physical reward, while humans learn language in order to \"create a new type of communication\".In another language acquisition study, Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard attempted to teach Victor of Aveyron, a feral child, how to speak.",
"Victor was able to learn a few words, but ultimately never fully acquired language.",
"Slightly more successful was a study done on Genie, another child never introduced to society.",
"She had been entirely isolated for the first thirteen years of her life by her father.",
"Caretakers and researchers attempted to measure her ability to learn a language.",
"She was able to acquire a large vocabulary, but never acquired grammatical knowledge.",
"Researchers concluded that the theory of a critical period was true; Genie was too old to learn how to speak productively, although she was still able to comprehend language."
],
[
"General approaches",
"A major debate in understanding language acquisition is how these capacities are picked up by infants from the linguistic input.",
"Input in the linguistic context is defined as \"All words, contexts, and other forms of language to which a learner is exposed, relative to acquired proficiency in first or second languages\".",
"Nativists such as Chomsky have focused on the hugely complex nature of human grammars, the finiteness and ambiguity of the input that children receive, and the relatively limited cognitive abilities of an infant.",
"From these characteristics, they conclude that the process of language acquisition in infants must be tightly constrained and guided by the biologically given characteristics of the human brain.",
"Otherwise, they argue, it is extremely difficult to explain how children, within the first five years of life, routinely master the complex, largely tacit grammatical rules of their native language.",
"Additionally, the evidence of such rules in their native language is all indirect—adult speech to children cannot encompass all of what children know by the time they have acquired their native language.Other scholars, however, have resisted the possibility that infants' routine success at acquiring the grammar of their native language requires anything more than the forms of learning seen with other cognitive skills, including such mundane motor skills as learning to ride a bike.",
"In particular, there has been resistance to the possibility that human biology includes any form of specialization for language.",
"This conflict is often referred to as the \"nature and nurture\" debate.",
"Of course, most scholars acknowledge that certain aspects of language acquisition must result from the specific ways in which the human brain is \"wired\" (a \"nature\" component, which accounts for the failure of non-human species to acquire human languages) and that certain others are shaped by the particular language environment in which a person is raised (a \"nurture\" component, which accounts for the fact that humans raised in different societies acquire different languages).",
"The as-yet unresolved question is the extent to which the specific cognitive capacities in the \"nature\" component are also used outside of language.=== Emergentism ===Emergentist theories, such as Brian MacWhinney's competition model, posit that language acquisition is a cognitive process that emerges from the interaction of biological pressures and the environment.",
"According to these theories, neither nature nor nurture alone is sufficient to trigger language learning; both of these influences must work together in order to allow children to acquire a language.",
"The proponents of these theories argue that general cognitive processes subserve language acquisition and that the result of these processes is language-specific phenomena, such as word learning and grammar acquisition.",
"The findings of many empirical studies support the predictions of these theories, suggesting that language acquisition is a more complex process than many have proposed.===Empiricism===Although Chomsky's theory of a generative grammar has been enormously influential in the field of linguistics since the 1950s, many criticisms of the basic assumptions of generative theory have been put forth by cognitive-functional linguists, who argue that language structure is created through language use.",
"These linguists argue that the concept of a language acquisition device (LAD) is unsupported by evolutionary anthropology, which tends to show a gradual adaptation of the human brain and vocal cords to the use of language, rather than a sudden appearance of a complete set of binary parameters delineating the whole spectrum of possible grammars ever to have existed and ever to exist.",
"On the other hand, cognitive-functional theorists use this anthropological data to show how human beings have evolved the capacity for grammar and syntax to meet our demand for linguistic symbols.",
"(Binary parameters are common to digital computers, but may not be applicable to neurological systems such as the human brain.",
")Further, the generative theory has several constructs (such as movement, empty categories, complex underlying structures, and strict binary branching) that cannot possibly be acquired from any amount of linguistic input.",
"It is unclear that human language is actually ''anything like'' the generative conception of it.",
"Since language, as imagined by nativists, is unlearnably complex, subscribers to this theory argue that it must, therefore, be innate.",
"Nativists hypothesize that some features of syntactic categories exist even before a child is exposed to any experience—categories on which children map words of their language as they learn their native language.",
"A different theory of language, however, may yield different conclusions.",
"While all theories of language acquisition posit some degree of innateness, they vary in how much value they place on this innate capacity to acquire language.",
"Empiricism places less value on the innate knowledge, arguing instead that the input, combined with both general and language-specific learning capacities, is sufficient for acquisition.Since 1980, linguists studying children, such as Melissa Bowerman and Asifa Majid, and psychologists following Jean Piaget, like Elizabeth Bates and Jean Mandler, came to suspect that there may indeed be many learning processes involved in the acquisition process, and that ignoring the role of learning may have been a mistake.In recent years, the debate surrounding the nativist position has centered on whether the inborn capabilities are language-specific or domain-general, such as those that enable the infant to visually make sense of the world in terms of objects and actions.",
"The anti-nativist view has many strands, but a frequent theme is that language emerges from usage in social contexts, using learning mechanisms that are a part of an innate general cognitive learning apparatus.",
"This position has been championed by David M. W. Powers, Elizabeth Bates, Catherine Snow, Anat Ninio, Brian MacWhinney, Michael Tomasello, Michael Ramscar, William O'Grady, and others.",
"Philosophers, such as Fiona Cowie and Barbara Scholz with Geoffrey Pullum have also argued against certain nativist claims in support of empiricism.The new field of cognitive linguistics has emerged as a specific counter to Chomsky's Generative Grammar and to Nativism.====Statistical learning====Some language acquisition researchers, such as Elissa Newport, Richard Aslin, and Jenny Saffran, emphasize the possible roles of general learning mechanisms, especially statistical learning, in language acquisition.",
"The development of connectionist models that when implemented are able to successfully learn words and syntactical conventions supports the predictions of statistical learning theories of language acquisition, as do empirical studies of children's detection of word boundaries.",
"In a series of connectionist model simulations, Franklin Chang has demonstrated that such a domain general statistical learning mechanism could explain a wide range of language structure acquisition phenomena.Statistical learning theory suggests that, when learning language, a learner would use the natural statistical properties of language to deduce its structure, including sound patterns, words, and the beginnings of grammar.",
"That is, language learners are sensitive to how often syllable combinations or words occur in relation to other syllables.",
"Infants between 21 and 23 months old are also able to use statistical learning to develop \"lexical categories\", such as an animal category, which infants might later map to newly learned words in the same category.",
"These findings suggest that early experience listening to language is critical to vocabulary acquisition.The statistical abilities are effective, but also limited by what qualifies as input, what is done with that input, and by the structure of the resulting output.",
"Statistical learning (and more broadly, distributional learning) can be accepted as a component of language acquisition by researchers on either side of the \"nature and nurture\" debate.",
"From the perspective of that debate, an important question is whether statistical learning can, by itself, serve as an alternative to nativist explanations for the grammatical constraints of human language.==== Chunking ====The central idea of these theories is that language development occurs through the incremental acquisition of meaningful chunks of elementary constituents, which can be words, phonemes, or syllables.",
"Recently, this approach has been highly successful in simulating several phenomena in the acquisition of syntactic categories and the acquisition of phonological knowledge.Chunking theories of language acquisition constitute a group of theories related to statistical learning theories, in that they assume that the input from the environment plays an essential role; however, they postulate different learning mechanisms.Researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology have developed a computer model analyzing early toddler conversations to predict the structure of later conversations.",
"They showed that toddlers develop their own individual rules for speaking, with 'slots' into which they put certain kinds of words.",
"A significant outcome of this research is that rules inferred from toddler speech were better predictors of subsequent speech than traditional grammars.This approach has several features that make it unique: the models are implemented as computer programs, which enables clear-cut and quantitative predictions to be made; they learn from naturalistic input—actual child-directed utterances; and attempt to create their own utterances, the model was tested in languages including English, Spanish, and German.",
"Chunking for this model was shown to be most effective in learning a first language but was able to create utterances learning a second language.===Relational frame theory===The relational frame theory (RFT) (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, Roche, 2001), provides a wholly selectionist/learning account of the origin and development of language competence and complexity.",
"Based upon the principles of Skinnerian behaviorism, RFT posits that children acquire language purely through interacting with the environment.",
"RFT theorists introduced the concept of functional contextualism in language learning, which emphasizes the importance of predicting and influencing psychological events, such as thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, by focusing on manipulable variables in their own context.",
"RFT distinguishes itself from Skinner's work by identifying and defining a particular type of operant conditioning known as derived relational responding, a learning process that, to date, appears to occur only in humans possessing a capacity for language.",
"Empirical studies supporting the predictions of RFT suggest that children learn language through a system of inherent reinforcements, challenging the view that language acquisition is based upon innate, language-specific cognitive capacities.=== Social interactionism ===Social interactionist theory is an explanation of language development emphasizing the role of social interaction between the developing child and linguistically knowledgeable adults.",
"It is based largely on the socio-cultural theories of Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky, and was made prominent in the Western world by Jerome Bruner.Unlike other approaches, it emphasizes the role of feedback and reinforcement in language acquisition.",
"Specifically, it asserts that much of a child's linguistic growth stems from modeling of and interaction with parents and other adults, who very frequently provide instructive correction.",
"It is thus somewhat similar to behaviorist accounts of language learning.",
"It differs substantially, though, in that it posits the existence of a social-cognitive model and other mental structures within children (a sharp contrast to the \"black box\" approach of classical behaviorism).Another key idea within the theory of social interactionism is that of the zone of proximal development.",
"This is a theoretical construct denoting the set of tasks a child is capable of performing with guidance but not alone.",
"As applied to language, it describes the set of linguistic tasks (for example, proper syntax, suitable vocabulary usage) that a child cannot carry out on its own at a given time, but can learn to carry out if assisted by an able adult.=== Syntax, morphology, and generative grammar ===As syntax began to be studied more closely in the early 20th century in relation to language learning, it became apparent to linguists, psychologists, and philosophers that knowing a language was not merely a matter of associating words with concepts, but that a critical aspect of language involves knowledge of how to put words together; sentences are usually needed in order to communicate successfully, not just isolated words.",
"A child will use short expressions such as ''Bye-bye Mummy'' or ''All-gone milk'', which actually are combinations of individual nouns and an operator, before they begin to produce gradually more complex sentences.",
"In the 1990s, within the principles and parameters framework, this hypothesis was extended into a maturation-based structure building model of child language regarding the acquisition of functional categories.",
"In this model, children are seen as gradually building up more and more complex structures, with lexical categories (like noun and verb) being acquired before functional-syntactic categories (like determiner and complementizer).",
"It is also often found that in acquiring a language, the most frequently used verbs are irregular verbs.",
"In learning English, for example, young children first begin to learn the past tense of verbs individually.",
"However, when they acquire a \"rule\", such as adding ''-ed'' to form the past tense, they begin to exhibit occasional overgeneralization errors (e.g.",
"\"runned\", \"hitted\") alongside correct past tense forms.",
"One influential proposal regarding the origin of this type of error suggests that the adult state of grammar stores each irregular verb form in memory and also includes a \"block\" on the use of the regular rule for forming that type of verb.",
"In the developing child's mind, retrieval of that \"block\" may fail, causing the child to erroneously apply the regular rule instead of retrieving the irregular.=== Merge (linguistics)-based theory ===In bare-phrase structure (minimalist program), theory-internal considerations define the specifier position of an internal-merge projection (phases vP and CP) as the only type of host which could serve as potential landing-sites for move-based elements displaced from lower down within the base-generated VP structure—e.g.",
"A-movement such as passives (\"The apple was eaten by John (ate the apple)\"), or raising \"Some work does seem to remain (There) does seem to remain (some work)\").",
"As a consequence, any strong version of a structure building model of child language which calls for an exclusive \"external-merge/argument structure stage\" prior to an \"internal-merge/scope-discourse related stage\" would claim that young children's stage-1 utterances lack the ability to generate and host elements derived via movement operations.",
"In terms of a merge-based theory of language acquisition, complements and specifiers are simply notations for first-merge (= \"complement-of\" head-complement), and later second-merge (= \"specifier-of\" specifier-head, with merge always forming to a head.",
"First-merge establishes only a set {a, b} and is not an ordered pair—e.g., an {N, N}-compound of 'boat-house' would allow the ambiguous readings of either 'a kind of house' and/or 'a kind of boat'.",
"It is only with second-merge that order is derived out of a set {a {a, b}} which yields the recursive properties of syntax—e.g., a 'house-boat' {house {house, boat}} now reads unambiguously only as a 'kind of boat'.",
"It is this property of recursion that allows for projection and labeling of a phrase to take place; in this case, that the Noun 'boat' is the Head of the compound, and 'house' acting as a kind of specifier/modifier.",
"External-merge (first-merge) establishes substantive 'base structure' inherent to the VP, yielding theta/argument structure, and may go beyond the lexical-category VP to involve the functional-category light verb vP.",
"Internal-merge (second-merge) establishes more formal aspects related to edge-properties of scope and discourse-related material pegged to CP.",
"In a Phase-based theory, this twin vP/CP distinction follows the \"duality of semantics\" discussed within the Minimalist Program, and is further developed into a dual distinction regarding a probe-goal relation.",
"As a consequence, at the \"external/first-merge-only\" stage, young children would show an inability to interpret readings from a given ordered pair, since they would only have access to the mental parsing of a non-recursive set.",
"(See Roeper for a full discussion of recursion in child language acquisition).",
"In addition to word-order violations, other more ubiquitous results of a first-merge stage would show that children's initial utterances lack the recursive properties of inflectional morphology, yielding a strict Non-inflectional stage-1, consistent with an incremental Structure-building model of child language.Generative grammar, associated especially with the work of Noam Chomsky, is currently one of the approaches to explaining children's acquisition of syntax.",
"Its leading idea is that human biology imposes narrow constraints on the child's \"hypothesis space\" during language acquisition.",
"In the principles and parameters framework, which has dominated generative syntax since Chomsky's (1980) ''Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures'', the acquisition of syntax resembles ordering from a menu: the human brain comes equipped with a limited set of choices from which the child selects the correct options by imitating the parents' speech while making use of the context.An important argument which favors the generative approach, is the poverty of the stimulus argument.",
"The child's input (a finite number of sentences encountered by the child, together with information about the context in which they were uttered) is, in principle, compatible with an infinite number of conceivable grammars.",
"Moreover, rarely can children rely on corrective feedback from adults when they make a grammatical error; adults generally respond and provide feedback regardless of whether a child's utterance was grammatical or not, and children have no way of discerning if a feedback response was intended to be a correction.",
"Additionally, when children do understand that they are being corrected, they don't always reproduce accurate restatements.",
"Yet, barring situations of medical abnormality or extreme privation, all children in a given speech-community converge on very much the same grammar by the age of about five years.",
"An especially dramatic example is provided by children who, for medical reasons, are unable to produce speech and, therefore, can never be corrected for a grammatical error but nonetheless, converge on the same grammar as their typically developing peers, according to comprehension-based tests of grammar.Considerations such as those have led Chomsky, Jerry Fodor, Eric Lenneberg and others to argue that the types of grammar the child needs to consider must be narrowly constrained by human biology (the nativist position).",
"These innate constraints are sometimes referred to as universal grammar, the human \"language faculty\", or the \"language instinct\".===Comparative method of crosslinguistic research===The comparative method of crosslinguistic research applies the comparative method used in historical linguistics to psycholinguistic research.",
"In historical linguistics the comparative method uses comparisons between historically related languages to reconstruct a proto-language and trace the history of each daughter language.",
"The comparative method can be repurposed for research on language acquisition by comparing historically related child languages.",
"The historical ties within each language family provide a roadmap for research.",
"For Indo-European languages, the comparative method would first compare language acquisition within the Slavic, Celtic, Germanic, Romance and Indo-Iranian branches of the family before attempting broader comparisons between the branches.",
"For Otomanguean languages, the comparative method would first compare language acquisition within the Oto-pamean, Chinantecan, Tlapanecan, Popolocan, Zapotecan, Amuzgan and Mixtecan branches before attempting broader comparisons between the branches.",
"The comparative method imposes an evaluation standard for assessing the languages used in language acquisition research.The comparative method derives its power by assembling comprehensive datasets for each language.",
"Descriptions of the prosody and phonology for each language inform analyses of morphology and the lexicon, which in turn inform analyses of syntax and conversational styles.",
"Information on prosodic structure in one language informs research on the prosody of the related languages and vice versa.",
"The comparative method produces a cumulative research program in which each description contributes to a comprehensive description of language acquisition for each language within a family as well as across the languages within each branch of the language family.Comparative studies of language acquisition control the number of extraneous factors that impact language development.",
"Speakers of historically related languages typically share a common culture that may include similar lifestyles and child-rearing practices.",
"Historically related languages have similar phonologies and morphologies that impact early lexical and syntactic development in similar ways.",
"The comparative method predicts that children acquiring historically related languages will exhibit similar patterns of language development, and that these common patterns may not hold in historically unrelated languages.",
"The acquisition of Dutch will resemble the acquisition of German, but not the acquisition of Totonac or Mixtec.",
"A claim about any universal of language acquisition must control for the shared grammatical structures that languages inherit from a common ancestor.Several language acquisition studies have accidentally employed features of the comparative method due to the availability of datasets from historically related languages.",
"Research on the acquisition of the Romance and Scandinavian languages used aspects of the comparative method, but did not produce detailed comparisons across different levels of grammar.",
"The most advanced use of the comparative method to date appears in research on the acquisition of the Mayan languages.",
"This research has yielded detailed comparative studies on the acquisition of phonological, lexical, morphological and syntactic features in eight Mayan languages as well as comparisons of language input and language socialization."
],
[
"Representation in the brain",
"Recent advances in functional neuroimaging technology have allowed for a better understanding of how language acquisition is manifested physically in the brain.",
"Language acquisition almost always occurs in children during a period of rapid increase in brain volume.",
"At this point in development, a child has many more neural connections than he or she will have as an adult, allowing for the child to be more able to learn new things than he or she would be as an adult.===Sensitive period===Language acquisition has been studied from the perspective of developmental psychology and neuroscience, which looks at learning to use and understand language parallel to a child's brain development.",
"It has been determined, through empirical research on developmentally normal children, as well as through some extreme cases of language deprivation, that there is a \"sensitive period\" of language acquisition in which human infants have the ability to learn any language.",
"Several researchers have found that from birth until the age of six months, infants can discriminate the phonetic contrasts of all languages.",
"Researchers believe that this gives infants the ability to acquire the language spoken around them.",
"After this age, the child is able to perceive only the phonemes specific to the language being learned.",
"The reduced phonemic sensitivity enables children to build phonemic categories and recognize stress patterns and sound combinations specific to the language they are acquiring.",
"As Wilder Penfield noted, \"Before the child begins to speak and to perceive, the uncommitted cortex is a blank slate on which nothing has been written.",
"In the ensuing years much is written, and the writing is normally never erased.",
"After the age of ten or twelve, the general functional connections have been established and fixed for the speech cortex.\"",
"According to the sensitive or critical period models, the age at which a child acquires the ability to use language is a predictor of how well he or she is ultimately able to use language.",
"However, there may be an age at which becoming a fluent and natural user of a language is no longer possible; Penfield and Roberts (1959) cap their sensitive period at nine years old.",
"The human brain may be automatically wired to learn languages, but this ability does not last into adulthood in the same way that it exists during childhood.",
"By around age 12, language acquisition has typically been solidified, and it becomes more difficult to learn a language in the same way a native speaker would.",
"Just like children who speak, deaf children go through a critical period for learning language.",
"Deaf children who acquire their first language later in life show lower performance in complex aspects of grammar.",
"At that point, it is usually a second language that a person is trying to acquire and not a first.Assuming that children are exposed to language during the critical period, acquiring language is almost never missed by cognitively normal children.",
"Humans are so well-prepared to learn language that it becomes almost impossible not to.",
"Researchers are unable to experimentally test the effects of the sensitive period of development on language acquisition, because it would be unethical to deprive children of language until this period is over.",
"However, case studies on abused, language-deprived children show that they exhibit extreme limitations in language skills, even after instruction.At a very young age, children can distinguish different sounds but cannot yet produce them.",
"During infancy, children begin to babble.",
"Deaf babies babble in the same patterns as hearing babies do, showing that babbling is not a result of babies simply imitating certain sounds, but is actually a natural part of the process of language development.",
"Deaf babies do, however, often babble less than hearing babies, and they begin to babble later on in infancy—at approximately 11 months as compared to approximately 6 months for hearing babies.Prelinguistic language abilities that are crucial for language acquisition have been seen even earlier than infancy.",
"There have been many different studies examining different modes of language acquisition prior to birth.",
"The study of language acquisition in fetuses began in the late 1980s when several researchers independently discovered that very young infants could discriminate their native language from other languages.",
"In ''Mehler et al.",
"(1988)'', infants underwent discrimination tests, and it was shown that infants as young as 4 days old could discriminate utterances in their native language from those in an unfamiliar language, but could not discriminate between two languages when neither was native to them.",
"These results suggest that there are mechanisms for fetal auditory learning, and other researchers have found further behavioral evidence to support this notion.",
"Fetus auditory learning through environmental habituation has been seen in a variety of different modes, such as fetus learning of familiar melodies (Hepper, 1988), story fragments (DeCasper & Spence, 1986), recognition of mother's voice (Kisilevsky, 2003), and other studies showing evidence of fetal adaptation to native linguistic environments (Moon, Cooper & Fifer, 1993).Prosody is the property of speech that conveys an emotional state of the utterance, as well as the intended form of speech, for example, question, statement or command.",
"Some researchers in the field of developmental neuroscience argue that fetal auditory learning mechanisms result solely from discrimination of prosodic elements.",
"Although this would hold merit in an evolutionary psychology perspective (i.e.",
"recognition of mother's voice/familiar group language from emotionally valent stimuli), some theorists argue that there is more than prosodic recognition in elements of fetal learning.",
"Newer evidence shows that fetuses not only react to the native language differently from non-native languages, but that fetuses react differently and can accurately discriminate between native and non-native vowel sounds (Moon, Lagercrantz, & Kuhl, 2013).",
"Furthermore, a 2016 study showed that newborn infants encode the edges of multisyllabic sequences better than the internal components of the sequence (Ferry et al., 2016).",
"Together, these results suggest that newborn infants have learned important properties of syntactic processing in utero, as demonstrated by infant knowledge of native language vowels and the sequencing of heard multisyllabic phrases.",
"This ability to sequence specific vowels gives newborn infants some of the fundamental mechanisms needed in order to learn the complex organization of a language.",
"From a neuroscientific perspective, neural correlates have been found that demonstrate human fetal learning of speech-like auditory stimuli that most other studies have been analyzing (Partanen et al., 2013).",
"In a study conducted by Partanen et al.",
"(2013), researchers presented fetuses with certain word variants and observed that these fetuses exhibited higher brain activity in response to certain word variants as compared to controls.",
"In this same study, \"a significant correlation existed between the amount of prenatal exposure and brain activity, with greater activity being associated with a higher amount of prenatal speech exposure,\" pointing to the important learning mechanisms present before birth that are fine-tuned to features in speech (Partanen et al., 2013).The phases of language acquisition in children"
],
[
"Vocabulary acquisition",
"Learning a new word, that is, learning to speak this word and speak it on the appropriate occasions, depends upon many factors.",
"First, the learner needs to be able to hear what they are attempting to pronounce.",
"Also required is the capacity to engage in speech repetition.",
"Children with reduced ability to repeat non-words (a marker of speech repetition abilities) show a slower rate of vocabulary expansion than children with normal ability.",
"Several computational models of vocabulary acquisition have been proposed.",
"Various studies have shown that the size of a child's vocabulary by the age of 24 months correlates with the child's future development and language skills.",
"A lack of language richness by this age has detrimental and long-term effects on the child's cognitive development, which is why it is so important for parents to engage their infants in language.",
"If a child knows fifty or fewer words by the age of 24 months, he or she is classified as a late-talker, and future language development, like vocabulary expansion and the organization of grammar, is likely to be slower and stunted.Two more crucial elements of vocabulary acquisition are word segmentation and statistical learning (described above).",
"Word segmentation, or the ability to break down words into syllables from fluent speech can be accomplished by eight-month-old infants.",
"By the time infants are 17 months old, they are able to link meaning to segmented words.Recent evidence also suggests that motor skills and experiences may influence vocabulary acquisition during infancy.",
"Specifically, learning to sit independently between 3 and 5 months of age has been found to predict receptive vocabulary at both 10 and 14 months of age, and independent walking skills have been found to correlate with language skills at around 10 to 14 months of age.",
"These findings show that language acquisition is an embodied process that is influenced by a child's overall motor abilities and development.",
"Studies have also shown a correlation between socioeconomic status and vocabulary acquisition."
],
[
"Meaning",
"Children learn, on average, ten to fifteen new word meanings each day, but only one of these can be accounted for by direct instruction.",
"The other nine to fourteen word meanings must have been acquired in some other way.",
"It has been proposed that children acquire these meanings through processes modeled by latent semantic analysis; that is, when they encounter an unfamiliar word, children use contextual information to guess its rough meaning correctly.",
"A child may expand the meaning and use of certain words that are already part of its mental lexicon in order to denominate anything that is somehow related but for which it does not know the specific word.",
"For instance, a child may broaden the use of ''mummy'' and ''dada'' in order to indicate anything that belongs to its mother or father, or perhaps every person who resembles its own parents; another example might be to say ''rain'' while meaning ''I don't want to go out''.There is also reason to believe that children use various heuristics to infer the meaning of words properly.",
"Markman and others have proposed that children assume words to refer to objects with similar properties (\"cow\" and \"pig\" might both be \"animals\") rather than to objects that are thematically related (\"cow\" and \"milk\" are probably not both \"animals\").",
"Children also seem to adhere to the \"whole object assumption\" and think that a novel label refers to an entire entity rather than to one of its parts.",
"This assumption along with other resources, such as grammar and morphological cues or lexical constraints, may help aid the child in acquiring word meaning, but conclusions based on such resources may sometimes conflict."
],
[
"Genetic and neurocognitive research",
"According to several linguists, neurocognitive research has confirmed many standards of language learning, such as: \"learning engages the entire person (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains), the human brain seeks patterns in its searching for meaning, emotions affect all aspects of learning, retention and recall, past experience always affects new learning, the brain's working memory has a limited capacity, lecture usually results in the lowest degree of retention, rehearsal is essential for retention, practice alone does not make perfect, and each brain is unique\" (Sousa, 2006, p. 274).",
"In terms of genetics, the gene ROBO1 has been associated with phonological buffer integrity or length.Genetic research has found two major factors predicting successful language acquisition and maintenance.",
"These include inherited intelligence, and the lack of genetic anomalies that may cause speech pathologies, such as mutations in the FOXP2 gene which cause verbal dyspraxia.",
"The role of inherited intelligence increases with age, accounting for 20% of IQ variation in infants, and for 60% in adults.",
"It affects a vast variety of language-related abilities, from spatio-motor skills to writing fluency.",
"There have been debates in linguistics, philosophy, psychology, and genetics, with some scholars arguing that language is fully or mostly innate, but the research evidence points to genetic factors only working in interaction with environmental ones.Although it is difficult to determine without invasive measures which exact parts of the brain become most active and important for language acquisition, fMRI and PET technology has allowed for some conclusions to be made about where language may be centered.",
"Kuniyoshi Sakai has proposed, based on several neuroimaging studies, that there may be a \"grammar center\" in the brain, whereby language is primarily processed in the left lateral premotor cortex (located near the pre central sulcus and the inferior frontal sulcus).",
"Additionally, these studies have suggested that first language and second language acquisition may be represented differently in the cortex.In a study conducted by Newman et al., the relationship between cognitive neuroscience and language acquisition was compared through a standardized procedure involving native speakers of English and native Spanish speakers who all had a similar length of exposure to the English language (averaging about 26 years).",
"It was concluded that the brain does in fact process languages differently, but rather than being related to proficiency levels, language processing relates more to the function of the brain itself.During early infancy, language processing seems to occur over many areas in the brain.",
"However, over time, it gradually becomes concentrated into two areas—Broca's area and Wernicke's area.",
"Broca's area is in the left frontal cortex and is primarily involved in the production of the patterns in vocal and sign language.",
"Wernicke's area is in the left temporal cortex and is primarily involved in language comprehension.",
"The specialization of these language centers is so extensive that damage to them can result in aphasia."
],
[
"Language diversity",
"Kelly et al.",
"(2015: 286) comment that “There is a dawning realization that the field of child language needs data from the broadest typological array of languages and language-learning environments.” This realization is part of a broader recognition in psycholinguistics for the need to document diversity.",
"Children’s linguistic accomplishments are all the more impressive with recognition of the diversity that exists at every level of the language system.",
"Different levels of grammar interact in language-specific ways so that differences in morphosyntax build on differences in prosody, which in turn reflect differences in conversational style.",
"The diversity of adult languages results in diverse child language phenomena that challenge every acquisition theory.One such challenge is to explain how children acquire complex vowels in Otomanguean and other languages.",
"The complex vowels in these languages combine oral and laryngeal gestures produced with laryngeal constriction ʔ or laryngeal spreading h. The production of the laryngealized vowels is complicated by the production of tonal contrasts, which rely upon contrasts in vocal fold vibration.",
"Otomanguean languages manage the conflict between tone and laryngeal gesture by timing the gesture at the start, middle or end of the vowel, e.g.",
"ʔV, VʔV and Vʔ.",
"The phonetic realization of laryngealized vowels gives rise to the question of whether children acquire laryngealized vowels as single phonemes or sequences of phonemes.",
"The unit analysis enlarges the vowel inventory but simplifies the syllable inventory, while the sequence analysis simplifies the vowel inventory but complicates the syllable inventory.",
"The Otomanguean languages exhibit language-specific differences in the types and timing of the laryngeal gestures, and thus children must learn the specific laryngeal gestures that contribute to the phonological contrasts in the adult language.An acquisition challenge in morphosyntax is to explain how children acquire ergative grammatical structures.",
"Ergative languages treat the subject of intransitive verbs like the object of transitive verbs at the level of morphology, syntax or both.",
"At the level of morphology, ergative languages assign an ergative marker to the subject of transitive verbs.",
"The ergative marking may be realized by case markers on nouns or agreement markers on verbs.",
"At the level of syntax, ergative languages have syntactic operations that treat the subject of transitive verbs differently from the subject of intransitive verbs.",
"Languages with ergative syntax like K'iche' may restrict the use of subject questions for transitive verbs but not intransitive verbs.",
"The acquisition challenge that ergativity creates is to explain how children acquire the language-specific manifestations of morphological and syntactic ergativity in the adult languages.",
"The Mayan language Mam has ergative agreement making on its transitive verbs but extends the ergative marking to both the subject of intransitive verbs and the object of transitive verbs yielding transitive verbs with two ergative agreement markers.",
"The contexts for extended ergative marking differ in type and frequency between Mayan languages, but two-year-old children produce extended ergative marking equally proficiently despite vast differences in the frequency of extended ergative marking in the adult languages.Children acquire language through exposure to a diverse variety of cultural practices.",
"Local groups vary in size and mobility depending on their means of subsistence.",
"Some cultures require men to marry women who speak another language.",
"Their children may be exposed to their mother’s language for several years before moving in with their father and learning his language.",
"Language groups have diverse beliefs about when children say their first words and what words they say.",
"Such beliefs shape the time when parents perceive that children understand language.",
"In many cultures children hear more speech directed to others than to themselves and yet children acquire language in all cultures.Documenting the diversity of child languages is made more urgent by the rapid loss of languages around the world.",
"It may not be possible to document child language in half of the world’s languages by the end of this century.",
"Documenting child language should be a part of every language documentation project, and has an important role to play in revitalizing local languages.",
"Documenting child language preserves cultural modes of language transmission and can emphasize their significance throughout the language community."
],
[
"Artificial intelligence",
"Some algorithms for language acquisition are based on statistical machine translation.",
"Language acquisition can be modeled as a machine learning process, which may be based on learning semantic parsers or grammar induction algorithms."
],
[
"Prelingual deafness",
"Prelingual deafness is defined as hearing loss that occurred at birth or before an individual has learned to speak.",
"In the United States, 2 to 3 out of every 1000 children are born deaf or hard of hearing.",
"Even though it might be presumed that deaf children acquire language in different ways since they are not receiving the same auditory input as hearing children, many research findings indicate that deaf children acquire language in the same way that hearing children do and when given the proper language input, understand and express language just as well as their hearing peers.",
"Babies who learn sign language produce signs or gestures that are more regular and more frequent than hearing babies acquiring spoken language.",
"Just as hearing babies babble, deaf babies acquiring sign language will babble with their hands, otherwise known as manual babbling.",
"Therefore, as many studies have shown, language acquisition by deaf children parallels the language acquisition of a spoken language by hearing children because humans are biologically equipped for language regardless of the modality.=== Signed language acquisition ===Deaf children's visual-manual language acquisition not only parallel spoken language acquisition but by the age of 30 months, most deaf children that were exposed to a visual language had a more advanced grasp with subject-pronoun copy rules than hearing children.",
"Their vocabulary bank at the ages of 12–17 months exceed that of a hearing child's, though it does even out when they reach the two-word stage.",
"The use of space for absent referents and the more complex handshapes in some signs prove to be difficult for children between 5 and 9 years of age because of motor development and the complexity of remembering the spatial use.=== Cochlear implants ===Other options besides sign language for kids with prelingual deafness include the use of hearing aids to strengthen remaining sensory cells or cochlear implants to stimulate the hearing nerve directly.",
"Cochlear Implants are hearing devices that are placed behind the ear and contain a receiver and electrodes which are placed under the skin and inside the cochlea.",
"Despite these developments, there is still a risk that prelingually deaf children may not develop good speech and speech reception skills.",
"Although cochlear implants produce sounds, they are unlike typical hearing and deaf and hard of hearing people must undergo intensive therapy in order to learn how to interpret these sounds.",
"They must also learn how to speak given the range of hearing they may or may not have.",
"However, deaf children of deaf parents tend to do better with language, even though they are isolated from sound and speech because their language uses a different mode of communication that is accessible to them: the visual modality of language.Although cochlear implants were initially approved for adults, now there is pressure to implant children early in order to maximize auditory skills for mainstream learning which in turn has created controversy around the topic.",
"Due to recent advances in technology, cochlear implants allow some deaf people to acquire some sense of hearing.",
"There are interior and exposed exterior components that are surgically implanted.",
"Those who receive cochlear implants earlier on in life show more improvement on speech comprehension and language.",
"Spoken language development does vary widely for those with cochlear implants though due to a number of different factors including: age at implantation, frequency, quality and type of speech training.",
"Some evidence suggests that speech processing occurs at a more rapid pace in some prelingually deaf children with cochlear implants than those with traditional hearing aids.",
"However, cochlear implants may not always work.Research shows that people develop better language with a cochlear implant when they have a solid first language to rely on to understand the second language they would be learning.",
"In the case of prelingually deaf children with cochlear implants, a signed language, like American Sign Language would be an accessible language for them to learn to help support the use of the cochlear implant as they learn a spoken language as their L2.Without a solid, accessible first language, these children run the risk of language deprivation, especially in the case that a cochlear implant fails to work.",
"They would have no access to sound, meaning no access to the spoken language they are supposed to be learning.",
"If a signed language was not a strong language for them to use and neither was a spoken language, they now have no access to any language and run the risk of missing their critical period."
],
[
"See also",
"*Chunking*Creole language*Evolutionary linguistics*Evolutionary psychology of language*Fis phenomenon*FOXP2*Gestures in language acquisition*Glossary of language teaching terms and ideas*Identity and language learning*KE family*Language attrition*Language transfer*List of children's speech corpora*List of language acquisition researchers*Metalinguistic awareness*Natural-language processing*Non-native speech database*Origin of language*Passive speaker (language)*Second-language attrition*Spoken language"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*****Kennison, S. (2013).",
"''Introduction to language development.''",
"Los Angeles, CA: Sage.",
"*****"
],
[
"External links",
"* Language acquisition in American Sign Language Rich, detailed documentation of language acquisition in ASL.",
"* Innateness and Language, Encyclopedia Entry*Beth Skwarecki, \"Babies Learn to Recognize Words in the Womb\", ''Science'', 26 August 2013"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Left Behind"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Left Behind''''' is a multimedia franchise of apocalyptic fiction written by Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins, released by Tyndale House Publishers from 1995 to 2007.The bestselling premillennial novels are Christian eschatological narratives inspired by the New Testament's Book of Revelation.",
"The storyline focuses on a seven-year conflict, the post-rapture Great Tribulation, between an underground network of Christian converts and an oppressive new world order led by the Antichrist.",
"The series expounds a Christian dispensationalist view of the End Times, specifically LaHaye's pretribulation and premillennial eschatology.The series has been adapted into five films to date.",
"The original series of three films are ''Left Behind: The Movie'' (2000), ''Left Behind II: Tribulation Force'' (2002), and ''Left Behind: World at War'' (2005).",
"A reboot starring Nicolas Cage, entitled simply ''Left Behind'', was released in 2014 through Cloud Ten Pictures.",
"A sequel, ''Left Behind: Rise of the Antichrist'', directed by and starring Kevin Sorbo, was released in 2023.The series inspired an audio drama as well as the PC game ''Left Behind: Eternal Forces'' (2006) and its several sequels."
],
[
"Books",
"===Main series===''Left Behind'' tells an apocalyptic story about the ending of Earth (set in the contemporary era) over a period of seven years.",
"The true believers in Jesus Christ have been raptured (taken instantly to heaven), leaving non-believers behind on Earth, now a shattered and chaotic world.",
"As people scramble for answers, an obscure Romanian politician named Nicolae Jetty Carpathia rises to become secretary-general of the United Nations, promising to restore peace and stability to all nations.",
"What most of the world does not realize is that Carpathia is actually the Antichrist foretold in the Bible.",
"Coming to grips with the truth and becoming born-again Christians, airline pilot Rayford Steele, his daughter Chloe, their pastor Bruce Barnes, and young journalist Cameron \"Buck\" Williams begin their quest as the Tribulation Force to help save the lost and prepare for the coming Tribulation, in which God will rain down judgment on the world for seven years.According to James Bielo, it is based on a dispensationalist interpretation of prophecies in the Biblical books of Revelation, Daniel, Isaiah and Ezekiel.",
"Published order Chronological order Title (with subtitle) Published date 1 4 ''Left Behind: A Novel of the Earth's Last Days'' 1995 2 5 ''Tribulation Force: The Continuing Drama of Those Left Behind'' 1996 3 6 ''Nicolae: The Rise of Antichrist'' 1997 4 7 ''Soul Harvest: The World Takes Sides'' 1998 5 8 ''Apollyon: The Destroyer Is Unleashed'' 1999 6 9 ''Assassins: Assignment: Jerusalem, Target: Antichrist'' 1999 7 10 ''The Indwelling: The Beast Takes Possession'' 2000 8 11 ''The Mark: The Beast Rules the World'' 2000 9 12 ''Desecration: Antichrist Takes the Throne'' 2001 10 13 ''The Remnant: On the Brink of Armageddon'' 2002 11 14 ''Armageddon: The Cosmic Battle of the Ages'' 2003 12 15 ''Glorious Appearing: The End of Days'' 2004 13 1 ''The Rising: Antichrist is Born: Before They Were Left Behind'' 2005 14 2 ''The Regime: Evil Advances: Before They Were Left Behind #2'' 2005 15 3 ''The Rapture: In the Twinkling of an Eye: Countdown to Earth's Last Days #3'' 2006 16 16 ''Kingdom Come: The Final Victory'' 2007====Characters========Influences on the authors====LaHaye and Jenkins cite the influence of Russell Doughten, an Iowa-based filmmaker who directed the ''Thief in the Night'' series, a series of four low-budget but popular feature-length films in the 1970s and 1980s about the Rapture and Second Coming, starting with 1972's ''A Thief in the Night''.",
"Indeed, the title ''Left Behind'' echoes the refrain of ''Thief'' early Christian rock theme song by Larry Norman, \"I Wish We'd All Been Ready,\" in which he sings, \"There's no time to change your mind, the Son has come and you've been left behind.\""
],
[
"Reception",
"Multiple books in the series have been on the ''New York Times'' Bestseller List.",
"Starting in 2000, Books 7 and 8 reached number one on the list followed by book 10, which debuted at number one.In 2016, several books in the series were bestsellers and 65 million copies were sold in various languages.=== Critical response ===One reason often cited for the books' popularity is the quick pacing and action, and that they reflect the public's overall concern and fascination with the Apocalypse as portrayed in the Biblical Book of Revelation.",
"Michelle Goldberg has written that, \"On one level, the attraction of the ''Left Behind'' books isn't that much different from that of, say, Tom Clancy or Stephen King.",
"The plotting is brisk and the characterizations Manichaean.",
"People disappear and things blow up.\"",
"The ''New York Times'' also compared the series to Clancy's works.",
"However, those views are not universally shared.",
"Other reviewers have called the series \"almost laughably tedious\" and \"fatuous and boring.",
"\"Jerry Falwell said about the first book in the series: \"In terms of its impact on Christianity, it's probably greater than that of any other book in modern times, outside the Bible.",
"\"Laurie Goodstein, writing in 1998 for ''The New York Times'', placed what she called the \"''Left Behind'' phenomenon\" in the calendrical context of the approaching year 2000.Goodstein noted a 'proliferation' of similarly apocalyptic texts appearing at that time, by authors such as Jim Bakker and John Hagee.",
"Goodstein cited the opinion of University of Wisconsin historian Paul Boyer, who described such authors as \"cashing in on the public preoccupation with the year 2000\".While writing that the series fulfills the norms of mass-market fiction, as mentioned above, magazine writer Michelle Goldberg characterized the books as an attack on Judaism and liberal secularism, and suggested that the near-future \"end times\" in which the books are set seem to reflect the actual worldview of millions of Americans, including many prominent conservative leaders.==== Anti-Catholicism ====The books are written from a Protestant viewpoint.",
"Some believe the books are anti-Catholic, noting that many Catholics were not raptured, concluding that no religion is free of false converts and that the new pope establishes a false religion.",
"While the fictional Pope, John XXIV, was raptured, he is described as having embraced some of the views of the \"Father of Protestantism\", Martin Luther, and it is implied that he was raptured for this reason.",
"His successor, Pope Peter II, becomes Pontifex Maximus of Enigma Babylon One World Faith, an amalgam of all remaining world faiths and religions.",
"''Catholic Answers'' describes the series as anti-Catholic.The co-author of the book, Jerry B. Jenkins, as well as LaHaye, stated that their books are not anti-Catholic and that they have many faithful Catholic readers and friends.",
"According to LaHaye, \"the books don't suggest any particular theology, but try to introduce people to a more personal relationship with Jesus\".==== Anti-homosexuality ====The books have been criticized as homophobic.==== End-times theology ====Along with some other rapture fiction novels, the ''Left Behind'' series demonstrates a specific interpretation of the Gospel and the Christian life, one with which many have taken issue theologically.",
"The books have not sold particularly well outside of the United States.",
"Dispensationalism remains a minority view among theologians.",
"For instance, amillennial and postmillennial Christians do not believe in the same timeline of the Second Coming as premillennialists, while preterist Christians do not interpret much of the Book of Revelation to predict future events at all.",
"Brian McLaren of the Emergent Church compares the ''Left Behind'' series to ''The Da Vinci Code'', and states, \"What the ''Left Behind'' novels do, the way they twist scripture toward a certain theological and political end, I think Dan Brown|Dan Brown is twisting scripture, just to other political ends.\"",
"John Dart, writing in ''Christian Century'', characterized the works as \"beam me up theology.",
"\"==== Violence and war ====Some practicing Christians, evangelical and otherwise, along with non-Christians have shown concern that the social perspectives promoted in the ''Left Behind'' series unduly sensationalize the death and destruction of masses of people.",
"Harvey Cox, a professor of divinity at Harvard, says part of the appeal of the books lies in the \"lip-licking anticipation of all the blood\", and Lutheran theologian Barbara Rossing, author of ''The Rapture Exposed: The Message of Hope in the Book of Revelation'', said the books glorify violence.",
"Additionally, Paul Nuechterlein accused the authors of re-sacralizing violence, adding that \"we human beings are the ones who put our faith in superior firepower.",
"But in the ''Left Behind'' novels, the darkness of that human, satanic violence is once again attributed to God\".",
"''Time'' said \"the nuclear frights of, say, Tom Clancy's ''The Sum of All Fears'' wouldn't fill a chapter in the ''Left Behind'' series.",
"(Large chunks of several U.S. cities have been bombed to smithereens by page 110 of Book 3.",
")\"David Carlson, a Professor of Religious Studies and a member of the Greek Orthodox Church, wrote that the theology underpinning the ''Left Behind'' series promotes a \"skewed view of the Christian faith that welcomes war and disaster, while dismissing peace efforts in the Middle East and elsewhere—all in the name of Christ\".=== ''Left Behind: The Kids'' series ===''Left Behind: The Kids'' is a series of forty novellas written for teenagers.",
"It has the same plot as the adult series, but the main protagonists are teenagers.===Spinoff books===Williams professor Glenn Shuck has written the book ''Marks of the Beast: The Left Behind Novels and the Struggle for Evangelical Identity,'' published by NYU Press in 2005.He followed this with a collection of original essays co-edited with Jeffrey J. Kripal of Rice University on the Esalen Institute in California, published by Indiana University Press in 2005.Starting in 2003 the series was expanded upon by Mel Odom with his Apocalypse military series and Neesa Hart with her political thriller series, both taking place concurrently with the main series+ Author Title (With Subtitles) Year Published Mel Odom Apocalypse Dawn: The Battle Begins 2003 Mel Odom Apocalypse Crucible: The Battle Continues 2004 Mel Odom Apocalypse Burning: The Battle Lines Are Drawn 2004 Mel Odom Apocalypse Unleashed: The Battle Rages On 2008 Neesa Hart End of State: Now All the Rules Have Changed 2003 Neesa Hart Impeachable Offense: The Conspiracy Grows 2004 Neesa Hart Necessary Evils: A Time For Treason 2005===Graphic novels===In 2002, a series of graphic novels published by Tyndale House was launched that comprised the first two books in the series, ''Left Behind'' and ''Tribulation Force''.",
"The original idea was to release sets of 3 to 5 novels (each about 45–50 pages) for each book in the original series.",
"However, after the fifth and final novel for ''Tribulation Force'' was released, the graphic novel series was apparently discontinued, and the novels that were released are now (as of December 2006) out of print.",
"A compilation of the graphic novels for the first book was later released as one novel."
],
[
"Film adaptations",
"The success of the ''Left Behind'' books has led to the release of five motion pictures based on the series so far.",
"All four have been produced by brothers Paul & Peter LaLonde, and have been released through Cloud Ten Pictures, an independent Canadian-based Christian film studio.The first, ''Left Behind: The Movie'', was based on the first book of the series and was released in 2000.In a very unusual marketing scheme, the studio released the film on home video, and then theatrically.",
"It fared poorly in theaters.",
"The film starred former ''Growing Pains'' star Kirk Cameron as Buck Williams.",
"Cameron, who praised the book series as \"inspiring\", became a practicing evangelist (and co-host with Ray Comfort on the TV show ''The Way of the Master'').The sequel, ''Left Behind II: Tribulation Force'', based on the second book, ''Tribulation Force'', was released in 2002.The film debuted at #2 on Nielson's video scan reports, behind ''Spider-Man'', and was #1 in terms of overall sales for two days on Amazon.com.The second sequel, ''World at War'', was released first to churches on October 21, 2005, for church theatrical viewings and was released via home media on October 25.Much of the main cast from the previous two films, excluding Clarence Gilyard, reprised their respective roles for ''World at War''.",
"Gilyard, who played Bruce Barnes, was unable to return due to a scheduling conflict with a play in New York.",
"It is based very loosely on the final 50 pages of ''Tribulation Force'' and features Louis Gossett Jr. as the President of the United States, Gerald Fitzhugh.",
"The third installment was the least identifiable with events in any of the books.",
"Recognizable events were the marriages of Buck with Chloe Steele, and of Rayford Steele with Amanda White; the death of Bruce Barnes; and President Fitzhugh's heading an attack, resulting in World War III, with Great Britain and Egypt fighting against the Global Community.",
"Major parts, however, were taken from subsequent books; these events include the poisoning of Barnes by GC forces, instead of Nicolae Carpathia himself, and an attempt by Fitzhugh to assassinate Carpathia.",
"Buck's meeting with the President in the books takes a different form in the film.The film series have been criticized for, among other things, low production values.",
"A ''Slate'' reviewer commented that in 2004, Cloud Ten Pictures made a deal with Sony Pictures Entertainment to release all of its pictures under their banner and has been doing so ever since.In 2010, Cloud Ten announced that a remake of the ''Left Behind'' series was in development, with production set to begin in late 2012 for an October 2014 release date.",
"The reboot, starring Nicolas Cage as Steele and Chad Michael Murray as Buck Williams, was released to theaters October 3, 2014.It focused mainly on the very beginnings of the first book and added much to the plot.",
"The remake focuses on the experiences of the passengers on the plane and partially on Chloe Steele as she comes to terms with her missing family.",
"It earned overwhelmingly negative reviews and flopped at the box office.",
"''Vanished – Left Behind: Next Generation'', a spin-off film based on the spin-off series ''Left Behind: The Kids'' released on September 28, 2016 The film was developed by Tim LaHaye's grandson, Randy LaHaye and was well received by the book author.In November 2021, LaLonde announced the beginning of production on ''Left Behind: Rise of the Antichrist'', with Kevin Sorbo directing and replacing Nicolas Cage as Rayford Steele.",
"The film is set six months after the events of the 2014 film and is an adaptation of the rest of book one in the series.",
"The film makes a few small changes to be more relevant for modern times."
],
[
"Video game",
"A video game, ''Left Behind: Eternal Forces'', (2006) and its three sequels, ''Left Behind: Tribulation Forces'', ''Left Behind 3: Rise of the Antichrist'' and ''Left Behind 4: World at War'', were developed by a publicly traded company, Left Behind Games.",
"The games are real-time strategy games wherein the player controls a \"Tribulation Forces\" team and allows the player to \"use the power of prayer to strengthen your troops in combat and wield modern military weaponry throughout the game world.\"",
"The original game was released in the United States on November 14, 2006, and received mixed reviews.",
"Distribution was initially planned to work through churches and megachurches.Although the original game was accused of encouraging religious violence, not all reviewers of the game or critics of the ''Left Behind'' series shared that view.",
"Representatives of the company have responded that the game's message is pacifist, because shooting nonbelievers instead of converting them costs the player \"spirit points\", which can be recovered by pausing to pray.",
"The company also responded to these criticisms in an online newsletter, stating, \"There is no violence, only conflict,\" and, \"The most successful way to fight, is through the means of spiritual warfare; PRAYER and WORSHIP.",
"Soldiers and military weaponry are available, but once anyone plays the game, they'll see how difficult it is to succeed by using these less effective means of warfare.\""
],
[
"Music",
"''People Get Ready: A Musical Collection Inspired by The Left Behind Series'' (1998) is \"a musical collection inspired by the Left Behind series.\""
],
[
"See also",
"* Armageddon* Christian theology* Christian Zionism* Covenantalism* Futurism* Hal Lindsey* Historicism* Idealism* ''The Late Great Planet Earth''* Summary of Christian eschatological differences* Christian science fiction"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*DeMar, Gary, ''Left Behind: Separating Fact from Fiction''.",
"Powder Springs, Georgia, 2009.",
"*Eford, James M. ''Left Behind?",
"What the Bible Really Says about the End Times''.",
"Macon, Georgia, Smyth & Helys, 2006.",
"*Forbes, Bruce David and Jeanne Halgren Kilde (eds.",
"), ''Rapture, Revelation, and the End Times: Exploring the Left Behind Series''.",
"New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.",
"*Frykholm, Amy Johnson.",
"''Rapture Culture: Left Behind in Evangelical America''.",
"Oxford University Press, 2004.",
"**Olson, Carl E. ''Will Catholics be Left Behind?''",
"San Francisco, Ignatius Press, 2003.",
"*Standaert, Michael, 2006 ''Skipping Towards Armageddon: The Politics and Propaganda of the Left Behind Novels and the LaHaye Empire'' (Soft Skull Press)*Rossing, Barbara R., ''The Rapture Exposed: The Message of Hope in the Book of Revelation'', New York: Basic Books, 2004.",
"*Shuck, Glenn W. ''Marks Of The Beast: The Left Behind Novels And The Struggle For Evangelical Identity''.",
"New York University Press, 2004.",
"*Gribben, Crawford, ''Rapture Fiction and the Evangelical Crisis''.",
"Evangelical Press, 2006..*Snow Flesher, LeAnn, ''Left Behind?",
"The Facts Behind the Fiction''.",
"Valley Forge, Judson Press, 2006.",
"*Tuley, Glenn, ''Not Left Behind: A Tribulation Survival Manual''.",
"Bedford, TX, Burkhart Books, 2015."
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website* Archive of Left Behind radio shows in RealAudio* WELS Topical Q&A: Left Behind Series (a Confessional Lutheran perspective)* Slacktivist blog analysis and critique of ''Left Behind''*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lollardy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In this 19th-century illustration, John Wycliffe is shown giving the Bible translation that bore his name to his Lollard followers.",
"'''Lollardy''', also known as '''Lollardism''' or the '''Lollard movement''', was a proto-Protestant Christian religious movement that was active in England from the mid-14th century until the 16th-century English Reformation.",
"It was initially led by John Wycliffe, a Catholic theologian who was dismissed from the University of Oxford in 1381 for criticism of the Roman Catholic Church.",
"The Lollards' demands were primarily for reform of Western Christianity.",
"They formulated their beliefs in the Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Lollards' prison in Lambeth Palace''Lollard'', ''Lollardi'', or ''Loller'' was the popular derogatory nickname given to those without an academic background, educated (if at all) only in English, who were reputed to follow the teachings of John Wycliffe in particular, and were energized by the translation of the Bible into the English language.",
"By the mid-15th century, \"lollard\" had come to mean a heretic in general.The alternative, \"Wycliffite\", is generally accepted to be a more neutral term covering those of similar opinions, but having an academic background.The term is said to have been coined by the Anglo-Irish cleric Henry Crumpe, but its origin is uncertain.",
"The earliest official use of the name in England occurs in 1387 in a mandate of the Bishop of Worcester against five \"poor preachers\", ''nomine seu ritu Lollardorum confoederatos''.",
"According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', it most likely derives from Middle Dutch '''' (\"mumbler, mutterer\"), from a verb ''lollen'' (\"to mutter, mumble\").",
"The word is much older than its English use; there were Lollards in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 14th century who were akin to the Fraticelli, Beghards, and other sectaries similar to the recusant Franciscans.Originally the Dutch word was a colloquial name for a group of buriers of the dead during the Black Death, in the 14th century, known as Alexians, Alexian Brothers or Cellites.",
"These were known colloquially as '''' (Middle Dutch for \"mumbling brothers\"), or '''', from (\"to sing softly\"), from their chants for the dead.",
"Middle English '''' (akin to the verb ''loll'', ''lull'', the English cognate of Dutch ''lollen'' \"to mutter, mumble\") is recorded as an alternative spelling of ''Lollard'', while its generic meaning \"a lazy vagabond, an idler, a fraudulent beggar\" is not recorded before 1582.Two other possibilities for the derivation of ''Lollard'' are mentioned by the ''Oxford English Dictionary'':* Latin '''', a weedy vetch (tares), supposedly a reference to the biblical Parable of the Tares (Matthew 13:24–30);* the surname “Lolhard” of an eminent Franciscan preacher in Guyenne, who converted to the Waldensian way.",
"The region of Guyenne was at that time under English dominion, and his preaching influenced pious lay English.",
"He was burned at Cologne in the 1370s.",
"Earlier, another Waldensian teacher, also named “Lolhard”, was tried for heresy in Austria in 1315."
],
[
"Beliefs",
"Richard II are in green.",
"Areas where Lollardy spread in the 15th century are in red.According to scholar Margaret Aston, as Wycliffe's academic theology percolated to the masses, it changed measureably, some parts strengthening and others weakening.=== Eucharist ===With regard to the Eucharist, Lollards such as John Wycliffe, William Thorpe, and John Oldcastle, taught a view of the real presence of Christ in Holy Communion known as \"consubstantiation\" and did not accept the doctrine of transubstantiation, as taught by the Roman Catholic Church.",
"''The Plowman's Tale'', a 16th-century Lollard poem, argues that theological debate about orthodox doctrine is less important than the Real Presence:Wycliffite teachings on the Eucharist were declared heresy at the Blackfriars Council of 1382.William Sawtry, a priest, was reportedly burned in 1401 for his belief that \"bread remains in the same nature as before\" after consecration by a priest.",
"In the early 15th century a priest named Richard Wyche was accused of false doctrine.",
"When asked about consecration during his questioning, he repeated only his belief in the Real Presence.",
"When asked if the host was still bread even after consecration, he answered only: \"I believe that the host is the real body of Christ in the form of bread\".",
"Throughout his questioning he insisted that he was \"not bound to believe otherwise than Holy Scripture says\".",
"Following the questioning, Wyche eventually recanted, after he was excommunicated and imprisoned.",
"A suspect in 1517 summed up the Lollards' position: \"Summe folys cummyn to churche thynckyng to see the good Lorde – what shulde they see there but bredde and wyne?",
"\"Lollard teachings on the Eucharist are attested to in numerous primary source documents; it is the fourth of the ''Twelve Conclusions'' and the first of the ''Sixteen Points on which the Bishops accuse Lollards''.",
"It is discussed in ''The Testimony of William Thorpe'', the ''Apology for Lollard Doctrines'', ''Jack Upland'', and ''Opus Arduum''.=== Denial of Sacraments and Sacramentals ===The Lollards did not believe that the church practices of baptism and confession were necessary for salvation.Believing in a universal priesthood, the Lollards challenged the Church's authority to invest or to deny the divine authority to make a man a priest.",
"Denying any special status to the priesthood, Lollards thought confession to a priest was unnecessary since according to them priests did not have the ability to forgive sins.",
"Lollards challenged the practice of clerical celibacy and believed priests should not hold government positions as such temporal matters would likely interfere with their spiritual mission.They considered praying to saints and honouring of their images to be a form of idolatry.",
"Oaths, fasting and prayers for the dead were thought to have no scriptural basis.",
"They had a poor opinion of the trappings of the Catholic Church, including holy water, bells, organs, and church buildings.",
"They rejected the value of papal pardons.=== The Twelve Conclusions ===One group of Lollards petitioned Parliament with The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards by posting them on the doors of Westminster Hall in February 1395.While by no means a central statement of belief of the Lollards, the Twelve Conclusions reveal certain basic Lollard ideas.",
"The first Conclusion rejects the acquisition of temporal wealth by Church leaders, as accumulating wealth leads them away from religious concerns and towards greed.",
"The fourth Conclusion deals with the Lollard view that the Sacrament of the Eucharist is a debatable doctrine that is not clearly defined in the Bible.",
"Whether the bread remains bread or becomes the literal body of Christ is not specified uniformly in the gospels.",
"The sixth Conclusion states that officials of the Church should not concern themselves with secular matters when they hold a position of power within the Church, since this constitutes a conflict of interest between matters of the spirit and matters of the State.",
"The eighth Conclusion points out the ludicrousness, in the minds of Lollards, of the reverence that is directed toward images of Christ's suffering.",
"\"If the cross of Christ, the nails, spear, and crown of thorns are to be honoured, then why not honour Judas's lips, if only they could be found?",
"\"Expensive church artwork was seen as an excess; they believed effort should be placed on helping the needy and preaching rather than working on expensive decorations.",
"Icons were also seen as dangerous since many seemed to be worshipping the icons more fervently than they worshipped God.===Vernacular Scripture===Lollardy was a religion of vernacular scripture.",
"Lollards opposed many practices of the Catholic church.",
"Anne Hudson has written that a form of ''sola scriptura'' underpinned Wycliffe's beliefs, but distinguished it from the more radical ideology that anything not permitted by scripture is forbidden.",
"Instead, Hudson notes that Wycliffe's ''sola scriptura'' held the Bible to be \"the only valid source of doctrine and the only pertinent measure of legitimacy.",
"\"Later Lollards believed that people deserved access to a copy of their own Bible.",
"Many attempted to distribute English copies; however, due to the lack of a printing press and low literacy levels, it was difficult to accomplish this goal.However, a notable feature of some Lollard inquisitions was the common claim of illiteracy (or vision impairment) as a defense against the suspicion of Lollardy raised by possession of vernacular texts.=== Catholic practices ===Lollards did not observe fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church.",
"In heresy proceedings against Margery Baxter it was presented as evidence that a servant girl found bacon in a pot of oatmeal on the first Saturday of Lent.",
"Non-observance of dietary restrictions was used as evidence of heresy in another Norfolk case against Thomas Mone, where it was alleged that a piglet was eaten for Easter dinner when eating meat was forbidden.Special vows were considered to be in conflict with the divine order established by Christ and were regarded as anathema.Lollards also had a tendency toward iconoclasm.Some Lollards believed work was permissible on Sundays.=== Foxe ===Sixteenth-century martyrologist John Foxe reduced the main beliefs of Lollardy to four, to an extent eliding the Wycliffite doctrine of ''dominium'':* opposition to pilgrimages and saint worship, * denial of the doctrine of transubstantiation, and* a demand for English translation of the Scriptures."
],
[
"History",
"Beginning of the Gospel of John from a pocket Wycliffe translation that may have been used by a roving Lollard preacher (late 14th century)Although Lollardy was denounced as a heresy by the Catholic Church, initially Wycliffe and the Lollards were sheltered by John of Gaunt and other anti-clerical nobility, who may have wanted to use Lollard-advocated clerical reform to acquire new sources of revenue from England's monasteries.",
"The University of Oxford also protected Wycliffe and similar academics on the grounds of academic freedom and, initially, allowed such persons to retain their positions despite their controversial views.A primary religious opponent of the Wycliffites was Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, assisted by bishops like Henry le Despenser of Norwich, whom the chronicler Thomas Walsingham praised for his zeal.=== Peasants' Revolt===Lollards first faced serious persecution after the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.While Wycliffe and other Lollards opposed the revolt, one of the peasants' leaders, John Ball, preached Lollardy.",
"Prior to 1382, Wycliffite beliefs were tolerated in government as they endorsed in royal superiority to bishops.",
"However, the government and royals were hesitant, as they did not want to encourage subjects to criticize religious powers.After 1382, royalty and nobility found Lollardy to be a threat not only to the Church, but to English society in general.",
"The Lollards' small measure of protection evaporated.",
"This change in status was also affected by the departure of John of Gaunt (Duke of Lancaster, patron of Chaucer and protector of John Wycliffe) who left England in 1386 to pursue the Crown of Castile.Paul Strohm has asked: \"Was the Lollard a genuine threat or a political pawn, agent of destabilising challenge, or a hapless threat of self-legitimizing Lancastrian discourse?",
"\"=== Lollard Knights ===A group of gentry active during the reign of Richard II (1377–99) were known as \"Lollard Knights\" either during or after their lives due to their acceptance of Wycliffe's claims.",
"Henry Knighton, in his Chronicle, identifies the principal Lollard Knights as Thomas Latimer, John Trussell, Lewis Clifford, Sir John Peche (son of John Peche of Wormleighton), Richard Storey, and Reginald Hilton.",
"Thomas Walsingham's Chronicle adds William Nevil and John Clanvowe to the list, and other potential members of this circle have been identified by their wills, which contain Lollard-inspired language about how their bodies are to be plainly buried and permitted to return to the soil whence they came.",
"There is little indication that the Lollard Knights were specifically known as such during their lifetimes; they were men of discretion, and unlike Sir John Oldcastle years later, rarely gave any hint of open rebellion.",
"However, they displayed a remarkable ability to retain important positions without falling victim to the various prosecutions of Wycliffe's followers occurring during their lifetimes.=== Legal response ===Religious and secular authorities strongly opposed Lollardy.",
"In eventual response to the revolting Lollards, the law ''De heretico comburendo'' was enacted in 1401 during the reign of Henry IV; traditionally heresy had been defined as an error in theological belief, but this statute equated theological heresy with sedition against political rulers.By the early 15th century, stern measures were undertaken by Church and state which drove Lollardy underground.",
"One such measure was the 1410 burning at the stake of John Badby, a layman and craftsman who refused to renounce his Lollardy.",
"He was the first layman to suffer capital punishment in England for the crime of heresy.===Oldcastle Revolt===John Oldcastle being burnt for insurrection and Lollard heresy.John Oldcastle, a close friend of Henry V of England and the basis for Falstaff in the Shakespearean history ''Henry IV, Part 1'', was brought to trial in 1413 after evidence of his Lollard beliefs was uncovered.",
"Oldcastle escaped from the Tower of London and organized an insurrection, which included an attempted kidnapping of the king.",
"The rebellion failed, and Oldcastle was executed.",
"Oldcastle's revolt made Lollardy seem even more threatening to the state, and persecution of Lollards became more severe.=== 1428 Kentish Insurrection ===An insurrection was nipped in the bud in 1428, feared to involve several thousand Lollards, intent on \"destroying the English church.\"",
"It was associated with Lollard missionary William White.=== Late Lollardy in the 1500s ===Lollards were effectively absorbed into Protestantism during the English Reformation, in which Lollardy played a role.",
"Since Lollards had been underground for more than a hundred years, the extent of Lollardy and its ideas at the time of the Reformation is uncertain and a point of debate.",
"Ancestors of Blanche Parry (the closest person to Elizabeth I for 56 years) and of Blanche Milborne (who raised Edward VI and Elizabeth I) had Lollard associations.",
"Many critics of the Reformation, including Thomas More, equated Protestants with Lollards.",
"Leaders of the English Reformation, including Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, referred to Lollardy as well, and Bishop Cuthbert Tunstall of London called Lutheranism the \"foster-child\" of the Wycliffite heresy.",
"Scholars debate whether Protestants actually drew influence from Lollardy or whether they referred to it to create a sense of tradition.A variety of other martyrs for the Lollard cause were executed during the next century, including the Amersham Martyrs in the early 1500s and Thomas Harding in 1532, one of the last Lollards to be made victim.",
"A gruesome reminder of this persecution is the 'Lollards Pit' in Thorpe Wood, now Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich, Norfolk, \"''where men are customablie burnt''\", including Thomas Bilney.Despite the debate about the extent of Lollard influence there are ample records of the persecution of Lollards from this period.",
"In the Diocese of London, there are records of about 310 Lollards being prosecuted or forced to abjure from 1510 to 1532.In Lincoln diocese, 45 cases against Lollardy were heard in 1506–1507 and in 1521 there were 50 abjurations and 5 burnings of Lollards.",
"In 1511, Archbishop Warham presided over the abjuration of 41 Lollards from Kent and the burning of 5.In 1529 Simon Fish wrote an incendiary pamphlet ''Supplication for the Beggars'' including his denial of purgatory and teachings that priestly celibacy was an invention of the Antichrist.",
"He argued that earthly rulers have the right to strip Church properties, and that tithing was against the Gospel, Protestant views that echo the Wycliffite/Lollard teaching.",
"He advocated closing of all monasteries, and notably provided economic estimates of the revenues of various monastic and church institutions.The extent of Lollardy in the general populace at this time is unknown, but the prevalence of Protestant iconoclasm in England suggests Lollard ideas may still have had some popular influence if Huldrych Zwingli was not the source, as Lutheranism did not advocate iconoclasm.",
"Lollards were persecuted again between 1554 and 1559 during the Revival of the Heresy Acts under the Catholic Mary I, which specifically suppressed heresy and Lollardy.The similarity between Lollards and later English Protestant groups, such as the Baptists, Puritans, and Quakers, also suggests some continuation of Lollard ideas through the Reformation."
],
[
"Representations in art and literature",
"The Roman Catholic Church used art as an anti-Lollard weapon.",
"Lollards were represented as foxes dressed as monks or priests preaching to a flock of geese on misericords.",
"These representations alluded to the story of the preaching fox found in popular medieval literature such as ''The History of Reynard the Fox'' and ''The Shifts of Raynardine''.",
"The fox lured the geese closer and closer with its eloquent words until it was able to snatch a victim to devour.",
"The moral of the story being that foolish people are seduced by false teachers."
],
[
"See also",
"* Margery Baxter* ''Ecclesiae Regimen''* Euchites* Hussites* William Langland* Nicholas Love* Thomas Netter* ''Piers Plowman''* Piers Plowman tradition* Waldensians"
],
[
"Citations"
],
[
"General references",
"* * * * * * * * .",
"* * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Lollard Society—society dedicated to providing a forum for the study of the Lollards* \"John Wyclif and the Lollards\" (45 mins.",
"; discussion); episode of ''In Our Time'', BBC Radio 4"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lausanne"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Logo of the city of Lausanne'''Lausanne''' ( , , ; ) is the capital and largest city of the Swiss French-speaking canton of Vaud.",
"It is a hilly city situated on the shores of Lake Geneva, about halfway between the Jura Mountains and the Alps, and facing the French town of Évian-les-Bains across the lake.",
"Lausanne is located northeast of Geneva, the nearest major city.The municipality of Lausanne has a population of about 140,000, making it the fourth largest city in Switzerland after Basel, Geneva, and Zürich, with the entire agglomeration area having about 420,000 inhabitants (as of January 2019).",
"The metropolitan area of Lausanne-Geneva (including Vevey-Montreux, Yverdon-les-Bains, Valais and foreign parts), commonly designated as ''Arc lémanique'' was over 1.3 million inhabitants in 2017 and is the fastest growing in Switzerland.Initially a Celtic and Roman settlement on the shores of the lake, Lausanne became a town at the foot of Notre Dame, a cathedral built in the 12th century.",
"In the 20th century, Lausanne became a focus of international sport, hosting the International Olympic Committee (which has recognized the city as the \"Olympic Capital\" since 1994), the Court of Arbitration for Sport and some 55 international sport associations.",
"It lies in a noted wine-growing region.",
"The city has a 28-station metro system, making it the smallest city in the world to have a rapid transit system.",
"Lausanne hosted the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics."
],
[
"History",
"The Romans built a military camp, which they called , at the site of a Celtic settlement, near the lake where Vidy and Ouchy are situated; on the hill above was a fort called or (The \"-y\" suffix is common to many place names of Roman origin in the region (e.g.)",
"Prilly, Pully, Lutry, etc.).",
"By the 2nd century AD, it was known as and in 280 as .",
"By 400, it was , and in 990 it was mentioned as .",
"Square, After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, insecurity forced the residents of Lausanne to move to its current centre, a hilly site that was easier to defend.",
"The city which emerged from the camp was ruled by the Counts of Savoy and the Bishop of Lausanne.",
"From 888 to 1032, the initially relatively small town belonged to the kingdom of Upper Burgundy.",
"During the 11th century, Lausanne developed into a political, economic and religious center.",
"The city became the center of the secular rule of the bishops.",
"In the period that followed, especially in the 12th and 13th centuries, Lausanne flourished.",
"Finally, in 1275, the Lausanne Cathedral was consecrated in the presence of Pope Gregory X and King Rudolf I of Germany.It was invaded by forces from the canton of Bern and remained under their domination from 1536 to 1798.The iconoclastic Bernese stripped the Lausanne cathedral of its Roman Catholic trappings, and a number of its cultural treasures, including the hanging tapestries in the cathedral, were permanently removed.",
"Lausanne has made repeated requests to recover them, but they never were returned.After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Lausanne became (along with Geneva) a place of refuge for French Huguenots.",
"In 1729, a seminary was opened by Antoine Court and Benjamin Duplan.",
"By 1750, 90 pastors had been sent back to France to work clandestinely; this number would rise to 400.Official persecution ended in 1787; a faculty of Protestant theology was established at Montauban in 1808, and the Lausanne seminary was finally closed on 18 April 1812.During the Napoleonic Wars, the city's status changed.",
"In 1803, it became the capital of a newly formed Swiss canton of Vaud under which it joined the Swiss Federation.===Modern history and heritage===In 1923, the city was the venue for the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne, which established the modern Turkish Republic.",
"In 1964, the city played host to the Swiss National Exhibition, displaying its newly found confidence to play host to major international events.From the 1950s to 1970s, a large number of Italians, Spaniards and Portuguese immigrated to Lausanne, settling mostly in the industrial suburb of Renens.The city has served as a refuge for European artists.",
"While under the care of a psychiatrist at Lausanne, T. S. Eliot composed most of his 1922 poem ''The Waste Land'' (\"by the waters of Leman I sat down and wept\").",
"Ernest Hemingway also visited from Paris with his wife during the 1920s, to holiday.",
"In fact, many creative people – such as historian Edward Gibbon and Romantic era poets Shelley and Byron — have sojourned, lived, and worked in Lausanne or nearby.The city has been traditionally quiet, but in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a series of demonstrations took place that exposed tensions between young people and the police.",
"In the early 1980s, the Lôzane Bouge protests demanded the city \"open an autonomous centre, lower cinema ticket prices, liberalise cannabis and end the process of keeping records on homosexuals, all accompanied by leaflets, chants, and songs in the street\".",
"Protests occurred in 2003, against the G8 meetings.In June of 2022, Lausanne launched Plateforme 10, an art district comprising three museums.",
"The trio of museums included Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts (MCBA), Photo Elysée, and the Museum of Contemporary Design and Applied Arts (MUDAC)."
],
[
"Geography",
"===Topography===The agglomeration of Lausanne, Lake Geneva and the Alps.The most important geographical feature of the area surrounding Lausanne is Lake Geneva (''Le Léman'' in French).",
"Lausanne is built on the southern slope of the Swiss plateau, with a difference in elevation of about between the lakeshore at Ouchy and its northern edge bordering Le Mont-sur-Lausanne and Épalinges.",
"Lausanne boasts a dramatic panorama over the lake and the Swiss and Savoyan Alps.In addition to its generally southward-sloping layout, the centre of the city is the site of an ancient river, the Flon, which has been covered since the 19th century.",
"The former river forms a gorge running through the middle of the city south of the old city centre, generally following the course of the present ''Rue Centrale'', with several bridges crossing the depression to connect the adjacent neighbourhoods.",
"Due to the considerable differences in elevation, tourists should make a note as to which plane of elevation they are on and where they want to go, otherwise they will find themselves tens of metres below or above the street in which they are trying to go.",
"The name ''Flon'' is also used for the metro station located in the gorge.The municipality includes the villages of Vidy, Cour, Ouchy, Mornex, Chailly, La Sallaz, Vennes, Montblesson, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Montheron and Chalet-à-Gobet () as well as the exclave of Vernand.Lausanne is located at the limit between the extensive wine-growing regions of Lavaux (to the east) and la Côte (to the west).Lausanne has an area, , of (depending on calculation method).",
"Of this area, or 15.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 38.8% is forested.",
"Of the rest of the land, or 45.9% is settled (buildings or roads), or 0.2% is either rivers or lakes and or 0.0% is unproductive land.Of the built-up area, industrial buildings made up 1.6% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 22.8% and transportation infrastructure made up 12.4%.",
"Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 1.6% of the area while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 7.4%.",
"Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests.",
"Of the agricultural land, 9.4% is used for growing crops and 4.9% is pastures.",
"All the water in the municipality is in lakes and streams.The municipality was part of the old Lausanne District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, and it became the capital of the new district of Lausanne.===Climate===Lausanne has an average of 119.7 days of rain or snow per year and on average receives of precipitation.",
"The wettest month is May during which time Lausanne receives an average of of rain.",
"During this month there is precipitation for an average of 12.1 days.",
"The driest month of the year is February with an average of of precipitation over 8.8 days.",
"The USDA Hardiness Zone for Lausanne-Pully is 8b with an average minimum temperature of −7.0 C over the past 20 years (1997–2016).File:Spring and the City.jpg|SpringFile:Summer and the City.jpg|SummerFile:Autumn and the City.jpg|AutumnFile:Winter and the City.jpg|Winter"
],
[
"Politics",
"===Coat of arms===The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is ''Gules, chief argent''.===Administrative divisions===The city is divided into 18 ''quartiers'', or districts, sometimes composed of several neighborhoods.",
"They are: Centre (1), Maupas/Valency (2), Sébeillon/Malley (3), Montoie/Bourdonnette (4), Montriond/Cour (5), Sous-Gare/Ouchy (6), Montchoisi (7), Florimont/Chissiez (8), Mousquines/Bellevue (9), Vallon/Béthusy (10), Chailly/Rovéréaz (11), Sallaz/Vennes/Séchaud (12), Sauvabelin (13), Borde/Bellevaux (14), Vinet/Pontaise (15), Bossons/Blécherette (16), Beaulieu/Grey/Boisy (17), and Les Zones foraines (90).===Government===The municipality (''la Municipalité'') constitutes the executive government of the City of Lausanne and operates as a collegiate authority.",
"It is composed of seven councilors (), each presiding over a directorate.",
"One of the members act as mayor (''syndic'').",
"In the mandate period 2021–2026 (''la législature'') the Municipality is presided by le Syndic Grégoire Junod.",
"Directoral tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the Communal Council are carried by the Municipality.",
"The regular election of the Municipality by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every five years.",
"Any resident of Lausanne allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Municipality.",
"Since 14 April 2003, due to the constitution by canton of Vaud not only Swiss citizen have the right to vote and elect and being elected on communal level, but also foreigners with a residence permit of at least 10 years in Switzerland and 3 years in the canton of Vaud.",
"The current mandate period is from 1 Jue 2021 to 30 May 2026.The delegates are elected by means of a system of Majorz.",
"The mayor is later on elected as such by a public election as well by a system of Majorz, while the heads of the other departments are assigned by the collegiate.",
"The executive body holds its meetings in the Town Hall (''L'Hôtel de Ville''), in the old city on ''Place de la Palud''., Lausanne's Municipality is made up of three representatives of the PS (Social Democratic Party, of whom one is also the mayor), and two members of PES (Green Party), and one each of le Parti Ouvrier et Populaire Vaudois (POP), and PLR (Les Libéraux-Radicaux (PLR)), giving the left parties a very strong six out of seven seats.",
"The last regular election was held on 7 and 28 March 2021.+ ''La Municipalité'' of Lausanne for the mandate period 2021–2026 Councilor(''conseiller municipal/ conseillère municipale'') Party Directorate (''Direction de(s)'', since) of elected since '''Grégoire Junod''' PS Culture and Urban Development (''Culture et dévelopment urbain'', 2016) 2011 Pierre-Antoine Hildbrand PLR Security and Economy (''Sécurité et économie'', 2016) 2016 Émilie Moeschler PS Sports and Social Cohesion (''Sports et cohésion sociale'', 2021) 2021 Natacha Litzistorf PES Housing, Environmental Development, and Building/Architecture (''Logement, environnement et architecture'', 2016) 2016 David Payot POP Childhood, Youth, and Quarters (''Enfance, jeunesse et quartiers'', 2016) 2016 Florence Germond PS Finances and Mobility (''Finances et mobilité'', 2011) 2011 Xavier Company PES Industrial Services (''Services industriels'', 2021) 2021Simon Affolter is Town Chancellor (chancelier municipal) since and Patrizia Marzullo Darbellay is Deputy Town Chancellor since for the Municipality.===Parliament===The Communal Council (''Conseil communal'') holds legislative power.",
"It is made up of 100 members, with elections held every five years.",
"The Communal Council decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the Municipality and the administration.",
"The sessions of the Communal Council are public.",
"Unlike members of the Municipality, members of the Communal Council are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance.",
"Any resident of Lausanne allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Communal Council.",
"Since 14 April 2003, due to the constitution by canton of Vaud not only Swiss citizen have the right to vote and elect and being elected on communal level, but also foreigners with a residence permit of at least 10 years in Switzerland and 3 years in the canton of Vaud.",
"The Parliament holds its meetings in the Town Hall (''Hôtel de Ville''), in the old city on ''Place de la Palud''.The last election of the Communal Council was held on 7 March 2021 for the mandate period (''la législature'') from 1 June 2021 to 31 May 2026.As of this election the Communal Council consist of 29 (-4) members of the Social Democratic Party (PS), 24 (+7) Green Party (PES), 21 (0) Les Libéraux-Radicaux (PLR), 13 (+2) ''Ensemble à Gauche'' (an alliance of the left parties POP (''Parti Suisse du Travail – Parti Ouvrier et Populaire'') and solidaritéS and ''indépendant.e.s''), 7 (-5) Swiss People's Party (UDC), and 6 (0) members of the Green Liberal Party (pvl)).===Elections=======National Council====In the 2019 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the Green Party which received 27.3% (+11.4) of the vote.",
"The next five most popular parties were the PS (26.7%, -4.2), PLR (15.1%, -3.6), the UDC (9.3%, -6), the POP/solidaritéS (9%, +1.9), the pvl (6.9%, +3.4).",
"In the federal election a total of 26,070 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 39.7%.In the 2015 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the PS which received 30.8% of the vote.",
"The next three most popular parties were the PLR (18.7%), the Green Party (15.9%), and the UDC (15.4%).",
"In the federal election, a total of 26,116 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 41.0%.===Twin towns and sister cities===* Akhisar, Turkey* Osijek, Croatia* Pernik, Bulgaria"
],
[
"Demographics",
"===Population==='''Largest groups of foreign residents 2013'''Nationality Number % total(foreigners)Portugal 10,081 7.2 (17.2)France 9,968 7.2 (17.0)Italy 6,326 4.5 (10.8)Spain 4,558 3.3 (7.8)Kosovo 2,318 1.7 (4.0)Germany 1,377 1.0 (2.4)Turkey 934 0.7 (1.6)United Kingdom 859 0.6 (1.5)Brazil 840 0.6 (1.4)Ecuador 828 0.6 (1.4)Lausanne has a population () of .",
", 42% of the population were resident foreign nationals.",
"Over the last 10 years (1999–2009) the population has changed at a rate of 9.9%.",
"It has changed at a rate of 8.3% due to migration and at a rate of 2.6% due to births and deaths.",
"The population of the greater Lausanne area (''grand Lausanne'') is 402,900 (as of December 2014).Of the population in the municipality, 58% or 80,828 have a Swiss citizenship, while 16,908 or 12.1% are from Lausanne and still lived there in December 2013.There were 27,653 or 19.8% who are from somewhere else in the same canton, while 36,276 or 26.0% have a Swiss citizenship in another canton.",
"58,9562 or 42.0% have a foreign citizenship.In 2000, most of the population spoke French (98,424 or 78.8%), with German being second most common (5,365 or 4.3%) and Italian being third (4,976 or 4.0%).",
"There were 62 people who speak Romansh.In there were 840 live births to Swiss citizens and 623 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 862 deaths of Swiss citizens and 127 non-Swiss citizen deaths.",
"Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens decreased by 22 while the foreign population increased by 496.There were 9 Swiss men and 57 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland.",
"At the same time, there were 2230 non-Swiss men and 1802 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland.",
"The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 883 and the non-Swiss population increased by 2221 people.",
"This represents a population growth rate of 2.6%.The age distribution, , in Lausanne is; 11,818 children or 9.4% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 12,128 or 9.7% are between 10 and 19.Of the adult population, 21,101 people or 16.8% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old.",
"22,158 people or 17.6% are between 30 and 39, 18,016 people or 14.4% are between 40 and 49, and 13,940 people or 11.1% are between 50 and 59.The senior population distribution is 11,041 people or 8.8% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 8,277 people or 6.6% are between 70 and 79, there are 5,896 people or 4.7% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 1,171 people or 0.9% who are 90 and older.View from Rue du Grand-Pont, there were 58,100 people who were single and never married in the municipality.",
"There were 48,990 married individuals, 7,797 widows or widowers and 10,027 individuals who are divorced.",
"the average number of residents per living room was 0.64 which is about equal to the cantonal average of 0.61 per room.",
"In this case, a room is defined as space of a housing unit of at least as normal bedrooms, dining rooms, living rooms, kitchens and habitable cellars and attics.",
"About 6.5% of the total households were owner occupied, or in other words did not pay rent (though they may have a mortgage or a rent-to-own agreement).Stairs (''escaliers du marché'') in the old city., there were 62,258 private households in the municipality, and an average of 1.9 persons per household.",
"There were 31,205 households that consist of only one person and 2,184 households with five or more people.",
"Out of a total of 63,833 households that answered this question, 48.9% were households made up of just one person and there were 306 adults who lived with their parents.",
"Of the rest of the households, there are 13,131 married couples without children and 11,603 married couples with children.",
"There were 3,883 single parents with a child or children.",
"There were 2,130 households that were made up of unrelated people, and 1,575 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.",
"there were 1,833 single family homes (or 23.1% of the total) out of a total of 7,925 inhabited buildings.",
"There were 3,634 multi-family buildings (45.9%), along with 1,955 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (24.7%) and 503 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (6.3%).",
"Of the single family homes 324 were built before 1919, while 153 were built between 1990 and 2000.The greatest number of single family homes (498) were built between 1919 and 1945.The most multi-family homes (933) were built before 1919 and the next most (906) were built between 1919 and 1945.There were 180 multi-family houses built between 1996 and 2000.there were 69,383 apartments in the municipality.",
"The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 22,408.There were 9,579 single room apartments and 7,388 apartments with five or more rooms.",
"Of these apartments, a total of 61,056 apartments (88.0% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 6,840 apartments (9.9%) were seasonally occupied and 1,487 apartments (2.1%) were empty.",
", the construction rate of new housing units was 2.1 new units per 1000 residents.",
"the average price to rent an average apartment in Lausanne was 1064.08 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$850, £480, €680 approx.",
"exchange rate from 2003).",
"The average rate for a one-room apartment was 597.46 CHF (US$480, £270, €380), a two-room apartment was about 792.33 CHF (US$630, £360, €510), a three-room apartment was about 1044.64 CHF (US$840, £470, €670) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 2024.55 CHF (US$1620, £910, €1300).",
"The average apartment price in Lausanne was 95.3% of the national average of 1116 CHF.",
"The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.17%.===Historic population===The historical population is given in the following chart:Colors= id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9) id:darkgrey value:gray(0.8)ImageSize = width:1100 height:500PlotArea = height:350 left: 100 bottom:90 right:100Legend = columns:3 left:220 top:70 columnwidth:160AlignBars = justifyDateFormat = x.yPeriod = from:0 till:140000TimeAxis = orientation:verticalAlignBars = justifyScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:30000 start:0ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:6000 start:0Colors= id:TO value:yellowgreen legend:Total id:FR value:teal legend:French_Speaking id:GE value:green legend:German_Speaking id:CA value:lightpurple legend:Catholic id:PR value:oceanblue legend:Protestant id:SW value:red legend:SwissPlotData= color:yellowgreen width:40 mark:(line,white) align:center bar:1850 from:start till:17108 text:\"17,108\" color:TO bar:1870a from:start till:25845 text:\"25,845\" color:TO bar:1888 from:start till:33340 text:\"33,340\" color:TO bar:1900 from:start till:46732 text:\"46,732\" color:TO bar:1910 from:start till:64446 text:\"64,446\" color:TO bar:1930 from:start till:75915 text:\"75,915\" color:TO bar:1950 from:start till:106807 text:\"106,807\" color:TO bar:1970 from:start till:137383 text:\"137,383\" color:TO bar:1990 from:start till:128112 text:\"128,112\" color:TO bar:2000 from:start till:124914 text:\"124,914\" color:TOLineData = points:(300,154)(400,179) color:FR points:(400,179)(500,206) color:FR points:(500,206)(600,237) color:FR points:(600,237)(700,311) color:FR points:(700,311)(800,344) color:FR points:(800,344)(900,329) color:FR points:(900,329)(1000,336) color:FR points:(300,104)(400,107) color:GE points:(400,107)(500,114) color:GE points:(500,114)(600,118) color:GE points:(600,118)(700,121) color:GE points:(700,121)(800,120) color:GE points:(800,120)(900,107) color:GE points:(900,107)(1000,103) color:GE points:(100,92)(200,99) color:CA points:(200,99)(300,101) color:CA points:(300,101)(400,113) color:CA points:(400,113)(500,129) color:CA points:(500,129)(600,132) color:CA points:(600,132)(700,158) color:CA points:(700,158)(800,227) color:CA points:(800,227)(900,231) color:CA points:(900,231)(1000,208) color:CA points:(100,130)(200,146) color:PR points:(200,146)(300,161) color:PR points:(300,161)(400,182) color:PR points:(400,182)(500,205) color:PR points:(500,205)(600,231) color:PR points:(600,231)(700,279) color:PR points:(700,279)(800,278) color:PR points:(800,278)(900,211) color:PR points:(900,211)(1000,180) color:PR points:(100,130)(200,146) color:SW points:(200,146)(300,161) color:SW points:(300,161)(400,183) color:SW points:(400,183)(500,212) color:SW points:(500,212)(600,253) color:SW points:(600,253)(700,333) color:SW points:(700,333)(800,356) color:SW points:(800,356)(900,312) color:SW points:(900,312)(1000,291) color:SW Historic population data Year Total population French-speaking German-speaking Catholic Protestant Other Jewish Islamic No religion given Swiss Non-Swiss 13th century 8,000–9,000 1650–1680c.",
"5,100 16986,204 17647,191 1798over 9,000 1813c.",
"13,000 1850 17,108 970 16,101 16,023 1,085 1870 25,845 3,527 22,596 22,353 4,167 1888 33,340 25,750 5,704 4,575 28,431 1,034 184 28,205 5,135 1900 46,732 35,509 6,627 9,364 36,659 1,450 473 37,231 9,501 1910 64,446 46,293 9,669 15,597 46,166 3,167 989 48,647 15,799 1930 75,915 58,691 11,080 16,868 56,300 2,901 818 65,231 10,684 1950 106,807 88,226 12,403 27,218 75,559 2,349 1,009 97,119 9,688 1970 137,383 101,555 11,964 54,993 75,093 11,670 1,394 669 2,056 106,229 31,154 1990 128,112 95,455 6,799 56,464 48,496 19,103 919 2,775 14,548 88,905 39,207 2000 124,914 98,424 5,365 47,225 36,084 16,149 849 7,501 21,080 80,213 44,701===Religion===From the Reformation in the 16th century, the city was mostly Protestant until the late 20th century, when it received substantial immigration, particularly from largely Catholic countries.",
"Catholics now form a plurality of the city's population.",
"The Jewish community gathers at the Synagogue of Lausanne.From the , 47,225 people (37.8% of the population) were Roman Catholic, while 33,993 (27.2%) belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church.",
"Of the rest of the population, there were 2,698 members of an Orthodox church (2.16%), there were 65 individuals (0.05%) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 4,437 individuals (3.55%) who belonged to another Christian church.",
"There were 849 individuals (0.68%) who were Jewish, and 7,501 (6.00%) who were Muslim.",
"There were 452 individuals who were Buddhist, 772 individuals who were Hindu and 343 individuals who belonged to another church.",
"21,080 (16.88%) belonged to no church, were agnostic or atheist, and 7,590 individuals (6.08%) did not answer the question.The Protestant Cathedral of Notre Dame dominates the Lausanne skyline (left: Old Academy, right: Palais de Rumine).===Crime===In 2014 the crime rate, of crimes listed in the Swiss Criminal Code, in Lausanne was 167.3 per thousand residents.",
"During the same period, the rate of drug crimes was 49.5 per thousand residents, and the rate of violations of immigration, visa and work permit laws was 21 per thousand residents."
],
[
"Transport",
"The Lausanne Metro is a rubber tyre metro systemLausanne Tram is completely on reserved track, single line, even undergroundPublic transport networkLausanne is served by an extensive network of local, national and international public transport.",
"National and international passenger trains of the Swiss Federal Railways depart from Lausanne railway station, which is also the hub of the RER Vaud commuter rail system, and a stop on the city's metro.",
"The metro and local buses are operated by Transports publics de la région lausannoise (TL), with many routes run using trolleybuses.",
"Additional commuter trains are run by the Lausanne–Echallens–Bercher railway (LEB) from Lausanne-Flon station.",
"Ships across Lake Geneva are provided by the (CGN).Lausanne became the first city in Switzerland to have a rubber-tyred metro system, with the m2 Line which opened in October 2008.The rolling stock is a shorter version of the one used on Paris Métro Line 14.Further expansion of the system is planned, as is the re-introduction of trams.Lausanne is connected to the A1 motorway on its west side (Geneva – Zürich axis) and to the A9 on its north and east side (for transit with Italy and France); the interchange between these two motorways is on the north-west side of the city.Lausanne Airport is located at Blécherette, and also houses a Boeing 737 Simulator.",
"The city is also directly linked by train to the Geneva International Airport, four times an hour, in 42 min."
],
[
"Economy",
"railway station in the centre and Parc de Milan at the bottom)., Lausanne had an unemployment rate of 8%.",
", there were 114 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 25 businesses involved in this sector.",
"6,348 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 698 businesses in this sector.",
"83,157 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 6,501 businesses in this sector.There were 59,599 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which women made up 47.4% of the workforce.",
"the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 75,041.The number of jobs in the primary sector was 93, of which 56 were in agriculture, 34 were in forestry or lumber production and 3 were in fishing or fisheries.",
"The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 6,057 of which 1,515 or (25.0%) were in manufacturing, 24 or (0.4%) were in mining and 3,721 (61.4%) were in construction.",
"The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 68,891.In the tertiary sector; 8,520 or 12.4% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 2,955 or 4.3% were in the movement and storage of goods, 4,345 or 6.3% were in a hotel or restaurant, 4,671 or 6.8% were in the information industry, 6,729 or 9.8% were the insurance or financial industry, 8,213 or 11.9% were technical professionals or scientists, 5,756 or 8.4% were in education and 14,312 or 20.8% were in health care., there were 55,789 workers who commuted into the municipality and 19,082 workers who commuted away.",
"The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 2.9 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving.",
"About 1.9% of the workforce coming into Lausanne are coming from outside Switzerland, while 0.1% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work.",
"Of the working population, 40.9% used public transportation to get to work, and 35.1% used a private car.Large companies headquartered in Lausanne and its metropolitan area include: * Banque cantonale vaudoise, banking;* Bata Corporation, shoe manufacturing;* Bobst SA, machinery;* Compangie financière Tradition, financial services;* CGN, transportation;* Edipresse, publishing;* ELCA, IT;* Eni Suisse SA, oil & gas;* Kudelski Group, IT;* Landolt & Cie, banking;* Logitech, computer peripherals;* Nespresso, coffee (an operating unit of Nestlé);* Payot, retail bookstore;* Philip Morris International, a tobacco company;* Retraites Populaires, financial services;* Sophia Genetics, biotechnology;* Tetra Laval, packaging; and* Vaudoise Assurances, insurance."
],
[
"Education",
"The École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (photo) and the University of Lausanne form a large campus near the lake Geneva.In Lausanne about 40,118 or (32.1%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 22,934 or (18.4%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a ''Fachhochschule'').",
"Of the 22,934 who completed tertiary schooling, 38.7% were Swiss men, 31.3% were Swiss women, 17.1% were non-Swiss men and 12.9% were non-Swiss women.In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 12,244 students in the Lausanne school district.",
"In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts.",
"During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 2,648 children of which 1,947 children (73.5%) received subsidized pre-school care.",
"The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years.",
"There were 6,601 students in the municipal primary school program.",
"The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 5,244 students in those schools.",
"There were also 399 students who were home schooled or attended another non-traditional school.Lausanne is home to several museums, including the ''Collection de l'art brut'', the ''Espace Arlaud'', the ''Fondation de l'Hermitage'', the ''Musée cantonal d'archéologie et d'histoire'', the ''Musée cantonal de géologie'', the ''Musée cantonal de zoologie'', the Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts, the Museum of Contemporary Design and Applied Arts, the Musée de l'Élysée and the ''Musée historique de Lausanne''.",
"In 2009 the ''Collection de l'art brut'' was visited by 27,028 people (the average in previous years was 33,356).",
"The ''Espace Arlaud'' was visited by 9,222 people (the average in previous years was 14,206).",
"The ''Fondation de l'Hermitage'' was visited by 89,175 people (the average in previous years was 74,839).",
"The ''Musée cantonal d'archéologie et d'histoire'' was visited by 14,841 people (the average in previous years was 15,775).",
"The ''Musée cantonal de zoologie'' was visited by 30,794 people (the average in previous years was 30,392).",
"The ''Musée cantonal de géologie'' was visited by 28,299 people (the average in previous years was 24,248).",
"The Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts was visited by 26,456 people (the average in previous years was 26,384).",
"The Museum of Contemporary Design and Applied Arts was visited by 28,554 people (the average in previous years was 22,879).",
"The Musée de l'Élysée was visited by 36,775 people (the average in previous years was 37,757).",
"The ''Musée historique de Lausanne'' was visited by 23,116 people (the average in previous years was 22,851)., there were 12,147 students in Lausanne who came from another municipality, while 2,258 residents attended schools outside the municipality.===Libraries===Lausanne is home to eight large libraries or collections of libraries.",
"These libraries include the Cantonal and University Library of Lausanne, the library of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), the libraries of the ''Réseau EPFL'', the ''Bibliothèque municipale de Lausanne'', the ''Haute école de travail social et de la santé (EESP)'', the ''HECV Santé'', the ''Haute école de la santé La Source'' and the École cantonale d'art de Lausanne (ECAL).",
"There was a combined total () of 3,496,260 books or other media in the libraries, and in the same year a total of 1,650,534 items were loaned out.===Tertiary education===Lausanne enjoys some world class education and research establishments (see also Lausanne campus), including private schools, attended by students from around the world.",
"* Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL)* University of Lausanne (UNIL)** HEC Lausanne, Faculty of Business and Economics of the University of Lausanne* University Hospital of Lausanne (CHUV), a hospital centre with associated research* ''École hôtelière de Lausanne'' (EHL)* ''École cantonale d'art de Lausanne'' (ECAL)* International Institute for Management Development (IMD)* Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration (IDHEAP)* AISTS (\"International Academy of Sports Science and Technology\")* Business School Lausanne (BSL)* The Lausanne campus of the University of the Nations* Pepperdine University maintains an international study campus in Lausanne===Primary and secondary schools===; International schools:* École française de Lausanne-Valmont* Lycée Pareto (Italian school)* Brillantmont International School* International School of Lausanne* Collège Champittet; Private schools:* École Vinet* École Alphalif"
],
[
"Culture and arts",
"===Heritage sites of national significance===There are 46 buildings or sites that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance.",
"Additionally, the entire old city of Lausanne and the Vernand-Dessus region are listed in the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.",
"* Religious Buildings: Notre-Dame Cathedral, Swiss Reformed Church of Saint-François, Swiss Reformed Church of Saint-Laurent and the Synagogue at Avenue de Florimont.",
"* Civic Structures: Former Hôpital at Rue Mercerie 24, Former Federal Tribunal, the Former Académie at Rue Cité-Devant 7, Casino de Montbenon, St-Maire Castle, Bois-de-Vaux Cemetery, Fondation de l'Hermitage and House de maître, Railway station, Beau-Rivage Palace, City Hall, Hôtel des Postes, Administration Building of André & Cie. S.A., Administration Building of the Vaudoise Assurances, Apartment and Office Building at Rue du Grand-Chêne 8, Les Bains de Bellerive, ''l'Estérel'' House, House at Chemin de Chandolin 4, the Mon-Repos estate at Parc de Mon-Repos, Olympic Museum and Archives of the International Olympic Committee, the vessels of the CGN (La Suisse (1910), Savoie (1914), Simplon (1920), Rhône (1927)), Pont Chauderon, the Vernand-Dessus rural site, Site de l'Expo 64 avec Théatre de Vidy, the Tour Bel-Air and the University Hospital of Lausanne (CHUV).",
"* Museums and Libraries: Former Residence of the Bishop of Lausanne which is now the Lausanne Museum of History, ''Bibliothèque des cèdres'' (former Bibliothèque des pasteurs), Beaulieu Castle and the ''Collection de l'art brut'', Fondation Toms Pauli Collection de tapisseries and d'art textile, Galeries Saint-François, ''Musée de l'Élysée'', Museum of Contemporary Design and Applied Arts (MUDAC), Cantonal Botanical Museum and Gardens, the Roman Museum, the Palais de Rumine with the Musée cantonal de géologie, Cantonal Museum of Zoology, Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts, (Cabinet des médailles) and ''Musée cantonal d'archéologie et d'histoire''.",
"* Archives: Archives of the ''Banque Vaudoise'', Archives of the City of Lausanne, Archives of ''Énergie Ouest Suisse'' (EOS), the Radio Suisse Romande archives and the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland with archives.",
"* Archeological sites: The Roman era/medieval hill-top city and the prehistoric settlement and Roman era Vicus of Vidy (Lousanna).Casino Montbenon.jpg|The Casino de MontbenonLausanne-cathe7.JPG|Lausanne CathedralCHUV Lausanne Suisse 045.JPG|University Hospital of Lausanne (CHUV)Château St-Maire.jpg|Château Saint-MairePicswiss VD-46-21.jpg|Swiss Reformed Church of Saint-FrançoisSt-Laurent Lausanne.jpg| Swiss Reformed Church of Saint-LaurentHermitagefoundation.jpg|Fondation de l'HermitageGare-lausanne-IMG 0002.JPG|Lausanne railway stationBeau Rivage Hotel, Lausanne.jpg|Hôtel Beau-Rivage PalaceTschumiMutuelleAssurance03.jpg|Administrative building of the Vaudoise AssurancesMusée de l'Elysée 4.jpg|Musée de l'ÉlyséeMusee olympique.jpg| Olympic Museum and Archives of the International Olympic CommitteeOuchy waterfront statue.JPG|Ouchy waterfrontLausanne synagogue.jpg|SynagogueTour sauvabelin.JPG|The Sauvabelin TowerLausanne (ship, 1991) at CGN harbour Lausanne-Ouchy 2007-12-16.jpg|===Culture===In addition to the Cantonal and University Library of Lausanne, the Palais de Rumine hosts several museums.The ''Orchestre de chambre de Lausanne'', the Lausanne Opera and the ''Ensemble vocal de Lausanne'' provide a diverse and rich musical life.",
"The latter has been under the direction of Michel Corboz for many years.In January, the Prix de Lausanne, a famous dance competition, takes place at the Palais de Beaulieu (the biggest theatre in Switzerland) over a one-week period.",
"The event attracts dancers and some of the big names in dance from all over the world.The Swiss Film Archive is based in Lausanne and the city hosts film festivals such as the Festival cinémas d’Afrique Lausanne and the Lausanne Underground Film and Music Festival.",
"In addition to modern cinemas, the \"Capitole\" (in activity since 1929) is the biggest cinema in Switzerland (currently 867 seats).The city hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 1989.Each July, the ''Festival de la cité'' is held in the old town.",
"Other music festivals include the Bach Festival, the ''Festival et concours Bach de Lausanne'', which follows the ''Nuit de musées'' (museums' night) in the fall season.Lausanne is also the home of the Béjart Ballet.=== Monuments ===* Cathedral (restored by Viollet-le-Duc)* Saint-Maire Castle (''Château Saint-Maire'')* Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland* Town Hall===Museums===Lausanne is also the site of many museums:* Archizoom* Musée Bolo* Olympic Museum (''Musée olympique'')* Musée de l'Élysée* (\"Hermitage Foundation\")* Collection of Outsider Art (Collection de l'art brut)* Museum of Contemporary Design and Applied Arts (Musée de design et d'arts appliqués contemporains)* (Musée historique de Lausanne)* Musée Arlaud or \"Espace Arlaud\"* ''Espace des inventions'' (\"Science Center for Kids\") at the * – Musée de la main (\"Museum of the Hand\")* * Cantonal Botanical Museum and Gardens (Musée et jardins botaniques cantonaux)* (Musée monétaire cantonal) (formerly \"Cabinet cantonal des médailles\")* (Musée cantonal d'archéologie et d'histoire)* Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts (Musée cantonal des beaux-arts)* Cantonal Museum of Zoology (Musée cantonal de zoologie)* (Musée cantonal de Géologie)* ===Art galleries=======Main contemporary art galleries====* Galerie Lucy Mackintosh (closed)* Dubner Moderne* Synopsism* Espace Saint-François====Art centers or artist-run galleries====* Circuit* Galerie Galerie 1m3* Doll espace d'art contemporain===Music===* Contemporary composer Leonardo Balada's Symphony No.",
"4 is subtitled 'Lausanne'.",
"* Igor Stravinsky's ''L'Histoire du Soldat'' was premiered in Lausanne in September 1918."
],
[
"Sports",
"The seat of the International Olympic Committee in LausanneLausanne is home to the IOC, with water sports available on the nearby lake and mountaineering in the nearby mountains.",
"Cycling is also a common pastime, with the vineyards in the surrounding hills providing extensive views and challenging routes.",
"There is an annual Track and field meeting (''Athletissima''), road running through the city (the 20 km (12 mi) of Lausanne), the Tour de Romandie road cycling race, Marathon of Lausanne and triathlon competition, among other sports events.",
"The two most important sports are ice hockey and football.",
"Lausanne hosted the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics and the 2020 IIHF World Championship.",
"'''Local'''* Lausanne HC Ice Hockey Club* Lausanne-Sport Football Club* Stade Lausanne Ouchy Football Club* Stade Lausanne Rugby Club* Lausanne-Sports Aviron Rowing Club* Federation of Swiss Bandy* Lausanne University Club (Luc) Rugby* Swiss Power Wrestling (SPW) Professional Wrestling promotion and school'''International'''Lausanne hosts the headquarters of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), and many other international sport associations:* European Athletics Association (EAA)* International Baseball Federation (IBAF)* International Canoe Federation (ICF)* International Federation for Equestrian Sports (, FEI)* International Fencing Federation (, FIE)* International Golf Federation (, IGF)* International Federation of Gymnastics (, FIG)* International Hockey Federation (, FIH)* International Rowing Federation (, FISA)* International Skating Union (ISU)* International Swimming Federation (, FINA)* International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF)* International Triathlon Union (ITU)* International University Sports Federation (, FISU)* International Volleyball Federation (, FIVB)* International Wushu Federation (IWUF)* World Air Sports Federation (, FAI)* World Archery Federation (WA; , FITA)* World DanceSport Federation (, WDSF)* World Taekwondo* FIDE (International Chess Federation)"
],
[
"International relations",
"In March–April 2015, the negotiations on Iran nuclear deal framework for a comprehensive agreement on the Iranian nuclear programme took place at the Beau-Rivage Palace, where the foreign ministers and delegations from the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, China, France, the European Union, Germany (P5+1) and Iran were also hosted.",
"The final press conference, on 2 April 2015, was held at the EPFL Learning Centre.On 24 July 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed at the Beau-Rivage Palace."
],
[
"Notable people",
"Jean-Pascal DelamurazJohann Ludwig BurckhardtAuguste Piccard, 1932Albert Chavannes, 1903Capucine, 1962Lady Elizabeth Butler (née Thompson)Rachel Kolly d'Alba, 2009Coco Chanel, 1928Pierre de Coubertin, 1925=== Public service, the military and the church ===* Pierre Viret (1511–1571), Reformed theologian and Protestant reformer* David-Louis Constant de Rebecque (1722–1785), colonel and commandant of a Swiss regiment* Alexandre Vinet (1797–1847), critic and theologian<* Amalric-Frédéric Buscarlet (1836–1928), overseas minister of the Church of Scotland, promoted the building of the Scots Kirk, Lausanne in 1876* Major General Lionel Dunsterville CB CSI (1865–1946), British general, who led Dunsterforce* Baron Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1867–1951), Finnish field marshal and president* Gustave Biéler DSO MBE (1904–1944), Special Operations Executive agent during World War II * Metropolitan Anthony of Sourozh (1914–2003), Russian Orthodox ecclesiastic* Georges-André Chevallaz (1915–2002), historian, politician, Mayor of Lausanne 1958–1973 and member of the Swiss Federal Council 1974–1983* Jean-François Bergier (1931–2009), historian, chaired the Bergier commission* Jean-Pascal Delamuraz (1936–1998), politician* Daniel Brélaz (born 1950), mathematician and politician, Mayor of Lausanne 2001–2016* Simone de Montmollin (born 1968), member of the National Council* Cassandre Berdoz, first woman Watchman of Lausanne Cathedral* Marguerite Narbel (1918–2010), member of the Grand Council of Vaud=== Science and architecture ===* Jean-Nicolas-Sébastien Allamand (1716–1787), natural philosopher* Johann Ludwig Burckhardt (1784–1817), traveller, geographer and orientalist* Oswald Heer (1809–1883), geologist and naturalist* Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (1814–1879), French architect and author* Eugène Renevier (1831–1906), geologist and professor at the University of Lausanne* Léon Walras (1834–1910), economist, professor of economics at University of Lausanne, co-founder of the Lausanne School of economics, together with Vilfredo Pareto* Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923), economist, engineer, sociologist, philosopher, professor of economics at University of Lausanne, co-founder of the Lausanne School of economics, together with: Léon Walras * Sir Waldemar Haffkine (1860–1930), Ukrainian bacteriologist* Auguste Piccard (1884–1962), physicist, inventor and explorer* Michel Mayor (born 1942), astrophysicist, winner of the 2015 Kyoto Prize and co-laureate of the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics* Bernard Tschumi (born 1944), architect, writer and educator associated with deconstructivism=== Writing ===* Jean Bagnyon (1412–1487), lawyer, historian, political writer and translator* Jean-Pierre de Crousaz (1663–1750), writer, theologian and philosopher* Edward Gibbon (1737–1794), English historian, writer and Member of Parliament* Benjamin Constant (1767–1830), political activist and writer on politics and religion.",
"* Charles Secrétan (1815–1895) philosopher* Albert Chavannes (1836–1903), American author, philosopher and sociologist* Charles-Ferdinand Ramuz (1878–1947), French-speaking Swiss writer* Verena Hoehne (1945–2012), journalist and author* Georges Simenon (1903–1989), Belgian writer, created ''Jules Maigret'' * Alejo Carpentier (1904–1980), Cuban novelist, essayist, and musicologist * Jean Anouilh (1910–1987), French dramatist* Jack Rollan (1916–2007), journalist* Han Suyin (1917–2012), Chinese-born Eurasian physician and author of books on China* Nanos Valaoritis (born 1921), Greek writer, poet, novelist and playwright * Jeanlouis Cornuz (1922–2007), novel writer* Albin Schram (1926–2005), collected letters by royals, scientists, writers and philosophers* Jon Steele (born 1950), American expatriate author, cameraman and journalist=== Acting ===* George Sanders (1906–1972), British film and television actor and author* James Mason (1909–1984), English actor* Freddy Buache (born 1924), cinema critic and director of the Swiss Film Archive 1951–1996* Capucine (1928–1990), French actress and model* Fernand Melgar (born 1961), actor, producer, director and film editor* Vincent Perez (born 1964), film actor and director* David Bennent (born 1966), actor* Élodie Frenck (born 1974), Peruvian-Swiss-French actress* James Thiérrée (born 1974), circus performer, violinist, actor and director=== Painting ===* Jeanne-Charlotte Allamand (1760 – 1839), pioneer, educator and artist* François Bocion (1828–1890), artist and teacher, painted scenes around Lake Geneva * Eugène Grasset (1845–1917), decorative artist, pioneer in Art Nouveau design* Elizabeth Thompson (Lady Butler) (1846–1933), British painter of history paintings* Théophile Steinlen (1859–1923), French Art Nouveau painter and printmaker* Marius Borgeaud (1861–1924), Post-Impressionist painter* Félix Vallotton (1865–1925), Swiss/French painter and printmaker associated with Les Nabis* Alice Bailly (1872–1938), radical painter, participated in the Dada movement* René Auberjonois (1872–1957), a post-impressionist painter * Ernest Boiceau (1881–1950), artist and designer* Aloise Corbaz (1886–1964), outsider artist* Lucienne Peiry (born 1961), PhD in the history of art, specialist in Outsider Art (\"Art Brut\"), an exhibition curator and lecturer*Andy Picci (born 1989), conceptual artist*Irene Pijoan (1953–2004), painter, sculptor, educator=== Music and dancing ===* Karol Szymanowski (1882–1937), Polish composer and pianist* Hélène Boschi (1917–1990), pianist* Maurice Béjart (1927–2007), dancer, choreographer and opera director, ran the Béjart Ballet* Charles Dutoit (born 1936), conductor* Manola Asensio (born 1943), ballet dancer* Jacques Viret (born 1943), French musicologist* Pierre Amoyal (born 1949), French violinist, artistic director of the Conservatory of Lausanne* Rachel Kolly d'Alba (born 1981), violinist and an honorary citizen of Asunción in Paraguay=== Royalty, nobility, and the landed gentry ===* Victoria Eugenia of Battenberg (1887–1969), Queen of Spain as the wife of King Alfonso XIII* Alexandra Tegleva (1894–1955), Russian noblewoman who served as a nursemaid in the Imperial Household, lived in Lausanne after the Russian Revolution* Helen of Greece and Denmark (1896–1982), Queen mother of Romania, saved Romanian Jews in World War II* Prince Nicholas Tchkotoua (1909–1984), Georgian writer and member of the Order of Malta* Bhumibol Adulyadej (1927–2016), late King of Thailand, educated and lived locally 1933–1945* Infante Carlos, Duke of Calabria (1938–2015), last infante of Spain* Prince Egon von Fürstenberg (1946–2004), socialite, banker, fashion and interior designer* Princess Yasmin Aga Khan (born 1949), American philanthropist* Princess Margareta of Romania (born 1949), daughter of King Michael I and Queen Anne of Romania* Princess Elena of Romania (born 1950), daughter of King Michael I and Queen Anne of Romania* Princess Ubol Ratana (born 1951), Thai princess* Prince Christoph of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (1956–2006), European socialite=== Business ===* Peter Carl Fabergé (1846–1920), Russian jeweller of Fabergé eggs, founded House of Fabergé* Coco Chanel (1883–1971), a French fashion designer and businesswoman* Ingvar Kamprad (1926–2018), founded IKEA* Paloma Picasso (born 1949), French and Spanish fashion designer and businesswoman* Dominique Lévy (born 1967) art dealer=== Sport ===* Pierre de Coubertin (1863–1937), French baron, founder of the International Olympic Committee* André Wicky (1928–2016), racing car driver and team owner * Umberto Agnelli (1934–2004), head of Fiat and Juventus F.C.",
"* Howard Stupp (born 1955), Canadian wrestler* Bertrand Piccard FRSGS (born 1958), psychiatrist and balloonist* Patrik Lörtscher (born 1960), curler, Olympic winner* Stéphane Chapuisat (born 1969), footballer* Mattia Binotto (born 1969), Italian F1 engineer, team principal of Scuderia Ferrari from 2019 to 2022* Sébastien Loeb (born 1974), French rally, racing, and rallycross driver* Ludovic Magnin (born 1979), footballer* Lorik Cana (born 1983), Albanian footballer* Stan Wawrinka (born 1985), tennis player* Stéphane Lambiel (born 1985), figure skater and coach and Olympic silver medalist* Timea Bacsinszky (born 1989), tennis player* Hugo de Sadeleer (born 1997), racing driver=== Unwelcome notables ===* Marie Manning (1821–1849), Swiss domestic servant and, with her husband, a murderer* Serge Voronoff (1866–1951), French quack surgeon of Russian extraction* Gaston-Armand Amaudruz (1920–2018), neo-fascist political philosopher and Holocaust denier* François Genoud, (1915-1996), financier and Nazi sympathizer"
],
[
"See also",
"* Franco-Provençal language* Eurovision Song Contest 1989* International Academy of Sport Science and Technology (AISTS)* Lac de Sauvabelin, Tour de Sauvabelin* Beau-Rivage Palace* Scots Kirk, Lausanne (Church of Scotland)* List of mayors of Lausanne* Lausanne Conference, 1949* Treaty of Lausanne (1564)* Treaty of Lausanne (1912)* Treaty of Lausanne (1923)"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
";Published in the 19th century*;Published in the 20th century**"
],
[
"External links",
"* of the City of Lausanne ()* The official tourism homepage of Lausanne*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Loyalty program"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Various loyalty cards A '''loyalty program''' is a marketing strategy designed to encourage customers to continue to shop at or use the services of a business associated with the program.",
"A loyalty program typically involves the operator of a particular program set up an account for a customer of a business associated with the scheme, and then issue to the customer a '''loyalty card''' (variously called rewards card, points card, advantage card, club card, or some other name) which may be a plastic or paper card, visually similar to a credit card, that identifies the cardholder as a participant in the program.",
"Cards may have a barcode or magstripe to more easily allow for scanning, although some are chip cards or proximity cards.Today, such loyalty programs cover most types of commerce, each having varying features and rewards schemes, including in banking, entertainment, hospitality, retailing and travel.",
"The market approach has shifted from product-centric to a customer-centric one due to a highly competitive market and a wide array of services offered to customers, therefore, it's important that marketing strategies prioritize growing a sustainable business and increasing customer satisfaction.By presenting a card, customers typically receive either a discount on the current purchase or an allotment of points that they can use for future purchases.",
"Hence, the card is the visible means of implementing a type of what economists call a two-part tariff.",
"Application forms for cards usually entail agreements by the store concerning customer privacy, typically non-disclosure (by the store) of non-aggregate data about customers.",
"The store uses aggregate data internally (and sometimes externally) as part of its marketing research.",
"Over time the data can reveal, for example, a given customer's favorite brand of beer, or whether they are a vegetarian.",
"Where a customer has provided sufficient identifying information, the loyalty card may also be used to access such information to expedite verification during receipt of cheques or dispensing medical prescription preparations, or for other membership privileges such as access to an airport lounge using a frequent-flyer card.",
"In recent years, businesses now offer these loyalty cards in the form of a loyalty app, which means users are less likely to lose their cards.",
"Almost all major casino chains also have loyalty cards, which offer members tier credits, reward credits, comps, and other perks based on card members' \"theo\" from gambling, various demographic data, and spend patterns on various purchases at the casino, within the casino network, and with the casino's partners.",
"Examples of such programs include Caesars Rewards (formerly called Total Rewards) and MGM Resorts International's Mlife.Loyalty programs have been described as a form of centralized virtual currency, one with unidirectional cash flow, since reward points can be exchanged into a good or service but not into cash."
],
[
"History",
"Betty Crocker's loyalty points program, introduced 1929, ended in 2006, one of the longest running loyalty programs."
],
[
"By continent and country",
"===Asia===* '''Hong Kong''': Octopus Rewards, MTR Corporation.",
"Different chain stores under common ownership often share the same loyalty program, such as A.S. Watson Group's ''MoneyBack'', which can be used at Parknshop, Watsons, and Fortress stores, as well as the corporation's retail partners.",
"HKT's The club also offers a similar loyalty program.",
"Flag airline carrier Cathay Pacific operates Asia Miles, a loyalty and frequent-flyer program.",
"* '''India''': PAYBACK India is India's largest coalition loyalty program.",
"German loyalty program operator Loyalty Partner took a controlling interest in i-mint in June 2010 and renamed the program PAYBACK India in July 2011.BPCL's PetroBonus fuel card program has 2 million members.",
"Indian Oil's fleet card program XTRAPOWER and retail program XTRAREWARDS claim a combined customer base of 3 million.",
"* '''Iran''': The first Iranian loyalty program launched in 1996.East Credit Card Group Kish launched its loyalty program in 2005.",
"* '''Malaysia''': Genting Highlands Resort loyalty card, WorldCard, is valid in three countries: Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong.",
"* '''Philippines''': SM Supermalls and BDO Unibank offer rewards cards which are accepted by The SM Store, SM Supermarket, SM Hypermarket, ACE Hardware and Watsons Pharmacy.",
"Robinsons Malls also offers a loyalty program through the Go Rewards app (formerly known as the Robinsons Rewards card).",
"Others are Jollibee, (HappyPlus card),, Grab Rewards, and Mercury Drug's Suki Card.",
"* '''Singapore''': Loyalty programs in Singapore include GrabRewards by Grab, SAFRA and Plus!",
"from NTUC.===Europe===* '''Austria''': The two largest loyalty programs in Austria are Payback and mo.",
"JÖ was fully launched in 2019.",
"* '''Finland''': The two major retail coalitions with loyalty programs are the S-Group with their ''S-Etukortti'' card) and Kesko with ''K-Plussa'' (67%).",
"* '''Georgia''': Georgia's biggest loyalty card program has been run by Universal Card Corporation since 2010 via UNICARD.",
"* '''Germany''': The largest loyalty program is Payback, launched in 2000.and the Shell ClubSmart program are next in size.",
"was launched by Arvato in 2008.HappyDigits was disbanded by 2010.",
"* '''Hungary''': SuperShop and Multipoint are their main loyalty programs.",
"* '''Italy''': After the exit of Nectar from the market in 2015, Payback is the most popular loyalty program.",
"Supermarkets Esselunga, Coop and Il Gigante also have loyalty programs.",
"* '''Latvia''': One of the largest loyalty programs in Latvia which is working as an operator for many merchants is Pins.",
"Another is Walmoo* '''Norway''': The largest Norwegian loyalty program is Trumf.",
"Trumf is a \"brick and mortar\" loyalty program owned by NorgesGruppen, a grocery wholesaling group in Norway.",
"KickBack.no is one of the largest online loyalty programs and cashback sites in Norway.",
"KickBack.no is owned by Schibsted Media Group.",
"* '''Republic of Ireland''': Superquinn introduced its SuperClub loyalty card in 1993, the prototype for Europe.",
"However, loyalty cards did not expand until 1997, when Tesco Ireland introduced its Clubcard scheme, shortly after its purchase of Power Supermarkets.",
"SuperValu introduced their own loyalty club called Real Rewards.",
"Others were: ** During the late 1990s—Esso petrol program were: Tiger Miles, Maxol, Texaco and Statoil.",
"Increasing oil prices ended these in 2005.",
"** Game, a major computer game and hardware retailer, which merged with Electronics Boutique's programme.",
"** Rewards From Us To You, a hotel loyalty program* '''Russia''': MALINA, \"the largest multicorporate customer loyalty program in Russia,\" was launched in 2006 by Loyalty Partners Vostok.",
"Another is Mnogo.ru.",
"* '''Switzerland''': Loyalty programs are popular in Switzerland, with the two main supermarket chains, Migros and Coop prominent.",
"The M-Cumulus card can be used at the Migros supermarkets, Ex Libris, SportXX, and other retailers.",
"The Coop Supercard earns points on purchases at Coop and a variety of other associated stores.",
"Other stores such as Interio, a furniture retailer, are also joining the market with loyalty cards and store-based incentivized credit cards.",
"The only coalition loyalty scheme in Switzerland is Bonus Card with a network of over 300 independent retail partners.",
"In recent years, online loyalty programs have also started to target the Swiss.",
"First to make an offering in Switzerland was German-based Webmiles.",
"Claiming to be Switzerland's first online bonus program, Bonuspoints was launched in early 2008 and offers incentives for shopping at 70 different online stores.",
"* '''Turkey''': Pegasus Airlines has a loyalty program called Pegasus Plus which gives rewards for every flight.",
"Passengers can spend reward points as a discount without waiting to cover a full flight.",
"Turkish Airlines has a loyalty program called Miles&Smiles.",
"* '''United Kingdom''': ''Passcard'' (later renamed ''Passkey'') was in the early 1980s.",
"Sainsbury's ''Homebase Spend and Save Card'' was another early 1980s loyalty card.",
"A later program, Tesco's ClubCard, was criticized for not offering value for money.",
"''The Economist'' suggested that the real benefit of loyalty cards to UK outlets is the massive marketing research database potential they offer.",
"Morrisons is another program.",
"Many stores have kiosks that, with the cards, print vouchers that can be used at the till.Safeway's ABC Card was discontinued in 2000.Maximiles is an online coalition program.Formerly operated by British Airways, Airmiles was the most popular flight-related loyalty program in the UK A re-brand of the program in 2011 from Airmiles to Avios caused controversy as members were now required to pay taxes and fees on flights they used for redemption.Co-operative Membership: the Co-op Group offers a 2% (previously 5%) refund to members on Co-op branded products with 2% also going to the cardholder's nominated charity.",
"This is only available in Co-op Group stores.",
"It replaced the dividend benefit previously used.",
"Other Co-op chains continue with the dividend scheme, e.g.",
"Midcounties Co-operative.",
"Many of these accept other Co-operative loyalty cards but generally without the same benefits.",
"For instance Midcounties Co-operative accept Co-operative Group cards but there is no charity donation or cardholder refund.===North America===* '''Canada''': Canadian Tire's Canadian Tire money is the oldest loyalty program in Canada.",
"Air Miles is Canada's largest loyalty program.",
"The food and beverage industry also has several companies with rewards programs.",
"* '''United States''': In the US, loyalty cards have a long history.",
"Some are only online.",
"Some partner with classic credit cards.",
"Frequent-flyer programs and, less commonly ''SeaMiles'' co-exist with programs that donate a percentage of sales to a designated charity.",
"Some American retailers either have not implemented these cards, or eliminated them, in favor of discounts for all shoppers.",
"Few states regulate club cards.",
"As an example, supermarkets in California are subject to the Supermarket Club Card Disclosure Act of 1999.",
"* '''Mexico''': ''Bonvoy'' is a hotel-oriented loyalty program.===Oceania===Flybuys is the largest loyalty program in both Australia and New Zealand.",
"* '''Australia''': Contenders include Woolworths' Everyday Rewards, Myer's MYER one program, the Priceline's Sister Club, Amcal Club, Millers Retail Club, and the BB Retail Capital Pulse Rewards program.",
"* '''New Zealand''': Other programs include the New Zealand Automobile Association AA Smartfuel programme and Countdown supermarket's Onecard.",
"Kachingo was a short-lived \"card free\" programme."
],
[
"Mobile loyalty programs",
"=== Mobile online loyalty programs ===There has been a move away from traditional magnetic card, stamp, or punchcard based schemes to online and mobile online loyalty programs.",
"While these schemes vary, the common element is a push toward eradication of a traditional card, in favour of an electronic equivalent.",
"The choice of medium is often a QR code.",
"Some prominent examples are Austrian based mobile-pocket established in 2009, the US-based Punchd (discontinued from June 2013,), which became part of Google in 2011.and an Australian-based loyalty card application called Stamp Me which incorporates iBeacon technology.",
"Others, like Loopy Loyalty (HK), Loyalli (UK), Perka (US), and Whisqr Loyalty (CA), have offered similar programs.",
"Passbook by Apple is the first attempt to standardize the format of mobile loyalty cards.===Mobile off-line loyalty programs===With the introduction of host card emulation (HCE) and near field communication (NFC) technology for mobile applications, traditional contactless smart cards for prepaid and loyalty programs are emulated in a smartphone.",
"Google Wallet adopted these technologies for mobile off-line payment applications.The major advantage of off-line over the online system is that the user's smartphone does not have to be online, and the transaction is fast.",
"In addition, multiple emulated cards can be stored in a smartphone to support multi-merchant loyalty programs.",
"Consequently, the user does not need to carry many physical cards anymore.The term also is used regarding linking rewards for online and offline purchases."
],
[
"Disloyalty cards",
"In Boston, Toronto and London, some independent coffee shops have set up experimental \"disloyalty card\" programs, which reward customers for visiting a variety of coffee shops."
],
[
"Criticism",
"Evidence for the effectiveness of loyalty programs is controversial.",
"Many companies are unsure whether and how to use customer loyalty programs profitably.",
"Many programs (regardless of location, size, or industry) are run without the appropriate metrics or target parameters.Some companies complain that loyalty programs discount goods to people who are buying goods anyway.",
"Moreover, the expense of participating in these programs rarely generates a good return on investment.",
"The Forte Consultancy Group regards loyalty programs as bribes.",
"In the case of infrequent spenders, loyalty fees provide a means of subsidizing discounts.A 2015 study found that most supermarket loyalty cards in the United States do not offer any real value to their customers.",
"Furthermore, commercial use of customers' personal data – collected as part of loyalty programs – has the potential for abuse; it is highly likely that consumer purchases are tracked and used for marketing research to increase the efficiency of marketing and advertising, which is one of the purposes of offering the loyalty card.",
"For some customers, participating in a loyalty program (even with a fake or anonymous card) funds activities that violate privacy.",
"Consumers have also expressed concern about the integration of RFID technology into loyalty-card systems.One may view loyalty and credit-card reward-plans as modern-day examples of kickbacks.Employees who need to buy something (such as an airline flight or a hotel room) for a business trip, but who have discretion to decide which airline or hotel chain to use, have an incentive to choose the payment method that provides the most cash-back, credit-card rewards or loyalty points instead of minimizing costs for their employer."
],
[
"See also",
"* Geomarketing* Identity management* Incentive* Incentive program* Loyalty marketing* Premium (marketing), e.g., \"premiums\"* S&H Green Stamps* Trading stamp"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Ludwig Von Drake"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Professor Ludwig Von Drake''' is a cartoon character created in 1961 by The Walt Disney Company.",
"He is the paternal uncle of Donald Duck.",
"He was first introduced as the presenter (and singer of \"The Spectrum Song\") in the cartoon ''An Adventure in Color'', part of the first episode of ''Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color'' on NBC.",
"According to the episode ''The Hunting Instinct'' of that series he and Donald Duck's father are brothers.",
"He is described as a scientist, lecturer, psychologist, and world traveler.",
"The character displayed his \"expert\" knowledge on a variety of subjects in eighteen episodes of the classic anthology series, as well as on a number of Disneyland Records.Paul Frees was the original voice of Ludwig Von Drake.",
"After Frees retired from the role, the character was briefly voiced by Walker Edmiston.",
"Since 1987, he has been voiced by Corey Burton.",
"Ludwig Von Drake has also appeared in numerous Disney comics stories."
],
[
"Character",
"Ludwig Von Drake comes from Vienna, Austria and has a fascination with knowledge.",
"Since his youth, he has been trying to obtain as many diplomas, in any science, as possible.",
"When he is consulted by other family members, it is a running gag that he almost invariably turns out to have a university degree relevant for whatever information they are seeking.",
"He is often shown as having little social competence, however, and is often portrayed as being very forgetful, sometimes even somewhat senile.",
"In the comics, Ludwig usually visits with Donald Duck and Donald's nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie.",
"On occasion, Daisy Duck will coax (or even trick) the professor into giving lectures and tours for her ladies' club.",
"Ludwig can play the piano and acoustic guitar, as shown in a few television specials and more.In the ''Wonderful World of Color'' episode ''The Hunting Instinct'', Walt Disney states Ludwig is Donald Duck's father's brother.",
"According to Walt Disney, Donald decided to adopt his maternal surname, Duck, when he got into show business, and that is the reason why he is not popularly known as Donald Von Drake.",
"In the comic strips by Bob Karp and Al Taliaferro, Donald and his nephews usually call Ludwig 'Uncle Ludwig', and Daisy Duck refers to him as 'sort of an uncle' of Donald's in the first Sunday strip where his name is mentioned.In the ''Wonderful World of Color'' episode ''Kids is Kids'', Ludwig says, \"Of course, I don't need any help raising children.",
"I'm a bachelor.\"",
"Besides, he has been shown to be a member of the ''Absentminded Dating Club'', where he is the suitor of a duck woman called Alice.",
"This is contradicted by Don Rosa's private (and unpublished) Duck Family tree which shows Ludwig married to Donald Duck's mother's sister Matilda McDuck.",
"The same family tree also states this is the only relationship between Ludwig and Donald Duck; thereby contradicting Walt Disney's statement.In the story \"Duckburg, U.S.A.\", published in ''Ludwig Von Drake'' #1 (November 1961), Professor Ludwig Von Drake arrives in Duckburg by train, and it is shown that Donald Duck had never seen this Austrian relative before, not even in a picture.",
"Grandma Duck, Uncle Scrooge McDuck, Daisy Duck, Gladstone Gander, Huey, Dewey and Louie, Gus Goose, and Gyro Gearloose also appear in this same story waiting to know Ludwig at the train station, and Grandma enthusiastically exclaims, \"Professor Ludwig Von Drake!",
"Such a nice-sounding name!\".",
"In some old comic stories where Ludwig visits Grandma on her farm, it is clear that they have a close relationship, as shown in the story \"Message From Space\", where Grandma exclaims, \"You need rest, dear boy!",
"\", after thinking he had a kind of nervous breakdown.",
"In \"Pigeon Panic\" Ludwig exclaims, \"Ho!",
"You know you can depend on me!",
"\", after Grandma warned him to be careful with her smartest homer.",
"There is an enlightening sequence of two panels in the story \"The Rural Eggs-pert\", where Ludwig is resting in an old chair of Grandma's house when an antique buyer asks Grandma to sell him \"this fine old specimen\" (the chair) and she answers, \"Well, it's been in the family for years, but I could do without it!",
"\", making Ludwig astonished, since he thinks she is referring to him as if he was a livestock.",
"He would not have reacted this way if he was not her relative.",
"In the last panel of the story \"Barn Dance Doctor\", Grandma refers to Ludwig as her \"cityfied cousin\".",
"Since it was stipulated by Don Rosa that her father was a ''Coot'' and her mother was a ''Gadwall'', it is not clear if Ludwig Von Drake is related to Elvira Coot through her father or her mother.",
"Elvira could have an Austrian ascendancy to explain her kinship to Ludwig.In the story \"The Family Tree Spree\", Donald scares of seeing Ludwig's specs on the floor and thinks about them as \"Uncle Ludwig's specs\".",
"In the end of this same story, it is revealed that Ludwig also appears in Donald's paternal family tree, wherein he and Donald both have an ancestor called Colombust Duck.",
"According to Carl Barks, Donald's fathers's surname is Duck, his mother's one being McDuck.",
"Since Humperdink Duck (a.k.a.",
"Grandpa Duck), Grandma Duck's deceased husband and Donald's paternal grandfather, was probably almost contemporary with Ludwig Von Drake, it is possible to consider they were half-brothers, Donald being thus Ludwig's grandnephew.",
"Ludwig reveals to Daisy and her friends in \"Blown Up Genius\" that he came from a long line of glass blowers.",
"In \"Winning Ways\", Daisy and her friends try to prepare Ludwig's favorite dish, called ''Wiener Schnitzel a la Weltschmerz'', whose recipe belonged to Ludwig's great grandmother.",
"Ludwig is really excited about it because he has not eaten that dish since he left Austria and came to Duckburg to know his relatives of Donald's paternal family.",
"In \"The Big Payoff\", it is revealed that he spent many months living in Donald's house since his arrival in Duckburg.",
"Ludwig wins a TV chess challenge in this comic story, making Donald exclaim, \"Yippee!",
"He did it!",
"Now he can pay all he's owed us (he and his nephews) for these many months!\".",
"According to the story \"The Jewels of Skull Rock\", Ludwig spent six months in Donald's house.",
"In the Christmas story \"The Cuckoo Clock Caper\", Ludwig exclaims that he and Scrooge are \"joined in good fellowship\".",
"Ludwig and Gyro Gearloose competed as to who is the greater inventor in the comic story \"I.Q.",
"Bugaboo\".Those twelve stories mentioned above were drawn by Tony Strobl, who was the cartoonist responsible for introducing Professor Ludwig into American Disney comic books.",
"Actually, Ludwig's first comic book appearance was in a not previously mentioned story by Strobl, \"The Scene Stealer\", first published in October, 1961.The events showed in this one presumably happened after the ones showed in \"Duckburg, U.S.A.\", which was published two months later."
],
[
"Filmography",
"Professor Ludwig Von Drake was introduced as a new character alongside Walt Disney himself in the very first episode of ''Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color'' after the series was moved to NBC in the fall of 1961.He was designed, and frequently animated, by Milt Kahl and Ward Kimball, two of Disney's Nine Old Men of animators, some animation of the character was done by Frank Thomas and Eric Larson.===Television==='''Wonderful World of Color appearances (1960s)'''*''An Adventure in Color/Mathmagicland'' (24 September 1961) – This show introduced Walt Disney's new character and co-host Ludwig Von Drake, who lectures on the subject of color.",
"*''The Hunting Instinct'' (22 October 1961) – Ludwig Von Drake sheds some light on the subject of why man hunts with his assistant Herman the Bootle Beetle.",
"*''Inside Donald Duck'' (5 November 1961) – Ludwig Von Drake attempts to diagnose Donald Duck's problems, deciding the cause is romance.",
"*''Kids Is Kids'' (10 December 1961) – Ludwig Von Drake shares his knowledge on the subject of child psychology and how to handle Huey, Dewey, and Louie.",
"*''Carnival Time'' (4 March 1962) – Ludwig Von Drake takes a look at some major carnivals in New Orleans and Rio de Janeiro with Donald Duck and Jose Carioca.",
"*''Von Drake in Spain'' (8 April 1962) – Ludwig Von Drake lectures on the dances of Spain.",
"*''Man Is His Own Worst Enemy'' (21 October 1962) – Ludwig Von Drake explains why people are the biggest challenge facing humanity.",
"This episode is sometimes titled ''Ducking Disaster with Donald and his Friends''.",
"*''Three Tall Tales'' (6 January 1963) – Ludwig Von Drake and his sidekick Herman tell three stories including \"Casey at the Bat\", \"The Saga of Windwagon Smith\" and \"Paul Bunyan.",
"\"*''Inside Outer Space'' (10 February 1963) – Ludwig Von Drake gives a lecture on outer space, using footage from ''Man in Space'', ''Man and the Moon'' and ''Mars and Beyond''.",
"*''A Square Peg in a Round Hole'' (3 March 1963) – Ludwig Von Drake has founded the Research Institute For Human Behavior.",
"*''Fly with Von Drake'' (13 October 1963) – Ludwig Von Drake gives a historically accurate and funny lecture on the birth of crewed flight.",
"*''The Truth About Mother Goose'' (17 November 1963) – Ludwig Von Drake tells the stories behind Mother Goose rhymes.",
"Including footage from ''Mickey and the Beanstalk''.",
"Von Drake narrates this story which was originally featured as a segment in the 1947 feature film ''Fun and Fancy Free'', replacing the original narration.",
"Herman makes a comeback in this episode.",
"*'' Mediterranean Cruise'' (19 January 1964) – Ludwig Von Drake takes a trip on a Cruise liner.",
"*''In Shape with Von Drake'' (22 March 1964) – Ludwig Von Drake returns to explain sports and fitness.",
"He illustrates his points through the use of several Goofy cartoons.",
"*''A Rag, a Bone, a Box of Junk'' (11 October 1964) – Ludwig Von Drake makes an cameo in this documentary about stop-motion animation*''Music for Everybody'' (30 January 1966) – Ludwig Von Drake hosts this look at the importance of music in people's lives.",
"*''Nature's Strangest Oddballs'' (29 March 1970) – Ludwig Von Drake hosts this look at various animal species that have stayed===Theatrical===*''A Symposium on Popular Songs'' (19 December 1962) – Von Drake demonstrates examples of popular music through the years."
],
[
"Cartoon appearances (1980s–present)",
"Von Drake has appeared on several Disney animated cartoon series: ''DuckTales'', ''Raw Toonage'', ''Bonkers'', ''Mickey Mouse Works'', ''Quack Pack'', ''House of Mouse'', ''Mickey Mouse Clubhouse'', ''Mickey Mouse'', ''Mickey and the Roadster Racers'', the 2017 reboot of ''DuckTales'', ''The Wonderful World of Mickey Mouse'', ''Mickey Mouse Funhouse'', ''Minnie's Bow-Toons'' and in numerous television specials.",
"In all of these, Von Drake wears a pink shirt, black tie, red vest, and a lab coat.In ''House of Mouse'', Von Drake appears as a recurring character.",
"In \"Ask Von Drake\", Mickey tries to prove that Ludwig Von Drake does not know everything.",
"At the end, Mickey convinces him that during the headcount of all the Disney characters, he forgot himself.",
"Also, in \"House of Genius\", Ludwig creates robot duplicates of Mickey, Minnie, Donald, Daisy, Goofy, and Pluto.",
"At the end, when Ludwig brings in a robot duplicate of himself, Mickey tells the robot to send the real Ludwig packing.In ''Mickey Mouse Clubhouse'', he is a major recurring character, often helping the protagonists, or asking for help himself.Ludwig appears as a recurring character in the ''DuckTales'' reboot as the head of spy agency S.H.U.S.H.Ludwig makes a cameo appearance between Walt Disney Animation Studios characters that take a group photo in the 2023 short film, ''Once Upon a Studio''."
],
[
"Ludwig Von Drake in the ''Sing-Along Songs'' series",
"In the Disney's ''Sing-Along Songs'' series of videos, he has hosted/co-hosted these five volumes:*''You Can Fly!''",
"(May 31, 1988)*''Fun with Music'' (along with Professor Owl) (May 9, 1989)*''Under the Sea'' (August 14, 1990)*''I Love to Laugh'' (February 22, 1991)*''Colors of the Wind'' (July 21, 1995)"
],
[
"Disneyland Records discography",
"In 1961 Disneyland Records released the LP ''Professor Ludwig Von Drake''.",
"The LP had two songs from the character's debut in the ''An Adventure in Color'' episode (\"The Green with Envy Blues\" and \"The Spectrum Song\"), as well as new songs and comedy bits.The track list for the \"Ludwig Von Drake\" LP:# I'm Ludwig Von Drake# The Spectrum Song# The Green with Envy Blues# It Gets You# Von Drake Variations on \"The Blue Danube\"# Professor Ludwig Von Drake Discourse: All About Sound Recording# An Operatic Version of a Theme from 'Cinderella'As of February 2010, the digitally remastered LP can be downloaded exclusively at the iTunes Store."
],
[
"Print appearances",
"The Disney studio encouraged the writers of Duck comics to introduce this new character in print, and already in September 1961, Von Drake started appearing in Al Taliaferro and Bob Karp's featured daily strips.",
"However, aside from a solitary cameo appearance in a one-page story in ''Uncle Scrooge'' #54 (December 1964), the character was not used by leading Disney duck artist Carl Barks.In 1961, Dell Comics launched a comic book series starring Von Drake and illustrated by Tony Strobl, but it only lasted for four issues before being discontinued.",
"The character made subsequent appearances in other comic titles such as ''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories'' and in the ''Donald Duck'' newspaper strip.Ludwig also appeared in a 1962 sequence of the annual ''Disney Christmas Story'' comic strip.",
"In \"Sleeping Beauty's Christmas Story\", the professor helps Princess Aurora break Maleficent's spell.Professor Ludwig has often been used by Italian cartoonists, including in some of the long sagas inspired by famous books that they usually produce with the Duck Family, such as \"La storia di Marco Polo detta Il Milione\" (free translation \"The Million – A Story of Marco Polo\") and \"Paperino in: Il mondo perduto\" (free translation \"Donald in: The Lost World\").",
"As a result, he has achieved significant popularity in Italy (where he is known as '''Pico De Paperis''').",
"He is portrayed in Italian comics as a scholar with multiple degrees in different subjects (even the more improbable ones) rather than a scientist."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of duck universe characters* Duck family (Disney)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Ludwig Von Drake on IMDb"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Los Altos, California"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Los Altos''' (; Spanish for \"The Heights\") is a city in Santa Clara County, California, in the San Francisco Bay Area.",
"The population was 31,625 according to the 2020 census.Most of the city's growth occurred between 1950 and 1980.Originally an agricultural town with many summer cottages and apricot orchards, Los Altos is now an affluent bedroom community on the western edge of Silicon Valley, serving as a major source of commuters to other parts of Silicon Valley.",
"Los Altos strictly limits commercial zones to the downtown area and small shopping and office parks lining Foothill Expressway and El Camino Real."
],
[
"History",
"The area was originally called \"Banks and Braes\".",
"Paul Shoup, an executive of the Southern Pacific Railroad, and his colleagues formed the Altos Land Company in 1906 and started the development of Los Altos.",
"The company acquired of land from Sarah Winchester.",
"Shoup wanted to link Palo Alto and Los Gatos by making Los Altos a commuter town.",
"It continued a train-a-day operation to and from San Francisco.In 1908, Southern Pacific Railroad began running steam train service through Los Altos (April 19, 1908) with five trains per day.",
"Two freight cars served as a train depot.",
"Also, the first commercial building, Eschenbruecher's Hardware, was built in downtown.",
"In 1913, the craftsman-style Los Altos train station was built at 288 First Street.By 1949, many residents were dissatisfied with the zoning policy of Santa Clara County, and there was a constant threat of annexation by neighboring Palo Alto and Mountain View, so they decided to incorporate.",
"Los Altos became the eleventh city in Santa Clara County on December 1, 1952.Train service ceased operation in January 1964, and the train track became Foothill Expressway.",
"Los Altos may have a legitimate claim to having the first scientifically designed sound baffle in 1970.Santa Clara County undertook a seminal study to calculate the effects of alternate soundwall designs along Foothill Expressway.",
"The resulting wall brought about the predicted reduction of seven to ten decibels in noise pollution levels experienced by adjacent homes.In 1976, Apple co-founders Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak built the first 50 Apple I computers in Jobs's garage in Los Altos.In 2004, landlord Judy Fusco rented her Los Altos home, later known as \"Casa Facebook\", to Mark Zuckerberg; there, he and a few other associates scaled Facebook from 200,000 members to 2.5 million.On April 15, 2021, Los Altos became home to the world's first consumer flying car showroom.===Earthquakes===A store in disarray following the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquakeLos Altos is near the San Andreas Fault and therefore subject to earthquakes.",
"*1906 San Francisco earthquake – Although Los Altos was hit extremely hard (VIII on the intensity level), the main local effort was to help rebuild nearby Santa Cruz, which was nearly destroyed.",
"*1989 – On October 17, Los Altos experienced the Loma Prieta earthquake, but was spared major damage.",
"Los Altos and its churches combined efforts to clean up hard-hit areas such as Watsonville and Santa Cruz."
],
[
"Geography",
"Los Altos is bordered by Los Altos Hills to the west, Palo Alto to the west and northwest, Mountain View to the northwest and northeast, Sunnyvale to the east, and Cupertino to the southeast.Los Altos is crossed by three creeks that flow north to San Francisco Bay, Adobe Creek on its western boundary, Stevens Creek on its eastern boundary and Permanente Creek in the middle.",
"Hale Creek is a tributary to Permanente Creek, and Permanente Creek is now largely diverted to Stevens Creek by a diversion channel.",
"All three creeks originate on the flanks of Black Mountain."
],
[
"Demographics",
"===2010s===The 2010 United States Census reported that Los Altos had a population of 28,976.The population density was people per square mile (/km2).",
"The racial makeup of Los Altos was 20,459 (70.6%) White, 148 (0.5%) African American, 48 (0.2%) Native American, 6,815 (23.5%) Asian, 59 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 195 (0.7%) from other races, and 1,252 (4.3%) from two or more races.",
"Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1,132 persons (3.9%).The Census reported that 28,749 people (99.2% of the population) lived in households, 34 (0.1%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 193 (0.7%) were institutionalized.There were 10,745 households, out of which 4,067 (37.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 7,476 (69.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 599 (5.6%) had a female householder with no husband present, 228 (2.1%) had a male householder with no wife present.",
"There were 199 (1.9%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 55 (0.5%) same-sex married couples or partnerships.",
"2,086 households (19.4%) were made up of individuals, and 1,228 (11.4%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.",
"The average household size was 2.68.There were 8,303 families (77.3% of all households); the average family size was 3.08.The age distribution of the population consisted of 7,560 people (26.1%) under the age of 18, 1,006 people (3.5%) aged 18 to 24, 5,273 people (18.2%) aged 25 to 44, 9,353 people (32.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 5,784 people (20.0%) who were 65 years of age or older.",
"The median age was 46.2 years.",
"For every 100 females, there were 93.1 males.",
"For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.9 males.There were 11,204 housing units at an average density of per square mile (/km2), of which 9,002 (83.8%) were owner-occupied, and 1,743 (16.2%) were occupied by renters.",
"The homeowner vacancy rate was 0.7%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.0%.",
"24,669 people (85.1% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 4,080 people (14.1%) lived in rental housing units.The median household income of Los Altos for 2013–2017 was $208,309.The average home listing price in 2014 was $1.96 million.",
"In 2017, ''Forbes'' ranked Los Altos (94022 and 94024) as the 3rd and 48th most expensive ZIP codes in the United States with median home prices of $7,755,000 and $3,431,615, respectively.",
"In 2018, data from the American Community Survey revealed that Los Altos was the fifth wealthiest city in the United States.===2000===As of the census of 2000, there were 27,693 people, 10,462 households, and 8,024 families residing in the city.",
"The population density was people per square mile (/km2).",
"There were 10,727 housing units at an average density of per square mile (/km2).",
"The racial makeup of the city was 80.35% White, 15.42% Asian, 0.47% African American, 0.17% Native American, 0.16% Pacific Islander, 0.66% from other races, and 2.44% from two or more races.",
"Hispanic or Latino residents of any race constituted 3.76% of the population.Of 10,462 households, 33.6% had minor children living with them, 69.4% were married couples living together, 5.4% had a female head with no husband present, and 23.3% were non-families.",
"18.7% were singles including 9.8% 65 or older.",
"The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 2.98.The median age was 44 years, much higher than the 35.3 national figure.",
"23.7% were under 18, 3.5% from 18 to 24, 24.5% from 25 to 44, 29.1% from 45 to 64, and 19.3% were 65 years of age or older.",
"For every 100 females, there were 93.1 males.",
"For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.0 males.===1930===Approximately 2,900 people would have considered themselves a resident of Los Altos.===Housing costs===Los Altos strives to maintain a semi-rural atmosphere.",
"Los Altos has few sidewalks except in commercial zones and along arterial roads.",
"The minimum lot size for most residential housing is one-quarter of an acre.",
"Most streets have broad dirt shoulders and no street lighting.",
"The civic center sits in the middle of an orchard, a remnant of those that once covered the area.",
"The downtown is a triangle with arterials and collector streets on all sides that enable most through traffic to bypass Main Street.As of today, many Los Altos homes fetch $4 million and higher.",
"The city is placed (along with neighboring Los Altos Hills, with which it shares ZIP codes) at numbers 24 and 28 on Forbes' \"Most Expensive ZIP Codes in America\" list in 2007.In 2015, ''Forbes'' placed Los Altos (ZIP codes 94022 and 94024) as the 11th and 57th most expensive ZIP codes in the United States, behind such cities as Atherton, California and Sagaponack, New York.",
"For the 94022 ZIP code, which includes parts of Los Altos Hills, California the median home price is $4.9 million with an average of 120 days on the market.",
"For the 94024 ZIP code, the median home price is $2.8 million with an average of 36 days on the market."
],
[
"Economy",
"Since the mid-1990s, downtown Los Altos has experienced mild economic difficulties due to competition from nearby shopping centers and chain stores, as well as its lack of a hotel or movie theater.",
"Revitalizing downtown is a major issue in city politics.===Top employers===According to the City's 2022 Annual Comprehensive Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:+Top employers in Los Altos # Employer # of Employees1Los Altos School District4592Los Altos Sub-Acute & Rehabilitation Center2413Whole Foods Market2334Los Altos High School2125Toyota Research Institute1876Compass, Inc. (Alain Pinel Realtors)1667David and Lucile Packard Foundation1318City of Los Altos1209Adobe Animal Hospital12010Palo Alto Medical Foundation110"
],
[
"Government",
"In the California State Legislature, Los Altos is in , and in .In the United States House of Representatives, Los Altos is in ."
],
[
"Education",
"===Public===Primary and middle school students attend schools in the Los Altos School District, the Cupertino Union School District, or Bullis Charter School (K–8).",
"The Los Altos School District has one of the highest average API scores in California and includes seven elementary schools in the Los Altos–Mountain View area.Local residents generally attend high school in one of two public school districts: Mountain View-Los Altos Union High School District or Fremont Union High School District.All of the public schools are highly regarded, and many graduates of Los Altos-area high schools continue their education at well-known universities.===Private===Los Altos is also served by highly regarded private and religious schools.",
"St. Nicholas School, St. Simon School, Miramonte Elementary School, (JrK–8th) Canterbury Christian School (K–6th), the Lower and Middle Campuses (K–6th) of Pinewood School, The School for Independent Learners, and the lower school campus of the Waldorf School of the Peninsula are located within city limits.",
"Others nearby include St. Francis High School (Mountain View), Mountain View Academy, and The King's Academy (Sunnyvale).",
"Other schools farther away with students from Los Altos include Sacred Heart Schools, Atherton, Mitty High School, Menlo School, Woodside Priory School, Castilleja School, The Harker School, and Bellarmine College Preparatory.===Public libraries===Santa Clara County Library operates the Los Altos Library and the Woodland Branch Library in Los Altos."
],
[
"Parks and conservation",
"Dead and diseased trees in the Redwood Grove were cut down in 2017, to be milled on-site in 2018.Mallard in May, 2010, in Adobe Creek; the creek typically runs dry by summer.Adobe Creek flows through '''Redwood Grove''', a nature preserve off University Avenue in Los Altos purchased by the city in 1974.In October 2009 Los Altos contracted with Acterra to remove non-native plants and revitalize the redwood, oak woodland, riparian and grassland ecosystems by installing native plants, improving soil conditions, and creating habitat for wildlife such as bird houses and native bee boxes.",
"The coast redwoods (''Sequoia sempervirens'') were transplanted by the Halsey family from a location on Summit Road in the Santa Cruz Mountains and replaced the native willows.",
"The historic Halsey House, built in the late 1920s by Theodore and Emma Halsey, is a good example of Spanish Revival architecture.",
"The city designated Halsey House a local landmark in 1981 and until recently it housed the Florence Fava collection of Coastanoan or Ohlone Indian artifacts from a nearby archeological excavation in Los Altos Hills (now moved to the Los Altos History Museum).",
"On June 16, 2010, the Los Altos City Council finalized the purchase of of creekside property from Delbert and Marlene Beumer, who wanted to provide a safe pathway connecting '''Shoup Park''' and '''Redwood Grove'''.Steelhead trout (''Oncorhynchus mykiss'') occurred historically in Adobe Creek.",
"However, tidal gates at the mouth of Adobe Creek as well as culverts at the El Camino Real and Interstate 280 overpasses probably preclude the passage of migrating salmonids, even though the reaches upstream from Hidden Villa in Los Altos Hills have been judged excellent trout habitat.===Sports===Los Altos has a variety of youth-oriented sports organizations, programs, and after-school activities.",
"Some examples include:*The Mountain View Los Altos Soccer Club (MVLASC) has provided competitive soccer for the MVLA community since 1972.It is a member of the California Youth Soccer Association – North (Cal North Soccer) and plays in the Foothill Youth Soccer League.",
"The club has won 14 State Championships and two National Championships.",
"*Los Altos–Mountain View Pony Baseball is for boys and girls aged 5 to 19.It is the largest youth baseball program in the San Francisco Bay Area, and a chartered league of PONY Baseball, Inc.*West Valley Pop Warner offers cheerleading and football programs to local youth.",
"*The El Camino YMCA Youth Basketball League teaches basic basketball skills and the YMCA's core values.===Media===The ''Los Altos Town Crier'', a weekly, is the primary newspaper for the town, \"serving the Hometown of Silicon Valley since 1947.\"",
"The ''San Jose Mercury News'' is the primary daily newspaper serving the town, delivering a Peninsula Section to Los Altans and locations north in lieu of the Local section delivered to those in San Jose and other communities closer to San Jose.An intersection in downtown Los Altos, with features like tree-lined sidewalks, diagonal parking, small shops, and banners advertising community events"
],
[
"Notable people",
"*Allan Bakke, student who challenged the practice of affirmative action in the 1978 landmark Supreme Court decision ''Regents of the University of California v. Bakke''*Sergey Brin, co-founder of Google*The Chocolate Watchband, garage-rock band formed in 1965*Jon M. Chu, director, producer and screenwriter.",
"Director of 2018's Crazy Rich Asians*Alan Cranston, former United States Senator from California, Senate Majority Whip, Senate Minority Whip, Controller of California, and member of the Keating Five*Bjarne Dahl (1897–1989), mid-century architect active in Honolulu, Hawaii*Jerry P. Eaton, American geologist, died in Los Altos*Lorrie Fair, retired soccer player*Dennis \"Thresh\" Fong, businessman and professional gamer of the ''Quake'' series*Leslie Fu, YouTube streamer*Charles Geschke, co-founder of Adobe Systems*Jesse Grant, son of the 18th President of the United States, Ulysses S. Grant*Andrew Grove, co-founder and former CEO of Intel*John Lee Hooker, world-renowned blues guitarist, died at his home in Los Altos on June 21, 2001.",
"*Juli Inkster, LPGA golfer*Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple Inc.*Andrew L. Lewis, US Navy Vice-Admiral and Commander, United States Second Fleet*Janet Lewis, author and poet, died at her home in Los Altos at the age of 99 on December 1, 1998.",
"* Jack Melchor, venture capitalist*William E. Moerner, 2014 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry*Robert Noyce, co-founder of Fairchild Semiconductor and Intel Corporation*Sundar Pichai, Chief Executive Officer of Google.",
"*Michele Raffin, writer and founder of Pandemonium Aviaries*Mary G. Ross, the first Native American female engineer*General Oliver P. Smith, served as Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps and Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division during the Inchon Landings and Chosin Reservoir Campaign of the Korean War.",
"*Shirley Temple, famous actress and child actress*Alejandro Toledo, 63rd President of Peru*John Edward Walker, California Impressionist painter, lived in Los Altos in the 1920s.",
"*John Warnock, co-founder of Adobe Systems*Yvor Winters, California poet, 34-year resident from 1934.",
"*Ed Zschau, former congressman for California's 12th district"
],
[
"Sister cities",
"Los Altos had four sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International:*20px Bendigo, Australia*20px Syktyvkar, Russia*20px Shilin, Taiwan* Rustington, EnglandThe program was run by the non-profit Los Altos Sister Cities, Inc., founded in 1988.That organization later decided to cease its participation and is now dissolved.",
"Los Altos no longer participates in the sister cities program."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome''' ('''LEMS''') is a rare autoimmune disorder characterized by muscle weakness of the limbs.",
"Around 60% of those with LEMS have an underlying malignancy, most commonly small-cell lung cancer; it is therefore regarded as a paraneoplastic syndrome (a condition that arises as a result of cancer elsewhere in the body).",
"It is the result of antibodies against presynaptic voltage-gated calcium channels, and likely other nerve terminal proteins, in the neuromuscular junction (the connection between nerves and the muscle that they supply).",
"The diagnosis is usually confirmed with electromyography and blood tests; these also distinguish it from myasthenia gravis, a related autoimmune neuromuscular disease.If the disease is associated with cancer, direct treatment of the cancer often relieves the symptoms of LEMS.",
"Other treatments often used are steroids, azathioprine, which suppress the immune system, intravenous immunoglobulin, which outcompetes autoreactive antibody for Fc receptors, and pyridostigmine and 3,4-diaminopyridine, which enhance the neuromuscular transmission.",
"Occasionally, plasma exchange is required to remove the antibodies.The condition affects about 3.4 per million people.",
"LEMS usually occurs in people over 40 years of age, but may occur at any age."
],
[
"Signs and symptoms",
"The weakness from LEMS typically involves the muscles of the proximal arms and legs (the muscles closer to the trunk).",
"In contrast to myasthenia gravis, the weakness affects the legs more than the arms.",
"This leads to difficulties climbing stairs and rising from a sitting position.",
"Weakness is often relieved temporarily after exertion or physical exercise.",
"High temperatures can worsen the symptoms.",
"Weakness of the bulbar muscles (muscles of the mouth and throat) is occasionally encountered.",
"Weakness of the eye muscles is uncommon.",
"Some may have double vision, drooping of the eyelids and difficulty swallowing, but generally only together with leg weakness; this too distinguishes LEMS from myasthenia gravis, in which eye signs are much more common.",
"In the advanced stages of the disease, weakness of the respiratory muscles may occur.",
"Some may also experience problems with coordination (ataxia).Three-quarters of people with LEMS also have disruption of the autonomic nervous system.",
"This may be experienced as a dry mouth, constipation, blurred vision, impaired sweating, and orthostatic hypotension (falls in blood pressure on standing, potentially leading to blackouts).",
"Some report a metallic taste in the mouth.On neurological examination, the weakness demonstrated with normal testing of power is often less severe than would be expected on the basis of the symptoms.",
"Strength improves further with repeated testing, e.g.",
"improvement of power on repeated hand grip (a phenomenon known as \"Lambert's sign\").",
"At rest, reflexes are typically reduced; with muscle use, reflex strength increases.",
"This is a characteristic feature of LEMS.",
"The pupillary light reflex may be sluggish.In LEMS associated with lung cancer, most have no suggestive symptoms of cancer at the time, such as cough, coughing blood, and unintentional weight loss.",
"LEMS associated with lung cancer may be more severe."
],
[
"Causes",
"LEMS is often associated with lung cancer (50–70%), specifically small-cell carcinoma, making LEMS a paraneoplastic syndrome.",
"Of the people with small-cell lung cancer, 1–3% have LEMS.",
"In most of these cases, LEMS is the first symptom of the lung cancer, and it is otherwise asymptomatic.LEMS may also be associated with endocrine diseases, such as hypothyroidism (an underactive thyroid gland) or diabetes mellitus type 1.Myasthenia gravis, too, may happen in the presence of tumors (thymoma, a tumor of the thymus in the chest); people with MG without a tumor and people with LEMS without a tumor have similar genetic variations that seem to predispose them to these diseases.",
"HLA-DR3-B8 (an HLA subtype), in particular, seems to predispose to LEMS."
],
[
"Mechanism",
"In normal neuromuscular function, a nerve impulse is carried down the axon (the long projection of a nerve cell) from the spinal cord.",
"At the nerve ending in the neuromuscular junction, where the impulse is transferred to the muscle cell, the nerve impulse leads to the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCC), the influx of calcium ions into the nerve terminal, and the calcium-dependent triggering of synaptic vesicle fusion with plasma membrane.",
"These synaptic vesicles contain acetylcholine, which is released into the synaptic cleft and stimulates the acetylcholine receptors on the muscle.",
"The muscle then contracts.In LEMS, antibodies against VGCC, particularly the P/Q-type VGCC, decrease the amount of calcium that can enter the nerve ending, hence less acetylcholine can be released from the neuromuscular junction.",
"Apart from skeletal muscle, the autonomic nervous system also requires acetylcholine neurotransmission; this explains the occurrence of autonomic symptoms in LEMS.",
"P/Q voltage-gated calcium channels are also found in the cerebellum, explaining why some experience problems with coordination.",
"The antibodies bind particularly to the part of the receptor known as the \"domain III S5–S6 linker peptide\".",
"Antibodies may also bind other VGCCs.",
"Some have antibodies that bind synaptotagmin, the protein sensor for calcium-regulated vesicle fusion.",
"Many people with LEMS, both with and without VGCC antibodies, have detectable antibodies against the M1 subtype of the acetylcholine receptor; their presence may participate in a lack of compensation for the weak calcium influx.Apart from the decreased calcium influx, a disruption of active zone vesicle release sites also occurs, which may also be antibody-dependent, since people with LEMS have antibodies to components of these active zones (including voltage-dependent calcium channels).",
"Together, these abnormalities lead to the decrease in muscle contractility.",
"Repeated stimuli over a period of about 10 seconds eventually lead to sufficient delivery of calcium, and an increase in muscle contraction to normal levels, which can be demonstrated using an electrodiagnostic medicine study called needle electromyography by increasing amplitude of repeated compound muscle action potentials.The antibodies found in LEMS associated with lung cancer also bind to calcium channels in the cancer cells, and it is presumed that the antibodies originally develop as a reaction to these cells.",
"It has been suggested that the immune reaction to the cancer cells suppresses their growth and improves the prognosis from the cancer."
],
[
"Diagnosis",
"Chest X-ray showing a tumor in the left lung (right side of the image)The diagnosis is usually made with nerve conduction study (NCS) and electromyography (EMG), which is one of the standard tests in the investigation of otherwise unexplained muscle weakness.",
"EMG involves the insertion of small needles into the muscles.",
"NCS involves administering small electrical impulses to the nerves, on the surface of the skin, and measuring the electrical response of the muscle in question.",
"NCS investigation in LEMS primarily involves evaluation of compound motor action potentials (CMAPs) of effected muscles and sometimes EMG single-fiber examination can be used.CMAPs show small amplitudes but normal latency and conduction velocities.",
"If repeated impulses are administered (2 per second or 2 Hz), it is normal for CMAP amplitudes to become smaller as the acetylcholine in the motor end plate is depleted.",
"In LEMS, this decrease is larger than observed normally.",
"Eventually, stored acetylcholine is made available, and the amplitudes increase again.",
"In LEMS, this remains insufficient to reach a level sufficient for transmission of an impulse from nerve to muscle; all can be attributed to insufficient calcium in the nerve terminal.",
"A similar pattern is witnessed in myasthenia gravis.",
"In LEMS, in response to exercising the muscle, the CMAP amplitude increases greatly (over 200%, often much more).",
"This also occurs on the administration of a rapid burst of electrical stimuli (20 impulses per second for 10 seconds).",
"This is attributed to the influx of calcium in response to these stimuli.",
"On single-fiber examination, features may include increased jitter (seen in other diseases of neuromuscular transmission) and blocking.Blood tests may be performed to exclude other causes of muscle disease (elevated creatine kinase may indicate a myositis, and abnormal thyroid function tests may indicate thyrotoxic myopathy).",
"Antibodies against voltage-gated calcium channels can be identified in 85% of people with EMG-confirmed LEMS.",
"Once LEMS is diagnosed, investigations such as a CT scan of the chest are usually performed to identify any possible underlying lung tumors.",
"Around 50–60% of these are discovered immediately after the diagnosis of LEMS.",
"The remainder is diagnosed later, but usually within two years and typically within four years.",
"As a result, scans are typically repeated every six months for the first two years after diagnosis.",
"While CT of the lungs is usually adequate, a positron emission tomography scan of the body may also be performed to search for an occult tumour, particularly of the lung."
],
[
"Treatment",
"Molecular structure of 3,4-diaminopyridine, a commonly used drug treatment for LEMSIf LEMS is caused by an underlying cancer, treatment of the cancer usually leads to resolution of the symptoms.",
"Treatment usually consists of chemotherapy, with radiation therapy in those with limited disease.===Immunosuppression===Some evidence supports the use of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG).",
"Immune suppression tends to be less effective than in other autoimmune diseases.",
"Prednisolone (a glucocorticoid or steroid) suppresses the immune response, and the steroid-sparing agent azathioprine may replace it once therapeutic effect has been achieved.",
"IVIG may be used with a degree of effectiveness.",
"Plasma exchange (or plasmapheresis), the removal of plasma proteins such as antibodies and replacement with normal plasma, may provide improvement in acute severe weakness.",
"Again, plasma exchange is less effective than in other related conditions such as myasthenia gravis, and additional immunosuppressive medication is often needed.===Other===Three other treatment modalities also aim at improving LEMS symptoms, namely pyridostigmine, 3,4-diaminopyridine (amifampridine), and guanidine.",
"They work to improve neuromuscular transmission.Tentative evidence supports 3,4-diaminopyridine at least for a few weeks.",
"The 3,4-diaminopyridine base or the water-soluble 3,4-diaminopyridine phosphate may be used.",
"Both 3,4-diaminopyridine formulations delay the repolarization of nerve terminals after a discharge, thereby allowing more calcium to accumulate in the nerve terminal.Pyridostigmine decreases the degradation of acetylcholine after release into the synaptic cleft, and thereby improves muscle contraction.",
"An older agent, guanidine, causes many side effects and is not recommended.",
"4-Aminopyridine (dalfampridine), an agent related to 3,4-aminopyridine, causes more side effects than 3,4-DAP and is also not recommended.The FDA approved amifampridine for use in children 6 years and older with LEMS in addition to the prior approval for use in adults with LEMS on November 28, 2018."
],
[
"History",
"Anderson and colleagues from St Thomas' Hospital, London, were the first to mention a case with possible clinical findings of LEMS in 1953, but Edward H. Lambert, Lee Eaton, and E.D.",
"Rooke at the Mayo Clinic were the first physicians to substantially describe the clinical and electrophysiological findings of the disease in 1956.In 1972, the clustering of LEMS with other autoimmune diseases led to the hypothesis that it was caused by autoimmunity.",
"Studies in the 1980s confirmed the autoimmune nature, and research in the 1990s demonstrated the link with antibodies against P/Q-type voltage-gated calcium channels."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* LemsFamily.org"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Liqueur"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Bénédictine, a traditional French herbal liqueurLicor Beirão, a traditional Portuguese spice liqueur.A '''liqueur''' ( , , ) is an alcoholic drink composed of spirits (often rectified spirit) and additional flavorings such as sugar, fruits, herbs, and spices.",
"Often served with or after dessert, they are typically heavily sweetened and un-aged beyond a resting period during production, when necessary, for their flavors to mingle.Liqueurs are historical descendants of herbal medicines.",
"They were made in France as early as the 13th century, often prepared by monks (for example, Chartreuse).",
"Today they are produced all over the world, commonly served neat, over ice, with coffee, in cocktails, and used in cooking."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The French word ''liqueur'' is derived from the Latin ''liquifacere'', which means \"to dissolve\".In some parts of the United States and Canada, liqueurs may be referred to as cordials, or schnapps.",
"This can cause confusion as in the United Kingdom a cordial would refer to a non-alcoholic concentrated fruit syrup, typically diluted to taste and consumed as a non-carbonated soft drink.",
"Schnapps, on the other hand, can refer to any distilled beverage in Germany and aquavit in Scandinavian countries."
],
[
"Legal definitions",
"In the United States and Canada, where spirits are often called \"liquor\", there is often confusion discerning between liqueurs and liquors, due to the many different types of flavored spirits that are available today (e.g., flavored vodka).",
"Liqueurs generally contain a lower alcohol content (15–30% ABV) than spirits and have a sweetener mixed, while some can have an ABV as high as 55%.=== Canada ===Under the Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870), liqueurs are produced from mixing alcohol with plant materials.",
"These materials include juices or extracts from fruits, flowers, leaves or other plant materials.",
"The extracts are obtained by soaking, filtering or softening the plant substances.",
"A sweetening agent should be added in an amount that is at least 2.5 percent of the finished liqueur.",
"The alcohol percentage shall be at least 23%.",
"It may also contain natural or artificial flavoring and color.=== European Union ===The European Union directive on spirit drinks provides guidelines applicable to all liqueurs.",
"As such, a liqueur must* contain a minimum of 15% alcohol by volume,* contain at least between 70 and 100 grams of inverted sugar per liter,* be created using neutral grain alcohol and/or distillate(s) of agricultural origin, * be flavored with natural, or nature-identical, flavorings, and* be labeled with the alcohol content and a list of any food colorings.=== United States ===The Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau regulates liqueurs similarly to Canada.",
"Liqueurs (and also cordials) are defined as products created by mixing or redistilling distilled spirits with fruit, plant products, natural flavors, extracts, or sweeteners.",
"These additives must be added in an amount not less than 2.5% by weight of the final product."
],
[
"Preparation",
"Some liqueurs are prepared by infusing certain woods, fruits, or flowers in either water or alcohol and adding sugar or other items.",
"Others are distilled from aromatic or flavoring agents.Anise and Rakı liqueurs have the property of turning from transparent to cloudy when added to water: the oil of anise remains in solution in the presence of a high concentration of alcohol, but coalesces when the alcohol concentration is reduced; this is known as the ouzo effect."
],
[
"Use",
"B-52 is a layered drink prepared using Grand Marnier atop Irish cream over a base of coffee liqueur=== Cocktails ===Liqueurs are sometimes mixed into cocktails to provide flavor.Adding liqueurs to a cocktail can change the flavour and appearance of the cocktail.",
"Whilst some liqueurs are coloured and designed to make the cocktail pop in colour, others are clear to prevent the liqueur from taking over the colour of the base spirit or garnish.=== Layered drinks ===Layered drinks are made by floating different-colored liqueurs in separate layers.",
"Each liqueur is poured slowly into a glass over the back of a spoon or down a glass rod, so that the liquids of different densities remain unmixed, creating a striped effect."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Chartreuse-Liqueur 7586.JPG|Chartreuse has been made by French Carthusian monks since the 1740sFile:VanaTallinn 40-45-50 500ml.JPG|Vana Tallinn is a rum-based Estonian liqueurFile:Altvater Gessler.JPG|''Altvater'' herbal liqueur produced in AustriaFile:DamianaLiqueur.jpg|Damiana-based liqueur of MexicoFile:Wépion - liqueur de fraise.jpg|Fraise strawberry liqueur from the Ardennes, BelgiumFile:KoumQuatLiqueur.jpg|Kumquat liqueurs from CorfuFile:Demanovka nowe.jpg|Demänovka is a traditional Slovak liqueur produced since 1867File:Elder flower liqueur .jpg|Homemade elder flower liqueurFile:Fish Shot.jpg|Fish Shot is a liqueur with a Fisherman's Friend flavourFile:Poire Massenez.jpg|Poire William (William Pear) Liqueur by Massenez"
],
[
"See also",
"* Amaro (liqueur)* Cordial (medicine)* Cream liqueur* Crème liqueur* Dessert wine* Fortified wine* Honey liqueurs and spirits (category page)* Lemon liqueur* Nalewka* Schnapps* Sloe gin* Southern Comfort* Yukon Jack (liqueur)* List of liqueurs"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Liqueurs at ''The Cook's Thesaurus''."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lilith"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lilith''' (; ), also spelt '''Lilit''', '''Lilitu''', or '''Lilis''', is a female figure in Mesopotamian and Jewish mythology, theorized to be the first wife of Adam and supposedly the primordial she-demon.",
"Lilith is cited as having been \"banished\" from the Garden of Eden for not complying with and obeying Adam.She is thought to be mentioned in Biblical Hebrew in the Book of Isaiah, and in late antiquity in Mandaean and Jewish sources from 500 AD onward.",
"Lilith appears in historiolas (incantations incorporating a short mythic story) in various concepts and localities that give partial descriptions of her.",
"She is mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud (Eruvin 100b, Niddah 24b, Shabbat 151b, Bava Batra 73a), in the ''Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan'' as Adam's first wife, and in the ''Zohar'' § Leviticus 19a as \"a hot fiery female who first cohabited with man\".",
"Many rabbinic authorities, including Maimonides and Menachem Meiri, reject the existence of Lilith.The name Lilith stems from , , and ).",
"The Akkadian word ''lilû'' is related to the Hebrew word ''lilit'' appearing in Isaiah 34:14, which is thought to be a night bird by some modern scholars such as Judit M. Blair.",
"In Mesopotamian religion, found in the cuneiform texts of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia, ''lilîtu'' is a spirit or demon.",
"Many have also connected her to the Mesopotamian demon Lamashtu, who shares similar traits and a similar position in mythology to Lilith.Lilith continues to serve as source material in today's popular culture, Western culture, literature, occultism, fantasy, and horror."
],
[
"History",
"In some Jewish folklore, such as the ''Alphabet of Sirach'' (), Lilith appears as Adam's first wife, who was created at the same time and from the same clay as Adam.",
"The legend of Lilith developed extensively during the Middle Ages, in the tradition of Aggadah, the Zohar, and Jewish mysticism.",
"For example, in the 13th-century writings of Isaac ben Jacob ha-Cohen, Lilith left Adam after she refused to become subservient to him and then would not return to the Garden of Eden after she had coupled with the archangel Samael.Interpretations of Lilith found in later Jewish materials are plentiful, but little information has survived relating to the Sumerian, Assyrian and Babylonian views of this class of demons.",
"Recent scholarship has disputed the relevance of two sources previously used to connect the Jewish to an Akkadian – the Gilgamesh appendix and the Arslan Tash amulets (see below for discussion of these two problematic sources).In contrast, some scholars, such as Lowell K. Handy, hold the view that though Lilith derives from Mesopotamian demonology, evidence of the Hebrew Lilith being present in the sources frequently cited – the Sumerian Gilgamesh fragment and the Sumerian incantation from Arshlan-Tash being two – is scant, if present at all.",
"In the Sumerian King List, the name first occurs in a description of a king's lineage, and was identified by scholars as a class of demons.",
"In Hebrew-language texts, the term or (translated as \"night creatures\", \"night monster\", \"night hag\", or \"screech owl\") first occurs in a list of animals in Isaiah 34.The Isaiah 34:14 Lilith reference does not appear in most common Bible translations such as KJV and NIV.",
"Commentators and interpreters often envision the figure of Lilith as a dangerous demon of the night, who is sexually wanton, and who steals babies in the darkness.",
"Jewish incantation bowls and amulets from Mesopotamia from the first to the eighth centuries identify Lilith as a female demon and provide the first visual depictions of her."
],
[
"Etymology",
"In the Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia, the terms and mean spirits.",
"Some uses of are listed in the Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD, 1956, L.190), in Wolfram von Soden's ''Akkadisches Handwörterbuch'' (AHw, p. 553), and ''Reallexikon der Assyriologie'' (RLA, p. 47).The Sumerian female demons have no etymological relation to Akkadian , \"evening\".Archibald Sayce (1882) considered that the Hebrew and the earlier Akkadian names are derived from Proto-Semitic.",
"Charles Fossey (1902) has this literally translating to \"female night being/demon\", although cuneiform inscriptions from Mesopotamia exist where ''Līlīt'' and ''Līlītu'' refers to disease-bearing wind spirits."
],
[
"Mesopotamian mythology",
"=== The spirit in the tree in the Gilgamesh cycle ===Samuel Noah Kramer (1932, published 1938) translated as \"Lilith\" in Tablet XII of the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' dated .",
"Tablet XII is not part of the ''Epic of Gilgamesh,'' but is a later Assyrian Akkadian translation of the latter part of the Sumerian ''Epic of Gilgamesh''.",
"The is associated with a serpent and a zu bird.",
"In ''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld'', a huluppu tree grows in Inanna's garden in Uruk, whose wood she plans to use to build a new throne.",
"After ten years of growth, she comes to harvest it and finds a serpent living at its base, a Zu bird raising young in its crown, and that a made a house in its trunk.",
"Gilgamesh is said to have killed the snake, and then the zu bird flew away to the mountains with its young, while the fearfully destroys its house and runs for the forest.",
"Identification of the as Lilith is stated in the ''Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible'' (1999).",
"According to a new source from late antiquity, Lilith appears in a Mandaean magic story where she is considered to represent the branches of a tree with other demonic figures that form other parts of the tree, though this may also include multiple \"Liliths\".Suggested translations for the Tablet XII spirit in the tree include as \"sacred place\", as \"spirit\", and as \"water spirit\", but also simply \"owl\", given that the is building a home in the trunk of the tree.A connection between the Gilgamesh and the Jewish Lilith was rejected on textual grounds by Sergio Ribichini (1978).=== The bird-footed woman in the Burney Relief ===Burney Relief, Babylon (1800–1750 BC)Kramer's translation of the Gilgamesh fragment was used by Henri Frankfort (1937) and Emil Kraeling (1937) to support identification of a woman with wings and bird-feet in the disputed Burney Relief as related to Lilith.",
"Frankfort and Kraeling identified the figure in the relief with Lilith.",
"Today, the identification of the Burney Relief with Lilith is questioned.",
"Modern research has identified the figure as one of the main goddesses of the Mesopotamian pantheons, most probably Ereshkigal.",
"But the figure is more generally identified as the goddess of love and war: Thorkild Jacobsen identified the figure as Inanna in an analysis based on the existence of symbols and attributes commonly recognized to the goddess and on textual evidence.=== The Arslan Tash amulets ===The Arslan Tash amulets are limestone plaques discovered in 1933 at Arslan Tash, the authenticity of which is disputed.",
"William F. Albright, Theodor H. Gaster, and others, accepted the amulets as a pre-Jewish source which shows that the name Lilith already existed in the 7th century BC but Torczyner (1947) identified the amulets as a later Jewish source.===Lamashtu===Many have alternatively drawn connections between Lilith and the Mesopotamian demon Lamashtu, due to their similar position and traits in both mythologies."
],
[
"In the Hebrew Bible",
"The word (or ) only appears once in the Hebrew Bible, in a prophecy regarding the fate of Edom.",
"Most other nouns in the list appear more than once and thus are better documented, with the exception of another ''hapax legomenon'': the word ''qippoz''.",
"The reading of scholars and translators is often guided by a decision about the complete list of eight creatures as a whole.",
"Quoting from Isaiah 34 (NAB):=== Hebrew text ===In the Masoretic Text:In the Dead Sea Scrolls, among the 19 fragments of Isaiah found at Qumran, the Great Isaiah Scroll (1Q1Isa) in 34:14 renders the creature as plural (or ).Eberhard Schrader (1875) and Moritz Abraham Levy (1855) suggest that Lilith was a demon of the night, known also by the Jewish exiles in Babylon.",
"Schrader's and Levy's view is therefore partly dependent on a later dating of Deutero-Isaiah to the 6th century BC and the presence of Jews in Baghdad in the Neo-Babylonian Empire, which would coincide with the possible references to the in Babylonian demonology.",
"However, this view is challenged by some modern researchers, such as Judit M. Blair (2009), who argues that the context indicates unclean animals.=== Greek version ===The Septuagint translates both the reference to Lilith and the word for jackals or \"wild beasts of the island\" within the same verse into Greek as , apparently assuming them to refer to the same creatures and omitting \"wildcats/wild beasts of the desert.\"",
"Under this reading, instead of the wildcats or desert beasts meeting with the jackals or island beasts, the goat or \"satyr\" crying \"to his fellow\" and lilith or \"screech owl\" resting \"there\", it is the goat or \"satyr\", translated as \"demons\", and the jackals or island beasts \"\" meeting with each other and crying \"one to the other\" and the latter resting there.=== Latin Bible ===The early 5th-century Vulgate translated the same word as .The translation is, \"And demons shall meet with monsters, and one hairy one shall cry out to another; there the lamia has lain down and found rest for herself\".=== English versions ===Wycliffe's Bible (1395) preserves the Latin rendering :The Bishops' Bible of Matthew Parker (1568) from the Latin:Douay–Rheims Bible (1582/1610) also preserves the Latin rendering :The Geneva Bible of William Whittingham (1587) from the Hebrew:Then the King James Version (1611):The \"screech owl\" translation of the King James Version is, together with the \"owl\" (, probably a water bird) in 34:11 and the \"great owl\" (, translated in other versions as a snake) of 34:15, an attempt to render the passage by choosing suitable animals for difficult to translate Hebrew words.Later translations include:* night-owl (Young, 1898)* night spectre (Rotherham, Emphasized Bible, 1902)* night monster (ASV, 1901; JPS 1917, Good News Translation, 1992; NASB, 1995)* vampires (Moffatt Translation, 1922; Knox Bible, 1950)* night hag (Revised Standard Version, 1947)* Lilith (Jerusalem Bible, 1966)* (the) lilith (New American Bible, 1970)* Lilith (New Revised Standard Version, 1989)* (the) night-demon Lilith, evil and rapacious (The Message (Bible), Peterson, 1993)* night creature (New International Version, 1978; New King James Version, 1982; New Living Translation, 1996, Today's New International Version)* nightjar (New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, 1984)* night bird (English Standard Version, 2001)* night-bird (NASB, 2020)* nocturnal animals (New English Translation (NET Bible))"
],
[
"Jewish tradition",
"Major sources in Jewish tradition regarding Lilith in chronological order include:* c. 40–10 BC Dead Sea Scrolls – Songs for a Sage (4Q510–511)* c. 200 Mishnah – not mentioned * c. 500 Gemara of the Talmud* c. 700-1000 The Alphabet of Ben-Sira* c. 900 Midrash Abkir* c. 1260 Treatise on the Left Emanation, Spain* c. 1280 Zohar, Spain.=== Dead Sea Scrolls ===The Dead Sea Scrolls contain one indisputable reference to Lilith in ''Songs of the Sage'' (4Q510–511) fragment 1:And I, the Instructor, proclaim His glorious splendour so as to frighten and to terrify all the spirits of the destroying angels, spirits of the bastards, demons, Lilith, howlers, and desert dwellers ... and those which fall upon men without warning to lead them astray from a spirit of understanding and to make their heart and their ... desolate during the present dominion of wickedness and predetermined time of humiliations for the sons of light, by the guilt of the ages of those smitten by iniquity – not for eternal destruction, but for an era of humiliation for transgression.Photographic reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll, which contains a reference to plural ''liliyyot''As with the Massoretic text of Isaiah 34:14, and therefore unlike the plural ''liliyyot'' (or ''liliyyoth'') in the Isaiah scroll 34:14, ''lilit'' in 4Q510 is singular, this liturgical text both cautions against the presence of supernatural malevolence and assumes familiarity with Lilith; distinct from the biblical text, however, this passage does not function under any socio-political agenda, but instead serves in the same capacity as An Exorcism (4Q560) and Songs to Disperse Demons (11Q11).",
"The text is thus, to a community \"deeply involved in the realm of demonology\", an exorcism hymn.Joseph M. Baumgarten (1991) identified the unnamed woman of ''The Seductress'' (4Q184) as related to the female demon.",
"However, John J. Collins regards this identification as \"intriguing\" but that it is \"safe to say\" that (4Q184) is based on the strange woman of Proverbs 2, 5, 7, 9:=== Early Rabbinic literature ===Lilith does not occur in the Mishnah.",
"There are five references to Lilith in the Babylonian Talmud in Gemara on three separate Tractates of the Mishnah:* \"Rav Judah citing Samuel ruled: If an abortion had the likeness of Lilith, its mother is unclean by reason of the birth, for it is a child even if it has wings.\"",
"(Babylonian Talmud on Tractate Nidda 24b)* \"Expounding upon the curses of womanhood In a baraita it was taught: Women grow long hair like Lilith, sit when urinating like a beast, and serve as a bolster for her husband.\"",
"(Babylonian Talmud on Tractate Eruvin 100b)* \"For gira he should take an arrow of Lilith and place it point upwards and pour water on it and drink it.",
"Alternatively he can take water of which a dog has drunk at night, but he must take care that it has not been exposed.\"",
"(Babylonian Talmud, tractate Gittin 69b).",
"In this particular case, the \"arrow of Lilith\" is most probably a scrap of meteorite or a fulgurite, colloquially known as \"petrified lightning\" and treated as antipyretic medicine.",
"* \"Rabbah said: I saw how Hormin the son of Lilith was running on the parapet of the wall of Mahuza, and a rider, galloping below on horseback could not overtake him.",
"Once they saddled for him two mules which stood on two bridges of the Rognag; and he jumped from one to the other, backward and forward, holding in his hands two cups of wine, pouring alternately from one to the other, and not a drop fell to the ground.\"",
"(Babylonian Talmud, tractate Bava Bathra 73a-b).",
"Hormin who is mentioned here as the son of Lilith is most probably a result of a scribal error of the word \"Hormiz\" attested in some of the Talmudic manuscripts.",
"The word itself in turn seems to be a distortion of Ormuzd, the Zoroastrian deity of light and goodness.",
"If so, it is somewhat ironic that Ormuzd becomes here the son of a nocturnal demon.",
"* \"R. Hanina said: One may not sleep in a house alone in a lonely house, and whoever sleeps in a house alone is seized by Lilith.\"",
"(Babylonian Talmud on Tractate Shabbath 151b)The above statement by Hanina may be related to the belief that nocturnal emissions engendered the birth of demons:* \"R. Jeremiah b. Eleazar further stated: In all those years 130 years after his expulsion from the Garden of Eden during which Adam was under the ban he begot ghosts and male demons and female demons or night demons, for it is said in Scripture: And Adam lived a hundred and thirty years and begot a son in own likeness, after his own image, from which it follows that until that time he did not beget after his own image ...",
"When he saw that through him death was ordained as punishment he spent a hundred and thirty years in fasting, severed connection with his wife for a hundred and thirty years, and wore clothes of fig on his body for a hundred and thirty years.",
"– That statement of R. Jeremiah was made in reference to the semen which he emitted accidentally.\"",
"(Babylonian Talmud on Tractate Eruvin 18b)The Midrash Rabbah collection contains two references to Lilith.",
"The first one is present in Genesis Rabbah 22:7 and 18:4: according to Rabbi Yehuda beRabbi, God proceeded to create a second Eve for Adam, after Lilith had to return to dust.",
"However, to be exact the said passages do not employ the Hebrew word ''lilith'' itself and instead speak of \"the first Eve\" (, analogical to Adam ha-Rishon \"the first Adam\").",
"Although in the medieval Hebrew literature and folklore, especially that reflected on the protective amulets of various kinds, \"The First Eve\" was identified with Lilith, one should remain careful in transposing this equation to the Late Antiquity.The second mention of Lilith, this time explicit, is present in Numbers Rabbah 16:25.The midrash develops the story of Moses's plea after God expresses anger at the bad report of the spies.",
"Moses responds to a threat by God that He will destroy the Israelite people.",
"Moses pleads before God, that God should not be like Lilith who kills her own children.",
"Moses said:=== Incantation bowls ===Incantation bowl with an Aramaic inscription around a demon, from Nippur, Mesopotamia, 6–7th centuryAn individual Lilith, along with Bagdana \"king of the lilits\", is one of the demons to feature prominently in protective spells in the eighty surviving Jewish occult incantation bowls from Sassanid Empire Babylon (4th–6th century AD) with influence from Iranian culture.Lilith#cite note-47|47 These bowls were buried upside down below the structure of the house or on the land of the house, in order to trap the demon or demoness.",
"Almost every house was found to have such protective bowls against demons and demonesses.The centre of the inside of the bowl depicts Lilith, or the male form, Lilit.",
"Surrounding the image is writing in spiral form; the writing often begins at the centre and works its way to the edge.",
"The writing is most commonly scripture or references to the Talmud.",
"The incantation bowls which have been analysed, are inscribed in the following languages, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Syriac, Mandaic, Middle Persian, and Arabic.",
"Some bowls are written in a false script which has no meaning.The correctly worded incantation bowl was capable of warding off Lilith or Lilit from the household.",
"Lilith had the power to transform into a woman's physical features, seduce her husband, and conceive a child.",
"However, Lilith would become hateful toward the children born of the husband and wife and would seek to kill them.",
"Similarly, Lilit would transform into the physical features of the husband, seduce the wife, she would give birth to a child.",
"It would become evident that the child was not fathered by the husband, and the child would be looked down on.",
"Lilit would seek revenge on the family by killing the children born to the husband and wife.Key features of the depiction of Lilith or Lilit include the following.",
"The figure is often depicted with arms and legs chained, indicating the control of the family over the demon(ess).",
"The demon(ess) is depicted in a frontal position with the whole face showing.",
"The eyes are very large, as well as the hands (if depicted).",
"The demon(ess) is entirely static.One bowl contains the following inscription commissioned from a Jewish occultist to protect a woman called Rashnoi and her husband from Lilith:=== Alphabet of Ben Sira ===''Lilith'', illustration by Carl Poellath from 1886 or earlierThe pseudepigraphical 8th–10th centuries ''Alphabet of Ben Sira'' is considered to be the oldest form of the story of Lilith as Adam's first wife.",
"Whether this particular tradition is older is not known.",
"Scholars tend to date the Alphabet between the 8th and 10th centuries AD.",
"The work has been characterized by some scholars as satirical, but Ginzberg concluded it was meant seriously.In the text an amulet is inscribed with the names of three angels (Senoy, Sansenoy, and Semangelof) and placed around the neck of newborn boys in order to protect them from the lilin until their circumcision.",
"The amulets used against Lilith that were thought to derive from this tradition are, in fact, dated as being much older.",
"The concept of Eve having a predecessor is not exclusive to the Alphabet, and is not a new concept, as it can be found in Genesis Rabbah.",
"However, the idea that Lilith was the predecessor may be exclusive to the Alphabet.The idea in the text that Adam had a wife prior to Eve may have developed from an interpretation of the Book of Genesis and its dual creation accounts; while Genesis 2:22 describes God's creation of Eve from Adam's rib, an earlier passage, 1:27, already indicates that a woman had been made: \"So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them.\"",
"The Alphabet text places Lilith's creation after God's words in Genesis 2:18 that \"it is not good for man to be alone\"; in this text God forms Lilith out of the clay from which he made Adam but she and Adam bicker.",
"Lilith claims that since she and Adam were created in the same way they were equal and she refuses to submit to him:After God created Adam, who was alone, He said, \"It is not good for man to be alone.\"",
"He then created a woman for Adam, from the earth, as He had created Adam himself, and called her Lilith.",
"Adam and Lilith immediately began to fight.",
"She said, \"I will not lie below,\" and he said, \"I will not lie beneath you, but only on top.",
"For you are fit only to be in the bottom position, while I am to be the superior one.\"",
"Lilith responded, \"We are equal to each other inasmuch as we were both created from the earth.\"",
"But they would not listen to one another.",
"When Lilith saw this, she pronounced the Ineffable Name and flew away into the air.Adam stood in prayer before his Creator: \"Sovereign of the universe!\"",
"he said, \"the woman you gave me has run away.\"",
"At once, the Holy One, blessed be He, sent these three angels Senoy, Sansenoy, and Semangelof, to bring her back.Said the Holy One to Adam, \"If she agrees to come back, what is made is good.",
"If not, she must permit one hundred of her children to die every day.\"",
"The angels left God and pursued Lilith, whom they overtook in the midst of the sea, in the mighty waters wherein the Egyptians were destined to drown.",
"They told her God's word, but she did not wish to return.",
"The angels said, \"We shall drown you in the sea.",
"\"\"Leave me!'",
"she said.",
"\"I was created only to cause sickness to infants.",
"If the infant is male, I have dominion over him for eight days after his birth, and if female, for twenty days.",
"\"When the angels heard Lilith's words, they insisted she go back.",
"But she swore to them by the name of the living and eternal God: \"Whenever I see you or your names or your forms in an amulet, I will have no power over that infant.\"",
"She also agreed to have one hundred of her children die every day.",
"Accordingly, every day one hundred demons perish, and for the same reason, we write the angels' names on the amulets of young children.",
"When Lilith sees their names, she remembers her oath, and the child recovers.The background and purpose of ''The Alphabet of Ben-Sira'' is unclear.",
"It is a collection of stories about heroes of the Bible and Talmud, it may have been a collection of folk-tales, a refutation of Christian, Karaite, or other separatist movements; its content seems so offensive to contemporary Jews that it was even suggested that it could be an anti-Jewish satire, although, in any case, the text was accepted by the Jewish mystics of medieval Germany.Adam clutches a child in the presence of the child-snatcher Lilith.",
"Fresco by Filippino Lippi, basilica of Santa Maria Novella, Florence''The Alphabet of Ben-Sira'' is the earliest surviving source of the story, and the conception that Lilith was Adam's first wife became only widely known with the 17th century ''Lexicon Talmudicum'' of German scholar Johannes Buxtorf.In this folk tradition that arose in the early Middle Ages Lilith, a dominant female demon, became identified with Asmodeus, King of Demons, as his queen.",
"Asmodeus was already well known by this time because of the legends about him in the Talmud.",
"Thus, the merging of Lilith and Asmodeus was inevitable.",
"The second myth of Lilith grew to include legends about another world and by some accounts this other world existed side by side with this one, ''Yenne Velt'' is Yiddish for this described \"Other World\".",
"In this case Asmodeus and Lilith were believed to procreate demonic offspring endlessly and spread chaos at every turn.Two primary characteristics are seen in these legends about Lilith: Lilith as the incarnation of lust, causing men to be led astray, and Lilith as a child-killing witch, who strangles helpless neonates.",
"These two aspects of the Lilith legend seemed to have evolved separately; there is hardly a tale where she encompasses both roles.",
"But the aspect of the witch-like role that Lilith plays broadens her archetype of the destructive side of witchcraft.",
"Such stories are commonly found among Jewish folklore.==== The influence of the rabbinic traditions ====Although the image of Lilith of the ''Alphabet of Ben Sira'' is unprecedented, some elements in her portrayal can be traced back to the talmudic and midrashic traditions that arose around Eve.First and foremost, the very introduction of Lilith to the creation story rests on the rabbinic myth, prompted by the two separate creation accounts in Genesis 1:1–2:25, that there were two original women.",
"A way of resolving the apparent discrepancy between these two accounts was to assume that there must have been some other first woman, apart from the one later identified with Eve.",
"The Rabbis, noting Adam's exclamation, \"this time (''zot hapa‘am'') this is bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh\" (Genesis 2:23), took it as an intimation that there must already have been a \"first time\".",
"According to Genesis rabbah 18:4, Adam was disgusted upon seeing the first woman full of \"discharge and blood\", and God had to provide him with another one.",
"The subsequent creation is performed with adequate precautions: Adam is made to sleep, so as not to witness the process itself (Sanhedrin 39a), and Eve is adorned with fine jewellery (Genesis rabbah 18:1) and brought to Adam by the angels Gabriel and Michael (ibid.",
"18:3).",
"However, nowhere do the rabbis specify what happened to the first woman, leaving the matter open for further speculation.",
"This is the gap into which the later tradition of Lilith could fit.Second, this new woman is still met with harsh rabbinic allegations.",
"Again playing on the Hebrew phrase ''zot hapa‘am'', Adam, according to the same midrash, declares: \"it is she ''zot'' who is destined to strike the bell ''zog'' and to speak in strife against me, as you read, 'a golden bell ''pa‘amon'' and a pomegranate' Exodus 28:34 ... it is she who will trouble me ''mefa‘amtani'' all night\" (Genesis Rabbah 18:4).",
"The first woman also becomes the object of accusations ascribed to Rabbi Joshua of Siknin, according to whom Eve, despite the divine efforts, turned out to be \"swelled-headed, coquette, eavesdropper, gossip, prone to jealousy, light-fingered and gadabout\" (Genesis Rabbah 18:2).",
"A similar set of charges appears in Genesis Rabbah 17:8, according to which Eve's creation from Adam's rib rather than from the earth makes her inferior to Adam and never satisfied with anything.Third, and despite the terseness of the biblical text in this regard, the erotic iniquities attributed to Eve constitute a separate category of her shortcomings.",
"Told in Genesis 3:16 that \"your desire shall be for your husband\", she is accused by the Rabbis of having an overdeveloped sexual drive (Genesis Rabbah 20:7) and constantly enticing Adam (Genesis Rabbah 23:5).",
"However, in terms of textual popularity and dissemination, the motif of Eve copulating with the primeval serpent takes priority over her other sexual transgressions.",
"Despite the rather unsettling picturesqueness of this account, it is conveyed in numerous places: Genesis Rabbah 18:6, and BT Sotah 9b, Shabbat 145b–146a and 156a, Yevamot 103b and Avodah Zarah 22b.=== Kabbalah ===Kabbalistic mysticism attempted to establish a more exact relationship between Lilith and God.",
"With her major characteristics having been well developed by the end of the Talmudic period, after six centuries had elapsed between the Aramaic incantation texts that mention Lilith and the early Spanish Kabbalistic writings in the 13th century, she reappears, and her life history becomes known in greater mythological detail.",
"Her creation is described in many alternative versions.One mentions her creation as being before Adam's, on the fifth day, because the \"living creatures\" with whose swarms God filled the waters included Lilith.",
"A similar version, related to the earlier Talmudic passages, recounts how Lilith was fashioned with the same substance as Adam was, shortly before.",
"A third alternative version states that God originally created Adam and Lilith in a manner that the female creature was contained in the male.",
"Lilith's soul was lodged in the depths of the Great Abyss.",
"When God called her, she joined Adam.",
"After Adam's body was created a thousand souls from the Left (evil) side attempted to attach themselves to him.",
"However, God drove them off.",
"Adam was left lying as a body without a soul.",
"Then a cloud descended and God commanded the earth to produce a living soul.",
"This God breathed into Adam, who began to spring to life and his female was attached to his side.",
"God separated the female from Adam's side.",
"The female side was Lilith, whereupon she flew to the Cities of the Sea and attacked humankind.Yet another version claims that Lilith emerged as a divine entity that was born spontaneously, either out of the Great Supernal Abyss or out of the power of an aspect of God (the Gevurah of Din).",
"This aspect of God was negative and punitive, as well as one of his ten attributes (Sefirot), at its lowest manifestation has an affinity with the realm of evil and it is out of this that Lilith merged with Samael.An alternative story links Lilith with the creation of luminaries.",
"The \"first light\", which is the light of Mercy (one of the Sefirot), appeared on the first day of creation when God said \"Let there be light\".",
"This light became hidden and the Holiness became surrounded by a husk of evil.",
"\"A husk (klippa) was created around the brain\" and this husk spread and brought out another husk, which was Lilith.==== Midrash ABKIR ====The first medieval source to depict Adam and Lilith in full was the Midrash A.B.K.I.R.",
"(c. 10th century), which was followed by the Zohar and other Kabbalistic writings.",
"Adam is said to be perfect until he recognises either his sin or Cain's fratricide that is the cause of bringing death into the world.",
"He then separates from holy Eve, sleeps alone, and fasts for 130 years.",
"During this time \"Pizna\", either an alternate name for Lilith or a daughter of hers, desires his beauty and seduces him against his will.",
"She gives birth to multitudes of djinns and demons, the first of them being named Agrimas.",
"However, they are defeated by Methuselah, who slays thousands of them with a holy sword and forces Agrimas to give him the names of the rest, after which he casts them away to the sea and the mountains.==== Treatise on the Left Emanation ====The mystical writing of two brothers Jacob and Isaac Hacohen, ''Treatise on the Left Emanation'', which predates the Zohar by a few decades, states that Samael and Lilith are in the shape of an androgynous being, double-faced, born out of the emanation of the Throne of Glory and corresponding in the spiritual realm to Adam and Eve, who were likewise born as a hermaphrodite.",
"The two twin androgynous couples resembled each other and both \"were like the image of Above\"; that is, that they are reproduced in a visible form of an androgynous deity.19.In answer to your question concerning Lilith, I shall explain to you the essence of the matter.",
"Concerning this point there is a received tradition from the ancient Sages who made use of the Secret Knowledge of the Lesser Palaces, which is the manipulation of demons and a ladder by which one ascends to the prophetic levels.",
"In this tradition it is made clear that Samael and Lilith were born as one, similar to the form of Adam and Eve who were also born as one, reflecting what is above.",
"This is the account of Lilith which was received by the Sages in the Secret Knowledge of the Palaces.Another version that was also current among Kabbalistic circles in the Middle Ages establishes Lilith as the first of Samael's four wives: Lilith, Naamah, Eisheth, and Agrat bat Mahlat.",
"Each of them are mothers of demons and have their own hosts and unclean spirits in no number.",
"The marriage of archangel Samael and Lilith was arranged by Tanin'iver (\"Blind Dragon\"), who is the counterpart of \"the dragon that is in the sea\".",
"Blind Dragon acts as an intermediary between Lilith and Samael:Blind Dragon rides Lilith the Sinful – may she be extirpated quickly in our days, Amen!",
"– And this Blind Dragon brings about the union between Samael and Lilith.",
"And just as ''the Dragon that is in the sea'' (Isa.",
"27:1) has no eyes, likewise Blind Dragon that is above, in the likeness of a spiritual form, is without eyes, that is to say, without colors.... (Patai 81:458) Samael is called the Slant Serpent, and Lilith is called the Tortuous Serpent.The marriage of Samael and Lilith is known as the \"Angel Satan\" or the \"Other God\", but it was not allowed to last.",
"To prevent Lilith and Samael's demonic children ''Lilin'' from filling the world, God castrated Samael.",
"In many 17th century Kabbalistic books, this seems to be a reinterpretation of an old Talmudic myth where God castrated the male Leviathan and slew the female Leviathan in order to prevent them from mating and thereby destroying the Earth with their offspring.",
"With Lilith being unable to fornicate with Samael anymore, she sought to couple with men who experience nocturnal emissions.",
"A 15th or 16th century Kabbalah text states that God has \"cooled\" the female Leviathan, meaning that he has made Lilith infertile and she is a mere fornication.",
"''The Fall of Man'' by Cornelis van Haarlem (1592), showing the serpent in the Garden of Eden as a womanThe ''Treatise on the Left Emanation'' also says that there are two Liliths, the lesser being married to the great demon Asmodeus.The Matron Lilith is the mate of Samael.",
"Both of them were born at the same hour in the image of Adam and Eve, intertwined in each other.",
"Asmodeus the great king of the demons has as a mate the Lesser (younger) Lilith, daughter of the king whose name is Qafsefoni.",
"The name of his mate is Mehetabel daughter of Matred, and their daughter is Lilith.Another passage charges Lilith as being a tempting serpent of Eve.And the Serpent, the Woman of Harlotry, incited and seduced Eve through the husks of Light which in itself is holiness.",
"And the Serpent seduced Holy Eve, and enough said for him who understands.",
"And all this ruination came about because Adam the first man coupled with Eve while she was in her menstrual impurity – this is the filth and the impure seed of the Serpent who mounted Eve before Adam mounted her.",
"Behold, here it is before you: because of the sins of Adam the first man all the things mentioned came into being.",
"For Evil Lilith, when she saw the greatness of his corruption, became strong in her husks, and came to Adam against his will, and became hot from him and bore him many demons and spirits and Lilin.",
"(Patai81:455f)==== Zohar ====References to Lilith in the Zohar include the following:She roams at night, and goes all about the world and makes sport with men and causes them to emit seed.",
"In every place where a man sleeps alone in a house, she visits him and grabs him and attaches herself to him and has her desire from him, and bears from him.",
"And she also afflicts him with sickness, and he knows it not, and all this takes place when the moon is on the wane.This passage may be related to the mention of Lilith in Talmud Shabbath 151b (see above), and also to Talmud Eruvin 18b where nocturnal emissions are connected with the begettal of demons.According to Rapahel Patai, older sources state clearly that after Lilith's Red Sea sojourn (mentioned also in Louis Ginzberg's ''Legends of the Jews''), she returned to Adam and begat children from him by forcing herself upon him.",
"Before doing so, she attaches herself to Cain and bears him numerous spirits and demons.",
"In the Zohar, however, Lilith is said to have succeeded in begetting offspring from Adam even during their short-lived sexual experience.",
"Lilith leaves Adam in Eden, as she is not a suitable helpmate for him.",
"Gershom Scholem proposes that the author of the Zohar, Rabbi Moses de Leon, was aware of both the folk tradition of Lilith and another conflicting version, possibly older.The Zohar adds further that two female spirits instead of one, Lilith and Naamah, desired Adam and seduced him.",
"The issue of these unions were demons and spirits called \"the plagues of humankind\", and the usual added explanation was that it was through Adam's own sin that Lilith overcame him against his will.=== 17th-century Hebrew magical amulets ===Medieval Hebrew amulet intended to protect a mother and her child from LilithA copy of Jean de Pauly's translation of the Zohar in the Ritman Library contains an inserted late 17th century printed Hebrew sheet for use in magical amulets where the prophet Elijah confronts Lilith.The sheet contains two texts within borders, which are amulets, one for a male ('lazakhar'), the other one for a female ('lanekevah').",
"The invocations mention Adam, Eve and Lilith, 'Chavah Rishonah' (the first Eve, who is identical with Lilith), also devils or angels: Sanoy, Sansinoy, Smangeluf, Shmari'el (the guardian) and Hasdi'el (the merciful).",
"A few lines in Yiddish are followed by the dialogue between the prophet Elijah and Lilith when he met her with her host of demons to kill the mother and take her new-born child ('to drink her blood, suck her bones and eat her flesh').",
"She tells Elijah that she will lose her power if someone uses her secret names, which she reveals at the end: ''lilith, abitu, abizu, hakash, avers hikpodu, ayalu, matrota ...''In other amulets, probably informed by ''The Alphabet of Ben-Sira'', she is Adam's first wife.",
"(Yalqut Reubeni, Zohar 1:34b, 3:19)Charles Richardson's dictionary portion of the ''Encyclopædia Metropolitana'' appends to his etymological discussion of ''lullaby'' \"a manuscript note written in a copy of Skinner\" i.e.",
"Stephen Skinner's 1671 ''Etymologicon Linguæ Anglicanæ'', which asserts that the word ''lullaby'' originates from ''Lillu abi abi'', a Hebrew incantation meaning \"Lilith begone\" recited by Jewish mothers over an infant's cradle.",
"Richardson did not endorse the theory and modern lexicographers consider it a false etymology.=== Alsatian Krasmesser (16th to 20th century) ===Not so much an amulet as a ritual object for protection, the “Krasmesser” (or “Kreismesser”, circle knife) played a role in Jewish birth rituals in the area of Alsace, Switzerland and Southern Germany between the 16th and 20th century.",
"The Krasmesser would be used by a midwife or by the husband to draw a magic circle around the pregnant or birthing woman to protect her from Lilith and the evil eye, which were considered to represent the greatest danger for children and pregnant women.Rabbi Naphtali Hirsch ben Elieser Treves described this custom as early as 1560, and later references to a knife or sword by the birthing bed by both Paul Christian Kirchner and Johann Christian Georg Bodenschatz indicate its continuance.",
"A publication about birth customs by the Jewish Museum of Switzerland also includes oral accounts from 20th century Baden-Württemberg which likewise mention circling movements with a knife in order to protect a woman in childbirth."
],
[
"Greco-Roman mythology",
"''Lamia'' (first version) by John William Waterhouse, 1905In the Latin Vulgate Book of Isaiah 34:14, Lilith is translated ''lamia''.According to Augustine Calmet, Lilith has connections with early views on vampires and sorcery:According to Siegmund Hurwitz the Talmudic Lilith is connected with the Greek Lamia, who, according to Hurwitz, likewise governed a class of child stealing lamia-demons.",
"Lamia bore the title \"child killer\" and was feared for her malevolence, like Lilith.",
"She has different conflicting origins and is described as having a human upper body from the waist up and a serpentine body from the waist down.",
"One source states simply that she is a daughter of the goddess Hecate, another, that Lamia was subsequently cursed by the goddess Hera to have stillborn children because of her association with Zeus; alternatively, Hera slew all of Lamia's children (except Scylla) in anger that Lamia slept with her husband, Zeus.",
"The grief caused Lamia to turn into a monster that took revenge on mothers by stealing their children and devouring them.",
"Lamia had a vicious sexual appetite that matched her cannibalistic appetite for children.",
"She was notorious for being a vampiric spirit and loved sucking men's blood.",
"Her gift was the \"mark of a Sibyl\", a gift of second sight.",
"Zeus was said to have given her the gift of sight.",
"However, she was \"cursed\" to never be able to shut her eyes so that she would forever obsess over her dead children.",
"Taking pity on Lamia, Zeus gave her the ability to remove and replace her eyes from their sockets."
],
[
"In Mandaeism",
"In Mandaean scriptures such as the ''Ginza Rabba'' and ''Qolasta'', liliths () are mentioned as inhabitants of the World of Darkness."
],
[
"Arabic culture",
"The occult writer Ahmad al-Buni (d. 1225), in his ''Sun of the Great Knowledge'' (), mentions a demon called \"the mother of children\" (ام الصبيان), a term also used \"in one place\".Folkloric traditions recorded around 1953 tell about a jinn called ''Qarinah'', who was rejected by Adam and mated with Iblis instead.",
"She gave birth to a host of demons and became known as their mother.",
"To take revenge on Adam, she pursues human children.",
"As such, she would kill a pregnant mother's baby in the womb, causes impotence to men or attacks little children with illnesses.",
"According to occult practises, she would be subject to the demon-king ''Murrah al-Abyad'', which appears to be another name for Iblis used in magical writings.",
"Stories about Qarinah and Lilith merged in early Islam."
],
[
"In Western media",
"=== In German media ===''Faust and Lilith'' by Richard Westall (1831)Lilith's earliest appearance in the literature of the Romantic period (1789–1832) was in Goethe's 1808 work ''Faust: The First Part of the Tragedy''.After Mephistopheles offers this warning to Faust, he then, quite ironically, encourages Faust to dance with \"the Pretty Witch\".",
"Lilith and Faust engage in a short dialogue, where Lilith recounts the days spent in Eden.=== In English media ===''Lady Lilith'' by Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1866–1868, 1872–1873)The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which developed around 1848, were greatly influenced by Goethe's work on the theme of Lilith.",
"In 1863, Dante Gabriel Rossetti of the Brotherhood began painting what would later be his first rendition of ''Lady Lilith'', a painting he expected to be his \"best picture hitherto\".",
"Symbols appearing in the painting allude to the \"femme fatale\" reputation of the Romantic Lilith: poppies (death and cold) and white roses (sterile passion).",
"Accompanying his ''Lady Lilith'' painting from 1866, Rossetti wrote a sonnet entitled ''Lilith'', which was first published in Swinburne's pamphlet-review (1868), ''Notes on the Royal Academy Exhibition''.The poem and the picture appeared together alongside Rossetti's painting ''Sibylla Palmifera'' and the sonnet ''Soul's Beauty''.",
"In 1881, the ''Lilith'' sonnet was renamed \"''Body's Beauty''\" in order to contrast it and ''Soul's Beauty''.",
"The two were placed sequentially in ''The House of Life'' collection (sonnets number 77 and 78).Rossetti wrote in 1870:This is in accordance with Jewish folk tradition, which associates Lilith both with long hair (a symbol of dangerous feminine seductive power in Jewish culture), and with possessing women by entering them through mirrors.The Victorian poet Robert Browning re-envisioned Lilith in his poem \"Adam, Lilith, and Eve\".",
"First published in 1883, the poem uses the traditional myths surrounding the triad of Adam, Eve, and Lilith.",
"Browning depicts Lilith and Eve as being friendly and complicitous with each other, as they sit together on either side of Adam.",
"Under the threat of death, Eve admits that she never loved Adam, while Lilith confesses that she always loved him:Browning focused on Lilith's emotional attributes, rather than that of her ancient demon predecessors.Scottish author George MacDonald also wrote a fantasy novel entitled ''Lilith'', first published in 1895.MacDonald employed the character of Lilith in service to a spiritual drama about sin and redemption, in which Lilith finds a hard-won salvation.",
"Many of the traditional characteristics of Lilith mythology are present in the author's depiction: Long dark hair, pale skin, a hatred and fear of children and babies, and an obsession with gazing at herself in a mirror.",
"MacDonald's Lilith also has vampiric qualities: she bites people and sucks their blood for sustenance.Australian poet and scholar Christopher John Brennan (1870–1932), included a section titled \"Lilith\" in his major work \"Poems: 1913\" (Sydney : G. B. Philip and Son, 1914).",
"The \"Lilith\" section contains thirteen poems exploring the Lilith myth and is central to the meaning of the collection as a whole.C.",
"L. Moore's 1940 story ''Fruit of Knowledge'' is written from Lilith's point of view.",
"It is a re-telling of the Fall of Man as a love triangle between Lilith, Adam and Eve – with Eve's eating the forbidden fruit being in this version the result of misguided manipulations by the jealous Lilith, who had hoped to get her rival discredited and destroyed by God and thus regain Adam's love.British poet John Siddique's 2011 collection ''Full Blood'' has a suite of 11 poems called ''The Tree of Life'', which features Lilith as the divine feminine aspect of God.",
"A number of the poems feature Lilith directly, including the piece ''Unwritten'' which deals with the spiritual problem of the feminine being removed by the scribes from ''The Bible.",
"''Lilith is also mentioned in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', by C. S. Lewis.",
"The character Mr. Beaver ascribes the ancestry of the main antagonist, Jadis the White Witch, to Lilith.",
"\"Lilith\" is a poem by Vladimir Nabokov, written in 1928.Many have connected it to Lolita, but Nabokov adamantly denies this: \"Intelligent readers will abstain from examining this impersonal fantasy for any links with my later fiction.",
"\"===In American media===''Lilith: A Dramatic Poem'' is a four-act medieval fantasy verse drama written in blank verse by American poet and playwright George Sterling, first published in 1919.Influential critic H. L. Mencken said of Sterling: “I think his dramatic poem ''Lilith'' was the greatest thing he ever wrote.” The ''New York Times'' declared ''Lilith'' “the finest thing in poetic drama yet done in America and one of the finest poetic dramas yet written in English.” Author Theodore Dreiser said: “It rings richer in thought than any American dramatic poem with which I am familiar.” Poet Clark Ashton Smith wrote: “''Lilith'' is certainly the best dramatic poem in English since the days of Swinburne and Browning.",
"… The lyrics interspersed throughout the drama are as beautiful as any by the Elizabethans.”In the role playing game series ''Vampire the Masquerade'', Lilith plays a major part in the mythology within the games.",
"''Lilith'', is a 1961 novel by J. R. Salamanca that tells the story of a man, Vincent, who is seduced by a schizophrenic woman named Lilith.",
"It explores themes of love, obsession, and blurred lines between fantasy and reality.",
"A feature film of the same name written by Robert Rossen and starring Jean Seberg and Warren Beatty was released in 1964."
],
[
"In Western esotericism and modern occultism",
"The depiction of Lilith in Romanticism continues to be popular among Wiccans and in other modern occultism.",
"A few magical orders dedicated to the undercurrent of Lilith, featuring initiations specifically related to the arcana of the \"first mother\", exist.",
"Two organisations that use initiations and magic associated with Lilith are the Ordo Antichristianus Illuminati and the Order of Phosphorus.",
"Lilith appears as a succubus in Aleister Crowley's ''De Arte Magica.''",
"Lilith was also one of the middle names of Crowley's first child, Nuit Ma Ahathoor Hecate Sappho Jezebel Lilith Crowley (1904–1906), and Lilith is sometimes identified with Babalon in Thelemic writings.",
"Many early occult writers who contributed to modern day Wicca expressed special reverence for Lilith.",
"Charles Leland associated Aradia with Lilith: Aradia, says Leland, is Herodias, who was regarded in stregheria folklore as being associated with Diana as chief of the witches.",
"Leland further notes that Herodias is a name that comes from west Asia, where it denoted an early form of Lilith.Gerald Gardner asserted that there was continuous historical worship of Lilith to present day, and that her name is sometimes given to the goddess being personified in the coven by the priestess.",
"This idea was further attested by Doreen Valiente, who cited her as a presiding goddess of the Craft: \"the personification of erotic dreams, the suppressed desire for delights\".",
"In some contemporary concepts, ''Lilith'' is viewed as the embodiment of the Goddess, a designation that is thought to be shared with what these faiths believe to be her counterparts: Inanna, Ishtar, Asherah, Anath, Anahita and Isis.",
"According to one view, Lilith was originally a Sumerian, Babylonian, or Hebrew mother goddess of childbirth, children, women, and sexuality.Raymond Buckland holds that Lilith is a dark moon goddess on par with the Hindu Kali.Many theistic Satanists consider Lilith a goddess.",
"She is considered a goddess of independence by those Satanists and is often worshipped by women, but women are not the only people who worship her.",
"Lilith is popular among theistic Satanists because of her association with Satan.",
"Some Satanists believe that she is the wife of Satan and thus think of her as a mother figure.",
"Others base their reverence for her on her history as a succubus and praise her as a sex goddess.",
"A different approach to a Satanic Lilith holds that she was once a fertility and agricultural goddess.The Western mystery tradition associates Lilith with the qlippoth of Kabbalah.",
"Dion Fortune writes, \"The Virgin Mary is reflected in Lilith\", and that Lilith is the source of \"lustful dreams\"."
],
[
"See also",
"* Abyzou – a Near Eastern demon blamed for miscarriages and infant mortality* Ancient Mesopotamian religion* Black Moon Lilith – an astrological and mathematical point* Lailah – a Jewish angel, whose name means \"night\", believed to protect in pregnancy* Lilith Fair – a travelling music festival* Daimon – a term for Greek lesser deities, the etymology of the English word \"demon\"* Norea – a Gnostic figure* Serpent seed – a fringe belief* Siren – dangerous female creatures in Ancient Greek religion* Spirit spouse – an element of shamanism"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Cited sources",
"* * * *"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* Talmudic References: b. Erubin 18b; b. Erubin 100b; b. Nidda 24b; b. Shab.",
"151b; b. Baba Bathra 73a–b* Kabbalist References: Zohar 3:76b–77a; Zohar Sitrei Torah 1:147b–148b; Zohar 2:267b; Bacharach,'Emeq haMelekh, 19c; Zohar 3:19a; Bacharach,'Emeq haMelekh, 102d–103a; Zohar 1:54b–55a* Dead Sea Scroll References: 4QSongs of the Sage/4QShir; 4Q510 frag.11.4–6a//frag.10.1f; 11QPsAp* Lilith: The Real Story Rabbi Menachem Levine, Aish.com* '' Lilith Bibliography'', Jewish and Christian Literature, Alan Humm ed., .",
"* Siegmund Hurwitz, ''Lilith'' Switzerland: Daminon Press, 1992.Jerusalem Bible.",
"New York: Doubleday, 1966.",
"* Raphael Patai, ''Adam ve-Adama'', tr.",
"as ''Man and Earth''; Jerusalem: The Hebrew Press Association, 1941–1942.",
"* R. Campbell Thompson, ''Semitic Magic, its Origin and Development'', London: 1908.",
"* Isaiah, chapter 34 .",
"New American Bible* Augustin Calmet, (1751) Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants of Hungary, Moravia, et al.",
"The Complete Volumes I & II.",
"2016.",
"* Jeffers, Jen (2017)"
],
[
"External links",
"* ''Jewish Encyclopedia'': Lilith* Collection of Lilith information and links by Alan Humm* ''International standard Bible Encyclopedia'': Night-Monster"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lorentz force"
],
[
"Introduction",
"particles in a bubble chamber.",
"Positive and negative charge trajectories curve in opposite directions.In physics, specifically in electromagnetism, the '''Lorentz force''' (or '''electromagnetic force''') is the combination of electric and magnetic force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields.",
"A particle of charge moving with a velocity in an electric field and a magnetic field experiences a force (in SI units) ofIt says that the electromagnetic force on a charge is a combination of (1) a force in the direction of the electric field (proportional to the magnitude of the field and the quantity of charge), and (2) a force at right angles to both the magnetic field and the velocity of the charge (proportional to the magnitude of the field, the charge, and the velocity).Variations on this basic formula describe the magnetic force on a current-carrying wire (sometimes called Laplace force), the electromotive force in a wire loop moving through a magnetic field (an aspect of Faraday's law of induction), and the force on a moving charged particle.Historians suggest that the law is implicit in a paper by James Clerk Maxwell, published in 1865.Hendrik Lorentz arrived at a complete derivation in 1895, identifying the contribution of the electric force a few years after Oliver Heaviside correctly identified the contribution of the magnetic force."
],
[
"Lorentz force law as the definition of E and B",
"In many textbook treatments of classical electromagnetism, the Lorentz force law is used as the ''definition'' of the electric and magnetic fields and .",
"To be specific, the Lorentz force is understood to be the following empirical statement:''The electromagnetic force '''' on a test charge at a given point and time is a certain function of its charge '''' and velocity '''', which can be parameterized by exactly two vectors '''' and '''', in the functional form'': This is valid, even for particles approaching the speed of light (that is, magnitude of , ).",
"So the two vector fields and are thereby defined throughout space and time, and these are called the \"electric field\" and \"magnetic field\".",
"The fields are defined everywhere in space and time with respect to what force a test charge would receive regardless of whether a charge is present to experience the force.As a definition of and , the Lorentz force is only a definition in principle because a real particle (as opposed to the hypothetical \"test charge\" of infinitesimally-small mass and charge) would generate its own finite and fields, which would alter the electromagnetic force that it experiences.",
"In addition, if the charge experiences acceleration, as if forced into a curved trajectory, it emits radiation that causes it to lose kinetic energy.",
"See for example Bremsstrahlung and synchrotron light.",
"These effects occur through both a direct effect (called the radiation reaction force) and indirectly (by affecting the motion of nearby charges and currents)."
],
[
"Equation",
"===Charged particle===Lorentz force on a charged particle (of charge ) in motion (instantaneous velocity ).",
"The field and field vary in space and time.The force acting on a particle of electric charge with instantaneous velocity , due to an external electric field and magnetic field , is given by (in SI units):where is the vector cross product (all boldface quantities are vectors).",
"In terms of Cartesian components, we have:In general, the electric and magnetic fields are functions of the position and time.",
"Therefore, explicitly, the Lorentz force can be written as:in which is the position vector of the charged particle, is time, and the overdot is a time derivative.A positively charged particle will be accelerated in the ''same'' linear orientation as the field, but will curve perpendicularly to both the instantaneous velocity vector and the field according to the right-hand rule (in detail, if the fingers of the right hand are extended to point in the direction of and are then curled to point in the direction of , then the extended thumb will point in the direction of ).The term is called the '''electric force''', while the term is called the '''magnetic force'''.",
"According to some definitions, the term \"Lorentz force\" refers specifically to the formula for the magnetic force, with the ''total'' electromagnetic force (including the electric force) given some other (nonstandard) name.",
"This article will ''not'' follow this nomenclature: In what follows, the term \"Lorentz force\" will refer to the expression for the total force.The magnetic force component of the Lorentz force manifests itself as the force that acts on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field.",
"In that context, it is also called the Laplace force.The Lorentz force is a force exerted by the electromagnetic field on the charged particle, that is, it is the rate at which linear momentum is transferred from the electromagnetic field to the particle.",
"Associated with it is the power which is the rate at which energy is transferred from the electromagnetic field to the particle.",
"That power isNotice that the magnetic field does not contribute to the power because the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the velocity of the particle.===Continuous charge distribution===Lorentz force (per unit 3-volume) on a continuous charge distribution (charge density ) in motion.",
"The 3-current density corresponds to the motion of the charge element in volume element and varies throughout the continuum.For a continuous charge distribution in motion, the Lorentz force equation becomes:where is the force on a small piece of the charge distribution with charge .",
"If both sides of this equation are divided by the volume of this small piece of the charge distribution , the result is:where is the ''force density'' (force per unit volume) and is the charge density (charge per unit volume).",
"Next, the current density corresponding to the motion of the charge continuum isso the continuous analogue to the equation isThe total force is the volume integral over the charge distribution:By eliminating and , using Maxwell's equations, and manipulating using the theorems of vector calculus, this form of the equation can be used to derive the Maxwell stress tensor , in turn this can be combined with the Poynting vector to obtain the electromagnetic stress–energy tensor '''T''' used in general relativity.In terms of and , another way to write the Lorentz force (per unit volume) iswhere is the speed of light and ∇· denotes the divergence of a tensor field.",
"Rather than the amount of charge and its velocity in electric and magnetic fields, this equation relates the energy flux (flow of ''energy'' per unit time per unit distance) in the fields to the force exerted on a charge distribution.",
"See Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism for more details.The density of power associated with the Lorentz force in a material medium isIf we separate the total charge and total current into their free and bound parts, we get that the density of the Lorentz force iswhere: is the density of free charge; is the polarization density; is the density of free current; and is the magnetization density.",
"In this way, the Lorentz force can explain the torque applied to a permanent magnet by the magnetic field.",
"The density of the associated power is===Equations with cgs units convention===The above-mentioned formulae use the conventions for the definition of the electric and magnetic field used with SI units.",
"These are the most common.",
"However, other conventions with the same physics (i.e.",
"forces on e.g.",
"an electron) are possible and used.",
"In the conventions used with the older CGS-Gaussian units, which are somewhat more common among some theoretical physicists as well as condensed matter experimentalists, one has insteadwhere ''c'' is the speed of light.",
"Although this equation looks slightly different, it is equivalent, since one has the following relations:where is the vacuum permittivity and the vacuum permeability.",
"In practice, the subscripts \"G\" and \"SI\" are omitted, and the used convention (and unit) must be determined from context."
],
[
"History",
"Lorentz' theory of electrons.",
"Formulas for the Lorentz force (I, ponderomotive force) and the Maxwell equations for the divergence of the electrical field E (II) and the magnetic field B (III), ''La théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants'', 1892, p.",
"451.",
"''V'' is the velocity of light.Early attempts to quantitatively describe the electromagnetic force were made in the mid-18th century.",
"It was proposed that the force on magnetic poles, by Johann Tobias Mayer and others in 1760, and electrically charged objects, by Henry Cavendish in 1762, obeyed an inverse-square law.",
"However, in both cases the experimental proof was neither complete nor conclusive.",
"It was not until 1784 when Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, using a torsion balance, was able to definitively show through experiment that this was true.",
"Soon after the discovery in 1820 by Hans Christian Ørsted that a magnetic needle is acted on by a voltaic current, André-Marie Ampère that same year was able to devise through experimentation the formula for the angular dependence of the force between two current elements.",
"In all these descriptions, the force was always described in terms of the properties of the matter involved and the distances between two masses or charges rather than in terms of electric and magnetic fields.The modern concept of electric and magnetic fields first arose in the theories of Michael Faraday, particularly his idea of lines of force, later to be given full mathematical description by Lord Kelvin and James Clerk Maxwell.",
"From a modern perspective it is possible to identify in Maxwell's 1865 formulation of his field equations a form of the Lorentz force equation in relation to electric currents, although in the time of Maxwell it was not evident how his equations related to the forces on moving charged objects.",
"J. J. Thomson was the first to attempt to derive from Maxwell's field equations the electromagnetic forces on a moving charged object in terms of the object's properties and external fields.",
"Interested in determining the electromagnetic behavior of the charged particles in cathode rays, Thomson published a paper in 1881 wherein he gave the force on the particles due to an external magnetic field asThomson derived the correct basic form of the formula, but, because of some miscalculations and an incomplete description of the displacement current, included an incorrect scale-factor of a half in front of the formula.",
"Oliver Heaviside invented the modern vector notation and applied it to Maxwell's field equations; he also (in 1885 and 1889) had fixed the mistakes of Thomson's derivation and arrived at the correct form of the magnetic force on a moving charged object.",
"Finally, in 1895, Hendrik Lorentz derived the modern form of the formula for the electromagnetic force which includes the contributions to the total force from both the electric and the magnetic fields.",
"Lorentz began by abandoning the Maxwellian descriptions of the ether and conduction.",
"Instead, Lorentz made a distinction between matter and the luminiferous aether and sought to apply the Maxwell equations at a microscopic scale.",
"Using Heaviside's version of the Maxwell equations for a stationary ether and applying Lagrangian mechanics (see below), Lorentz arrived at the correct and complete form of the force law that now bears his name."
],
[
"Trajectories of particles due to the Lorentz force",
"'''Charged particle drifts''' in a homogeneous magnetic field.",
"(A) No disturbing force (B) With an electric field, E (C) With an independent force, F (e.g.",
"gravity) (D) In an inhomogeneous magnetic field, grad HIn many cases of practical interest, the motion in a magnetic field of an electrically charged particle (such as an electron or ion in a plasma) can be treated as the superposition of a relatively fast circular motion around a point called the '''guiding center''' and a relatively slow '''drift''' of this point.",
"The drift speeds may differ for various species depending on their charge states, masses, or temperatures, possibly resulting in electric currents or chemical separation."
],
[
"Significance of the Lorentz force",
"While the modern Maxwell's equations describe how electrically charged particles and currents or moving charged particles give rise to electric and magnetic fields, the Lorentz force law completes that picture by describing the force acting on a moving point charge ''q'' in the presence of electromagnetic fields.",
"The Lorentz force law describes the effect of '''E''' and '''B''' upon a point charge, but such electromagnetic forces are not the entire picture.",
"Charged particles are possibly coupled to other forces, notably gravity and nuclear forces.",
"Thus, Maxwell's equations do not stand separate from other physical laws, but are coupled to them via the charge and current densities.",
"The response of a point charge to the Lorentz law is one aspect; the generation of '''E''' and '''B''' by currents and charges is another.In real materials the Lorentz force is inadequate to describe the collective behavior of charged particles, both in principle and as a matter of computation.",
"The charged particles in a material medium not only respond to the '''E''' and '''B''' fields but also generate these fields.",
"Complex transport equations must be solved to determine the time and spatial response of charges, for example, the Boltzmann equation or the Fokker–Planck equation or the Navier–Stokes equations.",
"For example, see magnetohydrodynamics, fluid dynamics, electrohydrodynamics, superconductivity, stellar evolution.",
"An entire physical apparatus for dealing with these matters has developed.",
"See for example, Green–Kubo relations and Green's function (many-body theory)."
],
[
"Force on a current-carrying wire",
"Right-hand rule for a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field ''B''When a wire carrying an electric current is placed in a magnetic field, each of the moving charges, which comprise the current, experiences the Lorentz force, and together they can create a macroscopic force on the wire (sometimes called the '''Laplace force''').",
"By combining the Lorentz force law above with the definition of electric current, the following equation results, in the case of a straight stationary wire in a homogeneous field:where is a vector whose magnitude is the length of the wire, and whose direction is along the wire, aligned with the direction of the conventional current .If the wire is not straight, the force on it can be computed by applying this formula to each infinitesimal segment of wire , then adding up all these forces by integration.",
"This results in the same formal expression, but should now be understood as the vector connecting the end points of the curved wire with direction from starting to end point of conventional current.",
"Usually, there will also be a net torque.If, in addition, the magnetic field is inhomogeneous, the net force on a stationary rigid wire carrying a steady current is given by integration along the wire,One application of this is Ampère's force law, which describes how two current-carrying wires can attract or repel each other, since each experiences a Lorentz force from the other's magnetic field."
],
[
"EMF",
"The magnetic force () component of the Lorentz force is responsible for ''motional'' electromotive force (or ''motional EMF''), the phenomenon underlying many electrical generators.",
"When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts opposite forces on electrons and nuclei in the wire, and this creates the EMF.",
"The term \"motional EMF\" is applied to this phenomenon, since the EMF is due to the ''motion'' of the wire.In other electrical generators, the magnets move, while the conductors do not.",
"In this case, the EMF is due to the electric force (''q'''''E''') term in the Lorentz Force equation.",
"The electric field in question is created by the changing magnetic field, resulting in an ''induced'' EMF, as described by the Maxwell–Faraday equation (one of the four modern Maxwell's equations).Both of these EMFs, despite their apparently distinct origins, are described by the same equation, namely, the EMF is the rate of change of magnetic flux through the wire.",
"(This is Faraday's law of induction, see below.)",
"Einstein's special theory of relativity was partially motivated by the desire to better understand this link between the two effects.",
"In fact, the electric and magnetic fields are different facets of the same electromagnetic field, and in moving from one inertial frame to another, the solenoidal vector field portion of the ''E''-field can change in whole or in part to a ''B''-field or ''vice versa''."
],
[
"Lorentz force and Faraday's law of induction",
"Lorentz force -image on a wall in LeidenGiven a loop of wire in a magnetic field, Faraday's law of induction states the induced electromotive force (EMF) in the wire is:whereis the magnetic flux through the loop, is the magnetic field, is a surface bounded by the closed contour , at time , is an infinitesimal vector area element of (magnitude is the area of an infinitesimal patch of surface, direction is orthogonal to that surface patch).The ''sign'' of the EMF is determined by Lenz's law.",
"Note that this is valid for not only a ''stationary'' wirebut also for a ''moving'' wire.From Faraday's law of induction (that is valid for a moving wire, for instance in a motor) and the Maxwell Equations, the Lorentz Force can be deduced.",
"The reverse is also true, the Lorentz force and the Maxwell Equations can be used to derive the Faraday Law.Let be the moving wire, moving together without rotation and with constant velocity and be the internal surface of the wire.",
"The EMF around the closed path is given by:where is the electric field and is an infinitesimal vector element of the contour .NB: Both and have a sign ambiguity; to get the correct sign, the right-hand rule is used, as explained in the article Kelvin–Stokes theorem.The above result can be compared with the version of Faraday's law of induction that appears in the modern Maxwell's equations, called here the ''Maxwell–Faraday equation'':The Maxwell–Faraday equation also can be written in an ''integral form'' using the Kelvin–Stokes theorem.So we have, the Maxwell Faraday equation:and the Faraday Law,The two are equivalent if the wire is not moving.",
"Using the Leibniz integral rule and that , results in,and using the Maxwell Faraday equation,since this is valid for any wire position it implies that,Faraday's law of induction holds whether the loop of wire is rigid and stationary, or in motion or in process of deformation, and it holds whether the magnetic field is constant in time or changing.",
"However, there are cases where Faraday's law is either inadequate or difficult to use, and application of the underlying Lorentz force law is necessary.",
"See inapplicability of Faraday's law.If the magnetic field is fixed in time and the conducting loop moves through the field, the magnetic flux linking the loop can change in several ways.",
"For example, if the -field varies with position, and the loop moves to a location with different -field, will change.",
"Alternatively, if the loop changes orientation with respect to the '''B'''-field, the differential element will change because of the different angle between and , also changing .",
"As a third example, if a portion of the circuit is swept through a uniform, time-independent -field, and another portion of the circuit is held stationary, the flux linking the entire closed circuit can change due to the shift in relative position of the circuit's component parts with time (surface time-dependent).",
"In all three cases, Faraday's law of induction then predicts the EMF generated by the change in .Note that the Maxwell Faraday's equation implies that the Electric Field is non conservative when the Magnetic Field varies in time, and is not expressible as the gradient of a scalar field, and not subject to the gradient theorem since its curl is not zero."
],
[
"Lorentz force in terms of potentials",
"The and fields can be replaced by the magnetic vector potential and (scalar) electrostatic potential bywhere is the gradient, is the divergence, and is the curl.The force becomesUsing an identity for the triple product this can be rewritten as,(Notice that the coordinates and the velocity components should be treated as independent variables, so the del operator acts only on not on thus, there is no need of using Feynman's subscript notation in the equation above).",
"Using the chain rule, the total derivative of is:so that the above expression becomes:With , we can put the equation into the convenient Euler–Lagrange formwhere and"
],
[
"Lorentz force and analytical mechanics",
"The Lagrangian for a charged particle of mass and charge in an electromagnetic field equivalently describes the dynamics of the particle in terms of its ''energy'', rather than the force exerted on it.",
"The classical expression is given by:where and are the potential fields as above.",
"The quantity can be thought as a velocity-dependent potential function.",
"Using Lagrange's equations, the equation for the Lorentz force given above can be obtained again.The potential energy depends on the velocity of the particle, so the force is velocity dependent, so it is not conservative.The relativistic Lagrangian isThe action is the relativistic arclength of the path of the particle in spacetime, minus the potential energy contribution, plus an extra contribution which quantum mechanically is an extra phase a charged particle gets when it is moving along a vector potential."
],
[
"Relativistic form of the Lorentz force",
"===Covariant form of the Lorentz force=======Field tensor====Using the metric signature , the Lorentz force for a charge can be written in covariant form:where is the four-momentum, defined as the proper time of the particle, the contravariant electromagnetic tensorand is the covariant 4-velocity of the particle, defined as:in whichis the Lorentz factor.The fields are transformed to a frame moving with constant relative velocity by:where is the Lorentz transformation tensor.====Translation to vector notation====The component (''x''-component) of the force isSubstituting the components of the covariant electromagnetic tensor ''F'' yieldsUsing the components of covariant four-velocity yieldsThe calculation for (force components in the and directions) yields similar results, so collecting the 3 equations into one:and since differentials in coordinate time and proper time are related by the Lorentz factor,so we arrive atThis is precisely the Lorentz force law, however, it is important to note that is the relativistic expression,===Lorentz force in spacetime algebra (STA)===The electric and magnetic fields are dependent on the velocity of an observer, so the relativistic form of the Lorentz force law can best be exhibited starting from a coordinate-independent expression for the electromagnetic and magnetic fields , and an arbitrary time-direction, .",
"This can be settled through Space-Time Algebra (or the geometric algebra of space-time), a type of Clifford algebra defined on a pseudo-Euclidean space, asand is a space-time bivector (an oriented plane segment, just like a vector is an oriented line segment), which has six degrees of freedom corresponding to boosts (rotations in space-time planes) and rotations (rotations in space-space planes).",
"The dot product with the vector pulls a vector (in the space algebra) from the translational part, while the wedge-product creates a trivector (in the space algebra) who is dual to a vector which is the usual magnetic field vector.The relativistic velocity is given by the (time-like) changes in a time-position vector where(which shows our choice for the metric) and the velocity isThe proper (invariant is an inadequate term because no transformation has been defined) form of the Lorentz force law is simplyNote that the order is important because between a bivector and a vector the dot product is anti-symmetric.",
"Upon a spacetime split like one can obtain the velocity, and fields as above yielding the usual expression.===Lorentz force in general relativity===In the general theory of relativity the equation of motion for a particle with mass and charge , moving in a space with metric tensor and electromagnetic field , is given aswhere ( is taken along the trajectory), and The equation can also be written aswhere is the Christoffel symbol (of the torsion-free metric connection in general relativity), or aswhere is the covariant differential in general relativity (metric, torsion-free)."
],
[
"Applications",
"The Lorentz force occurs in many devices, including:*Cyclotrons and other circular path particle accelerators*Mass spectrometers*Velocity Filters*Magnetrons*Lorentz force velocimetryIn its manifestation as the Laplace force on an electric current in a conductor, this force occurs in many devices including:*Electric motors*Railguns*Linear motors*Loudspeakers*Magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters*Electrical generators*Homopolar generators*Linear alternators"
],
[
"See also",
"* Hall effect* Electromagnetism* Gravitomagnetism* Ampère's force law* Hendrik Lorentz* Maxwell's equations* Formulation of Maxwell's equations in special relativity* Moving magnet and conductor problem* Abraham–Lorentz force* Larmor formula* Cyclotron radiation* Magnetoresistance* Scalar potential* Helmholtz decomposition* Guiding center* Field line* Coulomb's law* Electromagnetic buoyancy"
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"References",
"The numbered references refer in part to the list immediately below.",
"*: volume 2.",
"****"
],
[
"External links",
"* Lorentz force (demonstration)* Interactive Java applet on the magnetic deflection of a particle beam in a homogeneous magnetic field by Wolfgang Bauer"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lorenzo de' Medici"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici''' (), known as '''Lorenzo the Magnificent''' (; 1 January 1449 – 8 April 1492), was an Italian statesman, the ''de facto'' ruler of the Florentine Republic, and the most powerful patron of Renaissance culture in Italy.",
"Lorenzo held the balance of power within the Italic League, an alliance of states that stabilized political conditions on the Italian peninsula for decades, and his life coincided with the mature phase of the Italian Renaissance and the Golden Age of Florence.",
"As a patron, he is best known for his sponsorship of artists such as Botticelli and Michelangelo.",
"On the foreign policy front, Lorenzo manifested a clear plan to stem the territorial ambitions of Pope Sixtus IV, in the name of the balance of the Italian League of 1454.For these reasons, Lorenzo was the subject of the Pazzi conspiracy (1478), in which his brother Giuliano was assassinated.",
"The Peace of Lodi of 1454 that he supported among the various Italian states collapsed with his death.",
"He is buried in the Medici Chapel in Florence."
],
[
"Youth",
"Lorenzo's grandfather, Cosimo de' Medici, was the first member of the Medici family to lead the Republic of Florence and run the Medici Bank simultaneously.",
"As one of the wealthiest men in Europe, Cosimo spent a very large portion of his fortune on government and philanthropy, for example as a patron of the arts and financier of public works.",
"Lorenzo's father, Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, was equally at the centre of Florentine civic life, chiefly as an art patron and collector, while Lorenzo's uncle, Giovanni di Cosimo de' Medici, took care of the family's business interests.",
"Lorenzo's mother, Lucrezia Tornabuoni, was a writer of sonnets and a friend to poets and philosophers of the Medici Academy.",
"She became her son's advisor after the deaths of his father and uncle.Lorenzo, considered the most promising of the five children of Piero and Lucrezia, was tutored by a diplomat and bishop, Gentile de' Becchi, and the humanist philosopher Marsilio Ficino, and he was trained in Greek by John Argyropoulos.",
"With his brother Giuliano, he participated in jousting, hawking, hunting, and horse breeding for the Palio, a horse race in Siena.",
"In 1469, aged 20, he won first prize in a jousting tournament sponsored by the Medici.",
"The joust was the subject of a poem written by Luigi Pulci.",
"Niccolò Machiavelli also wrote of the occasion, perhaps sarcastically, that he won \"not by way of favour, but by his own valour and skill in arms\".",
"He carried a banner painted by Verrocchio, and his horse was named Morello di Vento.Piero sent Lorenzo on many important diplomatic missions when he was still a youth, including trips to Rome to meet the pope and other important religious and political figures.Lorenzo was described as rather plain of appearance and of average height, having a broad frame and short legs, dark hair and eyes, a squashed nose, short-sighted eyes and a harsh voice.",
"Giuliano, on the other hand, was regarded as handsome and a \"golden boy\", and was used as a model by Botticelli in his painting of ''Mars and Venus''.",
"Even Lorenzo's close friend Niccolo Valori described him as homely, saying, \"nature had been a stepmother to him in regards to his personal appearance, although she had acted as a loving mother in all things concocted with the mind.",
"His complexion was dark, and although his face was not handsome it was so full of dignity as to compel respect.\""
],
[
"Politics",
"Bust by Verrocchio, 15th-century terracotta bust, National Gallery of Art, WashingtonLorenzo, groomed for power, assumed a leading role in the state upon the death of his father in 1469, when he was 20.Already drained by his grandfather's building projects and constantly stressed by mismanagement, wars, and political expenses, the assets of the Medici Bank reduced seriously during the course of Lorenzo's lifetime.Lorenzo, like his grandfather, father, and son, ruled Florence indirectly through surrogates in the city councils by means of payoffs and strategic marriages until 1490.Rival Florentine families inevitably harboured resentments over the Medicis' dominance, and enemies of the Medici remained a factor in Florentine life long after Lorenzo's passing.",
"The most notable of the rival families was the Pazzi, who nearly brought Lorenzo's reign to an end.On Sunday, 26 April 1478, in an incident known as the Pazzi conspiracy, a group headed by Girolamo Riario, Francesco de' Pazzi, and Francesco Salviati (the archbishop of Pisa), attacked Lorenzo and his brother and co-ruler Giuliano in the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in an attempt to seize control of the Florentine government.",
"Shockingly, Salviati acted with the blessing of his patron Pope Sixtus IV.",
"Giuliano was killed, brutally stabbed to death, but Lorenzo escaped with only a minor wound to the neck, having been defended by the poet Poliziano.",
"News of the conspiracy spread throughout Florence, and it was brutally put down by the populace through such measures as the lynching of the archbishop of Pisa and members of the Pazzi family who were involved in the conspiracy.In the aftermath of the Pazzi conspiracy and the punishment of supporters of Pope Sixtus IV, the Medici and Florence earned the wrath of the Holy See, which seized all the Medici assets that Sixtus could find, excommunicated Lorenzo and the entire government of Florence, and ultimately put the entire Florentine city-state under interdict.",
"When these moves had little effect, Sixtus formed a military alliance with King Ferdinand I of Naples, whose son, Alfonso, Duke of Calabria, led an invasion of the Florentine Republic, still ruled by Lorenzo.Ferdinand of Aragon, painting by Giorgio Vasari and Marco da Faenza, Palazzo Vecchio, Sala di Lorenzo the Magnificent, Florence.Lorenzo rallied the citizens.",
"However, with little support from the traditional Medici allies in Bologna and Milan, the war dragged on, and only diplomacy by Lorenzo, who personally traveled to Naples and became a prisoner of the king for several months, ultimately resolved the crisis.",
"That success enabled Lorenzo to secure constitutional changes within the government of the Florentine Republic that further enhanced his own power.Thereafter, Lorenzo, like his grandfather Cosimo de' Medici, pursued a policy of maintaining peace, balancing power between the northern Italian states and keeping major European states such as France and the Holy Roman Empire out of Italy.",
"Lorenzo maintained good relations with Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire, as the Florentine maritime trade with the Ottomans was a major source of wealth for the Medici.Efforts to acquire revenue from the mining of alum in Tuscany unfortunately marred Lorenzo's reputation.",
"Alum had been discovered by local citizens of Volterra, who turned to Florence to get backing to exploit this important natural resource.",
"A key commodity in the glassmaking, tanning and textile industries, alum was available from only a few sources under the control of the Ottomans and monopolized by Genoa before the discovery of alum sources in Italy at Tolfa.",
"First the Roman Curia in 1462, and then Lorenzo and the Medici Bank less than a year later, got involved in backing the mining operation, with the pope taking a two-ducat commission for each cantar quintal of alum retrieved and ensuring a monopoly against the Turkish-derived goods by prohibiting trade in alum with infidels.",
"When they realized the value of the alum mine, the people of Volterra wanted its revenues for their municipal funds rather than having it enter the pockets of their Florentine backers.",
"Thus began an insurrection and secession from Florence, which involved putting to death several opposing citizens.",
"Lorenzo sent mercenaries to suppress the revolt by force, and the mercenaries ultimately sacked the city.",
"Lorenzo hurried to Volterra to make amends, but the incident would remain a dark stain on his record."
],
[
"Patronage",
"''The Angel appearing to Zacharias'' in the Tornabuoni Chapel in Florence contains portraits of members of the Medici Academy: Marsilio Ficino, Cristoforo Landino, Agnolo Poliziano and either Demetrios Chalkokondyles or Gentile de' Becchi.Lorenzo's court included artists such as Piero and Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Andrea del Verrocchio, Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Michelangelo Buonarroti, who were instrumental in achieving the 15th-century Renaissance.",
"Although Lorenzo did not commission many works himself, he helped these artists to secure commissions from other patrons.",
"Michelangelo lived with Lorenzo and his family for three years, dining at the family table and participating in discussions led by Marsilio Ficino.Lorenzo was an artist and wrote poetry in his native Tuscan.",
"In his poetry, he celebrates life while acknowledging with melancholy the fragility and instability of the human condition, particularly in his later works.",
"Love, feasts and light dominate his verse.Cosimo had started the collection of books that became the Medici Library (also called the Laurentian Library), and Lorenzo expanded it.",
"Lorenzo's agents retrieved from the East large numbers of classical works, and he employed a large workshop to copy his books and disseminate their content across Europe.",
"He supported the development of humanism through his circle of scholarly friends, including the philosophers Marsilio Ficino, Poliziano and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola.",
"They studied Greek philosophers and attempted to merge the ideas of Plato with Christianity.Apart from a personal interest, Lorenzo also used the Florentine milieu of fine arts for his diplomatic efforts.",
"An example includes the commission of Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, Pietro Perugino and Cosimo Rosselli from Rome to paint murals in the Sistine Chapel, a move that has been interpreted as sealing the alliance between Lorenzo and Pope Sixtus IV.In 1471, Lorenzo calculated that his family had spent some 663,000 florins (about US$460 million today) on charity, buildings and taxes since 1434.He wrote, I do not regret this for though many would consider it better to have a part of that sum in their purse, I consider it to have been a great honour to our state, and I think the money was well-expended and I am well-pleased.From 1479 Lorenzo became a permanent member of the committee supervising the rebuild of the ''signoria'' in Florence.",
"He created a court of artists in his sculpture garden at San Marco which allowed him to exert 'enormous influence on the selection of artists on public projects'."
],
[
"Marriage and children",
"Clarice OrsiniLorenzo married Clarice Orsini on 7 February 1469.The marriage in person took place in Florence on 4 June 1469.She was a daughter of Giacomo Orsini, Lord of Monterotondo and Bracciano by his wife and cousin Maddalena Orsini.Clarice and Lorenzo had 10 children, all except Contessina Antonia born in Florence:* Lucrezia Maria Romola de' Medici (1470–1553), who married Jacopo Salviati on 10 September 1486 and had 10 children of her own, including Cardinal Giovanni Salviati, Cardinal Bernardo Salviati, Maria Salviati (mother of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany), and Francesca Salviati (mother of Pope Leo XI)* Male twins who died after birth (March 1471)* Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici (1472–1503), called \"the Unfortunate\", was ruler of Florence after his father's death; grandfather of Catherine de' Medici, queen of France* Maria Maddalena Romola de' Medici (1473–1528) married Franceschetto Cybo (illegitimate son of Pope Innocent VIII) on 25 February 1487 and had seven children* Contessina Beatrice de' Medici, died shortly after her birth on 23 September 1474* Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici (1475–1521), ascended to the papacy as Leo X in 1513* Luisa de' Medici (1477–1488), also called ''Luigia'', was betrothed to Giovanni de' Medici il Popolano, but died young* Contessina Antonia Romola de' Medici (1478–1515), born in Pistoia, married Piero Ridolfi (1467–1525) in 1494 and had five children, including Cardinal Niccolò Ridolfi* Giuliano di Lorenzo de' Medici (1479–1516) was created Duke of Nemours in 1515 by Francis I of FranceLorenzo adopted his nephew Giulio di Giuliano de' Medici (1478–1534), the illegitimate son of his slain brother Giuliano.",
"In 1523, after serving four years as ruler of Florence, Giulio ascended to the papacy as Pope Clement VII.Detail of Domenico Ghirlandaio's ''Confirmation of the Franciscan Rule'' from the Sassetti Chapel frescos.",
"Mounting the stairs in the forefront are the tutor of Lorenzo's sons, Angelo Poliziano, and Lorenzo's sons Giuliano, Piero and Giovanni, followed by two members of the Humanist Academy."
],
[
"Later years, death, and legacy",
"During Lorenzo's tenure, several branches of the family bank collapsed because of bad loans, and in later years he got into financial difficulties and resorted to misappropriating trust and state funds.Toward the end of Lorenzo's life, Florence came under the influence of Savonarola, who believed Christians had strayed too far into Greco-Roman culture.",
"Lorenzo played a role in bringing Savonarola to Florence.A posthumous portrait of Lorenzo by Giorgio Vasari (16th century)Lorenzo died during the late night of 8 April 1492, at the longtime family villa of Careggi.",
"Savonarola visited Lorenzo on his deathbed.",
"The rumour that Savonarola damned Lorenzo on his deathbed has been refuted in Roberto Ridolfi's book ''Vita di Girolamo Savonarola''.",
"Letters written by witnesses to Lorenzo's death report that he died peacefully after listening to the Gospel of the day.",
"Many signs and portents were claimed to have taken place at the moment of his death, including the dome of Florence Cathedral being struck by lightning, ghosts appearing, and the lions kept at Via Leone fighting one another.The Signoria and councils of Florence issued a decree:''Sacra rappresentazione dei santi Giovanni e Paolo'' (\"Holy representation of the Saints John and Paul\"), a work by Lorenzo in the later yearsLorenzo was buried with his brother Giuliano in the Basilica di San Lorenzo in the red porphyry sarcophagus designed for Piero and Giovanni de' Medici, not, as might be expected, in the New Sacristy, designed by Michelangelo.",
"The latter holds the two monumental tombs of Lorenzo and Giuliano's less known namesakes: Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, and Giuliano, Duke of Nemours.",
"According to Williamson and others, the statues of the lesser Lorenzo and Giuliano were carved by Michelangelo to incorporate the essence of the famous men.",
"In 1559, the bodies of Lorenzo de' Medici (\"the Magnificent\") and his brother Giuliano were interred in the New Sacristy in an unmarked tomb beneath Michelangelo's statue of the Madonna.Medical researchers have suggested that Lorenzo may have suffered from acromegaly, a rare disorder that results from excessive secretion of growth hormone, based on interpretation of his reported symptoms, and later analysis of his skeleton and death mask.Lorenzo's heir was his eldest son, Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici, known as \"Piero the Unfortunate\".",
"In 1494, he squandered his father's patrimony and brought down the Medici dynasty in Florence.",
"His second son, Giovanni, who became Pope Leo X, retook the city in 1512 with the aid of a Spanish army.",
"In 1531, Lorenzo's nephew Giulio di Giuliano – whom Lorenzo had raised as his own son and who in 1523 became Pope Clement VII – formalized Medici rule of Florence by installing Alessandro de' Medici the city's first hereditary duke."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"* Lorenzo de' Medici is depicted as a teenager in CBBC's ''Leonardo'', played by actor Colin Ryan.",
"* Lorenzo de' Medici appears as a supporting character to the protagonist, Ezio Auditore da Firenze, after they help foil the Pazzi conspirators in ''Assassin's Creed II''.",
"* Lorenzo de' Medici is portrayed by Elliot Cowan in the 2013 TV series ''Da Vinci's Demons''.",
"* Lorenzo de' Medici is portrayed by Daniel Sharman in the TV series ''Medici: The Magnificent''."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Lorenzo de' Medici, '' The Complete Literary Works'', edited and translated by Guido A. Guarino (New York: Italica Press, 2016).",
"* Miles J. Unger, ''Magnifico: The Brilliant Life and Violent Times of Lorenzo de' Medici'' (Simon and Schuster 2008) is a vividly colorful biography of this true \"renaissance man\", the uncrowned ruler of Florence during its golden age.",
"* André Chastel, Art et Humanisme à Florence au temps de Laurent le Magnifique (Paris, 1959).",
"* Christopher Hibbert, ''The House of Medici: Its Rise and Fall'' (Morrow-Quill, 1980) is a highly readable, non-scholarly general history of the family, and covers Lorenzo's life in some detail.",
"* F. W. Kent, ''Lorenzo de' Medici and the Art of Magnificence (The Johns Hopkins Symposia in Comparative History)'' (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004) A summary of 40 years of research with a specific theme of Il Magnifico's relationship with the visual arts.",
"* Peter Barenboim, ''Michelangelo Drawings – Key to the Medici Chapel Interpretation'' (Moscow, Letny Sad, 2006) , is a new interpretation of Lorenzo the Magnificent' image in the Medici Chapel.",
"* * Barenboim, Peter (with Heath, Arthur).",
"''500 years of the New Sacristy: Michelangelo in the Medici Chapel'', LOOM, Moscow, 2019.",
"* Williamson, Hugh Ross, ''Lorenzo the Magnificent''.",
"Michael Joseph, London.",
"(1974) * Parks, Tim, ''Medici Money: Banking, Metaphysics, and Art in Fifteenth-Century Florence'' (W. W. Norton & Company 2005) , is a mixture of history and finance, documenting the logistics of Lorenzo and the Medici Banks;Historical novels* Robin Maxwell, ''Signora da Vinci'' (NAL Trade, 2009), a novel that follows Leonardo da Vinci's mother, Caterina, as she travels to Florence to be with her son."
],
[
"External links",
"* Lorenzo de' Medici as patron* \"Info Please | Lorenzo De' Medici\"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lemma (mathematics)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In mathematics, informal logic and argument mapping, a '''lemma''' (: '''lemmas''' or '''lemmata''') is a generally minor, proven proposition which is used as a stepping stone to a larger result.",
"For that reason, it is also known as a \"helping theorem\" or an \"auxiliary theorem\".",
"In many cases, a lemma derives its importance from the theorem it aims to prove; however, a lemma can also turn out to be more important than originally thought.It is also used generally in scholarship and philosophy."
],
[
"Etymology",
"From the Ancient Greek λῆμμα, (perfect passive εἴλημμαι) something received or taken.",
"Thus something taken for granted in an argument."
],
[
"Comparison with theorem",
"There is no formal distinction between a lemma and a theorem, only one of intention (see Theorem terminology).",
"However, a lemma can be considered a minor result whose sole purpose is to help prove a more substantial theorem – a step in the direction of proof."
],
[
"Well-known lemmas",
"Some powerful results in mathematics are known as lemmas, first named for their originally minor purpose.",
"These include, among others:* Bézout's lemma* Burnside's lemma* Dehn's lemma* Euclid's lemma* Farkas' lemma* Fatou's lemma* Gauss's lemma (any of several named after Carl Friedrich Gauss)* Greendlinger's lemma* Itô's lemma* Jordan's lemma* Nakayama's lemma* Poincaré's lemma* Riesz's lemma* Schur's lemma* Schwarz's lemma* Sperner's lemma* Urysohn's lemma* Vitali covering lemma* Yoneda's lemma* Zorn's lemmaWhile these results originally seemed too simple or too technical to warrant independent interest, they have eventually turned out to be central to the theories in which they occur."
],
[
"See also",
"*Axiom*Corollary*Co-premise*Fundamental lemma*Inference objection*List of lemmas*Objection*Porism*Theorem*Theorem terminology"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*Doron Zeilberger, Opinion 82: A Good Lemma is Worth a Thousand Theorems"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lucrezia Borgia"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lucrezia Borgia''' (; ; 18 April 1480 – 24 June 1519) was an Italian noblewoman of the House of Borgia who was the illegitimate daughter of Pope Alexander VI and Vannozza dei Cattanei.",
"She reigned as the governor of Spoleto, a position usually held by cardinals, in her own right.Her family arranged several marriages for her that advanced their own political position including Giovanni Sforza, Lord of Pesaro and Gradara, Count of Cotignola; Alfonso of Aragon, Duke of Bisceglie and Prince of Salerno; and Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara.",
"Alfonso of Aragon was an illegitimate son of the King of Naples and tradition has it that Lucrezia's brother Cesare Borgia may have had him murdered after his political value waned.Rumors about her and her family cast Lucrezia as a ''femme fatale'', a role in which she has been portrayed in many artworks, novels and films."
],
[
"Early life",
"Lucrezia Borgia was born on 18 April 1480 at Subiaco, near Rome.",
"Her mother was Vannozza dei Cattanei, one of the mistresses of Lucrezia's father, Cardinal Rodrigo de Borgia (later Pope Alexander VI).",
"During her early life, Lucrezia Borgia's education was entrusted to Adriana Orsini de Milan, a close confidant of her father.",
"Her education would primarily take place in the Piazza Pizzo de Merlo, a building adjacent to her father's residence.",
"Unlike most educated women of her time, for whom convents were the primary source for knowledge, her education came from within the sphere of intellectuals in the court and close relatives, and it included a solid grounding in the Humanities, which the Catholic Church was reviving at the time.",
"She was a thoroughly accomplished princess, fluent in Spanish, Catalan, Italian, and French, which prepared her for advantageous marriage to any European monarch or prince, and literate in both Latin and Greek.",
"She would also become proficient in the lute, poetry, and oration.",
"The biggest testament to her intelligence is her ability in administration, as later on in life she took care of Vatican City correspondence and governance of Ferrara."
],
[
"Marriages",
"===First marriage: Giovanni Sforza (Lord of Pesaro and Gradara)===Possible portrait of Lucrezia as St Catherine of Alexandria in a fresco by Pinturicchio, in the Sala dei Santi in the Borgia Apartments in the Vatican, c. 1494.Coin showing Giovanni SforzaOn 26 February 1491, a matrimonial arrangement was drawn up between Lucrezia and the Lord of Val D'Ayora, in the kingdom of Valencia, Don Cherubino Joan de Centelles, which was annulled less than two months later in favour of a new contract engaging Lucrezia to Don Gaspare Aversa, count of Procida.",
"When Rodrigo became Pope Alexander VI, he sought to be allied with powerful princely families and founding dynasties of Italy.",
"He therefore called off Lucrezia's previous engagements and arranged for her to marry Giovanni Sforza, a member of the House of Sforza who was Lord of Pesaro and titled Count of Catignola.",
"Giovanni was an illegitimate son of Costanzo I Sforza and a Sforza of the second rank.",
"He married Lucrezia on 12 June 1493 in Rome.Before long, the Borgia family no longer needed the Sforzas, and the presence of Giovanni Sforza in the papal court was superfluous.",
"The Pope needed new, more advantageous political alliances, so he might have covertly ordered the execution of Giovanni: the generally accepted version is that Lucrezia was informed of this by her brother Cesare, and she warned her husband, who fled Rome.Alexander asked Giovanni's uncle, Cardinal Ascanio Sforza, to persuade Giovanni to agree to an annulment of the marriage.",
"Giovanni refused and accused Lucrezia of paternal incest.",
"The pope asserted that his daughter's marriage had not been consummated and was thus invalid.",
"Giovanni was offered her dowry in return for his cooperation.",
"The Sforza family threatened to withdraw their protection should he refuse.",
"Giovanni finally signed confessions of impotence and documents of annulment before witnesses.===Alleged affair with Perotto===There has been speculation that during the prolonged process of the annulment, Lucrezia consummated a relationship with someone, perhaps Alexander's chamberlain Pedro Calderon, also named Perotto.",
"In any case, families hostile to the Borgias would later accuse her of being pregnant at the time her marriage was annulled for non-consummation.",
"She is known to have retired to the convent of San Sisto in June 1497 to await the outcome of the annulment proceedings, which were finalized in December of the same year.",
"The bodies of Pedro Calderon and a maid, Pantasilea, were found in the Tiber in February 1498.In March 1498, the Ferrarese ambassador claimed that Lucrezia had given birth, but this was denied by other sources.",
"A child was born, however, in the Borgia household the year before Lucrezia's marriage to Alfonso of Aragon.",
"He was named Giovanni but is known to historians as the \"''Infans Romanus''\".In 1501, two papal bulls were issued concerning the child, Giovanni Borgia.",
"In the first, he was recognized as Cesare's child from an affair before his marriage.",
"The second, contradictory, bull recognized him as the son of Pope Alexander VI.",
"Lucrezia's name is not mentioned in either, and rumours that she was his mother have never been proven.",
"The second bull was kept secret for many years, and Giovanni was assumed to be Cesare's son.",
"This is supported by the fact that in 1502 he became Duke of Camerino, one of Cesare's recent conquests, hence the natural inheritance of the Duke of Romagna's oldest son.",
"Giovanni went to stay with Lucrezia in Ferrara after Alexander's death, where he was accepted as her half-brother.===Second marriage: Alfonso d'Aragon (Duke of Bisceglie and Prince of Salerno)===Alfonso of Aragon by Pinturicchio|225x225pxFollowing her annulment from Sforza, Lucrezia was married to the Neapolitan Alfonso of Aragon, the half-brother of Sancha of Aragon who was the wife of Lucrezia's brother Gioffre Borgia.",
"The marriage was a short one.They were married in 1498, making Lucrezia the Duchess consort of Bisceglie and Princess consort of Salerno.",
"Lucrezia – not her husband – was appointed governor of Spoleto in 1499; Alfonso fled Rome shortly afterwards but returned at Lucrezia's request, only to be murdered in 1500.It was widely rumoured that Lucrezia's brother Cesare was responsible for Alfonso's death, as he had recently allied himself (through marriage) with France against Naples.",
"Lucrezia and Alfonso had one child, Rodrigo of Aragon, who was born in 1499 and predeceased his mother in August 1512 at the age of 12.===Third marriage: Alfonso d'Este (Duke of Ferrara)===Alfonso d'EstePossible portrait by Bartolomeo Veneziano (c. 1510)After the death of Lucrezia's second husband, her father, Pope Alexander VI, arranged a third marriage.",
"She then married Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, in early 1502 in Ferrara.",
"She had eight children during this marriage and was considered a respectable and accomplished Renaissance duchess, effectively rising above her previous reputation and surviving the fall of the Borgias following her father's death.Neither partner was faithful: beginning in 1503, Lucrezia enjoyed a long relationship with her brother-in-law, Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua.",
"Francesco's wife was the cultured intellectual Isabella d'Este, the sister of Alfonso, to whom Lucrezia had made overtures of friendship to no avail.",
"The affair between Francesco and Lucrezia was passionate, more sexual than sentimental as can be attested in the fevered love letters the pair wrote one another.",
"It has been claimed that the affair ended when Francesco contracted syphilis and had to end sexual relations with Lucrezia.",
"This last assertion is troublesome as Francesco had contracted syphilis before 1500 as it was known that he passed the disease onto his eldest son Federico Gonzaga who was born in 1500.Francesco did not meet Lucrezia until 1502.Lucrezia also had a love affair with the poet Pietro Bembo during her third marriage.",
"Their love letters were deemed \"the prettiest love letters in the world\" by the Romantic poet Lord Byron when he saw them in the Ambrosian Library of Milan on 15 October 1816.On the same occasion Byron claimed to have stolen a lock of Lucrezia's hair – \"the prettiest and fairest imaginable\" – that was also held there on display.Lucrezia met the famed French soldier, the Chevalier Bayard while the latter was co-commanding the French allied garrison of Ferrara in 1510.According to his biographer, the Chevalier became a great admirer of Lucrezia's, considering her a \"pearl on this Earth\".After a long history of complicated pregnancies and miscarriages, on 14 June 1519 Lucrezia gave birth to her tenth child, named Isabella Maria in honor of Alfonso's sister Isabella d'Este.",
"The child was sickly and – fearing she would die unbaptised – Alfonso ordered her to be baptized straightaway with Eleonora Pico della Mirandola and Count Alexandro Serafino as godparents.Lucrezia had become very weak during the pregnancy and fell seriously ill after the birth.",
"After seeming to recover for two days, she worsened again and died on 24 June the same year.",
"She was buried in the convent of Corpus Domini."
],
[
"Appearance",
"''Portrait of a Woman'' by Bartolomeo Veneto, traditionally presumed to be Lucrezia Borgia.Signature of Lucrezia Borgia in a letter to her sister-in-law Isabella Gonzaga, March 1519 Alfonso I d'Este and Lucrezia Borgia, FerraraShe is described as having heavy blonde hair that fell past her knees, a beautiful complexion, hazel eyes that changed colour, a full, high bosom, and a natural grace that made her appear to \"walk on air\".",
"These physical attributes were highly appreciated in Italy during that period.",
"Another description said, \"her mouth is rather large, the teeth brilliantly white, her neck is slender and fair, and the bust is admirably proportioned.",
"\"One painting, ''Portrait of a Youth'' by Dosso Dossi at the National Gallery of Victoria, was identified as a portrait of Lucrezia in November 2008.This painting may be the only surviving formal portrait of Lucrezia Borgia; however, doubts have been cast on that attribution.",
"Several other paintings, such as Veneto's fanciful portrait, have also been said to depict her, but none have been accepted by scholars at present.According to Mandell Creighton in his ''History of the Papacy'', \"Lucrezia… was personally popular through her beauty and her affability.",
"Her long golden hair, her sweet childish face, her pleasant expression and her graceful ways, seem to have struck all who saw her.\""
],
[
"Black legend",
"Several rumours have persisted throughout the years, primarily speculating as to the nature of the extravagant parties thrown by the Borgia family.",
"One example is the Banquet of Chestnuts.",
"Many of these allegations concern accusations of Lucrezia's involvement in incest, poisoning, and murder.",
"For example it was rumoured that Lucrezia was in possession of a hollow ring that she used to poison drinks.",
"However, no historical basis for these accusations exists beyond the attacks of her enemies.An early 20th-century painting by Frank Cadogan Cowper that hangs in the Tate Britain art gallery in London portrays Lucrezia taking the place of her father, Pope Alexander VI, at an official Vatican meeting.",
"This apparently documents an event, although the moment depicted (a Franciscan friar kissing Lucrezia's feet) was invented by the artist."
],
[
"Children",
"Lucrezia was mother to seven or eight known children:# A miscarriage / stillborn daughter (16 February 1499) # Rodrigo of Aragon (1 November 1499 – August 1512), son by Alfonso of Aragon;# A stillborn daughter (1502), first child by d'Este;# Alessandro d'Este (1505–1505);# Ercole II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara (5 April 1508 – 3 October 1559);# Ippolito II d'Este (25 August 1509 – 1 December 1572).",
"Archbishop of Milan and later Cardinal;# Alessandro d'Este (1514–1516);# Leonora d'Este (3 July 1515 – 15 July 1575), a nun and composer;# Francesco d'Este, Marquess of Massalombarda (1 November 1516 – 2 February 1578);# Isabella Maria d'Este (born and died on 14 June 1519).",
"Complications at birth caused the death of Lucrezia ten days later.Giovanni Borgia, \"''infans Romanus''\" (\"Child of Rome\", c. 1498–1548) had his paternity acknowledged by Alexander and Cesare in two Papal bulls, but it was rumoured that he was the child of Lucrezia and Perotto.",
"The child (identified in later life as Lucrezia's half-brother) was most likely the result of a liaison between Rodrigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI, Lucrezia's father) and an unknown mistress and was not Lucrezia's child.Maria Bellonci and maybe other biographers claim that Lucrezia gave birth to three children who did not survive infancy, one by Alfonso of Aragon and two by Alfonso d'Este.",
"She is also thought to have had at least four miscarriages."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"===Literature and opera===* F. M. Klinger's 1791 novel ''Fausts Leben, Thaten und Höllenfahrt'' features an episode in which the Borgias figure, including an affair between Faust and Lucrezia.",
"* French author Victor Hugo wrote in 1833 the stage play ''Lucrèce Borgia''.",
"* Victor Hugo's play was transformed into a libretto by Felice Romani for Donizetti's opera, ''Lucrezia Borgia'' (1834), first performed at La Scala, Milan, 26 December 1833.",
"* The Dutch writer Louis Couperus published a story called \"Lucrezia\" in 1920 that takes place between the death of her second husband and the marriage of her third.",
"* The 1947 historical novel ''Prince of Foxes'' by Samuel Shellabarger describes the adventures of the fictional Andrea Orsini, a captain in the service of Cesare Borgia, during his conquest of the Romagna; it was made into a film of the same name in 1949, starring Orson Welles and Tyrone Power.",
"* Jean Plaidy's two 1958 novels ''Madonna of the Seven Hills'' and ''Light on Lucrezia'' follow the story of Lucrezia and her entanglement with her father and brothers.",
"* Lucrezia, Cesare and Alexander play key roles in Cecelia Holland's 1979 historical novel ''City of God: A Novel of the Borgias''.",
"* In Roberta Gellis's 2003 novel ''Lucrezia Borgia and the Mother of Poisons'' (), Alfonso d'Este of Ferrara accuses Lucrezia of murder, and she must solve the crime and expose the true murderer.===In fiction===* In the Marvel Comics comic book ''Avengers West Coast'' No.",
"98 (September 1993), the demon Satannish resurrected Borgia as the supervillain Cyana.",
"As a nod to her reputation for poisoning her lovers in life, Cyana could fatally poison people with sharpened nails or a kiss.",
"* ''The Family'' by Mario Puzo; published October 2001 * ''The Borgia Bride'' by Jeanne Kalogridis; published 31 January 2005* Kathleen McGowan refers to Lucrece, as one of the many unjustly vilified women, in her book The Expected One.",
"She refers in particular to Frank Cadogan Cowper's painting \"Lucretia Borgia Reigns in the Vatican in the Absence of Pope Alexander VI\" on display at the Tate Gallery in London.",
"* ''Blood and Beauty'' by Sarah Dunant; ; ; Harper Collins Publishers Ltd | 8 July 2013 |* ''The Pope's Daughter'' by Dario Fo, translated from Italian by Antony Shugaar; .",
"Translation copyright (c) 2015 by Europa Editions* ''The Vatican Princess'' by C.W.",
"Gortner; published 9 February 2016* ''In the Name of the Family'' by Sarah Dunant; ; Virago Press 2017* '' 남편을 내 편으로 만드는 방법 (How to get my husband on my side)'' by Spice&Kitty (novel and manhwa), 2021 (ongoing), she is portrayed as a character named Ruby De Borgia, who is possessed by a transmigrator, and attempts to prevent the assassination attempt on the king's niece, Ellen De Omerta and her brother, Enzo De Borgia, by marrying into the De Omerta family in her brother's stead, to Iske/ Izek De Omerta.",
"She is also portrayed to have an overly obsessive brother named Cesare.",
"*In the fictional fantasy universe ''Warhammer Fantasy'', the character Lucrezzia Belladonna is a reference to Lucrezi Borgia.",
"Lucrezzia is known for having poisoned several of her former lovers.===Film and television===* ''Lucrezia Borgia'' (1922) is based on the life of Lucrezia, who is played by Liane Haid.",
"Cesare Borgia is portrayed by Conrad Veidt.",
"* Lucrezia (Estelle Taylor) and Cesare (Warner Oland) Borgia are the major antagonists in Alan Crosland's 1926 silent film ''Don Juan'', starring John Barrymore.",
"* Lucrezia is the subject of Abel Gance's film ''Lucrezia Borgia'' (1935) and of a 1953 French film, played by Martine Carol.",
"* Lucrezia is the ''Bride of Vengeance'' (1949), played by Paulette Goddard, with Macdonald Carey in the role of Cesare Borgia, and John Lund playing Alfonso d'Este (Duke of Ferrara).",
"* In Walerian Borowczyk's 1973 feature film ''Immoral Tales'', Lucrezia is played by Florence Bellamy.",
"* In the Italian movie ''Lucrezia giovane'' (\"Young Lucrezia\") that was written and directed in 1974 by Luciano Ercoli (as André Colbert), Lucrezia was played by Simonetta Stefanelli.",
"* In the 1981 BBC series, ''The Borgias'', Lucrezia was played by Anne-Louise Lambert.",
"* In the 1982 feature film ''The Secret Nights of Lucrezia Borgia'' of director Roberto Bianchi Montero, Lucrezia is played by Sirpa Lane.",
"* She is featured as a major plot point in the 1994 TV movie ''The Shaggy Dog''.",
"A portrait of her, along with a display case of her rings are featured in a local museum along with a legend that she had written spells to turn her lovers into dogs.",
"The legend is revealed to be true as the main character accidentally casts one on himself while holding one of her rings and reading its inscription.",
"* In the pilot episode of the SyFy series ''Warehouse 13'', a jeweled comb, purported to have been created for her by an alchemist, is used by a Iowa lawyer to hypnotize several individuals into causing acts of violence.",
"* In the video game ''Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood'', Lucrezia is in an incestuous relationship with her brother Cesare.",
"She is taken hostage by the main character, Ezio Auditore, and reappears later, a changed woman.",
"* She is played by Holliday Grainger in the 2011–2013 Showtime/Bravo TV series ''The Borgias'', which explores a theme of incest with Cesare, despite lack of historical evidence for such events.",
"Her character is portrayed not as a ruthless murderer, but initially as a compassionate and sweet young girl who suffers from her family's ambitions, both struggling against and eventually aiding them.",
"* In the Canal+ television series ''Borgia'', Lucrezia is portrayed by German actress Isolda Dychauk.",
"* In the 1983 BBC television series Blackadder Goes Forth, the title character makes an offhand comment about Lucrezia throwing a \"wine and anthrax party\", presumably referring to the rumours that persist around the Borgia families' extravagant parties."
],
[
"See also",
"* Castello Borgia* Felice della Rovere* Route of the Borgias"
],
[
"References",
"===Further reading===* Rafael Sabatini wrote ''The Life of Cesare Borgia'', 1912, that attempts to treat the Borgias historically.",
"* ''Lucrezia Borgia: Life, Love And Death in Renaissance Italy'' by Sarah Bradford; Viking 2004; * ''Lucrezia Borgia: A Biography'' by Rachel Erlanger; 1978; * ''Lucrezia Borgia'' by Maria Bellonci; Phoenix 2002; * ''The Borgias'' (1971) by Michael Mallett* ''Lucretia Borgia'' (1874?)",
"by Ferdinand Gregorovius (Author); translated in 1903 by John Leslie Garner (Translator)* ''The Borgias'' by Christopher Hibbert; Constable 2011; * ''The Borgias: History's Most Notorious Dynasty'' by Mary Hollingsworth; Quercus 2011;"
],
[
"External links",
"* Lucrezia Borgia: The Family Tree in Pictures* Lucrezia Borgia on IMDb* Diario De Los Borja Borgia"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"List of Mac models grouped by CPU type"
],
[
"Introduction",
" This '''list of Mac models grouped by CPU type''' contains all central processing units (CPUs) used by Apple Inc. for their Mac computers.",
"It is grouped by processor family, processor model, and then chronologically by Mac models."
],
[
"Motorola 68k",
"=== Motorola 68000 ===A Motorola 68000 processor in a dual in-line package, as the early Macintosh models usedThe Motorola 68000 was the first Apple Macintosh processor.",
"It has 32-bit CPU registers, a 24-bit address bus, and a 16-bit data path; Motorola referred to it as a \"16-/32-bit microprocessor.\"",
"Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) Introduced Discontinued MC68000 Lisa 5 5 January 1983 January 1984 Lisa 2 5 5 January 1984 January 1985 Macintosh 8 8 January 1984 October 1985 Macintosh 512K 8 8 September 1984 April 1986 Macintosh XL 5 5 January 1985 April 1985 Macintosh Plus 8 8 January 1986 October 1990 Macintosh 512Ke 8 8 April 1986 September 1987 Macintosh SE 8 8 March 1987 August 1989 Macintosh SE FDHD 8 8 August 1989 October 1990 Macintosh Classic 8 8 October 1990 September 1992 MC68HC000 Macintosh Portable 16 16 September 1989 October 1991 PowerBook 100 16 16 October 1991 August 1992=== Motorola 68020 ===A Motorola 68020 processorThe Motorola 68020 was the first 32-bit Mac processor, first used on the Macintosh II.",
"The 68020 has many improvements over the 68000, including an instruction cache, and was the first Mac processor to support a paged memory management unit, the Motorola 68851.The Macintosh LC configured the 68020 to use a 16-bit system bus with ASICs that limited RAM to 10 MB (as opposed to the 32-bit limit of 4 GB).",
"Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L1 cache(bytes) Data path width/Address width(bits) PMMU FPU Introduced Discontinued MC68020 Macintosh II 16 16 256 32/16 68851 (optional) 68881 March 1987 January 1990 Macintosh LC 16 16 256 16/16 — — October 1990 March 1992=== Motorola 68030 ===A Motorola 68030 processorThe Motorola 68030 was the first Mac processor with an integrated paged memory management unit, allowing for virtual memory.",
"Another improvement over the 68020 was the addition of a data cache.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L1 cache(bytes) L2 cache(KB) Data path width/Address width(bits) FPU Introduced Discontinued MC68030 Macintosh IIx 16 16 512 — 32/32 68882 September 1988 October 1990 Macintosh SE/30 16 16 512 — 32/32 68882 January 1989 October 1990 Macintosh IIcx 16 16 512 — 32/32 68882 March 1989 February 1991 Macintosh IIci 25 25 512 0–32 32/32 68882 September 1989 February 1993 Macintosh IIfx 40 40 512 32 32/32 68882 March 1990 April 1992 Macintosh IIsi 20 20 512 — 32/32 68882 (optional) October 1990 March 1993 Macintosh Classic IIPerforma 200 16 16 512 — 16/32 — October 1991 September 1993 PowerBook 140 16 16 512 — 32/32 — October 1991 August 1992 PowerBook 170 25 25 512 — 32/32 68882 October 1991 October 1992 Macintosh LC IIPerforma 400Performa 405Performa 410Performa 430 16 16 512 — 16/32 — March 1992 March 1993 PowerBook 145 25 25 512 — 32/32 — August 1992 June 1993 Performa 600/600CD 32 16 512 32 32/32 68882 (optional) September 1992 October 1993 Macintosh IIvi 16 16 512 32 32/32 68882 (optional) October 1992 February 1993 Macintosh IIvx 32 16 512 32 32/32 68882 October 1992 October 1993 PowerBook 160 25 25 512 — 32/32 — October 1992 August 1993 PowerBook 180 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 October 1992 May 1994 PowerBook Duo 210 25 25 512 — 32/32 — October 1992 October 1993 PowerBook Duo 230 33 33 512 — 32/32 — October 1992 July 1994 Macintosh Color ClassicPerforma 250Performa 275 16 16 512 — 16/32 68882 (optional) February 1993 May 1994 Macintosh LC IIIPerforma 450 25 25 512 — 32/32 68882 (optional) February 1993 February 1994 PowerBook 165c 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 February 1993 December 1993 Macintosh LC 520 25 25 512 — 32/32 68882 (optional) June 1993 February 1994 PowerBook 180c 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 June 1993 March 1994 PowerBook 145B 25 25 512 — 32/32 — July 1993 July 1994 PowerBook 165 33 33 512 — 32/32 — August 1993 July 1994 Macintosh LC III+Performa 460Performa 466Performa 467 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 (optional) October 1993 February 1994 Macintosh Color Classic II 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 (optional) October 1993 May 1994 Macintosh TV 32 16 512 — 32/32 — October 1993 February 1994 PowerBook Duo 250 33 33 512 — 32/32 — October 1993 May 1994 PowerBook Duo 270c 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 October 1993 April 1994 Macintosh LC 550Performa 550Performa 560 33 33 512 — 32/32 68882 (optional) February 1994 March 1995 PowerBook 150 33 33 512 — 32/32 — July 1994 October 1995=== Motorola 68040 ===A Motorola 68040 processorThe Motorola 68040 has improved per-clock performance compared to the 68030, as well as larger instruction and data caches, and was the first Mac processor with an integrated floating-point unit.The MC68LC040 version was less expensive because it omitted the floating-point unit.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L1 cache(KB) Introduced Discontinued MC68040 Macintosh Quadra 700 25 25 8 October 1991 March 1993 Macintosh Quadra 900 25 25 8 October 1991 May 1992 Macintosh Quadra 950 33 33 8 May 1992 October 1995 Macintosh Centris 650 25 25 8 February 1993 October 1993 Macintosh Quadra 800Workgroup Server 80 33 33 8 February 1993 March 1994 Workgroup Server 95 33 33 8 March 1993 April 1995 Macintosh Centris 660AVMacintosh Quadra 660AV 25 25 8 July 1993 September 1994 Macintosh Quadra 840AV 40 40 8 July 1993 July 1994 Workgroup Server 60 20–25 20–25 8 July 1993 October 1994 Macintosh Quadra 610 25 25 8 October 1993 July 1994 Macintosh Quadra 650 33 33 8 October 1993 September 1994 Macintosh Quadra 630 33 33 8 July 1994 October 1995 PowerBook 550c 33 33 8 May 1995 April 1996 MC68LC040 Macintosh Centris 610 20 20 8 February 1993 October 1993 Macintosh LC 475Macintosh Quadra 605Performa 475Performa 476 25 25 8 October 1993 October 1994 Macintosh LC 575Performa 575Performa 576Performa 577Performa 578 33 33 8 February 1994 April 1995 PowerBook Duo 280 33 33 8 April 1994 November 1994 PowerBook Duo 280c 33 33 8 April 1994 January 1996 PowerBook 520 25 25 8 May 1994 June 1995 PowerBook 520c 25 25 8 May 1994 September 1995 PowerBook 540 33 33 8 May 1994 October 1994 PowerBook 540c 33 33 8 May 1994 August 1995 Macintosh LC 630Performa 630Performa 630CDPerforma 631CDPerforma 635CDPerforma 636Performa 636CDPerforma 637CDPerforma 638CDPerforma 640CD 33 33 8 July 1994 February 1996 Macintosh LC 580Performa 580CDPerforma 588CD 33 33 8 April 1995 April 1996 PowerBook 190 33 33 8 August 1995 June 1996 PowerBook 190cs 33 33 8 August 1995 October 1996"
],
[
"PowerPC",
"=== PowerPC 601 ===An IBM PowerPC 601 processorThe PowerPC 601 was the first Mac processor to support the 32-bit PowerPC instruction set architecture.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L1 cache(KB)(data/instr.)",
"L2 cache(KB) Introduced Discontinued PowerPC 601 Power Macintosh 6100Performa 6110CDPerforma 6112CDPerforma 6115CDPerforma 6116CDPerforma 6117CDPerforma 6118CD 60–66 30.0–33.3 16/16 — March 1994 October 1995 Power Macintosh 7100 66–80 33.3–40.0 16/16 — March 1994 January 1996 Power Macintosh 8100 80–100 33.3–40.0 16/16 256 March 1994 July 1995 Workgroup Server 6150 60–66 30.0–33.3 16/16 — April 1994 April 1996 Workgroup Server 8150 80–110 36.7–40.0 16/16 256 April 1994 April 1996 Workgroup Server 9150 80–120 40.0 16/16 512–1024 April 1994 May 1996 Power Macintosh 7200 75–120 37.5–40.0 16/16 — August 1995 February 1997 Power Macintosh 7500 100 50.0 16/16 — August 1995 May 1996 Workgroup Server 7250 120 40.0 16/16 — February 1996 April 1997 Power Macintosh 8200 100–120 40.0 16/16 256 April 1996 July 1996 PowerPC 601v Power Macintosh 8100 110 36.7 16/16 256 March 1994 July 1995=== PowerPC 603 ===A Motorola PowerPC 603 processor Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L1 cache(KB)(data/instr.)",
"L2 cache(KB) Introduced Discontinued PowerPC 603 Power Macintosh 5200 LCPerforma 5200CDPerforma 5210CDPerforma 5215CDPerforma 5220CD 75 37.5 8/8 256 April 1995 April 1996 Power Macintosh 6200Performa 6200CDPerforma 6205CDPerforma 6210CDPerforma 6214CDPerforma 6216CDPerforma 6218CDPerforma 6220CDPerforma 6230CD 75 37.5 8/8 256 May 1995 July 1997 PowerPC 603e Power Macintosh 5300 LCPerforma 5300CD (DE)Performa 5320CD 100–120 40.0 16/16 256 August 1995 April 1996 PowerBook 5300c/ce/cs 100–117 33.3 16/16 — August 1995 August 1996 PowerBook Duo 2300c 100 33.3 16/16 — August 1995 February 1997 Power Macintosh 5260Performa 5260CDPerforma 5270CDPerforma 5280CD 100–120 40.0 16/16 256 April 1996 March 1997 Performa 6260CDPerforma 6290CDPerforma 6300CDPerforma 6310CD 100 40.0 16/16 256 May 1996 July 1997 Power Macintosh 6300/120Performa 6320 120 40.0 16/16 256 May 1996 July 1997 Power Macintosh 4400Power Macintosh 7220 160–200 40.0 16/16 256 November 1996 February 1998 PowerBook 1400c/cs 117–133 33.3 16/16 — November 1996 May 1998 PowerPC 603ev Power Macintosh 5400Performa 5400CDPerforma 5410CDPerforma 5420CDPerforma 5430CDPerforma 5440CD 120–200 40.0 16/16 256 April 1996 early 1998 Power Macintosh 6400Performa 6400Performa 6410Performa 6420 180–200 40.0 16/16 256 August 1996 August 1997 Performa 6360 160 40.0 16/16 — October 1996 October 1997 PowerBook 1400c/cs 166 33.3 16/16 128 November 1996 May 1998 Power Macintosh 5500 225–275 50.0 16/16 256 February 1997 early 1998 Power Macintosh 6500 225–300 50.0 16/16 256 February 1997 March 1998 PowerBook 3400 180–240 40.0 16/16 256 February 1997 November 1997 20th Anniversary Macintosh 250 50.0 16/16 128 May 1997 March 1998 PowerBook 2400 180–240 40.0 16/16 256 May 1997 May 1998=== PowerPC 604 ===An IBM PowerPC 604e processorThe PowerPC 604e was the first Mac processor available in a symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) configuration.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(KB) CPUs Introduced Discontinued PowerPC 604 Power Macintosh 9500 120–150 40–50 512 1 May 1995 August 1996 Power Macintosh 8500 120–150 40–50 256 1 August 1995 September 1996 Network Server 500 132 44 512 1 February 1996 April 1997 Workgroup Server 8550 132 44 512 1 February 1996 September 1996 Power Macintosh 7600 120–132 40–44 256 1 April 1996 August 1996 PowerPC 604e Power Macintosh 8500 180 45 256 1 August 1996 February 1997 Power Macintosh 9500 180–200 45–50 512 1–2 August 1996 February 1997 Power Macintosh 7600 200 50 256 1 August 1996 November 1997 Network Server 700 150–200 50 1024 1 September 1996 April 1997 Workgroup Server 8550 200 50 512 1 September 1996 April 1997 Power Macintosh 7300 166–200 45–50 256 1 February 1997 November 1997 Power Macintosh 8600 200 50 512 1 February 1997 August 1997 Power Macintosh 9600 200–233 50 512 1–2 February 1997 August 1997 Workgroup Server 7350 180 45 256 1 April 1997 March 1998 Workgroup Server 9650 233 50 512 1 April 1997 August 1997 PowerPC 604ev Power Macintosh 8600 250–300 50 1024 1 August 1997 February 1998 Power Macintosh 9600 300–350 50 1024 1 August 1997 March 1998 Workgroup Server 9650 350 50 1024 1 August 1997 March 1998=== PowerPC G3 ===An IBM PowerPC 750CXe (\"G3\") processor Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(KB) Introduced Discontinued PowerPC 750 Power Macintosh G3 (Beige) 233–333 66 512-1024 November 1997 January 1999 PowerBook G3 233–500 50–100 512–1024 November 1997 January 2001 Macintosh Server G3 (Beige) 233–333 66 1024 March 1998 December 1998 iMac G3 (original)iMac G3 (Summer 2000)iMac G3 (Winter 2001) 233–500 66–100 512 August 1998 July 2001 Power Macintosh G3 (Blue & White) 300–450 100 1024 January 1999 September 1999 Macintosh Server G3 (Blue & White) 350–450 100 1024 January 1999 August 1999 iBook (original)iBook (original SE) 300–366 66 512 September 1999 September 2000 PowerPC 750CX iMac G3 (Winter 2001)iMac G3 (Summer 2001) 600 100 256 September 2000 May 2001 PowerPC 750CXe iBook (FireWire)iBook (FireWire SE)iBook G3 Dual USB (\"Snow\" Mid 2001)iBook G3 Dual USB (\"Snow\" Late 2001) 366–500 66–100 256–512 September 2000 May 2002 iMac G3 (Summer 2001) 500–700 100 256 July 2001 March 2003 PowerPC 755 iBook G3 Dual USB (\"Snow\" Late 2001)iBook G3 Dual USB (\"Snow\" Early 2002) 600 100 256 October 2001 May 2002 PowerPC 750FX iBook G3 Dual USB (\"Snow\" Mid 2002)iBook G3 Dual USB (\"Snow\" Late 2002)iBook G3 Dual USB (\"Snow\" Early 2003) 600–900 100 512 May 2002 October 2003=== PowerPC G4 ===A Motorola PowerPC 7400 (\"G4\") processorThe PowerPC 7400 was the first Mac processor to include an AltiVec vector processing unit.The PowerPC 7455 was the first Mac processor over 1 GHz.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(MHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) CPUs Introduced Discontinued PowerPC 7400 Power Mac G4 (Graphite) 350–500 100 512–1024 — 1–2 September 1999 January 2001 Macintosh Server G4 (Graphite) 350–500 100 512–1024 — 1–2 January 2000 January 2001 Power Mac G4 Cube 450–500 100 512–1024 — 1 August 2000 April 2001 PowerPC 7410 Power Mac G4 (Digital Audio) 466–533 133 1024 — 1–2 January 2001 July 2001 PowerBook G4 (Mercury) 400–500 100 1024 — 1 January 2001 October 2001 Macintosh Server G4 (Digital Audio) 466–533 133 1024 — 1–2 January 2001 July 2001 Power Mac G4 Cube 450–500 100 1024 — 1 April 2001 July 2001 PowerPC 7441 eMac (2002) 700–800 100 256 — 1 April 2002 May 2003 PowerPC 7445 eMac (2003) 800–1000 133 256 — 1 May 2003 April 2004 PowerPC 7450 Power Mac G4 (Digital Audio)Power Mac G4 (Quicksilver) 667–867 133 256–1024 0–2 1–2 January 2001 January 2002 Macintosh Server G4 (Quicksilver) 733–1000 133 256 0–2 1–2 September 2001 August 2002 PowerBook G4 (Onyx) 550–667 100–133 256 — 1 October 2001 July 2002 iMac G4 (2002) 700–800 100 256 — 1 January 2002 January 2003 PowerPC 7451 PowerBook G4 (Ivory) 667–800 133–167 256 — 1 January 2002 June 2004 PowerPC 7455 Power Mac G4 (Quicksilver) 800–1420 133–167 256 1–4 1–2 January 2002 June 2004 PowerBook G4 (Antimony) 667–1000 133–167 256 0–1 1 April 2002 September 2003 Xserve G4 1000–1333 133 256 2 1–2 May 2002 January 2004 Macintosh Server G4 (Quicksilver) 1000–1250 133–167 256 1–2 1–2 August 2002 January 2003 iMac G4 (2003) 800–1250 100–167 256 — 1 February 2003 July 2004 PowerPC 7457 iBook G4 (Original) 800–1000 133 256 — 1 October 2003 April 2004 PowerPC 7447 PowerBook G4 (Aluminum) 1000–1333 133–167 512 — 1 September 2003 April 2004 PowerPC 7447a PowerBook G4 (Aluminum) 1333–1667 167 512 — 1 April 2004 April 2006 iBook G4 (2004, 2005) 1000–1420 133–142 512 — 1 April 2004 May 2006 Mac mini G4 1250–1500 167 512 — 1 January 2005 February 2006 eMac (2004) 1250 167 512 — 1 April 2004 May 2005 eMac (2005) 1420 167 512 — 1 May 2005 July 2006=== PowerPC G5 ===An IBM PowerPC 970FX (\"G5\") processorThe PowerPC 970 (\"G5\") was the first 64-bit Mac processor.The PowerPC 970MP was the first dual-core Mac processor and the first to be found in a quad-core configuration.",
"It was also the first Mac processor with partitioning and virtualization capabilities.Apple only used three variants of the G5, and soon moved entirely onto Intel architecture.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(KB) CPUs Cores perCPU Introduced Discontinued PowerPC 970 Power Mac G5 (original) 1.6–2.0 800–1000 512 1–2 1 June 2003 June 2004 PowerPC 970FX Xserve G5 2.0–2.3 1000–1150 512 1–2 1 January 2004 August 2005 Power Mac G5 (Mid 2004, Early 2005) 1.8–2.7 900–1350 512 1–2 1 June 2004 November 2005 iMac G5 1.6–2.1 533–700 512 1 1 August 2004 January 2006 PowerPC 970MP Power Mac G5 (Late 2005) 2.0–2.5 1000–1250 2×1024 1–2 2 November 2005 August 2006"
],
[
"Intel x86",
"Sources: and === Overview === Processorfamily Process(nm) MMX SSE SSE2 SSE3 SSSE3 SSE4.1 SSE4.2 AVX DBS/EIST XD bit VT-x AES Intel 64 QuickSync TXT QPI HT ITB Yonah 65 CorePenryn 65/45 NehalemWestmere 45/32 Sandy BridgeIvy Bridge 32/22 HaswellBroadwell 22/14 SkylakeKaby LakeCoffee LakeCascade LakeComet LakeIce Lake 14/10 === P6 ===Yonah was the first Mac processor to support the IA-32 instruction set architecture, in addition to the MMX, SSE, SSE2, and SSE3 extension instruction sets.The Core Solo was a Core Duo with one of the two cores disabled.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(MB) CPUs Cores perCPU Introduced Discontinued Core Duo (\"Yonah\") iMac (Early 2006)iMac (Mid 2006) 1.83–2.00 667 2 1 2 January 2006 September 2006 MacBook Pro (Early 2006) 1.83–2.16 667 2 1 2 February 2006 October 2006 Mac mini (Early 2006)Mac mini (Late 2006) 1.66–1.83 667 2 1 2 February 2006 August 2007 MacBook (Mid 2006) 1.83–2.00 667 2 1 2 May 2006 November 2006 Core Solo (\"Yonah\") Mac mini (Early 2006) 1.50 667 2 1 1 February 2006 September 2006 Pentium M ULV (\"Crofton\") Apple TV (1st generation) 1.00 350 2 1 1 January 2007 September 2010=== Core ===Woodcrest added support for the SSSE3 instruction set.Merom was the first Mac processor to support the x86-64 instruction set, as well as the first 64-bit processor to appear in a Mac notebook.Clovertown was the first quad-core Mac processor and the first to be found in an 8-core configuration.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(MB) CPUs Cores perCPU Introduced Discontinued Xeon 5100 (\"Woodcrest\") Mac Pro (Mid 2006) 2.00–3.00 1333 4 2 2 August 2006 January 2008 Xserve (Late 2006) 2.00–3.00 1333 4 2 2 October 2006 January 2008 Core 2 Duo (\"Merom\") iMac (Late 2006)iMac (Mid 2007) 1.83–2.40 667–800 2–4 1 2 September 2006 April 2008 MacBook Pro (Late 2006)MacBook Pro (Mid 2007)MacBook Pro (Late 2007) 2.16–2.60 667–800 4 1 2 October 2006 February 2008 MacBook (Late 2006)MacBook (Mid 2007)MacBook (Late 2007) 1.83–2.20 667–800 2–4 1 2 November 2006 February 2008 Mac mini (Mid 2007) 1.83–2.00 667 2–4 1 2 August 2007 March 2009 MacBook Air (Unibody) 1.60–1.80 800 4 1 2 January 2008 October 2008 Xeon 5300 (\"Clovertown\") Mac Pro (Mid 2006) 3.00 1333 2×4 2 4 April 2007 January 2008 Core 2 Extreme (\"Merom XE\") iMac (Mid 2007) 2.80 800 4 1 2 August 2007 April 2008=== Penryn ===An Intel Wolfdale processorPenryn added support for a subset for SSE4 (SSE4.1).",
"Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) FSB speed(MT/s) L2 cache(MB) CPUs Cores perCPU Introduced Discontinued Xeon 5400 (\"Harpertown\") Mac Pro (Early 2008) 2.80–3.20 1600 2×6 1–2 4 January 2008 March 2009 Xserve (Early 2008) 2.80–3.00 1600 2×6 1–2 4 January 2008 April 2009 Core 2 Duo (\"Penryn\") MacBook Pro (Early 2008)MacBook Pro (Late 2008)MacBook Pro (Early 2009)MacBook Pro (Mid 2009)MacBook Pro (Mid 2010) 2.26–3.06 1066 3–6 1 2 February 2008 March 2011 MacBook (Early 2008)MacBook (Late 2008)MacBook (Early 2009)MacBook (Mid 2009)MacBook (Late 2009)MacBook (Mid 2010) 2.00–2.40 1066 3 1 2 February 2008 July 2011 iMac (Early 2008)iMac (Early 2009)iMac (Mid 2009) 2.40–3.06 1066 6 1 2 April 2008 October 2009 MacBook Air (Unibody)MacBook Air (Late 2010) 1.60–2.13 1066 6 1 2 October 2008 July 2011 Mac mini (Early 2009) 2.00–2.66 1066 3 1 2 March 2009 July 2011 2.53–2.66 1066 3 1 2 October 2009 July 2011 Core 2 Duo (\"Wolfdale\") iMac (Late 2009) 3.06–3.33 1066–1333 3–6 1 2 October 2009 July 2010 Core 2 Duo CULV (\"Penryn\") MacBook Air (Late 2010) 1.40–1.60 800 3 1 2 October 2010 July 2011=== Nehalem ===An Intel Bloomfield processorBloomfield and Gainestown introduced a number of notable features for the first time in any Mac processors:*Integrated memory controllers (with on-die DMI or QPI).",
"*Simultaneous multithreading (branded as Hyper-threading).",
"*Full support for the SSE4 instruction set (SSE4.2).",
"*Support for Intel Turbo Boost.",
"*Four cores on a single die rather than a multi-chip module of two dual-core dies.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) CPUs Cores perCPU QPI HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Xeon 3500 (\"Bloomfield\") Mac Pro (Early 2009) 2.66–3.33 4×256 8 1 4 March 2009 July 2010 Xeon 5500 (\"Gainestown\") Mac Pro (Early 2009) 2.26–2.93 4×256 8 2 4 March 2009 August 2010 Xserve (Early 2009) 2.26–3.33 4×256 8 1–2 4 April 2009 January 2011 Core i5 (\"Lynnfield\") iMac (Late 2009) 2.66–2.80 4×256 8 1 4 October 2009 May 2011 Core i7 (\"Lynnfield\") iMac (Late 2009) 2.80–2.93 4×256 8 1 4 October 2009 May 2011=== Westmere ===Arrandale introduced Intel HD Graphics, an on-die integrated GPU.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) CPUs Cores perCPU QPI HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Core i5 (\"Arrandale\") MacBook Pro (Mid 2010) 2.40–2.53 2×256 3 1 2 April 2010 March 2011 Core i7 (\"Arrandale\") MacBook Pro (Mid 2010) 2.66 2×256 4 1 2 April 2010 March 2011 Core i3 (\"Clarkdale\") iMac (Mid 2010) 3.06–3.20 2×256 4 1 2 July 2010 May 2011 Core i5 (\"Clarkdale\") iMac (Mid 2010) 3.60 2×256 4 1 2 July 2010 May 2011 Xeon 3600 (\"Gulftown\") Mac Pro (Mid 2010)Mac Pro (Mid 2012) 3.33 6×256 12 1 6 August 2010 October 2013 Xeon 5600 (\"Gulftown\") Mac Pro (Mid 2010) 2.40–3.06 4–6×256 12 2 4–6 August 2010 October 2013=== Sandy Bridge ===An Intel Core i7 2600K processorSandy Bridge added support for Intel Quick Sync Video, a dedicated on-die video encoding and decoding core.",
"It was also the first quad-core processor to appear in a Mac notebook.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) Cores perCPU HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Core i5 (2-core) MacBook Pro (Early 2011)MacBook Pro (Late 2011) 2.3 2×256 3 2 March 2011 June 2012 Mac mini (Mid 2011) 2.3–2.5 2×256 3 2 July 2011 October 2012 Core i7 (2-core) MacBook Pro (Early 2011)MacBook Pro (Late 2011) 2.7–2.8 2×256 4 2 March 2011 June 2012 Mac mini (Mid 2011) 2.7 2×256 4 2 July 2011 October 2012 Core i7 (4-core) MacBook Pro (Early 2011)MacBook Pro (Late 2011) 2.0–2.5 4×256 6–8 4 March 2011 June 2012 iMac (Mid 2011) 2.8–3.4 4×256 8 4 May 2011 October 2012 Mac mini Server (Mid 2011) 2.0 4×256 6 4 July 2011 October 2012 Core i3 (2-core) iMac (Late 2011 education only) 3.1 2×256 3 2 February 2011 ?",
"Core i5 (4-core) iMac (Mid 2011) 2.5–3.1 4×256 6 4 May 2011 October 2012 Core i5 CULV (2-core) MacBook Air (Mid 2011) 1.6–1.7 2×256 3 2 July 2011 June 2012 Core i7 CULV (2-core) MacBook Air (Mid 2011) 1.8 2×256 4 2 July 2011 June 2012=== Ivy Bridge === Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) Cores perCPU HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Core i5 (2-core) MacBook Pro (Mid 2012) 2.5 2×256 3 2 June 2012 October 2016 Mac mini (Late 2012) 2.5 2×256 3 2 October 2012 October 2014 Core i5 (4-core) MacBook Pro (Mid 2012) 2.3 4×256 3 4 June 2012 October 2013 iMac (Late 2012) 2.7–3.2 2×256 6 4 October 2012 September 2013 Core i7 (2-core) MacBook Pro (Mid 2012) 2.9–3.0 2×256 4 2 June 2012 October 2016 Core i7 (4-core) MacBook Pro (Mid 2012) 2.3–2.8 4×256 6–8 4 June 2012 October 2013 iMac (Late 2012) 3.1–3.4 4×256 8 4 October 2012 September 2013 Mac mini (Late 2012) 2.7 4×256 6 4 October 2012 October 2014 Core i5 CULV (2-core) MacBook Air (Mid 2012) 1.7–1.8 2×256 3 2 June 2012 June 2013 Core i7 CULV (2-core) MacBook Air (Mid 2012) 2.0 2×256 4 2 June 2012 June 2013 Core i3 (2-core) iMac (Early 2013 education-only) 3.3 2×256 3 2 March 2013 June 2014 Xeon E5 v2 Mac Pro (Late 2013) 3.7 4×256 10 4 December 2013 April 2017 3.5 6×256 12 6 December 2013 December 2019 3.0 8×256 25 8 December 2013 December 2019 2.7 12×256 30 12 December 2013 December 2019=== Haswell ===The Crystal Well variant used in some MacBook Pros contains an on-package L4 cache shared between the CPU and integrated graphics.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) L4 cache(MB) Cores perCPU HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Core i5 ULT (2-core) MacBook Air (Mid 2013)MacBook Air (Early 2014) 1.3–1.4 2×256 3 — 2 June 2013 March 2015 iMac (Late 2013) 1.4 2×256 3 — 2 June 2014 October 2015 Mac mini (Late 2014) 1.4–2.8 2×256 3 — 2 October 2014 October 2018 Core i7 ULT (2-core) MacBook Air (Mid 2013)MacBook Air (Early 2014) 1.7 2×256 4 — 2 June 2013 March 2015 Mac mini (Late 2014) 3.0 2×256 4 — 2 October 2014 October 2018 Core i5 (4-core) iMac (Late 2013) 2.7–3.5 4×256 4–6 — 4 September 2013 October 2015 Core i7 (4-core) iMac (Late 2013) 3.1–4.0 4×256 8 — 4 September 2013 October 2015 MacBook Pro (Late 2013)MacBook Pro (Mid 2014)MacBook Pro (Mid 2015) 2.0–2.8 4×256 6 128 4 October 2013 July 2018 Core i5 (2-core) MacBook Pro (Late 2013)MacBook Pro (Mid 2014)MacBook Pro (Mid 2015) 2.4–2.8 2×256 3 — 2 October 2013 March 2015 Core i7 (2-core) MacBook Pro (Late 2013)MacBook Pro (Mid 2014)MacBook Pro (Mid 2015) 2.8–3.0 2×256 4 — 2 October 2013 March 2015=== Broadwell === Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) Cores perCPU HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Core M MacBook (Early 2015) 1.1–1.3 2×256 4 2 April 2015 April 2016 Core i5 ULT (2-core) iMac (Late 2015) 1.6 2×256 3 2 October 2015 June 2017 MacBook Air (Early 2015) 1.6 2×256 3 2 March 2015 June 2017 MacBook Air (2017) 1.8 2×256 3 2 June 2017 July 2019 Core i5 (2-core) MacBook Pro (Early 2015) 2.7–2.9 2×256 3 2 March 2015 June 2017 Core i7 ULT (2-core) MacBook Air (Early 2015)MacBook Air (2017) 2.2 2×256 4 2 March 2015 July 2019 Core i7 (2-core) MacBook Pro (Early 2015) 3.1 2×256 4 2 March 2015 June 2017 Core i5 (4-core) iMac (Late 2015) 2.8–3.1 4×256 4 4 October 2015 June 2017 Core i7 (4-core) iMac (Late 2015) 3.3 4×256 6 4 October 2015 June 2017=== Skylake ===An Intel Core i7 6700K processor Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) Cores perCPU HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Core m3, m5, m7 MacBook (Early 2016) 1.1–1.3 2×256 4 2 April 2016 June 2017 Core i5 (2-core) MacBook Pro (2016) 2.0 2×256 4 2 October 2016 June 2017 2.9–3.1 November 2016 Core i7 (2-core) MacBook Pro (2016) 2.4 2×256 4 2 October 2016 June 2017 3.3 November 2016 Core i5 (4-core) iMac (Late 2015) 3.2–3.3 4×256 6 4 October 2015 June 2017 Core i7 (4-core) iMac (Late 2015) 4.0 4×256 8 4 October 2015 June 2017 MacBook Pro (2016) 2.6–2.9 6–8 November 2016 Xeon W iMac Pro (2017) 2.3 18×1024 24.75 18 December 2017 March 2021 2.5 14×1024 19.25 14 3.0 10×1024 13.75 10 3.2 8×1024 11 8=== Kaby Lake === Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) TDP(W) Cores perCPU HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Core m3 MacBook (2017) 1.2 2×256 4 4.5 2 June 2017 July 2019 Core i5 (2-core) MacBook (2017) 1.3 2×256 4 4.5 2 June 2017 July 2019 MacBook Air (2018)MacBook Air (2019) 1.6 7 October 2018 July 2019 iMac (2017) 2.3 15 June 2017 October 2021 MacBook Pro (2017) July 2019 3.1–3.3 28 July 2018 Core i7 (2-core) MacBook (2017) 1.4 2×256 4 4.5 2 June 2017 July 2019 MacBook Pro (2017) 2.5 15 3.5 28 July 2018 Core i5 (4-core) iMac (2017) 3.0–3.8 4×256 6 65–91 4 June 2017 March 2019 Core i7 (4-core) iMac (2017) 3.6–4.2 4×256 8 65–91 4 June 2017 March 2019 MacBook Pro (2017) 2.8–2.9 6–8 45 July 2018=== Coffee Lake ===Coffee Lake was the first 6-core processor to appear in a Mac notebook.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) L4 cache(MB) TDP(W) Cores perCPU HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Core i3 (4-core) Mac Mini (2018) 3.6 4×256 6 — 65 4 November 2018 November 2020 iMac (2019) March 2019 April 2021 Core i5 (4-core) MacBook Pro (2018)MacBook Pro (2019) 2.3–2.4 128 28 July 2018 May 2020 MacBook Pro (2019)MacBook Pro (2020) 1.4 15 July 2019 November 2020 Core i7 (4-core) MacBook Pro (2018)MacBook Pro (2019) 2.7–2.8 8 28 July 2018 May 2020 MacBook Pro (2019)MacBook Pro (2020) 1.7 15 July 2019 November 2020 Core i5 (6-core) Mac Mini (2018) 3.0 6×256 9 — 65 6 November 2018 January 2023 iMac (2019) 3.0–3.1 March 2019 April 2021 3.7 95 August 2020 Core i7 (6-core) MacBook Pro (2018) 2.2–2.6 45 July 2018 May 2019 MacBook Pro (2019)MacBook Pro (16-inch, 2019) 2.612 May 2019 October 2021 Mac Mini (2018) 3.2 65 November 2018 January 2023 iMac (2019) March 2019 April 2021 Core i9 (6-core) MacBook Pro (2018) 2.945 July 2018 May 2019 Core i9 (8-core) MacBook Pro (2019)MacBook Pro (16-inch, 2019) 2.3–2.4 8×256 16 8 May 2019 October 2021 iMac (2019) 3.6 95 March 2019 August 2020=== Cascade Lake === Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) TDP(W) Cores perCPU HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Xeon W Mac Pro (2019) 2.5 28×1024 38.5 205 28 December 2019 June 2023 2.7 24×1024 33 24 3.2 16×1024 22 16 3.3 12×1024 19.25 180 12 3.5 8×1024 16.5 160 8=== Comet Lake === Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) TDP(W) Cores perCPU HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Core i5 (6-core)iMac (2020) 3.1–3.3 6×256 12 65 6August 2020March 2022 Core i7 (8-core) 3.8 8×256 16125 8 Core i9 (10- core) 3.6 10×256 20 10=== Ice Lake ===Ice Lake (Sunny Cove) is a 10th generation chip.",
"Processor Model Clock speed(GHz) L2 cache(KB) L3 cache(MB) TDP(W) Cores perCPU HT ITB Introduced Discontinued Core i3 (2-core) MacBook Air (2020)1.1 2×512 4 9 2March 2020November 2020 Core i5 (4-core) MacBook Air (2020) 4×512 6 10 4 MacBook Pro (2020) 2.0 28 May 2020 October 2021 Core i7 (4-core) MacBook Air (2020) 1.2 8 10 March 2020 November 2020 MacBook Pro (2020) 2.3 28 May 2020 October 2021"
],
[
"Apple silicon",
"Source: === M1 ===An Apple M1 processorThe '''M1''' is a system on a chip fabricated by TSMC on the 5 nm process and contains 16 billion transistors.",
"Its CPU cores are the first to be used in a Mac processor designed by Apple and the first to use the ARM instruction set architecture.",
"It has 8 CPU cores (4 performance and 4 efficiency), up to 8 GPU cores, and a 16-core Neural Engine, as well as LPDDR4X memory with a bandwidth of 68 GB/s.",
"The M1 Pro and M1 Max SoCs are fabricated by TSMC on the 5 nm process and contain 33.7 and 57 billion transistors respectively.",
"Both have 10 CPU cores (8 performance and 2 efficiency) and a 16-core Neural Engine.The '''M1 Pro''' and '''M1 Max''' have a 16-core and 32-core GPU, and a 256-bit and 512-bit LPDDR5 memory bus supporting 200 and 400 GB/s bandwidth respectively.",
"Both chips were first introduced in the MacBook Pro in October 2021.On March 8, 2022, the '''M1 Ultra''', a processor combining two M1 Max chips in one package, was announced.",
"It is initially available exclusively in the highest-end variants of the Mac Studio and was released simultaneously with on March 18, 2022.All parameters of the M1 Max processors are doubled in M1 Ultra processors, as they are essentially two M1 Max chips operating in parallel; they are, however, packed as one processor package (in size being bigger than Socket AM4 AMD Ryzen processor) and seen as one M1 Ultra processor in macOS.",
"Processor Model CPU Cores GPU Cores Neural Engine Cores Introduced Discontinued Apple M1 iMac (24-inch, M1, 2021) 8 7–8 16 May 2021 October 2023 Mac mini (M1, 2020) 8 November 2020 January 2023 MacBook Air (M1, 2020) 7–8 current MacBook Pro (13-inch, M1, 2020) 8 June 2022 Apple M1 Pro MacBook Pro (14-inch, 2021) 8–10 14–16 October 2021 January 2023 MacBook Pro (16-inch, 2021) 10 16 Apple M1 Max MacBook Pro (14-inch, 2021)MacBook Pro (16-inch, 2021) 24–32 Mac Studio (2022) March 2022 June 2023 Apple M1 Ultra Mac Studio (2022) 20 48–64 32=== M2 ===The '''M2''' is a system on a chip fabricated by TSMC on an enhanced 5 nm process, containing 20 billion transistors.",
"It has 8 CPU cores (4 performance and 4 efficiency), up to 10 GPU cores, and a 16 core Neural Engine, as well as LPDDR5 memory with a bandwidth of 100 GB/s.",
"The M2 Pro and M2 Max SoCs are fabricated by TSMC on an enhanced 5 nm process and contain 40 and 67 billion transistors respectively.",
"Both have 12 CPU cores (8 performance and 4 efficiency) and a 16-core Neural Engine.The '''M2 Pro''' and '''M2 Max''' have a 19-core and 38-core GPU, and a 256-bit and 512-bit LPDDR5 memory bus supporting 200 and 400 GB/s bandwidth respectively.",
"Both chips were first introduced in the MacBook Pro in January 2023.The '''M2 Ultra''' is a processor combining two M2 Max dies in one package.",
"It is available in the highest-end variants of the Mac Studio as well as the Mac Pro, both released on June 13, 2023.Processor Model CPU Cores GPU Cores Neural Engine Cores Introduced Discontinued Apple M2 MacBook Air (13-inch, M2, 2022) 8 8–10 16 July 2022 current MacBook Air (15-inch, M2, 2023) 10 June 2023 MacBook Pro (13-inch, M2, 2022) June 2022 October 2023 Mac mini (2023) January 2023 current Apple M2 Pro Mac mini (2023) 10–12 16–19 MacBook Pro (14-inch, M2 Pro, 2023) October 2023 MacBook Pro (16-inch, M2 Pro, 2023) 12 19 Apple M2 Max MacBook Pro (14-inch, M2 Max, 2023)MacBook Pro (16-inch, M2 Max, 2023) 30–38 Mac Studio (2023) June 2023 current Apple M2 Ultra Mac Studio (2023) 24 60–76 32 Mac Pro (2023)=== M3 ===The '''M3''' is a system on a chip fabricated by TSMC on the 3 nm process, containing 25 billion transistors.",
"It has 8 CPU cores (4 performance and 4 efficiency), up to 10 GPU cores, and a 16 core Neural Engine, as well as LPDDR5 memory with a bandwidth of 100 GB/s.",
"The M3 Pro and M3 Max SoCs are fabricated by TSMC on the 3 nm process and contain 37 and 92 billion transistors respectively.",
"The M3 Pro has 12 CPU cores (6 performance and 6 efficiency), while the M3 Max has 16 CPU cores (12 performance and 4 efficiency); both have a 16-core Neural Engine.The '''M3 Pro''' and '''M3 Max''' have an 18-core and 40-core GPU, and a 192-bit and 512-bit LPDDR5 memory bus supporting 150 and 400 GB/s bandwidth respectively.",
"Both chips were first introduced in the MacBook Pro in October 2023.Processor Model CPU Cores GPU Cores Neural Engine Cores Introduced Discontinued Apple M3 iMac (24-inch, M3, 2023) 8 8–10 16 November 2023 current MacBook Pro (14-inch, M3, 2023) 10 Apple M3 Pro MacBook Pro (14-inch, M3 Pro, 2023) 11–12 14–18 MacBook Pro (16-inch, M3 Pro, 2023) 12 18 Apple M3 Max MacBook Pro (14-inch, M3 Max, 2023)MacBook Pro (16-inch, M3 Max, 2023) 14–16 30–40"
],
[
"See also",
"* Mac (computer)* List of Mac models"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* Specifications, Apple, Inc.* Ian Page and contributors, MacTracker.",
"* Glen Sanford, Apple History, apple-history.com.",
"* Dan Knight, Computer Profiles, LowEndMac, Cobweb Publishing, Inc.* Product Specifications, Intel, Inc."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Jonathan Smeeton"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Jonathan Smeeton''' is a British lighting and production designer who was active in the UK from the late 1960s, and then in the US from late 1970s up to his retirement in 2018.Smeeton started out in the UK underground scene in the late 1960s.",
"By 1971, he had become involved with Hawkwind, using the alias Liquid Len and the Lensmen (a reference to the ''Lensman'' space opera books), and remained with them for seven years developing his craft.He was name-checked in the Genesis song \"The Battle of Epping Forest\" from ''Selling England by the Pound'' (1973), later going on to work for the band's singer Peter Gabriel:He retired from the business in April 2018, his last official show being for Diana Ross and the LA Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl in June 2018.In 2018, he received the Parnelli Visionary Award."
],
[
"See also",
"* Barney Bubbles"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lemmy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Ian Fraser Kilmister''' (24 December 1945 – 28 December 2015), better known as '''Lemmy Kilmister''' or simply '''Lemmy''', was a British musician.",
"He was the founder, lead singer, bassist and primary songwriter of the rock band Motörhead, of which he was the only continuous member, and a member of Hawkwind from 1971 to 1975.A foundational force in the genre following the advent of the new wave of British heavy metal, Lemmy was known for his appearance, which included his signature friendly mutton chops, his military-influenced fashion sense and his gravelly rasp of a voice.",
"It was once declared \"one of the most recognisable voices in rock\".",
"He was also noted for his unique way of singing, which was once described as \"looking up towards a towering microphone tilted down into his weather-beaten face\".",
"He was also known for his bass playing style and using his Rickenbacker bass to create an \"overpowered, distorted rhythmic rumble\".",
"Another notable aspect of his bass sound was his guitar-like riffing, which included using a pick, and often played power chords using heavily overdriven tube stacks by Marshall.Lemmy was born in Stoke-on-Trent and grew up between there, the nearby towns of Newcastle-under-Lyme and Madeley, and later the Welsh village of Benllech, Anglesey.",
"At a later point, Lemmy remembers living briefly at Gwrych Castle, Abergele.",
"He was influenced by rock and roll and the early works of the Beatles, which led to him playing in several rock groups in the 1960s, such as The Rockin' Vickers.",
"He worked as a roadie for Jimi Hendrix and The Nice before joining the space rock band Hawkwind in 1971, singing lead vocals on their hit \"Silver Machine\".",
"In 1975, he was fired from Hawkwind after an arrest for drug possession.",
"That same year, he founded Motörhead.",
"The band's success peaked around 1980 and 1981, including the hit single \"Ace of Spades\" and the chart-topping live album ''No Sleep 'til Hammersmith''.Lemmy continued to record and tour regularly with Motörhead until his death on 28 December 2015 in Los Angeles, where he had lived since 1990.He was diagnosed with prostate cancer two days before his death.",
"Alongside his music career, he had minor roles and cameos in film and television.",
"He was known for his hard-living lifestyle, which included chain-smoking and daily consumption of large amounts of alcohol and amphetamine."
],
[
"Early life",
"Lemmy was born Ian Fraser Kilmister in the Burslem area of Stoke-on-Trent on 24 December 1945.When he was three months old, his father, an ex-Royal Air Force chaplain and concert pianist, separated from his mother.",
"He moved with his mother and grandmother to nearby Newcastle-under-Lyme, then to Madeley.",
"When Ian was 10, his mother married former rugby player George L. Willis, who already had two older children from a previous marriage, Patricia and Tony, whom Ian disliked.",
"They later moved to a farm in the Welsh village of Benllech, with Lemmy commenting that \"funnily enough, being the only English kid among 700 Welsh ones didn't make for the happiest time, but it was interesting from an anthropological point of view\".",
"He attended Ysgol Syr Thomas Jones, a comprehensive school in Amlwch, where he was nicknamed \"Lemmy.\"",
"It was later suggested by some that the name originated from the phrase \"lemmy lend me a quid 'til Friday\" because of his alleged habit of borrowing money from people to play slot machines, although Lemmy himself said that he did not know the origin of the name.",
"He soon started to show an interest in rock and roll, girls, motorbikes and horses.At school, Lemmy noticed a pupil who had brought a guitar to school and had been \"surrounded by chicks.\"",
"His mother had a guitar, which he then took to school, and was himself surrounded by girls even though he could not play.",
"By the time he left school, he had moved with his family to Conwy.",
"He went on to work several odd jobs, including one at the local Hotpoint electric appliance factory, while also playing guitar for local bands such as the Sundowners and spending time at a horse-riding school.",
"He saw the Beatles perform at the Cavern Club in Liverpool when he was 16, and then learned to play along on guitar to their first album ''Please Please Me''.",
"He also admired the sarcastic attitude of the group, particularly that of John Lennon, and later said of the group, \"Brian Epstein cleaned them up for mass consumption, but they were anything but sissies.",
"They were from Liverpool ... a hard, sea-farin' town, all these dockers and sailors around all the time who would beat the piss out of you if you so much as winked at them.",
"...",
"The Rolling Stones were the mummy's boys—they were all college students from the outskirts of London.",
"...",
"The Stones made great records, but they were always shit on stage, whereas the Beatles were the gear.\""
],
[
"Career",
"=== 1960–1970: early years ===Lemmy playing bass and singing, with his trademark high microphone positionIn Stockport, Lemmy joined local bands the Rainmakers and then the Motown Sect who played northern clubs for three years.",
"In 1965, he joined The Rockin' Vickers who signed a deal with CBS, released three singles and toured Europe, reportedly being the first British band to visit the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.",
"The Rockin' Vickers moved to Manchester, where they shared a flat together.Leaving the Rockin' Vickers, Lemmy moved to London in 1967.He shared a flat with Noel Redding, bassist of the Jimi Hendrix Experience, and with Neville Chesters, their road manager.",
"He got a job as a roadie for the band.",
"In 1968, he joined the psychedelic rock band Sam Gopal under the name Ian Willis and recorded the album ''Escalator'' which was released in 1969.After meeting Simon King at a shopping centre in Chelsea in 1969, he joined the band Opal Butterfly, but the group soon disbanded, having failed to raise enough interest with their singles.=== 1971–1975: Hawkwind ===: ''See also Hawkwind (1970–75: United Artists era)''Lemmy in 1974 in St. Louis, USA Hawkwind Hall of the Mountain Grill tour (his last with the band)In August 1971, Lemmy joined the space rock band Hawkwind, who were based in Ladbroke Grove, London, as a bassist and vocalist.",
"He had no previous experience as a bass guitarist, and was cajoled into joining immediately before a benefit gig in Notting Hill by bandmate Michael \"Dik Mik\" Davies, to have two members who enjoyed amphetamine.",
"Lemmy states that he originally auditioned for Hawkwind as a guitarist, but on the morning of the Notting Hill gig, they decided not to get another guitarist.",
"By chance, the bass player did not show up and left his equipment in the van.",
"He often said, \"Their bass player was pretty much saying 'please steal my gig!'",
"So I stole his gig.\"",
"Lemmy quickly developed a distinctive style that was strongly shaped by his early experience as a rhythm guitarist, often using double stops and chords rather than the single note lines preferred by most bassists.",
"His bass work was a distinctive part of the Hawkwind sound during his tenure, perhaps best documented on the double live album ''Space Ritual''.",
"He also provided the lead vocals on several songs, including the band's biggest UK chart single, \"Silver Machine\", which reached #3 in 1972.In May 1975, during a North American tour, Lemmy was arrested at the Canadian border in Windsor, Ontario, on drug possession charges.",
"The border police mistook the amphetamine he was carrying for cocaine and he was kept overnight in jail before being released without charge.",
"The band and management were concerned that his arrest might stop the band from crossing back into the United States, even though he had been released without charge.",
"They were also tired of what they saw as his erratic behaviour, so they decided to fire him.He once said of Hawkwind: \"I did like being in Hawkwind, and I believe I'd still be playing with them today if I hadn't been kicked out.",
"It was fun onstage, not so much offstage.",
"They didn't want to mesh with me.",
"Musically, I loved the drummer, the guitar player.",
"It was a great band.” === 1975–2015: Motörhead ===Lemmy with Motörhead in 1982After Hawkwind, Lemmy formed a new band called \"Bastard\" with guitarist Larry Wallis (former member of the Pink Fairies, Steve Took's Shagrat and UFO) and drummer Lucas Fox.",
"Lemmy and Took were friends, and Took was the stepfather to Lemmy's son Paul.",
"When his manager informed him that a band by the name of \"Bastard\" would never get a slot on ''Top of the Pops'', Lemmy changed the band's name to \"Motörhead\" – the title of the last song he had written for Hawkwind.Soon after, Wallis and Fox were replaced with guitarist \"Fast\" Eddie Clarke and drummer Phil \"Philthy Animal\" Taylor and with this line-up, the band began to achieve success.",
"Lemmy's guttural vocals were unique in rock at that time, and were copied during the time when punk rock became popular.",
"The band's sound appealed to Lemmy's original fans and, eventually, to fans of punk.",
"Lemmy asserted that he generally felt more kinship with punks than with metalheads; he even played with the Damned for a handful of gigs when they had no regular bassist.",
"Motörhead's success peaked in 1980 and 1981 with several UK chart hits, including the single \"Ace of Spades,\" which remained a crowd favourite throughout the band's career, and the UK #1 live album ''No Sleep 'til Hammersmith''.",
"Motörhead became one of the most influential bands in the heavy metal genre.",
"Their – and Lemmy's – final live performance was in Berlin, Germany, on 11 December 2015 during the band's 40th Anniversary Tour."
],
[
"Personal life",
"At the age of 17, Lemmy met a holidaying girl named Cathy.",
"He followed her to Stockport, where she gave birth to his son Sean, who was put up for adoption.",
"In the 2010 documentary film ''Lemmy'', he mentioned having a son whose mother had only recently reconnected with him and \"hadn't got the heart to tell him who his father was.\"",
"Later, during his time with The Rockin' Vickers, he slept with a woman in Manchester named Tracy; she had a son, Paul Inder, whom Lemmy met six years later.",
"As an adult, Inder became a guitarist and occasionally joined Lemmy on stage.Lemmy lived in Los Angeles from 1990 until his death in 2015, his last residence being a two-room apartment two blocks away from his favourite hangout, the Rainbow Bar and Grill.In the 2005 Channel 4 documentary ''Motörhead: Live Fast, Die Old'', it was claimed that Lemmy had slept with over 2,000 women.",
"He later quipped, \"I said more than 1,000; the magazine made 2,000 of it.\"",
"''Maxim'' had Lemmy at No.",
"8 on its top ten \"Living Sex Legends\" list, as they claimed that he had slept with around 1,200 women.",
"He is featured in the book ''Sex Tips from Rock Stars'' (2010) by Paul Miles.Dave Grohl, on his Probot website, describes musicians with whom he has worked.",
"In his entry for Lemmy, he wrote:Lemmy was well known for his heavy drinking.",
"The documentary ''Motörhead: Live Fast Die Old'' stated that he drank a bottle of Jack Daniel's every day and had done so since he was 30 years old.",
"In 2013, he stopped drinking Jack Daniel's for health reasons.",
"During his time with Hawkwind, he developed an addiction to amphetamine and LSD, particularly the former.",
"Before joining Hawkwind, he recalled Dik Mik, a former Hawkwind sound technician, visiting his home in the middle of the night and taking amphetamines with him.",
"They became interested in how long \"you could make the human body jump about without stopping\", which they did for a few months until Mik ran out of money and wanted to return to Hawkwind, taking Lemmy with him.In November 2005, he was invited to the National Assembly for Wales as a guest speaker by Conservative member William Graham.",
"He was asked to express his views on the detrimental effects of drugs and called for the legalisation of heroin.",
"He stated that legalisation would eradicate the drug dealer from society and generate money from its taxation, however hard this would be to accept.Lemmy collected German military regalia; he had an Iron Cross emblazoned on his bass, which led to accusations of Nazi sympathies.",
"He stated that he collected Nazi memorabilia because he liked the way it looked, and he considered himself an anarchist or libertarian.",
"He spoke against racism many times.",
"Lemmy said he was against religion, government, and established authority.",
"In 2011, he identified as agnostic, saying: \"I can find out when I die.",
"I can wait.",
"I'm not in a hurry.\"",
"Jeff Hanneman, the founder of the thrash metal band Slayer, befriended Lemmy due to their shared fondness for collecting Nazi memorabilia.",
"According to Keith Emerson's autobiography, Lemmy gave him two of his Hitler Youth knives during his time as a roadie for the Nice.",
"Emerson used these knives many times as keyholders when playing the Hammond organ during concerts with The Nice and Emerson, Lake & Palmer before destroying them.",
"Lemmy defended his collection by saying that if his then-girlfriend (who was black) had no problem with it, nobody else should."
],
[
"Illness and death",
"Lemmy performing in 2015In December 2000, Lemmy's tour was cancelled when he was hospitalised in Italy with the flu, exhaustion, and a lung infection.",
"He was hospitalised with extreme dehydration and exhaustion in Germany in July 2005.As he grew older, he consumed less alcohol and drugs because he suffered from diabetes and hypertension.",
"In June 2013, it was reported that he had an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator fitted.",
"His tour was cancelled in July 2013 due to a severe haematoma.",
"He referred to his continuing drug use as \"dogged insolence in the face of mounting opposition to the contrary\".",
"Towards the end of his life, he had to use a walking stick.",
"He had started smoking at the age of 11.In August 2015, he said he had cut down his smoking habit from two packs a day to one pack a week.",
"He was hospitalised with a lung infection in September 2015, after having breathing problems when performing onstage.On 28 December 2015, Lemmy died at his Los Angeles apartment from prostate cancer, cardiac arrhythmia, and congestive heart failure.",
"Motörhead announced his death on their official Facebook page later that day.",
"According to the band, his cancer had only been diagnosed two days prior to his death.Lemmy's manager, Todd Singerman, later revealed:Lemmy's doctor had given him between two and six months to live.",
"Mikael Maglieri, owner of his nearby hangout of the Rainbow Bar and Grill, subsequently had a video game machine that Lemmy was fond of playing taken from the establishment and put in Lemmy's apartment so he could continue playing it from his bedside.",
"Although his manager had planned to keep the news private until his eventual death, Lemmy strongly encouraged him to make the diagnosis public in early 2016, but he died before a press release could be drafted.===Funeral===Lemmy's memorial service took place at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Hollywood Hills, on 9 January 2016.The service was streamed live over YouTube with more than 230,000 people logging on to watch, while others gathered at the Rainbow.",
"His body was cremated following the funeral.",
"His remains were placed in a 3D-printed urn shaped like his trademark cavalry hat and emblazoned with the slogan \"Born to lose, lived to win\".",
"The piece was on display during his funeral and was later interred at Forest Lawn.In March 2021, it was revealed that some of Lemmy's ashes were, by his own request, put into bullets and sent to his closest friends, including Whitfield Crane, Rob Halford, Michael Monroe, Doro Pesch and Riki Rachtman.",
"In August 2023, it was reported that some of Lemmy's ashes were also scattered into the mud at Wacken Open Air music festival.===Tributes===Forest Lawn Memorial ParkIn various media, additional tributes appeared from fellow rock stars such as Rob Halford, Dave Grohl, Ozzy Osbourne, Alice Cooper, Metallica, Scott Ian of Anthrax, and Black Sabbath guitarist Tony Iommi.In 2005, the UK magazine ''Classic Rock'' presented Lemmy with its first \"Living Legend\" award.",
"In a 2013 interview with the magazine, Lemmy said he had never expected to make it to 30, but he spoke very pointedly about the future, indicating neither he nor the band was obsessing about the end:In February 2016, the Hollywood Vampires performed at the Grammy Award ceremony as a tribute to Lemmy.",
"On 11 June, Download Festival paid tribute to Lemmy by renaming the main stage the \"Lemmy Stage\", and in the slot where Motorhead were due to play, there was a video tribute to Lemmy in which they played his music and his peers talked about him.",
"On 17 November, Metallica released a tribute song titled \"Murder One\", named after Lemmy's frequently used amp.",
"The song, from their album ''Hardwired... to Self-Destruct'', depicts Lemmy's rise to fame.",
"On 18 January 2017, Lemmy was inducted into the Hall of Heavy Metal History for being the creator of thrash metal.",
"In 2017, the extinct crocodile relative ''Lemmysuchus'' was named after Lemmy.",
"On 14 November 2016, asteroid 243002 was officially named 243002 Lemmy, complementing asteroid 250840 Motorhead, named after the band in 2014.In 2018, Hawkwind recorded a new acoustic version of Lemmy's \"The Watcher\" (originally recorded on ''Doremi Fasil Latido'', 1972) on the album ''The Road to Utopia'' with production, arrangement and additional orchestrations by Mike Batt and a guest appearance from Eric Clapton."
],
[
"Collaborations",
"Lemmy worked with several musicians, apart from his Motörhead bandmates, over the course of his career.",
"He wrote the song \"R.A.M.O.N.E.S\" for the Ramones, which he played in his live sets as a tribute to the band.",
"He also produced a Ramones EP and an album for Warfare entitled ''Metal Anarchy'' in which Wurzel guested on guitar, He was brought in as a songwriter for Ozzy Osbourne's 1991 ''No More Tears'' album, providing lyrics for the tracks \"Hellraiser,\" (which Motörhead later recorded themselves and released as a single), \"Desire,\" \"I Don't Want to Change the World\" and the single \"Mama I'm Coming Home\".",
"Lemmy noted in several magazine and television interviews that he made more money from the royalties of that one song than he had in his entire time with Motörhead.",
"After being diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes in 2000, for which he was hospitalised briefly, Lemmy again appeared with Motörhead at WrestleMania X-Seven playing WWE wrestler Triple H to the ring.",
"Lemmy published his autobiography, ''White Line Fever'', in November 2002.In 2005, Motörhead won their first Grammy in the Best Metal Performance category with their cover of Metallica's \"Whiplash\".",
"In the same year he began recording an unreleased solo album titled ''Lemmy & Friends'', which was intended to include a collaboration with Janet Jackson.In 2014, he established his own recording label, Motorhead Music, to promote and develop new talent.",
"Acts he signed to the label and helped develop include Barb Wire Dolls, Budderside, Others, and Phil Campbell and the Bastard Sons."
],
[
"Film and television",
"===Cameo appearances===Lemmy made appearances in film and television, including 1990 science fiction film ''Hardware'' and the 1987 comedy ''Eat the Rich'', for which Motörhead also recorded the soundtracks including the title song.",
"He appeared as himself in the 1986 ''The Comic Strip Presents...'' episode \"More Bad News\", along with fellow heavy metal musicians Ozzy Osbourne, the Scorpions and Def Leppard.",
"In 1984, Motörhead were the musical guests on the TV show ''The Young Ones'', in the episode \"Bambi\".",
"He appears in the 1994 comedy ''Airheads'' (in which he is credited as \"Lemmy von Motörhead\").",
"Lemmy has a cameo in Ron Jeremy's 1994 pornographic film ''John Wayne Bobbitt Uncut'' as the discoverer of Bobbitt's severed penis.",
"The appendage is thrown from the window of a moving car and lands at Lemmy's feet who exclaims: \"Looks like a dick!",
"Fucking hell!",
"Ah well, it's not mine at least.\"",
"The film's soundtrack also features the Motörhead song \"Under the Knife\".He has also appeared in several movies from Troma Entertainment, including the narrator in 1996's ''Tromeo and Juliet'' and as himself in both ''Terror Firmer'' and ''Citizen Toxie: The Toxic Avenger IV''.",
"His last role was portraying the President of the United States in ''Return to Nuke 'Em High''.",
"He has a cameo role in the film ''Down and Out with the Dolls'' (Kurt Voss, 2001).",
"He appears as a lodger who lives in a closet.",
"He appeared on ''Down and Dirty with Jim Norton'' as the series DJ, and also wrote the theme music.",
"He appeared in a 2001 advertisement for Kit Kat, playing violin as part of a string quartet in a genteel tearoom.",
"In 2015, Lemmy appeared as a central figure in the Björn Tagemose-directed silent film ''Gutterdämmerung'' opposite Grace Jones, Henry Rollins, Iggy Pop, Tom Araya of Slayer and Eagles of Death Metal's Jesse Hughes.===''Lemmy'' film===The 2010 rockumentary film ''Lemmy'' was directed and produced by Greg Olliver and Wes Orshoski.",
"It consists of a combination of 16 mm film and HD video footage, produced over three years.",
"It features interviews with friends, peers, and admirers such as Dave Grohl, Slash, Ozzy Osbourne, James Hetfield, Lars Ulrich, Kirk Hammett, and Robert Trujillo of Metallica, David Ellefson of Megadeth, Scott Ian of Anthrax, Alice Cooper, Peter Hook of Joy Division/New Order, Dee Snider, Nikki Sixx, Mick Jones of the Clash, Ice-T, Kat Von D, Henry Rollins, Lars Frederiksen of Rancid, Jim Heath of The Reverend Horton Heat, Slim Jim Phantom of the Stray Cats, Mike Inez, Joan Jett, pro skateboarder Geoff Rowley, pro wrestler Triple H, \"Fast\" Eddie Clarke, Jarvis Cocker, Marky Ramone, former Hawkwind bandmates Dave Brock and Stacia, and Steve Vai.===In video games===He was the main character in the 16-bit video game ''Motörhead'', released for the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST in 1992.Lemmy also appeared as an unlockable character in the 2009 game ''Guitar Hero: Metallica''.",
"He also provided his voice for the 2009 video game ''Brütal Legend'', voicing the Kill Master, a character designed and based on his surname and likeness.",
"Lemmy was also the inspiration for the Mario character Lemmy Koopa, who made his first appearance in ''Super Mario Bros. 3''.",
"In the ''Victor Vran'' ''Downloadable content'' \"Motorhead Through The Ages\", there is a new \"Lemmy's Outfit\" armour.",
"The other Motörhead bandmates' armour is also available.",
"As an easter egg, a holographic woman in the final level of 2020's ''DOOM Eternal'' proclaims, \"Lemmy is God!\".",
"The appearance of the character King Novik from the same video game is also loosely based on facial features of Lemmy.",
"''Deep Rock Galactic'' features one of Lemmy's hats as a cosmetic called \"The Ace of Spades\" with the description \"In honor of a motoring head.\""
],
[
"Equipment",
"Lemmy in his trademark singing stance, 2005Lemmy positioned his microphone in an uncommonly high position, angled so that he appeared to be looking up at the sky rather than at the audience.",
"He said that it was for \"personal comfort, that's all.",
"It's also one way of avoiding seeing the audience.",
"In the days when we only had ten people and a dog, it was a way of avoiding seeing that we only ''had'' ten people and a dog.\"",
"Inspired by Jimi Hendrix, Lemmy recorded his vocals in the studio in total privacy, meaning he would sing in an enclosed recording booth where no one can see him, not even the producer.",
"As a member of Hawkwind, Lemmy first used a Rickenbacker belonging to Dave Anderson.",
"When Anderson failed to show up for a charity gig, Lemmy took his place.",
"Following the departure of Anderson, Kilmister bought a Hopf Studio bass off Hawkwind synth player Del Detmar.",
"He used Rickenbacker basses for most of his career.",
"In September 1996, a Rickenbacker belonging to him was a featured part of the ''Bang Your Head'' exhibition at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio, US.",
"From 1996 onward, Lemmy's main bass was a Rickenbacker 4001LK, from a limited edition run of 50 instruments, featuring hand carved body wings, featuring oak leaves, three HB1 humbucker pick-ups and all gold plated hardware.",
"Lemmy had commented that at last Rickenbacker had made decent pick-ups.",
"When asked about the appeal of the Rickenbacker instruments, Lemmy said \"The shape.",
"I'm all for the image — always.",
"If you get one that looks good, you can always mess with the pickups if it sounds bad.",
"\"With Hawkwind Lemmy used a Selmer amplifier.",
"With Motorhead, he got a Marshall Amplification 1992 JMP Super Bass Mark 2 bass stack from 1976, with a 4x15\" and a 4x12\" cabinet.",
"In 2008, Marshall issued a model dedicated to Lemmy, the 1992LEM, which was available with the same cabinets Lemmy used."
],
[
"Musical style",
"Lemmy described his style as \"I play a lot of notes, but I also play a lot of chords.",
"And I play a lot of open strings.",
"I just don't play like a bass player.",
"There are complaints about me from time to time.",
"It's not like having a bass player; it's like having a deep guitarist.Lemmy's unconventional playing style changed the dynamics of the group's rhythm section.",
"Hawkwind drummer Simon King explained that \"A lot of the time I play with guitarist Dave - he'll get into a kind of rhythmic thing and I'll follow him so you get this kind of percussion and rhythmic guitar thing going, so Lemmy can loon forward a bit because he's very much a front man and gives off a lot of energy, so he can get out front and play a sort of lead on bass which sometimes is very effective\", and Motörhead drummer Taylor echoed the sentiment with \"Onstage he's difficult to follow cos he's not really a bass player.",
"There's no solid bass lines to follow.",
"A lot of the time I play more with Eddie Clarke than with Lemmy, but he's out on his own because he is what he is.\""
],
[
"Discography",
": ''For releases with Motörhead see the Motörhead discography''===With the Rockin' Vickers===* 1965 – \"Zing!",
"Went the Strings of My Heart\" / \"Stella\" (7\" single)* 1965 – \"It's Alright\" / \"Stay By Me\" (7\" single)* 1966 – \"Dandy\" / \"I Don't Need Your Kind\" (7\" single)* 2000 – ''The Complete: It's Alright'' (compilation)===With Sam Gopal===* 1969 – ''Escalator''* 1969 – \"Horse\" / \"Back Door Man\" (7\" single)===With Hawkwind===* 1972 – \"Silver Machine\" / \"Seven by Seven\" (7\" single)* 1972 – ''Glastonbury Fayre'' – contains \"Silver Machine\" and \"Welcome to the Future\"* 1972 – ''Greasy Truckers Party'' – contains \"Born to Go\" and \"Master of the Universe\" (10/11 Hawkwind tracks on 2007 re-release)* 1972 – ''Doremi Fasol Latido''* 1973 – \"Lord of Light\" / \"Born to Go\" (7\" single)* 1973 – \"Urban Guerrilla\" / \"Brainbox Pollution\" (7\" single)* 1973 – ''Space Ritual''* 1974 – ''Hall of the Mountain Grill''* 1974 – \"Psychedelic Warlords\" / \"It's So Easy\" (7\" single)* 1975 – \"Kings of Speed\" / \"Motorhead\" (7\" single)* 1975 – ''Warrior on the Edge of Time''* 1983 – ''The Weird Tapes'' (live and out-takes, 1967–1982)* 1984 – ''The Earth Ritual Preview'' EP (guest appearance as bass and backing vocals on ''Night of the Hawks'')* 1985 – ''Bring Me the Head of Yuri Gagarin'' (live 1973)* 1985 – ''Space Ritual Volume 2'' (live 1972)* 1986 – ''Hawkwind Anthology'' (live and out-takes, 1967–1982)* 1991 – ''BBC Radio 1 Live in Concert'' (live 1972)* 1992 – ''The Friday Rock Show Sessions'' (live 1986)* 1997 – ''The 1999 Party'' (live 1974)===With Robert Calvert's band===* 1974 – \"Ejection\" / \"Catch a Falling Starfighter\" (7\" single)* 1974 – ''Captain Lockheed and the Starfighters''* 1980 – \"Lord of the Hornets\" / \"The Greenfly and the Rose\" (7\" single)===Side projects and career-spanning groups===* 1990 – Lemmy & The Upsetters – ''Blue Suede Shoes''* 2000 – Lemmy, Slim Jim & Danny B (aka the Head Cat) – ''Lemmy, Slim Jim & Danny B''* 2006 – The Head Cat – ''Fool's Paradise''* 2006 – The Head Cat – ''Rockin' the Cat Club: Live from the Sunset Strip''* 2006 – Lemmy – ''Damage Case'' (Compilation)* 2007 – Keli Raven & Lemmy Kilmister \"Bad Boyz 4 Life\" (single).",
"* 2011 – The Head Cat – ''Walk The Walk… Talk The Talk''===Band collaborations===* 1978 – The Doomed (one-off performance at the Electric Ballroom, 5 September 1978).",
"Bootleg recording with Dave Vanian, Captain Sensible, and Rat Scabies.",
"Brian James had left The Damned and took the rights to the name with him.",
"* 1979 – The Damned – \"I Just Can't Be Happy Today\" / \"Ballroom Blitz\" (with Lemmy on bass) / \"Turkey Song\" (7\" single) – available as bonus track on the reissued ''Machine Gun Etiquette'' album* 1980 – The Young & Moody Band – \"Don't Do That\" (7\" & 12\" single)* 1981 – Headgirl (Motörhead & Girlschool) – ''St.",
"Valentine's Day Massacre'' EP* 1982 – Lemmy & Wendy O. Williams – ''Stand by Your Man'' EP* 1985 – Producer for Warfare on the album Metal Anarchy.===Charity collaborations===* 1985 – Hear 'n Aid* 1985 – ''The Crowd'' – ''You'll Never Walk Alone'' (Bradford City F.C.",
"Fire Disaster)* 2011 – ''Emergency'' – Livewire + Girlschool + Rudy Sarzo vocals (Haiti Appeal)===Guest appearances===* 1982 – Speed Queen (French band) – ''Speed Queen'' – backing vocals on \"Revanche\"* 1984 – Albert Järvinen Band – ''Countdown''* 1986 – ''Boys Don't Cry'' – \"I Wanna Be a Cowboy\" (appears in the music video)* 1989 – Nina Hagen – ''Nina Hagen'' – guests on \"Where's the Party\"* 1992 – Bootsauce – ''Bull'' – guests on \"Hold Tight\"* 1994 – Fast Eddie Clarke – ''It Ain't Over till It's Over'' – guests on \"Laugh at the Devil\".",
"* 1994 – Shonen Knife – ''Rock Animals'' – guests on \"Tomato Head\" single remix (Track 3 – \"Lemmy in There Mix\") – not the album track* 1996 – Skew Siskin – ''Electric Chair Music''* 1996 – Ugly Kid Joe – ''Motel California'' - guest vocals on \"Little Red Man\"* 1996 – Myth, Dreams of the World – ''Stories of the Greek & Roman Gods & Goddesses''* 1996 – Skew Siskin – ''Voices from the War''* 1997 – Ramones – ''We're Outta Here!''",
"– guests on \"R.A.M.O.N.E.S.",
"\"* 1999 – Jetboy – ''Lost & Found''* 1999 – Skew Siskin – ''What the Hell''* 1999 – A.N.I.M.A.L.",
"– ''Usa Toda Tu Fuerza'' – guests on a version of AC/DC's \"Highway to Hell\"* 2000 – Doro – ''Calling the Wild''* 2000 – Swing Cats – ''A Special Tribute to Elvis'' – guests on \"Good Rockin' Tonight\", \"Trying to Get to You\" and \"Stuck on You\"* 2001 – The Pirates – ''Rock Bottom''* 2001 – Hair of the Dog – ''Ignite'' – guests on \"Law\"* 2002 – Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, Mike Batt and guests – ''Philharmania'' – guests on \"Eve of Destruction\"* 2003 – Ace Sounds – ''Still Hungry''* 2003 – Skew Siskin – ''Album of the Year''* 2004 – Probot – ''Probot'' – guests on \"Shake Your Blood\"* 2005 – Throw Rag – ''13 Ft. and Rising'' – guests on \"Tonight the Bottle Let Me Down\"* 2006 – Doro – ''20 Years – A Warrior Soul'' – guests on \"Love Me Forever\" and \"All We Are\"* 2007 – Meldrum – ''Blowin' Up The Machine'' – guests on \"Miss Me When I'm Gone\"* 2007 – The Warriors – ''Genuine Sense of Outrage'' – guests on \"Price of Punishment\"* 2007 – Keli Raven single \"Bad Boyz 4 Life\" (co-writer and guest vocalist)* 2008 – Airbourne – Guest actor on Airbourne's \"Runnin' Wild\" Music Video* 2008 – We Wish You a Metal Christmas – ''Run Run Rudolph''* 2008 – ''Legacy'' – Girlschool album – ''Don't Talk to Me'' vocals, bass, triangle and lyrics.",
"* 2009 – Guitar Hero: Metallica (video game) – \"Ace of Spades\" guest vocalist and unlockable playable character.",
"* 2009 – Queen V – ''Death or Glory'' – guests on \"Wasted\"* 2009 – Brütal Legend (video game) – The Kill Master (voice)* 2010 – Slash – ''Slash'' – \"Doctor Alibi\" (vocals and bass)* 2011 – Michael Monroe – ''Sensory Overdrive'' guests on \"Debauchery As A Fine Art\"* 2012 – Doro – ''Raise Your Fist'' guest on \"It Still Hurts\"* 2012 – Nashville Pussy – Guest on Nashville Pussy's song \"Lazy Jesus\" on the re-release of the album \"From Hell to Texas\"* 2014 – Emigrate – Guest bass and vocals on track ''Rock City'', from their album Silent So Long===Film soundtracks, tribute, wrestling and various artists albums===* 1990 – ''Hardware: Original Soundtrack'' – contains \"A Piece of Pipe\" by Kaduta Massi with Lemmy* 1990 – ''The Last Temptation of Elvis: Blue Suede Shoes'' – contains \"Blue Suede Shoes\" by Lemmy & The Upsetters* 1994 – ''Airheads'': Cameo on film and performing \"Born to Raise Hell\" on the soundtrack* 1997 – ''Dragon Attack: A Tribute to Queen'' – performs on \"Tie Your Mother Down\"* 1998 – ''Thunderbolt: A Tribute to AC/DC'' – performs on \"It's a Long Way to the Top\"* 1998 – ''ECW: Extreme Music'' – contains a cover of Metallica's \"Enter Sandman\"* 2000 – ''Bat Head Soup – Tribute to Ozzy Osbourne'' – performs on \"Desire\"* 2001 – ''WWF The Music, Vol.",
"5'' – \"The Game\"* 2001 – ''Frezno Smooth: Original Soundtrack'' – contains a version of Twisted Sister's \"Hardcore\" by Lemmy* 2001 – ''A Tribute to Metallica: Metallic Assault'' – performs on \"Nothing Else Matters\"* 2002 – ''Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three'' – performs on \"Thirsty & Miserable\"* 2002 – ''Metal Brigade'' – performs on \"Good Rockin' Tonight\" by Lemmy and Johnny Ramone* 2004 – ''Spin the Bottle – An All-Star Tribute to KISS'' – performs on \"Shout It Out Loud\"* 2004 – ''The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie'' – performs \"You Better Swim\"* 2004 – ''ThemeAddict: WWE The Music, Vol.",
"6'' – \"Line in the Sand\"* 2005 – ''Numbers from the Beast: An All Star Salute to Iron Maiden'' – performs on \"The Trooper\"* 2005 – ''Metal: A Headbangers Journey''* 2006 – ''WWE Wreckless Intent'' – \"King of Kings\"* 2006 – ''Flying High Again: The World's Greatest Tribute to Ozzy Osbourne'' – Performs \"Desire\" with Richie Kotzen* 2006 – ''Cover Me in '80s Metal'' (Fantastic Price Records) – Metal artists covering the hits of others.",
"Performs AC/DC's \"It's a Long Way to the Top\"* 2006 – ''Butchering the Beatles: A Headbashing Tribute'' – Performs \"Back in the USSR\".",
"* 2009 – ''Flip Skateboards Presents Extremely Sorry'' – Performs \"Stand By Me\" with Baron and Dave Lombardo.",
"* 2010 – ''Danko Jones – Full of Regret'' – Stars in the music video along with Elijah Wood and Selma Blair* 2011 – ''Foo Fighters – White Limo'' – Stars in the music video* 2017 – ''Airbourne – It's All for Rock N' Roll'' – Videos of Lemmy appeared in the music video.",
"Tribute to Lemmy"
],
[
"Videography",
"===Video tape/laser disc===* 1982 ''Live in Toronto – Castle Hendring''* 1984 ''Another Perfect Day'' EP* 1985 ''Birthday Party''* 1986 ''Deaf Not Blind''* 1987 ''More Bad News''* 1988 ''EP''* 1988 ''The Decline of Western Civilization II: The Metal Years''* 1990 ''Hardware'' (Lemmy was cast as a water taxi driver; and plays a recording of \"Ace of Spades\" for his passengers)* 1991 ''Everything Louder than Everyone Else''===DVD===* 1987 ''Eat the Rich''* 1994 ''Airheads'' – cameo as \"The Rocker\"* 1997 ''Tromeo and Juliet'' – cast as Narrator, Troma pictures* 1999 ''Terror Firmer''* 2001 ''Down and Out with the Dolls'' – as Joe* 2001 ''25 & Alive Boneshaker''* 2001 ''WrestleMania X-Seven'' – performing Triple H's entrance theme \"The Game\" live* 2001 ''Citizen Toxie: The Toxic Avenger IV'' – as a Tromaville citizen* 2002 ''Motörhead EP''* 2002 ''The Best of Motörhead''* 2003 ''The Special Edition EP''* 2003 ''Charlie's Death Wish'' – as himself* 2004 ''Everything Louder Than Everything Else''* 2005 ''Stage Fright'' – also HD DVD 2007* 2005 ''Ringers: Lord of the Fans''* 2005 ''WrestleMania 21'' – performing \"The Game\"* 2005 ''Metal: A Headbanger's Journey''* 2006 ''The Head Cat Live: Rockin' the Cat Club''* 2006 ''Foo Fighters: Hyde Park''* 2010 ''Lemmy''* 2011 ''The Wörld Is Yours'' – bonus DVD"
],
[
"References",
"===Citations======Sources===*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* 1981 ''Motörhead'' – Author: Alan Burridge, published by Babylon Books, * 1994 ''The Illustrated Collector's Guide to Motörhead'' – Authors: Alan Burridge and Mick Stevenson, published by Collector's Guide Publishing, * 2002 ''White Line Fever'' – Authors: Lemmy and Janiss Garza, published by Simon & Schuster, * 2002 ''Lemmy: In His Own Words'' – Author: Harry Shaw, published by Omnibus Press, * 2002 ''Motorheadbangers Diary of the Fans Volume 1'' – Author: Alan Burridge, published by e-booksonline(uk)ltd,"
],
[
"External links",
"* Motörhead official website* * Interview with Lemmy Kilmister in ''Revolutionart'' magazine no.",
"22* Profile for Lemmy's new band The Head Cat on Myspace* \"Lemmy’s Last Days: How Metal Legend Celebrated 70th, Stared Down Cancer\" in ''Rolling Stone'' magazine* \"R.I.P.",
"Lemmy Kilmister, Motörhead frontman dead at 70\"—Obituary on ''Consequence of Sound''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lactose"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lactose''', or '''milk sugar''', is a disaccharide sugar synthesized by galactose and glucose subunits and has the molecular formula C12H22O11.Lactose makes up around 2–8% of milk (by mass).",
"The name comes from '''' (gen. ''''), the Latin word for milk, plus the suffix ''-ose'' used to name sugars.",
"The compound is a white, water-soluble, non-hygroscopic solid with a mildly sweet taste.",
"It is used in the food industry."
],
[
"Structure and reactions",
"The molecular structure of α-lactose, as determined by X-ray crystallography.Lactose crystals, viewed under polarized lightLactose is a disaccharide derived from the condensation of galactose and glucose, which form a β-1→4 glycosidic linkage.",
"Its systematic name is β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucose.",
"The glucose can be in either the α-pyranose form or the β-pyranose form, whereas the galactose can only have the β-pyranose form: hence α-lactose and β-lactose refer to the anomeric form of the glucopyranose ring alone.Detection reactions for lactose are the Woehlk- and Fearon's test.",
"the different lactose content of different dairy products such as whole milk, lactose free milk, yogurt, buttermilk, coffee creamer, sour cream, kefir, etc.Lactose is hydrolysed to glucose and galactose, isomerised in alkaline solution to lactulose, and catalytically hydrogenated to the corresponding polyhydric alcohol, lactitol.",
"Lactulose is a commercial product, used for treatment of constipation."
],
[
"Occurrence and isolation",
"Lactose comprises about 2–8% of milk by weight.",
"Several million tons are produced annually as a by-product of the dairy industry.Whey or milk plasma is the liquid remaining after milk is curdled and strained, for example in the production of cheese.",
"Whey is made up of 6.5% solids, of which 4.8% is lactose, which is purified by crystallisation.",
"Industrially, lactose is produced from whey permeate – that is whey filtrated for all major proteins.",
"The protein fraction is used in infant nutrition and sports nutrition while the permeate can be evaporated to 60–65% solids and crystallized while cooling.",
"Lactose can also be isolated by dilution of whey with ethanol.Dairy products such as yogurt and cheese contain very little lactose.",
"This is because the bacteria used to make these products breaks down lactose through the use of lactase."
],
[
"Metabolism",
"Infant mammals nurse on their mothers to drink milk, which is rich in lactose.",
"The intestinal villi secrete the enzyme lactase (β-D-galactosidase) to digest it.",
"This enzyme cleaves the lactose molecule into its two subunits, the simple sugars glucose and galactose, which can be absorbed.",
"Since lactose occurs mostly in milk, in most mammals, the production of lactase gradually decreases with maturity due to genetic predispositions.Many people with ancestry in Europe, West Asia, South Asia, the Sahel belt in West Africa, East Africa and a few other parts of Central Africa maintain lactase production into adulthood.",
"In many of these areas, milk from mammals such as cattle, goats, and sheep is used as a large source of food.",
"Hence, it was in these regions that genes for lifelong lactase production first evolved.",
"The genes of adult lactose tolerance have evolved independently in various ethnic groups.",
"By descent, more than 70% of western Europeans can digest lactose as adults, compared with less than 30% of people from areas of Africa, eastern and south-eastern Asia and Oceania.",
"In people who are lactose intolerant, lactose is not broken down and provides food for gas-producing gut flora, which can lead to diarrhea, bloating, flatulence, and other gastrointestinal symptoms."
],
[
"Biological properties",
"The sweetness of lactose is 0.2 to 0.4, relative to 1.0 for sucrose.",
"For comparison, the sweetness of glucose is 0.6 to 0.7, of fructose is 1.3, of galactose is 0.5 to 0.7, of maltose is 0.4 to 0.5, of sorbose is 0.4, and of xylose is 0.6 to 0.7.When lactose is completely digested in the small intestine, its caloric value is 4 kcal/g, or the same as that of other carbohydrates.",
"However, lactose is not always fully digested in the small intestine.",
"Depending on ingested dose, combination with meals (either solid or liquid), and lactase activity in the intestines, the caloric value of lactose ranges from 2 to 4 kcal/g.",
"Undigested lactose acts as dietary fiber.",
"It also has positive effects on absorption of minerals, such as calcium and magnesium.The glycemic index of lactose is 46 to 65.For comparison, the glycemic index of glucose is 100 to 138, of sucrose is 68 to 92, of maltose is 105, and of fructose is 19 to 27.Lactose has relatively low cariogenicity among sugars.",
"This is because it is not a substrate for dental plaque formation and it is not rapidly fermented by oral bacteria.",
"The buffering capacity of milk also reduces the cariogenicity of lactose."
],
[
"Applications",
"Its mild flavor and easy handling properties have led to its use as a carrier and stabiliser of aromas and pharmaceutical products.",
"Lactose is not added directly to many foods, because its solubility is less than that of other sugars commonly used in food.",
"Infant formula is a notable exception, where the addition of lactose is necessary to match the composition of human milk.Lactose is not fermented by most yeast during brewing, which may be used to advantage.",
"For example, lactose may be used to sweeten stout beer; the resulting beer is usually called a milk stout or a cream stout.Yeast belonging to the genus ''Kluyveromyces'' have a unique industrial application, as they are capable of fermenting lactose for ethanol production.",
"Surplus lactose from the whey by-product of dairy operations is a potential source of alternative energy.Another significant lactose use is in the pharmaceutical industry.",
"Lactose is added to tablet and capsule drug products as an ingredient because of its physical and functional properties.",
"For similar reasons, it can be used to dilute illicit drugs such as cocaine or heroin."
],
[
"History",
"The first crude isolation of lactose, by Italian physician Fabrizio Bartoletti (1576–1630), was published in 1633.In 1688, the German physician Michael Ettmüller (1644–1683) reprinted Bartoletti's preparation.",
"See: Ettmüller, Michael, ''Opera Omnia'' … (Frankfurt am Main (\"Francofurtum ad Moenum\"), Germany: Johann David Zunner, 1688), book 2, page 163.From page 163: ''\"Undd ''Bertholetus'' praeparat ex sero lactis remedium, quod vocat ''mannam'' S. alchemical symbol for salt, salem ''seri lactis'' vid.",
"in ''Encyclopaed''.",
"p. 400.Praeparatio est haec: … \"'' (Whence Bartoletti prepared from milk whey a medicine, which he called ''manna'' or ''salt of milk whey''; see in his ''Encyclopedia'' note: this is a mistake; the preparation appeared in Bartoletti's ''Methodus in dyspnoeam'' … , p. 400.This is the preparation: … ) In 1700, the Venetian pharmacist Lodovico Testi (1640–1707) published a booklet of testimonials to the power of milk sugar ('''') to relieve, among other ailments, the symptoms of arthritis.",
"In 1715, Testi's procedure for making milk sugar was published by Antonio Vallisneri.",
"Lactose was identified as a sugar in 1780 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele.In 1812, Heinrich Vogel (1778–1867) recognized that glucose was a product of hydrolyzing lactose.",
"In 1856, Louis Pasteur crystallized the other component of lactose, galactose.",
"By 1894, Emil Fischer had established the configurations of the component sugars.Lactose was named by the French chemist Jean Baptiste André Dumas (1800–1884) in 1843.In 1856, Pasteur named galactose \"lactose\".",
"In 1860, Marcellin Berthelot renamed it \"galactose\", and transferred the name \"lactose\" to what is now called lactose.",
"It has a formula of C12H22O11 and the hydrate formula C12H22O11·H2O, making it an isomer of sucrose."
],
[
"See also",
"*Lac operon*Lactic acid*Lactose intolerance*Nectar*Sugars in wine"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Median lethal dose"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In toxicology, the '''median lethal dose''', '''LD50''' (abbreviation for \"lethal dose, 50%\"), '''LC50''' (lethal concentration, 50%) or '''LCt50''' is a toxic unit that measures the lethal dose of a given substance.",
"The value of LD50 for a substance is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested population after a specified test duration.",
"LD50 figures are frequently used as a general indicator of a substance's acute toxicity.",
"A lower LD50 is indicative of higher toxicity.The test was created by J. W. Trevan in 1927.The term '''semilethal dose''' is occasionally used in the same sense, in particular with translations of foreign language text, but can also refer to a sublethal dose.",
"LD50 is usually determined by tests on animals such as laboratory mice.",
"In 2011, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved alternative methods to LD50 for testing the cosmetic drug Botox without animal tests."
],
[
"Conventions",
"The LD50 is usually expressed as the mass of substance administered per unit mass of test subject, typically as milligrams of substance per kilogram of body mass, sometimes also stated as nanograms (suitable for botulinum), micrograms, or grams (suitable for paracetamol) per kilogram.",
"Stating it this way allows the relative toxicity of different substances to be compared and normalizes for the variation in the size of the animals exposed (although toxicity does not always scale simply with body mass).",
"For substances in the environment, such as poisonous vapors or substances in water that are toxic to fish, the concentration in the environment (per cubic metre or per litre) is used, giving a value of LC50.But in this case, the exposure time is important (see below).The choice of 50% lethality as a benchmark avoids the potential for ambiguity of making measurements in the extremes and reduces the amount of testing required.",
"However, this also means that LD50 is not the lethal dose for all subjects; some may be killed by much less, while others survive doses far higher than the LD50.Measures such as \"LD1\" and \"LD99\" (dosage required to kill 1% or 99%, respectively, of the test population) are occasionally used for specific purposes.Lethal dosage often varies depending on the method of administration; for instance, many substances are less toxic when administered orally than when intravenously administered.",
"For this reason, LD50 figures are often qualified with the mode of administration, e.g., \"LD50 i.v.",
"\"The related quantities LD50/30 or LD50/60 are used to refer to a dose that without treatment will be lethal to 50% of the population within (respectively) 30 or 60 days.",
"These measures are used more commonly within radiation health physics, as survival beyond 60 days usually results in recovery.A comparable measurement is LCt50, which relates to lethal dosage from exposure, where C is concentration and t is time.",
"It is often expressed in terms of mg-min/m3.ICt50 is the dose that will cause incapacitation rather than death.",
"These measures are commonly used to indicate the comparative efficacy of chemical warfare agents, and dosages are typically qualified by rates of breathing (e.g., resting = 10 L/min) for inhalation, or degree of clothing for skin penetration.",
"The concept of Ct was first proposed by Fritz Haber and is sometimes referred to as Haber's law, which assumes that exposure to 1 minute of 100 mg/m3 is equivalent to 10 minutes of 10 mg/m3 (1 × 100 = 100, as does 10 × 10 = 100).Some chemicals, such as hydrogen cyanide, are rapidly detoxified by the human body, and do not follow Haber's law.",
"So, in these cases, the lethal concentration may be given simply as LC50 and qualified by a duration of exposure (e.g., 10 minutes).",
"The Material Safety Data Sheets for toxic substances frequently use this form of the term even if the substance does follow Haber's law.For disease-causing organisms, there is also a measure known as the median infective dose and dosage.",
"The median infective dose (ID50) is the number of organisms received by a person or test animal qualified by the route of administration (e.g., 1,200 org/man per oral).",
"Because of the difficulties in counting actual organisms in a dose, infective doses may be expressed in terms of biological assay, such as the number of LD50s to some test animal.",
"In biological warfare infective dosage is the number of infective doses per cubic metre of air times the number of minutes of exposure (e.g., ICt50 is 100 medium doses - min/m3)."
],
[
"Limitation",
"As a measure of toxicity, LD50 is somewhat unreliable and results may vary greatly between testing facilities due to factors such as the genetic characteristics of the sample population, animal species tested, environmental factors and mode of administration.There can be wide variability between species as well; what is relatively safe for rats may very well be extremely toxic for humans (''cf.''",
"paracetamol toxicity), and vice versa.",
"For example, chocolate, comparatively harmless to humans, is known to be toxic to many animals.",
"When used to test venom from venomous creatures, such as snakes, LD50 results may be misleading due to the physiological differences between mice, rats, and humans.",
"Many venomous snakes are specialized predators on mice, and their venom may be adapted specifically to incapacitate mice; and mongooses may be exceptionally resistant.",
"While most mammals have a very similar physiology, LD50 results may or may not have equal bearing upon every mammal species, such as humans, etc."
],
[
"Examples",
"Note: Comparing substances (especially drugs) to each other by LD50 can be misleading in many cases due (in part) to differences in effective dose (ED50).",
"Therefore, it is more useful to compare such substances by therapeutic index, which is simply the ratio of LD50 to ED50.The following examples are listed in reference to LD50 values, in descending order, and accompanied by LC50 values, {bracketed}, when appropriate.",
"Substance Animal, route LD50 {LC50} LD50 : g/kg {LC50 : g/L} standardised Reference Water () rat, oral >90,000 mg/kg >90 Sucrose (table sugar) rat, oral 29,700 mg/kg 29.7 Corn Syrup rat, oral 25,800 mg/kg 25.8 Glucose (blood sugar) rat, oral 25,800 mg/kg 25.8 Monosodium glutamate (MSG) rat, oral 16,600 mg/kg 16.6 Stevioside (from stevia) mice and rats, oral 15,000 mg/kg 15 Gasoline (petrol) rat 14,063 mg/kg 14.0 Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) rat, oral 11,900 mg/kg 11.9 Glyphosate (isopropylamine salt of) rat, oral 10,537 mg/kg 10.537 Lactose (milk sugar) rat, oral 10,000 mg/kg 10 Aspartame mice, oral 10,000 mg/kg 10 Urea () rat, oral 8,471 mg/kg 8.471 Cyanuric acid rat, oral 7,700 mg/kg 7.7 Cadmium sulfide (CdS) rat, oral 7,080 mg/kg 7.08 Ethanol () rat, oral 7,060 mg/kg 7.06 Sodium isopropyl methylphosphonic acid (IMPA, metabolite of sarin) rat, oral 6,860 mg/kg 6.86 Melamine rat, oral 6,000 mg/kg 6 Taurine rat, oral 5,000 mg/kg 5 Melamine cyanurate rat, oral 4,100 mg/kg 4.1 Fructose (fruit sugar) rat, oral 4,000 mg/kg 4 Sodium molybdate () rat, oral 4,000 mg/kg 4 Sodium chloride (table salt) rat, oral 3,000 mg/kg 3 Paracetamol (acetaminophen) rat, oral 1,944 mg/kg 1.944 Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) rat, oral 1,270 mg/kg 1.27 Cannabidiol (CBD) rat, oral 980 mg/kg 0.98 Methanol () human, oral 810 mg/kg 0.81 Arsenic (As) rat, oral 763 mg/kg 0.763 Ibuprofen rat, oral 636 mg/kg 0.636 Formaldehyde () rat, oral 600–800 mg/kg 0.6 Solanine (main alkaloid in the several plants in ''Solanaceae'' amongst them ''Solanum tuberosum'') rat, oral (2.8 mg/kg human, oral) 590 mg/kg 0.590 Alkyl dimethyl benzalkonium chloride (ADBAC) rat, oral fish, immersion aquatic invertebrates, immersion 304.5 mg/kg {0.28 mg/L} {0.059 mg/L} 0.3045 {0.00028} {0.000059} Coumarin (benzopyrone, from ''Cinnamomum aromaticum'' and other plants) rat, oral 293 mg/kg 0.293 Psilocybin (from magic mushrooms) mouse, oral 280 mg/kg 0.280 Hydrochloric acid (HCl) rat, oral 238–277 mg/kg 0.238 Ketamine rat, intraperitoneal 229 mg/kg 0.229 Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) rat, oral 200 mg/kg 0.2 Caffeine rat, oral 192 mg/kg 0.192 Arsenic trisulfide () rat, oral 185–6,400 mg/kg 0.185–6.4 Sodium nitrite () rat, oral 180 mg/kg 0.18 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) rat, oral 160 mg/kg 0.18 Uranyl acetate dihydrate () mouse, oral 136 mg/kg 0.136 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) mouse, oral 135 mg/kg 0.135 Uranium (U) mice, oral 114 mg/kg (estimated) 0.114 Bisoprolol mouse, oral 100 mg/kg 0.1 Cocaine mouse, oral 96 mg/kg 0.096 Cobalt(II) chloride () rat, oral 80 mg/kg 0.08 Cadmium oxide (CdO) rat, oral 72 mg/kg 0.072 Thiopental sodium (used in lethal injection) rat, oral 64 mg/kg 0.064 Demeton-S-methyl rat, oral 60 mg/kg 0.060 Methamphetamine rat, intraperitoneal 57 mg/kg 0.057 Sodium fluoride (NaF) rat, oral 52 mg/kg 0.052 Nicotine mouse and rat, oralhuman, smoking 50 mg/kg 0.05 Pentaborane human, oral 50 mg/kg 0.05 Capsaicin mouse, oral 47.2 mg/kg 0.0472 Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) rat, oral 37 mg/kg 0.037 Piperidine (from black pepper) rat, oral 30 mg/kg 0.030 Heroin (diamorphine) mouse, intravenous 21.8 mg/kg 0.0218 Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) rat, intravenous 16.5 mg/kg 0.0165 Arsenic trioxide () rat, oral 14 mg/kg 0.014 Metallic arsenic (As) rat, intraperitoneal 13 mg/kg 0.013 Sodium cyanide (NaCN) rat, oral 6.4 mg/kg 0.0064 Chlorotoxin (CTX, from scorpions) mice 4.3 mg/kg 0.0043 Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) mouse, oral 3.7 mg/kg 0.0037 Carfentanil rat, intravenous 3.39 mg/kg 0.00339 Nicotine (from various ''Solanaceae genera'') mice, oral 3.3 mg/kg 0.0033 White phosphorus (P) rat, oral 3.03 mg/kg 0.00303 Strychnine (from ''Strychnos nux-vomica'') human, oral 1–2 mg/kg (estimated) 0.001–0.002 Mercury(II) chloride () rat, oral 1 mg/kg 0.001 Cantharidin (from blister beetles) human, oral 500 μg/kg 0.0005 Aflatoxin B1 (from ''Aspergillus flavus'' mold) rat, oral 480 μg/kg 0.00048 Plutonium (Pu) dog, intravenous 320 μg/kg 0.00032 Amatoxin (from ''Amanita phalloides'' mushrooms) rat 300-700 μg/kg 0.0007 Bufotoxin (from Bufo toads) cat, intravenous 300 μg/kg 0.0003 Brodifacoum rat, oral 270 μg/kg 0.00027 Caesium-137 () mouse, parenteral 21.5 μCi/g 0.000245 Sodium fluoroacetate ()rat, oral220 μg/kg0.00022Chlorine trifluoride (ClF3)mouse, absorption through skin178 μg/kg0.000178 Sarin mouse, subcutaneous injection 172 μg/kg 0.000172 Robustoxin (from Sydney funnel-web spider) mice 150 μg/kg 0.000150 VX human, oral, inhalation, absorption through skin/eyes 140 μg/kg (estimated) 0.00014 Venom of the Brazilian wandering spider rat, subcutaneous 134 μg/kg 0.000134 Aconitine (from ''Aconitum napellus'' and related species) rat, intraveneous 80 μg/kg 0.000080 Dimethylmercury ()human, transdermal50 μg/kg0.000050TBPO (t-Butyl-bicyclophosphate)mouse, intravenous36 μg/kg0.000036 Fentanyl monkey 30 μg/kg 0.00003 Venom of the Inland Taipan (Australian snake) rat, subcutaneous 25 μg/kg 0.000025 Ricin (from castor oil plant) rat, intraperitoneal rat, oral 22 μg/kg 20–30 mg/kg 0.000022 0.02 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD, in Agent Orange) rat, oral 20 μg/kg 0.00002 Tetrodotoxin from the blue-ringed octopus intravenous 8.2 μg/kg 0.0000082 CrTX-A (from ''Carybdea rastonii'' box jellyfish venom) crayfish, intraperitoneal 5 μg/kg 0.000005 Latrotoxin (from widow spider venom) mice 4.3 μg/kg 0.0000043 Epibatidine (from ''Epipedobates anthonyi'' poison dart frog)mouse, intravenous1.46-13.98 μg/kg0.00000146 Batrachotoxin (from poison dart frog) human, sub-cutaneous injection 2–7 μg/kg (estimated) 0.000002 Abrin (from rosary pea)mice, intravenouslyhuman, inhalationhuman, oral 0.7 μg/kg3.3 μg/kg10–1000 μg/kg 0.00000070.00000330.00001–0.001Saxitoxin (from certain marine dinoflagellates)human, intravenouslyhuman, oral0.6 μg/kg5.7 μg/kg0.00000060.0000057 Pacific Ciguatoxin-1 (from ciguateric fish) mice, intraperitoneal 250 ng/kg 0.00000025Palytoxin (from ''Palythoa'' coral)mouse, intravenous45 ng/kg2.3–31.5 μg/kg0.0000000450.0000023 Maitotoxin (from ciguateric fish) mouse, intraperitoneal 50 ng/kg 0.00000005 Polonium-210 () human, inhalation 10 ng/kg (estimated) 0.00000001 Diphtheria toxin (from ''Corynebacterium'') mice 10 ng/kg 0.00000001 Shiga toxin (from ''Shigella'' bacteria) mice 2 ng/kg 0.000000002 Tetanospasmin (from ''Clostridium tetani'') mice 2 ng/kg 0.000000002 Botulinum toxin (from ''Clostridium botulinum'') human, oral, injection, inhalation 1 ng/kg (estimated) 0.000000001 Ionizing radiation human, irradiation 5 Gy (Gray) —"
],
[
"Poison scale",
" Negative values of the decimal logarithm of the median lethal dose LD50 () on a linearized toxicity scale encompassing 11 orders of magnitude.",
"Water occupies the lowest toxicity position (1) while the toxicity scale is dominated by the botulinum toxin (12).The LD50 values have a very wide range.",
"The botulinum toxin as the most toxic substance known has an LD50 value of 1 ng/kg, while the most non-toxic substance water has an LD50 value of more than 90 g/kg.",
"That's a difference of about 1 in 100 billion or 11 orders of magnitude.",
"As with all measured values that differ by many orders of magnitude, a logarithmic view is advisable.",
"Well-known examples are the indication of the earthquake strength using the Richter scale, the pH value, as a measure for the acidic or basic character of an aqueous solution or of loudness in decibels.In this case, the negative decimal logarithm of the LD50 values, which is standardized in kg per kg body weight, is considered .The dimensionless value found can be entered in a toxin scale.",
"Water as the baseline substance is neatly 1 in the negative logarithmic toxin scale."
],
[
"Animal rights concerns",
"Animal-rights and animal-welfare groups, such as Animal Rights International, have campaigned against LD50 testing on animals.",
"Several countries, including the UK, have taken steps to ban the oral LD50, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) abolished the requirement for the oral test in 2001 (see Test Guideline 401, ''Trends in Pharmacological Sciences'' Vol 22, February 22, 2001)."
],
[
"Procedures",
"A number of procedures have been defined to derive the LD50.The earliest was the 1927 \"conventional\" procedure by Trevan, which requires 40 or more animals.",
"The fixed-dose procedure, proposed in 1984, estimates a level of toxicity by feeding at defined doses and looking for signs of toxicity (without requiring death).",
"The up-and-down procedure, proposed in 1985, yields an LD50 value while dosing only one animal at a time."
],
[
"See also",
"* Animal testing* Reed-Muench method* The dose makes the poison – the toxicology adage that high quantities of any substance is lethal=== Other measures of toxicity ===* IDLH* Certain safety factor* Therapeutic index* Protective index* Median toxic dose (TD50)* Lowest published lethal dose (LDLo)* EC50 (half maximal effective concentration)* IC50 (half maximal inhibitory concentration)* Draize test* Indicative limit value* No-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL)* Lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL)=== Related measures ===* TCID50 Tissue Culture Infective Dosage* Plaque forming units (pfu)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lactase"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lactase''' () is an enzyme produced by many organisms and is essential to the complete digestion of whole milk.",
"It breaks down the sugar lactose into its component parts, galactose and glucose.",
"Lactase is found in the brush border of the small intestine of humans and other mammals.",
"People deficient in lactase or lacking functional lactase may experience the symptoms of lactose intolerance after consuming milk products.",
"Lactase can be purchased as a food supplement and is added to milk to produce \"lactose-free\" milk products."
],
[
"Uses",
"=== Food use ===Lactase is an enzyme that some people are unable to produce in their small intestine.",
"Technology to produce lactose-free milk, ice cream, and yogurt was developed by the USDA Agricultural Research Service in 1985.This technology is used to add lactase to milk, thereby hydrolyzing the lactose naturally found in milk, leaving it slightly sweet but digestible by everyone.",
"Without lactase, lactose intolerant people pass the lactose undigested to the colon where bacteria break it down, creating carbon dioxide and that leads to bloating and flatulence.=== Medical use ===Lactase supplements can be used to treat lactose intolerance.=== Industrial use ===Lactase produced commercially can be extracted both from yeasts such as ''Kluyveromyces fragilis'' and ''Kluyveromyces lactis'' and from molds, such as ''Aspergillus niger'' and ''Aspergillus oryzae''.",
"Its primary commercial use in supplements is to break down lactose in milk to make it suitable for people with lactose intolerance.",
"The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not independently evaluated these products.Lactase (or a similar form of β-galactosidase) is also used to screen for blue white colonies in the multiple cloning sites of various plasmid vectors in ''Escherichia coli'' or other bacteria."
],
[
"Mechanism",
"The optimum temperature for human lactase is about 37 °C and the optimum pH is 6.In metabolism, the β-glycosidic bond in D-lactose is hydrolyzed to form D-galactose and D-glucose, which can be absorbed through the intestinal walls and into the bloodstream.",
"The overall reaction that lactase catalyzes is as follows:: C12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 + heat.",
":lactose + H2O → β-D-galactose + D-glucoseThe catalytic mechanism of D-lactose hydrolysis retains the substrate anomeric configuration in the products.",
"While the details of the mechanism are uncertain, the stereochemical retention is achieved off a double displacement reaction.",
"Studies of ''E.",
"coli'' lactase have proposed that hydrolysis is initiated when a glutamate nucleophile on the enzyme attacks from the axial side of the galactosyl carbon in the β-glycosidic bond.",
"The removal of the D-glucose leaving group may be facilitated by Mg-dependent acid catalysis.",
"The enzyme is liberated from the α-galactosyl moiety upon equatorial nucleophilic attack by water, which produces D-galactose.Substrate modification studies have demonstrated that the 3′-OH and 2′-OH moieties on the galactopyranose ring are essential for enzymatic recognition and hydrolysis.",
"The 3′-hydroxy group is involved in initial binding to the substrate while the 2′- group is not necessary for recognition but needed in subsequent steps.",
"This is demonstrated by the fact that a 2-deoxy analog is an effective competitive inhibitor (Ki = 10mM).",
"Elimination of specific hydroxyl groups on the glucopyranose moiety does not eliminate catalysis.Proposed mechanism of lactose hydrolysis by Lactase enzymeLactase also catalyzes the conversion of phlorizin to phloretin and glucose.Lactase ('''Lactaid''' commercially )is used as a medication for lactose intolerance.",
"Since it is an enzyme, its function can be inhibited by the acidity of the stomach.",
"However, it is packaged in an acid-proof tablet, allowing the enzyme to pass through the stomach intact and remain in the small intestine.",
"In the small intestine it can act on ingested lactose molecules, allowing the body to absorb the digested sugar which would otherwise cause cramping and diarrhea.",
"Since the enzyme is not absorbed, it is excreted during the next bowel movement."
],
[
"Structure and biosynthesis",
"Preprolactase, the primary translation product, has a single polypeptide primary structure consisting of 1927 amino acids.",
"It can be divided into five domains: (i) a 19-amino-acid cleaved signal sequence; (ii) a large prosequence domain that is not present in mature lactase; (iii) the mature lactase segment; (iv) a membrane-spanning hydrophobic anchor; and (v) a short hydrophilic carboxyl terminus.",
"The signal sequence is cleaved in the endoplasmic reticulum, and the resulting 215-kDa pro-LPH is sent to the Golgi apparatus, where it is heavily glycosylated and proteolytically processed to its mature form.",
"The prodomain has been shown to act as an intramolecular chaperone in the ER, preventing trypsin cleavage and allowing LPH to adopt the necessary 3-D structure to be transported to the Golgi apparatus.Schematic of processing and localization of human lactase translational productMature human lactase consists of a single 160-kDa polypeptide chain that localizes to the brush border membrane of intestinal epithelial cells.",
"It is oriented with the N-terminus outside the cell and the C-terminus in the cytosol.",
"LPH contains two catalytic glutamic acid sites.",
"In the human enzyme, the lactase activity has been connected to Glu-1749, while Glu-1273 is the site of phlorizin hydrolase function."
],
[
"Genetic expression and regulation",
"Lactase is encoded by a single genetic locus on chromosome 2.It is expressed exclusively by mammalian small intestine enterocytes and in very low levels in the colon during fetal development.",
"Humans are born with high levels of lactase expression.",
"In most of the world's population, lactase transcription is down-regulated after weaning, resulting in diminished lactase expression in the small intestine, which causes the common symptoms of adult-type hypolactasia, or lactose intolerance.",
"The ''LCT'' gene provides the instructions for making lactase.",
"Lactose intolerance in infants (congenital lactase deficiency) is caused by mutations in the ''LCT'' gene.",
"Mutations are believed to interfere with the function of lactase, causing affected infants to have a severely impaired ability to digest lactose in breast milk or formula.Some population segments exhibit lactase persistence resulting from a mutation that is postulated to have occurred 5,000–10,000 years ago, coinciding with the rise of cattle domestication.",
"This mutation has allowed almost half of the world's population to metabolize lactose without symptoms.",
"Studies have linked the occurrence of lactase persistence to two different single-nucleotide polymorphisms about 14 and 22 kilobases upstream of the 5’-end of the LPH gene.",
"Both mutations, C→T at position -13910 and G→ A at position -22018, have been independently linked to lactase persistence.The lactase promoter is 150 base pairs long and is located upstream of the site of transcription initiation.",
"The sequence is highly conserved in mammals, suggesting that critical cis-transcriptional regulators are located nearby.",
"Cdx-2, HNF-1α, and GATA have been identified as transcription factors.",
"Studies of hypolactasia onset have demonstrated that despite polymorphisms, little difference exists in lactase expression in infants, showing that the mutations become increasingly relevant during development.",
"Developmentally regulated DNA-binding proteins may down-regulate transcription or destabilize mRNA transcripts, causing decreased LPH expression after weaning."
],
[
"See also",
"* MCM6* Lactase persistence"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Lactase Protein*''E.",
"coli'' β-galactosidase: * Gene Ontology for Lactase* Making of the Fittest: Got Lactase?",
"The Co-evolution of Genes and Culture* Lactase persistence shows indication of association with Obesity* PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Human Beta-galactosidase * PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Escherichia coli Beta-galactosidase"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Linkin Park"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Linkin Park''' is an American rock band from Agoura Hills, California.",
"The band's lineup consists of vocalist/rhythm guitarist/keyboardist Mike Shinoda, lead guitarist Brad Delson, bassist Dave Farrell, DJ/turntablist Joe Hahn and drummer Rob Bourdon, with vocalist Chester Bennington also part of the band until his death in 2017.Vocalist Mark Wakefield was an early member prior to Bennington's recruitment.",
"Categorized as alternative rock, Linkin Park's earlier music spanned a fusion of heavy metal and hip hop, while their later music features more electronica and pop elements.Formed in 1996, Linkin Park rose to international fame with their debut studio album, ''Hybrid Theory'' (2000), which became certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).",
"Released during the peak of the nu metal scene, the album's singles' heavy airplay on MTV led the singles \"One Step Closer\", \"Crawling\" and \"In the End\" all to chart highly on the US Mainstream Rock chart.",
"The lattermost also crossed over to the #2 spot on the nation's ''Billboard'' Hot 100.Their second album, ''Meteora'' (2003), continued the band's success.",
"The band explored experimental sounds on their third album, ''Minutes to Midnight'' (2007).",
"By the end of the decade, Linkin Park was among the most successful and popular rock acts.The band continued to explore a wider variation of musical types on their fourth album, ''A Thousand Suns'' (2010), layering their music with more electronic sounds.",
"The band's fifth album, ''Living Things'' (2012), combined musical elements from all of their previous records.",
"Their sixth album, ''The Hunting Party'' (2014), returned to a heavier rock sound, and their seventh album, ''One More Light'' (2017), was a substantially more pop-oriented record.",
"Linkin Park went on an indefinite hiatus following the suicide of longtime lead vocalist Bennington in July 2017.In April 2022, Shinoda revealed the band was neither working on new music nor planning on touring in the foreseeable future.",
"They have only released 20th-anniversary editions of their first two studio albums since Bennington's death.Linkin Park is among both the best-selling bands of the 21st century and the world's best-selling music artists, having sold over 100 million records worldwide.",
"They have won two Grammy Awards, six American Music Awards, two ''Billboard'' Music Awards, four MTV Video Music Awards, 10 MTV Europe Music Awards and three World Music Awards.",
"In 2003, MTV2 named Linkin Park the sixth-greatest band of the music video era and the third-best of the new millennium.",
"''Billboard'' ranked Linkin Park No.",
"19 on the Best Artists of the Decade list.",
"In 2012, the band was voted as the greatest artist of the 2000s in a Bracket Madness poll on VH1.In 2014, the band was declared as \"The Biggest Rock Band in the World Right Now\" by ''Kerrang!",
"''."
],
[
"History",
"===1996–2000: early years===On November 14, 1997, the Whisky a Go Go (a nightclub in West Hollywood, California) was the site of the first ever show performed by Linkin Park, then known as Xero.",
"Linkin Park was founded by three high school friends: Mike Shinoda, Rob Bourdon, and Brad Delson.",
"The three attended Agoura High School in Agoura Hills, California, a suburb of Los Angeles.",
"After graduating from high school, the three began to take their musical interests more seriously, recruiting Joe Hahn, Dave \"Phoenix\" Farrell, and Mark Wakefield to perform in their band, then called Xero.",
"Though limited in resources, the band began recording and producing songs within Shinoda's makeshift bedroom studio in 1996, resulting in a four-track demo album, entitled ''Xero'', released in November 1997.Xero performed their first show on November 14, opening for SX-10 and System of a Down at the Whisky a Go Go, a nightclub in West Hollywood.",
"Delson introduced the band to Jeff Blue, the vice president of A&R for Zomba Music, whom he had interned for in college.",
"Blue offered the band constructive criticism to catch the attention of record labels.",
"Blue himself was impressed with Xero after watching them play a live show in 1998, but believed the band needed a different vocalist.",
"Tensions and frustration within the band grew after they failed to land a record deal.",
"The lack of success and stalemate in progress prompted Wakefield, at that time the band's vocalist, to leave the band in search of other projects.",
"Farrell also left to tour with Tasty Snax, a Christian punk and ska band.After spending a considerable time searching for Wakefield's replacement, Xero recruited Arizona vocalist Chester Bennington, who was recommended by Jeff Blue in March 1999.Bennington, formerly of a post-grunge band Grey Daze, became a standout among applicants because of the dynamic in his singing style.",
"The band then agreed on changing their name from Xero to Hybrid Theory; the newborn vocal chemistry between Shinoda and Bennington helped revive the band, inciting them to work on new material.",
"Additionally, the band recruited bassist Kyle Christner to temporarily fill in for Farrell.",
"In May 1999, the band released a self-titled extended play, which they circulated across internet chat-rooms and forums with the help of an online \"street team\".",
"In October 1999, Christner was replaced by Scott Koziol and Ian Hornbeck, whom along with Delson, provided bass tracks for the band's recordings.The band still struggled to sign a record deal.",
"They turned to Jeff Blue for additional help after facing numerous rejections from several major record labels.",
"After failing to catch Warner Bros. Records on three previous reviews, Blue, who was now the vice president of Warner Bros. Records, helped the band sign a deal with the company as a developing artist in 1999.However, the label advised the band to change their name to avoid confusion with Hybrid.",
"The band considered the names \"Plear\" and \"Platinum Lotus Foundation\" before deciding on \"Linkin Park\", a play on and homage to Santa Monica's Lincoln Park, now called Christine Emerson Reed Park.",
"They initially wanted to use the name \"Lincoln Park\", however they changed it to \"Linkin\" to acquire the internet domain \"linkinpark.com\".Bennington and Shinoda both reported that Warner Bros. Records was skeptical of Linkin Park's initial recordings.",
"The label's A&R was not pleased with the band's hip-hop and rock-style approach.",
"An A&R representative suggested that Bennington should demote or fire Shinoda and exclusively focus on making a rock record.",
"Bennington supported Shinoda and refused to compromise Linkin Park's vision for the album.",
"Farrell returned in late 2000, and the band released their breakthrough album, ''Hybrid Theory'', that same year.===2000–2002: ''Hybrid Theory'' and ''Reanimation''===Joe Hahn performing with Linkin Park at Rock am Ring in 2001Linkin Park released ''Hybrid Theory'' on October 24, 2000.The album, which represented half a decade's worth of the band's work, was edited by Don Gilmore.",
"''Hybrid Theory'' was a massive commercial success; it sold more than 4.8 million copies during its debut year, earning it the status of best-selling album of 2001.Singles such as \"Crawling\" and \"One Step Closer\" established themselves as staples among alternative rock radio play lists during the year, and \"In the End\" peaked at #2 on the US ''Billboard Hot 100'', the band's highest to date.",
"Additionally, other singles from the album were featured in films such as ''Dracula 2000'', ''Little Nicky'', and ''Valentine''.",
"''Hybrid Theory'' won a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance for the song \"Crawling\" and was nominated for two other Grammy Awards: Best New Artist and Best Rock Album.",
"MTV awarded the band their Best Rock Video and Best Direction awards for \"In the End\".During this time, Linkin Park received many invitations to perform on many high-profile tours and concerts including Ozzfest, Family Values Tour, and KROQ Almost Acoustic Christmas.",
"The band worked with Jessica Sklar to found their official fan club and street team, \"Linkin Park Underground\", in November 2001.Linkin Park also formed their own tour, Projekt Revolution, which featured other artists such as Cypress Hill, Adema, and Snoop Dogg.",
"Within a year's stretch, Linkin Park had performed at over 320 concerts.",
"The experiences and performances of the precocious band were documented in their first DVD, ''Frat Party at the Pankake Festival'', which debuted in November 2001.Now reunited with former bassist Phoenix, the band began work on a remix album, dubbed ''Reanimation'', which would include works from ''Hybrid Theory'' and non-album tracks.",
"''Reanimation'' debuted on July 30, 2002, featuring the likes of Black Thought, Jonathan Davis, Aaron Lewis, and many others.",
"''Reanimation'' claimed the second spot on the ''Billboard'' 200, and sold nearly 270,000 copies during its debut week.",
"''Hybrid Theory'' is also in the RIAA's ''Top 100 Albums''.===2002–2004: ''Meteora''===Following the success of ''Hybrid Theory'' and ''Reanimation'', Linkin Park spent a significant amount of time touring around the United States.",
"The band members began to work on new material amidst their saturated schedule, spending a sliver of their free time in their tour bus's studio.",
"The band officially announced the production of a new studio album in December 2002, revealing their new work was inspired by the rocky region of Meteora in Greece, where numerous monasteries have been built on top of the rocks.",
"''Meteora'' features a mixture of the band's nu metal and rap metal style with newer innovative effects, including the induction of a shakuhachi (a Japanese flute made of bamboo) and other instruments.",
"Linkin Park's second album debuted on March 25, 2003, and instantly earned worldwide recognition, peaking at No.",
"1 on the Rock & Metal Albums Chart.",
"''Meteora'' sold more than 800,000 copies during its first week, and it ranked as the best selling album on the Billboard charts at the time.",
"The album's singles, including \"Somewhere I Belong\", \"Breaking the Habit\", \"Faint\", and \"Numb\", received significant radio attention.",
"By October 2003, ''Meteora'' sold nearly three million copies.",
"The album's success allowed Linkin Park to form another Projekt Revolution, which featured other bands and artists including Mudvayne, Blindside, and Xzibit.",
"Additionally, Metallica invited Linkin Park to play at the Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003, which included well-known acts such as Limp Bizkit, Mudvayne and Deftones.",
"The band released an album and DVD, titled ''Live in Texas'', which featured some audio and video tracks from the band's performances in Texas during the tour.",
"In early 2004, Linkin Park started a world tour titled the ''Meteora World Tour''.",
"Supporting bands on the tour included Hoobastank, P.O.D., and Story of the Year.",
"''Meteora'' earned the band multiple awards and honors.",
"The band won the MTV awards for Best Rock Video for \"Somewhere I Belong\" and the Viewer's Choice Award for \"Breaking the Habit\".",
"Linkin Park also received significant recognition during the 2004 Radio Music Awards, winning the Artist of the Year and Song of the Year (\"Numb\") awards.",
"Although ''Meteora'' was not nearly as successful as ''Hybrid Theory'', it was the third best selling album in the United States during 2003.The band spent the first few months of 2004 touring around the world, first with the third Projekt Revolution tour, and later several European concerts.",
"At the same time, the band's relationship with Warner Bros. Records was deteriorating rapidly on account of several trust and financial issues.",
"After months of feuding, the band finally negotiated a deal in December 2005.===2004–2006: side projects===Following ''Meteora'''s success, the band worked on many side projects.",
"Bennington appeared on DJ Lethal's \"State of the Art\" and other work with Dead by Sunrise, while Shinoda did work with Depeche Mode, creating the remix song \"Enjoy the Silence 04\".",
"In 2004, the band began to work with Jay-Z to produce another remix album, titled ''Collision Course''.",
"The album, which featured intermixed lyrics and background tracks from both artists' previous albums, debuted in November 2004.Shinoda also formed Fort Minor as a side project.",
"With the aid of Jay-Z, Fort Minor released their debut album, ''The Rising Tied'', to critical acclaim.Linkin Park also participated in numerous charitable events, which included raising money to benefit victims of Hurricane Charley in 2004 and later Hurricane Katrina in 2005.The band donated $75,000 to the Special Operations Warrior Foundation in March 2004.They also helped relief efforts for the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami victims by staging several charity concerts and setting up an additional fund called Music for Relief.",
"The band participated at Live 8, a series of charitable benefit concerts set up to raise global awareness.",
"Alongside Jay-Z, the band performed on Live 8's stage in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to a global audience.",
"The band would later be reunited with Jay-Z at the Grammy Award Ceremony 2006, during which they performed \"Numb/Encore\", en route to winning a Grammy for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration.",
"They were joined on stage by Paul McCartney who added verses from the song \"Yesterday\".",
"They would later go on to play at the 2006 Summer Sonic music festival, which was hosted by Metallica in Japan.===2006–2008: ''Minutes to Midnight''===Linkin Park performing at alt=Linkin Park returned to the recording studios in 2006 to work on new material.",
"To produce the album, the band chose producer Rick Rubin.",
"Despite initially stating the album would debut sometime in 2006, the album was delayed until 2007.The band had recorded thirty to fifty songs in August 2006, when Shinoda stated the album was halfway completed.",
"Bennington later added that the new album would stray away from their previous nu metal sound.",
"Warner Bros. Records officially announced that the band's third studio album, titled ''Minutes to Midnight'', would be released on May 15, 2007, in the United States.",
"After spending fourteen months working on the album, the band members opted to further refine their album by removing five of the original seventeen tracks.",
"The album's title, a reference to the Doomsday Clock, foreshadowed the band's new lyrical themes.",
"''Minutes to Midnight'' sold over 623,000 copies in its first week, making it one of the most successful debut week albums in recent years.",
"The album also took the top spot on the Billboard Charts.Rob Bourdon with Linkin Park on May 25, 2007, during their Minutes to Midnight World Tour|alt= The album's first single, \"What I've Done\", was released on April 2, and premiered on MTV and Fuse within the same week.",
"The single peaked at no.",
"7 on the Billboard Hot 100.The song is also used in soundtrack for the 2007 action film, ''Transformers''.",
"Mike Shinoda was also featured on the Styles of Beyond song \"Second to None\", which was also included in the film.",
"Later in the year, the band won the \"Favorite Alternative Artist\" in the American Music Awards.",
"The band also saw success with the rest of the album's singles, \"Bleed It Out\", \"Shadow of the Day\", \"Given Up\", and \"Leave Out All the Rest\", which were released throughout 2007 and early 2008.The band also collaborated with Busta Rhymes on his single \"We Made It\", which was released on April 29.Mike Shinoda performing with Linkin Park in 2008 during the Projekt Revolution tour|alt=Linkin Park embarked on a large world tour titled \"Minutes to Midnight World Tour\".",
"The band promoted the album's release by forming their fourth Projekt Revolution tour in the United States which included many musical acts like My Chemical Romance, Taking Back Sunday, HIM, Placebo, and many others.",
"They also played numerous shows in Europe, Asia, and Australia which included a performance at Live Earth Japan on July 7, 2007.and headlining Download Festival in Donington Park, England and Edgefest in Downsview Park, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.",
"The band completed touring on their fourth Projekt Revolution tour before taking up an Arena tour around the United Kingdom, visiting Nottingham, Sheffield and Manchester, before finishing on a double night at the O2 arena in London.",
"Bennington stated that Linkin Park plans to release a follow-up album to ''Minutes to Midnight''.",
"However, he stated the band will first embark on a United States tour to gather inspiration for the album.",
"Linkin Park embarked on another Projekt Revolution tour in 2008.The United States Projekt Revolution tour featured Chris Cornell, the Bravery, Ashes Divide, Street Drum Corps and many others.",
"Mike Shinoda announced a live CD/DVD titled ''Road to Revolution: Live at Milton Keynes'', which is a live video recording from the Projekt Revolution gig at the Milton Keynes Bowl on June 29, 2008, which was officially released on November 24, 2008.===2008–2011: ''A Thousand Suns''===In May 2009, Linkin Park announced they were working on a fourth studio album, which was planned to be released in 2010.Shinoda told IGN that the new album would be 'genre-busting,' while building off of elements in ''Minutes to Midnight''.",
"He also mentioned that the album would be more experimental and \"hopefully more cutting-edge\".",
"Bennington also addressed the media to confirm that Rick Rubin would return to produce the new album.",
"The band later revealed the album would be called ''A Thousand Suns''.",
"While working on the new album, Linkin Park worked with successful film composer Hans Zimmer to produce the score for ''Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen''.",
"The band released a single for the movie, titled \"New Divide\".",
"Joe Hahn created a music video for the song, which featured clips from the film.",
"On June 22, Linkin Park played a short set in Westwood Village after the premier of the movie.",
"After completing work for ''Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen'', the band returned to the studio to finalize their album.Linkin Park performing at Sonisphere Festival in Pori, Finland, on July 25, 2009|alt=Brad Delson performing with Linkin Park on A Thousand Suns World Tour in 2010|alt=On April 26, the band released an app for the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad, a game called ''8-Bit Rebellion!''",
"It featured the band as playable characters, and a new song called \"Blackbirds\" which was unlockable by beating the game.",
"The song was also later released as an iTunes bonus track on ''A Thousand Suns''.",
"''A Thousand Suns'' was released on September 14.The album's first single, \"The Catalyst\", was released on August 2.The band promoted their new album by launching a concert tour, which started on October 2010.Other singles from the album include, \"Waiting for the End\", \"Burning in the Skies\", and \"Iridescent\".",
"Furthermore, a documentary about the album's production, titled ''Meeting of A Thousand Suns'', was available.",
"On August 31, 2010, it was announced that the band would perform \"The Catalyst\" live for the first time at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12, 2010.The venue of the debut live performance of the single was Griffith Observatory, an location used in Hollywood movies.",
"Linkin Park reached No.9 in the ''Billboard'' Social 50, a chart of the most active artists on the world's leading social networking sites.",
"In other ''Billboard'' Year-End charts, the band reached No.92 in the \"Top Artists\" chart, as well as ''A Thousand Suns'' reaching No.53 in the Year-End chart of the ''Billboard'' Top 200 albums and \"The Catalyst\" reaching No.40 in the Year-End Rock Songs chart.The band was nominated for six Billboard Awards in 2011 for Top Duo or Group, Best Rock Album for ''A Thousand Suns'', Top Rock Artist, Top Alternative Artist, Top Alternative Song for \"Waiting for the End\" and Top Alternative Album for ''A Thousand Suns'', but did not win any award.",
"The band charted in numerous ''Billboard'' Year-End charts in 2011.The band was No.39 in the Top Artists Chart, No.87 in the ''Billboard'' 200 Artists chart, No.11 in the Social 50 Chart, No.6 in the Top Rock Artists Chart, No.9 in the Rock Songs Artists Chart, No.16 in the Rock Albums Chart, No.4 in the Hard Rock Albums Chart, and No.7 in the Alternative Songs Chart.===2011–2013: ''Living Things'' and ''Recharged''===In July 2011, Bennington told ''Rolling Stone'' that Linkin Park aims to produce a new album every eighteen months, and that he would be shocked if a new album did not come out in 2012.He later revealed in another interview in September 2011 that the band was still in the beginning phases of the next album, saying \"We just kind of began.",
"We like to keep the creative juices flowing, so we try to keep that going all the time ... we like the direction that we're going in\".",
"On March 28, 2012, Shinoda confirmed that the band is filming a music video for \"Burn It Down\", directed by Joe Hahn.",
"Shinoda spoke to ''Co.Create'' about the album's art, saying that it will \"blow them the fans away ... the average person is not going to be able to look at it and go, I understand that that's completely new, like not just the image but the way they made the image is totally new.",
"So there's going to be that\".In April 2012, the band announced that ''Living Things'' would be the title of their fifth album and called it a \"return to form\".",
"Shinoda stated that they chose the title ''Living Things'' because the album is more about people, personal interactions, and it is far more personal than their previous albums.",
"The album's lead single, \"Burn It Down\", was released on April 16.The band promoted the album on the 2012 edition of the Honda Civic Tour, with co-headliners Incubus.",
"Other singles from the album include \"Lost in the Echo\", \"Powerless\", and Castle of Glass\".",
"The band performed \"Burn It Down\" at 2012 Billboard Music Awards.",
"On May 25, the band released the music video for \"Burn It Down\" and debuted \"Lies Greed Misery\", another song from ''Living Things''.",
"\"Powerless\", the twelfth and closing track of the album, was featured in the closing credits of the film ''Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter''.",
"''Living Things'' was released on June 26 in the United States.",
"The album sold over 223,000 copies during its debut week, ranking No.",
"1 on the US Albums Charts.",
"Linkin Park's single \"Castle of Glass\" was nominated for 'Best Song in a Game' at the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards.",
"The band also performed at the award ceremony on December 7, but lost the award to \"Cities\" by Beck.",
"Linkin Park also played at the Soundwave music festival in Australia, where they shared the stage with Metallica, Paramore, Blink-182, and Sum 41.On August 10, 2013, the band collaborated with American musician Steve Aoki to record the song \"A Light That Never Comes\" for Linkin Park's online puzzle-action game ''LP Recharge'' (short for ''Linkin Park Recharge''), which was launched on Facebook and the official ''LP Recharge'' website on September 12, 2013.The song would later be included on a remix album, entitled ''Recharged'', which was released on October 29, 2013.Similar to ''Reanimation'', the album features remixes of ten of the songs from ''Living Things'', with contributions from other artists, such as Pusha T, Datsik, KillSonik, Bun B, Money Mark, and Rick Rubin.",
"The band also worked on the soundtrack for the film ''Mall'', which was directed by Joe Hahn.===2013–2015: ''The Hunting Party''===In an interview with Fuse, Shinoda confirmed that Linkin Park had begun recording their sixth studio album in May 2013.The band released the first single from their upcoming album, titled, \"Guilty All the Same\" (featuring Rakim) on March 6, 2014, through Shazam.",
"The single was later released on the following day by Warner Bros. Records and debut at No.",
"27 on the US Billboard Rock Airplay charts before peaking at No.",
"1 on the Mainstream Rock charts in the following weeks.",
"Shortly after the single's release, the band revealed their sixth album would be titled ''The Hunting Party''.",
"The album was produced by Shinoda and Delson, who wanted to explore musical elements from ''Hybrid Theory'' and the band's earlier material.",
"Shinoda commented the album is a \"90s style of rock record\".",
"He elaborated, \"It's a rock record.",
"It's loud and it's rock, but not in the sense of what you've heard before, which is more like '90s hardcore-punk-thrash.'",
"The album includes musical contributions from rapper Rakim, Page Hamilton of Helmet, Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine, and Daron Malakian of System of a Down.",
"The songs \"Until It's Gone\", \"Wastelands\", \"Rebellion\" (featuring Daron Malakian), and \"Final Masquerade\" were released as singles from the album.",
"''The Hunting Party'' was released on June 13, 2014, in most countries, and later released in the United States on June 17.alt=Bennington and Shinoda performing live in alt=Linkin Park performed at Download Festival on June 14, 2014, where they played their debut album, ''Hybrid Theory'', in its entirety.",
"Linkin Park headlined Rock am Ring and Rock im Park in 2014, along with Metallica, Kings of Leon, and Iron Maiden.",
"They also headlined with Iron Maiden again at the Greenfield Festival in July.",
"On June 22, Linkin Park made an unscheduled headline appearance at the Vans Warped Tour, where they played with members of Issues, the Devil Wears Prada, A Day To Remember, Yellowcard, Breathe Carolina, Finch, and Machine Gun Kelly.",
"In January 2015, the band embarked on a tour to promote the release of ''The Hunting Party'', consisting of 17 concerts across the United States and Canada.",
"The tour was canceled after only three concerts when Bennington injured his ankle.",
"On May 9, Linkin Park performed at the first edition of Rock in Rio USA, in direct support for Metallica.On November 9, 2014, MTV Europe named Linkin Park the \"Best Rock\" act of 2014 at their annual music awards ceremony.",
"The band won the 'Best Rock Band' and 'Best Live Act' titles of 2014 on Loudwire's Music Awards.",
"''Revolver'' ranked ''The Hunting Party'' as the fourth best album of 2014.In an interview with AltWire on May 4, Shinoda reflected on ''The Hunting Party'' and commented on Linkin Park's future, stating; \"I'm really happy with the reaction from ''The Hunting Party'', and I think we're ready to move somewhere new on the next album, which will be coming in 2016\".Linkin Park collaborated with Steve Aoki on the song \"Darker Than Blood\" for Aoki's album ''Neon Future II'', which was released in May 2015.The first preview of the song came during Aoki's performance on February 28, 2015, at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago, Illinois.",
"The song was debuted on Twitch on April 13 and released on April 14.Linkin Park performed at the closing ceremony of BlizzCon 2015, Blizzard's video game convention.===2015–2017: ''One More Light'' and Bennington's death===Linkin Park began working on new material for a seventh studio album in November 2015.Chester Bennington commented on the album's direction by stating, \"We've got a lot of great material that I hope challenges our fanbase as well as inspires them as much as it has us.\"",
"In February 2017, Linkin Park released promotional videos on their social network accounts, which featured Shinoda and Bennington preparing new material for the album.",
"Mike Shinoda stated the band was following a new process when producing the album.",
"Brad Delson elaborated: \"We've made so many records and we clearly know how to make a record and we definitely didn't take the easy way out this time.",
"\"One of Bennington's final performances with Linkin Park on July 4, 2017, at the O2 Brixton Academy in LondonThe first single from the new album was revealed to be titled \"Heavy\" and features pop singer Kiiara, the first time the band has featured a female vocalist on an original song for a studio album.",
"The lyrics for the song were co-written by Linkin Park with Julia Michaels and Justin Tranter.",
"The single was released on February 16.As they have done in the past, Linkin Park had cryptic messages online in relation to the new album.",
"The album cover was revealed through digital puzzles across social media; the cover features six kids playing in the ocean.",
"The band's seventh album, ''One More Light'', was released on May 19, 2017.The promotional singles, \"Battle Symphony\", \"Good Goodbye\" (featuring Pusha T and Stormzy), and \"Invisible\" were also released prior to the album's release.Bennington died on July 20, 2017; his death was ruled a suicide by hanging.",
"Shinoda confirmed Bennington's death on Twitter, writing, \"Shocked and heartbroken, but it's true.",
"An official statement will come out as soon as we have one\".",
"The band had released a music video for their single \"Talking to Myself\" earlier that day.",
"One day after Bennington's death, the band canceled the North American leg of their One More Light World Tour.",
"On the morning of July 24, Linkin Park released an official statement on their website as a tribute to Bennington.",
"On July 28, Shinoda announced that donations made to the band's Music for Relief charity would be redirected to the One More Light Fund, which had been set up in Bennington's memory.",
"On August 4, when the band was initially scheduled to play on ''Good Morning America'', Chris Cornell's twelve-year-old daughter Toni appeared with OneRepublic to perform \"Hallelujah\" as a tribute to Bennington (who was the godfather to her younger brother, Christopher) and her father.",
"Bennington had previously performed the song at the funeral for Cornell, who had also died from a suicide by hanging two months earlier.On August 22, Linkin Park announced plans to host a tribute concert in Los Angeles to honor Bennington.",
"The band thanked fans for their support, stating, \"The five of us are so grateful for all of your support as we heal and build the future of Linkin Park\".",
"The title track of ''One More Light'' was released as a single on October 3.The band later confirmed that the concert, titled Linkin Park and Friends: Celebrate Life in Honor of Chester Bennington, would take place on October 27 at the Hollywood Bowl.",
"The event included Linkin Park's first performance following Bennington's death.",
"The event featured multiple guests performing Linkin Park songs along with the band.",
"The event was over three hours long and was streamed live via YouTube.",
"It has been streamed 24.7 million times as of December 2023.In November 2017, the band announced that a live album compiled from their final tour with Bennington, titled ''One More Light Live'', would be released on December 15.On November 19, Linkin Park received an American Music Award for Favorite Alternative Artist and dedicated the award to Bennington.===2017–present: hiatus and 20th-anniversary reissues===Linkin Park has remained on hiatus since Bennington's death.",
"During an Instagram live chat on December 17, 2017, Shinoda was asked whether Linkin Park would perform with a hologram version of Bennington in the future.",
"He replied, \"Can we not do a holographic Chester?",
"I can't even wrap my head around the idea of a holographic Chester.",
"I've actually heard other people outside the band suggest that, and there's absolutely no way.",
"I cannot fuck with that.",
"\"On January 28, 2018, Shinoda replied to a tweet from a fan inquiring about his future with Linkin Park, writing \"I have every intention on continuing with LP, and the guys feel the same.",
"We have a lot of rebuilding to do, and questions to answer, so it'll take time.\"",
"On March 29, however, Shinoda stated that he was uncertain of Linkin Park's future when being interviewed by ''Vulture''.",
"On April 17, Linkin Park was nominated for three awards at the 2018 Billboard Music Awards, but did not win any of them.",
"The band was presented with The George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Musical Achievement at UCLA on May 18.On February 18, 2019, Shinoda said in an interview that the band is open to the idea of continuing though what form that takes has yet to be decided.",
"Shinoda stated \"I know the other guys, they love to be onstage, they love to be in a studio, and so to not do that would be like, I don't know, almost like unhealthy.\"",
"When asked about the band's future minus Bennington, Shinoda stated, \"It's not my goal to look for a new singer.",
"If it does happen, it has to happen naturally.",
"If we find someone that is a great person and good stylistic fit, I could see trying to do some stuff with somebody.",
"I would never want to feel like we are replacing Chester.",
"\"On April 28, 2020, bassist Dave Farrell revealed the band is working on new music.",
"On August 13, the band released \"She Couldn't\", a track that was originally recorded in 1999, and it was included on a 20th anniversary edition of their debut album ''Hybrid Theory'', released on October 9.On January 8, 2021, Linkin Park released a remix of \"One Step Closer\" by American electronic duo 100 gecs.",
"The band revealed it was the first of many new remixes inspired by ''Reanimation'' to come.",
"On October 29, when asked about the band playing live shows again, Shinoda stated that \"Now is not the time for the band's return.",
"We don't have the focus on it.",
"We don't have the math worked out.",
"And I don't mean that by financially math, I mean that like emotional and creative math.\"",
"In April 2022, Shinoda reiterated that the band was not working on a new album, new music, or touring.In February 2023, the band started an interactive game on their website teasing the 20th anniversary of ''Meteora''.",
"On February 6, they revealed a previously unreleased demo \"Lost\" that was formally released on February 10, as the lead single from the reissue of the album, released on April 7."
],
[
"Philanthropy",
"On January 19, 2010, Linkin Park released a new song titled \"Not Alone\" as part of a compilation from Music for Relief called ''Download to Donate for Haiti'' in support of the Haiti Earthquake crisis.",
"On February 10, 2010, Linkin Park released the official music video for the song on their homepage.",
"The single itself was released on October 21, 2011.On January 11, 2011, an updated version of ''Download to Donate for Haiti'' was launched, called ''Download to Donate for Haiti V2.0'', with more songs to download.",
"For the updated compilation, the band released Keaton Hashimoto's remix of \"The Catalyst\" from the \"Linkin Park featuring YOU\" contest.Shinoda designed two T-shirts, in which the proceeds would go to Music for Relief to help the victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami disasters.",
"Music for Relief released ''Download to Donate: Tsunami Relief Japan'', another compilation of songs, in which the proceeds would go to Save the Children.",
"The band released the song titled as \"Issho Ni\", meaning \"we're in this together\", on March 22, 2011, via ''Download to Donate: Tsunami Relief Japan''.In the wake of Typhoon Haiyan in 2013, Linkin Park played at Club Nokia during the \"Music for Relief: Concert for the Philippines\" in Los Angeles, and raised donations for victims.",
"The show was broadcast on AXS TV on February 15.Other artists during the show included the Offspring, Bad Religion, Heart, and the Filharmonic."
],
[
"Musical style and influences",
"Linkin Park combines elements of metal, industrial, punk, pop, electronic, hip hop.",
"More specifically, the band has been categorized as alternative rock, nu metal, rap rock, rap metal, alternative metal, electronic rock, pop rock, hard rock, and industrial rock.",
"Despite being considered nu metal, the band never considered themselves as such.Both ''Hybrid Theory'' and ''Meteora'' combine the alternative metal, nu metal, rap rock, rap metal, and alternative rock sound with influences and elements from hip hop, and electronica, utilizing programming and synthesizers.",
"William Ruhlmann from AllMusic regarded it as \"a Johnny-come-lately to an already overdone musical style,\" whereas ''Rolling Stone'' described their song \"Breaking the Habit\" as \"risky, beautiful art\".In ''Minutes to Midnight'' the band experimented with their established sound and drew influences from a wider and more varied range of genres and styles, a process ''Los Angeles Times'' compares to a stage in U2's work.",
"Only two songs on the album's tracklist feature rap vocals and the majority of the album can be considered alternative rock.The vocal interplay between Chester Bennington and Mike Shinoda plays as a major part within Linkin Park's music, with Bennington being the lead vocalist and Shinoda as the rapping vocalist.",
"On Linkin Park's third album, ''Minutes to Midnight'', Shinoda sings lead vocals on \"In Between\", \"Hands Held High\", and on the B-side \"No Roads Left\".",
"On numerous songs from band's fourth album, ''A Thousand Suns'', such as the album's singles (\"The Catalyst\", \"Burning in the Skies\", \"Iridescent\"), both Shinoda and Bennington sing.",
"The album has been regarded as a turning point in the band's musical career, having a stronger emphasis on electronica.",
"James Montgomery, of MTV, compared the record to Radiohead's ''Kid A'', while Jordy Kasko of ''Review, Rinse, Repeat'' likened the album to both ''Kid A'' and Pink Floyd's landmark album ''The Dark Side of the Moon''.",
"Shinoda stated that he and the other band members were deeply influenced by Chuck D and Public Enemy.",
"He elaborated: \"Public Enemy were very three-dimensional with their records because although they seemed political, there was a whole lot of other stuff going on in there too.",
"It made me think how three-dimensional I wanted our record to be without imitating them of course, and show where we were at creatively\".",
"One of the record's political elements is its samples of speeches by American political figures.",
"''A Thousand Suns'' was described as trip hop, electronic rock, ambient, alternative rock, industrial rock, experimental rock, rap rock, and progressive rock.Their fifth album, ''Living Things'', is also an electronic-heavy album, but includes other influences, resulting in a harder sound by comparison.",
"The band returned to a heavier sound compared to their last three albums on ''The Hunting Party'', which was described as an alternative metal, nu metal, hard rock, rap rock, and rap metal album.",
"Their seventh album, ''One More Light,'' was described as pop, pop rock and electropop.Linkin Park's influences include Limp Bizkit, Soundgarden, Alice in Chains, Pearl Jam, Stone Temple Pilots, Jane's Addiction, Nirvana, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Nine Inch Nails, Ministry, Skinny Puppy, Machines of Loving Grace, Metallica, Refused, Minor Threat, Fugazi, Descendents, Misfits, Beastie Boys, Run-DMC, A Tribe Called Quest, Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock, N.W.A, Public Enemy, KRS-One, Boogie Down Productions, Led Zeppelin, Rage Against the Machine, and the Beatles.Many of the group's song lyrics deal with alienation, introversion and personal struggle and suffering."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Linkin Park has sold more than 100 million records worldwide.",
"The group's first studio album ''Hybrid Theory'' is one of the best-selling albums in the US (12 million copies shipped) and worldwide (30 million copies sold).",
"''Billboard'' estimates that Linkin Park earned US$5 million between May 2011 and May 2012, making them the 40th-highest-paid musical artist.",
"11 of the band's singles have reached the number one position on ''Billboard'' Alternative Songs chart, the second-most for any artist.In 2003, MTV2 named Linkin Park the sixth-greatest band of the music video era and the third-best of the new millennium.",
"''Billboard'' ranked Linkin Park No.",
"19 on the Best Artists of the Decade chart.",
"The band was recently voted as the greatest artist of the 2000s in a Bracket Madness poll on VH1.In 2014, the band was declared as the ''Biggest Rock Band in the World Right Now'' by ''Kerrang!''.",
"In 2015, ''Kerrang!''",
"gave \"In the End\" and \"Final Masquerade\" the top two positions on ''Kerrang!",
"''s Rock 100 list.Linkin Park became the first rock band to achieve more than one billion YouTube views.",
"Linkin Park's \"Numb\" is the third and \"In the End\" is the sixth \"timeless song\" on Spotify.",
"The two songs make Linkin Park the only artist to have two timeless songs in the top ten.",
"''Hybrid Theory'' by the group was listed in the 2005 edition of the book ''1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die'', It was also ranked at #11 on ''Billboard'' ''Hot 200 Albums of the Decade''.",
"In addition the album was included in ''Best of 2001'' by ''Record Collector'', ''The top 150 Albums of the Generation'' by ''Rock Sound'' and ''50 Best Rock Albums of the 2000s'' by ''Kerrang!''.",
"The album ''Meteora'' was included in ''Top 200 Albums of the Decade'' by ''Billboard'' at No.",
"36.The album sold 20 million copies worldwide.",
"The collaborative EP ''Collision Course'' with Jay-Z became the second ever EP to top the ''Billboard'' 200, going on to sell over 300,000 copies in its first week after Alice in Chains' ''Jar of Flies'' in 1994.The album ''Minutes to Midnight'', in the United States, had the biggest first week sales of 2007 at the time, with 625,000 albums sold.",
"In Canada, the album sold over 50,000 copies in its first week and debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart.",
"Worldwide, the album shipped over 3.3 million copies in its first four weeks of release.",
"''The New York Times'' Jon Caramanica commented Linkin Park \"brought the collision of hard rock and hip-hop to its commercial and aesthetic peak\" at the beginning of the 2000s.",
"Several rock and non-rock artists have cited Linkin Park as an influence, including Of Mice & Men, One OK Rock, Kutless, My Heart to Fear, Ill Niño, Bishop Nehru, From Ashes to New, Bring Me the Horizon, Spyair, Hardy, I Prevail, Crossfaith, AJ Tracey, the Chainsmokers, The Devil Wears Prada, Steve Aoki, Blackbear, Halsey, Amber Liu, Machine Gun Kelly, Billie Eilish, Starset, and the Weeknd.On August 20, 2020, their 20th anniversary, Linkin Park collaborated with virtual reality rhythm game ''Beat Saber'' to release 11 maps based on their songs."
],
[
"Band members",
"'''Current members'''* Mike Shinoda – vocals, rapping, rhythm guitar, keyboards, samples , * Brad Delson – lead guitar , backing vocals * Rob Bourdon – drums, percussion , occasional backing vocals * Joe Hahn – turntables, samples, programming , backing vocals * Dave Farrell – bass , backing vocals '''Former members'''* Mark Wakefield – lead vocals * Chester Bennington – lead vocals , occasional rhythm guitar '''Session and touring musicians'''* Kyle Christner – bass * Scott Koziol – bass * Ian Hornbeck – bass '''Timeline'''=== Gallery ===File:Linkin Park-Rock im Park 2014- by 2eight 3SC0450.jpg|alt=|Mike ShinodaFile:Linkin Park-Rock im Park 2014- by 2eight 3SC0285.jpg|alt=|Brad DelsonFile:Linkin Park-Rock im Park 2014- by 2eight 3SC0692.jpg|alt=|Rob BourdonFile:Joe-hahn-linkinpark-singapore-2011.cropped.jpg|alt=|Joe HahnFile:Linkin Park-Rock im Park 2014- by 2eight 3SC0327.jpg|alt=|Chester BenningtonFile:Dave Farrell 2014.JPG|alt=|Dave Farrell"
],
[
"Discography",
"'''Studio albums'''* ''Hybrid Theory'' (2000)* ''Meteora'' (2003)* ''Minutes to Midnight'' (2007)* ''A Thousand Suns'' (2010)* ''Living Things'' (2012)* ''The Hunting Party'' (2014)* ''One More Light'' (2017)"
],
[
"Awards and nominations"
],
[
"Concert tours",
"'''Headlining'''* Hybrid Theory World Tour (2001)* Projekt Revolution (2002–2008, 2011)* LP Underground Tour (2003)* Meteora World Tour (2004)* Minutes to Midnight World Tour (2007–08)* International Tour (2009)* A Thousand Suns World Tour (2010–11)* Living Things World Tour (2012–13)* The Hunting Party Tour (2014–15)* One More Light World Tour (2017)* Linkin Park and Friends: Celebrate Life in Honor of Chester Bennington (2017)'''Co-headlining'''* 11th Annual Honda Civic Tour (2012)* Carnivores Tour (2014)"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of best-selling music artists* List of best-selling albums* List of best-selling remix albums* List of best-selling singles* List of best-selling albums in the United States* List of songs recorded by Linkin Park* List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. alternative rock chart"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * musicforrelief.org"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Flipper (cricket)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''flipper''' is a particular bowling delivery used in cricket, generally by a leg spin bowler.",
"In essence it is a back spin ball.",
"Squeezed out of the front of the hand with the thumb and first and second fingers, it keeps deceptively low after pitching and can accordingly be very difficult to play.",
"The flipper is comparable to a riseball in fast-pitch softball.",
"With backspin on the ball the Magnus effect results in air travelling over the top of the ball quickly and cleanly while air travelling under the ball is turbulent.",
"The lift so produced causes the ball to drop slower and it travels further than a normal delivery.",
"The slower descent also results in the ball bouncing lower.The flipper is bowled on the opposite side from a slider, much in the same way that the top-spinner is bowled.",
"On release, the bowler 'pinches' or clicks the thumb and forefinger, causing the ball to come out underneath the hand.",
"There must be sufficient tension in the wrist and fingers to impart sufficient backspin.",
"In doing so the flipper will float towards the batsman and land on a fuller length than he anticipated, often leaving him caught on the back foot when he wrongly assumes it to be a pullable or a cuttable ball.",
"The back spin or will cause the ball to proceed with very little bounce, though this may be harder to achieve on softer wickets.",
"A series of normal leg spinners or topspinners, with their dropping looping flight, will have the batsman used to the ball pitching on a shorter length.",
"The batsman may wrongly assume that the flipper will drop and loop like a normal overspinning delivery, resulting in the ball pitching under the bat and going on either to hit the stumps or result in leg before wicket.Much of the effectiveness of the flipper is attributable to the \"pop\", that is, the extra pace and change in trajectory that is imparted to the ball when it is squeezed out of the bowler's hand.Occasionally, the term 'flipper' has been used to describe other types of deliveries.",
"The Australian leg spinner Bob Holland employed a back spinning ball that he simply pushed backwards with the heel of his palm.",
"Sometimes this form of front-hand flipper is called a \"zooter\".",
"It is easier to bowl but not as effective as the amount of backspin is much less."
],
[
"Bowlers of the flipper",
"It was reputedly invented by the Australian leg-spinner Clarrie Grimmett.",
"Grimmett became so enamoured with the delivery that at times he bowled it almost as frequently as his stock leg break.",
"The great Don Bradman once remarked to Grimmett that he must have forgotten how to bowl a leg break, as he bowled so many flippers.",
"Bradman was bowled shortly thereafter at a memorial match by Grimmett who produced a perfectly pitched stock ball that turned just enough to remove Bradman's off bail.",
"\"There y'are Don, I told you I could bowl a leg break\" was Grimmett's alleged response.The flipper was perfected by Cowandilla-raised \"leg spinning magician\" and Wisden Cricketer of the year, Bruce Dooland, who taught it to Richie Benaud.",
"The flipper was the signature delivery of Anil Kumble of India and the Australian leg-spinner Shane Warne in his earlier years, until injury and later shoulder surgery restricted his ability to bowl flippers accurately.",
"Like the googly, it may become more difficult to bowl as a bowler ages due to the flexibility and suppleness it demands from the bowler's wrist.It is difficult to disguise the flipper entirely when bowling, as the hand action is distinctly different from a leg break.",
"When Clarrie Grimmett first began bowling the delivery, batsmen would listen for the telltale clicking sound of his fingers; to compensate, Grimmett would often click the fingers of his non-bowling hand when ''not'' bowling the flipper to confuse the batsman.Abdul Qadir of Pakistan achieved great success with the flipper making it one of his signature deliveries, along with him Shane Warne was also arguably the leading exponent of the flipper in more recent times.",
"Anil Kumble of India used the flipper well to his advantage.",
"Brad Hogg of Australia has also used the flipper with great success in limited overs cricket."
],
[
"See also",
"*Cricket terminology*Leg spin*Googly*Carrom Ball* Doosra* Wrist spin* Top Spin"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Flipper pictured and described"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lake Nicaragua"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lake Nicaragua''' or ''' Cocibolca''' or '''Granada''' (, , or ) is a freshwater lake in Nicaragua.",
"Of tectonic origin and with an area of , it is the largest lake in Central America, the 19th largest lake in the world (by area) and the tenth largest in the Americas, slightly smaller than Lake Titicaca.",
"With an elevation of above sea level, the lake reaches a depth of .",
"It is intermittently joined by the Tipitapa River to Lake Managua.The lake drains via the San Juan River flowing east to the Caribbean Sea, historically making the city Granada on the northwest shore an Atlantic port, although Granada (as well as the entire lake) is closer to the Pacific Ocean geographically.",
"The Pacific is near enough to be seen from the mountains of the largest island in the lake, Ometepe.",
"The lake has a history of Caribbean pirates who assaulted Granada on three occasions.",
"Before construction of the Panama Canal, a stagecoach line owned by Cornelius Vanderbilt's Accessory Transit Company connected the lake with the Pacific across the low hills of the narrow Isthmus of Rivas.",
"Plans were made to take advantage of this route to build an interoceanic canal, the Nicaragua Canal, but the Panama Canal was built instead.",
"In order to quell competition with the Panama Canal, the U.S. secured all rights to a canal along this route in the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty of 1916.However, since this treaty was mutually rescinded by the United States and Nicaragua in 1970, the idea of another canal in Nicaragua still periodically resurfaced, such as the Ecocanal proposal.",
"In 2014, the government of Nicaragua offered a 50-year concession to the Hong Kong Nicaragua Canal Development Investment Company (HKND) to build a canal across Nicaragua at a cost of US$40 billion, with construction beginning in December 2014 and completing in 2019.Protests against the ecological and social effects of the canal as well as questions about financing have led to doubts about the project."
],
[
"Lake ecology",
"Lake Nicaragua, despite being a freshwater lake, has sawfish, tarpon, and sharks.",
"Initially, scientists thought the sharks in the lake were an endemic species, the Lake Nicaragua shark (''Carcharhinus nicaraguensis'').",
"In 1961, following comparisons of specimens, it was synonymized with the widespread bull shark (''C.",
"leucas''), a species also known for entering freshwater elsewhere around the world.",
"It had been presumed that the sharks were trapped within the lake, but this was found to be incorrect in the late 1960s, when it was discovered that they were able to jump along the rapids of the San Juan River — which connects Lake Nicaragua with the Caribbean Sea — almost like salmon.",
"As evidence of these movements, bull sharks tagged inside the lake have later been caught in the open ocean (and vice versa), with some taking as little as 7–11 days to complete the journey.",
"Numerous other species of fish live in the lake, including at least 16 cichlids that are endemic to the general region.",
"None of these are strictly endemic to Lake Nicaragua, although ''Amphilophus labiatus'' is native only to Lake Nicaragua and Lake Managua.",
"A non-native cichlid, a tilapia, is used widely in aquaculture within the lake.",
"Owing to the large amount of waste they produce, and the risk of introducing diseases to which the native fish species have no resistance, they are potentially a serious threat to the lake's ecosystem.The nation's largest source of freshwater, Nicaraguans call it or (literally \"Sweet Sea\"; in Spanish, \"freshwater\" is ).",
"The lake has sizeable waves driven by the easterly winds blowing west to the Pacific Ocean.",
"The lake holds Ometepe and Zapatera, which are both volcanic islands, as well as the archipelago of the Solentiname Islands.",
"The lake has a reputation for periodically powerful storms.In the past 37 years, considerable concern has been expressed about the ecological condition of Lake Nicaragua.",
"In 1981 the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources (MARENA) conducted an environmental assessment study and found that half of the water sources sampled were seriously polluted by sewage.",
"It was found that 32 tons (70,000 pounds) of raw sewage were being released into Lake Nicaragua daily.",
"Industry located along the lake's shore had been dumping effluent for an extended period of time.",
"Pennwalt Chemical Corporation was found to be the worst polluter.",
"Nicaragua's economic situation has hampered the building of treatment facilities nationwide (see: Water supply and sanitation in Nicaragua).The country's worst drought in 32 years took its toll on the lake in 2014; the Nicaraguan government recommended citizens to raise and eat iguanas over chickens to reduce water consumption.",
"Also, plans for the Nicaragua Canal through the lake could lead to saltwater and other contamination during construction and operation of the canal."
],
[
"See also",
"*Piracy on Lake Nicaragua*Zapatera Archipelago"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* JPL NASA: Perspective View with Landsat Overlay, Lakes Managua and Nicaragua"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Labour law"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Labour laws''' (also spelled as '''labor laws'''), '''labour code''' or '''employment laws''' are those that mediate the relationship between workers, employing entities, trade unions, and the government.",
"Collective labour law relates to the tripartite relationship between employee, employer, and union.Individual labour law concerns employees' rights at work also through the contract for work.",
"are social norms (in some cases also technical standards) for the minimum socially acceptable conditions under which employees or contractors are allowed to work.",
"Government agencies (such as the former US Employment Standards Administration) enforce labour law (legislature, regulatory, or judicial)."
],
[
"History",
"Following the unification of the city-states in Assyria and Sumer by Sargon of Akkad into a single empire ruled from his home city circa 2334 BC, common Mesopotamian standards for length, area, volume, weight, and time used by artisan guilds in each city was promulgated by Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2254–2218 BC), Sargon's grandson, including for shekels.",
"Code of Hammurabi Law 234 (c. 1755–1750 BC) stipulated a 2-shekel prevailing wage for each 60-gur (300-bushel) vessel constructed in an employment contract between a shipbuilder and a ship-owner.Law 275 stipulated a ferry rate of 3-gerah per day on a charterparty between a ship charterer and a shipmaster.",
"Law 276 stipulated a 2-gerah per day freight rate on a contract of affreightment between a charterer and shipmaster, while Law 277 stipulated a -shekel per day freight rate for a 60-gur vessel.In 1816, an archeological excavation in Minya, Egypt (under an Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire) produced a Nerva–Antonine dynasty-era tablet from the ruins of the Temple of Antinous in Antinoöpolis, Aegyptus that prescribed the rules and membership dues of a burial society ''collegium'' established in Lanuvium, Italia in approximately 133 AD during the reign of Hadrian (117–138) of the Roman Empire.A ''collegium'' was any association in ancient Rome that acted as a legal entity.",
"Following the passage of the ''Lex Julia'' during the reign of Julius Caesar as Consul and Dictator of the Roman Republic (49–44 BC), and their reaffirmation during the reign of Caesar Augustus as ''Princeps senatus'' and Imperator of the Roman Army (27 BC–14 AD), ''collegia'' required the approval of the Roman Senate or the Emperor in order to be authorized as legal bodies.",
"Ruins at Lambaesis date the formation of burial societies among Roman Army soldiers and Roman Navy mariners to the reign of Septimius Severus (193–211) in 198 AD.In September 2011, archeological investigations done at the site of the artificial harbour Portus in Rome revealed inscriptions in a shipyard constructed during the reign of Trajan (98–117) indicating the existence of a shipbuilders guild.",
"Rome's La Ostia port was home to a guildhall for a ''corpus naviculariorum'', a ''collegium'' of merchant mariners.",
"''Collegium'' also included fraternities of Roman priests overseeing ritual sacrifices, practicing augury, keeping scriptures, arranging festivals, and maintaining specific religious cults.Labour law arose in parallel with the Industrial Revolution as the relationship between worker and employer changed from small-scale production studios to large-scale factories.",
"Workers sought better conditions and the right to join a labour union, while employers sought a more predictable, flexible and less costly workforce.",
"The state of labour law at any one time is therefore both the product of and a component of struggles between various social forces.As England was the first country to industrialize, it was also the first to face the often appalling consequences of the industrial revolution in a less regulated economic framework.",
"Over the course of the late 18th and early to the mid-19th century the foundation for modern labour law was slowly laid, as some of the more egregious aspects of working conditions were steadily ameliorated through legislation.",
"This was largely achieved through the concerted pressure from social reformers, notably Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and others.===Child labour===A serious outbreak of fever in 1784 in cotton mills near Manchester drew widespread public opinion against the use of children in dangerous conditions.",
"A local inquiry presided over by Dr Thomas Percival, was instituted by the justices of the peace for Lancashire, and the resulting report recommended the limitation of children's working hours.",
"In 1802, the first major piece of labour legislation was passed − the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act.",
"This was the first, albeit modest, step towards the protection of labour.",
"The act limited working hours to twelve a day and abolished night work.",
"It required the provision of a basic level of education for all apprentices, as well as adequate sleeping accommodation and clothing.The rapid industrialisation of manufacturing at the turn of the 19th century led to a rapid increase in child employment, and public opinion was steadily made aware of the terrible conditions these children were forced to endure.",
"The Cotton Mills and Factories Act 1819 was the outcome of the efforts of the industrialist Robert Owen and prohibited child labour under nine years of age and limited the working hours to twelve.",
"A great milestone in labour law was reached with the Factories Act 1833, which limited the employment of children under eighteen years of age, prohibited all night work, and, crucially, provided for inspectors to enforce the law.",
"Pivotal in the campaigning for and the securing of this legislation were Michael Sadler and the Earl of Shaftesbury.",
"This act was an important step forward, in that it mandated skilled inspection of workplaces and rigorous enforcement of the law by an independent governmental body.A lengthy campaign to limit the working day to ten hours was led by Shaftesbury and included support from the Anglican Church.",
"Many committees were formed in support of the cause and some previously established groups lent their support as well.",
"The campaign finally led to the passage of the Factory Act 1847, which restricted the working hours of women and children in British factories to effectively 10 hours per day.===Working conditions===These early efforts were principally aimed at limiting child labour.",
"From the mid-19th century, attention was first paid to the plight of working conditions for the workforce in general.",
"In 1850, systematic reporting of fatal accidents was made compulsory, and basic safeguards for health, life and limb in the mines were put in place from 1855.Further regulations, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused shafts, signalling standards, and proper gauges and valves for steam-boilers and related machinery were also set down.A series of further Acts, in 1860 and 1872 extended the legal provisions and strengthened safety provisions.",
"The steady development of the coal industry, an increasing association among miners, and increased scientific knowledge paved the way for the Coal Mines Act of 1872, which extended the legislation to similar industries.",
"The same Act included the first comprehensive code of regulation to govern legal safeguards for health, life and limb.",
"The presence of more certified and competent management and increased levels of inspection were also provided for.By the end of the century, a comprehensive set of regulations was in place in England that affected all industries.",
"A similar system (with certain national differences) was implemented in other industrializing countries in the latter part of the 19th century and the early 20th century.."
],
[
"Individual labour law",
"===Employment terms===The basic feature of labour law in almost every country is that the rights and obligations of the worker and the employer are mediated through a contract of employment between the two.",
"This has been the case since the collapse of feudalism.",
"Many contract terms and conditions are covered by legislation or common law.",
"In the US for example, the majority of state laws allow for employment to be \"at-will\", meaning the employer can terminate an employee from a position for any reason so long as the reason is not explicitly prohibited, and, conversely, an employee may quit at any time, for any reason (or for no reason), and is not required to give notice.A major issue for any business is to understand the relationship between the worker and the master.",
"There are two types of workers, independent contractors and employees.",
"They are differentiated based on the level of control the master has on them.",
"Workers provided tools and resources, closely supervised, paid regularly, etc., are considered employees of the company.",
"Employees must act in the best interest of the employer.One example of employment terms in many countries is the duty to provide written particulars of employment with the ''essentialia negotii'' (Latin for \"essential terms\") to an employee.",
"This aims to allow the employee to know concretely what to expect and what is expected.",
"It covers items including compensation, holiday and illness rights, notice in the event of dismissal and job description.The contract is subject to various legal provisions.",
"An employer may not legally offer a contract that pays the worker less than a minimum wage.",
"An employee may not agree to a contract that allows an employer to dismiss them for illegal reasons.Intellectual property is the vital asset of the business, employees add value to the company by creating Intellectual Property.",
"As per Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), Intellectual Property is personal property.",
"Intellectual property is used as competitive advantage by big companies to protect themselves from rivalry.",
"Given the conditions, if the worker is in the agent-principal relationship, he is the employee of the company, and if the employee's invention is in the scope of employment i.e.",
"if the employee creates a new product or process to increase the productivity and create organizations' wealth by utilizing the resources of the company, then the Intellectual property solely belongs to the company.",
"New business products or processes are protected under Patents.There are differing opinions on what constitutes a patentable invention.",
"One area of disagreement is with respect to software inventions, but there have been court cases that have established some precedents.",
"For example, in the case ''Diamond v. Diehr'' the US Supreme Court decided that Diehr is patent- eligible because they improved the existing technological process, not because they were implemented on a computer.===Minimum wage===Many jurisdictions define the minimum amount that a worker can be paid per hour.",
"Algeria, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Greece, Hungary, India, Ireland, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Paraguay, Portugal, Poland, Romania, Spain, Taiwan, the UK, the US, Vietnam, Germany (in 2015) and others have laws of this kind.",
"The minimum wage is set usually higher than the lowest wage as determined by the forces of supply and demand in a free market and therefore acts as a price floor.",
"Each country sets its own minimum wage laws and regulations, and while a majority of industrialized countries has a minimum wage, many developing countries do not.Minimum wages are regulated and stipulated in some countries that lack explicit laws.",
"The US is regulated by the Fair Labor Standards Act and has explicit laws, whereas other countries such as Sweden might lack explicit laws.",
"In Sweden minimum wages are negotiated between the labour market parties (unions and employer organizations) through collective agreements that also cover non-union workers at workplaces with collective agreements.At workplaces without collective agreements there exist no minimum wages.",
"Non-organized employers can sign substitute agreements directly with trade unions but far from all do.",
"The Swedish case illustrates that in countries without statutory regulation part of the labour market may not have regulated minimum wages, as self-regulation only applies to workplaces and employees covered by collective agreements (in Sweden about 90 per cent of employees).National minimum wage laws were first introduced in the United States in 1938, Brazil in 1940 India in 1948, France in 1950 and in the UK in 1998.In the European Union, 18 out of 28 member states have national minimum wages as of 2011.===Living wage===The living wage is higher than the minimum wage and is designed so that a full-time worker should be able to support themselves and a small family at that wage.===Hours===The maximum number of hours worked per day or other time intervals are set by law in many countries.",
"Such laws also control whether workers who work longer hours must be paid additional compensation.Before the Industrial Revolution, the workday varied between 11 and 14 hours.",
"With the growth of industrialism and the introduction of machinery, longer hours became far more common, reaching as high as 16 hours per day.",
"The eight-hour movement led to the first law on the length of a working day, passed in 1833 in England.",
"It limited miners to 12 hours and children to 8 hours.",
"The 10-hour day was established in 1848, and shorter hours with the same pay were gradually accepted thereafter.",
"The 1802 Factory Act was the first labour law in the UK.Germany was the next European country to pass labour laws.",
"Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's main goal was to undermine the Social Democratic Party of Germany.",
"In 1878, Bismarck instituted a variety of anti-socialist measures, but despite this, socialists continued gaining seats in the Reichstag.",
"To appease the working class, he enacted a variety of paternalistic social reforms, which became the first type of social security.In 1883, the Health Insurance Act was passed, which entitled workers to health insurance.",
"The worker paid two-thirds and the employer one-third of the premiums.",
"Accident insurance was provided in 1884, while old-age pensions and disability insurance followed in 1889.Other laws restricted the employment of women and children.",
"These efforts, however, were not entirely successful; the working class largely remained unreconciled with Bismarck's conservative government.In France, the first labour law was voted in 1841.It limited under-age miners' hours.",
"In the Third Republic labour law was first effectively enforced, in particular after Waldeck-Rousseau 1884 law legalising trade unions.",
"With the Matignon Accords, the Popular Front (1936–38) enacted the laws mandating 12 days each year of paid vacations for workers and the law limiting the standard workweek to 40 hours.===Health and safety===Other labour laws involve safety concerning workers.",
"The earliest English factory law was passed in 1802 and dealt with the safety and health of child labourers in textile mills.===Discrimination===Such laws prohibit discrimination against employees, in particular racial discrimination or gender discrimination.===Dismissal===Convention no.",
"158 of the International Labour Organization states that an employee \"can't be fired without any legitimate motive\" and \"before offering him the possibility to defend himself\".",
"Thus, on April 28, 2006, after the unofficial repeal of the French First Employment Contract, the Longjumeau (Essonne) ''conseil des prud'hommes'' (labour law court) judged the New Employment Contract contrary to international law and therefore \"illegitimate\" and \"without any juridical value\".",
"The court considered that the two-years period of \"fire at will\" (without any legal motive) was \"unreasonable\", and contrary to convention.===Child labour===Two girls wearing banners in Yiddish and English with the slogan \"Abolish child slavery\" at the 1909 International Workers' Day parade in New York CityChild labour was not seen as a problem throughout most of history, only disputed with the beginning of universal schooling and the concepts of labourers' and children's rights.",
"Use of child labour was commonplace, often in factories.",
"In England and Scotland in 1788, about two-thirds of persons working in water-powered textile factories were children.",
"Child labour can be factory work, mining or quarrying, agriculture, helping in the parents' business, operating a small business (such as selling food), or doing odd jobs.Children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants (where they may also work).",
"Other children do jobs such as assembling boxes or polishing shoes.",
"However, rather than in factories and sweatshops, most child labour in the twenty-first century occurs in the informal sector, \"selling on the street, at work in agriculture or hidden away in houses — far from the reach of official inspectors and from media scrutiny.\""
],
[
"Collective labour law",
"Collective labour law concerns the relationship between employer, employee and trade unions.",
"Trade unions (also \"labour unions\" in the US) are organizations which generally aim to promote the interests of their members.",
"This law regulates the wages, benefits, and duties of the employees, and the dispute management between the company and the trade union.",
"Such matters are often described in a collective labour agreement (CLA).===Trade unions===Trade unions are organized groups of workers who engage in collective bargaining with employers.",
"Some countries require unions and/or employers to follow particular procedures in pursuit of their goals.",
"For example, some countries require that unions poll the membership to approve a strike or to approve using members' dues for political projects.",
"Laws may govern the circumstances and procedures under which unions are formed.",
"They may guarantee the right to join a union (banning employer discrimination), or remain silent in this respect.",
"Some legal codes allow unions to obligate their members, such as the requirement to comply with a majority decision in a strike vote.",
"Some restrict this, such as \"right to work\" legislation in parts of the United States.In the different organization in the different countries trade union discuses with the employee on behalf of employer.",
"At that time trade union discussed or talk with the manpower of the organization.",
"At that time trade union perform his roles like a bridge between the employee and employer.===Workplace participation===A legally binding right for workers as a group to participate in workplace management is acknowledged in some form in most developed countries.",
"In a majority of EU member states (for example, Germany, Sweden, and France), the workforce has a right to elect directors on the board of large corporations.",
"This is usually called \"codetermination\" and currently most countries allow for the election of one-third of the board, though the workforce can have the right to elect anywhere from a single director, to just under a half in Germany.",
"However, German company law uses a split board system, in which a \"supervisory board\" appoints an \"executive board\".Under the Mitbestimmungsgesetz 1976, shareholders and employees elect the supervisory board in equal numbers, but the head of the supervisory board with a casting vote is a shareholder representative.",
"The first statutes to introduce board-level codetermination were in Britain, however, most of these measures, except in universities, were removed in 1948 and 1979.The oldest surviving statute is found in the United States, in the Massachusetts Laws on manufacturing corporations, introduced in 1919, however, this was always voluntary.In the United Kingdom, similar proposals were drawn up, and a command paper produced named the Bullock Report (Industrial Democracy) was released in 1977 by the James Callaghan Labour Party government.",
"Unions would have directly elected half of the board.",
"An \"independent\" element would also be added.",
"However, the proposal was not enacted.",
"The European Commission offered proposals for worker participation in the \"fifth company law directive\", which was also not implemented.In Sweden, participation is regulated through the \"Law on board representation\".",
"The law covers all private companies with 25 or more employees.",
"In these companies, workers (usually through unions) have a right to appoint two board members and two substitutes.",
"If the company has more than 1,000 employees, this rises to three members and three substitutes.",
"It is common practice to allocate them among the major union coalitions.===Information and consultation===Workplace statutes in many countries require that employers consult their workers on various issues.===Collective bargaining======Collective action===Strikers gathering in Tyldesley, Greater Manchester in the 1926 United Kingdom general strikeStrike action is the worker tactic most associated with industrial disputes.",
"In most countries, strikes are legal under a circumscribed set of conditions.",
"Among them may be that:* The strike is decided on by a prescribed democratic process (wildcat strikes are illegal).",
"* Sympathy strikes, against a company by which workers are not directly employed, may be prohibited.",
"* General strikes may be forbidden for example, among public safety workers, to maintain public order.A boycott is a refusal to buy, sell, or otherwise trade with an individual or business.",
"Other tactics include go-slow, sabotage, work-to-rule, sit-in or en-masse not reporting to work.",
"Some labour law explicitly bans such activity, none explicitly allows it.Picketing is often used by workers during strikes.",
"They may congregate near the business they are striking against to make their presence felt, increase worker participation and dissuade (or prevent) strike breakers from entering the workplace.",
"In many countries, this activity is restricted by law, by more general law restricting demonstrations, or by injunctions on particular pickets.For example, labour law may restrict secondary picketing (picketing a business connected with the company not directly with the dispute, such as a supplier), or flying pickets (mobile strikers who travel to join a picket).",
"Laws may prohibit obstructing others from conducting lawful business; outlaw obstructive pickets allow court orders to restrict picketing locations or behaving in particular ways (shouting abuse, for example)."
],
[
"International labour law",
"The labour movement has long been concerned that economic globalization would weaken worker bargaining power, as their employers could hire workers abroad to avoid domestic labour standards.",
"Karl Marx said:The International Labour Organization and the World Trade Organization have been a primary focus among international bodies for regulating labour markets.",
"Conflicts arise when people work in more than one country.",
"EU law has a growing body of workplace rules.===International Labour Organization===Following World War I, the Treaty of Versailles contained the first constitution of a new International Labour Organization (ILO) founded on the principle that \"labour is not a commodity\", and for the reason that \"peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice\".",
"ILO's primary role has been to coordinate international labour law by issuing Conventions.",
"ILO members can voluntarily adopt and ratify the Conventions.",
"For instance, the first Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919 required a maximum of a 48-hour week, and has been ratified by 52 out of 185 member states.",
"The UK ultimately refused to ratify the Convention, as did many current EU members, although the Working Time Directive adopts its principles, subject to individual opt-out.",
"ILO's constitution comes from the 1944 Declaration of Philadelphia and under the 1998 Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work classified eight conventions as core.These require freedom to join a union, bargain collectively and take action (Conventions No.",
"87 and 98), abolition of forced labour (29 and 105), abolition of labour by children before the end of compulsory school (138 and 182), and no discrimination at work (No.",
"100 and 111).",
"Member compliance with the core Conventions is obligatory, even if the country has not ratified the Convention in question.",
"To ensure compliance, the ILO is limited to gathering evidence and reporting on member states' progress, relying on publicity to create pressure to reform.",
"Global reports on core standards are produced yearly, while individual reports on countries who have ratified other Conventions are compiled on a bi-annual or less frequent basis.As one of the only international organizations with real enforcement power through trade sanctions, the WTO has been the target for calls by labour lawyers to incorporate global standards of the International Labour Organization.Because the ILO's enforcement mechanisms are weak, incorporating labour standards in the World Trade Organization's (WTO) operation has been proposed.",
"WTO oversees, primarily, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade treaty aimed at reducing customs, tariffs and other barriers to import and export of goods, services and capital between its 157 member countries.",
"Unlike for the ILO, contravening WTO rules as recognized by the dispute settlement procedures opens a country to retaliation through trade sanctions.",
"This could include reinstatement of targeted tariffs against the offender.Proponents have called for a \"social clause\" to be inserted into the GATT agreements, for example, by amending Article XX, which provides an exception that allows imposition of sanctions for breaches of human rights.",
"An explicit reference to core labour standards could allow comparable action where a WTO member state breaches ILO standards.",
"Opponents argue that such an approach could undermine labour rights, because industries, and therefore workforces could be harmed with no guarantee of reform.",
"Furthermore, it was argued in the 1996 Singapore Ministerial Declaration 1996 that \"the comparative advantage of countries, particularly low-age developing countries, must in no way be put into question.",
"\"Some countries want to take advantage of low wages and fewer rules as a comparative advantage to boost their economies.",
"Another contested point is whether business moves production from high wage to low wage countries, given potential differences in worker productivity.",
"Since GATT, most trade agreements have been bilateral.",
"Some of these protect core labour standards.",
"Moreover, in domestic tariff regulations, some countries give preference to countries that respect core labour rights, for example under the EC Tariff Preference Regulation, articles 7 and 8.===Work in multiple countries===Conflicts of laws (or private international law) issues arise where workers work in multiple jurisdictions.",
"If a US worker performs part of her job in Brazil, China and Denmark (a \"peripatetic\" worker) an employer may seek to characterize the employment contract as governed by the law of the country where labour rights are least favourable to the worker, or seek to argue that the most favourable system of labour rights does not apply.",
"For example, in a UK labour law case, ''Ravat v Halliburton Manufacturing and Services Ltd'' Ravat was from the UK but was employed in Libya by a German company that was part of Halliburton.",
"He was dismissed by a supervisor based in Egypt.",
"He was told he would be hired under UK law terms and conditions, and this was arranged by a staffing department in Aberdeen.",
"Under the UK Employment Rights Act 1996 he would have a right to claim unfair dismissal, but the Act left open the question of the statute's territorial scope.",
"The UK Supreme Court held that the principle would be that an expatriate worker, would be subject to UK rules if the worker could show a \"close connection\" to the UK, which was found in Rabat's case.This fits within the general framework in the EU.",
"Under EU Rome I Regulation article 8, workers have employment rights of the country where they habitually work.",
"They may have a claim in another country if they can establish a close connection to it.",
"The Regulation emphasises that the rules should be applied with the purpose of protecting the worker.It is also necessary that a court has jurisdiction to hear a claim.",
"Under the Brussels I Regulation article 19, this requires the worker habitually works in the place where the claim is brought or is engaged there.===EU law===The European Union has extensive labour laws that officially exclude, according to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, matters around direct wage regulation (e.g.",
"setting a minimum wage), the fairness of dismissals and collective bargaining.",
"A series of Directives regulate almost all other issues, for instance the Working Time Directive guarantees 28 days of paid holiday, the Equality Framework Directive prohibits all forms of discrimination and the Collective Redundancies Directive requires that proper notice is given and consultation takes place on decisions about economic dismissals.The European Court of Justice has recently extended the Treaties provisions via case law.",
"Trade unions have sought to organize across borders in the same way that multinational corporations have organized production globally.",
"Unions have sought to take collective action and strikes internationally.",
"This coordination was challenged in the European Union in two controversial decisions.",
"In ''Laval Ltd v Swedish Builders Union'' a group of Latvian workers were sent to a construction site in Sweden.",
"The local union took industrial action to make Laval Ltd sign up to the local collective bargaining agreement.Under the Posted Workers Directive, article 3 lays down minimum standards for foreign workers so that workers receive at least the minimum rights that they would have in their home country in case their place of work has lower minimum rights.",
"Article 3(7) says that this \"shall not prevent application of terms and conditions of employment which are more favourable to workers\".",
"Most people thought this meant that more favourable conditions could be given than the minimum (e.g., in Latvian law) by the host state's legislation or a collective agreement.The European Court of Justice (ECJ) said that only the local state could raise standards beyond its minimum for foreign workers.",
"Any attempt by the host state, or a collective agreement (unless the collective agreement is declared universal under article 3(8)) would infringe the business' freedom under TFEU article 56.This decision was implicitly reversed by the European Union legislature in the Rome I Regulation, which makes clear in recital 34 that the host state may allow more favourable standards.In ''The Rosella'', the ECJ held that a blockade by the International Transport Workers Federation against a business that was using an Estonian flag of convenience (i.e., saying it was operating under Estonian law to avoid labour standards of Finland) infringed the business' right of free establishment under TFEU article 49.The ECJ said that it recognized the workers' \"right to strike\" in accordance with ILO Convention 87, but said that its use must be proportionately to the right of the business' establishment."
],
[
"National labour laws",
"=== Angola ====== Australia ===The Fair Work Act of 2009 provides the regulations governing Australian workplaces and employers.",
"Australia has a minimum wage and workplace conditions overseen by the Fair Work Commission.=== Benin ====== Belgium ====== Canada ===The interior of one of the Eaton's factories in Toronto, CanadaIn Canadian law, \"labour law\" refers to matters connected with unionized workplaces, while \"employment law\" deals with non-unionized employees.In 2017, Premier Brad Wall announced that Saskatchewan's government is to cut 3.5 per cent from its workers and officers' wages in 2018.This salary cut includes MLA ministers and the Premier's office staff along with all people employed by the government.",
"Unpaid days off will also be implemented as well as limiting overtime to assist the wage cut.=== China ===In China the basic labour laws are the ''Labour Law of People's Republic of China'' (1994) and the ''Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of China'' (adopted at the 10th National People's Congress, effective 2008).",
"The administrative regulations enacted by the State Council, the ministerial rules and the judicial explanations of the Supreme People's Court stipulate detailed rules concerning various aspects of employment.",
"The government-controlled All China Federation of Trade Unions is the sole legal labour union.",
"Strikes are formally legal, but in practice are discouraged.=== Czech Republic ===In Czech Republic, the relevant regulation is called the Labour Code ().",
"The new labour code of the Czech Republic No.262/2006 Sb.",
"effective from 1 January 2007, superseded the Code of 65/1965.=== France ===In France, the first labour laws were Waldeck Rousseau's laws passed in 1884.Between 1936 and 1938 the Popular Front enacted a law mandating 12 days (2 weeks) each year of paid vacation for workers, and a law limited the work week to 40 hours, excluding overtime.",
"The Grenelle accords negotiated on May 25 and 26th in the middle of the May 1968 crisis, reduced the working week to 44 hours and created trade union sections in each enterprise.",
"The minimum wage was increased by 25%.In 2000, Lionel Jospin's government enacted the 35-hour workweek, reduced from 39 hours.",
"Five years later, conservative prime minister Dominique de Villepin enacted the New Employment Contract (CNE).",
"Addressing the demands of employers asking for more flexibility in French labour laws, the CNE sparked criticism from trade unions and opponents claiming it favoured contingent work.",
"In 2006, he then attempted to pass the First Employment Contract (CPE) through a vote by emergency procedure, but that was met by students and unions' protests.",
"President Jacques Chirac finally had no choice but to repeal it.=== Poland ===In Poland, the main act on the Labour Law is the Polish Labour Code from 1974.Since its introduction into the legal system the act is constantly being adapted and updated to the current reality of the labour market in Poland.",
"The basic form of employment in Poland is an employment contract, which can be concluded for a probation period, a definite period of time or an indefinite period of time.",
"The Polish Labour Code provides regulations on employee benefits, annual leave, termination of the employment contract, discrimination in the workplace, disciplinary liability and many other employment-related issues.",
"Polish employment contracts can be terminated in many ways, e.g.",
"in a disciplinary mode, by a termination with a notice period or by a mutual agreement of both parts.=== India ===Over fifty national and many more state-level laws govern work in India.",
"So for instance, a permanent worker can be terminated only for proven misconduct or habitual absence.",
"In the Uttam Nakate case, the Bombay High Court held that dismissing an employee for repeated sleeping on the factory floor was illegal – the decision was overturned by the Supreme Court of India two decades later.",
"In 2008, the World Bank criticized the complexity, lack of modernization and flexibility in Indian regulations.In the Constitution of India from 1950, articles 14–16, 19(1)(c), 23–24, 38, and 41-43A directly concern labour rights.",
"Article 14 states everyone should be equal before the law, article 15 specifically says the state should not discriminate against citizens, and article 16 extends a right of \"equality of opportunity\" for employment or appointment under the state.",
"Article 19(1)(c) gives everyone a specific right \"to form associations or unions\".",
"Article 23 prohibits all trafficking and forced labour, while article 24 prohibits child labour under 14 years old in a factory, mine or \"any other hazardous employment\".Articles 38–39, and 41-43A, like all rights listed in Part IV of the Constitution are not enforceable by courts, rather than creating an aspirational \"duty of the State to apply these principles in making laws\".3 The original justification for leaving such principles unenforceable by the courts was that democratically accountable institutions ought to be left with discretion, given the demands they could create on the state for funding from general taxation, although such views have since become controversial.",
"Article 38(1) says that in general the state should \"strive to promote the welfare of the people\" with a \"social order in which justice, social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of national life.Article 38(2) says the state should \"minimise the inequalities in income\" and based on all other statuses.",
"Article 41 creates a \"right to work\", which the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 attempts to put into practice.",
"Article 42 requires the state to \"make provision for securing just and human conditions of work and for maternity relief\".",
"Article 43 says workers should have the right to a living wage and \"conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life\".",
"Article 43A, inserted by the Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India in 1976,4 creates a constitutional right to codetermination by requiring the state to legislate to \"secure the participation of workers in the management of undertakings\".",
"The recently released New Labour Codes 2022 mentions that organizations can convert 9-hour shifts to 12-hour shifts and provide three days of leave every week.",
"The 4-day workweek policy will be effective from 1 July 2022.Also read: Labour Reforms by Government of India Ministry of Labour & Employment (https://labour.gov.in/labour-reforms)=== Indonesia ===Indonesia essentially rebuilt its labour law system in the early 2000s following regime change and with support of the ILO.",
"These three statutes constituted a new legislative framework for industrial relations:1.Law No.",
"21 of 2000 on Trade Unions, which allowed free unionization; and2.Law No.",
"13 of 2003 on Manpower, which legislated other minimum labour rights; and3.Law No.",
"2 of 2004 on Industrial Relations Disputes Settlement, established a new industrial relations dispute resolution system.=== Iran ===Iran has not ratified the two basic Conventions of the International Labour Organization on freedom of association and collective bargaining and one abolishing child labour.=== Israel ====== Japan ====== Lithuania ===Lithuania began the work of rewriting the employment laws in 1996 and the Labour Code () bill was completed in 2001.It was heavily inspired by the Hungarian, Czech as well Polish laws and incorporated the vast majority of the European Union regulations.",
"The new labour code was formally enacted in 2002.Another major reform of the labour code was implemented in 2016, bringing more flexibility, yet balancing it with protection for employees.",
"The Labour Code 2016 formally entered force on 1 July 2017.=== Mexico ===Mexican labour law reflects the historic interrelation between the state and the Confederation of Mexican Workers.",
"The confederation is officially aligned with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI).",
"While the law promises workers the right to strike and to organize, in practice it is difficult or impossible for independent unions to organize.===Singapore===Singapore has a \"minimum legal obligation\" rule which applies to employment contracts and in other fields of contracting, and limits damages payments for breach of contract.",
"The rule applies in wrongful dismissal cases: generally, its effect would be to limit an employee's damages to the minimum notice period under which the employer could properly have dismissed the employee.",
"Various \"general principles\" have been identified which apply to the summary dismissal of employees on grounds of misconduct.=== South Africa ===South African labour law is regulated by the Department of Employment and Labour and is based on the Labour Relations Act (LRA) 66 of 1995, which regulates the relationship between and rights of employers, employees and trade unions.",
"The LRA also gives effect to Section 23 of the Constitution.",
"The LRA lays out the procedures for dispute resolution via the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA) and establishes the Labour Court and Labour Appeal Court as superior courts with exclusive jurisdiction to decide matters arising from the Act.The Labour Relations Act also regulates the issue of fairness, not only in termination but during employment.",
"In 1998, most of the laws on unfair labour practices were removed from the Labour Relations Act and placed into the newly formed Employment Equity Act (EEA).",
"The EEA also deals with issues such as fairness regarding a worker's human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status or disability, as well as the issue of affirmative action.Prior to 1995, an employee could be dismissed in terms of the contract of employment, which could permit any reason for dismissal.",
"Since 1995, an employee may be dismissed only for misconduct, operational reasons and incapacity, given that procedural fairness is maintained.",
"The Labour Relations Act 1995 is a pivotal piece of legislation, as it recognises the need for fast and easy access to justice in labour disputes.",
"The Industrial Court had the status of a High Court, and therefore was not accessible to all labourers.The Basic Conditions of Employment Act (BCEA), the Health and Safety Act and the Skills Development Act, must be read with the EEA.",
"The Skills Development Act provides that a small percentage of a labourer's salary must be contributed to the Department of Labour, enabling certain workshops to be run which are designed to develop skills.=== Sweden ===In Sweden many workplace issues such as working hours, minimum wage and right to overtime compensation are regulated through collective bargaining agreements in accordance with the Swedish model of ''self-regulation'', i.e.",
"regulation by the labour market parties themselves in contrast to ''state regulation'' (labour laws).",
"A notable exception is the Employment Protection act which regulates employment contracts and extensive employees' rights to employment under certain conditions.=== Switzerland ===The labour law of Switzerland covers all standards governing the employment of some kind.",
"The regulation of the employment by private employers is largely harmonized at the federal level, while public-sector employment still prevails a variety of cantonal laws.",
"In particular, the civil standardization is distributed to a variety of laws.",
"Of greater importance, particularly the new Federal Constitution of 1999, the Code of Obligations, the Labour Code as well as in the public sector, the Federal Personnel Act.=== United Kingdom ===The Factory Acts (first one in 1802, then 1833) and the 1823 Master and Servant Act were the first laws regulating labour relations in the United Kingdom.",
"Most employment law before 1960 was based upon contract law.",
"Since then there has been a significant expansion primarily due to movements for equality and the legal requirements imposed by the UK's former membership of the European Union.",
"UK employment law comes from Acts of Parliament, secondary legislation (made by a Secretary of State under an Act of Parliament), case law (developed by various courts), and retained Community law following the UK's departure from the EU.The first significant expansion was the Equal Pay Act 1970, brought in to try to ensure pay equality for women in the workplace.",
"Since 1997, changes in UK employment law include enhanced maternity and paternity rights, the introduction of a National Minimum Wage and the Working Time Regulations, which covers working time, rest breaks and the right to paid annual leave.",
"Discrimination law has been tightened, with protection from discrimination now available on the grounds of age, religion or belief and sexual orientation as well as gender, race and disability.=== United States ===An American builderThe Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set the maximum standard work week to 44 hours.",
"In 1950 this was reduced to 40 hours.",
"A green card entitles immigrants to work, without requirement a separate work permit.",
"Despite the 40-hour standard maximum work week, some lines of work require more than 40 hours.",
"For example, farm workers may work over 72 hours a week, followed by at least 24 hours off.",
"Exceptions to the break period exist for certain harvesting employees, such as those involved in harvesting grapes, tree fruits and cotton.Professionals, clerical (administrative assistants), technical, and mechanical employees cannot be terminated for refusing to work more than 72 hours in a work week.These ceilings, combined with a competitive job market, often motivate American workers to work more hours.",
"American workers on average take the fewest days off of any developed country.The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution limit the power of the federal and state governments to discriminate.",
"The private sector is not directly constrained by the Constitution, but several laws, particularly the Civil Rights Act of 1964, limit the private sector discrimination against certain groups.",
"The Fifth Amendment has an explicit requirement that the Federal Government not deprive individuals of \"life, liberty, or property\", without due process of law and an implicit guarantee that each person receive equal protection of the law.The Fourteenth Amendment explicitly prohibits states from violating an individual's rights of due process and equal protection.",
"Equal protection limits the State and Federal governments' power to discriminate in their employment practices by treating employees, former employees, or job applicants unequally because of membership in a group, like a race, religion or sex.",
"Due process protection requires that employees have a fair procedural process before they are terminated if the termination is related to a \"liberty\", like the right to free speech, or a property interest.The National Labor Relations Act, enacted in 1935 as part of the New Deal legislation, guarantees workers the right to form unions and engage in collective bargaining.The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 prohibits employment discrimination based on age with respect to employees 40 years of age or older.Title VII of the Civil Rights Act is the principal federal statute with regard to employment discrimination, prohibiting unlawful employment discrimination by public and private employers, labour organizations, training programmes and employment agencies based on race or colour, religion, sex and national origin.",
"Retaliation is also prohibited by Title VII against any person for opposing any practice forbidden by statute, or for making a charge, testifying, assisting, or participating in a proceeding under the statute.",
"The Civil Rights Act of 1991 expanded the damages available to Title VII cases and granted Title VII plaintiffs the right to jury trial.=== Halakhah (Jewish religious law) ===The beginnings of halakhic labour law are in the Bible, in which two commandments refer to this subject: the law against delayed wages (Lev.",
"19:13; Deut.",
"24:14–15) and the worker's right to eat the employer's crops (Deut.",
"23:25–26).",
"The Talmudic law—in which labour law is called \"laws of worker hiring\"—elaborates on many more aspects of employment relations, mainly in Tractate Baba Metzi'a.",
"In some issues the Talamud, following the Tosefta, refers the parties to the customary law: \"All is as the custom of the region postulates\".Modern halakhic labour law developed very slowly.",
"Rabbi Israel Meir Hacohen (the Hafetz Hayim) interprets the worker's right for timely payment in a tendency that clearly favours the employee over the employer, but does not refer to new questions of employment relations.",
"Only in the 1920s we find the first halakhic authority to tackle the questions of trade unions (that could easily be anchored in Talmudic law) and the right of strike (which is quite problematic in terms of Talmudic law).Rabbis A.I Kook and B.M.H.",
"Uziel tend to corporatist settling of labour conflicts, while Rabbi Moshe Feinstein adopts the liberal democratic collective bargaining model.",
"Since the 1940s the halakhic literature on labour law was enriched by books and articles that referred to growing range of questions and basically adopted the liberal democratic approach."
],
[
"See also",
"* Decent work* Distributism* Economic democracy* Employee benefits* Employment contract* Family economics* Family wage* Industrial relations* Job guarantee* ''Journal of Individual Employment Rights''* Labour inspectorate* Labour market flexibility* Labour movement* Legal working age* Living wage* Labor market* Labor rights* Maximum wage* Minimum wage* Occupational burnout* Occupational safety and health* Occupational licensing* Protective laws (on gender)* Positive rights* Precarious work* Profit sharing* Right-to-work law* Trade Boards Act 1909* Union organizer* Vicarious liability* Weekends* WorkChoices* Working poor* Workplace Fairness"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Stephen F. Befort and John W. Budd, ''Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus'' (2009) Stanford University Press**E McGaughey, ''A Casebook on Labour Law'' ( Hart 2019 ) *E McGaughey, 'Behavioural Economics and Labour Law' (2014) LSE Legal Studies Working Paper No.",
"20/2014 *Keith Ewing, Aileen McColgan and Hugh Collins, ''Labour Law, Cases, Texts and Materials'' (2005) Hart Publishing*S Deakin, C Barnard, Z Adams and S Fraser-Butlin, ''Labour Law'' (2021) Hart Publishing *Keshawn Walker and Arn Morell, \"''Labor and Employment: Workplace Warzone''\", Georgetown University Thesis (2005)**"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Louis Riel"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Louis Riel ''' (; ; 22 October 1844 – 16 November 1885) was a Canadian politician, a founder of the province of Manitoba, and a political leader of the Métis people.",
"He led two resistance movements against the Government of Canada and its first prime minister John A. Macdonald.",
"Riel sought to defend Métis rights and identity as the Northwest Territories came progressively under the Canadian sphere of influence.The first resistance movement led by Riel was the Red River Resistance of 1869–1870.The provisional government established by Riel ultimately negotiated the terms under which the new province of Manitoba entered the Canadian Confederation.",
"However, while carrying out the resistance, Riel had a Canadian nationalist, Thomas Scott, executed.",
"Riel soon fled to the United States to escape prosecution.",
"He was elected three times as member of the House of Commons, but, fearing for his life, he could never take his seat.",
"During these years in exile he came to believe that he was a divinely chosen leader and prophet.",
"He married in 1881 while in exile in the Montana Territory.In 1884 Riel was called upon by the Métis leaders in Saskatchewan to help resolve longstanding grievances with the Canadian government, which led to an armed conflict with government forces: the North-West Rebellion of 1885.Defeated at the Battle of Batoche, Riel was imprisoned in Regina where he was convicted at trial of high treason.",
"Despite protests, popular appeals and the jury's call for clemency, Riel was executed by hanging.",
"Riel was seen as a heroic victim by French Canadians; his execution had a lasting negative impact on Canada, polarizing the new nation along ethno-religious lines.",
"The Métis were marginalized in the Prairie provinces by the increasingly English-dominated majority.",
"A long-term impact was the bitter alienation Francophones across Canada felt, and anger against the repression by their countrymen.Riel's historical reputation has long been polarized between portrayals as a dangerous religious fanatic and rebel opposed to the Canadian nation, and, by contrast, as a charismatic leader intent on defending his Métis people from the unfair encroachments by the federal government eager to give Orangemen-dominated Ontario settlers priority access to land.",
"Riel has received among the most formal organizational and academic scrutiny of any figure in Canadian history."
],
[
"Early life",
"Louis Riel, age 14The Red River Settlement was a Rupert's Land territory administered by the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC).",
"At the mid-19th-century the settlement was largely inhabited by Métis people of mixed First Nations-European descent whose ancestors were for the most part Scottish and English men married to Cree women and French-Canadian men married to Saulteaux (plains Ojibwe) women.Louis Riel was born in 1844 in his grandparents' small one-room home in St-Boniface near the fork of the Red and Seine rivers.",
"Riel was the eldest of eleven children in a locally well-respected family.",
"His father, who was of Franco-Chipewyan Métis descent, had gained prominence in this community by organizing a group that supported Guillaume Sayer, a Métis arrested and tried for challenging the HBC's historical trade monopoly.",
"Sayer's eventual release due to agitations by Louis Sr.'s group effectively ended the monopoly, and the name Riel was therefore well known in the Red River area.",
"His mother was the daughter of Jean-Baptiste Lagimodière and Marie-Anne Gaboury, one of the earliest European-descended families to settle in Red River in 1812.The Riels were noted for their devout Catholicism and strong family ties.Riel began his schooling at age seven, and by age ten he attended St. Boniface Catholic schools, including eventually a school run by the French Christian Brothers.",
"At age thirteen he came to the attention of Bishop Alexandre Taché who was eagerly promoting the priesthood for talented young Métis.",
"In 1858 Taché arranged for Riel to attend the Petit Séminaire de Montréal.",
"Descriptions of him at the time indicate that he was a fine scholar of languages, science, and philosophy.",
"While a good student, he was also hot-tempered, extreme in his views, intolerant of criticism and opposition, and not opposed to arguing with his teachers.Following news of his father's premature death in 1864, Riel lost interest in the priesthood and withdrew from the college in March 1865.For a time, he continued his studies as a day student in the convent of the Grey Nuns, but was soon asked to leave, following breaches of discipline.",
"During Riel's period of mourning of his father, he believed that Louis Riel was dead and he himself was David Mordecai, a Jew from Marseilles, and as David, he was not eligible to the immense inheritance of his father (which, in fact, was of little value).",
"Seized with religious fervour, he announced that he was going to form a new religious movement.",
"He remained in Montreal for over a year, living at the home of his aunt, Lucie Riel.",
"Impoverished by the death of his father, Riel took employment as a law clerk in the Montreal office of Rodolphe Laflamme.",
"During this time he was involved in a failed romance with a young woman named Marie–Julie Guernon.",
"This progressed to the point of Riel having signed a contract of marriage, but his fiancée's family opposed her involvement with a Métis, and the engagement was soon broken.",
"Compounding this disappointment, Riel found legal work unpleasant and, by early 1866, he had resolved to leave Canada East.",
"Some of his friends said later that he worked odd jobs in Chicago, while staying with poet Louis-Honoré Fréchette, and wrote poems himself in the manner of Lamartine, and that he was briefly employed as a clerk in Saint Paul, Minnesota, before returning to the Red River settlement on 26 July 1868."
],
[
"Red River Resistance",
"The majority population of the Red River had historically been Métis and First Nations people.",
"Upon his return, Riel found that religious, nationalistic, and racial tensions were exacerbated by an influx of Anglophone Protestant settlers from Ontario.",
"The political situation was also uncertain, as ongoing negotiations for the transfer of Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada had not addressed the political terms of transfer.",
"Bishop Taché and the HBC governor William Mactavish both warned the Macdonald government that the lack of consultation and consideration of Métis views would precipitate unrest.",
"Finally, the Canadian minister of public works, William McDougall, ordered a survey of the area.",
"The arrival of a survey party on 20 August 1869 increased anxiety among the Métis as the survey was being carried out as a grid system of townships (an American system) that cut across existing Métis river lots.In late August, Riel denounced the survey in a speech, and on 11 October 1869, the survey's work was disrupted by a group of Métis that included Riel.",
"This group organized itself as the \"National Committee of the Métis\" on 16 October, with Riel as secretary and John Bruce as president.",
"When summoned by the HBC-controlled Council of Assiniboia to explain his actions, Riel declared that any attempt by Canada to assume authority would be contested unless Ottawa had first negotiated terms with the Métis.",
"Nevertheless, the non-bilingual McDougall was appointed the lieutenant governor-designate, and attempted to enter the settlement on 2 November.",
"McDougall's party was turned back near the Canada–US border, and on the same day, Métis led by Riel seized Fort Garry.On 6 November, Riel invited Anglophones to attend a convention alongside Métis representatives to discuss a course of action, and on 1 December he proposed to this convention a list of rights to be demanded as a condition of union.",
"Much of the settlement came to accept the Métis point of view, but a passionately pro-Canadian minority began organizing in opposition.",
"Loosely constituted as the Canadian Party, this group was led by John Christian Schultz, Charles Mair, Colonel John Stoughton Dennis, and a more reticent Major Charles Boulton.",
"McDougall attempted to assert his authority by authorizing Dennis to raise a contingent of armed men, but the Anglophone settlers largely ignored this call to arms.",
"Schultz, however, attracted approximately fifty recruits and fortified his home and store.",
"Riel ordered Schultz's home surrounded, and the outnumbered Canadians soon surrendered and were imprisoned in Upper Fort Garry.===Provisional government===The Métis provisional governmentHearing of the unrest, Ottawa sent three emissaries to the Red River, including HBC representative Donald Alexander Smith.",
"While they were en route, the Métis National Committee declared a provisional government on 8 December, with Riel becoming its president on 27 December.Meetings between Riel and the Ottawa delegation took place on 5 and 6 January 1870.When these proved fruitless, Smith chose to present his case in a public forum.",
"After large meetings on 19 and 20 January, Riel suggested the formation of a new convention split evenly between Francophone and Anglophone settlers to consider Smith's proposals.",
"On 7 February, a new list of rights was presented to the Ottawa delegation, and Smith and Riel agreed to send representatives to Ottawa to engage in direct negotiations on that basis.",
"The provisional government established by Louis Riel published its own newspaper titled ''New Nation'' and established the Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia to pass laws.",
"The Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia was the first elected government at the Red River Settlement and functioned from 9 March to 24 June 1870.The assembly had 28 elected representatives, including a president, Louis Riel, an executive council (government cabinet), adjutant general (chief of military staff), chief justice and clerk.===Thomas Scott's execution===Despite the progress on the political front, the Canadian party continued to plot against the provisional government.",
"They attempted to recruit supporters to overthrow Riel.",
"However, they suffered a setback on 17 February, when forty-eight men, including Boulton and Thomas Scott, were arrested near Fort Garry.This fictionalized depiction of Scott's execution in the ''Canadian Illustrated News'' was \"conceived in the context of heightened partisanship\" and \"helped inflame anti-Métis sentiment\".Boulton was tried by a tribunal headed by Ambroise-Dydime Lépine and sentenced to death for his interference with the provisional government.",
"He was pardoned, but Scott interpreted this as weakness by the Métis, who he regarded with open contempt.",
"After Scott repeatedly quarreled with his guards, they insisted that he be tried for insubordination.",
"At his court martial he was found guilty and was sentenced to death.",
"Riel was repeatedly entreated to commute the sentence, but Riel responded, \"I have done three good things since I have commenced: I have spared Boulton's life at your instance, I pardoned Gaddy, and now I shall shoot Scott.",
"\"Scott was soon executed by a Métis firing squad on 4 March.",
"Riel's motivations have been the cause of much speculation, but his justification was that he felt it necessary to demonstrate to the Canadians that the Métis must be taken seriously.",
"Protestant Canada did take notice, swore revenge, and set up a \"Canada First\" movement to mobilize their anger.",
"Riel biographer Lewis Thomas noted that \"as people then and later have said, it was Riel's one great political blunder\".===Creation of Manitoba and the Wolseley expedition===The delegates representing the provisional government arrived in Ottawa in April.",
"Although they initially met with legal difficulties arising from the execution of Scott, they soon entered into direct talks with Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier.",
"The parties agreed on several of the demands in the list of rights, including language, religious, and land rights (excepting ownership of public lands).",
"This agreement formed the basis for the Manitoba Act, which formally admitted Manitoba into the Canadian confederation; the Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia unanimously supported joining.",
"However, the negotiators could not secure a general amnesty for the provisional government; Cartier held that this was a question for the British government.As a means of exercising Canadian authority in the settlement and dissuading American expansionists, a Canadian military expedition under Colonel Garnet Wolseley was dispatched to the Red River.",
"Although the government described it as an \"errand of peace\", Riel learned that Canadian militia elements in the expedition meant to lynch him."
],
[
"Intervening years",
"===Amnesty question===It was not until 2 September 1870 that the new Lieutenant-governor Adams George Archibald arrived and set about the establishment of civil government.",
"Without an amnesty, and with the Canadian militia threatening his life, Riel fled to the safety of the St. Joseph's mission across the Canada–US border in the Dakota Territory.",
"The results of the first provincial election in December 1870 were promising for Riel, as many of his supporters came to power.",
"Nevertheless, stress and financial troubles precipitated a serious illness—perhaps a harbinger of his future mental afflictions—that prevented his return to Manitoba until May 1871.Louis Riel circa 1875The settlement now faced a possible threat, from cross-border Fenian raids coordinated by his former associate William Bernard O'Donoghue.",
"Archibald issued a call to arms in October, and assured Riel that if he participated he would not be arrested.",
"Riel organized several companies of Métis troops for the defense of Manitoba.",
"When Archibald reviewed the troops in St. Boniface, he made the significant gesture of publicly shaking Riel's hand, signaling that a rapprochement had been effected.When this news reached Ontario, Mair and members of the Canada First movement whipped up anti-Riel (and anti-Archibald) sentiment.",
"With Federal elections coming in 1872, Macdonald could ill afford further rift in Quebec–Ontario relations and so he did not offer an amnesty.",
"Instead he quietly arranged for Taché to offer Riel a bribe of C$1,000 to remain in voluntary exile.",
"This was supplemented by an additional £600 from Smith for the care of Riel's family.Nevertheless, by late June Riel was back in Manitoba and was soon persuaded to run as a member of parliament for the electoral district of Provencher.",
"However, following the early September defeat of George-Étienne Cartier in his home riding in Quebec, Riel stood aside so that Cartier—on record as being in favour of amnesty for Riel—might secure a seat in Provencher.",
"Cartier won by acclamation, but Riel's hopes for a swift resolution to the amnesty question were dashed following Cartier's death on 20 May 1873.In the ensuing by-election in October 1873, Riel ran unopposed as an Independent, although he had again fled, a warrant having been issued for his arrest in September.",
"Lépine was not so lucky; he was captured and faced trial.Riel made his way to Montreal and, fearing arrest or assassination, vacillated as to whether he should attempt to take up his seat in the House of Commons—Edward Blake, the Premier of Ontario, had announced a bounty of $5,000 for his arrest.",
"Riel was the only Member of Parliament who was not present for the great Pacific Scandal debate of 1873 that led to the resignation of the Macdonald government in November.",
"Liberal leader Alexander Mackenzie became the interim prime minister, and a general election was held in January 1874.Although the Liberals under Mackenzie formed the new government, Riel easily retained his seat.",
"Formally, Riel had to sign a register book at least once upon being elected, and he did so under disguise in late January.",
"He was nevertheless stricken from the rolls following a motion supported by Schultz, who had become the member for the electoral district of Lisgar.",
"Riel prevailed again in the resulting by-election and was again expelled.===Exile and mental illness===During this period, Riel had been staying with the Oblate fathers in Plattsburgh, New York, who introduced him to parish priest Fabien Martin ''dit'' Barnabé in the nearby village of Keeseville.",
"It was here that he received news of Lépine's fate: following his trial for the murder of Scott, which had begun on 13 October 1874, Lépine was found guilty and sentenced to death.",
"This sparked outrage in the sympathetic Quebec press, and calls for amnesty for both Lépine and Riel were renewed.",
"This presented a severe political difficulty for Mackenzie, who was hopelessly caught between the demands of Quebec and Ontario.",
"However, a solution was forthcoming when, acting on his own initiative, the Governor General Lord Dufferin commuted Lépine's sentence in January 1875.This opened the door for Mackenzie to secure from parliament an amnesty for Riel, on the condition that he remain in exile for five years.During his time of exile, Riel was primarily concerned with religion rather than politics.",
"Much of these emerging religious beliefs were based on a supportive letter dated 14 July 1875 that he received from Montreal's Bishop Ignace Bourget.",
"His mental state deteriorated, and following a violent outburst he was taken to Montreal, where he was under the care of his uncle, John Lee, for a few months.",
"But after Riel disrupted a religious service, Lee arranged to have him committed in an asylum in Longue-Pointe on 6 March 1876 under the assumed name \"Louis R. David\".",
"Fearing discovery, his doctors soon transferred him to the Beauport Asylum near Quebec City under the name \"Louis Larochelle\".",
"While he suffered from sporadic irrational outbursts, he continued his religious writing, composing theological tracts with an admixture of Christian and Judaic ideas.",
"He consequently began calling himself \"Louis David Riel, Prophet, Infallible Pontiff and Priest King\".Nevertheless, he slowly recovered, and was released from the asylum on 23 January 1878 with an admonition to lead a quiet life.",
"He returned for a time to Keeseville, where he became involved in a passionate romance with Evelina Martin ''dite'' Barnabé, sister of Father Fabien.",
"He asked her to marry him before moving west \"with the avowed intention of establishing himself\" before sending for her; however, their correspondence ended abruptly.===Montana and family life===Jean-Louis and Marie-Angélique Riel, children of Louis RielIn the fall of 1878, Riel returned to St. Paul, and briefly visited his friends and family.",
"This was a time of rapid change for the Métis of the Red River—the bison on which they depended were becoming increasingly scarce, the influx of settlers was ever-increasing, and much land was sold to unscrupulous land speculators.",
"Like other Red River Métis who had left Manitoba, Riel headed further west to start a new life.",
"Travelling to the Montana Territory, he became a trader and interpreter in the area surrounding Fort Benton.",
"Observing the detrimental impact of alcohol on the Métis, he engaged in an unsuccessful attempt to curtail the whisky trade.In Pointe-au-Loup, Fort Berthold, Dakota Territory in 1881, he married the young Métis Marguerite Monet ''dite'' Bellehumeur, according to the custom of the country (à la façon du pays), on 28 April, the marriage being solemnized on 9 March 1882.Evelina learned of this marriage from a newspaper and wrote a letter accusing Riel of \"infamy\".",
"Marguerite and Louis were to have three children: Jean-Louis (1882–1908); Marie-Angélique (1883–1897); and a boy who was born and died on 21 October 1885, less than one month before Riel was hanged.Riel soon became involved in the politics of Montana, and in 1882, actively campaigned on behalf of the Republican Party.",
"He brought a suit against a Democrat for rigging a vote, but was then himself accused of fraudulently inducing British subjects to take part in the election.",
"In response, Riel applied for United States citizenship and was naturalized on 16 March 1883.With two young children, he had by 1884 settled down and was teaching school at the St. Peter's Jesuit mission in the Sun River district of Montana."
],
[
"North-West Rebellion",
"Riel in 1882Following the Red River Resistance, Métis travelled west and settled in the Saskatchewan Valley.",
"But by the 1880s, the rapid collapse of the buffalo herd was causing near starvation among the First Nations.",
"This was exacerbated by a reduction in government assistance, and by a general failure of Ottawa to live up to its treaty obligations.",
"The Métis were likewise obliged to give up the hunt and take up agriculture—but this transition was accompanied by complex issues surrounding land claims similar to those that had previously arisen in Manitoba.",
"Moreover, settlers from Europe and the eastern provinces were also moving into the Saskatchewan territories, and they too had complaints related to the administration of the territories.",
"Virtually all parties therefore had grievances, and by 1884 Anglophone settlers, Anglo-Métis and Métis communities were holding meetings and petitioning a largely unresponsive government for redress.In the electoral district of Lorne, a meeting of the south branch Métis was held in the village of Batoche on 24 March, and representatives voted to ask Riel to return and represent their cause.",
"On 6 May a joint \"Settler's Union\" meeting was attended by both the Métis and English-speaking representatives from Prince Albert, including William Henry Jackson, an Ontario settler sympathetic to the Métis and known to them as Honoré Jackson, and James Isbister of the Anglo-Métis.",
"It was here resolved to send a delegation to ask Riel to return.===Return of Riel===The head of the delegation to Riel was Gabriel Dumont, a respected buffalo hunter and leader of the Saint-Laurent Métis who had known Riel in Manitoba.",
"James Isbister was the lone Anglo-Métis delegate.",
"Riel was easily swayed to support their cause.",
"Riel also intended to use the new position of influence to pursue his own land claims in Manitoba.Upon his arrival Métis and Anglophone settlers alike formed an initially favourable impression of Riel following a series of speeches in which he advocated moderation and a reasoned approach.",
"During June 1884, the Plains Cree leaders Big Bear and Poundmaker were independently formulating their complaints, and subsequently held meetings with Riel.",
"However, the Native grievances were quite different from those of the settlers, and nothing was then resolved.Honoré Jackson and representatives of other communities set about drafting a petition to be sent to Ottawa.",
"In the interim, Riel's support began to waver.",
"As Riel's religious pronouncements became increasingly heretical the clergy distanced themselves, and father Alexis André cautioned Riel against mixing religion and politics.",
"Also, in response to bribes by territorial lieutenant-governor and Indian commissioner Edgar Dewdney, local English-language newspapers adopted an editorial stance critical of Riel.Nevertheless, the work continued, and on 16 December Riel forwarded the committee's petition to the government, along with the suggestion that delegates be sent to Ottawa to engage in direct negotiation.",
"Receipt of the petition was acknowledged by Joseph-Adolphe Chapleau, Macdonald's Secretary of State, although Macdonald himself would later deny having ever seen it.",
"By then many original followers had left; only 250 remained at Batoche when it fell in May 1885.While Riel awaited news from Ottawa he considered returning to Montana, but had by February resolved to stay.",
"Without a productive course of action, Riel began to engage in obsessive prayer, and was experiencing a significant relapse of his mental agitations.",
"This led to a deterioration in his relationship with the Catholic clergy, as he publicly espoused an increasingly heretical doctrine.On 11 February 1885, a response to the petition was received.",
"The government proposed to take a census of the North-West Territories, and to form a commission to investigate grievances.",
"This angered a faction of the Métis who saw it as a mere delaying tactic; they favoured taking up arms at once.",
"Riel became the leader of this faction, but he lost the support of almost all Anglophones and Anglo-Métis, and the Catholic Church.",
"He also lost the support of the Métis faction supporting local leader Charles Nolin.",
"But Riel, undoubtedly influenced by his messianic delusions, became increasingly supportive of this course of action.",
"Disenchanted with the status quo, and swayed by Riel's charisma and eloquent rhetoric, hundreds of Métis remained loyal to Riel, despite his proclamations that Bishop Ignace Bourget should be accepted as pope, and that \"Rome has fallen\".===Open rebellion===The Provisional Government of Saskatchewan was declared at Batoche on 19 March, with Riel as the political and spiritual leader and with Dumont assuming responsibility for military affairs.",
"Riel formed a council called the Exovedate (a neologism meaning \"those who picked from the flock\").",
"On 21 March, Riel's emissaries demanded that Crozier surrender Fort Carlton.",
"Scouting near Duck Lake on 26 March, a force led by Gabriel Dumont unexpectedly chanced upon a party from Fort Carlton.",
"In the ensuing Battle of Duck Lake, the police were routed and the North-West Rebellion was begun in earnest.The near-completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway allowed troops from eastern Canada to quickly arrive in the territory.",
"Knowing that he could not defeat the Canadians in direct confrontation, Dumont had hoped to force the Canadians to negotiate by engaging in a long-drawn out campaign of guerrilla warfare; Dumont realized a modest success along these lines at the Battle of Fish Creek on 24 April 1885.Riel, however, insisted on concentrating forces at Batoche to defend his \"city of God\".",
"The outcome of the ensuing Battle of Batoche which took place from 9 to 12 May was never in doubt, and on 15 May a disheveled Riel surrendered to Canadian forces.",
"Although Big Bear's forces managed to hold out until the Battle of Loon Lake on 3 June, the Rebellion was a dismal failure for Indigenous communities."
],
[
"Trial",
"Louis Riel testifies at his trialRegina courthouse, 1884Several individuals closely tied to the government requested that the trial be held in Winnipeg in July 1885.Some historians contend that the trial was moved to Regina because of concerns with the possibility of an ethnically mixed and sympathetic jury.",
"Prime Minister Macdonald ordered the trial to be convened in Regina, where Riel was tried before a jury of six Anglophone Protestants.",
"The trial began on 20 July 1885.Riel delivered two long speeches during his trial, defending his own actions and affirming the rights of the Métis people.",
"He rejected his lawyers' attempt to argue that he was not guilty by reason of insanity.",
"The jury found him guilty but recommended mercy; nonetheless, Judge Hugh Richardson sentenced him to death on 1 August 1885, with the date of his execution initially set for 18 September 1885.",
"\"We tried Riel for treason,\" one juror later said, \"And he was hanged for the murder of Scott.\"",
"Lewis Thomas notes that \"the government's conduct of the case was to be a travesty of justice\"."
],
[
"Execution",
"Boulton writes in his memoirs that, as the date of his execution approached, Riel regretted his opposition to the defence of insanity and vainly attempted to provide evidence that he was not sane.",
"Requests for a retrial, petitions for a commuted sentence, and an appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain were denied.",
"John A. Macdonald, who was instrumental in upholding Riel's sentence, is famously quoted as saying \"He shall hang though every dog in Quebec bark in his favour\" (although the veracity of this quote is uncertain).Before his execution, Riel received Father André as his spiritual advisor.",
"He was also given writing materials and allowed to correspond with friends and relatives.",
"Louis Riel was hanged for treason on 16 November 1885 at the North-West Mounted Police barracks in Regina.Riel's tombstone at the St. Boniface Cathedral in WinnipegBoulton writes of Riel's final moments: Père André, after explaining to Riel that the end was at hand, asked him if he was at peace with men.",
"Riel answered ''\"Yes.\"''",
"The next question was, \"Do you forgive all your enemies?\"",
"\"Yes.\"",
"Riel then asked him if he might speak.",
"Father André advised him not to do so.",
"He then received the kiss of peace from both the priests, and Father André exclaimed in French, \"\" meaning \"So, go to heaven!\" ...",
"Riel's last words were to say good-bye to Dr. Jukes and thank him for his kindness, and just before the white cap was pulled over his face he said, \"\" meaning \"Thank Mrs.",
"Forget\".The cap was pulled down, and while he was praying the trap was pulled.",
"Death was not instantaneous.",
"Louis Riel's pulse ceased four minutes after the trap-door fell and during that time the rope around his neck slowly strangled and choked him to death.",
"The body was to have been interred inside the gallows' enclosure, and the grave was commenced, but an order came from the Lieutenant-Governor to hand the body over to Sheriff Chapleau which was accordingly done that night.Following the execution, Riel's body was returned to his mother's home in St. Vital, where it lay in state.",
"On 12 December 1886, his remains were interred in the churchyard of the Saint-Boniface Cathedral following the celebration of a requiem mass.The trial and execution of Riel caused a bitter and prolonged reaction which convulsed Canadian politics for decades.",
"The execution was both supported and opposed by the provinces.",
"For example, conservative Ontario strongly supported Riel's execution, but Quebec was vehemently opposed to it.",
"Francophones were upset Riel was hanged because they thought his execution was a symbol of Anglophone dominance of Canada.",
"The Orange Irish Protestant element in Ontario had demanded the execution as the punishment for Riel's treason and his execution of Thomas Scott in 1870.In Quebec, the politician Honoré Mercier rose to power by mobilizing the opposition in 1886."
],
[
"Historiography",
"1970 Canada stamp depicting Louis RielHistorians have debated the Riel case so often and so passionately that he is the most written-about person in Canadian history.",
"Interpretations have varied dramatically over time.",
"The first amateur English language histories hailed the triumph of civilization, represented by English-speaking Protestants, over savagery represented by the half-breed Métis who were Catholic and spoke French.",
"Riel was portrayed as an insane traitor and an obstacle to the expansion of Canada to the West.By the mid-20th century academic historians had dropped the theme of savagery versus civilization, deemphasized the Métis, and focused on Riel, presenting his execution as a major cause of the bitter division in Canada along ethnocultural and geographical lines of religion and language.",
"W. L. Morton says of the execution that it \"convulsed the course of national politics for the next decade\": it was well received in Ontario, particularly among Orangemen, but francophone Quebec defended Riel as \"the symbol, indeed as a hero of his race\".",
"Morton concluded that some of Riel's positions were defensible, but that \"they did not present a program of practical substance which the government might have granted without betrayal of its responsibilities\".",
"J. M. Bumsted in 2000 said that for Manitoba historian James Jackson, the shooting of Scott—\"perhaps the result of Riel's incipient madness—was the great blemish on Riel's achievement, depriving him of his proper role as the father of Manitoba.",
"\"The Catholic clergy had originally supported the Métis, but reversed themselves when they realized that Riel was leading a heretical movement.",
"They made sure that he was not honored as a martyr.",
"However the clergy lost their influence during the Quiet Revolution, and activists in Quebec found in Riel the perfect hero, with the image now of a freedom fighter who stood up for his people against an oppressive government in the face of widespread racist bigotry.",
"He was made a folk hero by Métis, French Canadian and other Canadian minorities.",
"Activists who espoused violence embraced his image; in the 1960s, the Quebec terrorist group, the Front de libération du Québec adopted the name \"Louis Riel\" for one of its terrorist cells.Across Canada there emerged a new interpretation of reality in his rebellion, holding that the Métis had major unresolved grievances; that the government was indeed unresponsive; that Riel had chosen violence only as a last resort; and he was given a questionable trial, then executed by a vengeful government.",
"John Foster said in 1985 that \"the interpretive drift of the last half-century ... has witnessed increasingly shrill though frequently uncritical condemnations of Canadian government culpability and equally uncritical identification with the \"victimization\" of the \"innocent\" Métis\".",
"However, political scientist Thomas Flanagan reversed his views after editing Riel's writings: he argued that \"the Métis grievances were at least partly of their own making\", that Riel's violent approach was unnecessary given the government's response to his initial \"constitutional agitation\", and \"that he received a surprisingly fair trial\".An article by Doug Owram appearing in the ''Canadian Historical Review'' in 1982 found that Riel had become \"a Canadian folk hero\", even \"mythical\", in English Canada, corresponding with the designation of Batoche as a national historic site and the compilation of his writings.",
"That compilation consisted of three volumes of letters, diaries, and other prose writings; a fourth volume of his poetry; and a fifth volume which contained reference materials.",
"Edited by George Stanley, Raymond Huel, Gilles Martel, Thomas Flanagan and Glen Campbell, this work \"made it possible to think comprehensively about Riel's life and his achievements\", but was also criticized for some of its editorial decisions.",
"In a 2010 speech, Beverley McLachlin, then Chief Justice of Canada, summed up Riel as being a rebel by the standards of the time but a patriot \"viewed through our modern lens\"."
],
[
"Legacy",
"The Saskatchewan Métis' requested land grants were all provided by the government by the end of 1887, and the government resurveyed the Métis river lots in accordance with their wishes.",
"However, much of the land was soon bought by speculators who later turned huge profits from it.",
"Riel's worst fears were realized—following the failed rebellion, the French language and Roman Catholic religion faced increasing marginalization in both Saskatchewan and Manitoba, as exemplified by the controversy surrounding the Manitoba Schools Question.",
"The Métis themselves were increasingly forced to live in shantytowns on undesirable land.",
"Saskatchewan did not become a province until 1905.Riel's execution and Macdonald's refusal to commute his sentence caused lasting discord in Quebec.",
"Honoré Mercier exploited the discontent to reconstitute the Parti National.",
"This party, which promoted Quebec nationalism, won a majority in the 1886 Quebec election.",
"The federal election of 1887 likewise saw significant gains by the federal Liberals.",
"This led to the victory of the Liberal party under Wilfrid Laurier in the federal election of 1896, which in turn set the stage for the domination of Canadian federal politics (particularly in Quebec) by the Liberal party in the 20th century.Since the 1980s, numerous federal politicians have introduced private member's bills seeking to pardon Riel or recognize him as a Father of Confederation.",
"In 1992, the House of Commons passed a resolution recognizing \"the unique and historic role of Louis Riel as a founder of Manitoba and his contribution in the development of Confederation\".",
"The CBC's ''Greatest Canadian'' project ranked Riel as the 11th \"Greatest Canadian\" on the basis of a public vote.On 19 February 2024, Riel was formally recognized as Manitoba's first premier by virtue of ''The Louis Riel Act''.===Commemorations===In 2007, Manitoba's provincial government voted to recognize Louis Riel Day as a provincial holiday, observed on the third Monday of February.Two statues of Riel are located in Winnipeg.",
"One of these statues, the work of architect Étienne Gaboury and sculptor Marcien Lemay, depicts Riel as a naked and tortured figure.",
"It was unveiled in 1971 and stood in the grounds of the Manitoba Legislative Building for 23 years.",
"After much outcry (especially from the Métis community) that the statue was an undignified misrepresentation, the statue was removed and placed at the Université de Saint-Boniface.",
"It was replaced with a statue of Louis Riel designed by Miguel Joyal depicting Riel as a dignified statesman.",
"The unveiling ceremony was on 12 May 1996, in Winnipeg.",
"A statue of Riel on the grounds of the Saskatchewan Legislative Building in Regina was installed and later removed for similar reasons.In numerous communities across Canada, Riel is commemorated in the names of streets, schools, neighbourhoods, and other buildings.",
"Examples in Winnipeg include the landmark Esplanade Riel pedestrian bridge linking old Saint-Boniface with Downtown Winnipeg, and the Louis Riel School Division.",
"The student centre at the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon is named after Riel, as is the Louis Riel Trail.",
"There are schools named after Louis Riel in four major Canadian cities: Calgary, Montreal, Ottawa and Winnipeg.Portrayals of Riel's role in the Red River Resistance include the 1979 CBC television film ''Riel'' and Canadian cartoonist Chester Brown's acclaimed 2003 graphic novel ''Louis Riel: A Comic-Strip Biography''.",
"An opera about Riel entitled ''Louis Riel'' was commissioned for Canada's centennial celebrations in 1967; it was written by Harry Somers, with an English and French libretto by Mavor Moore and Jacques Languirand."
],
[
"See also",
"* History of Manitoba* List of Canadian First Nations leaders* Métis National Council* The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples"
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"References",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * CBC Digital Archives: Rethinking Riel* Heritage Minutes: Historica Minutes (History by the Minute): Louis Riel* Louis Riel – University of Saskatchewan library"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Listerine"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Listerine''' is a brand of antiseptic mouthwash that is promoted with the slogan \"Kills germs that cause bad breath\".",
"Named after Joseph Lister, who pioneered antiseptic surgery at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary in Scotland, Listerine was developed in 1879 by Joseph Lawrence, a chemist in St. Louis, Missouri.Originally marketed by the Lambert Pharmacal Company (which later became Warner–Lambert), Listerine has been manufactured and distributed by Johnson & Johnson since that company's acquisition of Pfizer's consumer healthcare division on December 20, 2006.The Listerine brand name is also used in toothpaste, chewable tablets, and self-dissolving teeth-whitening strips."
],
[
"History",
"1925 advertisementInspired by Louis Pasteur's ideas on microbial infection, the English doctor Joseph Lister demonstrated in 1865 that use of carbolic acid on surgical dressings would significantly reduce rates of post-surgical infection.",
"Lister's work in turn inspired St. Louis-based doctor Joseph Lawrence to develop an alcohol-based formula for a surgical antiseptic which included eucalyptol, menthol, methyl salicylate, and thymol (its exact composition was a trade secret).",
"Lawrence named his antiseptic \"Listerine\" in honor of Lister.Lawrence hoped to promote Listerine's use as a general germicide as well as a surgical antiseptic, and licensed his formula to a local pharmacist named Jordan Wheat Lambert in 1881.Lambert subsequently started the Lambert Pharmacal Company, marketing Listerine.",
"Listerine was promoted to dentists for oral care in 1895 and was the first over-the-counter mouthwash sold in the United States, in 1914.Lambert's licensing agreement with Lawrence required that he and his \"heirs, executors and assigns\" be paid royalties by Lambert or its successors for each bottle sold in perpetuity, until such time that Lambert or its successors ceases manufacturing Listerine.",
"Most of these royalty shares are held by Lawrence's heirs.",
"Real estate broker John Reynolds bought a roughly 50% stake in the royalties in the 1950's, which he then transferred to the Archdiocese of New York, and was later resold to other parties to help fund the diocese.",
"The Salvation Army, American Bible Society, and Wellesley College also held shares in Listerine royalties.Listerine entered common household use after Jordan Wheat Lambert's son Gerard Lambert joined the company and promoted an aggressive marketing campaign.",
"According to Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner's book ''Freakonomics'':Previous editions of ''Freakonomics'' incorrectly described halitosis as a \"faux medical term\", which this Wikipedia article previously reflected.In 1955, Lambert Pharmacal merged with New York-based Warner-Hudnut and became Warner-Lambert Pharmaceutical Company, and incorporated in Delaware with its corporate headquarters in Morris Plains, New Jersey.",
"Following the merger, Warner-Lambert attempted to back out of the aforementioned royalty agreements with Lawrence by filing a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York.",
"The company cited that the payments were based upon Listerine's formula having initially been a trade secret, but that since the formula had been published in 1931, the property no longer had a value, and that the indefinite agreement was legally unreasonable.",
"The court, however, ruled in favor of Lawrence and the defendants, citing that the conditions were plainly-worded, implicit, and could be waived by ending production of the product.In 2000, Pfizer acquired Warner-Lambert.",
"Among Lambert's assets was the original land for Lambert-St. Louis International Airport.Glass bottle with paper label.",
"The screw top indicates that the bottle was manufactured post-1920s.From 1921 until the mid-1970s, Listerine was also marketed as preventive and remedy for colds and sore throats.",
"In 1976, the Federal Trade Commission ruled that these claims were misleading, and that Listerine had \"no efficacy\" at either preventing or alleviating the symptoms of sore throats and colds.",
"Warner-Lambert was ordered to stop making the claims, and to include in the next $10.2 million worth of Listerine ads specific mention that \"Listerine will not help prevent colds or sore throats or lessen their severity.\"",
"The advertisement run by Listerine added the preamble \"contrary to prior advertising\".For a short time, beginning in 1927, the Lambert Pharmaceutical Company marketed Listerine Cigarettes.From the 1930s into the 1950s, advertisements claimed that applying Listerine to the scalp could prevent \"infectious dandruff\".Listerine was packaged in a glass bottle inside a corrugated cardboard tube for nearly 80 years before the first revamps were made to the brand: in 1992, Cool Mint Listerine was introduced in addition to the original Listerine Antiseptic formula and, in 1994, both brands were introduced in plastic bottles for the first time.",
"In 1995, FreshBurst was added, then in 2003 Natural Citrus.",
"In 2006 a new addition to the \"less intense\" variety, Vanilla Mint, was released.",
"Nine different kinds of Listerine are on the market in the U.S. and elsewhere: Original, Cool Mint, FreshBurst, Natural Citrus, Naturals, Soft Mint (Vanilla Mint), UltraClean (formerly Advanced Listerine), Tooth Defense (mint shield), and Whitening pre-brush rinse (clean mint).",
"In the United Kingdom, where in recent years the only option for most residents to obtain the original Listerine was to purchase from a dwindling number of larger branches of Boots the Chemist only the flavoured products are now obtainable as Boots has removed the Original from its selection.",
"Original is not listed on the Listerine UK website as among the Listerine products available in the United Kingdom."
],
[
"Composition",
"According to the product overview, the ingredients are as following for Listerine Total Care.",
"Similar distribution is contained in other varieties, which also list the essential oils as active ingredients.=== Listerine Total Care ======= Active ingredient ====* Sodium fluoride 0.02% (0.01% w/v fluoride ion)==== Inactive ingredients ====* Water* Sorbitol* Alcohol (21.6% v/v)* Poloxamer 407* Sodium Saccharin* Flavor* Eucalyptol* Methyl Salicylate* Thymol* Phosphoric Acid* Menthol* Disodium Phosphate* Sucralose* Red 40* Blue 1Distributions in case of Listerine Antiseptic Mouthwash, Original-05/22/2008 for essential oils are: menthol (mint) 0.042%, thymol (thyme) 0.064%, methyl salicylate (wintergreen) 0.06%, and eucalyptol (eucalyptus) 0.092%."
],
[
"Benefits",
"In combination all have an antiseptic effect and there is some thought that methyl salicylate may have an anti inflammatory effect as well.",
"Ethanol, which is toxic to bacteria at concentrations of 40%, is present in concentrations of 21.6% in the flavored product and 26.9% in the original gold Listerine Antiseptic.",
"At this concentration, the ethanol serves to dissolve the active ingredients.Research indicates that Listerine can reduce dental plaque by 22.2% and gingivitis by 28.2% at 6 months.",
"Dental plaque by 20.8% and gingivitis by 27.7% at 6 months, when compared with vehicle in test.",
"Vehicle was 26.9% hydroalcoholic containing all ingredients in Listerine Antiseptic except its essential oils.Listerine also sell a formulation called Listerine Advanced Defence Gum Treatment containing a common food preservative, ethyl lauroyl arginate (LAE) at 0.147%."
],
[
"Safety",
"=== Alcohol misuse ===The addition of essential oils means the ethanol is considered to be undrinkable, known as denatured alcohol, and it is therefore not regulated as an alcoholic beverage in the United States.",
"(Specially Denatured Alcohol Formula 38-B, specified in Title 27, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 21, Subpart D) However, consumption of mouthwash to obtain intoxication does occur, especially among alcoholics and underage drinkers.=== Cancer risk ===There has been concern that the use of alcohol-containing mouthwash such as Listerine may increase the risk of developing oral cancer.",
"As of 2010, seven meta-analyses have found no connection between alcohol-containing mouthwashes and oral cancer, and three have found increased risk.",
"In January 2009, Andrew Penman, chief executive of The Cancer Council New South Wales, called for further research on the matter.",
"In a March 2009 brief, the American Dental Association said \"the available evidence does not support a connection between oral cancer and alcohol-containing mouthrinse\".In 2009, Johnson and Johnson launched a new alcohol-free version of the product called Listerine Zero.A 2020 systematic review investigated the controversial alcohol-oral cancer question (or oropharynx or other head and neck cancers), saying that for example \"this risk from alcohol consumption increases ten times in heavy drinkers compared to abstainers or irregular drinkers\" but there is no consensus whether it is a risk factor.",
"The authors of the study conclude that \"alcohol-based mouthwash consumption significantly increases salivary acetaldehyde levels in the first few minutes.",
"However, no evidence exists if long-term salivary acetaldehyde levels may increase with a high frequency of mouthwash use.",
"There is still insufficient evidence of whether the use of alcohol-based mouthwash is an independent risk factor for oral or oropharynx cancer.",
"Nonetheless, it does increase the risk when it occurs concomitantly with other risk factors such as smoking or alcohol.=== Contaminants ===On April 11, 2007, McNeil-PPC disclosed that there were potentially contaminants in all Listerine Agent Cool Blue products sold since its launch in 2006, and that all bottles were being recalled.",
"The recall affected some 4,000,000 bottles sold since that time.",
"According to the company, Listerine Agent Cool Blue is the only product affected by the contamination and no other products in the Listerine family were under recall."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Official Listerine Middle East Website* Listerine Fluoride Animation"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Ludo"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Ludo''' (; ) is a strategy board game for two to four players, in which the players race their four from start to finish according to the rolls of a single die.",
"Like other cross and circle games, Ludo is derived from the Indian game Pachisi.",
"The game and its variations are popular in many countries and under various names."
],
[
"History",
"=== The Mahabharata ===Pachisi was created in India in the sixth century CE.",
"The earliest evidence of this game's evolution in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ellora.",
"The original version is also described in the Indian epic Mahabharata in which Shakuni uses cursed dice to beat the Pandavas, and at last after losing everything, Yudhisthira puts his wife Draupadi on stake and loses her, too.",
"The Pandavas get all their belongings back, though, after Draupadi vows to curse the whole Kuru lineage, but stops at the intervention of Gandhari, and seeing an opportunity to still Draupadi's anger, Kuru king Dhritarashtra promises to give back to the Pandavas all that they had lost in the game.It was also known as Chaupar in ancient times in Indian subcontinent.Pachisi was modified to use a cubic die with a die cup and patented as \"Ludo\" in England in 1896.The Royal Navy took Ludo and converted it into the board game Uckers."
],
[
"Ludo board",
"An original Ludo boardSpecial areas of the Ludo board are typically coloured bright yellow, green, red, and blue.",
"Each player is assigned a colour and has four tokens in their colour.",
"The board is normally square with a cross-shaped , with each arm of the cross having three columns of squares, usually six per column.",
"The middle columns usually have five squares coloured; these represent a player's home column.",
"A sixth coloured square not on the home column is a player's starting square.",
"At the centre of the board is a large finishing square, often composed of coloured triangles atop the players' home columns (thus depicting \"arrows\" pointing to the finish)."
],
[
"Rules",
"=== Overview ===Trajectory of tokens of each colour on the original Ludo boardTwo, three, or four can play, without partnerships.",
"At the beginning of the game, each player's four tokens are out of play and in the player's yard (one of the large corner areas of the board in the player's colour).",
"When able to, the players enter their tokens one per turn on their respective starting squares and proceed to race them clockwise around the board along the game track (the path of squares not part of any player's home column).",
"When reaching the square below their home column, a player continues by moving tokens up the column to the finishing square.",
"The rolls of a single die control the swiftness of the tokens, and entry to the finishing square requires a precise roll from the player.",
"The first to bring all their tokens to the finish wins the game.",
"The others often continue to play to determine second-, third-, and fourth-place finishers.===Gameplay===Each player rolls a die; the highest roller begins the game.",
"Players alternate turns in a clockwise direction.",
"To enter a token into play from its yard to its starting square, a player must roll a six.",
"Players can draw a token from home every time they get a six unless home is empty or move a piece six times.",
"The start box has two own tokens (is doubled).",
"If the player has no tokens yet in play and rolls other than a six, the turn passes to the next player.Players must always move a token according to the die value rolled.",
"Once players have one or more tokens in play, they select a token and move it forwards along the track the number of squares indicated by the die.",
"If a token advances onto a spot occupied by opponent's token then the opposing token is returned back to its respective home point.",
"This forces the opponent to roll another 6 to take it out of their home and move it again.",
"If a token advances onto a spot occupied by a token of the same colour, then they create something that is called a \"block\".",
"If an opposing token lands on the same spot as the block, the advancing token is returned back to its respective home point.",
"If the player cannot draw a token from home, rolling a six earns the player an additional or \"bonus\" roll in that turn.",
"If the bonus roll results in a six again, the player earns again an additional bonus roll.",
"If the third roll is also a six, the player may not move and the turn immediately passes to the next player.A player's home column squares are always safe, since no opponent may enter them.",
"In the home column, a player cannot jump over; after one rotation is completed, the player must enter the home and roll the exact number needed to get each token onto the home triangle.."
],
[
"Variants",
"===List of international variants===Regular ''parqués ''board for four players''Mens erger je niet'', Dutch version for six playersLudo exists under different names and brands, and in various game derivations:* Uckers, British* Pachisi, Indian* Fia, Swedish* Eile mit Weile (Haste makes Pace), Swiss* Cờ cá ngựa, Vietnamese* Parchís, Spanish* Parqués, Colombian**Vuelta obligada (mandatory restart)**Cielo robado (stolen heaven)**De piedra en piedra (from stone to stone)**Con Policía (With Policeman)====Mensch ärgere Dich nicht====Mensch ärgere Dich nicht (Man, Don't Get Angry), is a German game from 1914 and has equivalent names in Albanian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Dutch, Greek, Italian, Macedonian, Polish, Romanian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian, and Turkish.",
"* Mens erger je niet (Dutch)* Non t'arrabbiare (Italian)* Človek, ne jezi se (Slovenian)* Člověče, nezlob se (Czech)* Čovječe, ne ljuti se (Croatian)* Човече не љути се (Serbian)* Kızma Birader (Turkish)* Człowieku, nie irytuj się (Polish)* Nu te supăra, frate (Romanian)====German specific====* Verliere nicht den Kopf (Do not lose your head)* Coppit* Brändi Dog====French====* Jeu des petits chevaux====Hasbro====Hasbro has multiple brand names for ludo-like games from its acquisitions including:* Aggravation* Headache** Game of Headache, British* Based on Pachisi** Parcheesi, North American** Sorry!",
"; North American and British* ''Trouble'', North American** ''Kimble'', Finnish version of ''Trouble''** ''Frustration'', British and Irish version of ''Trouble''====Chinese====* Aeroplane chess: A Chinese cross-and-circle board game derived from Ludo, it uses aeroplanes as tokens, with additional features such as coloured cells, jumps, and shortcuts.====Canadian====* Tock: Players race their four tokens (or marbles) around the game board from start to finish, with the objective being to be the first to take all of one's tokens \"home\".",
"Like Sorry!, it is played with playing cards rather than dice.====Latvian====The Latvian version of the game is called \"Riču-Raču\".",
"The board is larger than the original board with seven home spaces instead of four (but the player must always reach the four furthest home spaces anyway, if the player overrolls, then they must move the extra spaces back and wait for their next turn).",
"Captures are allowed and two tokens cannot occupy the same space.",
"If a player rolls a one or a six, they can either get a second roll or move a token to the starting position.===Differences===Pachisi variant being played on a Ludo board in Nepal* Ludo played in the Indian subcontinent features a safe square in each quadrant, normally the fourth square from the top in the rightmost column.",
"These squares are usually marked with a star.",
"In India Ludo is often played with two dice, and rolling ''1'' on a die also allows a token to enter active play.",
"Thus if a player rolls a ''1'' and a ''6'', they may get a token out and move it six steps.",
"*In Pakistan, a variation that uses two dice allows backwards movement.",
"The dice are rolled and the die values can be used independently or in combination to move two pieces or a single piece forwards or backwards or both.",
"(E.g., if the roll gives ''1'' and ''4'', the player can move a single piece 4 steps forwards and then 1 step backwards, or 1 step forwards and 4 steps backwards, or 1 then 4 steps forwards or backwards.",
"Or the player can move a piece 1 step forwards or backwards, and another piece 4 steps forwards or backwards.",
")* To get a game started faster, some house rules allow a player with no pieces on the board to bring their first piece into play on any roll, on a ''1'' or a ''6'', or allow multiple tries to roll a ''6'' (with three rolls being the most popular).",
"* If a piece lands on the same space as another piece of the same colour, the moved piece must take the preceding space.",
"* Some variations permit doubled blocks to be passed by rolling a ''6'' or ''1''.",
"* A block of two or more pieces cannot be taken by an opponent's single piece.",
"* Doubled pieces may move half the number if an even number is thrown (e.g.",
"move two spaces if a ''4'' is thrown).",
"* A doubled piece may capture another doubled piece (like in Coppit).",
"Three pieces together are weak and can be cut by a single piece.",
"* A board may have only four spaces in each home column.",
"All four of a player's pieces must finish in these spaces for the player to have finished the game.",
"(See .",
")* A player must move all the numbers rolled (e.g.",
"if a player rolls multiple ''6s'', they have to use all the numbers to move).",
"* A player cannot capture or enter finish if they have numbers remaining.",
"(E.g., if a player rolls a ''6'' and a ''2'' and they have the option to capture or enter finish with one of their pieces using the ''2'', they can only do so if they have another piece that can use the ''6''.",
")* To speed the game up, extra turns or bonus moves can be awarded for capturing a piece or getting a piece home; these may grant passage past a block.",
"* In Denmark and some other countries the board has eight spaces marked with a globe and eight with a star.",
"The globes are safe spaces where a piece cannot be captured.",
"The exception is that a player who has not yet entered all pieces, can always enter a piece on a roll of ''6''.",
"If the entry space is occupied by another player's piece, that piece is captured.",
"Otherwise the entry spaces work like the other globe spaces.",
"A piece which would have landed on a star instead moves to the next star.",
"* In Vietnam, it is called \"Cờ cá ngựa\", where the game is modeled after a horse race with the tokens modeled as horse heads.",
"In this variation, a ''1'' is given equal status to a ''6'' (meaning that the player can enter a token into play and can roll again).",
"Furthermore, once a player's token reaches their home column, it can only go up each square with an exact roll.",
"This means that a person outside the column must roll a ''1'' to enter the first square, a ''2'' afterwards to enter the second, and so forth.A player about to throw the die====African====In some parts of Africa including Nigeria, Botswana, Kenya, Lesotho and South Africa, the following rules are reportedly played:* A doubled block also blocks trailing pieces of the player who created the block, or blocks them unless they roll the exact number to land on the block; additionally, the doubled block cannot move forwards until the block that landed upon it moves off again.",
"This reduces the tactical advantage of a block and makes the game more interesting.",
"* If the two players sitting opposite are partners, the players can exchange numbers.",
"* There are four safety squares on the board, like castle squares in Pachisi, as well as the safe home squares, where a piece may able to move forwards or backwards and start their turn before previous player finishes.",
"* A piece landing on a square with an opponent's piece not only sends the opponent piece back to the starting area but also sends the landing piece to its home square.",
"* A player cannot move their first piece into the home column unless they have captured at least one piece of any of the opponents.",
"* If a player captures the piece of another player, they are awarded a bonus roll.",
"If in the bonus roll, another player's piece is captured, another bonus roll is awarded and so on."
],
[
"Explanatory notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ====== General bibliography ===* * * * * ; Attribution*"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lotus"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lotus''' or '''LOTUS''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Plants",
"*Lotus (plant), various botanical taxa commonly known as lotus, particularly:**''Lotus'' (genus), a genus of terrestrial plants in the family Fabaceae**Lotus flower, a symbolically important aquatic Asian plant also known as Indian or sacred lotus* Lotus tree, a plant in Greek and Roman mythology"
],
[
"Places",
"*Lotus, California, an unincorporated community in El Dorado County, California, United States*Lotus, Indiana, an unincorporated community in Union County, Indiana, United States*Lotus, Florida, a former village in Brevard County, Florida, United States*Lotus, Kentucky, an unincorporated community in Bullitt County, Kentucky, United States"
],
[
"Brands",
"=== Cars and car racing ===*Lotus Cars, a British motor vehicle manufacturer**Lotus F1 Team, a British Formula One team that started competing in the 2012 season**Team Lotus, a British Formula One racing team that competed between 1954 and 1994**Pacific Team Lotus, the successor team that resulted from a merger with Pacific and competed in Formula One in 1995**Lotus GP, a French GP2 and GP3 racing team sponsored by Lotus Cars*Team Lotus (2010–11), a Malaysian Formula One racing team that began racing in 2010 as Lotus Racing and became the Caterham F1 Team at the end of the 2011 season=== Other brands ===*Lotus, a brand of watches, part of the Festina Group*Lotus Foods, an organic rice company*Lotus Bakeries, a Belgian bakery founded in 1932*Lotus Software, a personal computer software company, best known for:** Lotus Notes, collaborative software, personal information manager and e-mail client now known as IBM Notes** Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet application*Lotus Supercenter, an Asian supermarket chain owned by the Charoen Pokphand Group*Tesco Lotus, a hypermarket chain in Thailand, formerly owned by Lotus Supercenter"
],
[
"Religion",
"*Sacred lotus in religious art*Lotus throne base for figures in Asian religious art* Lotus, one of the Ashtamangala (Eight Auspicious Symbols)*Lotus Sutra, an influential Mahayana sutra"
],
[
"Media and entertainment",
"===Music===*Lotus (guitar), an instrument manufacturer*Lotus (American band), an instrumental rock band*Lotus (Hong Kong band), a 1960s pop band====Albums====*''Lotus'' (Christina Aguilera album) (2012), by Christina Aguilera*''Lotus'' (Elisa album) (2003), by Elisa*''Lotus'' (Santana album) (1974), by Santana*''Lotus'' (2009), by Haywyre====Songs====*\"Lotus\" (Arashi song), by Arashi*\"Lotus\" (Dir En Grey song), a song by Dir En Grey*\"Lotus\" (R.E.M.",
"song), by R.E.M.",
"*\"Lotus\", a song from ''Cage The Elephant'''s debut album*”Lotus”, a song by Lil Uzi Vert on the album ''Lil Uzi Vert vs. the World 2 ''*\"Lotus\", a song by Minus the Bear on ''Planet of Ice''*\"Lotus\", a song by Susumu Hirasawa on the 1995 album ''Sim City''===Other media===*Lotus (board game), a strategy game*''Lotus'' (magazine), a trilingual political and cultural magazine*''Lotus'' (video game series), a videogame series based on Lotus cars*Lotus, the codename of a character in the 2009 video game ''Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors''"
],
[
"Vessels",
"*''Lotus'' (1826 ship), English ship*''Lotus'' (motor vessel), a houseboat yacht*S.S. ''Lotus'', a French steamship involved in the ''Lotus case'' criminal trial*S.S.S.",
"''Lotus'', an American sailing vessel"
],
[
"Other uses",
"*Law of the unconscious statistician, a statistics theorem used to calculate the expected value of a function*Lateral olfactory tract usher substance, a protein in nerve cells promoting axon growth*Lotus Blossom (born 2007) Japanese-American actress and daughter of Ernie Reyes Jr.*Lotus Long (1909–1990), Asian-American actress"
],
[
"See also",
"*Lotus-eaters, a Greek mythological people*Lotus position, a posture used in yoga, meditation & Zen Buddhism*Lotus Temple, Baha'i House of Worship in Delhi, India*''The Blue Lotus'', a Tintin book by Hergé*''The White Lotus'', an HBO satire comedy miniseries* Lotos (disambiguation)*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Life expectancy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"WHOLife expectancy and healthy life expectancy by sexLife expectancy development in some big countries of the world since 1960Life expectancy at birth, measured by region, between 1950 and 2050Life expectancy by world region, from 1770 to 2018WHO for 2019.Open the original svg-file and hover over a bubble to show its data.",
"The square of the bubbles is proportional to country population based on estimation of the UN.",
"'''Human life expectancy''' is a statistical measure of the estimate of the average remaining years of life at a given age.",
"The most commonly used measure is ''life expectancy at birth'' (LEB, or in demographic notation ''e''0, where ''e''x denotes the average life remaining at age ''x'').",
"This can be defined in two ways.",
"''Cohort'' LEB is the mean length of life of a birth cohort (in this case, all individuals born in a given year) and can be computed only for cohorts born so long ago that all their members have died.",
"''Period'' LEB is the mean length of life of a hypothetical cohort assumed to be exposed, from birth through death, to the mortality rates observed at a given year.",
"National LEB figures reported by national agencies and international organizations for human populations are estimates of ''period'' LEB.Human remains from the early Bronze Age indicate an LEB of 24.In 2019, world LEB was 73.3.A combination of high infant mortality and deaths in young adulthood from accidents, epidemics, plagues, wars, and childbirth, before modern medicine was widely available, significantly lowers LEB.",
"For example, a society with a LEB of 40 would have relatively few people dying at exactly 40: most will die before 30 or after 55.In populations with high infant mortality rates, LEB is highly sensitive to the rate of death in the first few years of life.",
"Because of this sensitivity, LEB can be grossly misinterpreted, leading to the belief that a population with a low LEB would have a small proportion of older people.",
"A different measure, such as life expectancy at age 5 (e5), can be used to exclude the effect of infant mortality to provide a simple measure of overall mortality rates other than in early childhood.",
"For instance, in a society with a life expectancy of 30, it may nevertheless be common to have a 40-year remaining timespan at age 5 (but not a 60-year one).Aggregate population measures—such as the proportion of the population in various age groups—are also used alongside individual-based measures—such as formal life expectancy—when analyzing population structure and dynamics.",
"Pre-modern societies had universally higher mortality rates and lower life expectancies at every age for both males and females.Life expectancy, longevity, and maximum lifespan are not synonymous.",
"Longevity refers to the relatively long lifespan of some members of a population.",
"Maximum lifespan is the age at death for the longest-lived individual of a species.",
"Mathematically, life expectancy is denoted and is the mean number of years of life remaining at a given age , with a particular mortality.",
"Because life expectancy is an average, a particular person may die many years before or after the expected survival.Life expectancy is also used in plant or animal ecology, and in life tables (also known as actuarial tables).",
"The concept of life expectancy may also be used in the context of manufactured objects, though the related term shelf life is commonly used for consumer products, and the terms \"mean time to breakdown\" and \"mean time between failures\" are used in engineering."
],
[
"History",
"The earliest documented work on life expectancy was done in the 1660s by John Graunt, Christiaan Huygens, and Lodewijck Huygens."
],
[
"Human patterns",
"===Maximum===The longest verified lifespan for any human is that of Frenchwoman Jeanne Calment, who is verified as having lived to age 122 years, 164 days, between 21 February 1875 and 4 August 1997.This is referred to as the \"maximum life span\", which is the upper boundary of life, the maximum number of years any human is known to have lived.",
"A theoretical study shows that the maximum life expectancy at birth is limited by the human life characteristic value δ, which is around 104 years.",
"According to a study by biologists Bryan G. Hughes and Siegfried Hekimi, there is no evidence for limit on human lifespan.",
"However, this view has been questioned on the basis of error patterns.Records of human lifespan above age 100 are highly susceptible to errors.",
"For example, the previous world-record holder for human lifespan, Carrie C. White was uncovered as a simple typographic error after more than two decades.===Variation over time===The following information is derived from the 1961 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' and other sources, some with questionable accuracy.",
"Unless otherwise stated, it represents estimates of the life expectancies of the world population as a whole.",
"In many instances, life expectancy varied considerably according to class and gender.Life expectancy at birth takes account of infant mortality and child mortality but not prenatal mortality.",
"Era Life expectancy at birth in years NotesPaleolithic22–33With modern hunter-gatherer populations' estimated average life expectancy at birth of 33 years, life expectancy for the 60% reaching age 15 averages 39 remaining years.Neolithic20–33Based on Early Neolithic data, life expectancy at age 15 would be 28–33 years.Bronze Age and Iron Age26Based on Early and Middle Bronze Age data, life expectancy at age 15 would be 28–36 years.Classical Greece25–28Based on Athens Agora and Corinth data, life expectancy at age 15 would be 37–41 years.",
"Most Greeks and Romans died young.",
"About half of all children died before adolescence.",
"Those who survived to the age of 30 had a reasonable chance of reaching 50 or 60.The truly elderly, however, were rare.",
"Because so many died in childhood, life expectancy at birth was probably between 20 and 30 years.Ancient Rome20–33 Data are lacking, but computer models provide the estimate.",
"If a person survived to age 20, they could expect to live around 30 years more.",
"Life expectancy was probably slightly longer for women than men.",
"Life expectancy at age 1 reached 34-41 remaining years for the 67–75% surviving the first year.",
"For the 55-65% surviving to age 5, remaining life expectancy reached around 40–45, while the ~50% reaching age 10 could expect another 40 years of life.",
"Average remaining years fell to 33–39 at age 15; ~20 at age 40; 14–18 at age 50; ~10–12 at age 60; and ~6–7 at age 70.Wang clan of China, 1st century AD – 174935 Life expectancy at age 1 reached 47 years for the 72% surviving the first year.Early Middle Ages (Europe, from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century)30–35 A Gaulish boy surviving to age 20 might expect to live 25 more years, while a woman at age 20 could normally expect about 17 more years.",
"Anyone who survived until 40 had a good chance of another 15 to 20 years.Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica20-40Expectation of life at birth 13–36 years for various Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, most of the results lying in the range 24–32 years.",
"Aztec life expectancy 41.2 years for men and 42.1 for women.Late medieval English peerage30–33 Around a third of infants died in their first year.",
"Life expectancy at age 10 reached 32.2 remaining years, and for those who survived to 25, the remaining life expectancy was 23.3 years.",
"Such estimates reflected the life expectancy of adult males from the higher ranks of English society in the Middle Ages, and were similar to that computed for monks of the Christ Church in Canterbury during the 15th century.",
"At age 21, life expectancy of an aristocrat was an additional 43 years.Early modern Britain (16th – 18th century) 33–4018th-century male life expectancy at birth was 34 years.",
"Female expectation of remaining years at age 15 rose from ~33 years around the 15th-16th centuries to ~42 in the 18th century.18th-century England25–40 For most of the century it ranged from 35 to 40; but in the 1720s it dipped as low as 25.During the second half of the century it averaged 37, while for the elite it passed 40 and approached 50.Pre-Champlain Canadian Maritimes60Samuel de Champlain wrote that in his visits to Mi'kmaq and Huron communities, he met people over 100 years old.",
"Daniel Paul attributes the incredible lifespan in the region to low stress and a healthy diet of lean meats, diverse vegetables, and legumes.",
"18th-century Prussia24.7For males.18th-century France27.5–30For males: 24.8 years in 1740–1749, 27.9 years in 1750–1759, 33.9 years in 1800–1809.18th-century American colonies28Massachusetts colonists who reached the age of 50 could expect to live until 71, and those who were still alive at 60 could expect to reach 75.Beginning of the 19th century~29 At the beginning of the 19th century, no country in the world had a life expectancy at birth longer than 40 years, England, Belgium and the Netherlands came closest, each reaching 40 years by the 1840s (by which time they had been surpassed by Norway, Sweden and Denmark).",
"India's life expectancy is estimated at ~25 years, while Europe averaged ~33 years.Early 19th-century England40 Remaining years of life averaged ~45–47 for the 84% who survived the first year.",
"Life expectancy fell to ~40 years at age 20, then ~20 years at age 50 and ~10 years at age 70.For a 15-year-old girl it was ~40–45.For the upper-class, LEB rose from ~45 to 50.Only half of the people born in the early 19th century made it past their 50th birthday.",
"In contrast, 97% of the people born in 21st century England and Wales can expect to live longer than 50 years.19th-century British India25.419th-century world average28.5–32 Over the course of the century: Europe rose from ~33 to 43, the Americas from ~35 to 41, Oceania ~35 to 48, Asia ~28, Africa 26.In 1820s France, LEB was ~38, and for the 80% that survived, it rose to ~47.For Moscow serfs, LEB was ~34, and for the 66% that survived, it rose to ~36.Western Europe in 1830 was ~33 years, while for the people of Hau-Lou in China, it was ~40.The LEB for a 10-year-old in Sweden rose from ~44 to ~54.1900 world average31–32 Around 48 years in Oceania, 43 in Europe, and 41 in the Americas.",
"Around 47 in the U.S. and around 48 for 15-year-old girls in England.1950 world average45.7–48 Around 60 years in Europe, North America, Oceania, Japan, and parts of South America; but only 41 in Asia and 36 in Africa.",
"Norway led with 72, while in Mali it was merely 26.2019–2020 world average English life expectancy at birth averaged about 36 years in the 17th and 18th centuries, one of the highest levels in the world although infant and child mortality remained higher than in later periods.",
"Life expectancy was under 25 years in the early Colony of Virginia, and in seventeenth-century New England, about 40% died before reaching adulthood.",
"During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically.",
"Recorded deaths among children under the age of 5 years fell in London from 74.5% of the recorded births in 1730–49 to 31.8% in 1810–29, though this overstates mortality and its fall because of net immigration (hence more dying in the metropolis than were born there) and incomplete registration (particularly of births, and especially in the earlier period).",
"English life expectancy at birth reached 41 years in the 1840s, 43 in the 1870s and 46 in the 1890s, though infant mortality remained at around 150 per thousand throughout this period.Public health measures are credited with much of the recent increase in life expectancy.",
"During the 20th century, despite a brief drop due to the 1918 flu pandemic, the average lifespan in the United States increased by more than 30 years, of which 25 years can be attributed to advances in public health.===Regional variations===Life expectancy in 1800, 1950, and 2015 – visualization by Our World in DataHuman beings are expected to live on average 30–40 years in Eswatini and 82.6 years in Japan.",
"An analysis published in 2011 in ''The Lancet'' attributes Japanese life expectancy to equal opportunities, public health, and diet.Plot of life expectancy vs. GDP per capita in 2009.This phenomenon is known as the Preston curve.Graphs of life expectancy at birth for some sub-Saharan countries showing the fall in the 1990s primarily due to the HIV pandemicThere are great variations in life expectancy between different parts of the world, mostly caused by differences in public health, medical care, and diet.",
"The impact of AIDS on life expectancy is particularly notable in many African countries.",
"According to projections made by the United Nations in 2002, the life expectancy at birth for 2010–2015 (if HIV/AIDS did not exist) would have been:*70.7 years instead of 31.6 years, Botswana*69.9 years instead of 41.5 years, South Africa*70.5 years instead of 31.8 years, ZimbabweActual life expectancy in Botswana declined from 65 in 1990 to 49 in 2000 before increasing to 66 in 2011.In South Africa, life expectancy was 63 in 1990, 57 in 2000, and 58 in 2011.And in Zimbabwe, life expectancy was 60 in 1990, 43 in 2000, and 54 in 2011.During the last 200 years, African countries have generally not had the same improvements in mortality rates that have been enjoyed by countries in Asia, Latin America, and Europe.In the United States, African-American people have shorter life expectancies than their European-American counterparts.",
"For example, white Americans in 2010 are expected to live until age 78.9, but black Americans only until age 75.1.This 3.8-year gap, however, is the lowest it has been since 1975 at the latest.",
"The greatest difference was 7.1 years in 1993.In contrast, Asian-American women live the longest of all ethnic groups in the United States, with a life expectancy of 85.8 years.",
"The life expectancy of Hispanic-Americans is 81.2 years.",
"According to the new government reports in the US, life expectancy in the country dropped again because of the rise in suicide and drug overdose rates.",
"The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) found nearly 70,000 more Americans died in 2017 than in 2016, with rising rates of death among 25- to 44-year-olds.Cities also experience a wide range of life expectancy based on neighborhood breakdowns.",
"This is largely due to economic clustering and poverty conditions that tend to associate based on geographic location.",
"Multi-generational poverty found in struggling neighborhoods also contributes.",
"In United States cities such as Cincinnati, the life expectancy gap between low income and high-income neighborhoods touches 20 years.===Economic circumstances===Life expectancy is higher in rich countries with low economic inequality.US average of $10,447 in 2018.Economic circumstances also affect life expectancy.",
"For example, in the United Kingdom, life expectancy in the wealthiest and richest areas is several years higher than in the poorest areas.",
"This may reflect factors such as diet and lifestyle, as well as access to medical care.",
"It may also reflect a selective effect: people with chronic life-threatening illnesses are less likely to become wealthy or to reside in affluent areas.",
"In Glasgow, the disparity is amongst the highest in the world: life expectancy for males in the heavily deprived Calton area stands at 54, which is 28 years less than in the affluent area of Lenzie, which is only away.A 2013 study found a pronounced relationship between economic inequality and life expectancy.",
"However, in contrast, a study by José A. Tapia Granados and Ana Diez Roux at the University of Michigan found that life expectancy actually ''increased'' during the Great Depression, and during recessions and depressions in general.",
"The authors suggest that when people are working at a more extreme degree during prosperous economic times, they undergo more stress, exposure to pollution, and the likelihood of injury among other longevity-limiting factors.Life expectancy is also likely to be affected by exposure to high levels of highway air pollution or industrial air pollution.",
"This is one way that occupation can have a major effect on life expectancy.",
"Coal miners (and in prior generations, asbestos cutters) often have lower life expectancies than average.",
"Other factors affecting an individual's life expectancy are genetic disorders, drug use, tobacco smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, obesity, access to health care, diet, and exercise.===Sex differences===Pink: Countries where female life expectancy at birth is higher than males.",
"Blue: A few countries in southern Africa where females have shorter lives due to AIDS.In the present, female human life expectancy is greater than that of males, despite females having higher morbidity rates (see Health survival paradox).",
"There are many potential reasons for this.",
"Traditional arguments tend to favor sociology-environmental factors: historically, men have generally consumed more tobacco, alcohol, and drugs than women in most societies, and are more likely to die from many associated diseases such as lung cancer, tuberculosis, and cirrhosis of the liver.",
"Men are also more likely to die from injuries, whether unintentional (such as occupational, war, or car wrecks) or intentional (suicide).",
"Men are also more likely to die from most of the leading causes of death (some already stated above) than women.",
"Some of these in the United States include cancer of the respiratory system, motor vehicle accidents, suicide, cirrhosis of the liver, emphysema, prostate cancer, and coronary heart disease.",
"These far outweigh the female mortality rate from breast cancer and cervical cancer.",
"In the past, mortality rates for females in child-bearing age groups were higher than for males at the same age.A paper from 2015 found that female foetuses have a higher mortality rate than male foetuses.",
"This finding contradicts papers dating from 2002 and earlier that attribute the male sex to higher in-utero mortality rates.",
"Among the smallest premature babies (those under ), females have a higher survival rate.",
"At the other extreme, about 90% of individuals aged 110 are female.",
"The difference in life expectancy between men and women in the United States dropped from 7.8 years in 1979 to 5.3 years in 2005, with women expected to live to age 80.1 in 2005.Data from the United Kingdom shows the gap in life expectancy between men and women decreasing in later life.",
"This may be attributable to the effects of infant mortality and young adult death rates.Some argue that shorter male life expectancy is merely another manifestation of the general rule, seen in all mammal species, that larger-sized individuals within a species tend, on average, to have shorter lives.",
"This biological difference occurs because women have more resistance to infections and degenerative diseases.In her extensive review of the existing literature, Kalben concluded that the fact that women live longer than men was observed at least as far back as 1750 and that, with relatively equal treatment, today males in all parts of the world experience greater mortality than females.",
"However, Kalben's study was restricted to data in Western Europe alone, where the demographic transition occurred relatively early.",
"United Nations statistics from mid-twentieth century onward, show that in all parts of the world, females have a higher life expectancy at age 60 than males.",
"Of 72 selected causes of death, only 6 yielded greater female than male age-adjusted death rates in 1998 in the United States.",
"Except for birds, for almost all of the animal species studied, males have higher mortality than females.",
"Evidence suggests that the sex mortality differential in people is due to both biological/genetic and environmental/behavioral risk and protective factors.One recent suggestion is that mitochondrial mutations which shorten lifespan continue to be expressed in males (but less so in females) because mitochondria are inherited only through the mother.",
"By contrast, natural selection weeds out mitochondria that reduce female survival; therefore, such mitochondria are less likely to be passed on to the next generation.",
"This thus suggests that females tend to live longer than males.",
"The authors claim that this is a partial explanation.Another explanation is the unguarded X hypothesis.",
"According to this hypothesis, one reason for why the average lifespan of males isn't as long as that of females––by 18% on average, according to the study––is that they have a Y chromosome which can't protect an individual from harmful genes expressed on the X chromosome, while a duplicate X chromosome, as present in female organisms, can ensure harmful genes aren't expressed.In developed countries, starting around 1880, death rates decreased faster among women, leading to differences in mortality rates between males and females.",
"Before 1880, death rates were the same.",
"In people born after 1900, the death rate of 50- to 70-year-old men was double that of women of the same age.",
"Men may be more vulnerable to cardiovascular disease than women, but this susceptibility was evident only after deaths from other causes, such as infections, started to decline.",
"Most of the difference in life expectancy between the sexes is accounted for by differences in the rate of death by cardiovascular diseases among persons aged 50–70.===Genetics===The heritability of lifespan is estimated to be less than 10%, meaning the majority of variation in lifespan is attributable due to differences in environment rather than genetic variation.",
"However, researchers have identified regions of the genome which can influence the length of life and the number of years lived in good health.",
"For example, a genome-wide association study of 1 million lifespans found 12 genetic loci which influenced lifespan by modifying susceptibility to cardiovascular and smoking-related disease.",
"The locus with the largest effect is APOE.",
"Carriers of the APOE ε4 allele live approximately one year less than average (per copy of the ε4 allele), mainly due to increased risk of Alzheimer's disease.",
"\"Healthspan, parental lifespan, and longevity are highly genetically correlated.",
"\"In July 2020, scientists identified 10 genomic loci with consistent effects across multiple lifespan-related traits, including healthspan, lifespan, and longevity.",
"The genes affected by variation in these loci highlighted haem metabolism as a promising candidate for further research within the field.",
"This study suggests that high levels of iron in the blood likely reduce, and genes involved in metabolising iron likely increase healthy years of life in humans.A follow-up study which investigated the genetics of frailty and self-rated health in addition to healthspan, lifespan, and longevity also highlighted haem metabolism as an important pathway, and found genetic variants which lower blood protein levels of LPA and VCAM1 were associated with increased healthy lifespan.===Centenarians===In developed countries, the number of centenarians is increasing at approximately 5.5% per year, which means doubling the centenarian population every 13 years, pushing it from some 455,000 in 2009 to 4.1 million in 2050.Japan is the country with the highest ratio of centenarians (347 for every 1 million inhabitants in September 2010).",
"Shimane Prefecture had an estimated 743 centenarians per million inhabitants.In the United States, the number of centenarians grew from 32,194 in 1980 to 71,944 in November 2010 (232 centenarians per million inhabitants).===Mental illness===Mental illness is reported to occur in approximately 18% of the average American population.Life expectancy in the seriously mentally ill is much shorter than the general population.The mentally ill have been shown to have a 10- to 25-year reduction in life expectancy.",
"Generally, the reduction of lifespan in the mentally ill population compared to the mentally stable population has been studied and documented.The greater mortality of people with mental disorders may be due to death from injury, from co-morbid conditions, or medication side effects.",
"For instance, psychiatric medications can increase the risk of developing diabetes.",
"It has been shown that the psychiatric medication olanzapine can increase risk of developing agranulocytosis, among other comorbidities.",
"Psychiatric medicines also affect the gastrointestinal tract; the mentally ill have a four times risk of gastrointestinal disease.As of 2020 and the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers have found an increased risk of death in the mentally ill.===Other illnesses===Post-COVID life expectancy in the US, UK, Netherlands, and AustriaThe life expectancy of people with diabetes, which is 9.3% of the U.S. population, is reduced by roughly 10–20 years.",
"People over 60 years old with Alzheimer's disease have about a 50% life expectancy of 3–10 years.",
"Other demographics that tend to have a lower life expectancy than average include transplant recipients and the obese.=== Education ===Education on all levels has been shown to be strongly associated with increased life expectancy.",
"This association may be due partly to higher income, which can lead to increased life expectancy.",
"Despite the association, among identical twin pairs with different education levels, there is only weak evidence of a relationship between educational attainment and adult mortality.According to a paper from 2015, the mortality rate for the Caucasian population in the United States from 1993 to 2001 is four times higher for those who did not complete high school compared to those who have at least 16 years of education.",
"In fact, within the U.S. adult population, people with less than a high school education have the shortest life expectancies.Preschool education also plays a large role in life expectancy.",
"It was found that high-quality early-stage childhood education had positive effects on health.",
"Researchers discovered this by analyzing the results of the Carolina Abecedarian Project, finding that the disadvantaged children who were randomly assigned to treatment had lower instances of risk factors for cardiovascular and metabolic diseases in their mid-30s."
],
[
"Evolution and aging rate",
"Various species of plants and animals, including humans, have different lifespans.",
"Evolutionary theory states that organisms which—by virtue of their defenses or lifestyle—live for long periods and avoid accidents, disease, predation, etc.",
"are likely to have genes that code for slow aging, which often translates to good cellular repair.",
"One theory is that if predation or accidental deaths prevent most individuals from living to an old age, there will be less natural selection to increase the intrinsic life span.",
"That finding was supported in a classic study of opossums by Austad; however, the opposite relationship was found in an equally prominent study of guppies by Reznick.One prominent and very popular theory states that lifespan can be lengthened by a tight budget for food energy called caloric restriction.",
"Caloric restriction observed in many animals (most notably mice and rats) shows a near doubling of life span from a very limited calorific intake.",
"Support for the theory has been bolstered by several new studies linking lower basal metabolic rate to increased life expectancy.",
"That is the key to why animals like giant tortoises can live so long.",
"Studies of humans with life spans of at least 100 have shown a link to decreased thyroid activity, resulting in their lowered metabolic rate.The ability of skin fibroblasts to perform DNA repair after UV irradiation was measured in shrew, mouse, rat, hamster, cow, elephant and human.",
"It was found that DNA repair capability increased systematically with species life span.",
"Since this original study in 1974, at least 14 additional studies were performed on mammals to test this correlation.",
"In all, but two of these studies, lifespan correlated with DNA repair levels, suggesting that DNA repair capability contributes to life expectancy.In a broad survey of zoo animals, no relationship was found between investment of the animal in reproduction and its life span."
],
[
"Calculation",
"A survival tree to explain the calculations of life-expectancy.",
"Red numbers indicate a chance of survival at a specific age, and blue ones indicate age-specific death rates.In actuarial notation, the probability of surviving from age to age is denoted and the probability of dying during age (i.e.",
"between ages and ) is denoted .",
"For example, if 10% of a group of people alive at their 90th birthday die before their 91st birthday, the age-specific death probability at 90 would be 10%.",
"This probability describes the ''likelihood'' of dying at that age, and is not the ''rate'' at which people of that age die.",
"It can be shown thatThe ''curtate future lifetime'', denoted , is a discrete random variable representing the remaining lifetime at age , rounded down to whole years.",
"Life expectancy, more technically called the ''curtate expected lifetime'' and denoted '' ,'' is the mean of —that is to say, the expected number of whole years of life remaining, assuming survival to age .",
"So,Substituting () into the sum and simplifying gives the final result If the assumption is made that, on average, people live a half year on the year of their death, the complete life expectancy at age would be .By definition, life expectancy is an arithmetic mean.",
"It can also be calculated by integrating the survival curve from 0 to positive infinity (or equivalently to the maximum lifespan, sometimes called 'omega').",
"For an extinct or completed cohort (all people born in the year 1850, for example), it can of course simply be calculated by averaging the ages at death.",
"For cohorts with some survivors, it is estimated by using mortality experience in recent years.",
"The estimates are called period cohort life expectancies.The starting point for calculating life expectancy is the age-specific death rates of the population members.",
"If a large amount of data is available, a statistical population can be created that allow the age-specific death rates to be simply taken as the mortality rates actually experienced at each age (the number of deaths divided by the number of years \"exposed to risk\" in each data cell).",
"However, it is customary to apply smoothing to remove (as much as possible) the random statistical fluctuations from one year of age to the next.",
"In the past, a very simple model used for this purpose was the Gompertz function, but more sophisticated methods are now used.",
"The most common modern methods include:*fitting a mathematical formula (such as the Gompertz function, or an extension of it) to the data.",
"*looking at an established mortality table derived from a larger population and making a simple adjustment to it (such as multiplying by a constant factor) to fit the data.",
"(In cases of relatively small amounts of data.",
")*looking at the mortality rates actually experienced at each age and applying a piecewise model (such as by cubic splines) to fit the data.",
"(In cases of relatively large amounts of data.",
")The age-specific death rates are calculated separately for separate groups of data that are believed to have different mortality rates (such as males and females, or smokers and non-smokers) and are then used to calculate a life table from which one can calculate the probability of surviving to each age.",
"While the data required are easily identified in the case of humans, the computation of life expectancy of industrial products and wild animals involves more indirect techniques.",
"The life expectancy and demography of wild animals are often estimated by capturing, marking, and recapturing them.",
"The life of a product, more often termed shelf life, is also computed using similar methods.",
"In the case of long-lived components, such as those used in critical applications (e.g.",
"aircraft), methods like accelerated aging are used to model the life expectancy of a component.The life expectancy statistic is usually based on past mortality experience and assumes that the same age-specific mortality rates will continue.",
"Thus, such life expectancy figures need to be adjusted for temporal trends before calculating how long a currently living individual of a particular age is expected to live.",
"Period life expectancy remains a commonly used statistic to summarize the current health status of a population.",
"However, for some purposes, such as pensions calculations, it is usual to adjust the life table used by assuming that age-specific death rates will continue to decrease over the years, as they have usually done in the past.",
"That is often done by simply extrapolating past trends, but some models exist to account for the evolution of mortality, like the Lee–Carter model.As discussed above, on an individual basis, some factors correlate with longer life.",
"Factors that are associated with variations in life expectancy include family history, marital status, economic status, physique, exercise, diet, drug use (including smoking and alcohol consumption), disposition, education, environment, sleep, climate, and health care."
],
[
"Healthy life expectancy",
"To assess the quality of these additional years of life, 'healthy life expectancy' has been calculated for the last 30 years.",
"Since 2001, the World Health Organization has published statistics called '''Healthy life expectancy''' ('''HALE'''), defined as the average number of years that a person can expect to live in \"full health\" excluding the years lived in less than full health due to disease and/or injury.",
"Since 2004, Eurostat publishes annual statistics called Healthy Life Years (HLY) based on reported activity limitations.",
"The United States uses similar indicators in the framework of the national health promotion and disease prevention plan \"Healthy People 2010\".",
"More and more countries are using health expectancy indicators to monitor the health of their population.Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE) vs GDP per Capita in different countriesThe long-standing quest for longer life led in the 2010s to a more promising focus on increasing HALE, also known as a person's \"healthspan\".",
"Besides the benefits of keeping people healthier longer, a goal is to reduce health-care expenses on the many diseases associated with cellular senescence.",
"Approaches being explored include fasting, exercise, and senolytic drugs."
],
[
"Forecasting",
"Forecasting life expectancy and mortality form an important subdivision of demography.",
"Future trends in life expectancy have huge implications for old-age support programs (like U.S. Social Security and pension) since the cash flow in these systems depends on the number of recipients who are still living (along with the rate of return on the investments or the tax rate in pay-as-you-go systems).",
"With longer life expectancies, the systems see increased cash outflow; if the systems underestimate increases in life-expectancies, they will be unprepared for the large payments that will occur, as humans live longer and longer.Life expectancy forecasting is usually based on one of two different approaches:# Forecasting the life expectancy directly, generally using ARIMA or other time-series extrapolation procedures.",
"This has the advantage of simplicity, but it cannot account for changes in mortality at specific ages, and the forecast number cannot be used to derive other life table results.",
"Analyses and forecasts using this approach can be done with any common statistical/mathematical software package, like EViews, R, SAS, Stata, Matlab, or SPSS.# Forecasting age-specific death rates and computing the life expectancy from the results with life table methods.",
"This is usually more complex than simply forecasting life expectancy because the analyst must deal with correlated age-specific mortality rates, but it seems to be more robust than simple one-dimensional time series approaches.",
"It also yields a set of age-specific rates that may be used to derive other measures, such as survival curves or life expectancies at different ages.",
"The most important approach in this group is the Lee-Carter model, which uses the singular value decomposition on a set of transformed age-specific mortality rates to reduce their dimensionality to a single time series, forecasts that time series, and then recovers a full set of age-specific mortality rates from that forecasted value.",
"The software includes Professor Rob J. Hyndman's R package called 'demography' and UC Berkeley's LCFIT system."
],
[
"Policy uses",
"Life expectancy is one of the factors in measuring the Human Development Index (HDI) of each nation along with adult literacy, education, and standard of living.Life expectancy is used in describing the physical quality of life of an area.",
"It is also used for an individual when the value of a life settlement is determined a life insurance policy is sold for a cash asset.Disparities in life expectancy are often cited as demonstrating the need for better medical care or increased social support.",
"A strongly associated indirect measure is income inequality.",
"For the top 21 industrialized countries, if each person is counted equally, life expectancy is lower in more unequal countries (r = −0.907).",
"There is a similar relationship among states in the U.S. (r = −0.620)."
],
[
"Life expectancy vs. other measures of longevity",
"retirement income planning.Life expectancy may be confused with the average age an adult could expect to live, creating the misunderstanding that an adult's lifespan would be unlikely to exceed their life expectancy at birth, even though having already avoided succumbing to childhood mortality, an adult will always outlive the lifespan calculated from their birth.",
"One may compare the life expectancy of the period after childhood to estimate also the life expectancy of an adult.As a measure of the years of life remaining, life expectancy decreases with age after initially rising in early childhood, but the average age to which a person is likely to live increases as they survive to successive higher ages.",
"In the table above, the estimated modern hunter-gatherer average expectation of life at birth of 33 years (often considered an upper-bound for Paleolithic populations) equates to a life expectancy at 15 of 39 years, so that those surviving to age 15 will on average die at 54.In England in the 13th–19th centuries with life expectancy at birth rising from perhaps 25 years to over 40, expectation of life at age 30 has been estimated at 20–30 years, giving an average age at death of about 50-60 for those (a minority at the start of the period but two-thirds at its end) surviving beyond their twenties.Life expectancy increases with age already achieved.The table above gives the life expectancy at birth among 13th-century English nobles as 30–33, but having surviving to the age of 21, a male member of the English aristocracy could expect to live:*1200–1300: to age 64*1300–1400: to age 45 (because of the bubonic plague)*1400–1500: to age 69*1500–1550: to age 71 A further concept is that of modal age at death, the single age when deaths among a population are more numerous than at any other age.",
"In all pre-modern societies the most common age at death is the first year of life: it is only as infant mortality falls below around 33-34 per thousand (roughly a tenth of estimated ancient and medieval levels) that deaths in a later year of life (usually around age 80) become more numerous.",
"While the most common age of death in adulthood among modern hunter-gatherers (often taken as a guide to the likely most favourable Paleolithic demographic experience) is estimated to average 72 years, the number dying at that age is dwarfed by those (over a fifth of all infants) dying in the first year of life, and only around a quarter usually survive to the higher age.Maximum life span is an individual-specific concept, and therefore is an upper bound rather than an average.",
"Science author Christopher Wanjek writes, \"Has the human race increased its life span?",
"Not at all.",
"This is one of the biggest misconceptions about old age: we are not living any longer.\"",
"The maximum life span, or oldest age a human can live, may be constant.",
"Further, there are many examples of people living significantly longer than the average life expectancy of their time period, such as Socrates (71), Saint Anthony the Great (105), Michelangelo (88), and John Adams (90).However, anthropologist John D. Hawks criticizes the popular conflation of life span (life expectancy) and maximum life span when popular science writers falsely imply that the average adult human does not live longer than their ancestors.",
"He writes, \"age-specific mortality rates have declined across the adult lifespan.",
"A smaller fraction of adults die at 20, at 30, at 40, at 50, and so on across the lifespan.",
"As a result, we live longer on average...",
"In every way we can measure, human lifespans are longer today than in the immediate past, and longer today than they were 2000 years ago... age-specific mortality rates in adults really have reduced substantially.\""
],
[
"See also",
"===Increasing life expectancy==="
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Leonid A. Gavrilov & Natalia S. Gavrilova (1991), ''The Biology of Life Span: A Quantitative Approach''.",
"New York: Harwood Academic Publisher, .",
"*Kochanek, Kenneth D., Elizabeth Arias, and Robert N. Anderson (2013), '' How Did Cause of Death Contribute to Racial Differences in Life Expectancy in the United States in 2010?''.",
"Hyattsville, Md.",
": U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics."
],
[
"External links",
"* Charts for all countries* Our World In Data – Life Expectancy—Visualizations of how life expectancy around the world has changed historically (by Max Roser).",
"Includes life expectancy for different age groups.",
"Charts for all countries, world maps, and links to more data sources.",
"* Global Agewatch has the latest internationally comparable statistics on life expectancy from 195 countries.",
"* Rank Order—Life expectancy at birth from the CIA's World Factbook.",
"* Annual Life Tables since 1966; Decennial Life Tables since 1890 from the US Centers for Disease Controls and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics.",
"* Life expectancy in Roman times from the University of Texas.",
"*Animal lifespans: Animal Lifespans from Tesarta Online (Internet Archive); The Life Span of Animals from Dr. Bob's All Creatures Site."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lesser Poland"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Wawel Castle in KrakówOld Town in Lublin'''Lesser Poland''', often known by its Polish name '''Małopolska''' (; ), is a historical region situated in southern and south-eastern Poland.",
"Its capital and largest city is Kraków.",
"Throughout centuries, Lesser Poland developed a separate culture featuring diverse architecture, folk costumes, dances, cuisine, traditions and a rare Lesser Polish dialect.",
"The region is rich in historical landmarks, monuments, castles, natural scenery and UNESCO World Heritage Sites.The region should not be confused with the modern Lesser Poland Voivodeship, which covers only the southwestern part of Lesser Poland.",
"Historical Lesser Poland was much larger than the current voivodeship that bears its name.",
"It reached from Bielsko-Biała in the southwest as far as to Siedlce in the northeast.",
"It consisted of the three voivodeships of Kraków, Sandomierz and Lublin.It comprised almost 60,000 km2 in area; today's population in this area is about 9,000,000 inhabitants.",
"Its landscape is mainly hilly, with the Carpathian Mountains and Tatra Mountain Range in the south; it is located in the basin of the upper Vistula river.",
"It has been noted for its mighty aristocracy (''magnateria'') and wealthy nobility (''szlachta'').Between the 14th and 18th century, the Lesser Poland Province of the Kingdom of Poland also encompassed the historical regions of Podlachia, Volhynia, Podolia and Red Ruthenia/Cherven Cities.",
"In the era of partitions, the southern part of Lesser Poland became known as Galicia, which was under Austrian control until Poland regained its independence in 1918.As a result of this long-lasting division, many inhabitants of the northern part of Lesser Poland (including those in such cities as Lublin, Radom, Kielce and Częstochowa) do not recognize their Lesser Polish identity.",
"However, while Lublin ''(Lubelskie)'' was declared an independent Voivodeship as early as 1474, it still has speakers of the Lesser Polish dialect.Across history, many ethnic and religious minorities existed in Lesser Poland as they fled persecution from other areas or countries.",
"Poland's once tolerant policy towards these minorities allowed them to flourish and create separate self-governing communities.",
"Some minorities still remain, but are on the verge of extinction, most notably Wymysorys-speaking Vilamovians, Halcnovians, Gorals, Lemkos, and once Polish Jews and Walddeutsche Germans."
],
[
"Geography and boundaries",
"Lesser Poland Province in the widest sense – with Podlachia, Podolia, Red Ruthenia, Volhynia and KievLesser Poland lies in the area of the upper confluence of the Vistula river and covers a large upland, including the Świętokrzyskie Mountains with the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland further west, Małopolska Upland, Sandomierz Basin, and Lublin Upland.",
"Unlike other historical parts of the country, such as Kujawy, Mazovia, Podlachia, Pomerania, or Greater Poland, Lesser Poland is mainly hilly, with Poland's highest peak, Rysy, located within the borders of the province.",
"Flat are northern and central areas of the province – around Tarnobrzeg, Stalowa Wola, Radom and Siedlce, also valleys of the main rivers – the Vistula, the Pilica, and the San.",
"Apart from Rysy, there are several other peaks located in the province – Pilsko, Babia Góra, Turbacz, as well as Łysica in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains.",
"The southern part of the province is covered by the Carpathian Mountains, which are made of smaller ranges, such as Pieniny, Tatry, and Beskidy.Palm Sunday in Lipnica Murowana.The 1507 Lesser Poland and Red Ruthenia Map (''Polonia Minor'', ''Russia'') by Martin WaldseemüllerAlmost the whole area is located in the Vistula Basin, with the exception of the western and southern parts, belonging to the Odra and Dunaj Basins.",
"The main rivers of the province are the Vistula, upper Warta, Soła, Skawa, Raba, Dunajec, Wisłok, Wisłoka, San, Wieprz, Przemsza, Nida, Kamienna, Radomka, and Pilica.",
"The major lakes of the province are Lake Rożnów, Lake Czchów, Lake Dobczyce, Lake Czorsztyn, Lake Czaniec, Lake Międzybrodzie, Lake Klimkówka and Żywiec Lake.",
"Most of them are man-made reservoirs.Lesser Poland stretches from the Carpathians in the south to Pilica and Liwiec rivers to the north.",
"It borders Mazovia to the north, Podlaskie to the northeast, Red Ruthenia/Cherven Cities to the east, Slovakia to the south, Silesia to the west, and Greater Poland to the northwest.",
"Currently, the region is divided between Polish voivodeships – Lesser Poland Voivodeship (whole), Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (whole), Silesian Voivodeship (eastern half), Podkarpackie Voivodeship (western part), Masovian Voivodeship (southern part), Łódź Voivodeship (southeastern corner), and Lublin Voivodeship (western part).In Silesian Voivodeship, the border between Silesia and Lesser Poland is easy to draw, because, with only a few exceptions, it goes along boundaries of local counties.",
"In the south, it goes along the western boundary of the ancient Duchy of Teschen, with the borderline along the Biała river, with Zwardoń, Milówka and Rajcza located in Lesser Poland.",
"Bielsko-Biała is a city made up of two parts – Lesser Poland's Biala (also called ''Biala Krakowska''), makes up the eastern half of the city, and only in 1951 was it merged with Silesian Bielsko.",
"Further north, the border goes along the western boundaries of the cities of Jaworzno, and Sosnowiec, along the Przemsza and Brynica rivers.",
"Then it goes northwest, leaving Czeladź, Siewierz, Koziegłowy, Blachownia, Kłobuck and Krzepice within Lesser Poland.",
"From Krzepice, the border goes eastwards, towards Koniecpol, and along the Pilica river, with such towns as Przedborz, Opoczno, Drzewica, Białobrzegi, and Kozienice located within Lesser Poland.",
"East of Białobrzegi, the boundary goes mainly along the Radomka river, to the Vistula.",
"East of the Vistula, the boundary goes north of Łaskarzew and Żelechów, and south of Mazovian town of Garwolin, turning northwest.",
"The northernmost point of the province is marked by the Liwiec river, with both Siedlce, and Łuków being part of Lesser Poland.",
"The line then goes south, with Miedzyrzec Podlaski being part of the historical Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Radzyń Podlaski as well as Parczew left in Lesser Poland.Between the Vistula and the Bug Rivers, the eastern border of Lesser Poland goes west of Leczna, but east of Krasnystaw and Szczebrzeszyn, both of which historically belong to Red Ruthenia/Cherven Cities.",
"Further south, Lesser Poland includes Frampol, and Biłgoraj, which lie in the southeastern corner on Lesser Poland's historical Lublin Voivodeship, close to the border with Red Ruthenia/Cherven Cities.",
"The border then goes west of Biłgoraj, turning south, towards Leżajsk (which belongs to Red Ruthenia/Cherven Cities).",
"The boundary between Lesser Poland and Red Ruthenia/Cherven Cities was described by Ukrainian historian and geographer Myron Korduba as being along the line Dukla – Krosno – Domaradz – Czudec – Krzeszów nad Sanem.",
"The border towns of Lesser Poland were: Rudnik, Kolbuszowa, Ropczyce, Sędziszów Małopolski, Strzyżów, Jasło, Gorlice, and Biecz.",
"The southern border of Lesser Poland goes along the Carpathian Mountains, and, except in a few cases, it has not changed for centuries.",
"The cities of Leżajsk, Rzeszów, Sanok, Brzozów, and Krosno do not belong to historical Lesser Poland, as they are part of Red Ruthenia/Cherven Cities (Lwów Voivodeship, around today's Lviv, Ukraine).Kazimierz Dolny on the right bank of the Vistula river.Historically, Lesser Poland was divided into two lands - Kraków Land and Sandomierz Land, both of which emerged after the Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty.",
"In the 14th century, Sandomierz Voivodeship and Kraków Voivodeship were created, and in 1474, Lublin Voivodeship was carved out of three Sandomierz Voivodeship counties, located on the right bank of the Vistula.",
"Historian Adolf Pawiński, who in the late 19th century was the director of the Polish Central Archives of Historical Records, estimated in his book \"Polska XVI wieku pod względem geograficzno-statystycznym\", that the size of Kraków Voivodeship was 19,028 km2.Sandomierz Voivodeship had an area of 25,762 km2, and Lublin Voivodeship had an area of 11,033 km2.Together with the Duchy of Siewierz (607 km2), and the parts of Spiš that belonged to Poland after the Treaty of Lubowla (1211 km2), the total area of Lesser Poland was 57,640 square kilometers.",
"Apart from the three historic lands, Lesser Poland includes other smaller regions, such as Podhale, Ponidzie, and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Zygmunt Gloger in his work ''Historical geography of land of ancient Poland'' (''Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski'') states that according to a Polish custom, whenever a new village was formed next to an older one, the name of the new entity was presented with an adjective ''little'' (or ''lesser''), while the old village was described as ''greater''.",
"The same procedure was used in naming two Polish provincesthe \"older\" one, the cradle of the Polish state, was called ''Greater Poland'', and its \"younger sister\", which became part of Poland a few years later, was called ''Lesser Poland''.",
"The name Greater Poland (''Polonia Maior'') was for the first time used in 1242, by princes Boleslaw and Przemysław I, who named themselves ''Duces Majoris Poloniae'' (''Princes of the Older Poland'').",
"Lesser Poland, or ''Polonia Minor'', appeared for the first time in historical documents in 1493, in the Statutes of Piotrków, during the reign of King Jan Olbracht, to distinguish this province from Greater Poland (''Polonia Maior'')."
],
[
"History",
"Niepołomice CastlePieniny National Park=== Early period and Kingdom of Poland ===In the first years of Polish statehood, southern Lesser Poland was inhabited by the West Slavic tribe of Vistulans, with two major centers in Kraków and Wiślica.",
"Their land, which had probably been part of Great Moravia, and Bohemia, was annexed by Mieszko I of Poland some time in the late 10th century.",
"Cosmas of Prague in his ''Chronicle of Bohemians'' wrote: \"Polish prince Mieszko, a cunning man, seized by ruse the city of Kraków, killing with sword all Czechs he found there\".",
"Northern part of Lesser Poland (Lublin and Sandomierz) was probably inhabited by another tribe, the Lendians, and Dr Antoni Podraza, historian of the Jagiellonian University claims that ancient division of Lesser Poland into two major parts – Land (Duchy) of Kraków, and Land (Duchy) of Sandomierz, is based on the existence of two Slavic tribes in the area.",
"However, exact location of the Lendians has not been determined to this day.",
"Some historians speculate that they occupied Cherven Cities, and their center was in Przemyśl.Around the year 1000, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kraków was created, and its borders covered whole area of Lesser Poland.",
"During the reign of Casimir I the Restorer, Kraków for the first time became the capital of Poland (around 1040), since Greater Poland and Silesia, with main Polish urban centers, such as Gniezno and Poznań were ravaged by Duke Bretislaus I of Bohemia.",
"In 1138, following the Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty, the country was divided between his sons (see also Fragmentation of Poland).",
"Bolesław III Wrymouth created the Seniorate Province, which, among others, consisted of Kraków.",
"At the same time, Lesser Poland was divided into two parts, when its eastern part formed the Duchy of Sandomierz, carved by the ruler for his son Henry of Sandomierz.During the fragmentation period, both lands of Lesser Poland were frequently ruled by the same prince.",
"Among them were Bolesław IV the Curly, Mieszko III the Old, Casimir II the Just, Leszek I the White, Bolesław V the Chaste, Leszek II the Black, Władysław I the Elbow-high, and King of Bohemia, Wenceslaus II of Bohemia, who united Lesser Poland in 1290/1291.The province was pillaged during the Mongol invasion of Poland, when a combined army of Kraków and Sandomierz was destroyed by Baidar in the Battle of Chmielnik.",
"The loss was so heavy that Norman Davies wrote: \"At Chmielnik, the assembled nobility of Małopolska perished to a man.\"",
"During their 1241, 1259, and 1287 invasions, the Mongols burned major cities of Lesser Poland, killing thousands of people.",
"Furthermore, the province, especially its northeastern part, was often raided by the Lithuanians, Rusyns, Yotvingians, and Old Prussians.",
"The city of Lublin suffered most frequently – among others, it was burnt by the Rusyns in 1244, the Lithuanians 1255, the Prussians in 1266, and the Yotvingians in 1282.Another center of the province, Sandomierz, was destroyed by the Tartars in 1260, and burnt by the Lithuanians in 1349.Będzin Castle, which guarded the western border of Lesser PolandUnlike other Polish provinces, especially Silesia, Lesser Poland did not undergo further fragmentation, and in the early 14th century became the core of the reunited nation (together with Greater Poland).",
"The period of nation's fragmentation came to a symbolic end on 30 January 1320, when Władysław I the Elbow-high was crowned as King of Poland.",
"The ceremony took place in Kraków's Wawel Cathedral, and the king of the reunited country decided to choose Kraków as the capital.",
"Through 14th and 15th centuries, Lesser Poland's position as the most important province of the nation was cemented.",
"It became visible during the reign of Casimir III the Great, who favored less known Lesser Poland's noble families, at the expense of Greater Poland's nobility.",
"The reign of Casimir the Great was a period of growing prosperity of Lesser Poland.",
"With high density of population, fertile soils and rich deposits of minerals (especially salt in Bochnia and Wieliczka, as well as lead in Olkusz), the province was the richest part of Poland.",
"After the recapture of the Cherven Cities/Red Ruthenia, Lesser Poland lost its status of the borderland, and both regions created an economic bridge between Poland and the ports of the Black Sea.",
"The king, who drew Jewish settlers from across Europe to his country, built several castles along western border of Lesser Poland, with the most notable ones in Skawina, Pieskowa Skała, Będzin, Lanckorona, Olkusz, Lelów, Bobolice, Krzepice, Ogrodzieniec, Ojców, Olsztyn, Bobolice, Mirów (see also Eagle Nests Trail).",
"Furthermore, he built or strengthened castles in other parts of the province, such as Szydlow, Chęciny, Wiślica, Radom, Niedzica, Opoczno, Lublin, Sandomierz, as well as the Wawel Castle.",
"Also, during his reign (1333–1370), Casimir the Great founded on Magdeburg rights several cities, urbanizing hitherto rural province.",
"Among major Lesser Poland's cities founded by the King, there are:: # City Founded Current voivodeship 1.20px '''Kazimierz''' 1334 now a district of Kraków 2.20px '''Kłobuck''' 1339 Silesian Voivodeship 3.20px '''Dobczyce''' 1340 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 4.20px '''Grybów''' 1340 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 5.20px '''Tuchów''' 1340Lesser Poland Voivodeship 6.20px '''Lelów''' 1340 Silesian Voivodeship 7.20px '''Myślenice''' 1342 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 8.20px '''Nowy Targ''' 1346 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 9.20px '''Biecz''' 1348 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 10.20px '''Krościenko nad Dunajcem''' 1348 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 11.20px '''Piwniczna-Zdrój''' 1348 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 12.20px '''Opoczno''' 1350 Łódź Voivodeship 13.20px '''Radom''' 1350 Masovian Voivodeship 14.20px '''Tymbark''' 1354 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 15.20px '''Pilzno''' 1354 Subcarpathian Voivodeship 16.20px '''Chęciny''' 1354 Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship 17.20px '''Proszowice''' 1358 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 18.20px '''Będzin''' 1358Silesian Voivodeship 19.20px '''Dębica''' 1358 Subcarpathian Voivodeship 20.20px '''Stopnica''' 1362 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 21.20px '''Ropczyce''' 1362 Subcarpathian Voivodeship 22.20px '''Skawina''' 1364 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 23.20px '''Muszyna''' 1364 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 24.20px '''Jasło''' 1366 Subcarpathian Voivodeship 25.20px '''Brzostek''' 1366 Subcarpathian Voivodeship 26.20px '''Wojnicz''' 1369 Lesser Poland VoivodeshipKozłówka PalacePalatial residence in KurozwękiIn the Kingdom of Poland, Lesser Poland was made of three voivodeships – Kraków Voivodeship, Sandomierz Voivodeship, and Lublin Voivodeship, created in 1474 out of eastern part of the Sandomierz Voivodeship.",
"Borders of the province remained unchanged until 1772.The only exception was large part of contemporary Upper Silesia (the area around Bytom, Toszek, Siewierz, and Oświęcim), which belonged to Duchy of Kraków until 1179.In that year, prince of Kraków Casimir II the Just, handed these lands to Prince of Opole Mieszko I Tanglefoot.",
"The Duchy of Siewierz, ruled since 1443 by the Archbishop of Kraków, merged with Lesser Poland in 1790.Other Silesian realms lost in 1179, also returned to Lesser Poland – Duchy of Zator (in 1513), and Duchy of Oświęcim (1564).",
"Both duchies merged into a Silesian County of the Kraków Voivodeship, and shared the fate of Lesser Poland.",
"Apart from Jews, among other ethnic minorities of the province were the Walddeutsche, who settled the borderland of Lesser Poland and Red Ruthenia (14th through 17th centuries).",
"In the Middle Ages, the Germans inhabited several cities of Lesser Poland, especially Kraków and Sandomierz (see Rebellion of wójt Albert).In the late Middle Ages, Lesser Poland gradually became the center of Polish statehood, with Kraków being the capital of the country from the mid-11th century until 1596.Its nobility ruled Poland when Queen Jadwiga was too young to control the state, and the Union of Krewo with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the brainchild of Lesser Poland's szlachta.In the 15th and 16th centuries, Lesser Poland remained the most important part of the country.",
"After the death of Casimir the Great, Lesser Poland's nobility promoted Louis I of Hungary as the new king, later supporting his daughter Jadwiga of Poland in exchange for Privilege of Koszyce.",
"Since Jadwiga, crowned on 16 October 1384, was too young to rule the country, Poland was in fact governed by the Lesser Poland's nobility, who decided to find her a husband, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jogaila.",
"Consequently, unions of Poland and Lithuania at Krewo and Horodło were the brainchildren of Lesser Poland's nobility, among whom the most influential individuals were Spytek z Melsztyna, and cardinal Zbigniew Olesnicki.",
"Other famous Lesser Poland's families are Lubomirski family, Kmita family, Tarnowski family, Potocki family, Sobieski family, Koniecpolski family, Ossolinski family, Poniatowski family.Since Lesser Poland was the most important province of the country, several important events took place on its territory.",
"In 1364, Casimir the Great called the Congress of Kraków, and in 1401, the Union of Vilnius and Radom was signed.",
"In 1505 in Radom, the Sejm adopted the Nihil novi title, which forbade the King to issue laws without the consent of the nobility.",
"In the same year, also in the same city, Polish law was codified in the Łaski's Statute, and the Crown Tribunal (the highest appeal court in the Crown of the Polish Kingdom) held its sessions in Lublin.",
"In 1525, the Treaty of Kraków was signed, ending the Polish–Teutonic War.",
"Lesser Poland also is home to the oldest Polish university – the Jagiellonian University, founded in 1364 by Casimir the Great, and several outstanding figures of early Polish culture were born here, such as Jan Kochanowski, Mikołaj Rej, Jan z Lublina, Mikołaj Gomółka, Maciej Miechowita, Marcin Kromer, Łukasz Górnicki, and Mikołaj Radomski.=== Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ===In the 16th century, Lesser Poland retained its position as the most important province of the country.",
"As no major conflicts took place on its territory, it was the center of Renaissance in Poland.",
"The province was home to numerous scholars, writers and statesmen, and it was here where Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was created in 1569 (see Union of Lublin).",
"In the Commonwealth, Lesser Poland proper was the base of the Lesser Poland Province, which covered southern lands of the vast country.",
"The province was made of Lesser Poland itself, also Podlachia, Red Ruthenia/Cherven Cities, Volhynia, Podolia, and Ukrainian voivodeships of Kijów (Kyiv) and Czernihów (Chernihiv), which, until 1569, had been part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.The period in Polish history known as the Polish Golden Age was very fortunate for Lesser Poland.",
"Kings of the Jagiellonian dynasty, especially Sigismund I the Old (himself born in Lesser Poland's Kozienice), and his son Sigismund II Augustus (born in Kraków), resided in Kraków, which was the capital of the immense Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth.",
"Lesser Poland's prosperity was reflected in numerous examples of Renaissance architecture complexes, built across the province.",
"In 1499, hitherto Gothic Wawel Castle was damaged in a fire, and a few years later, Sigismund I, with help of the best native and foreign artists (such as Francesco the Florentine, Bartholomeo Berrecci or Niccolo Castiglione) refurbished the complex into a splendid Renaissance palace.",
"Furthermore, in the early 16th century, several palaces were built in Lesser Poland – in Drzewica, Szydłowiec, Ogrodzieniec, and Pieskowa Skała.",
"The province became rich mostly due to the grain trade, conducted along the Vistula, and among cities which prospered in the 16th century, there are Kraków, Sandomierz, Lublin, Kazimierz Dolny, Pilzno, Tarnów, Radom, Biecz.",
"In later years of the 16th century, further palaces were built or remodelled in Baranow Sandomierski, and Niepołomice.Pieskowa SkałaIn the early 16th century, Protestant Reformation spread across the Commonwealth, and Lesser Poland became one of early centers of the movement, when students from Wittenberg brought the news to Cracow.",
"In the first years of the century, professor of Jagiellonian University Jakub of Iłża (Jakub z Ilzy, died 1542) became one of the main promoters of the movement in the region.",
"He actively supported the notions of Martin Luther, and in 1528 was called to the Bishop of Kraków's court.",
"Convinced of heresy, he was forced to leave Poland in 1535.Reformation soon became very popular among Lesser Poland's nobility, especially Calvinism, and according to one estimate, some 20% of local szlachta converted from Roman Catholicism.",
"They were attracted by Calvinism's democratic character, and Lesser Poland's center of the movement was set in the town of Pińczów, which came to be known as ''Sarmatian Athens''.",
"It was in Pińczów, where a local nobleman converted a Roman Catholic parish into a Protestant one, opened a Calvinist Academy, and published its Antitrinitarian confession in 1560 and in 1561.Several Calvinist synods took place in Lesser Poland – the first one in Słomniki (1554), Pińczów (the first united Synod of Poland and Lithuania – 1556 1561), and Kraków (1562).",
"In 1563, also in Pińczów, the so-called Brest Bible was translated into Polish.",
"In 1570, the Sandomierz Agreement was signed by a number of Protestant groups, with the exception of the Polish Brethren, another religious group very influential in Lesser Poland.",
"The Brethren had their center in Lesser Poland's village of Raków, where a main Arian printing press, as well as a college, known as Akademia Rakowska (''Gymnasium Bonarum Artium'') founded in 1602 were located.",
"Among distinguished European scholars associated with the school, there were Johannes Crellius, Corderius, and Valentinus Smalcius (who translated into German the Racovian Catechism).In 1572, the Jagiellon dynasty died out, and next year, Henry III of France became first elected king of the country.",
"After his short reign, and War of the Polish Succession (1587–88), which also took place in Lesser Poland, the new ruler was Stephen Báthory of Poland, who died in 1586.The ruler from Transylvania was followed by Sigismund III Vasa of Sweden, whose election marked gradual decline of the province.",
"Sigismund's eyes were set on Sweden, and for many years he concentrated his efforts on a futile attempt to regain his former Swedish throne (see Polish–Swedish union, War against Sigismund).",
"Therefore, Lesser Poland, located in southwestern corner of the Commonwealth, began to lose its importance, which was marked in 1596, when Sigismund moved his permanent residence, court and the crown headquarters to centrally-located Warsaw.Members of the regional Folk Group of Wilamowice \"Cepelia Fil Wilamowice\"Lachy Sądeckie are a group of ethnic Poles who live in southern Lesser PolandEven though first half of the 17th century was filled with wars, all major conflicts did not reach Lesser Poland, and the province continued to prosper, which was reflected in its castles and palaces, such as the enormous Krzyztopor.",
"Apart from minor wars, such as Zebrzydowski Rebellion, and Kostka-Napierski Uprising, the province remained safe.",
"Cossacks of the Khmelnytsky Uprising reached as far west as Zamość and Lwów, but did not enter Lesser Poland.",
"The province did not witness other wars, such as Polish–Swedish War (1626–29), Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18), Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21), and Smolensk War.",
"Nevertheless, Lesser Poland's nobility took active part in these conflicts – Marina Mniszech, the daughter of Voivode of Sandomierz, Jerzy Mniszech, was wife of False Dmitriy I, as well as False Dmitriy II.",
"Furthermore, Lesser Poland's lands, especially its northeastern part, became a base for Polish troops, fighting the Cossacks, and King John II Casimir Vasa often stayed in Lublin with his court, preparing military campaigns in Ukraine.",
"The situation changed with the outbreak of the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667).",
"In October 1655, the Russo-Cossack armies under Ivan Vyhovsky entered eastern Lesser Poland, reaching the Vistula, and pillaging Lublin, Puławy, and Kazimierz Dolny.",
"The invaders quickly retreated, but a few months later, Lesser Poland was flooded by the Swedes.Broad Gauge Metallurgy LineSwedish invasion of Poland had catastrophic consequences for the hitherto prosperous province.",
"The attackers, supported by their allies from Transylvania, seized whole Lesser Poland, reaching as far south as Nowy Targ, Nowy Sącz, and Żywiec.",
"All major cities were looted and burned, and some of them, like Radom, did not recover until the 19th century.",
"The Swedes captured and pillaged Sandomierz (where they destroyed the Royal Castle, and after the invasion, the city never recovered), Opoczno, Lublin, Kazimierz Dolny Pilzno, Szydlow, Szydłowiec, Tarnów, Kielce, Kraśnik, and Kraków.",
"The invaders seized the capital of Lesser Poland after a short siege, and their occupation of the province was confirmed after their victories in the Battle of Wojnicz, and the Battle of Golab.",
"In those years, one of the most important and symbolic events in the history of the nation took place in Lesser Poland.",
"It was the Siege of Jasna Góra, which, according to some accounts, turned the course of the war.",
"Furthermore, following the Treaty of Radnot, Lesser Poland was invaded in January 1657 by George II Rákóczi, whose troops caused more destruction.",
"Foreign armies were not chased out of Lesser Poland until 1657, Kraków itself was recaptured on 18 August 1657.After these invasions, the province was ruined, with hundreds of villages, towns and cities burned.",
"The population decreased (the urban population by nearly half), the peasantry starved, and like other parts of the Commonwealth, Lesser Poland was devastated.",
"The period of peace lasted for about forty years, when in 1700, another major conflict, the Great Northern War began.",
"Lesser Poland once again became a battleground, with Battle of Kliszów taking place there in 1702, and the Sandomierz Confederation formed in 1704.After the conflict, Lesser Poland began a recovery, which was hampered by several other factors.",
"Province's cities frequently burned (Lublin 1719, Nowy Targ 1784, Nowy Sącz, Dukla 1758, Wieliczka 1718, Miechów 1745, Drzewica), there also were numerous outbreaks of plagues and typhus (in 1707–1708, some 20,000 died in Kraków and its area)Lesser Poland was one of main centers of the Bar Confederation.",
"On 21 June 1786 in Kraków, local confederation was announced, and on the same day Voievode of Kraków, Michal Czarnocki, urged his citizens to join the movement.",
"Soon afterwards, Kraków was captured by the Russian troops, and the center of Lesser Poland's insurgency moved to the mountainous south – areas around Dukla and Nowy Sącz.",
"During the Confederation, several battles and skirmishes took place there.",
"In 1770, after the Battle of Iwonicz, the Russians ransacked Biecz.",
"The movement ended in 1772, and its decline was connected with the Partitions of Poland.",
"Another local center of the movement was Jasna Góra Monastery in Częstochowa, which was defended by Kazimierz Pulaski for almost two years (1770–1772).Czarny Staw (''Black Pond'') in the High Tatras=== Partitions of Poland (1772–1918) ===The Partitions of Poland began earlier in Lesser Poland than in other provinces of the country.",
"In 1769, Austrian Empire annexed a small territory of Spisz, and next year, the towns of Czorsztyn, Nowy Sącz and Nowy Targ.",
"In 1771, the Russians and the Prussians agreed on the first partition of the country, and in early 1772, Austrian Emperor Maria Theresa decided to join the two powers.",
"In the first partition of the Commonwealth, the Austrians seized the territory which would later be called Galicia, and which included southwestern corner of Lesser Poland (south of the Vistula river), with Żywiec, Tarnów, and Biecz, but without major urban centers of the province, such as Kraków, Sandomierz, Radom, Lublin, Częstochowa, and Kielce.Nowy WiśniczBaranów SandomierskiVistula in SandomierzSecond Partition of Poland (1793) did not result in significant changes of boundaries in the area, as the Austrian Empire did not participate in it.",
"However, the Prussians moved on, and in 1793 they annexed northwestern corner of the province, together with the city of Częstochowa, and its vicinity, which became part of the newly created province of South Prussia.",
"Therefore, in late 1793, Lesser Poland was already divided between three countries – Austrian Empire (south of the Vistula), Kingdom of Prussia (Częstochowa and northwestern corner), and still existing Commonwealth.",
"After the Third Partition (1795), most of Lesser Poland was annexed by Austria, with all major cities.",
"Prussia managed to seize a small, western part of the province, with the towns of Siewierz, Zawiercie, Będzin, and Myszków, calling this land New Silesia, while the Austrians decided to name newly acquired lands of northern Lesser Poland West Galicia.",
"In 1803, West Galicia was merged with Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, but retained some autonomy.",
"Lesser Poland was one of major centers of Polish resistance against the occupiers.",
"On 24 March 1794 in Kraków, Tadeusz Kościuszko announced the general insurrection (see Kościuszko Uprising), mobilising all able males of Lesser Poland.",
"Two weeks later, Battle of Racławice took place, ending with a Polish victory.",
"The uprising was suppressed by combined Prusso – Russian forces, and among battles fought in Lesser Poland, there is Battle of Szczekociny.During Napoleonic Wars, the Duchy of Warsaw was created by Napoleon Bonaparte out of Polish lands which had been granted to Prussia in the Partitions.",
"In 1809, after the Polish–Austrian War, and the Treaty of Schönbrunn, the Duchy was expanded, when northern Lesser Poland was added to its territory (with Kielce, Radom, and Lublin).",
"Following the Congress of Vienna, Duchy of Warsaw was turned into Russian-ruled Congress Poland, and historical capital of the province, Kraków, was turned into Free City of Kraków, which also included the towns of Trzebinia, Chrzanów, Jaworzno, and Krzeszowice.",
"In Congress Poland, the lands of Lesser Poland were initially divided between four palatinates – Palatinate of Kraków (with capital in Kielce), Palatinate of Sandomierz (with capital in Radom), Palatinate of Lublin, and Palatinate of Podlasie (with capital in Siedlce), (see also Administrative division of Congress Poland).",
"Later, the palatinates were turned into governorates.",
"Thus, Russian part of Lesser Poland was divided into Kielce Governorate, Lublin Governorate, Radom Governorate, Siedlce Governorate, and Piotrków Governorate (western counties, with Częstochowa and industrial area of Zagłębie Dąbrowskie).",
"Borders of these administrative units did not reflect historical boundaries of the province.Peasant war\" by Jan Lewicki (1795–1871)Most of the November Uprising, which began in 1830, missed Lesser Poland, as major battles took place in the area around Warsaw.",
"In early 1831, when Russian forces advanced into Congress Poland, some skirmishes took place in northern counties of the province – at Puławy, Kurow, and Kazimierz Dolny.",
"In early 1846, a group of Polish patriots attempted a failed uprising in the Free City of Kraków.",
"The insurrection was quickly suppressed by the Austrian troops, and as a result, the Free City was annexed by the Austrian Empire.",
"In the same year, Austrian part of Lesser Poland was witness to a massacre of Polish nobility by the peasantry, known as Galician slaughter.",
"The peasants, led by Jakub Szela, murdered about 1000 nobles, and destroyed about 500 manors.",
"These events took place in three counties – Sanok, Jasło and Tarnów.Northern and central Lesser Poland (the part of the province which was taken by the Russian Empire) was one of the main centers of the January Uprising (1863–1864).",
"In the first days of the insurrection, skirmishes with the Russian Army took place in such towns, as Łuków, Kraśnik, Szydłowiec, Bodzentyn, and Suchedniów.",
"Since the Poles were poorly armed, the Russians did not have major problems with them, and soon afterwards, the insurrectionists decided to organize military camps.",
"Among biggest camps in Lesser Poland, there were Ojców (3000 soldiers), and Wąchock, where Marian Langiewicz gathered up to 1500 people.",
"The uprising died out by early spring of 1864, and among counties where it continued for the longest time, was the extreme northeastern corner of Lesser Poland, around Łuków, where reverend Stanisław Brzóska was active.",
"Since Russian military supremacy was crushing, the Poles were forced to limit their actions to guerrilla warfare.",
"Among the biggest battles which took place in Lesser Poland there are: Battle of Szydłowiec (23 January 1863); Battle of Miechów (17 February 1863); Battle of Małogoszcz (24 February 1863); Battle of Staszów (17 February 1863); Battle of Pieskowa Skała (4 March 1863); two Battles of Opatów (25 November 1863, 21 February 1864).As a result of their support of the failed insurrection, several Lesser Poland's towns lost their charters and were turned into villages.",
"Among them were Kraśnik, Bodzentyn, Opatów, Iłża, Małogoszcz, Wąchock, Busko-Zdrój, Jędrzejów, Cmielow, Zwoleń, Drzewica, Wierzbica, Czeladź, Kazimierz Dolny, Wolborz, Stopnica, Daleszyce, Wiślica, Pajęczno, Lipsko, Pacanów, Ożarów, Wolbrom, Proszowice, Nowe Miasto Korczyn, Włoszczowa, Przysucha, Opole Lubelskie.In the 19th century, Kraków's Jagiellonian University was a major center of Polish science and cultureIn the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Lesser Poland remained one of the centers of Polish culture, especially the city of Kraków, where Jagiellonian University was one of only two Polish-language colleges of that period (the other one was University of Lwów).",
"Another significant center of national culture was the town of Puławy, where in the late 18th century, a local palace owned by Czartoryski family became a museum of Polish national memorabilia and a major cultural and political centre.",
"A number of prominent artists, both representing Romanticism, and Positivism was born in Lesser Poland, including Wincenty Pol (born in Lublin), Stefan Żeromski (born near Kielce), Aleksander Świętochowski (born near Łuków in extreme northeast corner of Lesser Poland), Walery Przyborowski (born near Kielce), Piotr Michałowski, Helena Modjeska, Henryk Wieniawski (born in Lublin), Leon Wyczółkowski (born near Siedlce), Juliusz Kossak (born in Nowy Wiśnicz), Józef Szujski (born in Tarnów).",
"In the early 20th century, Lesser Poland, especially its part which belonged to Austria-Hungary, was a center of a cultural movement called Young Poland.",
"Many artists associated with the movement were born in Lesser Poland, with the most prominent including Władysław Orkan, Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer, Xawery Dunikowski, Jacek Malczewski, Józef Mehoffer, and Stanisław Wyspiański.Since Austrian part of Poland enjoyed a wide autonomy, the province of Galicia, whose western part was made of Lesser Poland, became a hotbed of Polish conspirational activities.",
"In anticipation of a future war, Galician Poles, with help of their brethren from other parts of the divided country, created several paramilitary organizations, such as Polish Rifle Squads, and Riflemen's Association.",
"The capital of Lesser Poland, Kraków, was a key center of pro-independence movements, with such individuals, as Józef Piłsudski, being actively involved in those activities.",
"In August 1914, after the outbreak of World War I, Pilsudski's Legions crossed the Austrian – Russian border north of Kraków, and entered Congress Poland.",
"However, the Pilsudski and his soldiers were disappointed to see that the inhabitants of Kielce did not welcome them with joy.",
"The division of Lesser Poland was more visible than ever.Gorals from BeskidyDuring World War I, Lesser Poland became one of main theaters of the Eastern Front.",
"Russian push into the territory of Austria – Hungary resulted in the Battle of Galicia.",
"Among other major battles which took place in Lesser Poland, there are the Battle of the Vistula River, and the Gorlice-Tarnów Offensive.",
"After Russian troops had retreated east, whole province was under control of the Austrians and the Germans, and northern Lesser Poland was part of the German-sponsored Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918).",
"In later stages of the conflict, the divided province once again became a center of Polish independence movement.",
"An independent Polish government was re-proclaimed in northern Lesser Poland's city of Lublin, on 7 November 1918.Soon afterwards, it formed the basis of the new government of the country.",
"In other parts of the province, other governments were formed – Polish Liquidation Commission in Kraków, also the short-lived Republic of Tarnobrzeg.The division of Lesser Poland along the Vistula river, which lasted from 1772 until 1918, is visible even today.",
"For more than 100 years, southern Lesser Poland (Kraków, Tarnów, Biala Krakowska, and Nowy Sącz) was administered by Austria, while northern, larger part of the province (Częstochowa, Sosnowiec, Kielce, Radom, Lublin, Sandomierz) was forcibly part of the Russian Empire.",
"Inhabitants of Austrian part of Poland enjoyed limited autonomy, with Polish language institutions, such as Jagiellonian University.",
"At the same time, Russian-controlled Poland was subject to Russification.",
"As a result of decades of this division, most inhabitants of the areas stolen by Russia are not aware of their Lesser Poland's heritage.",
"Furthermore, current administrative boundaries of the country still reflect the defunct border between the former Russian and Austria–Hungarian Empires.Bobolice=== Interwar Poland (1918–1939) ===In 1918, when Second Polish Republic was created, whole historical Lesser Poland became part of restored Poland.",
"The historical area of the province was divided between four voivodeships: Kraków Voivodeship (whole), Kielce Voivodeship (whole), Lwów Voivodeship (northwestern corner), and Lublin Voivodeship (western part).",
"Furthermore, in the counties of central Lesser Poland, another administrative unit, Sandomierz Voivodeship was planned, but due to the outbreak of World War II, it was never created.",
"Boundaries between two major Lesser Poland voivodeships – Kraków, and Kielce, were the same as pre-1914 boundaries of Austria-Hungary, and Russia.",
"Nevertheless, in the interbellum period, the notion of Lesser Poland was frequently associated only with former Austrian province of Galicia.",
"Therefore, Western Galicia to the San river, was called ''Western Lesser Poland'', while Eastern Galicia, east of the San, with the city of Lwów (Lviv), was called ''Eastern Lesser Poland'' (voivodeships of Tarnopol, Stanisławów, and Lwów).",
"According to a Polish historian Jan Pisuliński, using the term ''Eastern Lesser Poland'' to denomine Eastern Galicia is incorrect, as it has no historical justification, being only a designation of nationalist and propaganda significance (similarly to analogous term ''Western Ukraine'' used at the same time by the Ukrainian side), which served in the 1920s and 1930s to make a stronger connection of the area between rivers of San and Zbruch with the Polish state and to emphasize the allegedly indigenously Polish nature of that region.In late 1918, Lesser Poland emerged as one of main centers of fledgling Polish administration and independence movement.",
"According to historian Kazimierz Banburski of Tarnów's District Museum, Tarnów was the first Polish city which became independent, after 123 years of oppression.",
"On 31 October 1918, at 8 am, Tarnów's inhabitants began disarming demoralized Austrian soldiers, and after three hours, the city was completely in Polish hands.",
"On 28 October 1918, Polish Liquidation Committee was created in Kraków.",
"A few days later, socialist peasants founded the Republic of Tarnobrzeg.",
"In the night of 6/7 November 1918, ''Polish People's Republic'' was proclaimed in Lublin, by Ignacy Daszynski and other activists.",
"In 1919, the legislative election took place in Lesser Poland without major problems.Wieliczka Salt Mine, a UNESCO World Heritage SiteAt that time Lesser Poland, like other provinces of the country, faced several problems.",
"Even though major post-World War I conflicts (such as Polish–Soviet War) did not take place there, it suffered from unemployment, overpopulation, and poverty, especially in towns and countryside.",
"Furthermore, Polish government had to connect parts of the hitherto divided country.",
"There was no direct rail link between Kraków, and Kielce, Radom, and Lublin, and until 1934, when line from Kraków to Tunel was opened, all travelers had to go via Sosnowiec – Maczki.",
"Lack of rail communication between former Austrian and former Russian parts of Lesser Poland is visible even today.",
"Between Kraków and Dęblin, there are only two rail bridges along the Vistula.",
"Residents of the province tried to improve their conditions using legal means, but when it turned out to be impossible, they took to fighting (1923 Kraków riot, 1937 peasant strike in Poland).",
"As if to exacerbate the desperate situation, Lesser Poland witnessed a catastrophic flood in 1934, after which the government decided to construct dams on local rivers.Even though Lesser Poland's countryside was almost exclusively Polish, its towns and cities were inhabited by numerous Jews, whose communities were very vibrant.",
"In Kraków, Jews made 25% of the population, in Lublin – 31%, in Kielce – 30%, and in Radom – 32%.",
"Apart from the Jews, and Gypsies scattered in the south, there were no other significant national minorities in interbellum Lesser Poland.Since Lesser Poland was safely located in the middle of the country, away from both German and Soviet border, in the mid-1930s Polish government initiated one of the most ambitious project of the Second Polish Republic – Central Industrial Region, which was located almost exclusively in Lesser Poland.",
"Even though the project was never completed, several plants were constructed, both in Old-Polish Industrial Region, and in other counties of the province.",
"The brand new city of Stalowa Wola was established in dense forests, around a steel mill.",
"In the late 1930s, Lesser Poland was quickly changing, as construction of several factories, and job opportunities caused influx of rural inhabitants to the towns.",
"Such towns, as Dębica, Starachowice, Puławy, or Kraśnik, quickly grew, with their population rising.",
"Earlier, in 1927, Lesser Poland's Dęblin became a major center of Polish aviation, when Polish Air Force Academy was opened there, and in Mielec, PZL Mielec was opened, which was the largest aerospace manufacturer in Poland.",
"Central Industrial Region, however, did not affect western counties of Lesser Poland, which had already been urbanized and industrialized (Biala Krakowska, Żywiec, Kraków, Jaworzno, Zagłębie Dąbrowskie, Zawiercie, and Częstochowa).",
"The government of Poland planned further investments, such as a major East – West rail line, linking Volhynia, and Upper Silesia, but they never materialized.",
"Desperate situation and lack of jobs caused thousands of inhabitants of Lesser Poland (especially from its southern part) to leave their land, mostly for the United States of America, but also Brazil, and Canada.Pope John Paul II was born in Wadowice, Lesser Poland, in 1920Lesser Poland remained a center of Polish culture, with Kraków's Jagiellonian University, AGH University of Science and Technology, and Catholic University of Lublin, which was opened in 1918.Several important figures of interbellum political, military, and cultural life of Poland were born in Lesser Poland.",
"Among them were Wincenty Witos, Władysław Sikorski, Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski, Józef Dowbor-Muśnicki, Józef Haller, Władysław Belina-Prażmowski, Tadeusz Kutrzeba, Feliks Koneczny, Stefan Żeromski, Tadeusz Peiper, Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska, Witold Gombrowicz, Jan Kiepura, Stefan Jaracz.",
"In 1920, in Lesser Poland's town of Wadowice, Karol Wojtyla, the future Pope John Paul II, was born.=== World War II ===On 1 September 1939, armed forces of Nazi Germany attacked Poland (see: Invasion of Poland).",
"Lesser Poland, due to its proximity to the then-border with Germany, became a battleground on the first day of the invasion.",
"The Germans attacked the province both in its northwest (area west of Częstochowa), and in the south (Podhale), along the border with Slovakia, which also participated in the invasion.Lesser Poland was defended by the following Polish armies:* Karpaty Army, which covered southern, mountainous border of the province,* Kraków Army, guarding western part of the province, together with adjacent Polish part of Upper Silesia.",
"Later in the course of war it joined the Karpaty Army, forming the ''Lesser Poland Army'' (''Armia Małopolska''),* Łódź Army, which protected extreme northwestern corner of the province, north of Częstochowa,* Prusy Army, which was main reserve of the Commander in Chief, and was concentrated in central and northern Lesser Poland (between Radom and Kielce),* Lublin Army, improvised after 4 September, and concentrated in the area of Lublin and Sandomierz in northeastern Lesser Poland.Soldiers of Holy Cross Mountains Brigade in parade 1945After a few days the Battle of the Border was lost, and forces of German Army Group South advanced deep into Lesser Poland's territory.",
"Polish troops resisted fiercely, and among major battles in initial stages of the war, which took place in Lesser Poland, there are Battle of Mokra, Battle of Jordanów, and Battle of Węgierska Górka.",
"By 6 September, Polish forces were in general retreat and Marshal of Poland Edward Rydz-Śmigły ordered all troops to fall back to the secondary lines of defences at the Vistula and San Rivers.",
"German units entered Częstochowa on 3 September (where on the next day they murdered hundreds of civilians), Kielce on 5 September, Kraków on 6 September, and Radom on 8 September (see also Battle of Radom).",
"Within a week, almost whole Lesser Poland was under Nazi occupation.",
"Northeastern part of the province, the area of Lublin, was held by the Poles until 17 September, but eventually, and after fierce battles (see Battle of Tomaszów Lubelski), all Lesser Poland was firmly under Nazi control.",
"First draft of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact stipulated that northeastern Lesser Poland (east of the Vistula river) was to be occupied by the Soviet Union, and forces of the Red Army reached the area of Lublin after 20 September, but withdrew east on 28 September.On 12 October 1939, upon a decree of Adolf Hitler, General Government, a separate region of the Greater German Reich was created, with Hans Frank as its Governor-General.",
"Its capital was established in Kraków, and it covered most of the area of historical Lesser Poland, except for its western counties, which were directly incorporated into Nazi Germany's Upper Silesia Province (Będzin, Sosnowiec, Zawiercie, Biała, Żywiec, Chrzanów, Olkusz).In Lesser Poland, like in all provinces of the occupied country, the Nazis ruled with savage brutality, killing hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, both Polish and Jewish (see: World War II crimes in Poland, Occupation of Poland (1939–1945), Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Poland, Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles, German AB-Aktion in Poland, Sonderaktion Krakau).",
"The Auschwitz concentration camp, located at the border of Lesser Poland and Upper Silesia, was opened on 14 June 1940, and on 1 October 1941, the Germans opened Majdanek concentration camp on the outskirts of Lublin.",
"The third concentration camp in Lesser Poland was in Kraków's district of Płaszów.",
"In late 1939 and early 1940, in Lesser Poland's spa of Zakopane, and in Kraków, several Gestapo–NKVD Conferences took place, during which the mutual cooperation between Nazi Germany and Soviet Union was discussed.Anti-Nazi resistance was particularly strong in Lesser Poland, and it was in the extreme northwestern corner of the province (around Opoczno), that armed struggle against the occupiers began in late 1939 and early 1940 (see Henryk Dobrzański).",
"Structures of the Home Army were well-developed in the region.",
"Lesser Poland's independent areas of the Home Army were located in Kraków, Kielce-Radom, and Lublin.",
"During Operation Tempest in mid-1944, several Lesser Poland's towns were liberated, also uprising in Kraków was prepared, but never realized.",
"Apart from the Home Army, other resistance groups were strong in the province, such as pro-Communist Armia Ludowa, peasant's Bataliony Chłopskie, and right-wing National Armed Forces, with its Holy Cross Mountains Brigade.In all major Lesser Poland's cities, Jewish ghettos were opened, with the biggest ones in Kraków, and Lublin.",
"At first the Nazis were planning to create a so-called \"reservation\" for European Jews, located around Lesser Poland's town of Nisko (see Nisko Plan), but they changed the plan, and decided to murder all Jews.",
"Condemned to death, Jews in Lesser Poland took to fighting (see Częstochowa Ghetto Uprising), but their efforts failed.",
"As a result of The Holocaust in Poland, once thriving and numerous Jewish population of Lesser Poland was decimated.Germany operated several prisoner-of-war camps, including Stalag 301, Stalag 307, Stalag 359, Stalag 367, Stalag 369, Stalag 380, Stalag XII-C, Oflag 77, and multiple forced labour subcamps of Stalag VIII-B/344, for Polish, French, Belgian, Italian, Soviet, Dutch, Senegalese and other Allied POWs in the region.In the summer of 1944, after Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive, Red Army pushed the Wehrmacht from eastern Lesser Poland.",
"The city of Lublin was captured by the Soviets on 22 July 1944, Stalowa Wola – on 1 August, and Sandomierz, on the left bank of the Vistula – on 18 August.",
"The front line stabilized along the Vistula for about six months (with some bridgeheads on the western bank on the Vistula – see Battle of Studzianki), and in early 1945, Soviet Vistula–Oder Offensive began, which pushed Germans to the gates of Berlin.",
"The Soviets entered Kielce on 15 January, Częstochowa – on 17 January, and Kraków on 19 January.",
"On 27 January, the Red Army entered Sosnowiec.",
"In took the Soviets much longer to clear the areas in the mountains – they did not enter Żywiec until 5 April 1945.=== Post-World War II ===Together with the Red Army, NKVD and Soviet authorities followed, whose purpose was to make Poland a Communist country, with a puppet government, formed as Polish Committee of National Liberation.",
"Since 1 August 1944, the provisional government was officially headquartered in Lesser Poland's Lublin.",
"Thousands of people took to the forests, to continue their fight for free Poland (see Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–46)).",
"Lesser Poland again was one of the main centers of the resistance.",
"Several skirmishes took place in the province, including Battle of Kuryłówka.",
"The Communists did not hesitate to kill those rebels they captured (Public execution in Dębica (1946)), and by 1947, the resistance movement was crushed.",
"The last Polish cursed soldier, Józef Franczak, was killed in 1963 near Świdnik in northeastern Lesser Poland.",
"Also, all victims of the 1951 Mokotów Prison execution were members of Lesser Poland's branch of Freedom and Independence.",
"Another well-known anti-Communist fighter from Lesser Poland is Józef Kuraś, who was active in the southern region of Podhale.In early 1945, the lands of Lesser Poland were divided between three voivodeships – those of Kraków, Lublin, and Kielce.",
"Since summer 1945, several counties were transferred to neighboring voivodeships – eastern Lesser Poland (Dębica, Jasło, Mielec) became part of Rzeszów Voivodeship, while western counties of Będzin and Zawiercie were transferred to Katowice Voivodeship.",
"In 1950, the city of Częstochowa became part of Katowice Voivodeship, and next year, the city of Bielsko-Biała was created out of Lesser Poland's Biala Krakowska, and Upper Silesia's Bielsko.",
"The new city became part of Katowice Voivodeship.",
"Lesser Poland was further divided in 1975, when territorial reform was carried out (see Voivodeships of Poland (1975–1988)).",
"Counties were abolished, and several small voivodeships were created, in such Lesser Poland's towns and cities, as Tarnobrzeg, Tarnów, Nowy Sącz, Bielsko-Biała, Radom, Częstochowa, and Siedlce.The government of Communist Poland invested in heavy industry, following the pre-1939 idea of Central Industrial Area.",
"In Kraków, a new district of Nowa Huta was constructed in the 1950s.",
"In Częstochowa and Zawiercie, the steelworks were significantly expanded, and in early 1970, the government initiated construction of Katowice Steelworks, which, despite its name, is located in Lesser Poland's Dąbrowa Górnicza.",
"To connect Katowice Steelworks with Soviet plants, in late 1970s Broad Gauge Metallurgy Line was opened, which crossed Lesser Poland from west to east.",
"Among other major factories, opened in Lesser Poland during Communist rule, there are:* FSC Lublin, opened in 1951,* FSC Star in Starachowice, opened in 1948, and based on earlier factory,* PZL-Świdnik, opened in 1951,* Zaklady Azotowe Puławy, opened in 1965,* Połaniec Power Station, opened in 1979,* Skawina Power Station, opened in 1957,* Nowiny Cement Plant, opened in 1960,* Kozienice Power Station, opened in 1973.A fire engine made by FSC Star in Lesser Poland's StarachowiceOther Lesser Poland's major plants were significantly expanded after 1945, including Żywiec Brewery, Okocim Brewery, Fablok, Łucznik Arms Factory, FŁT-Kraśnik, Jaworzno Power Station, Siersza Power Plant, Huta Stalowa Wola, Janina Coal Mine, Sobieski Coal Mine, Zakłady Azotowe Tarnów-Mościce.",
"Furthermore, in early 1950s significant sulfur resources were discovered in Tarnobrzeg, as a result of which Siarkopol company was founded, and the city of Tarnobrzeg quickly grew.",
"In 1975, coal was discovered northeast of Lublin, and soon afterwards, Bogdanka Coal Mine and Piaski Coal Mine were opened.Between 1971 and 1977, Central Trunk Line was opened, which goes along western boundary of the province, and which connects Kraków and Katowice, with Warsaw.",
"In the early 1980s, construction of a highway between Kraków and Katowice began.",
"The 61-kilometer road is now run by Stalexport Autostrada Małopolska, and is part of A4 highway.Residents of Lesser Poland frequently protested against Communist government.",
"Major centers of anti-Communist resistance were in Kraków, Nowa Huta, Radom, and Lublin.",
"Among major protests that took place in the province were 1968 Polish political crisis (with Kraków as one of major centers of protests), June 1976 protests (in Radom), Lublin 1980 strikes, 31 August 1982 demonstrations in Poland (in several locations), 1988 Polish strikes (with Stalowa Wola as one of major centers).",
"Several anti-Nazi, and anti-Communist leaders hailed from Lesser Poland: Jan Piwnik, Emil August Fieldorf, Leopold Okulicki, Ryszard Siwiec, Stanisław Pyjas, Hieronim Dekutowski, Andrzej Gwiazda, Andrzej Czuma.A number of key personalities of Communist government were born in Lesser Poland, including Józef Cyrankiewicz, Bolesław Bierut, Edward Gierek, Wojciech Jaruzelski, Czesław Kiszczak, Stanisław Kania, Hilary Minc, Edward Ochab, Michał Rola-Żymierski, Józef Oleksy.Among prominent personalities of Polish cultural life of the 20th century, who were born in Lesser Poland, there are: Xawery Dunikowski, Witold Gombrowicz, Gustaw Herling-Grudziński, Sławomir Mrożek, Tadeusz Kantor, Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz, Marek Kondrat, Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska, Krzysztof Penderecki, Zbigniew Preisner, Leon Schiller, Jerzy Stuhr, Jan Sztaudynger, Grzegorz Turnau, Jerzy Turowicz.=== Local Government Reorganization Act (1998) ===Boundary between Lesser Poland and Upper Silesia (red line) on the territory of current Silesian VoivodeshipKraków is the capital of Lesser PolandLublin, the second-largest city of Lesser PolandCzęstochowa, the third-largest city of Lesser PolandRadom, the fourth-largest city of Lesser PolandSosnowiec, the fifth-largest city of Lesser PolandIn 1998, the government of Poland carried out administrative reform of the country.",
"For the first time in history, Lesser Poland Voivodeship was created, with its capital in Kraków, and an area of 15,108 square kilometers.",
"The new province covers only a small, southwestern part of historical Lesser Poland.Today, Lesser Poland is divided between several voivodeships: whole Lesser Poland Voivodeship, whole Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, western half of Lublin Voivodeship, western part of Subcarpathian Voivodeship, eastern half of Silesian Voivodeship, southern part of Mazovian Voivodeship and southeastern corner of Łódź Voivodeship (around Opoczno).There were suggestions that Lesser Poland Voivodeship should stretch from Bielsko-Biała to Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski and Sandomierz.",
"Furthermore, creation of an Old Poland Voivodeship was proposed, on the historical lands of northern Lesser Poland.",
"Also, since about half of territory of current Silesian Voivodeship belongs to historical Lesser Poland, there are suggestions to rename it into ''Silesian – Lesser Poland Voivodeship''."
],
[
"Major cities and towns (by size)",
"The list is based on the Polish Central Statistical Office list of 100 biggest cities of Poland, as for 30 June 2008.L.p.",
"City Population Area(km2.)",
"Current voivodeship 2.20px '''Kraków''' 756 441 326,80 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 9.20px '''Lublin''' 351 345 147,45 Lublin Voivodeship 13.20px '''Częstochowa''' 241 449 159,71 Silesian Voivodeship 14.20px '''Radom''' 224 501 111,80 Masovian Voivodeship 15.20px '''Sosnowiec''' 221 775 91,06 Silesian Voivodeship 17.20px '''Kielce''' 205 655 109,65 Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship 22.40px '''Bielsko-Biała''' 175 476 124,51 Silesian Voivodeship 27.20px '''Dąbrowa Górnicza''' 128 560 188,73 Silesian Voivodeship 35.20px '''Tarnów''' 115 769 72,38 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 42.20px '''Jaworzno''' 95 383 152,67 Silesian Voivodeship 45.20px '''Nowy Sącz''' 84 492 57,58 Lesser Poland Voivodeship 48.20px '''Siedlce''' 77 102 32,00 Masovian Voivodeship 53.20px '''Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski''' 72 888 46,43 Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship 66.20px '''Stalowa Wola''' 64 753 82,52 Subcarpathian Voivodeship 71.20px '''Mielec''' 60 979 46,89 Subcarpathian Voivodeship 76.20px '''Będzin''' 58 559 37,37 Silesian Voivodeship 84.20px '''Starachowice''' 52 430 31,82 Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship 85.20px '''Zawiercie''' 52 290 85,25 Silesian Voivodeship 87.20px '''Tarnobrzeg''' 49 753 85,39 Subcarpathian Voivodeship 88.20px '''Puławy''' 49 223 50,49 Lublin Voivodeship 92.20px '''Skarżysko-Kamienna''' 48 308 64,39 Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship 97.20px '''Dębica''' 46 693 34,02 Subcarpathian VoivodeshipIn the Kingdom of Poland and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, several other locations used to be important urban centers of Lesser Poland, but in the course of the time, their significance declined.",
"The main example is Sandomierz, which for hundreds of years was one of the most important cities of Poland, but now is a town of 25,000.Other examples of historically important places, which are now little towns or villages are:* Biecz, a town of 5,000, once the seat of a county, incorporated in 1257,* Chęciny, a village now, once the seat of a county, with a royal castle,* Czchów, a town of 2,000, incorporated before 1333, once the seat of a county,* Goraj, a village now, which used to be one of urban centers of Lublin Voivodeship,* Iłża, a town of 5,000, incorporated before 1294, with a royal castle,* Kazimierz Dolny, which enjoyed its greatest prosperity in the 16th and the first half of the 17th century,* Koprzywnica, a village now, a town in 1268–1869,* Książ Wielki, a town in 1385–1875, once the seat of a county,* Lelów, a village now, which used to be the seat of a county.",
"Incorporated in 1314, with a royal castle,* Nowe Miasto Korczyn, a town in 1258–1869, with a royal castle, where general sejmiks of Lesser Poland took place,* Opatów, a town of 7,000, incorporated in 1282, once the seat of sejmiks,* Parczew, now a town of 10,000, once a major urban center of northeast Lesser Poland,* Pilzno, now a town of 4,000, once the seat of a county,* Sieciechów, a village now, once an important town, incorporated in 1232,* Stężyca, a village now.",
"Once the seat of a county, which used to be a town in 1330–1869,* Szczyrzyc, a village now, which used to be the seat of a county,* Szydłowiec, a town of 12,000, with a royal castle, which in the Renaissance period was an important urban center of northern Lesser Poland,* Szydłów, a village now, which used to be a major urban center of Sandomierz Voivodeship,* Urzędów, a village now, which in 1405–1869 used to be a town and the seat of a county,* Wiślica, a village now, which was probably the capital of the Vistulans, and the seat of a county,* Wojnicz, now a town of 3,500, incorporated in 1278, used to be the seat of a county,* Zawichost, a town of 2,000, once a royal town with a castle, incorporated before 1255."
],
[
"Economy and industry",
"History of industry in Lesser Poland goes back to prehistoric times, when in Świętokrzyskie Mountains, first bloomeries were constructed.",
"In the Middle Ages, first plants were opened in that area, and as a result, Old-Polish Industrial Region was created, which was a major industrial region of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.",
"In the 17th century, first Polish blast furnaces were constructed in Samsonów by Italian engineer Hieronim Caccio.",
"Apart from iron products, used for military purposes, Old-Polish Industrial Region also manufactured charcoal and glass.",
"In 1782, in Poland there were 34 bloomeries, out of which 27 were located in Old-Polish Industrial Region.",
"Another major industrial area of Lesser Poland is Zagłębie Dąbrowskie, where in the 16th century, lead, silver, and zinc were found.",
"As early as in the 15th century, coal was extracted in Trzebinia – Siersza, and in the following centuries, especially in the 19th century, several coal mines and steel mills were opened in Zagłębie and in Zagłębie Krakowskie (first coal mine in Jaworzno was opened in 1792).",
"In nearby Olkusz, the history of zinc mining dates to the 12th century when Casimir II the Just set up a mining settlement.",
"Also, in the towns of Wieliczka and Bochnia, salt mines were established in the 12th and 13th centuries (see Bochnia Salt Mine, Wieliczka Salt Mine).In the 20th century, natural resources were also discovered in central and eastern counties Lesser Poland.In 1964, the world's largest open-pit sulfur mine was opened in Machów near Tarnobrzeg.",
"Other sulfur deposits in the area of Tarnobrzeg are Jeziorko, Grzybów-Gacki, and Grębów-Wydza.",
"The mine at Machów is now closed.",
"In the late 1960s, eastern Lesser Poland became one of three coal basins of the country, when Lublin Basin was created.",
"Major coal mine in the area is KWK Bogdanka near Łęczna, which is the only coal mine in Poland which has continuously generated a profit.",
"Other Polish coal mines located in Lesser Poland are those found in western part of the province, along the boundary with Upper Silesia – KWK Janina in Jaworzno, KWK Sobieski, and also in Jaworzno.",
"Copper and silver are extracted in Myszków (see Myszków mine).In the late 1930s, the government of the Second Polish Republic created Central Industrial Region, which was almost exclusively located in Lesser Poland.",
"Currently, within borders of the province, there are following industrial regions:* ''Bielsko Industrial Region'' (''Bielski Okręg Przemysłowy''), which includes both towns from Lesser Poland, and Upper Silesia (Andrychów, Bielsko-Biała, Cieszyn, Kęty, Pszczyna, Skoczów, Żywiec),* ''Częstochowa Industrial Region'' (''Częstochowski Okręg Przemysłowy''), which includes Częstochowa, Myszków, and Zawiercie.",
"* Upper Silesian Industrial Region (''Górnośląski Okręg Przemysłowy'').",
"Despite the name, it also includes cities from Lesser Poland's Zagłębie Dąbrowskie – Sosnowiec, Będzin, Czeladź, Dąbrowa Górnicza, Wojkowice,* ''Jaworzno – Chrzanów Industrial Region'' (''Jaworznicko-Chrzanowski Okręg Przemysłowy''), with the towns of Jaworzno, Chrzanów, Trzebinia, Libiąż, Chełmek, Bukowno, Alwernia, Krzeszowice,* ''Carpathian Industrial Region'' (''Karpacki Okręg Przemysłowy''), which stretches from Nowy Sącz, through Jasło and Gorlice, to Sanok,* ''Kraków Industrial Region'' (''Krakowski Okręg Przemysłowy'') – the city of Kraków and the towns of Wieliczka, Skawina, Myślenice, Bochnia,* '' Lublin Industrial Region'' (''Lubelski Okręg Przemysłowy'') – the city of Lublin and the towns of Świdnik, Puławy, Łęczna,* ''Tarnobrzeg Industrial Area'' (''Tarnobrzeski Okręg Przemysłowy'') – Stalowa Wola, Tarnobrzeg, Nisko, Staszów, Janów Lubelski, Gorzyce, Połaniec, Mielec,* ''Tarnów – Rzeszów Industrial Region'' (''Tarnowsko-Rzeszowski Okręg Przemysłowy''), which stretches from Tarnów to Rzeszów, with such towns, as Dębica, Niedomice, Sędziszów Małopolski, Ropczyce.In 2009, Polityka weekly made its own list of 500 biggest Polish companies.",
"According to the list, second biggest company of the country was Polska Grupa Energetyczna, which, as Polityka stated, is headquartered in Lublin.",
"Third biggest company of Poland in 2009 was ''Fiat Auto Poland'' from Bielsko-Biała.",
"Other Lesser Polish companies which ranked high were: ''BP Poland'' from Kraków (ranked 12th), ''Emperia Holding'' from Lublin (ranked 26th), Kolporter Holding from Kielce (ranked 43rd), and Żywiec Brewery (ranked 44th).",
"Other major companies of Lesser Poland are ''Azoty Tarnów'', Bank BPH, Bogdanka Coal Mine, Carlsberg Polska, Comarch, ''Dębica SA'', ''Huta Częstochowa'', ''Huta Katowice'', Fablok, FŁT-Kraśnik, Huta Stalowa Wola, ''Instal-Lublin'', Janina Coal Mine, Jaworzno Power Station, Kozienice Power Station, Łucznik Arms Factory, ''Nowiny Cement Plant'' near Kielce, Połaniec Power Station, PZL Mielec, PZL-Świdnik, Sobieski Coal Mine, Tadeusz Sendzimir Steelworks.Since the lands of historical Lesser Poland belong now to different voivodeships, unemployment rate differs from one region to another.",
"In January 2010, in Poland the unemployment rate was 12,7%.",
"In Silesian Voivodeship, eastern half of which is Lesser Poland, it was 9,9%, in Lesser Poland Voivodeship – 10,5%, in Subcarpathian Voivodeship – 16,3%, in Holy Cross Voivodeship – 15,5%, in Lublin Voivodeship – 13,6%, and in Mazovian Voivodeship (southern part of which is Lesser Poland) – 9,6%.",
"In Lesser Poland's cities, the best situation was in Kraków (as for November 2009), where 4,1% had no job.",
"In Bielsko-Biała, the rate was 5,7%, in Lublin – 8,8%, in Siedlce – 9,1%, in Tarnów – 9,2%, in Nowy Sącz – 10%, in Kielce and Częstochowa – 10,1%, in Jaworzno – 10,2%, in Dąbrowa Górnicza – 10,3%, in Sosnowiec – 12,2%, and in Tarnobrzeg – 14,3%.",
"The worst situation on the job market (as for November 2009) was in Radom, where unemployment rate was 20,9% (it made Radom second worst city county of the nation, only after Grudziądz)."
],
[
"Transport",
"=== Roads ===Several European roads (see International E-road network) cross Lesser Poland.",
"The most important one is the European route E40, which goes from west to east, across whole Europe.",
"In Lesser Poland, the E40 goes from Jaworzno, via Kraków and Tarnów, towards eastern border of the country.",
"Another main European road in Lesser Poland is the E77, which goes from north to south, via Radom, Kielce and Kraków, to southern border of Poland at Chyżne.",
"Third major European road in Lesser Poland is the E30, which crosses the territory of the province in its extreme northeast corner, in Siedlce.",
"Apart from these roads, Lesser Poland is crossed by the following European routes:* E371, which begins in Radom, and goes via Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski, Tarnobrzeg, and Rzeszów to the border crossing at Barwinek,* E372, which begins in Warsaw, and via northeastern Lesser Poland (Lublin, Świdnik), goes to Ukrainian border at Hrebenne,* E462, which goes through southwestern corner of the province, from Czech border and Bielsko-Biała, to John Paul II International Airport Kraków-Balice,* E75, which crosses western counties of Lesser Poland – from Częstochowa, through Dąbrowa Górnicza and Jaworzno, to Bielsko-Biała and Polish – Czech border.=== Airports ===Kraków John Paul II International Airport, the busiest airport in Lesser PolandWithin borders of historical Lesser Poland, there are four airports – John Paul II International Airport Kraków–Balice, Lublin Airport, Warsaw Radom Airport and Katowice International Airport, which is located in the village of Pyrzowice, on the border between Lesser Poland and Upper Silesia.",
"Pyrzowice is part of Gmina Ożarowice, which after Partitions of Poland, and Congress of Vienna belonged to Będzin County of the Russian Empire.",
"In the interbellum, the area of future airport belonged to Lesser Poland's Kielce Voivodeship, and in 1945, was transferred to Katowice Voivodeship (initially ''Silesian-Dąbrowa Voivodeship'').",
"In 1998, Ożarowice, together with the airport, was attached to Tarnowskie Góry County, despite the fact that it is not located in Upper SilesiaFurther airports in Lesser Poland will be opened in the future – Kielce – Obice.",
"Also, Rzeszów-Jasionka Airport is located on eastern border of the province.=== Railroads ===Railroad network of Lesser Poland is very unevenly distributed.",
"It is very dense in the west, along the border with Upper Silesia, and sparse in the east, especially along the Vistula, and around Lublin.",
"All major cities of the province are connected with each other, however traveling from Kraków to Lublin is time-consuming, as trains have to take an extended route, via Kielce, Radom, and Dęblin.",
"Also, there is no direct connection between Tarnów and Kielce, as these cities belonged to different countries before 1918.Underdevelopment of the railroads in northern and eastern Lesser Poland is the result of the policy of the Russian Empire.",
"For military reasons, the Russians were not interested in construction of a dense network of lines along the border with Germany and Austria-Hungary, allowing only the construction of narrow-gauge connections.",
"Along the Vistula, between Kraków and Dęblin (the distance of some 320 kilometers), there are only four rail bridges – in Dęblin (rebuilt after the war, in 1947), in Sandomierz (built in 1928), in Tarnobrzeg-Nagnajów (built in 1961, together with a road bridge), and in Zaduszniki (built in 1979 for the Broad Gauge Metallurgy Line).",
"In Kraków itself, there are three rail bridges over the Vistula.Among rail hubs of Lesser Poland, there are Bielsko-Biała, Chabówka, Częstochowa, Dąbrowa Górnicza, Dębica, Dęblin, Jaworzno-Szczakowa, Kalwaria Zebrzydowska Lanckorona, Kielce, Koniecpol, Kozłów, Kraków, Lublin, Łuków, Muszyna, Nowy Sącz, Oświęcim, Siedlce, Spytkowice, Skarżysko-Kamienna, Stalowa Wola, Stróże, Sucha Beskidzka, Radom, Tarnów, Trzebinia, Tunel, Zawiercie, and Żywiec.In the late 1970s, the Communist government built the broad-gauge Broad Gauge Metallurgy Line, which crosses Lesser Poland from west to east along the Vistula."
],
[
"Tourism and nature",
"Kraków Old Town, UNESCO World Heritage SiteThe historical capital of Lesser Poland – Kraków – is regarded as the cultural capital of Poland, while Zakopane is considered the winter capital of Poland.",
"In 1978, UNESCO placed Kraków's Old Town on the list of World Heritage Sites.",
"From Sandomierz to Kraków goes the re-established Lesser Polish Way, one of the routes of the medieval Way of St. James.",
"Every year, hundreds of thousands of tourists come to Lesser Poland, to see its historic cities – Sandomierz, Kazimierz Dolny, Zakopane, Biecz, Opatów, Szydłów, Lublin, and Kraków.",
"Famous Jasna Góra Monastery in Częstochowa, spiritual capital of the country, attracts hundreds of thousands of pilgrims, as well as Auschwitz concentration camp (also placed on the UNESCO World Heritage Sites List).",
"Lesser Poland has many museums, the city of Kraków itself has about sixty of them.",
"Among the most famous are The Czartoryski Museum, The Galicia Jewish Museum, The National Museum, Kraków, Polish Aviation Museum, Sukiennice Museum, and Wawel Castle.",
"There are museums in other locations of the province, such as Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, Bielsko-Biała Museum, Holy Father John Paul II Family Home in Wadowice, ''Jacek Malczewski Museum in Radom'', ''Lublin Museum'', ''Museum of Częstochowa'', ''Museum of Sandomierz Diocese'', ''Museum of Żywiec Brewery'', ''Museum of Zagłębie in Będzin'', Przypkowscy Clock Museum, ''Regional Museum in Wiślica'', ''Regional Museum in Siedlce'', ''Tytus Chałubiński Tatra Museum in Zakopane''.",
"''Lady with an Ermine'' by Leonardo da Vinci, Czartoryski Museum, KrakówAmong other major places of interest of the province are: Baranów Sandomierski Castle, Będzin Castle, Chęciny Castle, Czarnolas in Zwoleń, Dunajec river castles, Kalwaria Zebrzydowska park (UNESCO World Heritage Sites List), Krzyżtopór, Lipnica Murowana, Lublin Castle, Łysa Góra, Maczuga Herkulesa, Majdanek concentration camp, Niedzica Castle, Ogrodzieniec, Pieskowa Skała, Temple of the Sibyl, Trail of the Eagles' Nests, Wieliczka Salt Mine (UNESCO World Heritage Sites List), Wooden Churches of Southern Lesser Poland (UNESCO World Heritage Sites List).",
"Furthermore, thousands of tourists come to Radom in northern Lesser Poland, to watch the popular, biannual Radom Air Show.",
"Lesser Poland has a number of open-air museums – ''Góra Birów'' in Kraków-Częstochowa Upland, ''Museum of Kielce Village'' in Kielce, ''Museum of Lublin Village'' in Lublin, ''Museum of Folk Culture'' in Kolbuszowa, ''Museum of Radom Village'' in Radom, ''Vistula River Etnographic Park'' in Babice, ''Nowy Sącz Etnographic Park'' in Nowy Sącz, ''Orawa Etnographic Park'' in Zubrzyca Górna, ''Chabówka Rolling-Stock Heritage Park'' in Chabówka.",
"The Małopolska Institute of Culture, located in Kraków, promotes the activities of regional museums and smaller sites of interest.Lesser Poland is famous for its underground waters and spas, such as Busko-Zdrój, Solec-Zdrój, Nałęczów, Muszyna, Szczawnica, Piwniczna, Wysowa-Zdrój, Rabka, Swoszowice, Żegiestów, Krzeszowice, Wieliczka, and Krynica-Zdrój.",
"Mountains and resorts of the province make it a major center of Polish tourism – Tatra National Park is visited by around 3 million tourists every year.The following National Parks are located in Lesser Poland:* Tatra National Park,* Ojców National Park,* Pieniny National Park (Poland),* Babia Góra National Park,* Gorce National Park,* Magurski National Park,* Roztocze National Park,* Świętokrzyski National Park.",
"* Polesie National Park"
],
[
"Education",
"Collegium Maius, oldest building of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, the oldest university in Poland and the 13th oldest university in continuous operation in the world=== Universities ===Lesser Poland is home to Poland's oldest university – Kraków's Jagiellonian University, which was established in 1364.For centuries, it was the only college of the province, and of the whole country.",
"In December 1918, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin was opened, becoming second university of Lesser Poland.",
"In 1944, also in Lublin, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University was established.=== Technical universities ===There are several technical universities in Lesser Poland – Kraków's AGH University of Science and Technology, and University of Technology, as well as University of Bielsko-Biała, Częstochowa University of Technology, Lublin University of Technology, Kazimierz Pułaski Technical University of Radom, and Kielce University of Technology.=== Other colleges ===Future teachers may study at Pedagogical University of Cracow, or Jan Długosz University in Częstochowa, and future physicians at Jagiellonian University Medical College, and Medical University of Lublin.",
"Other state colleges are Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, Pontifical University of John Paul II in Kraków, Agricultural University of Cracow, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, and Cracow University of Economics.",
"Unique in the country is the Polish Air Force Academy, located in Dęblin.",
"Among private colleges of Lesser Poland, there is Wyższa Szkoła Biznesu – National-Louis University in Nowy Sącz."
],
[
"Regional identity and culture",
"Since Lesser Poland ceased to exist as a unified region in the late 18th century, during the Partitions of Poland, most of its inhabitants are not aware of their heritage.",
"Even the residents of Jaworzno, a city which for centuries belonged to Kraków Land and only in 1975 was transferred to Katowice Voivodeship (see Voivodeships of Poland (1975–98)), are not familiar with their Lesser Polish roots.",
"In a poll in April 2011, 57% of Jaworzno's inhabitants stated that their city is historically tied with Lesser Poland, but as many as 36% said their city is tied with Upper Silesia.",
"Polish linguist Jan Miodek emphasizes the fact that linguistically, Będzin is closer to Myślenice than to Tarnowskie Góry, only 20 km away.",
"Miodek wrote that even though Upper Silesia and Lesser Poland's Zagłębie Dąbrowskie are industrially and administratively tied, both regions are culturally and linguistically different from each other.",
"Residents of Zagłębie Dąbrowskie are known for their dislike of Upper Silesians, whom they call ''hanysy'', while the Silesians call them ''gorole''.",
"In recent years, more inhabitants of Zagłębie become aware of their Lesser Poland's heritage, Also, after Partitions of Poland, when Austrian province of Galicia was created, the cities of Rzeszów and Przemyśl, which are part of historical Red Ruthenia/Cherven Cities, became associated with Lesser Poland.",
"Therefore, currently the notion of Lesser Poland most commonly applies to the two voivodeships which in the past belonged to Austrian Empire – Lesser Poland Voivodeship, and Subcarpathian VoivodeshipAmong several Lesser Poland's regional organizations, one of the most important is ''Stowarzyszenie Gmin i Powiatów Małopolski'' (''The Association of Villages and Counties of Lesser Poland'').",
"It publishes a magazine called ''Wspólnota Małopolska'' (''Lesser Polish Community''), and every year it chooses a ''Lesser Polish Person of the Year'' (among winners are John Paul II, Anna Dymna, and Stanisław Dziwisz).",
"''The Association of Villages and Counties of Lesser Poland'' has over 120 members from four Polish voivodeships.",
"Among members are cities of Kraków, Częstochowa, Bielsko-Biała, Tarnów, and Przemyśl.Arguably, the most famous product of Lesser Polish cuisine is the bagel, which was invented in Kraków.",
"Other famous food specialties of the province are oscypek (EU Protected Geographical Status), slivovitz from the village of Łącko, bublik, papal cream cake from Wadowice, Lisiecka Sausage (EU Protected Geographical Status), and Bryndza Podhalańska.",
"Among other popular products that are made in Lesser Poland, there are beers (Browary Lubelskie, Żywiec Beer, and Okocim Beer), pastas and snacks from Lublin's Lubella, Kielce Mayonnaise, coffee substitute beverage INKA from Skawina, chocolates from Kraków's Wawel Factory, juices from Tymbark, vodka Żołądkowa Gorzka produced in Lublin, and Chopin produced in Siedlce.Folklore group in Podhale costume, Bukowina Tatrzańska, Lesser Poland, 2016Folk costumes from Lesser Poland are widely known across the country – a dancing couple, dressed in traditional Kraków costume (Krakowiacy), is presented on the logo of renowned Żywiec beer, and Podhale is one of few Polish regions, where people regularly wear their traditional costumes.",
"Both Kraków and Podhale folk costumes are among most popular garbs in Poland.",
"Other folk costumes from the region are those of Zagłębie Dąbrowskie, Sandomierz, Rzeszów, Częstochowa, Kielce, Radom (regarded as the most traditional of all Polish costumes), Opoczno, Holy Cross Mountains, Nowy Sącz, and Lublin.",
"There are several folk festivals in Lesser Poland, such as ''On the frontier of Lesser Poland and Mazovia'' (in Opoczno), ''Folk Festival of Józef Myszka'' (in Museum of Radom Village in Iłża), annual ''Days of Lesser Poland's Cultural Heritage'', ''Week of the Beskidy Culture'' (in several locations), Wianki in Kraków, ''Festival of Old Music and Culture'' in Niepołomice, ''Festival of Folk Bands and Folk Singers'' in Kazimierz Dolny, ''International Folklore Meetings of Ignacy Wachowiak'' in Lublin, ''International Festival of Folklore of Mountain Lands'' in Zakopane, Jewish Culture Festival in Kraków.",
"Krakowiak is one of Polish national dances, other popular Lesser Poland's folk dances are ''Zbójnicki'' from Podhale and dances from Lublin.",
"Among Lesser Poland's customs are Lajkonik, and Kraków szopka.Polish flat soda bread (known as Proziaki in ''podkarpacie'')"
],
[
"Sports and entertainment",
"KS Cracovia on Independence Day 2019Several renowned sportspeople and entertainers come from Lesser Poland.",
"Among them are some of the most famous personalities of contemporary Polish sports – boxer Tomasz Adamek, Formula 1 driver Robert Kubica, swimmer Paweł Korzeniowski, skier Justyna Kowalczyk, tennis player Agnieszka Radwańska, football and volleyball stars Jakub Błaszczykowski, Artur Boruc, and Piotr Gruszka.",
"Among late and retired sports stars who were born in the region, there also are Polish Sportspersonalities of the Year: tennis player and Wimbledon finalist Jadwiga Jędrzejowska, skier Józef Łuszczek, ski jumper Stanisław Marusarz, and driver Sobiesław Zasada.Kraków's major association football teams – KS Cracovia, and Wisła Kraków, are multiple champions of the country, also Stal Mielec won Polish championship twice (1973, 1976), and Garbarnia Kraków and Raków Częstochowa once each (1931 and 2023).",
"Other popular football teams from Lesser Poland are Zagłębie Sosnowiec (four time Polish Cup winner), Górnik Łęczna, Korona Kielce, Motor Lublin, Radomiak Radom, Stal Stalowa Wola, and Sandecja Nowy Sącz.Besides association football, Lesser Poland's teams were multiple national champions in other sports:* ice hockey (Podhale Nowy Targ, TH Unia Oświęcim, Cracovia, KH Zagłębie Sosnowiec),* men's and women's volleyball – AZS Częstochowa, Płomień Milowice – Sosnowiec (which in 1978 won the CEV Champions League), Hutnik Kraków, Wisła Kraków, BKS Stal Bielsko-Biała, Muszynianka Muszyna,* men's and women's handball – Hutnik Kraków, Vive Targi Kielce, Cracovia, Montex Lublin,* men's and women's basketball – Zagłębie Sosnowiec, Cracovia, Wisła Kraków,* speedway – Włókniarz Częstochowa, Unia Tarnów, Motor Lublin.Major sports venues of the province are Stadion Miejski im.",
"Henryka Reymana, Stadion Cracovii im.",
"Józefa Piłsudskiego and Tauron Arena Kraków in Kraków, Stadion Miejski, Hala Legionów and Kielce Racetrack in Kielce, Arena Lublin and Hala Globus in Lublin, Miejski Stadion Sportowy \"KSZO\" w Ostrowcu Sw., Zagłębiowski Park Sportowy in Sosnowiec, Dębowiec Sports Arena in Bielsko-Biała, Arena Częstochowa, Hala Sportowa MOSiR in Radom, Wielka Krokiew in Zakopane.Among popular rock music bands from Lesser Poland, there are Budka Suflera, Golec uOrkiestra, Maanam, and Zakopower.",
"From Lesser Poland hail composers Jan Kanty Pawluśkiewicz, and Krzysztof Penderecki, as well as singers Basia, Ewa Demarczyk, Justyna Steczkowska, Grzegorz Turnau, Maciej Zembaty.",
"Major music festivals in the province are: ''Coke Live Music Festival'' in Kraków, ''Celtic Music Festival ZAMEK'' in Będzin, ''Film Music Festival'' in Kraków, ''Gaude Mater'' in Częstochowa, ''Boyscout's Festival of School Music'' in Kielce, ''Summer with Chopin'' in Busko-Zdrój, ''Festiwal of Shanties'' in Kraków, and ''Festival of Student Song'' in Kraków."
],
[
"Lesser Polish dialect of Polish",
"A map of Polish dialects.",
"The area where Lesser Poland's dialect is spoken is marked in orange.Lesser Polish dialect is spoken in southeastern corner of Poland, both in lands which belong to historical Lesser Poland, and in areas which are not part of the province (around Sieradz and Łęczyca).",
"On the other hand, as seen on the map, the Lesser Polish dialect is not spoken in the extreme northeast of Lesser Poland, in Siedlce and vicinity, where people rather speak Masovian dialect.",
"Descending from the language of the Vistulans, it is the most numerous dialectal group in modern Poland.",
"According to Wincenty Pol, it is divided into three subdivisions: Sandomierz dialect, Lublin dialect, and Sanok dialect.In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, Lesser Polish dialect, together with Greater Polish dialect, contributed to creation of standard Polish, it also greatly influenced Silesian (see Dialects of Polish), as well as dialects of Polish used in southern part of Kresy Wschodnie.",
"Later on, however, its importance diminished and was replaced by Masovian dialect, which became the leading dialect of Polish.",
"After Partitions of Poland, when Lesser Poland was divided between Austria and Russia, northern areas of the province took over many features of the Masovian dialect, while Lesser Polish dialect in Austrian province of Galicia was heavily influenced by German.According to Multimedia Guide to Polish Dialects, a webpage maintained by University of Warsaw, Lesser Polish dialect is divided into the following subdialects:* Mazowsze Borderland (Pogranicze Mazowsza – around Radom and Dęblin),* Łęczyca (around Łódź, Kutno, Tomaszów Mazowiecki – this part of the country is not historical Lesser Poland),* Kielce (around Kielce),* Lasowiacy (north of Rzeszów),* East Kraków,* West Lublin,* East Lublin (this area historically belongs to Chełm Land),* Przemyśl (historical part of Red Ruthenia/Cherven Cities),* Biecz,* Nowy Sącz,* Podhale,* Spisz,* Orawa,* Żywiec,* Sieradz,* Sanok region, or Red-Ruthenian* Kraków, together with Zagłebie Dąbrowskie."
],
[
"See also",
"* Gorals, a group of indigenous people, found in southern Lesser Poland* Holy Cross Sermons, the oldest existing manuscripts of fine prose in Polish, which come from Lesser Poland* Lasowiacy, one of subethnic groups, which inhabits eastern Lesser Poland* Lesser Polish Gorge of the Vistula* Malopolski – Polish breed of horse, developed in Lesser Poland* Wymysorys, a West Germanic micro-language actively spoken in the small town of Wilamowice near Bielsko-Biała, on the border between Silesia and Lesser Poland"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Appeal of inhabitants of Western Lesser Poland against calling them Silesians* Castles of Lesser Poland on lonelyplanet* Visit Lesser Poland webpage* Lesser Poland information at University at Buffalo* Portal of citizen journalism for Małopolska region* National Parks in Lesser Poland* A Polish Radio CD with folk music of Northern Lesser Poland – areas of Radom, Opoczno, and Kielce* Western Lesser Poland.",
"Webpage of inhabitants of eastern counties of Silesian Voivodeship, who do not wish to be associated with Silesia"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Long-Term Capital Management"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Long-Term Capital Management L.P.''' ('''LTCM''') was a highly leveraged hedge fund.",
"In 1998, it received a $3.6 billion bailout from a group of 14 banks, in a deal brokered and put together by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York.LTCM was founded in 1994 by John Meriwether, the former vice-chairman and head of bond trading at Salomon Brothers.",
"Members of LTCM's board of directors included Myron Scholes and Robert C. Merton, who three years later in 1997 shared the Nobel Prize in Economics for having developed the Black–Scholes model of financial dynamics.LTCM was initially successful, with annualized returns (after fees) of around 21% in its first year, 43% in its second year and 41% in its third year.",
"However, in 1998 it lost $4.6 billion in less than four months due to a combination of high leverage and exposure to the 1997 Asian financial crisis and 1998 Russian financial crisis.",
"The master hedge fund, '''Long-Term Capital Portfolio L.P.''', collapsed soon thereafter, leading to an agreement on September 23, 1998, among 14 financial institutions for a $3.65 billion recapitalization under the supervision of the Federal Reserve.",
"The fund was liquidated and dissolved in early 2000."
],
[
"Founding",
"LTCM PartnersJohn MeriwetherFormer vice chair and head of bond trading at Salomon Brothers; MBA, University of Chicago Robert C. Merton Leading scholar in finance; Ph.D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Professor at Harvard University Myron Scholes Co-author of Black–Scholes model; Ph.D., University of Chicago; Professor at Stanford University David W. Mullins Jr. Vice chairman of the Federal Reserve; Ph.D. MIT; Professor at Harvard University; was seen as potential successor to Alan Greenspan Eric Rosenfeld Arbitrage group at Salomon; Ph.D. MIT; former Harvard Business School professor William Krasker Arbitrage group at Salomon; Ph.D. MIT; former Harvard Business School professor Greg Hawkins Arbitrage group at Salomon; Ph.D. MIT; worked on Bill Clinton's campaign for Arkansas state attorney general Larry Hilibrand Arbitrage group at Salomon; Ph.D. MIT James McEntee Bond trader Dick Leahy Executive at Salomon Victor Haghani Arbitrage group at Salomon; Masters in Finance, LSEJohn Meriwether headed Salomon Brothers' bond arbitrage desk until he resigned in 1991 amid a trading scandal.",
"According to Chi-fu Huang, later a Principal at LTCM, the bond arbitrage group was responsible for 80–100% of Salomon's global total earnings from the late 1980s until the early 1990s.In 1993 Meriwether created Long-Term Capital as a hedge fund and recruited several Salomon bond traders; Larry Hilibrand and Victor Haghani in particular would wield substantial clout and two future winners of the Nobel Memorial Prize, Myron Scholes and Robert C. Merton.",
"Other principals included Eric Rosenfeld, Greg Hawkins, William Krasker, Dick Leahy, James McEntee, Robert Shustak, and David W. Mullins Jr.The company consisted of Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM), a company incorporated in Delaware but based in Greenwich, Connecticut.",
"LTCM managed trades in Long-Term Capital Portfolio LP, a partnership registered in the Cayman Islands.",
"The fund's operation was designed to have extremely low overhead; trades were conducted through a partnership with Bear Stearns and client relations were handled by Merrill Lynch.",
"140x140px 140x140px Myron Scholes (left) and Robert C. Merton were principals at LTCM.Meriwether chose to start a hedge fund to avoid the financial regulation imposed on more traditional investment vehicles, such as mutual funds, as established by the Investment Company Act of 1940 – funds which accepted stakes from 100 or fewer individuals each with more than $1 million in net worth were exempt from most of the regulations that bound other investment companies.",
"The bulk of the money raised, in late 1993, came from companies and individuals connected to the financial industry.",
"With the help of Merrill Lynch, LTCM also secured hundreds of millions of dollars from high-net-worth individual including business owners and celebrities, as well as private university endowments and later the Italian central bank.",
"By 24 February 1994, the day LTCM began trading, the company had amassed just over $1.01 billion in capital."
],
[
"Trading strategies",
"The main strategy was to find pairs of bonds which should have a predictable spread between their prices, and then when this spread widened further to basically place a bet that the two prices would come back towards each other.The core investment strategy of the company was then known as involving convergence trading: using quantitative models to exploit deviations from fair value in the relationships between liquid securities across nations, and between asset classes (i.e.",
"Fed model-type strategies).",
"In fixed income the company was involved in US Treasuries, Japanese Government Bonds, UK Gilts, Italian BTPs, and Latin American debt, although their activities were not confined to these markets or to government bonds.",
"LTCM was the brightest star on Wall Street at that time.=== List of Major 1998 Trades ======= Fixed Income Arbitrage ====#Short US swap spread#Euro Cross-Swap#Long US mortgages hedged#Swap curve Japan#Italian swap spread#Fixed income volatility#On-the-run/off-the-run spread#Junk bond arbitrage==== Equity ====#Short equity volatility#Risk arbitrage#Equity relative value==== Emerging Markets ====#Long emerging market sovereigns#Long emerging market currency#Long emerging market equity hedged to S&P 500==== Other ====#Yield curve trades#Short high-tech stocks#Convertible arbitrage#Index arbitrage=== Fixed income arbitrage ===Fixed income securities pay a set of coupons at specified dates in the future, and make a defined redemption payment at maturity.",
"Since bonds of similar maturities and the same credit quality are close substitutes for investors, there tends to be a close relationship between their prices (and yields).",
"Whereas it is possible to construct a single set of valuation curves for derivative instruments based on LIBOR-type fixings, it is not possible to do so for government bond securities because every bond has slightly different characteristics.",
"It is therefore necessary to construct a theoretical model of what the relationships between different but closely related fixed income securities should be.For example, the most recently issued treasury bond in the US – known as the benchmark – will be more liquid than bonds of similar but slightly shorter maturity that were issued previously.",
"Trading is concentrated in the benchmark bond, and transaction costs are lower for buying or selling it.",
"As a consequence, it tends to trade more expensively than less liquid older bonds, but this expensiveness (or richness) tends to have a limited duration, because after a certain time there will be a new benchmark, and trading will shift to this security newly issued by the Treasury.",
"One core trade in the LTCM strategies was to purchase the old benchmark – now a 29.75-year bond, and which no longer had a significant premium – and to sell short the newly issued benchmark 30-year, which traded at a premium.",
"Over time the valuations of the two bonds would tend to converge as the richness of the benchmark faded once a new benchmark was issued.",
"If the coupons of the two bonds were similar, then this trade would create an exposure to changes in the shape of the typically upward sloping yield curve: a flattening would depress the yields and raise the prices of longer-dated bonds, and raise the yields and depress the prices of shorter-dated bonds.",
"It would therefore tend to create losses by making the 30-year bond that LTCM was short more expensive (and the 29.75-year bond they owned cheaper) even if there had been no change in the true relative valuation of the securities.",
"This exposure to the shape of the yield curve could be managed at a portfolio level, and hedged out by entering a smaller steepener in other similar securities.=== Leverage and portfolio composition ===Because the magnitude of discrepancies in valuations in this kind of trade is small (for the benchmark Treasury convergence trade, typically a few basis points), in order to earn significant returns for investors, LTCM used leverage to create a portfolio that was a significant multiple (varying over time depending on their portfolio composition) of investors' equity in the fund.",
"It was also necessary to access the financing market in order to borrow the securities that they had sold short.",
"In order to maintain their portfolio, LTCM was therefore dependent on the willingness of its counterparties in the government bond (repo) market to continue to finance their portfolio.",
"If the company were unable to extend its financing agreements, then it would be forced to sell the securities it owned and to buy back the securities it was short at market prices, regardless of whether these were favourable from a valuation perspective.At the beginning of 1998, the firm had equity of $4.7 billion and had borrowed over $124.5 billion with assets of around $129 billion, for a debt-to-equity ratio of over 25 to 1.It had off-balance sheet derivative positions with a notional value of approximately $1.25 trillion, most of which were in interest rate derivatives such as interest rate swaps.",
"The fund also invested in other derivatives such as equity options.John Quiggin's book ''Zombie Economics'' (2010) states, \"These derivatives, such as interest rate swaps, were developed with the supposed goal of allowing firms to manage risk on exchange rates and interest rate movements.",
"Instead, they allowed speculation on an unparalleled scale.",
"\"===Secret and opaque operations===LTCM was open about its overall strategy, but very secretive about its specific operations, including scattering trades among banks.",
"And in perhaps a disconcerting note, \"since Long-Term was flourishing, no one needed to know exactly what they were doing.",
"All they knew was that the profits were coming in as promised,\" or at least perhaps what should have been a disconcerting note when looked at in hindsight.Opaqueness may have made even more of a difference and investors may have had even a harder time judging the risk involved when LTCM moved from bond arbitrage into arbitrage involving common stocks and corporate mergers.=== UBS investment ===Under prevailing US tax laws, there was a different treatment of long-term capital gains, which were taxed at 20.0 percent, and income, which was taxed at 39.6 percent.",
"The earnings for partners in a hedge fund was taxed at the higher rate applying to income, and LTCM applied its financial engineering expertise to legally transform income into capital gains.",
"It did so by engaging in a transaction with UBS (Union Bank of Switzerland) that would defer foreign interest income for seven years, thereby being able to earn the more favourable capital gains treatment.",
"LTCM purchased a call option on 1 million of their own shares (valued then at $800 million) for a premium paid to UBS of $300 million.",
"This transaction was completed in three tranches: in June, August, and October 1997.Under the terms of the deal, UBS agreed to reinvest the $300 million premium directly back into LTCM for a minimum of three years.",
"In order to hedge its exposure from being short the call option, UBS also purchased 1 million of LTCM shares.",
"Put-call parity means that being short a call and long the same amount of notional as underlying the call is equivalent to being short a put.",
"So the net effect of the transaction was for UBS to lend $300 million to LTCM at LIBOR+50 and to be short a put on 1 million shares.",
"UBS's own motivation for the trade was to be able to invest in LTCM – a possibility that was not open to investors generally – and to become closer to LTCM as a client.",
"LTCM quickly became the largest client of the hedge fund desk, generating $15 million in fees annually.=== Diminishing opportunities and broadening of strategies ===LTCM attempted to create a splinter fund in 1996 called LTCM-X that would invest in even higher risk trades and focus on Latin American markets.",
"LTCM turned to UBS to invest in and write the warrant for this new spin-off company.LTCM faced challenges in deploying capital as their capital base grew due to initially strong returns, and as the magnitude of anomalies in market pricing diminished over time.",
"James Surowiecki concludes that LTCM grew such a large portion of such illiquid markets that there was no diversity in buyers in them, or no buyers at all, so the wisdom of the market did not function and it was impossible to determine a price for its assets (such as Danish bonds in September 1998).In Q4 1997, a year in which it earned 27%, LTCM returned capital to investors.",
"It also broadened its strategies to include new approaches in markets outside of fixed income: many of these were not market neutral – they were dependent on overall interest rates or stock prices going up (or down) – and they were not traditional convergence trades.",
"By 1998, LTCM had accumulated extremely large positions in areas such as merger arbitrage (betting on differences between a proprietary view of the likelihood of success of mergers and other corporate transactions would be completed and the implied market pricing) and S&P 500 options (net short long-term S&P volatility).",
"LTCM had become a major supplier of S&P 500 vega, which had been in demand by companies seeking to essentially insure equities against future declines."
],
[
"Early skepticism",
"Despite the fund's prominent leadership and strong growth at LTCM, there were skeptics from the very beginning.",
"Investor Seth Klarman believed it was reckless to have the combination of high leverage and not accounting for rare or outlying scenarios.",
"Software designer Mitch Kapor, who had sold a statistical program with LTCM partner Eric Rosenfeld, saw quantitative finance as a faith, rather than science.",
"Nobel Prize winning economist Paul Samuelson was concerned about extraordinary events affecting the market.",
"Economist Eugene Fama found in his research that stocks were bound to have extreme outliers.",
"Furthermore, he believed that, because they are subject to discontinuous price changes, real-life markets are inherently more risky than models.",
"He became even more concerned when LTCM began adding stocks to their bond portfolio.Warren Buffett and Charlie Munger were two of the individual investors that Meriwether approached in 1993 to invest in the fund.",
"Both analyzed the company but turned down the offer, considering the leverage plan to be too risky."
],
[
"Downturn",
"The value of $1,000 invested in LTCM, the Dow Jones Industrial Average and invested monthly in U.S. Treasuries at constant maturity.===Riskier investments starting in 1997===LTCM's profit percentage for 1996 was 40%.",
"However, for 1997, it was \"only\" 17%, which was actually right at average for hedge funds.",
"A big reason was that other companies were by now following LTCM's example.",
"And this greater competition left fewer arbitrage opportunities for LTCM themselves.As a result, LTCM began investing in emerging-market debt and foreign currencies.",
"Some of the major partners, particularly Myron Scholes, had their doubts about these new investments.",
"For example, when LTCM took a major position in the Norwegian krone, Scholes warned that they had no \"informational advantage\" in this area.In June 1998 – which was before the Russian financial crisis – LTCM posted a 10% loss, which was their biggest monthly loss to date.===1997 Asian financial crisis===Although 1997 had been a very profitable year for LTCM (27%), the lingering effects of the 1997 Asian crisis continued to shape developments in asset markets into 1998.Despite the crisis originating in Asia, its effects were not confined to that region.",
"The rise in risk aversion had raised concerns amongst investors regarding all markets heavily dependent on international capital flows, and this shaped asset pricing in markets outside Asia too.===1998 Russian financial crisis===Although periods of distress have often created tremendous opportunities for relative value strategies, this did not prove to be the case on this occasion, and the seeds of LTCM's demise were sown before the Russian default of 17 August 1998.LTCM had returned $2.7 bn to investors in Q4 of 1997, although it had also raised a total in capital of $1.066 bn from UBS and $133 m from CSFB.",
"Since position sizes had not been reduced, the net effect was to raise the leverage of the fund.In May and June 1998 returns from the fund were -6.42% and -10.14% respectively, reducing LTCM's capital by $461 million.",
"This was further aggravated by the exit of Salomon Brothers from the arbitrage business in July 1998.Because the Salomon arbitrage group (where many of LTCM's strategies had first been incubated) had been a significant player in the kinds of strategies also pursued by LTCM, the liquidation of the Salomon portfolio (and its announcement itself) had the effect of depressing the prices of the securities owned by LTCM and bidding up the prices of the securities LTCM was short.",
"According to Michael Lewis in the New York Times article of July 1998, returns that month were circa -10%.",
"One LTCM partner commented that because there was a clear temporary reason to explain the widening of arbitrage spreads, at the time it gave them more conviction that these trades would eventually return to fair value (as they did, but not without widening much further first).Such losses were accentuated through the 1998 Russian financial crisis in August and September 1998, when the Russian government defaulted on its domestic local currency bonds.",
"This came as a surprise to many investors because according to traditional economic thinking of the time, a sovereign issuer should never need to default given access to the printing press.",
"There was a flight to quality, bidding up the prices of the most liquid and benchmark securities that LTCM was short, and depressing the price of the less liquid securities it owned.",
"This phenomenon occurred not merely in the US Treasury market but across the full spectrum of financial assets.",
"Although LTCM was diversified, the nature of its strategy implied an exposure to a latent factor risk of the price of liquidity across markets.",
"As a consequence, when a much larger flight to liquidity occurred than had been anticipated when constructing its portfolio, its positions designed to profit from convergence to fair value incurred large losses as expensive but liquid securities became more expensive, and cheap but illiquid securities became cheaper.",
"By the end of August, the fund had lost $1.85 billion in capital.Because LTCM was not the only fund pursuing such a strategy, and because the proprietary trading desks of the banks also held some similar trades, the divergence from fair value was made worse as these other positions were also liquidated.",
"As rumours of LTCM's difficulties spread, some market participants positioned in anticipation of a forced liquidation.",
"Victor Haghani, a partner at LTCM, said about this time \"it was as if there was someone out there with our exact portfolio,... only it was three times as large as ours, and they were liquidating all at once.",
"\"Because these losses reduced the capital base of LTCM, and its ability to maintain the magnitude of its existing portfolio, LTCM was forced to liquidate a number of its positions at a highly unfavorable moment and suffer further losses.",
"A vivid illustration of the consequences of these forced liquidations is given by Lowenstein (2000).",
"He reports that LTCM established an arbitrage position in the dual-listed company (or \"DLC\") Royal Dutch Shell in the summer of 1997, when Royal Dutch traded at an 8%–10% premium relative to Shell.",
"In total $2.3 billion was invested, half of which was \"long\" in Shell and the other half was \"short\" in Royal Dutch.LTCM was essentially betting that the share prices of Royal Dutch and Shell would converge because in their belief the present value of the future cashflows of the two securities should be similar.",
"This might have happened in the long run, but due to its losses on other positions, LTCM had to unwind its position in Royal Dutch Shell.",
"Lowenstein reports that the premium of Royal Dutch had increased to about 22%, which implies that LTCM incurred a large loss on this arbitrage strategy.",
"LTCM lost $286 million in equity pairs trading and more than half of this loss is accounted for by the Royal Dutch Shell trade.The company, which had historically earned annualised compounded returns of almost 40% up to this point, experienced a flight to liquidity.",
"In the first three weeks of September, LTCM's equity tumbled from $2.3 billion at the start of the month to just $400 million by September 25.With liabilities still over $100 billion, this translated to an effective leverage ratio of more than 250-to-1."
],
[
"1998 bailout",
"On September 23, 1998, the chiefs of some of the largest investment firms of Wall Street—Bankers Trust, Bear Stearns, Chase Manhattan, Goldman Sachs, J.P. Morgan, Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, Morgan Stanley Dean Witter, and Salomon Smith Barney—met on the 10th floor conference room of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York (''pictured'') to rescue LTCM.Long-Term Capital Management did business with nearly every important person on Wall Street.",
"Indeed, much of LTCM's capital was composed of funds from the same financial professionals with whom it traded.",
"As LTCM teetered, Wall Street feared that Long-Term's failure could cause a chain reaction in numerous markets, causing catastrophic losses throughout the financial system.After LTCM failed to raise more money on its own, it became clear it was running out of options.",
"On September 23, 1998, Goldman Sachs, AIG, and Berkshire Hathaway offered then to buy out the fund's partners for $250 million, to inject $3.75 billion and to operate LTCM within Goldman's own trading division.",
"The offer of $250 million was stunningly low to LTCM's partners because at the start of the year their firm had been worth $4.7 billion.",
"Warren Buffett gave Meriwether less than one hour to accept the deal; the time lapsed before a deal could be worked out.Seeing no options left, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York organized a bailout of $3.625 billion by the major creditors to avoid a wider collapse in the financial markets.",
"The principal negotiator for LTCM was general counsel James G. Rickards.",
"The contributions from the various institutions were as follows:* $300 million: Bankers Trust, Barclays, Chase, Credit Suisse First Boston, Deutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch, J.P.Morgan, Morgan Stanley, Salomon Smith Barney, UBS* $125 million: Société Générale* $100 million: Paribas and Lehman Brothers* Bear Stearns and Crédit Agricole declined to participate.In return, the participating banks got a 90% share in the fund and a promise that a supervisory board would be established.",
"LTCM's partners received a 10% stake, still worth about $400 million, but this money was completely consumed by their debts.",
"The partners once had $1.9 billion of their own money invested in LTCM, all of which was wiped out.The fear was that there would be a chain reaction as the company liquidated its securities to cover its debt, leading to a drop in prices, which would force other companies to liquidate their own debt in a vicious cycle.The total losses were found to be $4.6 billion.",
"The losses in the major investment categories were (ordered by magnitude):* $1.6 bn in swaps* $1.3 bn in equity volatility* $430 mn in Russia and other emerging markets* $371 mn in directional trades in developed countries* $286 mn in Dual-listed company pairs (such as VW, Shell)* $215 mn in yield curve arbitrage* $203 mn in S&P 500 stocks* $100 mn in junk bond arbitrage* no substantial losses in merger arbitrageLong-Term Capital was audited by Price Waterhouse LLP.",
"After the bailout by the other investors, the panic abated, and the positions formerly held by LTCM were eventually liquidated at a small profit to the rescuers.",
"Although termed a bailout, the transaction effectively amounted to an orderly liquidation of the positions held by LTCM with creditor involvement and supervision by the Federal Reserve Bank.",
"No public money was injected or directly at risk, and the companies involved in providing support to LTCM were also those that stood to lose from its failure.",
"The creditors themselves did not lose money from being involved in the transaction.Some industry officials said that Federal Reserve Bank of New York involvement in the rescue, however benign, would encourage large financial institutions to assume more risk, in the belief that the Federal Reserve would intervene on their behalf in the event of trouble (see Greenspan put).",
"Federal Reserve Bank of New York actions raised concerns among some market observers that it could create moral hazard since even though the Fed had not directly injected capital, its use of moral suasion to encourage creditor involvement emphasized its interest in supporting the financial system .LTCM's strategies were compared to \"picking up nickels in front of a bulldozer\" – a likely small gain balanced against a small chance of a large loss, like the payouts from selling an out-of-the-money naked call option.",
"This contrasts with the market efficiency aphorism that there are no $100 bills lying on the street, as someone else has already picked them up."
],
[
"Aftermath",
"In 1998, the chairman of Union Bank of Switzerland resigned as a result of a $780 million loss incurred from writing put options on LTCM, which had become significantly in-the-money due to LTCM's collapse.After the bailout, Long-Term Capital Management continued operations.",
"In the year following the bailout, it earned 10%.",
"By early 2000, the fund had been liquidated, and the consortium of banks that financed the bailout had been paid back, but the collapse was devastating for many involved.",
"Mullins, once considered a possible successor to Alan Greenspan, saw his future with the Fed dashed.",
"The theories of Merton and Scholes took a public beating.",
"In its annual reports, Merrill Lynch observed that mathematical risk models \"may provide a greater sense of security than warranted; therefore, reliance on these models should be limited.",
"\"After helping unwind LTCM, John Meriwether launched JWM Partners.",
"Haghani, Hilibrand, Leahy, and Rosenfeld signed up as principals of the new firm.",
"By December 1999, they had raised $250 million for a fund that would continue many of LTCM's strategies – this time, using less leverage.",
"With the credit crisis of 2008, JWM Partners LLC was hit with a 44% loss from September 2007 to February 2009 in its Relative Value Opportunity II fund.",
"As such, JWM Hedge Fund was shut down in July 2009.Meriwether then launched a third hedge fund in 2010 called JM Advisors Management.",
"A 2014 ''Business Insider'' article stated that his later two funds used \"the same investment strategy from his time at LTCM and Salomon.\""
],
[
"Analysis",
"Historian Niall Ferguson proposed that LTCM's collapse stemmed in part from their use of only five years of financial data to prepare their mathematical models, thus drastically under-estimating the risks of a profound economic crisis.",
"Using ten years of data would have included the 1987 US market crash, while using 80 years of data would have included many minor and major economic downturns including the 1918 Russian sovereign debt default after the First World War and Russian Civil War, highlighting the possibility of a major foreign event causing international repercussions that LTCM seemingly overlooked.A 2016 CFA article written by Ron Rimkus pointed out that the VaR model, one of the major quantitative analysis tool by LTCM, had several flaws in it.",
"A VaR model is calculated based on historical data, but the data sample used by LTCM excluded previous economic crises such as those of 1987 and 1994.VaR also could not interpret extreme events such as a financial crisis in terms of timing."
],
[
"See also",
"*Black–Scholes model*Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000*Game theory*Greenspan put*James Rickards*Kurtosis risk*Limits to arbitrage*Martingale (betting system)*Martingale (probability theory)*Probability theory*St. Petersburg paradox*Value at risk*''When Genius Failed: The Rise and Fall of Long-Term Capital Management''*Black swan problem"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * .",
"Chapter 15: Long-Term Capital Management, pp.",
"245–273* * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * Case Study: Long-Term Capital Management erisk.com* Meriwether and Strange Weather: Intelligence, Risk Management and Critical Thinking austhink.org* US District Court of Connecticut judgement on tax status of LTCM losses* Michael Lewis – NYT – How the Eggheads Cracked-January 1999* Stein, M. (2003): ''Unbounded irrationality: Risk and organizational narcissism at Long Term Capital Management'', in: Human Relations 56 (5), S. 523–540."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Liberal arts education"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''', \"philosophy and the seven liberal arts.\"",
"From the of Herrad of Landsberg (12th century)'''Liberal arts education''' (from Latin \"free\" and \"art or principled practice\") is the traditional academic course in Western higher education.",
"''Liberal arts'' takes the term ''art'' in the sense of a learned skill rather than specifically the fine arts.",
"''Liberal arts education'' can refer to studies in a liberal arts degree course or to a university education more generally.",
"Such a course of study contrasts with those that are principally vocational, professional, or technical, as well as religiously based courses.The term \"liberal arts\" for an educational curriculum dates back to classical antiquity in the West, but has changed its meaning considerably, mostly expanding it.",
"The seven subjects in the ancient and medieval meaning came to be divided into the trivium of rhetoric, grammar, and logic, and the quadrivium of astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, and music.",
"The modern sense of the term usually covers all the natural sciences, formal sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities."
],
[
"History",
"Before they became known by their Latin variations (, , ), the '''liberal arts''' were the continuation of Ancient Greek methods of enquiry that began with a \"desire for a universal understanding.\"",
"Pythagoras argued that there was a mathematical (and geometric) harmony to the cosmos or the universe; his followers linked the four arts of astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, and music into one area of study to form the \"disciplines of the mediaeval quadrivium\".",
"In 4th-century-BC Athens, the government of the polis, or city-state, respected the ability of rhetoric or public speaking above almost everything else.",
"Eventually rhetoric, grammar, and dialectic (logic) became the educational programme of the trivium.",
"Together they came to be known as the '''seven liberal arts'''.",
"Originally these subjects or skills were held by classical antiquity to be essential for a free person (, \"worthy of a free person\") to acquire in order to take an active part in civic life, something that included among other things participating in public debate, defending oneself in court, serving on juries, and participating in military service.",
"While the arts of the quadrivium might have appeared prior to the arts of the trivium, by the Middle Ages educational programmes taught the trivium (grammar, logic, and rhetoric) first while the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy) were the following stage of education.",
"''Allegory of the seven liberal arts,'' The Phoebus FoundationRooted in the basic curriculum – the or \"well-rounded education\" – of late Classical and Hellenistic Greece, the \"liberal arts\" or \"liberal pursuits\" (Latin ) were already called so in formal education during the Roman Empire.",
"The first recorded use of the term \"liberal arts\" () occurs in by Marcus Tullius Cicero, but it is unclear if he created the term.",
"Seneca the Younger discusses liberal arts in education from a critical Stoic point of view in ''Moral Epistles''.",
"The exact classification of the liberal arts varied however in Roman times, and it was only after Martianus Capella in the 5th century influentially brought the seven liberal arts as bridesmaids to the ''Marriage of Mercury and Philology'', that they took on canonical form.The four \"scientific\" – music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy – were known from the time of Boethius onwards as the ''quadrivium''.",
"After the 9th century, the remaining three arts of the \"humanities\" – grammar, logic, and rhetoric – were grouped as the ''trivium''.",
"It was in that two-fold form that the seven liberal arts were studied in the medieval Western university.",
"During the Middle Ages, logic gradually came to take predominance over the other parts of the ''trivium''.In the 12th century the iconic image – (Philosophy and seven liberal arts) ''–'' was produced by an Alsatian nun and abbess Herrad of Landsberg with her community of women as part of the .",
"Their encyclopedia compiled ideas drawn from philosophy, theology, literature, music, arts, and sciences and was intended as a teaching tool for women of the abbey.",
"The image ''Philosophy and seven liberal arts'' represents the circle of philosophy, and is presented as a rosette of a cathedral: a central circle and a series of semicircles arranged all around.",
"It shows learning and knowledge organised into seven relations, the or Seven Liberal Arts.",
"Each of these arts find their source in the Greek φιλοσοφία, philosophia, literally \"love of wisdom\".",
"St. Albert the Great, a doctor of the Catholic Church, asserted that the seven liberal arts were referred to in Sacred Scripture, saying: \"It is written, 'Wisdom hath built herself a house, she hath hewn her out seven pillars' (Proverbs 9:1).",
"This house is the Blessed Virgin; the seven pillars are the seven liberal arts.\"",
"Marriage of Mercury and Philology''In the Renaissance, the Italian humanists and their Northern counterparts, despite in many respects continuing the traditions of the Middle Ages, reversed that process.",
"Re-christening the old trivium with a new and more ambitious name: , and also increasing its scope, they downplayed logic as opposed to the traditional Latin grammar and rhetoric, and added to them history, Greek, and moral philosophy (ethics), with a new emphasis on poetry as well.",
"The educational curriculum of humanism spread throughout Europe during the sixteenth century and became the educational foundation for the schooling of European elites, the functionaries of political administration, the clergy of the various legally recognized churches, and the learned professions of law and medicine.",
"The ideal of a liberal arts, or humanistic education grounded in classical languages and literature, persisted in Europe until the middle of the twentieth century; in the United States, it had come under increasingly successful attack in the late 19th century by academics interested in reshaping American higher education around the natural and social sciences.Similarly, Wilhelm von Humboldt's educational model in Prussia (now Germany), which later became the role model for higher education also in North America, went beyond vocational training.",
"In a letter to the Prussian king, he wrote:The philosopher Julian Nida-Rümelin has criticized discrepancies between Humboldt's ideals and the contemporary European education policy, which narrowly understands education as a preparation for the labor market, arguing that we need to decide between \"McKinsey and Humboldt\"."
],
[
"Modern usage",
"The modern use of the term '''''liberal arts''''' consists of four areas: the natural sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities.",
"Academic areas that are associated with the term liberal arts include:* Life sciences (biology, ecology, neuroscience)* Physical science (physics, astronomy, chemistry, earth science, physical geography)* Formal science (Logic, mathematics, statistics)* Philosophy* History* Social science (anthropology, economics, human geography, linguistics, political science, psychology, sociology)* The arts For example, the core courses for Georgetown University's Doctor of Liberal Studies program cover philosophy, theology, history, art, literature, and the social sciences.",
"Wesleyan University's Master of Arts in Liberal Studies program includes courses in visual arts, art history, creative and professional writing, literature, history, mathematics, film, government, education, biology, psychology, and astronomy."
],
[
"Secondary school",
"Liberal arts education at the secondary school level prepares students for higher education at a university.Curricula differ from school to school, but generally include language, chemistry, biology, geography, art, mathematics, music, history, philosophy, civics, social sciences, and foreign languages."
],
[
"In the United States",
"Thompson Library at Vassar College in New YorkIn the United States, liberal arts colleges are schools emphasizing undergraduate study in the liberal arts.",
"The teaching at liberal arts colleges is often Socratic, typically with small classes; professors are often allowed to concentrate more on their teaching responsibilities than are professors at research universities.In addition, most four-year colleges are not devoted exclusively or primarily to liberal arts degrees, but offer a liberal arts degree, and allow students not majoring in liberal arts to take courses to satisfy distribution requirements in liberal arts.Traditionally, a bachelor's degree in one particular area within liberal arts, with substantial study outside that main area, is earned over four years of full-time study.",
"However, some universities such as Saint Leo University, Pennsylvania State University, Florida Institute of Technology, and New England College have begun to offer an associate degree in liberal arts.",
"Colleges like the Thomas More College of Liberal Arts offer a unique program with only one degree offering, a Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Studies, while the Harvard Extension School offers both a Bachelor of Liberal Arts and a Master of Liberal Arts.",
"Additionally, colleges like the University of Oklahoma College of Liberal Studies and the Harvard Extension School offer an online, part-time option for adult and nontraditional students.Most students earn either a Bachelor of Arts degree or a Bachelor of Science degree; on completing undergraduate study, students might progress to either a liberal arts graduate school or a professional school (public administration, engineering, business, law, medicine, theology).=== Great Books movement ===In 1937 St. John's College changed its curriculum to focus on the ''Great Books of the Western World'' to provide a new sort of education that separated itself from the increasingly specialized nature of higher schooling."
],
[
"In Europe",
"Thomas & Allegory of the Sciences'' by Andrea di Bonaluto.",
"Frasco, 1365–68, Basilica di S. Maria Novella.In most parts of Europe, liberal arts education is deeply rooted.",
"In Germany, Austria and countries influenced by their education system it is called '''humanistische Bildung''' (humanistic education).",
"The term is not to be confused with some modern educational concepts that use a similar wording.",
"Educational institutions that see themselves in that tradition are often a ''Gymnasium'' (high school, grammar school).",
"They aim at providing their pupils with comprehensive education (''Bildung'') to form personality with regard to a pupil's own humanity as well as their innate intellectual skills.",
"Going back to the long tradition of the liberal arts in Europe, education in the above sense was freed from scholastic thinking and re-shaped by the theorists of the Enlightenment; in particular, Wilhelm von Humboldt.",
"Since students are considered to have received a comprehensive liberal arts education at ''gymnasia'', very often the role of liberal arts education in undergraduate programs at universities is reduced compared to the US educational system.",
"Students are expected to use their skills received at the ''gymnasium'' to further develop their personality in their own responsibility, e.g.",
"in universities' music clubs, theatre groups, language clubs, etc.",
"Universities encourage students to do so and offer respective opportunities but do not make such activities part of the university's curriculum.Thus, on the level of higher education, despite the European origin of the liberal arts college, the term ''liberal arts college'' usually denotes liberal arts colleges in the United States.",
"With the exception of pioneering institutions such as Franklin University Switzerland (formerly known as Franklin College), established as a Europe-based, US-style liberal arts college in 1969, only recently some efforts have been undertaken to systematically \"re-import\" liberal arts education to continental Europe, as with Leiden University College The Hague, University College Utrecht, University College Maastricht, Amsterdam University College, Roosevelt Academy (now University College Roosevelt), University College Twente (ATLAS), Erasmus University College, the University of Groningen, Bratislava International School of Liberal Arts, Leuphana University of Lüneburg, Central European University, and Bard College Berlin, formerly known as the European College of Liberal Arts.",
"Central European University launched a liberal arts undergraduate degree in Culture, Politics, and Society in 2020 as part of its move to Vienna and accreditation in Austria.",
"As well as the colleges listed above, some universities in the Netherlands offer bachelors programs in Liberal Arts and Sciences (Tilburg University).",
"Liberal arts (as a degree program) is just beginning to establish itself in Europe.",
"For example, University College Dublin offers the degree, as does St. Marys University College Belfast, both institutions coincidentally on the island of Ireland.",
"In the Netherlands, universities have opened constituent liberal arts colleges under the terminology ''university college'' since the late 1990s.",
"The four-year bachelor's degree in Liberal Arts and Sciences at University College Freiburg is the first of its kind in Germany.",
"It started in October 2012 with 78 students.",
"The first Liberal Arts degree program in Sweden was established at Gothenburg University in 2011, followed by a Liberal Arts Bachelor Programme at Uppsala University's Campus Gotland in the autumn of 2013.The first Liberal Arts program in Georgia was introduced in 2005 by American-Georgian Initiative for Liberal Education (AGILE), an NGO.",
"Thanks to their collaboration, Ilia State University became the first higher education institution in Georgia to establish a liberal arts program.In France, Chavagnes Studium, a Liberal Arts Study Centre in partnership with the Institut Catholique d'études supérieures, and based in a former Catholic seminary, is launching a two-year intensive BA in the Liberal Arts, with a distinctively Catholic outlook.",
"It has been suggested that the liberal arts degree may become part of mainstream education provision in the United Kingdom, Ireland and other European countries.",
"In 1999, the European College of Liberal Arts (now Bard College Berlin) was founded in Berlin and in 2009 it introduced a four-year Bachelor of Arts program in Value Studies taught in English, leading to an interdisciplinary degree in the humanities.In England, the first institution to retrieve and update a liberal arts education at the undergraduate level was the University of Winchester with their BA (Hons) Modern Liberal Arts programme which launched in 2010.In 2012, University College London began its interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences BASc degree (which has kinship with the liberal arts model) with 80 students.",
"In 2013, the University of Birmingham created the School of Liberal Arts and Natural Sciences, home of a suite of flexible 4-year programmes in which students study a broad range of subjects drawn from across the university, and gain qualifications including both traditional Liberal Arts and Natural Sciences, but also novel thematic combinations linking both areas.",
"King's College London launched the BA Liberal Arts, which has a slant towards arts, humanities and social sciences subjects.",
"The New College of the Humanities also launched a new liberal education programme.",
"Richmond American University London is a private liberal arts university where all undergraduate degrees are taught with a US liberal arts approach over a four-year programme.",
"Durham University has both a popular BA Liberal Arts and a BA Combined Honours in Social Sciences programme, both of which allow for interdisciplinary approaches to education.",
"The University of Nottingham also has a Liberal Arts BA with study abroad options and links with its Natural Sciences degrees.",
"In 2016, the University of Warwick launched a three/four-year liberal arts BA degree, which focuses on transdisciplinary approaches and problem-based learning techniques in addition to providing structured disciplinary routes and bespoke pathways.",
"And for 2017 entry UCAS lists 20 providers of liberal arts programmes.In Scotland, the four-year undergraduate Honours degree, specifically the Master of Arts, has historically demonstrated considerable breadth in focus.",
"In the first two years of Scottish MA and BA degrees students typically study a number of different subjects before specialising in their Honours years (third and fourth year).",
"The University of Dundee and the University of Glasgow (at its Crichton Campus) are the only Scottish universities that currently offer a specifically named 'Liberal Arts' degree.In Slovakia, the Bratislava International School of Liberal Arts (BISLA) is located in the Old Town of Bratislava.",
"It is the first liberal arts college in Central Europe.",
"A private, accredited three-year degree-granting undergraduate institution, it opened in September 2006."
],
[
"In Asia",
"The Commission on Higher Education of the Philippines mandates a General Education curriculum required of all higher education institutions; it includes a number of liberal arts subjects, including history, art appreciation, and ethics, plus interdisciplinary electives.",
"Many universities have much more robust liberal arts core curricula; most notably, the Jesuit universities such as Ateneo de Manila University have a strong liberal arts core curriculum that includes philosophy, theology, literature, history, and the social sciences.",
"Forman Christian College is a liberal arts university in Lahore, Pakistan.",
"It is one of the oldest institutions in the Indian subcontinent.",
"It is a chartered university recognized by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan.",
"Habib University in Karachi, Pakistan offers a holistic liberal arts and sciences experience to its students through its uniquely tailored liberal core program which is compulsory for all undergraduate degree students.",
"The Underwood International College of Yonsei University, Korea, has compulsory liberal arts courses for all the student body.In India, there are many institutions that offer undergraduate UG or bachelor's degree/diploma and postgraduate PG or master's degree/diploma as well as doctoral PhD and postdoctoral studies and research, in this academic discipline.",
"The highly ranked IIT Guwahati offers a Manipal Academy of Higher Education – MAHE, an Institution of Eminence as recognised by MHRD of Govt of India in 2018, houses a Faculty of Liberal Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, and also others like Symbiosis & FLAME University in Pune, Ahmedabad University, and Pandit Deendayal Energy University (PDEU) in Ahmedabad, Ashoka University, and Azim Premji University in Bangalore.",
"Lingnan University, Asian University for Women and University of Liberal Arts- Bangladesh (ULAB) are also a few such liberal arts colleges in Asia.",
"International Christian University in Tokyo is the first and one of the very few liberal arts universities in Japan.",
"Fulbright University Vietnam is the first liberal arts institution in Vietnam."
],
[
"In Australia",
"Campion College is a Roman Catholic dedicated liberal arts college, located in the western suburbs of Sydney.",
"Founded in 2006, it is the first tertiary educational liberal arts college of its type in Australia.",
"Campion offers a Bachelor of Arts in the Liberal Arts as its sole undergraduate degree.",
"The key disciplines studied are history, literature, philosophy, and theology.The Millis Institute is the School of Liberal Arts at Christian Heritage College located in Brisbane.",
"Founded by Dr. Ryan Messmore, former President of Campion College, the Millis Institute offers a Bachelor of Arts in the Liberal Arts in which students can choose to major in philosophy, theology, history or literature.",
"It also endorses a 'Study Abroad' program whereby students can earn credit towards their degree by undertaking two units over a five-week program at the University of Oxford.",
"As of 2022, Elizabeth Hillman is currently the President of the Millis Institute.A new school of Liberal Arts has been formed in the University of Wollongong; the new Arts course entitled 'Western Civilisation' was first offered in 2020.The interdisciplinary curriculum focuses on the classic intellectual and artistic literature of the Western tradition.",
"Courses in the liberal arts have recently been developed at the University of Sydney and the University of Notre Dame."
],
[
"See also"
],
[
"Citations"
],
[
"General and cited references",
"* * * * Kimball, Bruce A.",
"''Orators and Philosophers: A History of the Idea of Liberal Education''.",
"College Board, 1995.",
"* * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * Barzun, Jacques.",
"''The House of Intellect,'' Reprint Harper Perennial, 2002.",
"* Blaich, Charles, Anne Bost, Ed Chan, and Richard Lynch. \"",
"Defining Liberal Arts Education.\"",
"Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts, 2004.",
"* Blanshard, Brand.",
"''The Uses of a Liberal Education: And Other Talks to Students''.",
"(Open Court, 1973.",
")* Friedlander, Jack.",
"''Measuring the Benefits of Liberal Arts Education in Washington's Community Colleges''.",
"Los Angeles: Center for the Study of Community Colleges, 1982a.",
"(ED 217 918)* Grafton Anthony and Lisa Jardine.",
"''From Humanism to the Humanities: The Institutionalizing of the Liberal Arts in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-century Europe'', Harvard University Press, 1987.",
"* Guitton, Jean.",
"''A Student's Guide to Intellectual Work,'' The University of Notre Dame Press, 1964.",
"* Highet, Gilbert.",
"''The Art of Teaching,'' Vintage Books, 1950.",
"* Joseph, Sister Miriam.",
"''The Trivium: The Liberal Arts of Logic, Grammar, and Rhetoric''.",
"Paul Dry Books Inc, 2002.",
"* Kimball, Bruce A.",
"''The Liberal Arts Tradition: A Documentary History''.",
"University Press Of America, 2010.",
"* * McGrath, Charles.",
"\"What Every Student Should Know\", ''New York Times'', 8 January 2006.",
"* Parker, H. ''\"The Seven Liberal Arts,\"'' The English Historical Review, Vol.",
"V, 1890.",
"* * * Ruckdeschel, Christopher.",
"''On the Nature of the Classical Liberal Arts'', Bookbaby, 2019.",
"* Saint-Victor, Hugh of.",
"''The Didascalicon,'' Columbia University Press, 1961.",
"* Schall, James V. ''Another Sort of Learning,'' Ignatius Press, 1988.",
"* * Sertillanges, A. G. ''The Intellectual Life,'' The Catholic University of America Press, 1998.",
"* Tubbs, N. (2011) ''\"Know Thyself: Macrocosm and Microcosm\"'' in ''Studies in Philosophy and Education'' Volume 30 no.1* Winterer, Caroline.",
"''The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Intellectual Life, 1780–1910.''",
"Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.",
"* Wriston, Henry M. ''The Nature of a Liberal College''.",
"Lawrence University Press, 1937.",
"* Zakaria, Fareed.",
"''In Defense of a Liberal Education''.",
"New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2015."
],
[
"External links",
"* Definition and short history of the Seven Liberal Arts from 1905.",
"* Fr.",
"Herve de la Tour, \"The Seven Liberal Arts\", ''Edocere, a Resource for Catholic Education'', February 2002.Thomas Aquinas's definition of and justification for a liberal arts education.",
"* Otto Willmann.",
"\"The Seven Liberal Arts\".",
"In ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''.",
"New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907.Retrieved 13 August 2012.",
"\"Renaissance Humanists, over-fond of change, unjustly condemned the system of the seven liberal arts as barbarous.",
"It is no more barbarous than the Gothic style, a name intended to be a reproach.",
"The Gothic, built up on the conception of the old basilica, ancient in origin, yet Christian in character, was misjudged by the Renaissance on account of some excrescences, and obscured by the additions engrafted upon it by modern lack of taste… That the achievements of our forefathers should be understood, recognized, and adapted to our own needs, is surely to be desired.",
"\"* Andrew Chrucky (1 September 2003).",
"\"The Aim of Liberal Education\".",
"\"The content of a liberal education should be moral problems as provided by history, anthropology, sociology, economics, and politics.",
"And these should be discussed along with a reflection on the nature of morality and the nature of discussions, i.e., through a study of rhetoric and logic.",
"Since discussion takes place in language, an effort should be made to develop a facility with language.",
"\"* \"Philosophy of Liberal Education\" A bibliography, compiled by Andrew Chrucky, with links to essays offering different points of view on the meaning of a liberal education.",
"* Mark Peltz, \"The Liberal Arts and Leadership\", ''College News (The Annapolis Group)'', 14 May 2012.A defense of liberal education by the Associate Dean of Grinnell College (first appeared in ''Inside Higher Ed'').",
"* \"Liberal Arts at the Community College\", an ERIC Fact Sheet.",
"ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior Colleges Los Angeles* \"A Descriptive Analysis of the Community College Liberal Arts Curriculum\".",
"ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior Colleges Los Angeles* The Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts.",
"Website about The Wabash Study (for improving liberal education).",
"Sponsored by the Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts at Wabash College (Indiana), the Wabash Study began in the fall of 2010 – scheduled to end in 2013.Participants include 29 prominent colleges and universities.",
"* ''Academic Commons''.",
"An online platform in support of the liberal education community.",
"It is a forum for sharing practices, outcomes, and lessons learned of online learning.",
"Formerly sponsored by the Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts, The Academic Commons is hosted by the National Institute for Technology in Liberal Education ( \"NITLE\".).",
"* ''The Liberal Arts Advantage – for Business''.",
"Website dedicated to \"Bridging the gap between business and the liberal arts\".",
"\"A liberal arts education is aimed at developing the ability to think, reason, analyze, decide, discern, and evaluate.",
"That's in contrast to a professional or technical education (business, engineering, computer science, etc.)",
"which develops specific abilities aimed at preparing students for vocations.",
"\"* Video explanation by Professor Nigel Tubbs of liberal arts curriculum and degree requirements of Winchester University, UK.. \"Liberal arts education (Latin: ''liberalis'', free, and ''ars'', art or principled practice) involves us in thinking philosophically across many subject boundaries in the humanities, the social and natural sciences, and fine arts.",
"The degree combines compulsory modules covering art, religion, literature, science and the history of ideas with a wide range of optional modules.",
"This enables students to have flexibility and control over their programme of study and the content of their assessments.\""
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lateral consonant"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''lateral''' is a consonant in which the airstream proceeds along one or both of the sides of the tongue, but it is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth.",
"An example of a lateral consonant is the English ''L'', as in ''Larry''.",
"Lateral consonants contrast with central consonants, in which the airstream flows through the center of the mouth.For the most common laterals, the tip of the tongue makes contact with the upper teeth (see dental consonant) or the upper gum (see alveolar consonant), but there are many other possible places for laterals to be made.",
"The most common laterals are approximants and belong to the class of liquids, but lateral fricatives and affricates are also common in some parts of the world.",
"Some languages, such as the Iwaidja and Ilgar languages of Australia, have lateral flaps, and others, such as the Xhosa and Zulu languages of Africa, have lateral clicks.When pronouncing the labiodental fricatives , the lip blocks the airflow in the centre of the vocal tract, so the airstream proceeds along the sides instead.",
"Nevertheless, they are not considered lateral consonants because the airflow never goes over the side of the tongue.",
"No known language makes a distinction between lateral and non-lateral labiodentals.",
"Plosives are never lateral, but they may have lateral release.",
"Nasals are never lateral either, but some languages have lateral nasal clicks.",
"For consonants articulated in the throat (laryngeals), the lateral distinction is not made by any language, although pharyngeal and epiglottal laterals are reportedly possible."
],
[
"Examples",
"English has one lateral phoneme: the lateral approximant , which in many accents has two allophones.",
"One, found before vowels (and /j/) as in ''lady'' or ''fly'' (or ''value''), is called ''clear l'', pronounced as the alveolar lateral approximant with a \"neutral\" position of the body of the tongue.",
"The other variant, so-called ''dark l'', found before consonants or word-finally, as in ''bold'' or ''tell'', is pronounced as the velarized alveolar lateral approximant with the tongue assuming a spoon-like shape with its back part raised, which gives the sound a - or -like resonance.",
"In some languages, like Albanian, those two sounds are different phonemes.",
"East Slavic languages contrast and but do not have l.In many British accents (e.g.",
"Cockney), dark may undergo vocalization through the reduction and loss of contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, becoming a rounded back vowel or glide.",
"This process turns ''tell'' into , as must have happened with ''talk'' or ''walk'' at some stage.",
"A similar process happened during the development of many other languages, including Brazilian Portuguese, Old French, and Polish, in all three of these resulting in voiced velar approximant or voiced labio-velar approximant , whence Modern French ''sauce'' as compared with Spanish ''salsa'', or Polish ''Wisła'' (pronounced ) as compared with English ''Vistula''.In central and Venice dialects of Venetian, intervocalic has turned into a semivocalic , so that the written word ''ła bała'' is pronounced .",
"The orthography uses the letter ł to represent this phoneme (it specifically represents not the sound but the phoneme that is, in some dialects, and, in others, ).Many aboriginal Australian languages have a series of three or four lateral approximants, as do various dialects of Irish.",
"Rarer lateral consonants include the retroflex laterals that can be found in many languages of India and in some Swedish dialects, and the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative , found in many Native North American languages, Welsh and Zulu.",
"In Adyghe and some Athabaskan languages like Hän, both voiceless and voiced alveolar lateral fricatives occur, but there is no approximant.",
"Many of these languages also have lateral affricates.",
"Some languages have palatal or velar voiceless lateral fricatives or affricates, such as Dahalo and Zulu, but the IPA has no symbols for such sounds.",
"However, appropriate symbols are easy to make by adding a lateral-fricative belt to the symbol for the corresponding lateral approximant (see below).",
"Also, a devoicing diacritic may be added to the approximant.Nearly all languages with such lateral obstruents also have the approximant.",
"However, there are a number of exceptions, many of them located in the Pacific Northwest area of the United States.",
"For example, Tlingit has but no .",
"Other examples from the same area include Nuu-chah-nulth and Kutenai, and elsewhere, Mongolian, Chukchi, and Kabardian.Standard Tibetan has a voiceless lateral approximant, usually romanized as ''lh'', as in the name Lhasa.A uvular lateral approximant has been reported to occur in some speakers of American English.Pashto has a retroflex lateral flap that becomes voiced retroflex approximant when it is at the end of a syllable and a word.There are a large number of lateral click consonants; 17 occur in !Xóõ.Lateral trills are also possible, but they do not occur in any known language.",
"They may be pronounced by initiating or with an especially forceful airflow.",
"There is no symbol for them in the IPA.",
"They are sometimes used to imitate bird calls, and they are a component of Donald Duck talk."
],
[
"List of laterals",
"===Approximants===* Voiced dental lateral approximant * Voiced alveolar lateral approximant * Voiced retroflex lateral approximant * Voiced palatal lateral approximant * Voiced velar lateral approximant (in Wahgi)* Voiced uvular lateral approximant (in some American dialects)===Fricatives===* Voiceless dental lateral fricative (in Wahgi)* Voiced dental lateral fricative (allophonic in Wahgi)* Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative (in Adyghe, Chukchi, Kabardian, Navajo, Welsh)* Voiced alveolar lateral fricative (in Adyghe, Kabardian, Mongolian, Tigak)* Voiceless retroflex lateral fricative or extIPA (in Toda)* Voiced retroflex lateral fricative or extIPA (in Ao)* Voiceless palatal lateral fricative or extIPA (in Dahalo, Inupiaq)* Voiced palatal lateral fricative or extIPA (allophonic in Jebero)* Voiceless velar lateral fricative or extIPA (in Archi, Nii, Wahgi)* Voiced velar lateral fricative or extIPA (in Archi, allophonic in Wahgi)Only the alveolar lateral fricatives have dedicated letters in the IPA.",
"However, others appear in the extIPA.",
"* Voiceless lateral-median fricative or extIPA (in Al-Rubu'ah Arabic, Mehri)* Voiced lateral-median fricative or extIPA (in Rijal Almaa Arabic, Mehri)===Affricates===* Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate (in Navajo, Tlingit)* Voiced alveolar lateral affricate (allophonic in Zulu and Xhosa)* Voiceless retroflex lateral affricate or extIPA (in Bhadrawahi)* Voiced retroflex lateral affricate or extIPA (in Bhadrawahi)* Voiceless palatal lateral affricate or extIPA (perhaps prepalatal in Sandawe and Hadza)* Voiced palatal lateral affricate (perhaps prepalatal in Sandawe)* Voiceless velar lateral affricate or extIPA (in Archi, Laghuu, Muji)* Voiced velar lateral affricate (in Hiw, Laghuu, Muji)===Flaps===* Voiceless alveolar lateral flap (in Yavitero, Karu)* Voiced alveolar lateral flap (in Wayuu, Iwaidja)* Voiceless retroflex lateral flap or (allophonic in Wahgi)* Voiced retroflex lateral flap or (in Pashto, Iwaidja)* Palatal lateral flap (allophonic in Iwaidja and Ilgar)* Velar lateral flap (in Kanite and Melpa)===Ejective=======Affricates====* Alveolar lateral ejective affricate (in Baslaney, Navajo, Tlingit)* Retroflex lateral ejective affricate or extIPA * Palatal lateral ejective affricate or extIPA (in Dahalo, Sandawe, Hadza)* Velar lateral ejective affricate or extIPA (in Archi, Gǀwi, Zulu)* Uvular lateral ejective affricate or extIPA ====Fricatives====* Alveolar lateral ejective fricative (in Adyghe, Kabardian, Tlingit)* Retroflex lateral ejective fricative or extIPA * Palatal lateral ejective fricative or extIPA * Velar lateral ejective fricative or extIPA Only the alveolar has been attested in natural languages.===Clicks===* Alveolar lateral clicks , , , , , ''etc.''",
"(in all five Khoisan families and several Bantu languages)"
],
[
"Ambiguous centrality",
"The IPA requires sounds to be defined as to centrality, as either central or lateral.",
"However, languages may be ambiguous as to some consonants' laterality.",
"A well-known example is the liquid consonant in Japanese, represented in common transliteration systems as , which can be recognized as a (post)alveolar tap, alveolar lateral flap, (post)alveolar lateral approximant, (post)alveolar approximant, voiced retroflex stop, and various less common forms."
],
[
"Lateralized consonants",
"A superscript is defined as lateral release.Consonants may also be pronounced with simultaneous lateral and central airflow.",
"This is well-known from speech pathology with a lateral lisp.",
"However, it also occurs in nondisordered speech in some southern Arabic dialects and possibly some Modern South Arabian languages, which have pharyngealized nonsibilant and (simultaneous and ) and possibly a sibilant (simultaneous ).",
"Examples are 'pain' in the dialect of Al-Rubu'ah and 'back' and 'hyena' in Rijal Almaa.",
"(Here the indicates simultaneous laterality rather than lateral release.)",
"Old Arabic has been analyzed as having the emphatic central–lateral fricatives , and ."
],
[
"See also",
"* Delateralization* Lateral release (phonetics)* List of phonetics topics"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Sources===* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Liquid consonant"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Liquids''' are a class of consonants that consists of rhotics and voiced lateral approximants, sometimes described as \"r-like sounds\" and \"l-like sounds\".",
"The word ''liquid'' seems to be a calque of the Ancient Greek word (, ) initially used by grammarian Dionysius Thrax to describe Greek sonorants.Liquid consonants are more prone to be part of consonant clusters and of the syllable nucleus.",
"Their third formants are generally non-predictable based on the first two formants.",
"Another important feature is their complex articulation, which makes them a hard consonant class to study with precision and the last consonants to be produced by children during their phonological development.",
"They are also more likely to undergo certain types of phonological changes such as assimilation, dissimilation and metathesis.Most languages have at least one liquid in their phonemic inventory.",
"English has two, /l/ and /ɹ/."
],
[
"History and etymology",
"The grammarian Dionysius Thrax used the Ancient Greek word (, ) to describe the sonorant consonants () of classical Greek.",
"It is assumed that the term referred to their changing or inconsistent (or \"fluid\") effect on meter in classical Greek verse when they occur as the second member of a consonant cluster (see below).",
"This word was calqued into Latin as (possibly because of a mistranslation), whence it has been retained in the Western European phonetic tradition."
],
[
"Sonority and syllable structure",
"In the sonority hierarchy, liquids are considered the most sonorous sounds after vowels and glides, with laterals considered to be less sonorous than rhotics.",
"This explains why they are more likely to be part of consonant clusters than other consonants (excluding glides), and to follow obstruents in initial consonant clusters and precede them in final consonant clusters.Liquids also hold this position in the hierarchy of syllable peaks, which means that liquids are theoretically more likely to be syllabic (or, in other words, be part of a syllable nucleus) than any other consonants, although some studies show that syllabic nasals are overall more favoured.",
"Thus Czech and other Slavic languages allow their liquid consonants and to be the center of their syllables – as witnessed by the classic tonguetwister \"push (your) finger through (your) throat.\"",
"This is also true for General American English (see the words ''barr'''el''''' and ''anch'''or''''') and other English accents.Sequences of an obstruent and a liquid consonant are often ambiguous as far as syllabification is concerned.",
"In these cases, whether the two consonants are part of the same syllable or not heavily depends on the individual language, and closely related languages can behave differently (such as Icelandic and Faroese).",
"In Latin and Ancient Greek, obstruent + liquid consonant clusters (known as ''muta cum liquida'') supposedly were ambiguous in this sense, and as such were often used to manipulate meter."
],
[
"Acoustic and articulatory phonetics",
"Acoustically, liquids seem to have a third formant of unexpected value when compared to the first and second formants.",
"This contrasts with non-liquid approximants, whose third formant value is expected based on the first two formants.In articulatory phonetics, liquids are described as ''controlled gestures,'' which are slower and require more precise tongue movement during the \"homing phase\", when the tongue adjusts towards the place of articulation of the consonant.",
"Due to the fact that babies prefer ''ballistic gestures'', which rely on the propelling motion of the jaw, liquids usually occur later in a child's phonological development, and they are more likely to be deleted in consonant clusters before the age of three.",
"Liquids have also been described as consonants involving \"complex lingual geometries.",
"\"To better determine the full range of articulatory and acoustic characteristics of liquids, the use of ultrasound paired with audio recordings is increasing.",
"This is due to this consonant group being difficult to analyse on a purely auditory base."
],
[
"Liquids and phonological change",
"Liquids seem to be more or less subjected to certain sound changes or phonological processes than other consonants.",
"On an auditory level, liquid consonants resemble each other, which is likely the reason they undergo or trigger assimilation, dissimilation and metathesis.===Metathesis===Cross-linguistically, liquids tend to be more prone to metathesis than other consonants, especially long-distance metathesis.In Spanish, a frequent example is the behaviour of /r/ and /l/:* Lat.",
"''c'''r'''ocodīlus'' > Span.",
"''cocod'''r'''ilo'' “crocodile”* Lat.",
"''mī'''r'''ācu'''l'''um'' > Span.",
"''mi'''l'''ag'''r'''o'' “miracle”* Lat.",
"''pe'''r'''īcu'''l'''um'' > Span.",
"''pe'''l'''ig'''r'''o'' “danger”* Lat.",
"''pa'''r'''abo'''l'''a'' > Span.",
"''pa'''l'''ab'''r'''a'' “speech”In English, ''comfortable'' is frequently pronounced /ˈkʌmf.tɚ.bəl/ in rhotic varieties, although its stem, ''comfort'' is pronounced /ˈkʌm.fɚt/, with the rhotic /ɹ/ in its original position.=== Assimilation ===Liquid consonant can also undergo assimilation (cf.",
"Sicilian ''pa'''rr'''ari'' \"to speak\" and Italian ''pa'''rl'''are'').",
"This phenomenon is one of the reasons long liquids are common in Finnish despite being not so common worldwide.",
"See ''tu'''ll'''ut'' from the root ''tul-'' \"to come\" and the past participle suffix -''nut''.A specific form of liquid assimilation, liquid harmony, is present is some languages.",
"In Sundanese, some morphemes have two different realisations depending on what liquid is present in the root.===Dissimilation===Liquids are also prone to dissimilation when they occur in sequence.",
"For example, Old Italian ''co'''l'''onne'''ll'''o'' \"colonel\" is borrowed into Middle French as ''co'''r'''onne'''l''''', which is in turned loaned into English as ''colonel'', with an orthography inspired by Italian but with the /ˈkɚnəl/ or /ˈkɜːnel/ pronunciation with the rhotic ''r'', which is absent in writing.=== Epenthesis ===Epenthesis, or the addition of sounds, is common in environments where liquids are present, especially consonant clusters.",
"The epenthetic sound can be a vowel or a consonant.",
"For example, the genitive of the Ancient Greek noun ἀνήρ ''anḗr'' \"man\" is ἀν'''δ'''ρός ''an'''d'''rós'', with the insertion of a d sound between a nasal consonant and the liquid r. Another example is the Irish word ''bolg'' \"belly\", usually pronounced with an epenthetic schwa ə after the liquid lˠ: .=== Other types of phonological change ===Liquids can often be the result of lenition, the change of a consonant towards characteristics that are typical of vowels, making it \"weaker\".",
"They are also likely to become vowels or glides, a process known as vocalisation.",
"See, for example, Sicilian ''ca'''u'''du'' from Latin ''ca'''l'''idus''."
],
[
"Occurrence and geographical distribution",
"According to a survey by linguist Ian Maddieson, most languages have one to three liquids (with systems of two liquids being the most common) and they are usually dental or alveolar.",
"Liquid consonants are also rarely geminated cross-linguistically.Many languages, such as Japanese, Korean, or Polynesian languages (see below), have a single liquid phoneme that has both lateral and rhotic allophones.English has two liquid phonemes, one lateral, and one rhotic, , exemplified in the words '''''l'''ed'' and '''''r'''ed''.Many other European languages have one lateral and one rhotic phoneme.",
"Some, such as Greek, Italian and Serbo-Croatian, have more than two liquid phonemes.",
"All three languages have the set , with two laterals and one rhotic.",
"Similarly, the Iberian languages contrast four liquid phonemes.",
", , , and a fourth phoneme that is an alveolar trill in all but many varieties of Portuguese, where it is a uvular trill or fricative (also, the majority of Spanish speakers lack and use the central instead).",
"Some European languages, for example Russian and Irish, contrast a palatalized lateral–rhotic pair with an unpalatalized (or velarized) set (e.g.",
"in Russian).Elsewhere in the world, two liquids of the types mentioned above remains the most common attribute of a language's consonant inventory except in North America and Australia.",
"In North America, a majority of languages do not have rhotics at all and there is a wide variety of lateral sounds though most are obstruent laterals rather than liquids.",
"Most indigenous Australian languages are very rich in liquids, with some having as many as seven distinct liquids.",
"They typically include dental, alveolar, retroflex and palatal laterals, and as many as three rhotics.On the other side, there are many indigenous languages in the Amazon Basin and eastern North America, as well as a few in Asia and Africa, with no liquids.Polynesian languages typically have only one liquid, which may be either a lateral or a rhotic.",
"Non-Polynesian Oceanic languages usually have both and , occasionally more (e.g.",
"Araki has , , ) or less (e.g.",
"Mwotlap has only ).",
"Hiw is unusual in having a prestopped velar lateral as its only liquid."
],
[
"See also",
"* Sonorant* List of phonetics topics* Perception of English /r/ and /l/ by Japanese speakers* Engrish"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Laura Bertram"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Laura Maureen Bertram''' (born 5 September 1978) is a Canadian actress best known for her roles as Amanda Zimm in ''Ready or Not'' and Trance Gemini in ''Andromeda''."
],
[
"Life and career",
"Actress Laura Bertram at Decalogy 10 in 2007Bertram was born in Toronto, Ontario, and lives in Vancouver, British Columbia.",
"She earned her degree in history from the University of Guelph.",
"She has two younger sisters named Heather (born 1981) and Jennifer (born 1984), who are former actresses.",
"In 1997, Bertram was a ceramics instructor at Kilcoo Camp.",
"She also used to sing in the Canadian Children's Opera Chorus.Her credits include the TV series ''Ready or Not'', ''Are You Afraid of the Dark?",
"'', ''Seasons of Love'', ''Andromeda'' as Trance Gemini, ''Supernatural'', and the movies ''Night of the Twisters'', and ''Dear America: So Far From Home''.",
"She appeared in Season 2 of ''Robson Arms''.Bertram was a high school teacher; in addition, she also taught young actors at Biz Studio in Vancouver.Bertram is married with a husband and two children."
],
[
"Awards",
"Bertram has won two Gemini Awards for \"Best Performance in a Children's or Youth Program or Series\" for ''Ready or Not'' in 1995 and for \"Best Performance in a Children's or Youth Program or Series\" for ''Ready or Not'' in 1998.She has also been nominated for two Gemini Awards for \"Best Performance in a Children's or Youth Program or Series\" for ''Ready or Not'' in 1996 and for Best Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Program or Mini-Series for ''Platinum'' in 1998."
],
[
"Filmography",
"===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1998 ''Elimination Dance'' Short 2004 ''1974'' Girl Short 2005 '''' Short 2006 ''Fracture'' Holly Video short 2008 ''Control Alt Delete'' Sarah 2008 ''Toxic Skies'' Anna 2010 ''Gunless'' Alice 2010 ''Punkin'' Laura Lippy Short 2011 ''50/50'' Claire 2011 ''Traveling at the Speed of Life'' Josee 2012 ''Random Acts of Romance'' Holly 2017 ''Mystic: A Murder Mystery'' The Narrator===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1992–1995 ''Are You Afraid of the Dark?''",
"Amanda Cameron / Laurel Episodes: \"The Tale of the Lonely Ghost\", \"The Tale of the Mystical Mirror\" 1993 ''Family Pictures'' Nina (12-15) TV miniseries 1993 ''Kung Fu: The Legend Continues'' Young Valerie Episode: \"Reunion\" 1993 ''Street Legal'' Karen Brandis Episode: \"What's Love Got to Do With It?\"",
"1993–1997 ''Ready or Not'' Amanda Zimm Lead role 1994 ''Road to Avonlea'' Adeline Hodgson Episode: \"Someone to Believe In\" 1996 '''' Cashier TV film 1996 ''Night of the Twisters'' Stacey Jones TV film 1996 ''Sins of Silence'' Carrie TV film 1997 ''Wind at My Back'' Suzanne Nelson Episode: \"Back in My Arms Again\" 1997 ''Fast Track'' Laurie Episode: \"The Race Fan\" 1997 ''Platinum'' Jessica Webb TV film 1997 ''Deepwater Black'' Aurora Episode: \"Aurora\" 1998 ''Twitch City'' Babe Episode: \"My Pet, My Hero\" 1999 ''Dear America: So Far from Home'' Mary Driscoll TV film 1999 ''Seasons of Love'' Judith Brewster Episodes: \"1.1\", \"1.2\" 2000–2005 ''Andromeda'' Trance Gemini Main role 2001 ''Soul Food'' Melissa Greene Episode: \"Life Lessons\" 2006 ''Murder on Pleasant Drive'' Janice II TV film 2006 ''Veiled Truth'' Kimberly TV film 2007 ''Robson Arms'' Chris Colton Main role (season 2) 2008 ''Bridal Fever'' Tina TV film 2010 ''Supernatural'' Corey's Roommate Episode: \"You Can't Handle the Truth\" 2010 '''' Betty TV film 2010 '''' Dina TV film 2011 ''Once Upon a Time'' Donna Episode: \"That Still Small Voice\" 2014 ''Arctic Air'' Megan Episode: \"On the Edge\" 2014–2015 ''When Calls the Heart'' Mary Dunbar Recurring role (seasons 1–2) 2016 '''' Nicole TV film 2017 ''Signed, Sealed, Delivered: Home Again'' Peggy TV film 2018 ''Winter's Dream'' Lindsay TV film 2019 ''Unspeakable'' Kelly Girard TV miniseries 2019 ''Are You Afraid of the Dark?''",
"Story Mother Episode: \"Submitted for Approval\" 2020 ''Christmas Tree in Colorado'' Phoebe TV film 2021 ''Family Law'' Karen Episode: \"Parenthood\" 2023 ''Blessings of Christmas'' Janet TV film"
],
[
"Awards and nominations",
" Year Award Category Production Result Refs1995Gemini AwardBest Performance in a Children's or Youth Program or Series''Ready or Not'' (for episode #2.13: \"Am I Perverted or What?",
"\")1996Gemini AwardBest Performance in a Children's or Youth Program or Series''Ready or Not'' (for episode #3.7: \"Crater Face\")1998Gemini AwardBest Performance in a Children's or Youth Program or Series''Ready or Not'' (for episode #5.9: \"Graduation\")1998Gemini AwardBest Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Program or Miniseries''Platinum''2003Leo AwardDramatic Series: Best Supporting Performance – Female''Andromeda'' (for episode #3.12: \"The Dark Backward\")"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lou Ferrigno"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Louis Jude Ferrigno Sr.''' (; born November 9, 1951) is an American actor and retired professional bodybuilder.",
"As a bodybuilder, Ferrigno won an IFBB Mr. America title and two consecutive IFBB Mr. Universe titles; and appeared in the documentary film ''Pumping Iron'' (1977).",
"As an actor, he is best known for his title role in the CBS television series ''The Incredible Hulk'' (1977-1982) and vocally reprising the role in subsequent animated and computer-generated incarnations.",
"He has also appeared in European-produced fantasy-adventures such as ''Hercules'' (1983) and ''Sinbad of the Seven Seas'' (1989), and as himself in the sitcom ''The King of Queens'' and the 2009 comedy ''I Love You, Man''."
],
[
"Early life",
"Ferrigno was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Victoria and Matt Ferrigno, a police lieutenant.",
"He is of Italian descent.",
"Soon after he was born, Ferrigno says he believes he had a series of ear infections and lost 75% to 80% of his hearing, though his condition was not diagnosed until he was three years old.",
"Hearing loss and his speech impediment caused Ferrigno to be bullied by peers during his childhood who called him \"deaf\" and \"mute\".",
"He began reading comic books such as ''Hulk'' and ''Spider-Man'' at this time, later saying \"I was obsessed with power\", and \"I wanted to be strong enough so that I could be able to defend myself\".Ferrigno started weight training at the age of 13, citing bodybuilder and ''Hercules'' star Steve Reeves as one of his role models.",
"Because he could not afford to buy weights, he made his own using a broomstick and pails which he partially filled with cement.",
"He was also a fan of the ''Hercules'' films that starred Reeves.",
"Ferrigno attended St. Athanasius Grammar School and Brooklyn Technical High School, where he learned metal working."
],
[
"Bodybuilding career",
"After graduating from high school in 1969, Ferrigno won his first major title, IFBB Mr. America.",
"Four years later, he won the title IFBB Mr. Universe.",
"Early in his career he lived in Columbus, Ohio and trained with Arnold Schwarzenegger.",
"In 1974, he came in second on his first attempt at the Mr. Olympia competition.",
"He came in third the following year, and his attempt to beat Arnold Schwarzenegger was the subject of the 1977 documentary ''Pumping Iron''.",
"The documentary made Ferrigno famous.These victories, however, did not provide enough income for him to earn a living.",
"His first paying job was as a $10-an-hour sheet metal worker in a Brooklyn factory, where he worked for three years.",
"He did not enjoy the dangerous work, and left after a friend and co-worker accidentally cut off his own hand.Following this, Ferrigno left the competition circuit for many years, a period that included a brief stint as a defensive lineman for the Toronto Argonauts in the Canadian Football League.",
"He had never played football, and was cut after two games.",
"Ferrigno left the world of Canadian football after he broke the legs of a fellow player during a scrimmage.Ferrigno, who stands at almost , weighed in during competition at 268 lb (130 kg) in 1975 and 315 lb (142 kg) in 1992.Ferrigno competed in the first annual World's Strongest Man competition in 1977, where he finished fourth in a field of eight competitors.In the early 1990s Ferrigno returned to bodybuilding, competing for the 1992 and 1993 Mr. Olympia titles.",
"Finishing 12th and 10th, respectively, he then turned to the 1994 Masters Olympia, where his attempt to beat Robbie Robinson and Boyer Coe was the subject of the 1996 documentary ''Stand Tall''.",
"After this, he retired from competition."
],
[
"Acting career",
"===1977–2008===In 1977, Ferrigno was cast as the Hulk in ''The Incredible Hulk''.",
"Though they were rarely on camera together, Ferrigno and who played the Hulk's \"normal\" alter became friends; Ferrigno has described Bixby as a \"mentor\" and \"father figure\" who took him under his wing.",
"Ferrigno also singles out the instances in which Bixby directed Ferrigno in some episodes as particularly memorable.",
"Ferrigno continued playing the Hulk role until 1981, although the last two episodes were not broadcast until May 1982.Later, he and Bixby co-starred in three ''The Incredible Hulk'' TV movies.In November 1978 and again in May 1979 Ferrigno appeared in ''Battle of the Network Stars''.",
"He portrayed the titular character in the 1983 science fantasy adventure film ''Hercules'', and received mixed-to-negative reviews for his performance.",
"He was, however, praised by Marylynn Uricchio, a film critic for the ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', and Andy Brack of ''Charleston City Paper''.",
"Gary Allen Smith, author of the book ''Epic Films'', complimented Ferrigno's physical strength and aesthetics in the film: \"At 6'5\" and 262 pounds, he is a massive and thoroughly convincing Hercules\".",
"In 2014, ''Decider'' named Ferrigno the tenth \"hottest onscreen Hercules ever\".In 1983, Ferrigno appeared as John Six in the short-lived medical drama ''Trauma Center''.Ferrigno played himself during intermittent guest appearances on the CBS sitcom ''The King of Queens'', beginning in 2000 and continuing until the program's conclusion in 2007.He and his wife Carla were depicted as the main characters' next-door neighbors, enduring their jokes about him being the Hulk.He made cameo appearances as a security guard in both the 2003 film ''Hulk'' and the 2008 film ''The Incredible Hulk'', in which he also voiced the Hulk.",
"In the latter film, Bruce Banner (Edward Norton) bribes him with a pizza to gain entry into a university building.",
"He voiced the Hulk in other Marvel Cinematic Universe films, uncredited.",
"He voiced the Hulk until 2015's ''Avengers: Age of Ultron''.",
"Mark Ruffalo has voiced Hulk in subsequent films.===2009–present===Ferrigno 2009 Dragon Con ParadeHe trained Michael Jackson intermittently beginning in the early 1990s, and in 2009, he helped Jackson get into shape for a planned series of concerts in London, which were ultimately cancelled due to Jackson's death.Ferrigno took part in a Smosh video, titled \"I Love Lou Ferrigno\", in which he is tracked down by one of Smosh's members, Anthony, in Hollywood.",
"The skit ends with Ferrigno knocking Anthony unconscious, in response to Ian's claim that Anthony stole Ferrigno's Butterfinger.Ferrigno has his own line of fitness equipment called Ferrigno Fitness.",
"In January 2009, he provided equipment to ''The Price Is Right'' for use as a One Bid prize, and demonstrated the equipment himself.In 2016, Ferrigno appeared as a playable Lego version of himself in ''Lego Marvel's Avengers''."
],
[
"Non-acting endeavors",
"In February 2006, Ferrigno was sworn in as a Los Angeles County, California, reserve sheriff's deputy, Level II.",
"In November 2010, Maricopa County, Arizona sheriff Joe Arpaio swore Ferrigno in as a member of a volunteer sheriff posse, which also included actors Steven Seagal and Peter Lupus, in order to help control illegal immigration in the Phoenix Valley area.Ferrigno was a contestant on season five of the NBC reality television series ''The Celebrity Apprentice'', which premiered in February 2012.He appeared on the program in order to raise money for his charity, the Muscular Dystrophy Association.",
"Ferrigno was Team Unanimous' project manager for the task depicted in the fifth episode, \"I'm Going to Mop the Floor With You,\" which was to create a viral video to promote O-Cedar's ProMist Spray Mop, placing him in competition with actress Tia Carrere, the project manager of the women's team, Forte.",
"In addition to the usual $20,000 awarded to the charity of the project manager of the winning team, O-Cedar pledged an additional $30,000 for that task.",
"Team Unanimous' video—in which Ferrigno appeared dancing while mopping—won the task, winning the $50,000 for Muscular Dystrophy Association.",
"He was fired in episode nine, \"Ad Hawk\", which involved creating a 60-second commercial for Entertainment.com.In June 2012, Ferrigno was sworn in as a reserve deputy to the San Luis Obispo County, California, Sheriff's Department.",
"There he completed his level I law enforcement academy, bringing his training up to full peace officer status.",
"In September 2013, Ferrigno was sworn in as a special deputy to the Delaware County, Ohio, Sheriff's Department.In 2017, Ferrigno was inducted into the International Sports Hall of Fame.In May 2018, President Donald Trump appointed Ferrigno to be a member of his Council on Sports, Fitness & Nutrition."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Due to ear infections he had soon after birth, Ferrigno lost 75 to 80% of his hearing and has been using hearing aids since the age of five.",
"Ferrigno says his hearing loss helped shape his sense of determination in his youth, saying, \"I think that if I wasn't hard of hearing I wouldn't be where I am now.",
"Early on, as a youngster it was difficult, but I'm not ashamed to talk about it because many people have misconceptions about hearing loss; like who has hearing loss and what it's like not to hear, so I do talk about it.",
"I think my hearing loss helped create a determination within me to be all that I can be, and gave me a certain strength of character too.",
"Anytime I do a movie or a TV show, I make them aware of my hearing loss at the beginning, and that makes it much easier for all of us to communicate and get the job done.\"",
"Later in life, he received a cochlear implant which restored much of his hearing.Ferrigno married Susan Groff in 1978, divorcing a year later.",
"On May 3, 1980, he married psychotherapist Carla Green, who then also began serving as his manager; she later became a personal trainer.",
"They have three children: Shanna (born 1981), Louis Jr. (born 1984), and Brent (born 1990).",
"Shanna has a recurring role as Nurse Janice in ''Days of Our Lives'', and appeared in the NBC series ''Windfall'', as well as the television film ''Within'', and in 2005 she appeared in the E!",
"reality television series ''Filthy Rich: Cattle Drive''.",
"Louis Jr. was a linebacker for the University of Southern California Trojans football team.",
"He currently plays a recurring role in the TV series ''S.W.A.T.",
"'', airing on CBS.Ferrigno has filed suit against his younger brother, Andrew, on two occasions over the use of the name Ferrigno in business ventures."
],
[
"Competitions",
"*1971: Pro Mr. America – WBBG, Teen 1st*1971: Teen Mr. America – AAU, 4th, Most Muscular 5th*1972: Pro Mr. America – WBBG, 2nd*1972: NABBA Mr. Universe, Tall 2nd*1973: IFBB Mr. America, Overall Winner*1973: IFBB Mr. Universe, Tall 1st, Overall Winner*1974: IFBB Mr. International*1974: IFBB Mr. Universe, Tall 1st, Overall Winner*1974 Mr. Olympia, Heavyweight 2nd*1975 Mr. Olympia, Heavyweight 3rd place*1992 Mr. Olympia, 12th*1993 Mr. Olympia, 10th*1994: Olympia Masters, 2nd"
],
[
"Magazine covers",
"*''Muscle & Fitness'' (March 1982, September 1982, March 1983, January 1986, June 1987, July 1988, April 1989, March 1993, March 1994, April 1996)*''Flex'' (November 1983, August 1985, August 1989, August 1992, October 1992, June 1993, March 1994, November 1994, November 2017)*''Muscle Builder'' (May 1974, July 1974, April 1977, September 1977, July 1979, March 1980, May 1980)*''Iron Man'' (July 1973, August 1988, October 1992, November 1994, April 2009)*''Bodybuilding Lifestyle'' (December 1991, May 1992)*''Muscle Mag International'' (March 1979, December 1983, November 1994)*''Muscular Development'' (February 1981, October 1992, April 2009)*''Muscle Training Illustrated'' (May 1972)*''Natural Bodybuilding'' (February 1983)*''Strength & Health'' (November 1983)"
],
[
"Filmography",
"Ferrigno's handprints at Disney's Hollywood Studios theme park===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1977 ''Pumping Iron'' Himself Docudrama 1983 ''Hercules'' Hercules ''The Seven Magnificent Gladiators'' Han 1985 ''The Adventures of Hercules'' Hercules Sequel to ''Hercules''1987 ''Undershorts: The Movie'' Hulk Short: \"The Incredible Bulk\" 1988 ''Desert Warrior'' Zerak 1989 ''Sinbad of the Seven Seas'' Sinbad ''Cage'' Billy Thomas ''All's Fair'' Klaus ''Liberty & Bash'' Bash 1993 ''And God Spoke'' Himself 1994 ''Cage II'' Billy Thomas 1996 ''Stand Tall'' Himself Docudrama 1998 ''The Godson'' Bugsy 2003 ''Hulk'' Hulk VoiceSecurity guardCameo 2008 ''The Incredible Hulk'' Hulk VoiceSecurity GuardCameo 2009 ''I Love You, Man'' Himself 2012 ''The Avengers'' Hulk Voice collaboration (uncredited) 2014 ''Moms' Night Out'' Cameo 2015 ''Avengers: Age of Ultron'' Hulk Voice collaboration (uncredited) ''The Scorpion King: The Lost Throne'' Skizurra Direct-to-video ''Avengers Grimm'' Iron John 2017 ''Instant Death'' John Bradley Lead Role ''Thor: Ragnarok'' Hulk Voice collaboration (uncredited)2019''Ring Ring''Mr.",
"Daniels===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1977 ''The Incredible Hulk'' Hulk Pilot movie ''World's Strongest Man'' Himself / competitor 4th place 1978–82 ''The Incredible Hulk'' Hulk 82 episodes 1979 ''Billy'' Cameo 1980 ''Mister Rogers' Neighborhood'' Himself 2 episodes 1983 ''The Fall Guy'' Six Episode: \"Trauma\" ''Trauma Center'' John Six 13 episodes 1984 ''Matt Houston'' Steve Otto Episode: \"Blood Ties\" 1985 ''Night Court'' The Klondike Butcher Episode: \"The Battling Bailiff\" ''Amazing Stories'' Hulk Episode: \"Remote Control Man\"; uncredited 1988 ''The Incredible Hulk Returns'' Movie 1989 ''The Trial of the Incredible Hulk'' 1990 ''The Death of the Incredible Hulk'' 1996–1997 ''The Incredible Hulk'' Voice role 2000–07 ''The King of Queens'' Lou Ferrigno 20 episodes 2002 ''Raw Iron: The Making of 'Pumping Iron'' Himself Documentary 2004 ''My Wife and Kids'' Big Guy Episode \"Illegal Smile\" ''Reno 911!''",
"Deputy Cletus Senior Episode: \"Department Investigation: Part 2\" 2010 ''Chuck'' Sofia Stepanova's bodyguard Episode: \"Chuck Versus the Suitcase\" ''Sonny with a Chance'' Himself Episode: \"My Two Chads\" 2010–16 ''Adventure Time'' Billy / Bobby 4 episodes 2012 ''Celebrity Apprentice'' Himself 8 episodes (9th fired) ''Next Great Baker'' Guest judge Episode: \"Cake Powers, Activate!\"",
"2014 ''Star Trek Continues'' Zaminhon Web series; episode: \"Lolani\" 2016 ''We Bare Bears'' Paul Episode: \"Yard Sale\" 2022 ''The Offer'' Lenny Montana Miniseries"
],
[
"Video game",
"+ Year Title Voice role Notes 2016 ''Lego Marvel's Avengers'' Himself / Hulk Can transform into the Hulk."
],
[
"See also",
"*List of male professional bodybuilders"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Leninism"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Vladimir Lenin, whose policies and politics allowed the Bolshevik vanguard party to realise the October Revolution in Russia in 1917'''Leninism''' is a political ideology developed by Russian Marxist revolutionary Vladimir Lenin that proposes the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat led by a revolutionary vanguard party as the political prelude to the establishment of communism.Lenin's ideological contributions to the Marxist ideology relate to his theories on the party, imperialism, the state, and revolution.",
"The function of the Leninist vanguard party is to provide the working classes with the political consciousness (education and organisation) and revolutionary leadership necessary to depose capitalism.Leninist revolutionary leadership is based upon ''The Communist Manifesto'' (1848), identifying the communist party as \"the most advanced and resolute section of the working class parties of every country; that section which pushes forward all others.\"",
"As the vanguard party, the Bolsheviks viewed history through the theoretical framework of dialectical materialism, which sanctioned political commitment to the successful overthrow of capitalism, and then to instituting socialism; and, as the revolutionary national government, to realise the socio-economic transition by all means.In the aftermath of the October Revolution in 1917, Leninism was the dominant version of Marxism in Russia.",
"In establishing the socialist mode of production in Soviet Russia – with the 1917 Decree on Land, war communism (1918–1921) and the New Economic Policy (1921–1928) – the revolutionary régime suppressed most political opposition, including Marxists who opposed Lenin's actions, the anarchists and the Mensheviks, factions of the Socialist Revolutionary Party and the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries.",
"The Russian Civil War (1917–1922), which included the fight against the White Army, Entente intervention, left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks and widespread peasant rebellions was an external and internal war which transformed Bolshevik Russia into the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (RSFSR), the core and largest republic that founded the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).As revolutionary praxis, Leninism originally was neither a proper philosophy nor a discrete political theory.",
"Leninism comprises politico-economic developments of orthodox Marxism and Lenin's interpretations of Marxism, which function as a pragmatic synthesis for practical application to the actual conditions (political, social, economic) of the post-emancipation agrarian society of Imperial Russia in the early 20th century.",
"As a political-science term, Lenin's theory of proletarian revolution entered common usage at the fifth congress of the Communist International (1924), when Grigory Zinoviev applied the term ''Leninism'' to denote \"vanguard-party revolution.\"",
"''Leninism'' was accepted as part of Russian Communist Party (b)'s vocabulary and doctrine around 1922, and in January 1923, despite objections from Lenin, it entered the public vocabulary."
],
[
"Historical background",
"In the 19th century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote the ''Manifesto of the Communist Party'' (1848), in which they called for the political unification of the European working classes in order to achieve communist revolution; and proposed that because the socio-economic organisation of communism was of a higher form than that of capitalism, a workers' revolution first would occur in the industrialised countries.",
"In Germany, Marxist social democracy was the political perspective of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, inspiring Russian Marxists, such as Lenin.In the early 20th century, the socio-economic backwardness of Imperial Russia (1721–1917) — characterized by combined and uneven economic development — facilitated rapid and intensive industrialisation, which produced a united, working-class proletariat in a predominantly agrarian society.",
"Moreover, because industrialisation was financed chiefly with foreign capital, Imperial Russia did not possess a revolutionary bourgeoisie with political and economic influence upon the workers and the peasants, as had been the case in the French Revolution (1789–1799) in the 18th century.",
"Although Russia's political economy was agrarian and semi-feudal, the task of democratic revolution fell to the urban, industrial working class as the only social class capable of effecting land reform and democratisation, in view that the Russian bourgeoisie would suppress any revolution.In the ''April Theses'' (1917), the political strategy of the October Revolution (7–8 November 1917), Lenin proposed that the Russian revolution was not an isolated national event but a fundamentally international event—the first socialist revolution in the world.",
"Lenin's practical application of Marxism and proletarian revolution to the social, political, and economic conditions of agrarian Russia motivated and impelled the \"revolutionary nationalism of the poor\" to depose the absolute monarchy of the three-hundred-year dynasty of the House of Romanov (1613–1917), as tsars of Russia.=== Imperialism ===In ''Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism'' (1916), Lenin's economic analyses indicated that capitalism would transform into a global financial system, by which industrialised countries exported financial capital to their colonies and so realise the exploitation of the labour of the natives and the exploitation of the natural resources of their countries.",
"Such superexploitation allows wealthy countries to maintain a domestic labour aristocracy with a slightly higher standard of living than most workers, ensuring peaceful labour–capital relations in the capitalist homeland.",
"Therefore, a proletarian revolution of workers and peasants could not occur in capitalist countries whilst the imperialist global-finance system remained in place.",
"The first proletarian revolution would have to occur in an underdeveloped country, such as Imperial Russia, the politically weakest country in the capitalist global-finance system in the early 20th century.",
"In the ''United States of Europe Slogan'' (1915), Lenin wrote:Imperialism, the Newest Stage of Capitalism''In ''\"Left-Wing\" Communism: An Infantile Disorder'' (1920), Lenin wrote:"
],
[
"Leninist praxis",
"=== Vanguard party ===In Chapter II, \"Proletarians and Communists\", of ''The Communist Manifesto'' (1848), Marx and Engels present the communist party as the political vanguard solely qualified to lead the proletariat in revolution:The revolutionary purpose of the Leninist vanguard party is to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat with the working class's support.",
"The communist party would lead the popular deposition of the Tsarist government and then transfer government power to the working class; that change of the ruling class—from the bourgeoisie to the proletariat—makes establishing socialism possible.",
"In ''What Is To Be Done?''",
"(1902), Lenin said that a revolutionary vanguard party, recruited from the working class, should lead the political campaign because only in that way would the proletariat successfully realise their revolution; unlike the economic campaign of trade-union-struggle advocated by other socialist political parties and the anarcho-syndicalists.",
"Like Marx, Lenin distinguished between the aspects of a revolution, the \"economic campaign\" (labour strikes for increased wages and work concessions) that featured diffused plural leadership; and the \"political campaign\" (socialist changes to society), which required the decisive, revolutionary leadership of the Bolshevik vanguard party.==== Democratic centralism ====Based upon the First International (IWA, International Workingmen's Association, 1864–1876), Lenin organised the Bolsheviks as a democratically centralised vanguard party; wherein free political speech was recognised as legitimate until policy consensus; afterwards, every member of the party was expected to abide by the agreed policy.",
"Democratic debate was Bolshevik practice, even after Lenin banned factions among the Party in 1921.Despite being a guiding political influence, Lenin did not exercise absolute power and continually debated to have his points of view accepted as a course of revolutionary action.",
"In ''Freedom to Criticise and Unity of Action'' (1905), Lenin said:==== Proletarian revolution ====Before the October Revolution, despite supporting moderate political reform—including Bolsheviks elected to the Duma when opportune—Lenin said that capitalism could only be overthrown with proletarian revolution, not with gradual reforms—from within (Fabianism) and from without (social democracy)—which would fail because the bourgeoisie's control of the means of production determined the nature of political power in Russia.",
"As epitomised in the slogan \"For a Democratic Dictatorship of the Proletariat and Peasantry\", a proletarian revolution in underdeveloped Russia required a united proletariat (peasants and industrial workers) to assume government power in the cities successfully.",
"Moreover, owing to the middle-class aspirations of much of the peasantry, Leon Trotsky said that the proletarian leadership of the revolution would ensure truly socialist and democratic socio-economic change.=== Dictatorship of the proletariat ===1970 French edition of Lenin's 1917 book ''The State and Revolution''In Bolshevik Russia, government by direct democracy was realised and effected by the soviets (elected councils of workers), which Lenin said was the \"democratic dictatorship of the proletariat\" postulated in orthodox Marxism.",
"The soviets comprised representative committees from the factories and the trade unions but excluded the capitalist social class to establish a proletarian government by and for the working class and the peasants.",
"Concerning the political disenfranchisement of the capitalist social class in Bolshevik Russia, Lenin said that \"depriving the exploiters of the franchise is a purely Russian question, and not a question of the dictatorship of the proletariat, in general. ...",
"In which countries ...democracy for the exploiters will be, in one or another form, restricted ...is a question of the specific national features of this or that capitalism.\"",
"In chapter five of ''The State and Revolution'' (1917), Lenin describes the dictatorship of the proletariat as:Concerning the disenfranchisement from democracy of the capitalist social class, Lenin said: \"Democracy for the vast majority of the people, and suppression by force, i.e.",
"exclusion from democracy, of the exploiters and oppressors of the people—this is the change democracy undergoes during the transition from capitalism to communism.\"",
"The dictatorship of the proletariat was effected with soviet constitutionalism, a form of government opposite to the dictatorship of capital (privately owned means of production) practised in bourgeois democracies.",
"Under soviet constitutionalism, the Leninist vanguard party would be one of many political parties competing for election to government power.",
"Nevertheless, because of the Russian Civil War (1917–1924) and the anti-Bolshevik terrorism of opposing political parties aiding the White Armies' counter-revolution, the Bolshevik government banned all other political parties, which left the Leninist vanguard party as the only political party in Russia.",
"Lenin said that such political suppression was not philosophically inherent to the dictatorship of the proletariat.=== Economics ===The Bolshevik government nationalised industry and established a foreign-trade monopoly to allow the productive coordination of the national economy and so prevent Russian national industries from competing against each other.",
"To feed the populaces of town and country, Lenin instituted war communism (1918–1921) as a necessary condition—adequate supplies of food and weapons—for fighting the Russian Civil War.",
"In March 1921, the New Economic Policy (NEP, 1921–1929) allowed limited local capitalism (private commerce and internal free trade) and replaced grain requisitions with an agricultural tax managed by state banks.",
"The NEP was meant to resolve food-shortage riots by the peasantry and allowed limited private enterprise; the profit motive encouraged farmers to produce the crops required to feed town and country; and to economically re-establish the urban working class, who had lost many workers to fight the counter-revolutionary Civil War.",
"The NEP nationalisation of the economy then would facilitate the industrialisation of Russia, politically strengthen the working class, and raise the standards of living for all Russians.",
"Lenin said that the appearance of new socialist states was necessary for strengthening Russia's economy in establishing Russian socialism.",
"Lenin's socio-economic perspective was supported by the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Italian insurrection and general strikes of 1920, and worker wage-riots in the UK, France, and the US.=== National self-determination ===In recognising and accepting nationalism among oppressed peoples, Lenin advocated their national right to self-determination and so opposed Russian chauvinism because such ethnocentrism was a cultural obstacle to establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat in every territory of the deposed Russian Empire (1721–1917).",
"In ''The Right of Nations to Self-determination'' (1914), Lenin said:The socialist internationalism of Marxism and Bolshevism is based upon class struggle and a people's transcending nationalism, ethnocentrism, and religion—the intellectual obstacles to progressive class consciousness—which are the cultural ''status quo'' that the capitalist ruling class manipulates in order to divide the working classes and the peasant classes politically.",
"To overcome that barrier to establishing socialism, Lenin said that acknowledging nationalism, as a people's right of self-determination and right of secession, naturally would allow socialist states to transcend the political limitations of nationalism to form a federation.",
"In ''The Question of Nationalities, or 'Autonomisation''' (1923), Lenin said:=== Socialist culture ===The role of the Leninist vanguard party was to politically educate the workers and peasants to dispel the societal false consciousness of religion and nationalism that constitute the cultural ''status quo'' taught by the bourgeoisie to the proletariat to facilitate their economic exploitation of peasants and workers.",
"Influenced by Lenin, the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party stated that the development of the socialist workers' culture should not be \"hamstrung from above\" and opposed the ''Proletkult'' (1917–1925) organisational control of the national culture."
],
[
"Leninism after 1924",
"=== Stalinism and Marxism–Leninism ===In post-Revolutionary Russia, the Stalinist application of Marxism–Leninism (socialism in one country), and Trotskyism (permanent world revolution) were the principal philosophies of communism that claimed legitimate ideological descent from Leninism; thus, within the Communist Party, each ideological faction denied the political legitimacy of the opposing faction.",
"Until shortly before his death, Lenin countered Stalin's disproportionate political influence in the Communist Party and the bureaucracy of the Soviet government, partly because of abuses he had committed against the populace of Georgia and partly because the autocratic Stalin had accumulated administrative power disproportionate to his office of General Secretary of the Communist Party.The counter-action against Stalin aligned with Lenin's advocacy of the right of self-determination for the national and ethnic groups of the deposed Tsarist Empire.",
"Lenin warned the Party that Stalin had \"unlimited authority concentrated in his hands, and I am not sure whether he will always be capable of using that authority with sufficient caution\" and formed a faction with Leon Trotsky to remove Stalin as the General Secretary of the Communist Party.To that end followed proposals reducing the administrative powers of party posts to reduce bureaucratic influence upon the policies of the Communist Party.",
"Lenin advised Trotsky to emphasise Stalin's recent bureaucratic alignment in such matters (e.g.",
"undermining the anti-bureaucratic workers' and peasants' Inspection) and argued to depose Stalin as General Secretary.",
"Despite advice to refuse \"any rotten compromise\", he did not heed Lenin's advice and General Secretary Stalin retained power over the Communist Party and the bureaucracy of the Soviet government.=== Trotskyism ===Leon Trotsky was exiled from Russia after losing to Stalin in the factional politics of the BolsheviksIn 1922, Lenin allied with Leon Trotsky against the party's growing bureaucratisation and the influence of Joseph Stalin.",
"Lenin himself never mentioned the concept of \"Trotskyism\" after Trotsky became a member of the Bolshevik party but the term was employed by Stalin and the troika to present Trotsky's views as factional and anathematical to Leninist thought.",
"After Lenin's death (21 January 1924), Trotsky ideologically battled the influence of Stalin, who formed ruling blocs within the Russian Communist Party (with Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev, then with Nikolai Bukharin and then by himself) and so determined soviet government policy from 1924 onwards.",
"The ruling blocs continually denied Stalin's opponents the right to organise as an opposition faction within the party—thus, the reinstatement of democratic centralism and free speech within the Communist Party were key arguments of Trotsky's Left Opposition and the later Joint Opposition.In instituting government policy, Stalin promoted the doctrine of socialism in one country (adopted 1925), wherein the Soviet Union would establish socialism upon Russia's economic foundations (and support socialist revolutions elsewhere).",
"In a 1936 interview with journalist Roy W. Howard, Stalin articulated his rejection of world revolution and stated that “We never had such plans and intentions” and that “The export of revolution is nonsense”.Conversely, Trotsky held that socialism in one country would economically constrain the industrial development of the Soviet Union and thus required assistance from the new socialist countries in the developed world—which was essential for maintaining soviet democracy—in 1924, much undermined by the Russian Civil War of White Army counter-revolution.",
"Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution proposed that socialist revolutions in underdeveloped countries would further dismantle feudal régimes and establish socialist democracies that would not pass through a capitalist stage of development and government.",
"Hence, revolutionary workers should ally politically with peasant political organisations, not capitalist political parties.",
"In contrast, Stalin and his allies proposed that alliances with capitalist political parties were essential to realising a revolution where communists were too few.",
"Said Stalinist practice failed, especially in the Northern Expedition portion of the Chinese Revolution (1926–1928), which resulted in the right-wing Kuomintang's massacre of the Chinese Communist Party.",
"Despite the failure, Stalin's policy of mixed-ideology political alliances nonetheless became Comintern's policy.Until exiled from Russia in 1929, Trotsky developed and led the Left Opposition (and the later Joint Opposition) with members of the Workers' Opposition, the Decembrists and (later) the Zinovievists.",
"Trotskyism predominated the politics of the Left Opposition, which demanded the restoration of soviet democracy, the expansion of democratic centralism in the Communist Party, national industrialisation, international permanent revolution and socialist internationalism.",
"According to historian Sheila Fitzpatrick, the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the Left Opposition on such matters as industrialisation and collectivisation.",
"The Trotskyist demands countered Stalin's political dominance of the Communist Party, which was officially characterised by the \"cult of Lenin\", the rejection of permanent revolution, and advocated the doctrine of socialism in one country.",
"The Stalinist economic policy vacillated between appeasing the capitalist interests of the kulak in the countryside and destroying them as a social class.",
"Initially, the Stalinists also rejected the national industrialisation of Russia but then pursued it in full, sometimes brutally.",
"In both cases, the Left Opposition denounced the regressive nature of Stalin's policy towards the wealthy kulak social class and the brutality of forced industrialisation.",
"Trotsky described Stalinist vacillation as a symptom of the undemocratic nature of a ruling bureaucracy.During the 1920s and the 1930s, Stalin fought and defeated the political influence of Trotsky and the Trotskyists in Russia using slander, antisemitism, censorship, expulsions, exile (internal and external), and imprisonment.",
"The anti-Trotsky campaign culminated in the executions (official and unofficial) of the Moscow Trials (1936–1938), which were part of the Great Purge of Old Bolsheviks who had led the Revolution."
],
[
"Legacy",
"=== Debated influence on Stalinism ===Some historians such as Richard Pipes consider Stalinism as the natural consequence of Leninism, that Stalin \"faithfully implemented Lenin's domestic and foreign policy programs\".",
"Robert Service notes that \"institutionally and ideologically Lenin laid the foundations for a Stalin ... but the passage from Leninism to the worse terrors of Stalinism was not smooth and inevitable.\"",
"Historian and Stalin biographer Edvard Radzinsky believes that Stalin was a genuine follower of Lenin, exactly as he claimed himself.",
"Proponents of continuity cite a variety of contributory factors, in that it was Lenin, rather than Stalin, whose civil war measures introduced the Red Terror with its hostage-taking and internment camps; that it was Lenin who developed the infamous Article 58 and who established the autocratic system within the Russian Communist Party.",
"Proponents also note that Lenin put a ban on factions within the party and introduced the one-party state in 1921, a move that enabled Stalin to get rid of his rivals easily after Lenin's death and cite Felix Dzerzhinsky, who exclaimed during the Bolshevik struggle against opponents in the Russian Civil War: \"We stand for organized terror—this should be frankly stated.",
"\"Some scholars have had a differing view and attributed the establishment of the one-party system in the Soviet Union to the wartime conditions imposed on Lenin’s government and others have highlighted the initial attempts to form a coalition government with the Left Socialist Revolutionaries.",
"According to historian Marcel Liebman, Lenin’s wartime measures such as banning opposition parties was prompted by the fact that several political parties either took up arms against the new Soviet government, or participated in sabotage, collaborated with the deposed Tsarists, or made assassination attempts against Lenin and other Bolshevik leaders.",
"Liebman also argued that the banning of parties under Lenin did not have the same repressive character as later bans enforced under the Stalinist regime.",
"Several scholars have highlighted the socially progressive nature of Lenin's policies such as universal education, universal healthcare and equal rights for women.",
"Conversely, Stalin's regime reversed Lenin's policies on social matters such as sexual equality, legal restrictions on marriage, rights of sexual minorities and protective legislation.",
"Historian Robert Vincent Daniels also viewed the Stalinist period as a counter-revolution in Soviet cultural life which revived patriotic propaganda, the Tsarist programme of Russification and traditional, military ranks which had been criticized by Lenin as expressions of \"Great Russian chauvinism\".",
"Daniels also regarded Stalinism to represent an abrupt break with the Leninist period in terms of economic policies in which a deliberated, scientific system of economic planning that featured former Menshevik economists at Gosplan had been replaced with a hasty version of planning with unrealistic targets, bureaucratic waste, bottlenecks and shortages.",
"Revisionist historians and some post-Cold War and otherwise dissident Soviet historians, including Roy Medvedev, argue that \"one could list the various measures carried out by Stalin that were actually a continuation of anti-democratic trends and measures implemented under Lenin\", but that \"in so many ways, Stalin acted, not in line with Lenin's clear instructions, but in defiance of them.\"",
"In doing so, some historians have tried to distance Stalinism from Leninism to undermine the totalitarian view that the negative facets of Stalin were inherent in communism from the start.",
"Critics include anti-Stalinist communists such as Leon Trotsky, who pointed out that Lenin attempted to persuade the Russian Communist Party to remove Stalin from his post as its General Secretary.",
"Lenin's Testament, the document which contained this order, was suppressed after Lenin's death.",
"Various historians have cited Lenin’s proposal to appoint Trotsky as a Vice-Chairman of the Soviet Union as evidence that he intended Trotsky to be his successor as head of government.",
"In his biography of Trotsky, Polish-British historian Isaac Deutscher says that, on being faced with the evidence, \"only the blind and the deaf could be unaware of the contrast between Stalinism and Leninism.\"",
"According to Stalin’s secretary, Boris Bazhanov, Stalin was jubilant over Lenin’s death while “publicly putting on the mask of grief”.",
"French historian Pierre Broue disputed the historical assessments of the early Soviet Union by modern historians such as Dmitri Volkogonov in which he argued had falsely equated Leninism, Stalinism and Trotskyism to present the notion of ideological continuity and reinforce the position of counter-communism.",
"Other revisionist historians such as Orlando Figes whilst critical of the Soviet era acknowledge that Lenin had actively sought to counter the growing influence of Stalin through a number of actions such as his alliance with Trotsky in 1922-23, opposition to Stalin on foreign trade, the Georgian affair and proposed party reforms which included the democratisation of the Central Committee and recruitment of 50-100 ordinary workers into the lower organs of the party.",
"''O kulcie jednostki i jego następstwach'', Warsaw, March 1956, first edition of the Secret Speech, published for the inner use in the PUWP.Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin’s successor, argued that Stalin’s regime differed profusely from the leadership of Lenin in his \"Secret Speech\", delivered in 1956.He was critical of the cult of the individual which was constructed around Stalin whereas Lenin stressed “the role of the people as the creator of history”.",
"He also emphasized that Lenin favored a collective leadership which relied on personal persuasion and recommended the removal of Stalin from the position of General Secretary.",
"Khrushchev contrasted this with the “despotism” of Stalin which require absolute submission to his position and he also highlighted that many of the people who were later annihilated as “enemies of the party\", \"had worked with Lenin during his life”.",
"He also contrasted the “severe methods” used by Lenin in the “most necessary cases” as a “struggle for survival” during the Civil War with the extreme methods and mass repressions used by Stalin even when the Revolution was “already victorious”.",
"In his memoirs, Khrushchev argued that Stalin's widespread purges of the \"most advanced nucleus of people\" among the Old Bolsheviks and leading figures in the military and scientific fields had \"undoubtedly\" weakened the nation.Some Marxist theoreticians have disputed the view that the Stalinist dictatorship was a natural outgrowth of the Bolsheviks' actions as most of the original central committee members from 1917 were later eliminated by Stalin.",
"George Novack stressed the initial efforts by the Bolsheviks to form a government with the Left Socialist Revolutionaries and bring other parties such as the Mensheviks into political legality.",
"Tony Cliff argued the Bolshevik-Left Socialist Revolutionary coalition government dissolved the democratically elected Russian Constituent Assembly due to a number of reasons.",
"They cited the outdated voter-rolls which did not acknowledge the split among the Socialist Revolutionary party and the assemblies conflict with the Russian Congress of the Soviets as an alternative democratic structure.A similar analysis is present in more recent works such as those of Graeme Gill, who argues that \"Stalinism was not a natural flow-on of earlier developments; it formed a sharp break resulting from conscious decisions by leading political actors.\"",
"However, Gill notes that \"difficulties with the use of the term reflect problems with the concept of Stalinism itself.",
"The major difficulty is a lack of agreement about what should constitute Stalinism.\"",
"Revisionist historians such as Sheila Fitzpatrick have criticized the focus on the upper levels of society and the use of Cold War concepts such as totalitarianism, obscuring the system's reality.Russian historian Vadim Rogovin stated that \"Under Lenin, the freedom to express a real variety of opinions existed in the party, and in carrying out political decisions, consideration was given to the positions of not only the majority, but a minority in the party\".",
"He compared this practice with subsequent leadership blocs which violated party tradition, ignored proposals of opponents and expelled the Opposition from the party on falsified charges which culminated with the Moscow Trials of 1936-1938.According to Rogovin, 80-90% of the members of the Central Committee elected at the Sixth through to the Seventeenth Congresses were physically annihilated.=== Left-wing criticism ===As a form of Marxism, revolutionary Leninism was criticised as an undemocratic interpretation of socialism.",
"In ''The Nationalities Question in the Russian Revolution'' (1918), Rosa Luxemburg criticised the Bolsheviks for the suppression of the All Russian Constituent Assembly (January 1918); the partitioning of the feudal estates to the peasant communes; and the right of self-determination of every national people of the Russias.",
"That the strategic (geopolitical) mistakes of the Bolsheviks would create significant dangers for the Russian Revolution, such as the bureaucratisation that would arise to administrate the large country that was Bolshevik Russia.",
"In defence of the expedient revolutionary practice, in ''\"Left-Wing\" Communism: An Infantile Disorder'' (1920), Lenin dismissed the political and ideological complaints of the anti-Bolshevik critics, who claimed ideologically correct stances that were to the political left of Lenin.",
"In Marxist philosophy, left communism is a range of left-wing political perspectives among communists.",
"Left communism criticizes the Bolshevik Party's ideology as the revolutionary vanguard.",
"Ideologically, left communists present their perspectives and approaches as authentic Marxism and thus more oriented to the proletariat than the Leninism of the Communist International at their first (1919) and second (1920) congresses.",
"Proponents of left communism include Amadeo Bordiga, Herman Gorter, Paul Mattick, Sylvia Pankhurst, Antonie Pannekoek and Otto Rühle.Historically, the Dutch-German communist left has been most critical of Lenin and Leninism, yet the Italian communist left remained Leninist.",
"Bordiga said: \"All this work of demolishing opportunism and 'deviationism' (Lenin: ''What Is To Be Done?'')",
"is today the basis of party activity.",
"The party follows revolutionary tradition and experiences in this work during these periods of revolutionary reflux and the proliferation of opportunist theories, which had as their violent and inflexible opponents Marx, Engels, Lenin, and the Italian Left.\"",
"In ''The Lenin Legend'' (1935), Paul Mattick said that the council communist tradition, begun by the Dutch-German leftists, also is critical of Leninism.",
"Contemporary left-communist organisations, such as the Internationalist Communist Tendency and the International Communist Current, view Lenin as an essential and influential theorist but remain critical of Leninism as political praxis for the proletarian revolution.Nonetheless, the Bordigism of the International Communist Party abides Bordiga's strict Leninism.",
"Ideologically aligned with the Dutch-German left, among the ideologists of contemporary communisation, the theorist Gilles Dauvé criticised Leninism as a \"by-product of Kautskyism\".",
"In ''The Soviet Union Versus Socialism'' (1986), Noam Chomsky said that Stalinism was the logical development of Leninism and not an ideological deviation from Lenin's policies, which resulted in collectivisation enforced with a police state.",
"In light of the tenets of socialism, Leninism was a right-wing deviation from Marxism.The vanguard-party revolution of Leninism became the ideological basis of the communist parties in the socialist political spectrum.",
"In the People's Republic of China, the Chinese Communist Party organised itself with Maoism (the Thought of Mao Zedong), socialism with Chinese characteristics.",
"In Singapore, the People's Action Party (PAP) featured internal democracy and initiated single-party dominance in the government and politics of Singapore.",
"In the event, the practical application of Maoism to the socio-economic conditions of Third World countries produced revolutionary vanguard parties, such as the Communist Party of Peru – Red Fatherland."
],
[
"See also",
"* Anti-imperialism* \"He who does not work neither shall he eat\"* National delimitation in the Soviet Union* Wars of national liberation* Yellow socialism"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"'''Selected works by Vladimir Lenin'''* ''The Development of Capitalism in Russia'', 1899.",
"* ''What Is To Be Done?",
"Burning Questions of Our Movement'', 1902.",
"* ''The Three Sources and Three Component Parts of Marxism'', 1913.",
"* ''The Right of Nations to Self-Determination'', 1914.",
"* ''Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism'', 1917.",
"* ''The State and Revolution'', 1917.",
"* ''The Tasks of the Proletariat in the Present Revolution'' (The \"April Theses\"), 1917.",
"* ''\"Left-Wing\" Childishness and the Petty Bourgois Mentality'', 1918.",
"* ''Left-Wing Communism: an Infantile Disorder'', 1920.",
"* ''\"Last Testament\" Letters to the Congress'', 1923–1924.",
"'''Histories'''* Isaac Deutscher.",
"''The Prophet Armed: Trotsky 1879–1921'', 1954.",
"* Isaac Deutscher.",
"''The Prophet Unarmed: Trotsky 1921–1929'', 1959.",
"* Moshe Lewin.",
"''Lenin's Last Struggle'', 1969.",
"* Edward Hallett Carr.",
"''The Russian Revolution From Lenin to Stalin: 1917–1929'', 1979.",
"'''Other authors'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"'''Works by Vladimir Lenin'''* ''What Is To Be Done?''.",
"* ''Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism''.",
"* ''The State and Revolution''.",
"* \"The Lenin Archive\".",
"* \"First Conference of the Communist International\".",
"'''Other thematic links'''* \"Marcel Liebman on Lenin and democracy\" .",
"* \"An excerpt on Leninism and State Capitalism from the work of Noam Chomsky\".",
"* Rosa Luxemburg.",
"\"Organizational Questions of the Russian Social Democracy\".",
"* Karl Korsch.",
"\"Lenin's Philosophy\".",
"* \"Cyber Leninism\".",
"* \"Leninist Ebooks\".",
"* Anton Pannekoek.",
"\"Lenin as a Philosopher\".",
"* Paul Mattick.",
"\"The Lenin Legend\"."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Legion of Merit"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Legion of Merit''' ('''LOM''') is a military award of the United States Armed Forces that is given for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements.",
"The decoration is issued to members of the eight uniformed services of the United States as well as to military and political figures of foreign governments.The Legion of Merit (Commander degree) is one of only two United States military decorations to be issued as a neck order (the other being the Medal of Honor), and the only United States military decoration that may be issued in degrees (much like an order of chivalry or certain Orders of Merit), although the degrees including a neck ribbon are only awarded to non-U.S. nationals.The Legion of Merit is seventh in the order of precedence of all U.S. military awards and is worn after the Defense Superior Service Medal and before the Distinguished Flying Cross.",
"In contemporary use in the U.S. Armed Forces, the Legion of Merit is typically awarded to Army, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Space Force general officers and colonels, and Navy and Coast Guard flag officers and captains occupying senior command or very senior staff positions in their respective services.",
"It may also be awarded to officers of lesser rank, senior warrant officers (typically in command positions at the rank of chief warrant officer 5), and to very senior enlisted personnel (typically in the rank of command sergeant major and Sergeant Major of the Army in the Army, fleet master chief petty officer and Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy in the Navy, command chief master sergeant and Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force in the Air Force, command chief master sergeant and Chief Master Sergeant of the Space Force in the Space Force, and Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps in the Marine Corps), but these instances are less frequent, typically by exception, and the circumstances vary by branch of service.Authority to award the Legion of Merit is reserved for general officers and flag officers in pay grade O-9 (i.e., lieutenant general, vice admiral) and above, civilian Department of Defense personnel at assistant service secretary or Assistant Secretary of Defense level and above, or equivalent secretary-level civilian personnel with the Department of Homeland Security with direct oversight of the U.S. Coast Guard."
],
[
"Criteria",
"The degrees of Chief Commander, Commander, Officer, and Legionnaire are awarded only to members of armed forces of foreign nations under the criteria outlined in Army Regulation 672-7 and is based on the relative rank or position of the recipient as follows::#'''Chief Commander''': Head of state or government.",
"However, this degree was awarded by President Roosevelt to some Allied World War II theater commanders, usually for joint amphibious landings or invasions.",
"(The President had this power under of October 29, 1942, paragraph 3b.",
"):#'''Commander''': Equivalent of a U.S. military chief of staff or higher position, but not to a head of state.",
":#'''Officer''': General or flag officer below the equivalent of a U.S. military chief of staff; colonel or equivalent rank (e.g., Navy or Coast Guard captain) for service in assignments equivalent to those normally held by a general or flag officer in U.S. military service; or military attachés.",
":#'''Legionnaire''': All recipients not included above.When the Legion of Merit is awarded to members of the uniformed services of the United States, it is awarded without reference to degree.",
"The criteria are \"for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements\" and is typically reserved for senior officers at O-6 level and above, typically in connection with senior leadership/command positions or other senior positions of significant responsibility.",
"* The performance must have been such as to merit recognition of key individuals for service rendered in a clearly exceptional manner.",
"* Performance of duties normal to the grade, branch, specialty, or assignment, and experience of an individual is not an adequate basis for this award.",
"* For service not related to actual war, the term \"key individual\" applies to a narrower range of positions than in time of war and requires evidence of significant achievement.",
"* In peacetime, service should be in the nature of a special requirement or of an extremely difficult duty performed in an unprecedented and clearly exceptional manner.",
"* However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of important positions.The degrees and the design of the decoration were influenced by the French Legion of Honour (''Légion d'honneur'')."
],
[
"History",
"Legion of Merit with golden \"V\" device (as used by USN and USMC) denoting combat bravery; the \"V\" device ceased being awarded with the Legion of Merit in 2017.===World War II===Although recommendations for creation of a medal for meritorious service were initiated as early as September 1937, no formal action was taken toward approval.In a letter to the Quartermaster General (QMG) dated December 24, 1941, the Adjutant General formally requested action be initiated to create a meritorious service medal, and provide designs in the event the decoration was established.",
"Proposed designs prepared by Bailey, Banks, and Biddle, and the Office of the Quartermaster General were provided to the Assistant Chief of Staff for Personnel (Colonel Heard) by the QMG on January 5, 1942.The Assistant Chief of Staff (G-1), Brigadier General John H. Hilldring, in a response to the QMG on April 3, 1942, indicated the Secretary of War had approved the design recommended by the QMG.",
"The design of the Legion of Merit (change of name) would be ready for issue immediately after legislation authorizing it was enacted into law.",
"(A separate medal called the Meritorious Service Medal was established in 1969.",
")An act of Congress (Public Law 671, 77th Congress, Chapter 508, 2d Session) on July 20, 1942, established the Legion of Merit and provided that the medal \"shall have suitable appurtenances and devices and not more than four degrees, and which the President, under such rules and regulations as he shall prescribe, may award to:(a) personnel of the Armed Forces of the United States and of the Government of the Commonwealth Philippines and:(b) personnel of the armed forces of friendly foreign nations who, since the proclamation of an emergency by the President on 1939-09-08, shall have distinguished themselves by exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services.",
"\"The medal was announced in War Department Bulletin No.",
"40, dated August 5, 1942.Executive Order 9260, dated October 29, 1942, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, established the rules for the Legion of Merit, and required the President's approval for the award.Following the invasion of North Africa in November 1942, a number of United States officers were awarded the Legion of Merit in the degree of Officer.",
"One of the recipients was future Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Lyman Lemnitzer.",
"Soon after, regulations for the award of the Legion of Merit were revised so that it would not be awarded in the degrees above Legionnaire to United States military personnel.The Legion of Merit is similar to the French Legion of Honor in both its design, a five-armed cross, and in that it is awarded in multiple degrees.",
"Unlike the Legion of Honor, however, the Legion of Merit is only awarded to military personnel.",
"In addition, it is the only award in the world with multiple degrees of which the higher degrees cannot be awarded to citizens of the country of the award's origin.In October 1942, Brazilian Army Brigadier General Amaro Soares Bittencourt became the first person awarded the Legion of Merit (Commander) and a week later, Lieutenant, junior grade Ann A. Bernatitus, a U.S. Navy Nurse Corps officer, became the first member of the United States Armed Forces and the first woman to receive the Legion of Merit.",
"She received the award for her service during the defense of the Philippines.",
"LTJG Bernatitus was also the first recipient of the Legion of Merit authorized to wear a Combat \"V\" with the medal.General Dwight D. Eisenhower was presented the Legion of Merit by President Roosevelt while he was en route to the Tehran Conference, in Cairo, Egypt, on November 26, 1943.In 1943, at the request of the Army Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall, approval authority for U.S. personnel was delegated to the Department of War.",
"Executive Order 10600, dated March 15, 1955, by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, again revised approval authority.",
"Current provisions are contained in Title 10, United States Code 1121.As a result, awarding authority for the Legion of Merit resides with general officers/flag officers at the Lieutenant General / Vice Admiral level or higher.The U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, unlike the Army and later the Air Force, provided for the Legion of Merit to be awarded with a \"V\" device indicating awards for participation in combat operations.From 1942 to 1944, the Legion of Merit was awarded for a fairly wide range of achievements.",
"This was because it was, until the establishment of the Bronze Star Medal in 1944, the only decoration below the Silver Star which could be awarded for combat valor, and the only decoration below the Distinguished Service Medal which could be awarded for meritorious noncombat service.===After World War II===After the establishment of the Bronze Star Medal (BSM) in February 1944, the Legion of Merit was awarded almost exclusively to senior officers in the rank of lieutenant colonel (Army, Marine Corps and Air Force) or commander (Navy and Coast Guard) (O-5), and above.",
"Beginning in the 1980s, the Legion of Merit began to be awarded more frequently to senior-ranking warrant officers (W-4 and W-5), as well as to senior enlisted service members (E-8 and E-9), usually as a retirement award.",
"When not awarded as a retirement award, it is most commonly awarded to officers in pay grade O-6 and higher.The Meritorious Service Medal (MSM) was established in 1969 as a \"junior\" version of the Legion of Merit and prior to 2003 was only awarded for non-combat service.",
"The MSM is awarded more frequently, and to more lower-ranking military personnel, than the Legion of Merit.",
"Recipients of the MSM are usually in pay grades E-7 thru E-9, W-3 thru W-5 (Army Only), and O-4 thru O-6 for the Army, Air Force, and Space Force; for the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard the MSM is usually presented to those in pay grades E-9, W-4, W-5, O-5 and O-6."
],
[
"Insignia",
"Chief CommanderCommanderOfficerLegionnairecentercentercentercenterRibboncentercentercentercenter*The '''Chief Commander Degree''' of the Legion of Merit Medal is, on a wreath of green laurel joined at the bottom by a gold bow-knot (rosette), a domed five-pointed white star bordered crimson, points reversed with v-shaped extremities tipped with a gold ball.",
"In the center, a blue disk encircled by gold clouds, with 13 white stars arranged in the pattern that appears on the Great Seal of the United States.",
"Between each point, within the wreath are crossed arrows pointing outwards.",
"The overall width is .",
"The words \"UNITED STATES OF AMERICA\" are engraved in the center of the reverse.",
"A miniature of the decoration in gold on a horizontal gold bar is worn on the service ribbon.",
"*The '''Commander Degree''' of the Legion of Merit Medal is, on a wreath of green laurel joined at the bottom by a gold bow-knot (rosette), a five-pointed white star bordered crimson, points reversed with v-shaped extremities tipped with a gold ball.",
"In the center, a blue disk encircled by gold clouds, with 13 white stars arranged in the pattern that appears on the Great Seal of the United States.",
"Between each star point, within the wreath, are crossed war arrows pointing outwards, representing armed protection to the Nation.",
"The overall width is .",
"A gold laurel wreath in the v-shaped angle at the top connects an oval suspension ring to the neck ribbon that is in width.",
"The reverse of the five-pointed star is enameled in white, and the border is crimson.",
"In the center, a disk for engraving the name of the recipient surrounded by the words \"ANNUIT COEPTIS MDCCLXXXII\": a combination of the motto from the Great Seal, \"He God Has Favored Our Undertakings\", with the date for the first award of a US decoration, the Purple Heart.",
"An outer scroll contains the words \"UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.\"",
"A miniature of the decoration in silver on a horizontal silver bar is worn on the service ribbon.",
":The neck ribbon for the degree of Commander is wide and consists of the following stripes: white 67101; center crimson and white.",
"*The '''Officer Degree''' of the Legion of Merit Medal is similar to the degree of Commander except the overall width is and the pendant has a suspension ring instead of the wreath for attaching the ribbon.",
"A gold replica of the medal, wide, is centered on the suspension ribbon.",
"*The '''Legionnaire Degree''' of the Legion of Merit Medal and the '''Legion of Merit Medal issued to U.S. personnel''' is the same as the degree of Officer, except the suspension ribbon does not have the medal replica.The ribbon for all of the decorations is wide and consists of the following stripes: white; center crimson; and white.",
"The reverse of all of the medals has the motto taken from the Great Seal of the United States, \"ANNUIT COEPTIS\" (\"He God has favored our undertakings\") and the date \"MDCCLXXXII\" (1782), which is the date of America's first decoration, the Badge of Military Merit, now known as the Purple Heart.",
"The ribbon design also follows the pattern of the Purple Heart ribbon.",
";Additional awardsAdditional awards of the Legion of Merit are denoted by oak leaf clusters (in the Army, Air Force, and Space Force), and by gold stars (in the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard).",
"Until 2017, the sea services (the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard) awarded the Combat \"V\" for wear on the LOM.",
"The Army, Air Force, and Space Force do not authorize the \"V\" device for the Legion of Merit."
],
[
"See also",
"* Recipients of the Legion of Merit"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Legion of Merit – Criteria, Background, and Images* Order of precedence, United States Navy"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lint (software)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lint''' is the computer science term for a static code analysis tool used to flag programming errors, bugs, stylistic errors and suspicious constructs.",
"The term originates from a Unix utility that examined C language source code.",
"A program which performs this function is also known as a \"linter\"."
],
[
"History",
"Stephen C. Johnson, a computer scientist at Bell Labs, came up with the term \"lint\" in 1978 while debugging the yacc grammar he was writing for C and dealing with portability issues stemming from porting Unix to a 32-bit machine.",
"The term was borrowed from the word lint, the tiny bits of fiber and fluff shed by clothing, as the command he wrote would act like a lint trap in a clothes dryer, capturing waste fibers while leaving whole fabrics intact.",
"In 1979, lint programming was used outside of Bell Labs for the first time, in the seventh version (V7) of Unix.Over the years, different versions of lint have been developed for many C and C++ compilers, and while modern-day compilers have lint-like functions, lint-like tools have also advanced their capabilities.",
"For example, Gimpel's PC-Lint, introduced in 1985 and used to analyze C++ source code, is still for sale."
],
[
"Overview",
"In his original 1978 paper Johnson stated his reasoning in creating a separate program to detect errors, distinct from that which it analyzed: \"...the general notion of having two programs is a good one\" because they concentrate on different things, thereby allowing the programmer to \"concentrate at one stage of the programming process solely on the algorithms, data structures, and correctness of the program, and then later retrofit, with the aid of lint, the desirable properties of universality and portability\"."
],
[
"Successor linters",
"The analysis performed by lint-like tools can also be performed by an optimizing compiler, which aims to generate faster code.",
"Even though modern compilers have evolved to include many of lint's historical functions, lint-like tools have also evolved to detect an even wider variety of suspicious constructs.",
"These include \"warnings about syntax errors, uses of undeclared variables, calls to deprecated functions, spacing and formatting conventions, misuse of scope, implicit fallthrough in switch statements, missing license headers, and...dangerous language features\".Lint-like tools are especially useful for dynamically typed languages like JavaScript and Python.",
"Because the compilers of such languages typically do not enforce as many and as strict rules prior to execution, linter tools can also be used as simple debuggers for finding common errors (e.g.",
"syntactic discrepancies) as well as hard-to-find errors such as heisenbugs (drawing attention to suspicious code as \"possible errors\").",
"Lint-like tools generally perform static analysis of source code.Lint-like tools have also been developed for other aspects of software development: enforcing grammar and style guides for given language source code.",
"Some tools (such as Eslint) also allow rules to be auto-fixable: a rule definition can also come with the definition of a transform that makes the rule no longer not triggered.",
"Rules about style are especially likely to come with an auto-fix.",
"If the linter is run in \"fix all\" mode on a file that triggers only rules about formatting, the linter will act just like a formatter."
],
[
"See also",
"*Splint (programming tool)*List of tools for static code analysis"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lists of battles"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lists of battles''' contain links to sets of articles on battles.",
"They may be organized alphabetically, by era, by conflict, by participants or location, or by death toll.",
"See :Category:Battles for a complete list of articles on battles."
],
[
"Alphabetical list",
"* List of battles (alphabetical)"
],
[
"Chronological",
"=== By era ===* List of battles before 301* List of battles 301–1300* List of battles 1301–1600* List of battles 1601–1800* List of battles 1801–1900* List of battles 1901–2000* List of battles in the 21st century=== By war ===* List of battles of the Eighty Years' War (1566–1648)* Lists of battles of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815)* List of American Civil War battles (1861–1865)* List of costliest American Civil War land battles* List of naval battles of the American Civil War* List of military engagements of World War I (1914-1918)* List of World War II battles (1939–1945)* Lists of allied military operations of the Vietnam War (1955–1975)* List of military engagements during the Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–2024)* List of engagements during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war (2023–2024)"
],
[
"By death toll",
"* List of battles by casualties"
],
[
"By geographic location"
],
[
"By participant",
"=== By state participant ====== By participating commander ===* List of Ottoman battles in which the sultan participated* Military career of Napoleon § Battle record summary* Military career of George Washington § Summaries of Washington's Revolutionary War battles"
],
[
"By type",
"Battles are generally presumed to have been land/field battles, unless otherwise stated.",
"* Lists of aerial operations and battles** Air raids on Australia, 1942–1943** Air raids on Hong Kong during WWII** Aircraft carrier operations during World War II** List of air operations during the Battle of Europe*** List of Allied attacks on the German battleship Tirpitz*** List of strategic bombing over Germany in World War II*** List of strategic bombing over the United Kingdom in World War II* List of amphibious assault operations* List of military operations on ice* List of naval battles** List of naval and land-based operations in the Pacific Theater during World War II* List of sieges"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of orders of battle** List of number of conflicts per year* Africa ''':'''** List of conflicts in Africa (Military history of Africa)*** List of modern conflicts in North Africa (Maghreb)*** Conflicts in the Horn of Africa (East region)* Americas ''':'''** List of conflicts in North America** List of conflicts in Central America** List of conflicts in South America* Asia ''':'''** List of conflicts in Asia** List of conflicts in the Near East** List of conflicts in the Middle East*** List of modern conflicts in the Middle East* Europe ''':'''** List of conflicts in Europe*** Post-Cold War European conflicts* Ongoing conflicts around the World ''':'''** List of ongoing armed conflicts*** Ongoing military conflicts"
],
[
"External links and references",
"* World History Database, '' Alphabetic Listing of Battles'' Index of World battles.",
"Archived from the original.",
"* Radford, Robert, '' Great Historical Battles''.",
"An extensive list of important battles and influential leaders, from -490 BC to present times.https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_frontier_wars"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Livebearers"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Guppy fry'''Livebearers''' are fish that retain their eggs inside the body and give birth to live, free-swimming young.",
"They are especially prized by aquarium owners.",
"Among aquarium fish, livebearers are nearly all members of the family Poeciliidae and include: guppies, mollies, platies and swordtails.The advantages of livebearing to the aquarist are that the newborn juvenile fish are larger than newly-hatched fry, have a lower chance of mortality and are easier to care for.",
"Unusual livebearers include seahorses and pipefish, where the males care for the young, and certain cichlids that are mouthbrooders, with the parent incubating the eggs in the buccal cavity."
],
[
"Common aquarium livebearers",
"Species of interest to aquarists are almost always members of the family Poeciliidae, most commonly guppies, mollies, platies, swordtails, Endler's livebearer, and mosquitofish.",
"Most of these are ovoviviparous, with the developing embryos receiving no nourishment from the parent fish, but a few are viviparous, receiving food from the maternal blood supply.",
"Because the newborn fish are large compared to the fry of oviparous fish, which are those that lay eggs, newborn fish of livebearers are easier to feed than the fry of egg-laying species, such as characins and cichlids.",
"This makes them much easier to raise, and for this reason, aquarists often recommend them for beginning fish breeder hobbyists.",
"The larger livebearer fry makes them far less vulnerable to predation, as the parents often eat fry if hungry.",
"With the sufficient cover in the way of plants or porous objects, they can sometimes mature in a community tank."
],
[
"Ovoviviparous and viviparous fish compared",
"Most of the Poeciliidae are ovoviviparous, that is, while the eggs are retained inside the body of the female for protection, the eggs are essentially independent of the mother and she does not provide them with any nutrients.",
"In contrast, fish such as splitfins and halfbeaks are viviparous, with the eggs receiving food from the maternal blood supply through structures analogous to the placenta of placental mammals."
],
[
"Aberrant livebearers and mouthbrooders",
"Seahorses and pipefish can be defined as livebearers, although in these cases the males incubate the eggs rather than the females.",
"In many cases, the eggs are dependent on the male for oxygen and nutrition so these fish can be further defined as viviparous livebearers.",
"Many cichlids are mouthbrooders, with the female (or more rarely the male) incubating the eggs in the mouth.",
"Compared with other cichlids, these species produce fewer but bigger eggs, and when they emerge, the fry is better developed and has higher survivability.",
"Because the eggs are protected from the environment but do not absorb nutrients from the parent, this condition is analogous to, though not identical with, ovoviviparity."
],
[
"Livebearer fish gallery",
"Image:Guppy-male.jpgImage:Poecilia latipinna.jpgImage:Poecilia reticulata 01.jpgImage:Xiphophorus helleri 03.jpgImage:Dermogenys sumatrana 02.jpg"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* American Livebearer Association* British Livebearer Association* Keeping & Breeding Halfbeaks Includes growth rate chart and pictures of newborn fish.",
"* How to Keep Livebearers"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lupercal"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Lupercal''' (from Latin ''lupa'' \"female wolf\") was a cave at the southwest foot of the Palatine Hill in Rome, located somewhere between the temple of Magna Mater and the Sant'Anastasia al Palatino.",
"In the legend of the founding of Rome, Romulus and Remus were found there by the she-wolf who suckled them until they were rescued by the shepherd Faustulus.",
"Luperci, the priests of Faunus, celebrated certain ceremonies of the Lupercalia at the cave, from the earliest days of the City until at least 494 AD."
],
[
"Modern discovery",
"Lupa Capitolina (\"The Capitoline Wolf\"): the she-wolf is of unknown origin, the suckling twins were added .In January 2007, Italian archaeologist Irene Iacopi announced that she had probably found the legendary cave beneath the remains of Emperor Augustus's house, the ''Domus Livia'', on the Palatine.",
"Archaeologists came across the 15-meter-deep cavity while working to restore the decaying palace.On 20 November 2007, the first set of photos were released showing the vault of the grotto which is encrusted with colourful mosaics, pumice stones and seashells.",
"The center of the ceiling features a depiction of a white eagle, the symbol of the Roman Empire.",
"Archaeologists had not yet found the grotto's entrance, so they continued looking.The cave beneath the ''Domus Livia'' on the Palatine Hill.",
"The photo was taken with a probe.Its location below Augustus' residence was thought to be significant; Octavian, before he became Augustus, had considered taking the name Romulus to indicate that he intended to found Rome anew.===Opposing opinions===Adriano La Regina (formerly Rome's archaeological superintendent 1976–2004, professor of Etruscology at Sapienza University of Rome), Professor Fausto Zevi (professor of Roman Archaeology at Rome's La Sapienza University) and Professor Henner von Hesberg (head of the German Archaeological Institute, Rome) denied the identification of the grotto with Lupercal on topographic and stylistic grounds.",
"They concluded that the grotto is actually a nymphaeum or underground triclinium from Neronian times.",
"The current scholarly consensus is that the grotto is not the Lupercal and that the cave was located lower southwest, closer to piazza Sant'Anastasia al Palatino."
],
[
"See also",
"* Casa Romuli"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Limp Bizkit"
],
[
"Introduction",
" \t'''Limp Bizkit''' is an American nu metal band from Jacksonville, Florida.",
"Its lineup consists of lead vocalist Fred Durst, drummer John Otto, guitarist Wes Borland, turntablist DJ Lethal and bassist Sam Rivers.",
"The band's music is marked by Durst's angry vocal delivery and Borland's sonic experimentation.",
"Borland's elaborate visual appearance, which includes face and body paint, masks, and uniforms, also plays a large role in Limp Bizkit's live shows.",
"The band has been nominated for three Grammy Awards, sold 40 million records worldwide, and won several other awards.",
"Formed in 1994, Limp Bizkit became popular playing in the Jacksonville underground music scene in the late 1990s, and signed with Flip Records (with distribution from Interscope), who released the band's debut album, ''Three Dollar Bill, Y'all'' (1997).",
"The band achieved mainstream success with its second and third studio albums, ''Significant Other'' (1999) and ''Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water'' (2000), although this success was marred by a series of controversies surrounding its performances at Woodstock '99 and the 2001 Big Day Out festival.Borland left the group in 2001, but Durst, Rivers, Otto, and Lethal continued to record and tour with guitarist Mike Smith.",
"Following the release of its album ''Results May Vary'' (2003), Borland rejoined the band and recorded ''The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1)'' (2005) with Durst, Rivers, Lethal, and drummer Sammy Siegler before entering a hiatus.",
"In 2009, the band reunited with Borland playing guitar and began touring, culminating with the recording of the album ''Gold Cobra'' (2011), after which it left Interscope and later signed with Cash Money Records; DJ Lethal quit the band soon afterward, returning in 2018.After years of teasing an album tentatively titled ''Stampede of the Disco Elephants'', the band released its sixth studio album ''Still Sucks'' on October 31, 2021.The band has released 26 singles, the most notable of which include \"Nookie\", \"Re-Arranged\", \"Break Stuff\", \"Take a Look Around\", \"Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)\", \"My Generation\", \"My Way\", \"Eat You Alive\", and their cover of The Who's 1971 single \"Behind Blue Eyes\", all of which have charted within the top 20 of the US Alternative Airplay Chart."
],
[
"History",
"=== Formation and early years (1994–1996) ===John Otto studied jazz drumming and played in local avant garde bands before joining Limp Bizkit.While growing up in Gastonia, North Carolina, Fred Durst took an interest in breakdancing, hip hop, punk rock, and heavy metal.",
"He began to rap, skate, beatbox, and DJ.While mowing lawns and working as a tattoo artist, he developed an idea for a band that combined elements of rock and hip hop.",
"Durst played with three other bands: Split 26, Malachi Sage (both of which were unsuccessful), and 10 Foot Shindig, which Durst left to form a new band.",
"Durst told Sam Rivers, the bassist for Malachi Sage, \"You need to quit this band and start a band with me that's like this: rappin' and rockin'.\"",
"Rivers suggested that his cousin John Otto, who was studying jazz drumming at the Douglas Anderson School of the Arts and playing in local avant garde bands, become the band's drummer.",
"Durst, Rivers, and Otto jammed and wrote three songs together and after brief stints with guitarists Rob Waters and Terry Balsamo, Wes Borland joined as their permanent guitarist.Durst named the band ''Limp Bizkit'' because he wanted a name that would repel listeners.",
"According to Durst, \"The name is there to turn people's heads away.",
"A lot of people pick up the disc and go, 'Limp Bizkit.",
"Oh, they must suck.'",
"Those are the people that we don't even want listening to our music.\"",
"Fred said that the band liked corky and corny things and that they didn't take themselves seriously all the time, and thus the name \"Limp Bizkit\" represented these characteristics and the band as a whole.",
"Other names that were considered by Durst included Gimp Disco, Split Dickslit, Bitch Piglet, and Blood Fart.",
"Every record label that showed an interest in the band pressured its members to change its name.Limp Bizkit developed a cult following in the underground music scene, particularly at the Milk Bar, an underground punk club in Jacksonville.",
"The band's local popularity was such that Sugar Ray, who had a major label contract, opened for a then-unsigned Limp Bizkit at Velocity with hip hop group Funkdoobiest.",
"Milkbar owner Danny Wimmer stated that Limp Bizkit \"had the biggest draw for a local band.",
"They went from playing for ten people to eight hundred within months.",
"Fred ... was always marketing the band.",
"He would go to record stores and get people involved, he was in touch with high schools.\"",
"However, the band knew that to achieve national success, it would have to distinguish themselves in its live performances.",
"Attracting crowds by word of mouth, the band gave energetic live performances, covering George Michael's \"Faith\" and Paula Abdul's \"Straight Up\" and featuring Borland in bizarre costumes.",
"Borland's theatrical rock style was the primary attraction for many concert attendees.Durst unsuccessfully tried to attract attention from A&R representatives at various labels by pretending to be the band's manager.",
"Later when Korn performed in town as the opening act for Sick of It All, Durst invited Korn to drink beer and tattoo them.",
"Although Durst's tattoos were unimpressive, he was able to persuade Reginald \"Fieldy\" Arvizu to listen to a demo, consisting of the songs \"Pollution\", \"Counterfeit\", and \"Stalemate\".",
"Korn added a then-unsigned Limp Bizkit to two tours, which exposed the band to a new audience.",
"The band attempted to expand its sound by auditioning an additional guitarist, but Borland soon determined that another guitarist was not the answer and DJ Lethal, formerly of the hip hop group House of Pain, joined the band as a turntablist after a successful practice performance.",
"Joining the band gave Lethal an opportunity to experiment with his turntable technique in ways that hip hop had not allowed him to do, helping shape the band's style.",
"Due to creative differences, Borland left the band at this point.=== Record label deals and ''Three Dollar Bill, Y'all'' (1997–1998) ===Following the release of ''Three Dollar Bill, Y'all'', vocalist Fred Durst was appointed senior vice president of A&R at InterscopeAfter its performance opening for Korn at the Dragonfly in Hollywood was well received, Limp Bizkit were offered a record deal with the Los Angeles-based independent label Flip Records, who attempted to sign the band for $50,000.Soon after that, however, they were also offered a record deal with the major label Mojo, a subsidiary of MCA Records.",
"According to Flip Records' founder Jordan Schur, Limp Bizkit stated that the only way the band wouldn't sign with Mojo was if the band's van flipped over on the way to Los Angeles.While heading to California to record its first album, the band's van flipped over five times, resulting in all of the band's members sustaining serious injuries.",
"As a result of the near-death experience, Durst made amends with Borland, who rejoined the band.",
"The accident also strained the band's relationship with Mojo, who Durst felt wanted the band to resume working prematurely, resulting in Schur buying out the band's record and management contract and signing the band to Flip, which cost him $175,000.Arvizu persuaded Ross Robinson to listen to the demo.",
"Robinson neglected to listen to it until it was appraised by his girlfriend.",
"Impressed by the band's motivation and sound, Robinson produced Limp Bizkit's debut, which was recorded at Indigo Ranch.",
"Durst's problems with his girlfriend inspired him to write the song \"Sour\".",
"The mood and tone set by Robinson in the studio allowed the band to improvise; a recording of the band improvising appeared as the last track on the album, \"Everything\".",
"Schur bankrolled the recording sessions for the album, and following its completion negotiated a 50/50 agreement with Interscope Records to distribute the album.Despite the success of live performances of the band's cover of the song \"Faith\", Robinson was opposed to recording it and tried to persuade the band not to play it on the album.",
"However, the final recording, which incorporated heavier guitar playing and drumming as well as DJ scratching, impressed him.",
"Robinson also bonded with Borland, who he perceived as not taking the band seriously.",
"The progressive metal band Tool provided a strong influence in shaping the album's sound, particularly in the song \"Nobody Loves Me\", which contains a breakdown in which Durst imitated the singing style of Maynard James Keenan.Continuing the band's policy of using names that would repulse potential listeners, Limp Bizkit named the album by using part of the phrase \"queer as a three dollar bill\" and adding the word \"Y'all\" for Florida flavor, titling it ''Three Dollar Bill, Y'all''.",
"The completed album featured an abrasive, angry sound which Limp Bizkit used to attract listeners to its music.After the band completed recording, it toured with Korn and Helmet in 1997.Critics reacted unfavorably to performances of Korn and Limp Bizkit; ''Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel'' music critic Jon M. Gilbertson criticized Durst's performance, stating \"The one attention-grabbing moment of Limp Bizkit's rap/thrash show was when the lead singer expressed a desire for gay men to be 'stomped'.",
"Which isn't remotely rebellious.",
"It's just puerile.\"",
"That same year, they also notably served as an opening act on the Album of the Year Tour for Faith No More, a band often credited as paving the way for Limp Bizkit and the nu metal genre.",
"They were subject to a hostile reception from Faith No More's fans, with the group's keyboardist Roddy Bottum later recalling, \"That guy Fred Durst had a really bad attitude.",
"He was kind of a jerk.",
"I remembered he called the audience faggots at one show when they booed him.",
"Not a good scene.",
"\"Interscope proposed to the band that the label pay $5,000 to guarantee that a Portland, Oregon, radio station play the song \"Counterfeit\" fifty times, preceded and concluded with an announcement that the air time was paid for by Interscope.",
"The paid air time was criticized by the media, who saw it as \"payola\".",
"The band's manager Jeff Kwatinetz later termed the plan as a \"brilliant marketing move\".",
"Durst stated, \"It worked, but it's not that cool of a thing.",
"\"Following the release of \"Counterfeit\" as a single, ''Three Dollar Bill, Yall'' was released on July 1, 1997, and was met with minimal response.",
"AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote, \"They might not have many original ideas ... but they do the sound well.",
"They have a powerful rhythm section and memorable hooks, most of which make up for the uneven songwriting.\"",
"However, Robert Christgau panned the album.",
"Despite the minimal response to his band's album, Durst was appointed Senior Vice President of A&R at Interscope.Limp Bizkit joined the Warped Tour, performing alongside the bands Pennywise, Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Sick of It All, Lagwagon, and Blink-182.Preceding the band's first tour with DJ Lethal, Otto became familiar with Lethal's contributions to collaborate with him better on stage.",
"In addition to touring with Primus and Deftones, Limp Bizkit headlined the Ladies Night in Cambodia club tour, which was intended to diversify the band's largely male fanbase by offering free tickets to female attendees.",
"This plan successfully increased the band's female fanbase.In 1998, Limp Bizkit toured with Soulfly and Cold on Soulfly's first European tour.",
"Touring consistently increased Limp Bizkit's success and the second single from ''Three Dollar Bill, Y'all'', a cover of George Michael's \"Faith\", became a successful radio hit, leading to a slot on Ozzfest, a tour organized by Ozzy and Sharon Osbourne.",
"In July, Snot singer Lynn Strait was arrested after he emerged nude from Limp Bizkit's prop toilet, and was charged with indecent exposure.",
"Because Limp Bizkit's fans would often break through the barricades, the band was almost kicked off the tour after two days.",
"In August, John Otto spent the night in jail in Auburn Hills, Michigan on a misdemeanor charge of carrying a concealed weapon after allegedly firing a BB gun and being arrested for carrying a switchblade.After completing Ozzfest, Limp Bizkit took a break from performing and later performed on Korn's Family Values Tour.",
"Durst also directed a music video for the band's single \"Faith\" in promotion for its appearance in the film ''Very Bad Things'', but was unsatisfied with it and directed a second video which paid tribute to tourmates like Primus, Deftones, and Korn, who appeared in the video.",
"Borland stated in an interview that George Michael, the song's writer, hated the cover and \"hates us for doing it\".=== ''Significant Other'' (1999–2000) ===Significant Other'' (1999), DJ Lethal expanded his role as sound designer for the band.Following the radio success of \"Faith\", the band was determined to record the follow-up to its first album in order to show that they were not a Korn soundalike or a cover band; the band began writing an album which dealt with issues deriving from its newfound fame.",
"Terry Date, who had produced albums for Pantera, White Zombie and Deftones, was chosen to produce the album.",
"The band allowed Durst and Lethal to explore their hip hop origins by recording a song with Method Man.",
"The song was originally titled \"Shut the Fuck Up\", but was retitled \"N 2 Gether Now\" for marketing purposes.",
"Durst also recorded with Eminem, but the collaboration, \"Turn Me Loose\", was left off the album.",
"The album also featured guest appearances by Stone Temple Pilots singer Scott Weiland, Korn's Jonathan Davis, Staind singer Aaron Lewis, and interludes by Les Claypool and Matt Pinfield.",
"''Significant Other'' saw Limp Bizkit reaching a new level of commercial success; the band was featured on the covers of popular music magazines including ''Spin'' and now found themselves repeatedly mobbed for autographs; the band was allowed to interact directly with its fans on a website established by Dike 99.Durst also moved from Jacksonville to Los Angeles.",
"''Significant Other'' was seen as an improvement over its debut and was generally well received by critics with mixed-to-positive reviews.",
"However, the band also continued to be criticized by the media; an article profiling the band in ''Spin'' and discussing ''Significant Other'' claimed that \"Limp Bizkit had yet to write a good song\", and musicians Marilyn Manson and Trent Reznor criticized the band.The band promoted the album by playing unannounced concerts in Detroit and Chicago as radio stations received a strong number of requests for the album's first single, \"Nookie\".",
"''Significant Other'' climbed to No.",
"1 on the ''Billboard'' 200, selling 643,874 copies in its first week of release.",
"In its second week of release the album sold an additional 335,000 copies.On the opening night of the band's Limptropolis tour with Kid Rock, Sam Rivers smashed his bass in frustration over the venue's poor sound, cutting his hand.",
"After his hand was stitched up at a hospital, Rivers returned to finish the set.",
"On July 12, Durst allegedly kicked a security guard in the head during a performance in St. Paul, Minnesota and was later arrested on assault charges.",
"Further criticisms of the band appeared in ''Rolling Stone'' and ''The New York Times''.",
"''New York Times'' writer Ann Powers wrote, \"DJ Lethal used his turntables as a metal guitar, riffing expansively and going for effects instead of rhythm.",
"John Otto on drums and Sam Rivers on bass never even tried to get funky, instead steering hip-hop's break-beat-based structure into a backbone for power chords.",
"This makes for a hybrid that would be more interesting if the band did not constantly mire itself in boring tempos, and if Mr. Durst had any talent as a singer\".In the summer of 1999, Limp Bizkit played at the highly anticipated Woodstock '99 show in front of approximately 200,000 people.",
"Violent action sprang up during and after the band's performance, including fans tearing plywood from the walls during a performance of the song \"Break Stuff\".",
"Several sexual assaults were also reported in the concert's aftermath .",
"Durst stated during the concert, \"People are getting hurt.",
"Don't let anybody get hurt.",
"But I don't think you should mellow out.",
"That's what Alanis Morissette had you motherfuckers do.",
"If someone falls, pick 'em up.",
"We already let the negative energy out.",
"Now we wanna let out the positive energy\".",
"Durst later stated in an interview, \"I didn't see anybody getting hurt.",
"You don't see that.",
"When you're looking out on a sea of people and the stage is twenty feet in the air and you're performing, and you're feeling your music, how do they expect us to see something bad going on?\"",
"Les Claypool told ''The San Francisco Examiner'', \"Woodstock was just Durst being Durst.",
"His attitude is 'no press is bad press', so he brings it on himself.",
"He wallows in it.",
"Still, he's a great guy.\"",
"Jonathan Davis of Korn also defended the band: \"I think Bizkit is being blamed for it because they were the heavy band … I don't think it was their fuckin' fault\".",
"\"It's easy to point the finger and blame us, but they hired us for what we do — and all we did is what we do.",
"I would turn the finger and point it back to the people that hired us,\" said Durst in reference to original Woodstock co-founder Michael Lang.Durst saw the band as being scapegoated for the event's controversy, and reflected on the criticisms surrounding the band in his music video for the single \"Re-Arranged\", which depicted the band members receiving death sentences for their participation in the concerts.",
"The video ended with angry witnesses watching as the band drowned in milk while performing the song.",
"Durst later stated that the promoters of Woodstock '99 were at fault for booking his band due to their reputation for raucous performances.Despite this controversy, ''Significant Other'' remained at No.",
"1 on the ''Billboard'' charts, and the band headlined the year's Family Values Tour.",
"Durst directed a music video for \"N 2 Gether Now\" which featured Method Man and Pauly Shore, and was inspired by Inspector Clouseau's fights with his butler Cato Fong in the ''Pink Panther'' film series.=== ''Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water'' (2000–2001) ===In 2000, Durst announced that the band's third studio album would be titled ''Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water''.",
"The press thought he was joking about this title.",
"The album title is intended to sound like a fictional band; the phrase \"Chocolate Starfish\" refers to the human anus and Durst himself, who has frequently been called an \"asshole\".",
"Borland contributed the other half of the album's title when the band was standing around at a truck stop looking at bottles of flavored water, and Borland joked that the truck stop didn't have hot dog or meat-flavored water.In June 2000, Limp Bizkit performed at the WXRK Dysfunctional Family Picnic, but showed up an hour late for their set.",
"An Interscope spokesman stated that there was confusion over the band's set time.",
"During the band's performance, Durst criticized Creed singer Scott Stapp, calling him \"an egomaniac\".",
"Creed's representatives later presented Durst with an autographed anger management manual.In the summer, Limp Bizkit's tour was sponsored by the controversial file sharing service Napster, doing free shows with a metal cage as the only thing separating them from the audience.",
"Durst was an outspoken advocate of file sharing.",
"They also did a \"Guerrilla Tour\", which involved the band setting up illegal and impromptu public gigs on rooftops and alleyways, some being shut down by the police.During the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards, Durst performed \"Livin' It Up\", a song from the upcoming album, as a duet with Christina Aguilera.",
"In response to the performance, Filter frontman Richard Patrick was quoted as saying \"Fred getting onstage with Christina Aguilera embarrassed us all.\"",
"In response to the negative reactions to the performance, Durst remarked, \"People always just wanna talk about Britney or Christina.",
"What's the problem?",
"Because they make a type of music we aren't allowed to like?",
"Or you think they are the nemesis of what our music is about?",
"Why segregate?",
"Why be so musically fuckin' racist?",
"What do you mean, I can't hang out with these types of people?",
"Clearly I didn't give a fuck, which fed a lot of it, too.",
"I mean, someone that's not going to give in and apologise... it's gonna make people carry on talking\".Durst also appeared in the music video for Eminem's song \"The Real Slim Shady\", a song in which Eminem suggests that Christina Aguilera and Durst had a sexual relationship.",
"Durst denied the rumors and defended Aguilera, saying: \"For one thing, it's not true, so it doesn't bother me.",
"Eminem is sort of answering the critics.",
"He's going to the extreme with everything he can to now slap them in the face....",
"It's so over-the-top.",
"For one thing, Christina's amazing.",
"I really like that girl.",
"I think she's an amazing singer.",
"She's gonna have longevity.",
"She's going to be one of those amazing icon women.",
"I'm really attracted to her, I like her, and I've talked to her a couple of times, and that's that.",
"I haven't had any type of relationship with her, or any type of intercourse with her.",
"She's never sucked my dick, she's never sucked Carson's.",
"\"Released on October 17, ''Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water'' set a record for highest first-week sales for a rock album, with over one million copies sold in the US in its first week of release.",
"400,000 of those sales happened during the first day, making it the fastest-selling rock album ever and breaking the record held for seven years by Pearl Jam's ''Vs.''",
"''Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water'' was certified Gold, Platinum, and six times Multi-Platinum.The album received mixed reviews, with AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine writing, \"Durst's self-pitying and the monotonous music give away that the band bashed Chocolate Starfish out very quickly – it's the sound of a band determined to deliver a sequel in a finite amount of time.\"",
"''Entertainment Weekly'' writer David Browne named it as the worst album title of 2000, whilst readers of ''Kerrang!''",
"magazine voted it the worst album of the year, as well as voting Limp Bizkit and Fred Durst as the worst band of 2000 and the \"Arse of the Year\", respectively.During a 2001 tour of Australia at the Big Day Out festival in Sydney, fans rushed the stage in the mosh pit and teenager Jessica Michalik died of asphyxiation.",
"In court, Durst, represented by long-time attorney Ed McPherson, testified he had warned the concert's organizers Aaron Jackson, Will Pearce, and Amar Tailor, as well as the concert's promoter Vivian Lees, of the potential dangers of such minimal security.",
"After viewing videotapes and hearing witness testimony, however, the coroner said it was evident that the crowd's density was dangerous at the time Limp Bizkit took the stage, stating that Fred Durst should have acted more responsibly when the problem became apparent.",
"Durst stated that he was \"emotionally scarred\" because of the teenager's death.",
"Durst also stated that he was aware of the security problems, but that he and the band were forced to play in the festival: \"There was a demand for us to play Big Day Out 2001, so we filled it.",
"When we came to play we said, \"The barricades aren't right – people are gonna go crazy so we're not playing.\"",
"And they go, \"No, you're goddamn wrong.",
"You are playing – you're the headliners.\"",
"And we go, \"No, you gotta have the right barricade.\"",
"The promoters who owned Big Day Out at the time were rude.",
"The police came and it turned into this huge thing, with them telling us, \"There's gonna be a riot if you don't play and if that happens, we're arresting you\".Later in 2001, numerous hip-hop artists including P. Diddy, Timbaland, Bubba Sparxxx, and Everlast remixed famous songs from the band into hip-hop versions, adding their own styles and modifications.",
"The album was called ''New Old Songs''.=== Departure of Borland and ''Results May Vary'' (2001–2003) ===In October 2001, Durst released a statement on their website stating that \"Limp Bizkit and Wes Borland have amicably decided to part ways.",
"Both Limp Bizkit and Borland will continue to pursue their respective musical careers.",
"Both wish each other the best of luck in all future endeavors.\"",
"Durst also stated that the band would \"comb the world for the illest guitar player known to man\" to replace Borland.",
"When asked why Borland quit the band, Ross Robinson stated that he quit because \"He doesn't sell out for money anymore\".Durst held a nationwide audition for a new guitarist called \"Put Your Guitar Where Your Mouth Is.\"",
"However, Mike Henderson, who was one of the guitarists who went for the audition, revealed that the event was nothing more than a publicity stunt.",
"Durst had no intention to recruit a new guitarist and the whole thing was intended to sell Guitar Center products.",
"This caused an uproar amongst the guitarists who had been waiting for hours.",
"The band eventually recorded with Snot guitarist Mike Smith, though they later scrapped the initial recording sessions with Smith.",
"In May 2002, Durst posted Wes Borland's personal email address online and told fans to ask him to rejoin the group.",
"Borland stated that 75% or more of all the emails pleaded for him not to return to the band.During the album's production, the working title changed from ''Bipolar'' to ''Panty Sniffer'', and was completed under the title ''Results May Vary''.",
"Under Durst's sole leadership, the album encompassed a variety of styles and featured a cover of the Who's \"Behind Blue Eyes\", which differed from the original's arrangement in its inclusion of a Speak & Spell during the song's bridge.",
"''Results May Vary'' consisted of various recording sessions, some of which included Smith on guitars and some without; however, Smith continued to play live shows with the band.Limp Bizkit performed at WWE WrestleMania XIX, with both Smith and Korn's Brian Welch on guitars.",
"In the summer of 2003, Limp Bizkit participated on the Summer Sanitarium Tour headlined by Metallica.",
"At the tour's Chicago stop, concert attendees threw items and heckled Durst from the moment he walked on stage.",
"With the crowd chanting \"Fuck Fred Durst\" and continuing their assault on him, Durst threw the mic down after six songs and walked off stage, but not before heckling the crowd back.",
"He repeatedly said, \"Limp Bizkit are the best band in the world!\"",
"until a roadie took his microphone away.",
"An article in the ''Sun-Times'' stated that the hostility was started by radio personality Mancow.",
"''Results May Vary'' was released on September 23, 2003, and received largely unfavorable reviews.",
"AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine panned the album, writing, \"the music has no melody, hooks, or energy, and all attention is focused on the clown jumping up and down and screaming in front, and long before the record is over, you're left wondering, how the hell did he ever get to put this mess out?\"",
"''The Guardian'' reviewer Caroline Sullivan wrote, \"At least Limp Bizkit can't be accused of festering in the rap-rock ghetto ...",
"But Durst's problems are ever-present – and does anybody still care?\"",
"Despite criticisms of the album, it was a commercial success, peaking at No.",
"3 on the ''Billboard'' 200.Smith departed from the band in August 2004.Durst later told a fan site that he had a falling-out with Smith, saying \"We are the type of people that stay true to our family and our instincts and at any moment will act on intuition as a whole.",
"Mike wasn't the guy.",
"We had fun playing with him but always knew, in the back of our minds, that he wasn't where we needed him to be mentally.",
"\"=== Borland's return, ''The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1)'' and hiatus (2004–2008) ===In August 2004, Borland rejoined Limp Bizkit, which began recording an EP, ''The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1)''.In May, ''The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1)'' was released.",
"Sammy Siegler took over drumming duties for the band for much of the EP, which featured a more experimental sound, described by AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine as \"neo-prog alt-metal\".",
"At Durst's insistence, the album was released as an underground album without any advertising or promotion.",
"Borland disagreed with the decision, suggesting that it was \"self-sabotage\": \"Maybe he was already unhappy with the music, and he didn't really want to put it out there.",
"\"The EP received mixed reviews.",
"Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised the music, calling it \"a step in the right direction – it's more ambitious, dramatic, and aggressive, built on pummeling verses and stop-start choruses.\"",
"However, he felt that the band was being \"held back\" by Durst, whom he called \"the most singularly unpleasant, absurd frontman in rock.\"",
"IGN writer Spence D. similarly gave it a mixed review, as he felt that the album lacked direction, but that showed potential for the band's musical growth.",
"''The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1)'' sold over 37,000 copies in its first week of release, and debuted at No.",
"24 on the ''Billboard'' 200, but due to its lack of advertising sales fell off quickly and only sold 88,000 copies in the United States by March 2006.Following the release of the band's ''Greatest Hitz'' album, the band went on hiatus.",
"Borland stated that it was unlikely that a sequel to ''The Unquestionable Truth'' would be produced and that \"As of right now, none of my future plans include Limp Bizkit.",
"\"=== Reunion, ''Gold Cobra'' and departure from Interscope (2009–2011) ===Borland, Otto (background) and Durst performing liveIn 2009, Limp Bizkit reunited with Borland playing guitar and launched the Unicorns N' Rainbows Tour.",
"Durst announced that they had begun to record a new album, which Borland titled ''Gold Cobra''.",
"Borland said that the title does not have any meaning, and that it was chosen because it fit the style of music the band was writing for the album.",
"The band recorded a spoken intro written by Durst and performed by Kiss member Gene Simmons for the album, but it was left off the completed album.",
"The band also recorded additional \"non-album\" tracks, including \"Combat Jazz\", which featured rapper Raekwon and \"Middle Finger\", featuring Paul Wall.",
"\"Shotgun\" was released as a single on May 17, 2011.The song is noted for featuring a guitar solo by Borland, something that the band is not known for.",
"\"Shotgun\" received favorable reviews, with Artistdirect writing, \"'Shotgun' feels like Bizkit approached the signature style on ''Three Dollar Bill Y'All'' and ''Significant Other'' with another decade-plus of instrumental experience and virtuosity, carving out a banger that could get asses moving in the club or fists flying in the mosh pit.",
"\"''Gold Cobra'' was released on June 28 and received mixed to positive reviews.",
"AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called it \"a return to the full-throttled attack of ''Three Dollar Bill Y'All''.",
"IGN writer Chad Grischow wrote, \"Though far from their best work, Limp Bizkit's latest at least proves that their 2005 ''Greatest Hitz'' album may have been premature.\"",
"''Metal Hammer'' writer Terry Bezer appraised the album, writing \"Aside from the odd duff moment, Gold Cobra throws out the hot shit that'll make you bounce in the mosh pit over and over again.\"",
"The band launched the Gold Cobra Tour in support of the album.",
"A music video for the title track was released.",
"''Gold Cobra'' sold nearly 80,000 copies in the United States alone and peaked at No.",
"16 on the ''Billboard'' 200; however, the band left Interscope after the album's release.=== ''Stampede of the Disco Elephants'' and ''Still Sucks'' (2012–present) ===Limp Bizkit performing at Hellfest in 2015In February 2012, the band returned to Australia for the first time in 11 years to perform at the Soundwave festival.",
"Durst dedicated the shows to Jessica Michalik, who died during the Limp Bizkit performance at Big Day Out 2001.Limp Bizkit signed with Cash Money Records.",
"Following a dispute between Durst, Lethal, and Otto about the latter two's alleged chronic drug and alcohol use, DJ Lethal angrily left the band.",
"DJ Lethal later posted an apology to the band on Twitter, but was ultimately not allowed back into the band.Fred Durst was featured in the song \"Champions\" by Kevin Rudolf, which was used as a theme for WWE's Night of Champions.",
"The song debuted on ''WWE Raw'' on September 3, 2012.This was the first time Limp Bizkit has worked with WWE since 2003.The band recorded their seventh studio album, ''Stampede of the Disco Elephants'' with producer Ross Robinson, who also produced the band's debut album; ''Three Dollar Bill, Yall;'' and their 2005 EP ''The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1)''.On March 24, 2013, the first single from the album, \"Ready to Go\" (featuring Lil Wayne) was released on limpbizkit.com.",
"In November a cover of the Ministry song \"Thieves\" was released by the band via their official Facebook and Twitter accounts.",
"In December, the band released the previously leaked song \"Lightz\" along with an accompanying music video.",
"The next single off the album, \"Endless Slaughter\", was set to be released only on cassette and during concerts, but can be downloaded at the band's official website.In October 2014, Fred Durst revealed that the band had left Cash Money and became independent again.",
"The split was carried out amicably and Fred says that \"We really love the jam we did with Lil Wayne, though.",
"We love that song.",
"\"Limp Bizkit performed as headliners of the ShipRocked 2015 cruise from February 2 to 6.Other bands present were Chevelle, Black Label Society, P.O.D., and Sevendust among others.",
"The band announced their major 2015 tour called \"Money Sucks\", a Russian 20-date tour to take place during October and November celebrating Limp Bizkit's 20th anniversary.",
"The tour name was a nod to the difficult economic situation that Russia was facing at the time.",
"The tour gathered criticism on the background of Russo-Ukrainian War and behaviour of Fred Durst who showed a flags saying \"Crimea = Russia\", referring to illegal annexation by Russia in 2014.Before the band traveled to Europe to attend the \"Money Sucks\" Tour, Sam Rivers was diagnosed with a degenerative disease of the spinal discs that was complicated due to a pinched nerve, causing a lot of pain in such areas and which prevented him from being with the band.",
"23-year-old German bassist Samuel Gerhard Mpungu replaced Rivers for the tour.Fred Durst and Wes Borland performing at KROQ Weenie Roast 2019Limp Bizkit offered several concerts in the United Kingdom during winter 2016 alongside Korn.",
"Regarding this tour, Fred says: \"You may have experienced a lot of cool concerts in your life, but I can guarantee you that an evening with Korn and Limp Bizkit will always and forever be your favorite.",
"No one brings the party harder, heavier, and more exciting than us.",
"No one.",
"And ... make sure you get plenty of rest the night before.",
"It's time to bring it back!",
"\"Because of little information and constant delays for the release of ''Stampede'', in an interview/talk with the podcast \"Someone Who Isn't Me\", Wes said that Fred \"isn't happy\" with what he was working on.",
"The guitarist said that Durst will \"just keep working on something until he's happy with it, even if it takes years and years\".DJ Lethal and Fred Durst performing at Quebec Agora Fest 2019DJ Lethal resumed performing with the band on March 17, 2018, at the Storm the Gates festival in Auckland, New Zealand.",
"On July 8, 2019, the band played a new song from their forthcoming album called \"Wasteoid\" live in Paris.Borland provided an album update in June 2021, detailing the struggles with the album: In August 2021, just a week after their main stage set at Lollapalooza, the band canceled their summer tour, \"out of an abundance of caution and concern for the safety of the band, crew and most of all the fans\" in relation to rising COVID-19 cases in the United States.On August 25, 2021, the band revealed new music would be \"leaked\" in rapid succession with their new album to follow soon after.On September 30, 2021, the band released a new single \"Dad Vibes\".",
"On October 19, Durst teased on Instagram that more songs would be coming soon, revealing the titles \"Turn It Up Bitch\" and \"Goodbye\", as well as the album containing 12 tracks.",
"On October 28, 2021, Durst confirmed via Instagram that the band's sixth album – now titled ''Still Sucks'' – would be released on October 31, 2021."
],
[
"Artistry",
"=== Music ===Durst wanted Limp Bizkit to be a \"megaband\" which could cross over into as many different styles of music as possible.",
"Limp Bizkit's music has predominately been described as , and rap rock.",
"Limp Bizkit have also been described as alternative metal, alternative rock, and hard rock.",
"In 2000, the ''New York Daily News'' labelled the band as \"frat-metal\".Limp Bizkit's music is noted for its \"kinetic, frenzied energy\".",
"Otto is adept in drumming in a variety of styles ranging from Brazilian and Afro-Cuban music to bebop and funk.",
"DJ Lethal functions as a sound designer for the band, shaping their sound.",
"According to Lethal, \"I try and bring new sounds, not just the regular chirping scratching sounds.",
"...",
"It's all different stuff that you haven't heard before.",
"I'm trying to be like another guitar player.\"",
"Borland's guitar playing is experimental and nontraditional, and he is noted for his creative use of six and seven-string guitars.",
"''Three Dollar Bill, Yall'' features him playing without a guitar pick, performing with two hands, one playing melodic notes, and the other playing chord progressions.",
"His guitar playing has made use of octave shapes, and choppy, eighth-note rhythms, sometimes accompanied by muting his strings with his left hand, creating a percussive sound.",
"Borland has also made use of unevenly accented syncopated sixteenth notes to create a disorienting effect, and hypnotic, droning licks.",
"The song \"Stuck\" uses a sustain pedal in the first bar, and muted riffs in the second bar.AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that the band's album ''Significant Other'' contains \"flourishes of neo-psychedelia on pummeling metal numbers\" and \"swirls of strings, even crooning, at the most unexpected background\".",
"The band did not employ solos until ''Gold Cobra'' (except for the song \"Underneath the Gun\" from ''Results May Vary''), however, during the recording of ''Significant Other'', drummer John Otto performed an extended solo in the middle of the song \"Nobody Like You\".",
"A drum solo can also be heard on \"9 Teen 90 Nine\" from the same album.=== Lyrics ===Durst's lyrics are often profane, scatological or angry.",
"Much of Durst's lyrical inspiration came from growing up and his personal life.",
"The song \"Sour\", from the album ''Three Dollar Bill, Yall'', was inspired by Durst's problems with his girlfriend.",
"His breakup with her inspired the ''Significant Other'' songs \"Nookie\" and .",
"When describing Limp Bizkit's lyrics, ''The Michigan Daily'' said \"In a less-serious vein, Limp Bizkit used the nu-metal sound as a way to spin testosterone fueled fantasies into snarky white-boy rap.",
"Oddly, audiences took frontman Fred Durst more seriously than he wanted, failing to see the intentional silliness in many of his songs.\"",
"Durst said that people failed to understand the band's proposal, \"There was always a lot of pain in my life.",
"Mental and physical abuse happens regularly in my life.",
"I've been bullied my whole life, but I also love having fun and getting crazy and being silly and outrageous.",
"We always had that in our band and a lot of people didn't understand that.\"",
"Durst also said that the band's purpose was to serve as a satire but \"We just didn't make it that obvious.\"",
"The band's guitarist, Wes Borland, said that \"Limp Bizkit is definitely a dumb rock band.\"",
"Limp Bizkit's lyrics have also been described as \"misogynistic\".",
"In response to these accusations, Durst said: \"That's because I said the words whore and bitch.",
"My whole record is about my girlfriend who put me through the ringer for three years and my insecurity about it.",
"It became this big thing.\"",
"''The Baltimore Sun'' talked about the band's song \"Nookie\", which is accused of being sexist and misogynistic, \"Despite its seemingly salacious title, 'Nookie' is not about the joy of sex; instead, it finds singer Fred Durst talking about how he let his girlfriend take advantage of him because he was a fool for love.",
"So when he gets to the chorus catch-phrase - 'I did it all for the nookie' - what we hear is more self-recrimination than boast.\"",
"''The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1)'' focuses on more serious and darker lyrical subject matter, including Catholic sex abuse cases, terrorism and fame.=== Live performances ===Guitarist Wes Borland is known for his visual performance style, and often performs wearing costumes or body paint.Guitarist Wes Borland is known for his use of costumes and body paint during concerts, appearing in bunny and kung fu suits, and painted as a skeleton and what he describes as a \"burnt match\".",
"Describing the character, he stated, \"I go onstage wearing almost nothing.",
"I have underwear and my boots on, and I paint my whole head black—from the neck up—and I have the black contacts.",
"All you can see is these glowing teeth.\"",
"Borland's black contacts were customized for him by a company noted for making contacts for the science fiction TV series ''Babylon 5''.In addition to Borland's visual appearance, the band has also used elaborate stage setups in their performances.",
"Their Ladies Night in Cambodia club tour visually paid tribute to the film ''Apocalypse Now'', with an elaborate stage setup which featured an empty Jeep, camouflage mesh and palm trees.",
"During the band's tour with Primus, Limp Bizkit took inspiration from Primus' trademark self-deprecatory slogan \"Primus sucks\": Durst, Borland, Rivers, Otto and Lethal took the stage with middle fingers raised.",
"According to Borland, \"they finger us back—and you know what that means to us—that they love us.",
"It's kind of like saying something is bad when you really mean good.",
"Les Claypool came out the first night of the tour and got a big kick out of it.",
"We figured it was the right idea.",
"It makes hecklers go 'huh.",
"'\"During the band's sets at Ozzfest, audience members at the tour heckled Limp Bizkit, leading the band to use a toilet as a stage prop, which they would emerge from during each performance; the band punctuated their sets by \"flushing\" cardboard cutouts of pop stars like Hanson and the Spice Girls.",
"During their appearance at the first Family Values Tour, Limp Bizkit performed on a set which the ''Los Angeles Times'' described as \"a mix of ''The War of the Worlds'' and ''Mars Attacks''\".",
"The band emerged from a spaceship during the tour, and Borland continued to experiment with visual appearances.",
"During the band's Halloween performance on the tour, each of the band's members dressed as Elvis Presley at various stages in his career.=== Influences ===Limp Bizkit's influences include the Jesus Lizard, Tomahawk, Dave Matthews Band, Portishead, Mr. Bungle, Sepultura, Ministry, Prong, Tool, Primus, Pantera, Minor Threat, Angry Samoans, Black Flag, the Fat Boys, the Treacherous Three, the Cold Crush Brothers, Urban Dance Squad, Rage Against the Machine, Korn, Deftones, Jane's Addiction, and John Zorn.=== Criticism ===Despite receiving praise for their artistry and musical contributions, the band has received a share of negative criticism from fellow musicians.",
"As pointed out by author Joel McIver, Limp Bizkit's mix of rap and metal was notably preceded by the bands Rage Against the Machine and Faith No More, but its lyrics widely differed from the radical politics of the former and the existential poetry of the latter.",
"Durst cited both bands as two of his biggest influences.",
"Faith No More's semi-ironic cover of \"Easy\" by Lionel Richie in 1992 hinted what would be the recording of George Michael's \"Faith\" by Limp Bizkit in 1997.The frontmen of both groups have distanced themselves from Limp Bizkit; Zack de la Rocha of Rage Against the Machine stated that Limp Bizkit \"sucks\", while Faith No More vocalist Mike Patton paraphrased the quote attributed to Götz von Berlichingen, ''Er kann mich am Arsch lecken'' – \"He can lick my ass\", when asked by a German reporter about Durst's interest in releasing his music through Interscope Records.",
"During the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards, Rage Against the Machine bassist Tim Commerford climbed part of the set in protest of Limp Bizkit winning the award for Best Rock Video, later expressing his dislike of the band during a 2015 interview with Rolling Stone, claiming \"I apologize for inspiring such shit\"."
],
[
"Feuds",
"=== Slipknot ===Korn and Limp Bizkit shared a long-standing friendship after bassist Reginald Arvizu assisted the band in acquiring a record deal in 1996.The bands continued to strengthen their relationship as they often toured together frequently throughout the late 1990s.",
"Slipknot at the time were an up and coming band and would have their self-titled debut produced by Ross Robinson (a producer who worked with all three bands).",
"Whilst on tour promoting their upcoming album during the 1999 Ozzfest tour, lead singer Corey Taylor took notice of Korn drummer David Silveria's modeling campaign for Calvin Klein in several magazines whilst the band were at a truck stop in Texas.",
"Disgusted with Silveria's business decisions to expand into modeling, Taylor purchased numerous copies of the magazine issue and publicly burnt copies onstage during the band's live performances.",
"According to Taylor, Durst and DJ Lethal were enraged by the gestures and attacked Slipknot in various interviews in the spring of 1999.Taylor admits that he and multiple Slipknot members were impressed with Limp Bizkit's 1997 debut record, even citing it as an influence on their debut album, but he later claimed they lost respect for the band following the release of \"Significant Other\" in 1999, accusing the band of selling out.",
"Durst would make further retaliatory comments towards Slipknot's fans in December 1999, referring to them as \"fat, ugly kids\".",
"Slipknot singer Corey Taylor responded during a February 2000 fan interview in Sydney, Australia by claiming that the fans of Slipknot \"for the most part, enjoy all kinds of music, like Limp Bizkit… maybe.\"",
"Taylor went on to claim that insulting fans of Slipknot could also be insulting fans of Limp Bizkit.",
"During an interview with VH1 in October 2000, Durst praised Slipknot's music, expressing his desire to quell the tension between both sides, when asked about Slipknot's music Durst told reporters: \"Man this band is super phat, man; we don't even know them.",
"That's their whole thing, that's their chant, that's their thing, that's cool.",
"Maybe all this hate that's going around the world, that's why I said 'It's all the world has even seen lately'\".",
"Despite this, Taylor retorted with praise for Durst's financial ventures but attacked his artistic motives, claiming \"Fred Durst is a great businessman, but he is not an artist\".",
"Despite the attacks between the two bands, they shared numerous UK festival dates together through 2000, including the 2000 Reading and Leeds Festivals.Taylor later claimed that feud began to subside during the late 2000s after the two bands shared a friendly encounter during the 2009 Download Festival in which Durst approached him, informing Taylor that his children were fans of Slipknot's music.",
"Durst asked Taylor if he would sign several autographs for his son, to which Taylor kindly obliged.",
"The two would continue find themselves on friendlier terms in 2010.Whilst Limp Bizkit were recording \"Gold Cobra\", Durst included a line on the song 90.2.10 giving a shoutout to Taylor.",
"Limp Bizkit was later booked on the 2014 Japanese leg of Slipknot's Knotfest tour along with Korn.In August 2021, Limp Bizkit gave a public tribute to Slipknot drummer Joey Jordison who had recently died on July 26.Durst and the band paid tribute to him during their concert in Des Moines, Iowa (Slipknot's hometown).",
"Durst asked the audience: \"Slipknot's from somewhere around here, aren't they?\"",
"before expressing support for Jordison and the rest of the band, later telling the crowd \"Rest in peace, let's hear it!",
"That's beautiful.",
"Life is short and it's always fleeting so, man, let's just remember all we are is right now\" while riling the crowd to chant Jordison's name.===Marilyn Manson and Trent Reznor===Marilyn Manson was known to be overly vocal against Limp Bizkit's music; in 1999, he attacked the band's artistry and their fans, referring to them as \"illiterate apes that beat your ass in high school for being a 'fag' and now sell you tuneless testosterone anthems of misogyny and pretend to be outsiders...\".",
"Manson was later reported to have withdrawn from the Woodstock '99 festival due to his dislike of Limp Bizkit, though he later claimed this was due to an inconvenient set time for his performance.",
"Manson and Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor once again took aim at Durst and the band during a 2000 interview when Manson was asked about his opinion of Nine Inch Nails' recent video for the single Starfuckers, Inc. in which the two took aim at multiple artists ranging from Billy Corgan, Michael Stipe, and (most vocally) Limp Bizkit.",
"Manson later exclaimed: \"With this video, we didn't wanna seem bitching like about somehow that Limp Bizkit's doing better than we are, in their mind.\"",
"Reznor later added to the comment, exclaiming; \"I don't have to say Limp Bizkit sucks, you know it, I know it, I shouldn't have to say it\".",
"Durst responded to Manson and Reznor's insults: \"I understand that Marilyn Manson is very unhappy that his career has gone in a shambles and he's alienated his fans so if he has to say things like that because he's very mad at himself, I would forgive him.",
"And Trent Reznor's in the fucking same boat.",
"Trent Reznor is obviously unhappy with how he's alienated the world, how long he took to make a record, and how he thought he was immortal.",
"We're just here doing what we do and we have nothing to say about anybody.",
"I wish them both luck and I feel sorry that they're so jealous and mad at themselves that they have to talk shit.\"",
"Durst's relationship with Manson had seemingly grown cordial as the two later appeared on the cover of a Rolling Stone magazine issue in June 2003, alongside James Hetfield and Ozzy Osbourne.",
"However; Limp Bizkit guitarist Wes Borland later joined Manson's touring band in 2008.During a show in Seoul, South Korea on August 15, 2008; Manson introduced Borland onstage and began attacking Limp Bizkit, exclaiming to the crowd \"Here's our new guitarist, he used to play for a really bad band...\".",
"Borland later departed Manson's touring band after less than nine months, citing an inability to songwrite and criticizing Manson's overbearing leadership.",
"In 2021; Manson would become the subject of further controversy surrounding numerous sexual abuse allegations against him.",
"Borland attacked Manson in numerous interviews, denouncing him as a \"Bad fucking dude\".",
"Trent Reznor in response supported Borland's claims against Manson's misconduct while he also attacked Manson for the abuse allegations during an interview with Ultimate Guitar.=== Placebo ===Limp Bizkit and Placebo began a long-standing feud, stemming from a show Durst was hosting at Irving Plaza in December 1998.Durst claimed he was prepared to introduce Placebo to the audience before singer Brian Molko insulted him, unaware of who he was.",
"Durst later explained: \"I was on the side of the stage, and the singer comes and pushes me and says, 'Get the fuck out of here!'",
"And I'm like, 'I'm just here because I was asked to introduce you.'",
"And he's like, 'I don't give a fuck who you are, get off my stage' or whatever the fuck he was saying.",
"So I guess he didn't know I was from Limp Bizkit, and I was introducing him.\"",
"Molko's behavior prompted Durst to rile up the crowd to chant \"Placebo sucks!\"",
"prior to their performance.",
"Molko later expressed that he was completely unaware that Durst was hosting the show, later expressing further disgust at the fact that Placebo were set to perform after Kid Rock.",
"On June 11, 1999; Durst was introducing Staind prior to their performance as part of K-Rock's Dysfunctional Family Picnic in Holmdel, New Jersey.",
"Durst once again instigated the audience to chant \"Fuck Placebo\" once again.",
"The feud was reignited during Big Day Out 2001, in which Placebo were billed below Limp Bizkit, with bassist Stefan Olsdal claiming the band were fearful of the audience as they hostily waited for Limp Bizkit's performance during their set.",
"By 2004, the feud had reportedly ended."
],
[
"Legacy and influence",
"Limp Bizkit is considered one of the defining bands of the nu metal genre.",
"Alternative Press said: \"As the years have gone by, some nü-metal outfits have progressively downplayed their bracket's hip-hop sensibilities.",
"Even so, you can guarantee one of their primary influences were Limp Bizkit... the happily mismatched band from Jacksonville, Florida, established the ground rules of nü metal.. blur(ring) the lines between the two most polarizing genres in music... Limp Bizkit created timeless odes to teenage angst that, in time, we've discovered still apply right into adulthood.\"Kerrang!",
"magazine talked about the impact of the band's song \"Break Stuff\": \"If Deftones represented something deeper about nu-metal, Limp Bizkit represented something entirely at the other end of the scale.",
"Despite having a genuinely innovative guitarist in Wes Borland, whose vision for his genre-straddling band was probably more in line with bands like Primus, Faith No More and Mr. Bungle...",
"Break Stuff, ahem, broke Limp Bizkit through its fiendishly simple two-chord motif, kick-up-the-arse drop, and its glued-to-MTV video featuring Jonathan Davis, Flea, as well as rap megastars Snoop Dogg, Eminem and Dr. Dre, taking them to an audience far beyond metal.",
"The celebrity that followed was huge.",
"The influence it left was huger.",
"\"Although Limp Bizkit inspired nu metal bands like Linkin Park in the 2000s, new bands in the genre continue to use Bizkit's sound as an influence, such as acclaimed nu metal revival band Wargasm, the members grew up listening to Limp Bizkit and have said that, \"wouldn't be the band we are today without them\".Bands that cited Limp Bizkit as influence are Emmure, Attila, Hacktivist, Lionheart, Rise of the Northstar, Islander, Of Mice & Men and Zeal & Ardor.Richard Cheese performed a lounge rendition of the songs \"Nookie\" and \"Break Stuff\" on his debut album, ''Lounge Against the Machine''.",
"The Vitamin String Quartet recorded a tribute album called ''The String Quartet Tribute to Limp Bizkit: Break Stuff'', which contains reinterpretations of the band's songs performed by a violinist backed by cellos, synthesizers, and keyboard percussion.",
"The Blackout covered \"My Generation\" for the compilation ''Higher Voltage!",
": Another Brief History of Rock''.Following the band's set at Lollapalooza 2021 (which was broadcast on Hulu) and the release of the song \"Dad Vibes\" in 2021, the band began having a shift in public opinion, garnering positive responses from critics and audiences.",
"The band's 2021 comeback album ''Still Sucks'' helped with the shifting opinion, with the album receiving widespread positive reviews and acclaim for the first time since the early 2000s.Limp Bizkit was mentioned in a scene between Jim Carrey's Dr. Robotnik and Idris Elba's Knuckles in the 2022 film, ''Sonic the Hedgehog 2'', where Robotnik compares Knuckles to being as useless as a \"Limp Bizkit backstage pass\".Limp Bizkit appears in ''Generation Kill'' (2004), originally conceived by journalist Evan Wright as a three-part ''Rolling Stone'' magazine series before being released as a full-length book and becoming a 2008 HBO mini-series by the same name.",
"''Generation Kill'' chronicles Wright's experience as a reporter embedded with a platoon of U.S. Recon Marines during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.",
"While driving along a winding canal on the way to Bagdad, a Ripped Fuel-ed Corporal from Missouri, Josh Ray Person (played by actor James Ransone), memorably \"recounts the band he formed after high school, Me or Society.",
"A heavy-metal rap group, his band once opened for Limp Bizkit at a show in Kansas City.",
"'We sucked, but so did they,' Person says.",
"'The only difference is, they became famous right after we played together.",
"I became a Marine."
],
[
"Band members",
"'''Current members'''* Fred Durst – lead vocals , guitar * John Otto – drums * Sam Rivers – bass, backing vocals * Wes Borland – guitars, backing vocals * DJ Lethal – turntables, sampling, programming , backing vocals '''Former members'''* Rob Waters – guitars * Terry Balsamo – guitars * Mike Smith – guitars, backing vocals '''Former touring and session musicians'''* Brian Welch – guitars * Sammy Siegler – drums * Franko Carino (DJ SK3L3TOR) – sampling, programming, backing vocals * Samuel G Mpungu – bass * Tsuzumi Okai – bass * Brandon Pertzborn – drums * Danny Connell – bass ===Timeline==="
],
[
"Discography",
" * ''Three Dollar Bill, Y'all'' (1997)* ''Significant Other'' (1999)* ''Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water'' (2000)* ''Results May Vary'' (2003)* ''Gold Cobra'' (2011)* ''Still Sucks'' (2021)"
],
[
"Accolades",
"Limp Bizkit has been nominated for and won several awards.",
"Limp Bizkit has been nominated for three Grammy Awards including Best Hard Rock Performance (\"Nookie\"), Best Rock Album (\"Significant Other\") and Best Hard Rock Performance (\"Take A Look Around\").",
"Limp Bizkit has been nominated for 3 American Music Awards for Favorite Alternative Artist, winning one of them in 2002.In 1999, the band won the Maximum Vision Award at the Billboard Music Video Awards for their music video \"Nookie\" At the 2000 and 2001 Blockbuster Awards, the band won the Favorite Group (Rock) award.",
"That year also saw the band winning a MuchMusic Award for Best International Video, honoring their video for the song \"Break Stuff\".",
"At the 2001 ECHO Awards, the band won the Best International Metal Band award.",
"At the 2009 Kerrang!",
"Awards, the band won the Hall of Fame award.",
"Further expanding upon the group's achievements and popularity, they were also the first group inducted into MTV's ''Total Request Live'' \"Hall of Fame\" on May 26, 2001.Association Year Category Nominee(s) / Work Result ''Billboard'' Music Award 1999 Top Billboard 200 Album Artist – Duo/Group Limp Bizkit 2000 Top Modern Rock Artist 2001 Top ''Billboard'' 200 Artist Top Billboard 200 Artist – Duo/Group Top ''Billboard'' 200 Album ''Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water'' Billboard Music Video Awards 1999 Maximum Vision Award \"Nookie\" Best Hard Rock Clip Blockbuster Entertainment Awards 1999 Favorite CD ''Significant Other'' Favorite Group – Rock Limp Bizkit 2001 Brit Awards 2002 International Group ECHO Awards 2001 Best International Alternative 2002 Emma-gaala 2000 Foreign Artist of the Year GAFFA Awards (Denmark) 2022 Best International Band Grammy Awards 2000 Best Rock Album \"Significant Other\" Best Hard Rock Performance \"Nookie\" 2001 \"Take a Look Around\" Hungarian Music Awards 2001 Best Foreign Rock Album ''Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water'' 2003 ''Results May Vary'' International Dance Music Awards 2001 Best Alternative 12' \"Rollin'\" iHeartRadio MMVAs 2000 Best International Video \"Break Stuff\" Peoples Choice: Favourite International Group \"Re-Arranged\" Kerrang!",
"Awards 2009 Hall of Fame Limp Bizkit MTV Europe Music Awards 2000 Best Rock 2001 Best Group Web Award Best Album ''Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water'' MTV Italian Music Awards 2003 Rock the Mic Award (Best Live Performance) \"Nookie\" MTV Video Music Awards Japan 2002 Best Rock Limp Bizkit MTV Video Music Brazil 2004 Best International Video \"Behind Blue Eyes\" MVPA Awards 2000 Hip-Hop Video of the Year \"N 2 Gether Now\" 2002 Best Special Effects in a Video \"Boiler\" My VH1 Music Awards 2000 Giving It Back Award Limp Bizkit NME Awards 2001 Best Single \"Take a Look Around\" Best Metal Act Limp Bizkit Online Music Awards 1999 Favorite Hard Rock Pollstar Concert Industry Awards 2001 Most Creative Tour Package ''Tour'' Q Awards 2000 Best Single \"Take a Look Around\" Radio Music Awards 2000 Parents Just Don't Understand Limp Bizkit Top of the Pops Awards 2001 Best Rock Act Žebřík Music Awards 2000 Best International Group Best International Surprise Best International Album ''Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water'' Best International Song \"Take a Look Around\" 2001 Best International Group Limp Bizkit"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of nu metal bands"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lazio"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lazio''' ( , , ) or '''Latium''' ( , ; from the original Latin name, ) is one of the 20 administrative regions of Italy.",
"Situated in the central peninsular section of the country, it has 5,714,882 inhabitants and a GDP of more than €197 billion per year, making it the country's second most populated region and second largest regional economy after Lombardy.",
"The capital of Lazio is Rome, which is also the capital and largest city of Italy.Lazio is rich in a multi-millennial heritage: it sees the presence of the Etruscan civilization, then at the center of the Roman Empire, of the Holy Roman Empire, then of the Papal States, of the First French Empire and of the Italian Republic.",
"The historical, artistic, cultural, architectural, archaeological and religious heritage of Lazio is immensely vast and rich in cultural diversity.",
"Some of the greatest artists and historical figures lived and worked in Rome, particularly during the Italian Renaissance period, such as Bramante, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Filippo Brunelleschi, Donatello, Michelangelo, Caravaggio, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Francesco Borromini, Pietro da Cortona, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Rubens, Van Dyck and Diego Velázquez.",
"Today it constitutes a dynamic region.",
"Lazio is a large center of services and international trade, industry, public services and tourism, supported by a privileged transport network thanks to its geographical position in the center of Italy and the presence of Rome within it."
],
[
"Geography",
"Relief map of LazioPanorama of the Aniene ValleyLazio comprises a land area of and it has borders with Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche to the north, Abruzzo and Molise to the east, Campania to the south, and the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west.",
"The region is mainly flat, with small mountainous areas in the most eastern and southern districts.The coast of Lazio is mainly composed of sandy beaches, punctuated by the headlands of Cape Circeo (541 m) and Gaeta (171 m).",
"The Pontine Islands, which are part of Lazio, are off Lazio's southern coast.",
"Behind the coastal strip, to the north, lies the Maremma Laziale (the continuation of the Tuscan Maremma), a coastal plain interrupted at Civitavecchia by the Tolfa Mountains (616 m).",
"The central section of the region is occupied by the Roman Campagna, a vast alluvial plain surrounding the city of Rome, with an area of approximately .",
"The southern districts are characterized by the flatlands of Agro Pontino, a once swampy and malarial area, that was reclaimed over the centuries.The Preapennines of Latium, marked by the Tiber valley and the Liri with the Sacco tributary, include on the right of the Tiber, three groups of mountains of volcanic origin: the Volsini, Cimini and Sabatini, whose largest former craters are occupied by the Bolsena, Vico and Bracciano lakes.",
"To the south of the Tiber, other mountain groups form part of the Preapennines: the Alban Hills, also of volcanic origin, and the calcareous Lepini, Ausoni and Aurunci Mountains.",
"The Apennines of Latium are a continuation of the Apennines of Abruzzo: the Reatini Mountains with Terminillo (2,213 m), Mounts Sabini, Prenestini, Simbruini and Ernici which continue east of the Liri into the Mainarde Mountains.",
"The highest peak is Mount Gorzano (2,458 m) on the border with Abruzzo.=== Climate ===The region's climate, monitored by several dozen meteorological stations (many of which managed by the Lazio Regional Hydrographic and Mareographic Office), shows considerable variability from area to area.",
"In general, along the coast, there is a mediterranean climate, the temperature values vary between 9–10°C (48–50°F) in January and 24–25°C (75–77°F) in July.Towards the interior, the climate is more continental and, on the hills, winters are cold and at night, temperatures can be quite frigid.",
"With particular regard to the sunshine duration, it should also be noted that, among the regional capital cities in Italy, Rome is the one with the highest number of hours of sunshine and days with clear skies during the year."
],
[
"History",
"The Appian Way (''Via Appia''), a road connecting Ancient Rome to the southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today.The Italian word Lazio descends from the Latin word Latium, the region of the Latins, ''Latini'' in the Latin language spoken by them and passed on to the Latin city-state of Ancient Rome.",
"Although the demography of ancient Rome was multi-ethnic, including, for example, Etruscans, Sabines and other Italics besides the Latini, the latter were the dominant constituent.",
"In Roman mythology, the tribe of the Latini took their name from King Latinus.",
"Apart from the mythical derivation of Lazio given by the ancients as the place where Saturn, ruler of the golden age in Latium, hid (latuisset) from Jupiter there, a major modern etymology is that Lazio comes from the Latin word \"latus\", meaning \"wide\", expressing the idea of \"flat land\" meaning the Roman Campagna.",
"Much of Lazio is in fact flat or rolling.",
"The lands originally inhabited by the Latini were extended into the territories of the Samnites, the Marsi, the Hernici, the Aequi, the Aurunci and the Volsci, all surrounding Italic tribes.",
"This larger territory was still called Latium, but it was divided into Latium adiectum or Latium Novum, the added lands or New Latium, and Latium Vetus, or Old Latium, the older, smaller region.",
"The northern border of Lazio was the Tiber river, which divided it from Etruria.The emperor Augustus officially united almost all of present-day Italy into a single geo-political entity, Italia, dividing it into eleven regions.",
"The part of today's Lazio south of the Tiber river – together with the present region of Campania immediately to the southeast of Lazio and the seat of Neapolis – became Region I (''Latium et Campania''), while modern Upper Lazio became part of ''Regio VII – Etruria'', and today's Province of Rieti joined ''Regio IV – Samnium''.After the Gothic conquest of Italy at the end of the fifth century, modern Lazio became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom, but after the Gothic War between 535 and 554 and conquest by the Byzantine Empire, the region became the property of the Eastern Emperor as the Duchy of Rome.",
"However, the long wars against the Longobards weakened the region.",
"With the Donation of Sutri in 728, the Pope acquired the first territory in the region beyond the Duchy of Rome.The strengthening of the religious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led to continuous power struggles between secular lords (''Baroni'') and the Pope until the middle of the 16th century.",
"Innocent III tried to strengthen his own territorial power, wishing to assert his authority in the provincial administrations of Tuscia, Campagna and Marittima through the Church's representatives, in order to reduce the power of the Colonna family.",
"Other popes tried to do the same.",
"During the period when the papacy resided in Avignon, France (1309–1377), the feudal lords' power increased due to the absence of the Pope from Rome.",
"Small communes, and Rome above all, opposed the lords' increasing power, and with Cola di Rienzo, they tried to present themselves as antagonists of the ecclesiastical power.",
"However, between 1353 and 1367, the papacy regained control of Lazio and the rest of the Papal States.",
"From the middle of the 16th century, the papacy politically unified Lazio with the Papal States, so that these territories became provincial administrations of St. Peter's estate; governors in Viterbo, in Marittima and Campagna, and in Frosinone administered them for the papacy.Lazio was part of the short-lived Roman Republic, after which it became a puppet state of the First French Republic under the forces of Napoleon Bonaparte.",
"Lazio was returned to the Papal States in October 1799.In 1809, it was annexed to the French Empire under the name of the Department of Tibre, but returned to the Pope's control in 1815.On 20 September 1870 the capture of Rome, during the reign of Pope Pius IX, and France's defeat at Sedan, completed Italian unification, and Lazio was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy.",
"In 1927, the territory of the Province of Rieti, belonging to Umbria and Abruzzo, joined Lazio.",
"Towns in Lazio were devastated by the 2016 Central Italy earthquake."
],
[
"Economy",
"Headquarters of Eni in EUR, RomeAgriculture, crafts, animal husbandry and fishery are the main traditional sources of income.",
"Agriculture is characterized by the cultivation of wine grapes, fruit, vegetables and olives.",
"Lazio is the main growing region of kiwi in Italy.Approximately 73% of the working population are employed in the services sector, which contribute 85.8% of regional GDP; this is a considerable proportion, but is justified by the presence of Rome, which is the core of public administration, media, utility, telecommunication, transport, tourism and other sectors.",
"Many national and multinational corporations, public and private, have their headquarters in Rome (ENI, Italiana Petroli, Enel, Acea, Terna, TIM, Poste italiane, Leonardo, ITA Airways, Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane, RAI).Lazio's limited industrial sector and highly developed service industries allowed the region to well outperform the Italian economy in 2009 in the heart of the global financial crisis, but it was strongly affected by the COVID-19 crisis of 2020–2021 due to the lock-downs.Industrial development in Lazio is limited to the areas south of Rome.",
"Communications and – above all – the setting of the border of the Cassa del Mezzogiorno some kilometers south of Rome have influenced the position of industry, favouring the areas with the best links to Rome and those near the Autostrada del Sole, especially around Frosinone.",
"Additional factor was cheap energy supply from Latina Nuclear Power Plant and Garigliano Nuclear Power Plant, which are now out of the operation after Italian nuclear energy referendum.=== Industry ===Alfa Romeo GiuliaTravertineIndustry contributes a small part of GDP: its share is 8.9% compared to 25.0% in Veneto and 24.0% in Emilia-Romagna.",
"In Rome it is even less with 7%, compared with 12% from tourism.",
"Since a large part of Lazio's GDP is produced by the service sector, with high value added.Firms are often small to medium in size and operate in the * oil refining (Gaeta)* automobile (Cassino Plant, which produced 53,422 Alfa Romeo cars in 2020 and has 3,433 employees.",
")* yachts and boats (Canados Shipyard in Rome-Ostia)* engineering (Rieti, Anagni (rotor blades and composite structures; stone extractions machines Fantoni Sud), Frosinone (helicopter transmissions)) * electronic (Viterbo, Rome, Pomezia, Latina).",
"A large Texas Instruments plant in Rieti was closed with the loss of thousands of jobs.",
"* building and building materials (Rome, Civitavecchia)**Well-developed travertine-processing industry, especially in the Ausoni-Tiburtina area (Tivoli and Guidonia Montecelio quarries).",
"**ca.",
"70% of the national sanitary ceramics comes from Civita Castellana industrial district and Gaeta * textile (Valle del Liri).",
"In the district the production relationships are mostly of the subcontractor type, 40% of the companies produce semi-finished and finished products not intended for marketing.There is some R&D activity in high technology: IBM (IBM Rome Software Lab), Ericsson, Leonardo Electronics (Rome-Tiburtina, Rome-Laurentina, Pomezia, Latina), Rheinmetall (\"Radar House\") and tire industry: Bridgestone (R&D center in Rome and proving grounds in Aprilia).===Consumer goods===The most distinctive industry in Lazio is production of household chemicals, pharmaceutical, hygiene goods and medical products: Sigma-Tau, Johnson & Johnson, Procter & Gamble, Colgate Palmolive, Henkel, Pfizer, Abott, Catalent, Angelini, Menarini, Biopharma, Wepa.===Space===* Avio in Colleferro has headquarters and make research, development and manufacturing of solid propellant motors and liquid propellant engines for launch vehicles and tactical propulsion systems; boosters for Ariane 5 rocket* Satellite services are provided from Telespazio which headquarters in Rome * Thales Alenia Space has 2 locations in Rome (Tiburtina and Saccomuro) and makes design and integration of terrestrial observation, navigation and telecommunications satellites=== Agriculture ===Kiwifruit+CerealsСultivated area, haDurum wheat53,398Barley14,294Wheat12,850Maize11,720Oats5,635From fruits the most important are kiwifruit (1st place in Italy) and hazel nuts \"Nocciola romana\".",
"Italy itself is the second largest producer of kiwifruit worldwide and was surpassed only by China.",
"Infrastructure which has been used for grape growing was easily adapted for kiwifruit cultivation.=== Animal husbandry ===''Pecorino romano'' cheese+2019ItalyShare %LazioShare %% Lazio in Italian TotalCattle5,974,94726.0%202,12418.4%3.4%Buffalo402,2861.8%60,8215.5%15.1%Sheep7,000,88030.5%750,52968.2%10.7%Goats1,058,7204.6%35,1943.2%3.3%Pigs8,510,26837.1%51,7404.7%0.6%'''Total'''22,947,101100.0%1,100,408100.0%4.8%Only sheep and buffalo herds are significant nationwide.",
"Both are kept predominantly for milk, which is used in the production of ''pecorino romano'' and ''mozzarella di bufala'' cheese.",
"Sheep herds are the 3rd nationwide after Sardinia and Sicily.",
"40% of sheep are bred in province of Viterbo.=== Viticulture ===Vineyards cover in Lazio.",
"90% of wines are white.",
"In production of quality wine Lazio has rank 14 of 20 with 190.557 hl.There are 3 DOCG wines:* Frascati Superiore* Cannellino di Frascati* Cesanese del Piglio=== Tourism ===File:20160806-DSCF1573-BalTone.jpg|The Colosseum, symbol of Rome in the world, World Heritage Site and one of the seven wonders of the modern worldFile:Musei Vaticani.",
"Braccio Nuovo.JPG|The Vatican Museums, one of the most visited art museums in the worldFile:Faber Village, Lido di Ostia RM, Lazio, Italy - panoramio (3).jpg|Ostia Lido beachFile:Terminillo0000001.jpg|Skiers on the slope at Pian de' Valli (Monte Terminillo) File:Villa d'Este 01.jpg|Villa d'Este in Tivoli, UNESCO World Heritage SiteFile:Doria Pamphili 6284.jpg|Casino del Bel Respiro, Villa Doria PamphiliTourism in Lazio is a thriving sector especially as regards tourism linked to art and monuments and places of interest in the region (Rome in particular), religious tourism (Rome and the sanctuaries of Lazio), summer seaside tourism especially in upper and lower Lazio (Santa Marinella, Ladispoli, Anzio, Nettuno, Sabaudia, San Felice Circeo, Terracina, Sperlonga, Gaeta) and summer/winter tourism in the ski resorts of the Lazio Apennines (Monte Terminillo, Leonessa, Cittareale, Monte Livata, Campo Staffi and Campocatino, Altipiani di Arcinazzo).",
"Other points of interest in the region are the area of the Roman Castles, located south-east of the city of Rome, around the Alban Hills, made up of a group of towns and cities, partly in the territory of Latium Vetus, surrounded by the Roman Campagna.",
"Also the areas around Lake Bracciano and Lake Bolsena, Lazio is home to 14 lakes of volcanic origin.",
"One of the most important archaeological park in Italy is Ostia Antica, known as the port of ancient Rome, Ostia was a city of the Latium Vetus, located near the mouth of the Tiber river.",
"Civita di Bagnoregio, also known as \"the dying city\", has become a popular tourist destination in the country.According to Istat data relating to 2018, Lazio is one of the most visited regions in Italy and Europe and one of the first in terms of number of international presences.",
"Rome is the most visited city in Italy with around 30 million visitors per year.",
"Among the most visited sites of interest include the Colosseum and Imperial fora, Castel Sant'Angelo and the complex of Hadrian's Villa and Villa d'Este, among the museum itineraries the Pantheon, the Gardens of Bomarzo, the Abbey of Fossanova, Monte Cassino Abbey and Farfa Abbey.Lazio has many small and picturesque villages, 25 of them have been selected by (), a non-profit private association of small Italian towns of strong historical and artistic interest, that was founded on the initiative of the Tourism Council of the National Association of Italian Municipalities.=== Statistics ===Lazio GDP growth from 2013 to 2017 in euro:+20132014201520162017Lazio181.204,9181,750.8183.417,6190,600.4193,796.8In 2019 there were 657,855 companies, 10.8% of the national total.Moreover, Lazio's GDP is not produced homogeneously both from a territorial point of view, given the preponderance of the Roman economy compared to that of the other provincial territories, and from the point of view of the productive sectors, given that a large part of the GDP is produced by the services.The table below shows the GDP, produced in Lazio at current market prices in 2006, expressed in millions of euros, broken down into the main economic macro-activities: '''Macro-economic activity''' '''Product GDP''' '''% sector on regional GDP''' '''% sector on Italian GDP'''Agriculture, forestry, fishing € 1,709.3 1.06% 1.84%Industry in the strict sense € 14,208.2 8.85% 18.30%Buildings € 6,872.1 4.28% 5.41%Commerce, repairs, hotels and restaurants, transport and communications € 37,305.5 23.24% 20.54%Monetary and financial intermediation; real estate and entrepreneurial activities € 45,100.7 28.10% 24.17%Other service activities € 39,411.8 24.55% 18.97%VAT, net indirect taxes on products and taxes on imports € 15,909.9 9.91% 10.76%'''Lazio GDP at market prices''' '''€ 160,517.5''' === Unemployment ===The unemployment rate stood at '''7.7%''' in 2022.Year20062007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020212022'''unemployment rate''''''(in %)'''7.5% 6.4% 7.5% 8.4% 9.2% 8.7% 10.6% 12.0%12.5%11.8%11.1% 10.7% 11.2%9.9%9.1%10.0%7.7%"
],
[
"Demographics",
"With a population of 5,714,882 million (as of 31 December 2021), Lazio is the second-most populated region of Italy.",
"The overall population density in the region is 341 inhabitants per km2.However, the population density widely ranges from almost 800 inhabitants per km2 in the highly urbanized Rome metropolitan area to less than 60 inhabitants per km2 in the mountainous and rural province of Rieti.",
"As of January 2023, the Italian national institute of statistics ISTAT estimated that 615,108 foreign-born immigrants live in Lazio, equal to 11.1% of the total regional population.",
"'''Main resident foreign populations''' Nationality Population (1 January 2021)192,983 44,490 41,109 32,653 25,553 24,233 24,149 16,709 16,043 14,899 14,778 13,500 11,667 10,806"
],
[
"Government and politics",
"Lazio has a system of representative democracy in which the President of the Region ('''') is the head of government and of a pluriform multi-party system.",
"Executive power is vested in the regional government ('''') and legislative power is vested in the Regional Council ('''').Rome is centre-left politically oriented by tradition, while the rest of Lazio is centre-right oriented.",
"In the 2008 general election, Lazio gave 44.2% of its vote to the centre-right coalition, while the centre-left block took 41.4% of vote.",
"In the 2013 general election, Lazio gave 40.7% of its vote to the centre-left block coalition, 29.3% to the centre-right coalition and 20.2 to the Five Star Movement.The current president of Lazio is Francesco Rocca, independent politician and former president of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, in office in the centre-right coalition."
],
[
"Administrative divisions",
"Lazio is divided into four provinces and one metropolitan (province-level) city:425px ProvinceArea (km2)PopulationDensity(inhabitants/km2) Province of Frosinone 3,244 496,545 153.1 Province of Latina 2,251 543,844 241.4 Province of Rieti 2,749 158,545 57.7 Metropolitan City of Rome Capital 5,352 4,097,085 765.5 Province of Viterbo 3,612 314,690 87.1"
],
[
"Cuisine",
"One of the most famous forms of food in Lazio is pasta.",
"Dishes first attested inside the region's borders include:Spaghetti_carbonara.jpg|''Spaghetti alla carbonara''Bucatini_allamatriciana.jpg|''Bucatini all'amatriciana''Pizzeria_Bella_Italia_%28Cr%C3%A9pieux-la-Pape%29_-_Penne_all%27arabiata_%282%29_%28f%C3%A9vrier_2020%29.jpg|''Penne all'arrabbiata''Pasta_alla_Gricia.jpg|''Spaghetti alla gricia''''Guanciale'' is used in several sauces.",
"''Guanciale'' is the cut of pork obtained from the cheek of the pig, crossed by lean veins of muscle with a component of valuable fat, of a composition different from ''lardo'' (\"back fat\") and ''pancetta'' (\"belly fat\"): the consistency is harder than ''pancetta'' and it possesses a more distinctive flavor.",
"''Guanciale'' is salted pork fat, different from bacon, which is smoked.",
"It is a typical product of Lazio, Umbria and Abruzzo.",
"Another important ingredient is ''pecorino romano'' cheese.Vegetables are common, artichokes (\"''carciofi''\") being among the most popular:Carciofi_alla_Romana_1.jpg|''Carciofi alla romana''Carciofi_alla_Giud%C3%ACa.jpg|''Carciofi alla giudia''Carciofolata.jpg|''Carciofolata''Romanesco_broccoli_%28Brassica_oleracea%29.jpg|Romanesco broccoliCimadirapa.JPG|''Cima di rapa''ARS_romaine_lettuce.jpg|Romaine lettuceOther popular vegetables are romanesco broccoli, asparagus, fava bean, ''cima di rapa'', romaine lettuce, pumpkin, zucchini and chicory.=== Spices ===In the cuisine of Lazio, spices are widely used.",
"Among the most used are lesser cat-mint, called in Rome \"''mentuccia''\" (for artichokes and mushrooms), squaw mint, called in Rome \"''menta romana''\" (for lamb and tripe), laurel, rosemary, sage, juniper, chili and grated truffle.=== ''Quinto quarto'' ===Although Roman and Lazio cuisine use cheap ingredients like vegetable and pasta, poor people needed a source of protein.",
"Therefore, they used the so-called ''\"quinto quarto\"'' (\"fifth quarter\"), leftovers from animal carcasses that remained after the sale of prized parts to the wealthy.",
"''Quinto quarto'' includes tripe (the most valuable part of reticulum, also called \"''cuffia''\", \"''l'omaso''\" or \"''lampredotto''\"), kidneys (which need to be soaked for a long time in water with lemon to remove urine smell), heart, liver, spleen, sweetbreads (pancreas, thymus and salivary glands), brain, tongue, ox tail, trotters and pajata (intestines of calf, fed only with its mother's milk).",
"The intestines are cleaned and skinned but the chyme (mass of partly digested food) is left inside.",
"Typical dishes of this style are:Rigatoni_con_la_pajata.jpg|''Rigatoni con la pajata''Trippa_Alla_Romana.jpg|''Trippa alla romana''Lampredotto_sandwich.JPG|Lampredotto sandwichCoda_alla_vaccinara-01.jpg|''Coda alla vaccinara''=== Meat dishes ===Traditional meat dishes include ''saltimbocca alla romana'' (veal wrapped with ''prosciutto di Parma'' DOP and sage and cooked in white wine, butter and flour) and ''abbacchio alla romana'' (roasted lamb with garlic, rosemary, pepper and chopped ''prosciutto'').File:Saltimbocca raw (2).jpg|''Saltimbocca alla romana'' (uncooked)File:Abbacchio Pasquale.jpg|''Abbacchio''"
],
[
"Sports",
"Panoramic view of the Stadio OlimpicoStadio Benito Stirpe at night in FrosinoneThe region gives its name to the professional football club SS Lazio that plays in the Italian Serie A.",
"The region has two professional clubs in the top flight, the other being AS Roma, who also play in the highest division of Italian football.",
"Combined, the two have won five Italian championships with Roma winning three and Lazio two.",
"The main sports stadium in Lazio is Stadio Olimpico in Rome which has housed both teams for a prolonged time and hosts Derby della Capitale between the two clubs.",
"The stadium also hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and the 1990 FIFA World Cup final.",
"Outside of Rome the football scene has another club playing in the Serie A, that being Frosinone.Lazio hosts no top-line motorsports events, but the Vallelunga circuit previously hosted the Superbike World Championship in motorcycle racing.Rome is home to many international sporting events and competitions, including:* Italian Open ''Internazionali d'Italia'', which take place between April and May of each year at the Foro Italico;* Rome ePrix, the Formula E championship, has been held on the Circuito Cittadino dell'EUR since 2018;* Six Nations Championship: the home matches of the Italian national rugby team;* International horse show \"Piazza di Siena\", equestrian competition held since 1922 in piazza di Siena, inside Villa Borghese;* Golden Gala Pietro Mennea international event of athletics which takes place annually at the Stadio Olimpico;* Rome Marathon, organized in spring with start and finish in Via dei Fori Imperiali."
],
[
"See also",
"* Geography of Italy* Regions of Italy* Administrative divisions of Italy* Roman cuisine"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official Touristic Site of the Regione Lazio * Official Site of the Regione Lazio"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Los Alamos"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Los Alamos''' usually refers to Los Alamos, New Mexico.",
"'''Los Alamos''' may also refer to:"
],
[
"Establishments",
"*Los Alamos National Laboratory*Los Alamos Laboratory, also known as Project Y, the war-time laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico.",
"*Los Alamos Museum, unofficial name of the Bradbury Science Museum*Los Alamos Ranch School, boys' school"
],
[
"Places",
"* Los Alamos, California* Los Álamos, Chile* Los Alamos, New Mexico* Los Alamos County, New Mexico* Cañada de los Alamos, New Mexico"
],
[
"Media",
"*''Los Alamos'', a novel by Joseph Kanon*''Los Alamos'', a book by the photographer William Eggleston"
],
[
"Other",
"*Los Alamos chess, a chess variant*''Los Alamos'' (AFDB-7), a former large floating dry dock*Los Álamos, a station on the Cercanías Málaga commuter rail service in Málaga, Spain"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lee Van Cleef"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Clarence LeRoy Van Cleef Jr.''' (January 9, 1925 – December 16, 1989) was an American actor.",
"He appeared in over 170 film and television roles in a career spanning nearly 40 years, but is best known as a star of Italian Spaghetti Westerns, particularly the Sergio Leone-directed ''Dollars Trilogy'' films ''For a Few Dollars More'' (1965) and ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' (1966).",
"He received a Golden Boot Award in 1983 for his contribution to the Western film and television genre.Born and raised in Somerville, New Jersey, Van Cleef served in the United States Navy during World War II aboard a minesweeper, earning a Bronze Star for his actions.",
"After acting on stage in regional theatre, he made his film debut in the Oscar-winning Western ''High Noon'' (1952) in a non-speaking outlaw cast role.",
"With distinctive, angular features and a taciturn screen persona, Van Cleef was typecast as minor villain and supporting player in Westerns and crime dramas.",
"After suffering serious injuries in a car crash, Van Cleef's acting career started to decline.",
"However, he achieved unexpected stardom when director Sergio Leone offered him the co-leading role in ''For a Few Dollars More''.",
"The film proved to be a huge hit and cited him as a box-office draw, largely in Europe.",
"Van Cleef went on to appear in films such as Leone's ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' (1966), as well as ''The Big Gundown'' (1967), ''Death Rides a Horse'' (1967), ''Day of Anger'' (1967), ''Beyond the Law'' (1968), ''Commandos'' (also 1968), ''Sabata'' (1969) and its sequel ''Return of Sabata'' (1971), ''Barquero'' (1970), ''El Condor'' (also 1970), ''The Magnificent Seven Ride!''",
"(1972), ''The Grand Duel'' (also 1972), ''Mean Frank and Crazy Tony'' (1973), ''The Stranger and the Gunfighter'' (1974), ''Take a Hard Ride'' (1975), ''God's Gun'' (1976), ''The Rip-Off'' (1978), television film '' The Hard Way'' (1979), ''The Octagon'' (1980), and ''Escape from New York'' (1981), ''Code Name: Wild Geese'' (1984), ''Armed Response'' (1986) and ''Speed Zone'' (1989).",
"He also played the lead role of John Peter McAllister on the martial arts television series ''The Master'' (1984)."
],
[
"Early life",
"Lee Van Cleef was born on January 9, 1925, in Somerville, New Jersey, to Marion Lavinia Van Fleet and Clarence LeRoy Van Cleef (both Christians).",
"His father was a pharmacist and his mother a concert pianist.",
"Lee graduated high school early at the age of 17 from Somerville High School, New Jersey, in order to enlist in the United States Navy in September 1942."
],
[
"Military service",
"After completing his military training, Van Cleef was assigned to a submarine chaser and then to a minesweeper called the , on which he worked as a sonarman.The ship initially patrolled the Caribbean, then moved to the Mediterranean, participating in the landings in southern France.",
"In January 1945, ''Incredible'' moved to the Black Sea, and performed sweeping duties out of the Soviet Navy base at Sevastopol, Crimea.",
"Afterwards, the ship performed air-sea rescue patrols in the Black Sea before returning to Palermo, Sicily.",
"By the time of his discharge in March 1946, he had achieved the rank of Sonarman First Class (SO1) and had earned his mine sweeper patch.",
"He also had been awarded the Bronze Star and the Good Conduct Medal.",
"By virtue of his deployments, Van Cleef also qualified for the European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal, Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, the American Campaign Medal, and the World War II Victory Medal.",
"He was discharged from the navy in 1946.border Bronze Star80px Good Conduct Medal80px European–African–Middle Eastern Campaign MedalAsiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal ribbon Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medalalt=American Campaign Medal ribbon American Campaign MedalRibbon for World War II Victory Medal World War II Victory Medal"
],
[
"Acting career",
"After leaving the navy, Van Cleef received his first acting role as a reader for the play ''Our Town'' at the Little Theater Group in Clinton, New Jersey.",
"From there, he continued to meet with the group and audition for parts.",
"The next biggest part was that of the boxer, Joe Pendleton, in the play ''Heaven Can Wait''.",
"During this time, he was observed by visiting talent scouts, who were impressed by Van Cleef's stage presence and delivery.",
"One of these scouts later took him to New York City talent agent Maynard Morris of the MCA agency, who then sent him to the Alvin Theater for an audition.",
"The play was ''Mister Roberts''.Van Cleef's screen debut came in ''High Noon''.",
"During a performance of ''Mister Roberts'' in Los Angeles, he was noticed by film producer Stanley Kramer, who offered Van Cleef a role in his upcoming film.",
"Kramer originally wanted Van Cleef for the role of the deputy Harvey Pell, but as he wanted Van Cleef to have his \"distinctive nose\" fixed, Van Cleef declined the role in favor of the part of the silent gunslinger Jack Colby.",
"He was then cast mostly in villainous roles, from the part of Tony Romano in ''Kansas City Confidential'' (1952), culminating 14 years later in Sergio Leone's ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' (1966).Van Cleef in ''Kansas City Confidential'' (1952)Aside from Westerns and the science fiction films, three of his early major roles were in noir films, ''Kansas City Confidential'' (1952), ''Vice Squad'' (1953) and ''The Big Combo'' (1955).",
"In 1952, he made his television debut when he was cast in the episode \"Formula for Fear\" of the Western aviation series ''Sky King''.",
"Van Cleef appeared six times between 1953 and 1955 on the children's syndicated Western series ''The Adventures of Kit Carson'', starring Bill Williams.",
"He was cast three times, including the role of Rocky Hatch in the episode \"Greed Rides the Range\" (1952), of another syndicated Western series, ''The Range Rider''.",
"He appeared in episode 82 of the TV series ''The Lone Ranger'' in 1952.In 1954, he appeared as Jesse James in the syndicated series ''Stories of the Century''.In 1955, he was cast twice on another syndicated Western series, ''Annie Oakley''.",
"That same year, he guest-starred on the CBS Western series ''Brave Eagle''.",
"In 1955, he played one of the two villains in an episode of ''The Adventures of Champion'' the Wonder Horse.",
"He played Cherokee Bob in the NBC Western series ''Tales of Wells Fargo'' in 1957.In 1958, he was cast as Ed Murdock, a rodeo performer trying to reclaim the title in the event at Madison Square Garden in New York City, on ''Richard Diamond, Private Detective''.Van Cleef played different characters on four episodes of ABC's ''The Rifleman'', with Chuck Connors, between 1959 and 1962 (as Stinger in S2 E31 \"The Prodigal\" 1960), and twice on ABC's ''Tombstone Territory''.",
"In 1958, he was cast as Deputy Sid Carver in the episode \"The Great Stagecoach Robbery\" of another syndicated Western series, ''Frontier Doctor'', starring Rex Allen.",
"In 1959, Van Cleef appeared as Luke Clagg in the episode \"Strange Request\" of the NBC Western series ''Riverboat'' starring Darren McGavin, as Jumbo Kane in the episode \"The Hostage\" on the CBS Western series \"Wanted Dead or Alive\" starring Steve McQueen, and in an episode of ''Maverick'' titled \"Red Dog\" in 1961 starring Roger Moore and John Carradine.Van Cleef (l.), Jean Wallace and Earl Holliman in ''The Big Combo'' (1955)Van Cleef played a sentry on an episode of the ABC sitcom ''The Real McCoys'', with Walter Brennan.",
"Van Cleef was cast with Pippa Scott and again with Chuck Connors in the 1960 episode \"Trial by Fear\" of the CBS anthology series ''The DuPont Show with June Allyson''.",
"A young Van Cleef also made an appearance on ''The Andy Griffith Show'' and as Frank Diamond in ''The Untouchables'', in an episode entitled \"The Unhired Assassin\".",
"He also appeared in an episode of the ABC/Warner Brothers Western series ''The Alaskans''.Van Cleef guest-starred on the CBS Western series ''Have Gun – Will Travel'', on the ABC/Warner Bros. series ''Colt .45'', on the NBC Western series ''Cimarron City'' and ''Laramie'', and on Rod Cameron's syndicated crime dramas ''City Detective'' and ''State Trooper''.",
"He guest-starred in an episode of John Bromfield's syndicated crime drama ''Sheriff of Cochise''.",
"Van Cleef starred as minor villains and henchmen in various Westerns, including ''The Tin Star'' and ''Gunfight at the O.K.",
"Corral''.",
"His film characters died in many of his Westerns and gangster portrayals.In 1960, he appeared as a villainous swindler in the ''Bonanza'' episode, \"The Bloodline\" (December 31, 1960) and also made an appearance on ''Gunsmoke''.",
"In 1961, he played a role on episode 7 (\"The Grave\") of the third season of ''The Twilight Zone'' starring Lee Marvin.",
"He played a villainous henchman of Lee Marvin's titular character in the 1962 John Ford movie ''The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance'' starring John Wayne and James Stewart.",
"In 1963, he appeared on ''Perry Mason'' (episode: \"The Case of the Golden Oranges\").",
"That same year, he appeared in \"The Day of the Misfits\" on ''The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters''.=== Stardom ===Van Cleef in ''Death Rides a Horse'' (1967)In 1965, Sergio Leone cast Van Cleef, whose career had yet to take off, as a main protagonist alongside Clint Eastwood in ''For a Few Dollars More''.",
"Leone then chose Van Cleef to appear again with Eastwood, this time as the primary antagonist, Angel Eyes, in the now seminal Western ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' (1966).",
"With his roles in Leone's films, Van Cleef became a major star of Spaghetti Westerns, playing central, and often surprisingly heroic, roles in films such as ''The Big Gundown'' (1966), ''Death Rides a Horse'' (1967), ''Day of Anger'' (1967), and ''The Grand Duel'' (1972).",
"He played the title role in ''Sabata'' (1969) and ''Return of Sabata'' (1971), and co-starred with Jim Brown in an Italian-American co-production, ''Take a Hard Ride'' (1975).",
"In two of his final westerns he co-starred with Leif Garrett in ''God's Gun'' (1976) and ''Kid Vengeance'' (1977), both of which were filmed mainly in Israel.",
"During the 1970's Van Cleef also had leading roles, in American Westerns such as ''Barquero'' (1970), ''El Condor'' (1970) and ''The Magnificent Seven Ride!''",
"(1972).Van Cleef starred alongside Chuck Norris in the martial arts film ''The Octagon'' (1980).",
"Van Cleef later had a supporting role in John Carpenter's cult film ''Escape from New York'' (1981).",
"He slipped out of the limelight in his later years.",
"In 1984, he was cast as a ninja master in the NBC adventure series ''The Master'', but it was canceled after thirteen episodes.",
"Van Cleef also appeared alongside David Carradine in ''Armed Response '' (1986).",
"In all, Van Cleef is credited with 90 movie roles and 109 television appearances over a 38-year span."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Van Cleef was married three times.",
"His first marriage was to Patsy Ruth Kahle, in 1943.They had three children, Alan, Deborah and David, and divorced in 1958.His second marriage was to Joan Marjorie Drane, from 1960 to 1974.His final marriage was to Barbara Havelone in 1976, who survived him.He lost the last joint of the middle finger of his right hand while building a playhouse for his daughter.In 1958, a severe car crash nearly cost Van Cleef his life and career.",
"A resulting knee injury made his physicians think that he would never ride a horse again.",
"This injury plagued Van Cleef for the rest of his life and caused him great pain.",
"His recovery was long and difficult and halted his acting for a time.",
"He then began a business in interior decoration with second wife Joan, as well as pursuing his talent for painting, primarily of sea and landscapes.Van Cleef as Jonathan Corbett in ''The Big Gundown'' (1967)"
],
[
"Death",
"Van Cleef's grave at Forest Lawn Hollywood HillsDespite suffering from heart disease from the late 1970s and having a pacemaker installed in the early 1980s, Van Cleef continued to work in films until his death on December 16, 1989, at age 64.He collapsed in his home in Oxnard, California, from a heart attack.",
"Throat cancer was listed as a secondary cause of death.",
"He was buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery, Hollywood Hills, California, with an inscription on his grave marker referring to his many acting performances as a villain: \"BEST OF THE BAD\".At his funeral many wore cowboy hats and western clothing in tribute.",
"Attending was Clint Eastwood who said that Van Cleef had one of the better faces on the screen - and that you cannot have a good protagonist without a strong antagonist."
],
[
"Filmography",
"=== Film ===YearTitleRoleDirectorNotes1952''High Noon''Jack ColbyFred Zinnemann''Untamed Frontier''Dave ChittunHugo Fregonese''Kansas City Confidential''Tony RomanoPhil Karlson1953''The Lawless Breed''Dirk HanleyRaoul Walsh''The Bandits of Corsica''NervaRay Nazarro''White Lightning''Brutus AllenEdward Bernds''The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms''Corporal StoneEugène Lourié''Arena''\"Smitty\" SmithRichard Fleischer''Vice Squad''Pete MonteArnold Laven''Jack Slade''\"Bolt\" MackayHarold D. Schuster''Tumbleweed''Marvin \"Marv\"Nathan Juran''The Nebraskan''Private Reno BentonFred F. Sears1954''Gypsy Colt''HankAndrew Marton''Rails Into Laramie''\"Ace\" WintonJesse Hibbs''Arrow in the Dust''Tilotson HenchmanLesley Selander''The Yellow Tomahawk''Fire KnifeLesley Selander''Princess of the Nile''HakarHarmon JonesUncredited''The Desperado''Paul Crayton / 'Buck' CraytonThomas Carr''Dawn at Socorro''Earl FerrisGeorge Sherman1955''Treasure of Ruby Hills''Frank EmmettFrank McDonald''Ten Wanted Men''Al DruckerH.",
"Bruce Humberstone''The Big Combo''FanteJoseph H. Lewis''I Cover the Underworld''\"Flash\" LoganR.",
"G. Springsteen''The Road to Denver''Larry \"Pecos Larry\"Joseph Kane''The Naked Street''Harry GoldishMaxwell Shane Uncredited''A Man Alone''ClantonRay Milland''The Vanishing American''Jay LordJoseph Kane1956''The Conqueror''ChepeiDick Powell''Tribute to a Bad Man''\"Fat\" JonesRobert Wise''It Conquered the World''Dr.",
"Tom AndersonRoger Corman''Pardners''GusNorman Taurog''Accused of Murder''Sergeant Emmett LackeyJoseph Kane1957''The Quiet Gun''Doug SadlerWilliam F. Claxton''The Badge of Marshal Brennan''\"Shad\" DonaphinAlbert C. Gannaway''China Gate''Major ChamSamuel Fuller''Gunfight at the O.K.",
"Corral''Ed BaileyJohn Sturges''The Lonely Man''FaroHenry Levin''The Last Stagecoach West''Steve MargoliesJoseph Kane''Joe Dakota''Adam GrantRichard Bartlett''The Tin Star''Ed McGaffeyAnthony Mann''Gun Battle at Monterey''KirbySidney Franklin Jr.Carl K. Hittleman''Raiders of Old California''Sergeant Damon PardeeAlbert C. Gannaway1958''Day of the Bad Man''Jake HayesHarry Keller''The Young Lions''1st Sergeant RickettEdward Dmytryk''The Bravados''Alfonso ParralHenry King''Guns, Girls, and Gangsters''Mike BenettEdward L. Cahn''Machete''MiguelKurt Neumann''Ride Lonesome''FrankBudd Boetticher1961''Posse from Hell''LeoHerbert Coleman1962''The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance''ReeseJohn Ford''How the West Was Won''River PirateJohn FordHenry HathawayGeorge MarshallUncredited1965''For a Few Dollars More''Colonel Douglas MortimerSergio Leone1966''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly''\"Angel Eyes\" / \"The Bad\"Sergio Leone1967''The Big Gundown''Jonathan CorbettSergio Sollima''Death Rides a Horse''RyanGiulio Petroni''Day of Anger''Frank TalbyTonino Valerii1968''Beyond the Law''Billy Joe CudlipGiorgio Stegani''Commandos''Master Sergeant SullivanArmando Crispino1969''Sabata''SabataGianfranco Parolini1970''Barquero''TravisGordon Douglas''El Condor''JarooJohn Guillermin1971''Captain Apache''Captain ApacheAlexander Singer''Return of Sabata''SabataGianfranco Parolini''Bad Man's River''Roy KingEugenio Martín1972''The Magnificent Seven Ride!",
"''Chris AdamsGeorge McCowan''The Grand Duel''Sheriff ClaytonGiancarlo Santi1973''Mean Frank and Crazy Tony''Frankie DiomedeMichele Lupo1974''The Stranger and the Gunfighter''DakotaAntonio Margheriti1975''Take a Hard Ride''KieferAntonio Margheriti1976''God's Gun''Father John / LewisGianfranco Parolini1977''''McClainJoe Manduke''''Harry ChapmanMario Siciliano1978''The Rip-Off''Chris Gretchko / Ray SloanAntonio MargheritiAlso known as ''The Squeeze''1980''The Octagon''McCarnEric Karson1981''Escape from New York''Police Commissioner Bob HaukJohn Carpenter1984''''Julot''Code Name: Wild Geese''\"China\"Antonio Margheriti1985''Jungle Raiders''WarrenAntonio Margheriti1986''Armed Response''Burt RothFred Olen Ray1988''''Colonel MazzariniAntonio Margheriti1989''Speed Zone''Rock-Skipping GrandfatherJim Drake1990''Thieves of Fortune''Sergio Danielo ChristopheroMichael MacCarthy''Posthumous release''=== Television ===YearTitleRole(s)Episode(s)Network(s)1952''Sky King''Mark\"Formula for Fear\"NBC-TV, ABC-TC''Boston Blackie''Lou / Captain JansenInside Crime; Deep Six1952–53''The Range Rider'''El Latigo' / Joe 'Utah Joe' / Rocky Hatch\"Treasure of Santa Dolores\"; \"Outlaw's Double\"; \"Greed Rides the Range\"''The Lone Ranger''Joe Singer / 'Bull' Harper / Henchman Jango\"Desperado at Large\"; \"The Brown Pony\"; \"Stage to Estacado\"1954–62''Death Valley Days''Unknown / Brogger\"Snowshoe Thompson\"; \"The Hat That Won the West\"1954''The Adventures of Rin Tin Tin''Ed McCleod\"Rin Tin Tin and The Ranging River\"1955''The Man Behind the Badge''Floyd\"The Case of the Desperate Moment\"CBS''Champion the Wonder Horse''Frank\"Crossroad Trail\"CBS1957''Tales of Wells Fargo''Cherokee BobAlder GulchNBC''Trackdown''Ben\"The Town\"1958''Wagon Train'''Rufe' Beal\"The Jesse Cowan Story\"''Zorro''Antonio Castillo\"Welcome to Monterey\"''Richard Diamond, Private Detective''Ed Murdock\"Rodeo\"1959''Mr.",
"Lucky''\"Dangerous Lady\"''Yancy Derringer''Ike Milton / Frank James\"Outlaw at Liberty\"''Wanted: Dead or Alive'''Jumbo' Kane\"The Hostage\"''The Real McCoys''1st Sentry\"Grandpa Fights the Air Force\"1959–62''The Rifleman''Dan Maury / 'Stinger' / Wicks / Johnny Drako\"The Deadly Wait\"; \"The Prodigal\"; \"The Clarence Bibs Story\"; \"Death Never Rides Alone\"ABC-TV1960''The Slowest Gun in the West''Sam BassTV movie''77 Sunset Strip''Deek\"Attic\"Warner Bros.''Bonanza''Appling\"The Blood Line\"NBC-TV1960–63''Laramie''Wes Torrey / Dawson / 'Mac' Morgan / Caleb\".45 Calibre\"; \"Killer Odds\"; \"Vengeance\"; \"The Stranger\"1960–66''Gunsmoke''Rad Meadows / Johnny Hooker / Ike Jeffords\"Old Flame\"/\"The Pariah\"/\"My Father, My Son\"1961''Maverick'''Wolf' McManus\"Red Dog\"1961–62''Cheyenne''Braden / Larry Jackson / Harry\"Trouble Street\"; \"A Man Called Ragen\"; \"Man Alone\"1961''The Twilight Zone''Steinhart\"The Grave\"CBS-TV''Stagecoach West''Lin Hyatt\"Never Walk Alone\"1963''The Joey Bishop Show''Charlie\"Double Exposure\"''The Dakotas''Slade Tucker\"Thunder in Pleasant Valley\"ABC-TV''Perry Mason''Edward Doyle\"The Case of the Golden Oranges\"1962–63''Have Gun – Will Travel''Corbin / Golias\"The Treasure\"; \"Face of a Shadow\"''Ripcord''Henry Kane / Jack Martin\"Thoroughbred\"; \"The Money Mine\"1964''Rawhide''Fred Grant / Deck Sommers\"The Enormous Fist\"; \"Piney\"CBS-TV1965''The Andy Griffith Show''Purse Thief\"Banjo-Playing Deputy\"CBS-TV''My Mother the Car''Nick Fitch\"Burned at the Steak\"1965–66''Branded''\"The Richest Man in Boot Hill\", \"Call to Glory\"NBC-TV1966''Laredo''Mike 'Big Mike' Kelly\"Quarter Past Eleven\"1980''The Hard Way''McNealITV (UK)1984''The Master''John Peter McAllisterAll episodes; starring roleNBC-TV===Soundtrack===* Captain Apache (1971)* The Stranger and the Gunfighter (1974)"
],
[
"Awards and nominations",
"===Golden Boot Awards===* '''Winner''' Golden Boot (1983)"
],
[
"In popular culture",
"* Lee Van Cleef's characters in the Sergio Leone movies inspired the creation of the characters Elliot Belt of the ''Lucky Luke'' comic album ''The Bounty Hunter'', and Cad Bane of the ''Star Wars'' franchise.",
"* The band Primus has a song about Lee Van Cleef on their album ''Green Naugahyde''.",
"* Guitarist and ex-Guns N' Roses member Ron Thal recorded an instrumental piece titled \"The Legend of Van Cleef\".",
"* The ''Warcraft'' universe features the villain Edwin Van Cleef, inspired by Lee Van Cleef.",
"* The Black Library magazine ''Inferno!''",
"featured several short stories, within the Necromunda setting, starring a bounty hunter named Nathan Creed, who was written as a homage to Lee Van Cleef; writer Jonathan Green described the character as \"Lee Van Cleef, Clint Eastwood, The Man With No Name and John Wayne all rolled into one\", and illustrations in the magazine clearly showed Creed as physically nearly identical to Van Cleef.",
"* Philip Pullman, author of the bestselling trilogy ''His Dark Materials'', stated that the first name of his fictional American explorer, airman, and crack marksman Lee Scoresby was a reference to Van Cleef, with the character's surname as an homage to the famous Arctic explorer William Scoresby.",
"* Van Cleef was parodied in ''GLC: The Carnage Continues...'', a short British comedy film of the late 1980s that humorously joined British politics with Hollywood action stars.",
"Van Cleef is portrayed by the film's director Peter Richardson, though it rather suggests Van Cleef the personage is unrealistically playing Tony Benn, a British member of Parliament.",
"* Van Cleef served as visual inspiration for the characters of Revolver Ocelot and Old Snake in the ''Metal Gear Solid'' video game series as well as inspiring the gunslinger personality of the former.",
"* Hungarian musician Tamás Cseh wrote the song \"Lee van Cleef\".",
"*British singers Paul Heaton and Jacqui Abbott mention Lee and Clint Eastwood in the song, \"When I Get Back to Blighty\".",
"*Stargate SG-1 has references to Lee Van Cleef in Season 4, Episode 20 \"Entity\".",
"The 'Entity' is searching through personnel files on a projected computer screen, with the first listed name that shows up as Lee Van Cleef, with team designation \"SG-1\" and a rank of \"Master\".",
"His name appears several more times with pictures of different people.",
"*In the 2000 comedy-western film Shanghai Noon, actor Xander Berkeley portrays an antagonistic character named Marshal Nathan Van Cleef."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*** TheBad.net: A Tribute to Lee Van Cleef"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Luigi Pirandello"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Luigi Pirandello''' (; 28 June 1867 – 10 December 1936) was an Italian dramatist, novelist, poet, and short story writer whose greatest contributions were his plays.",
"He was awarded the 1934 Nobel Prize in Literature for \"his almost magical power to turn psychological analysis into good theatre.\"",
"Pirandello's works include novels, hundreds of short stories, and about 40 plays, some of which are written in Sicilian.",
"Pirandello's tragic farces are often seen as forerunners of the Theatre of the Absurd."
],
[
"Biography",
"===Early life===Pirandello in 1884.Pirandello was born into an upper-class family in an area called \"Caos\" (\"Chaos\" in Italian, but in Sicilian dialect lit.",
"\"Trouser\", from the shape of a nearby ravine), near Porto Empedocle, a poor suburb of Girgenti (Agrigento, a town in southern Sicily).",
"His father, Stefano Pirandello, belonged to a wealthy family involved in the sulphur industry, and his mother, Caterina Ricci Gramitto, was also of a well-to-do background, descending from a family of the bourgeois professional class of Agrigento.",
"Both families, the Pirandellos and the Ricci Gramittos, were ferociously anti-Bourbon and actively participated in the struggle for unification and democracy (\"Il Risorgimento\").",
"Stefano participated in the famous Expedition of the Thousand, later following Garibaldi all the way to the battle of Aspromonte, and Caterina, who had hardly reached the age of thirteen, was forced to accompany her father to Malta, where he had been sent into exile by the Bourbon monarchy.",
"But the open participation in the Garibaldian cause and the strong sense of idealism of those early years were quickly transformed, above all in Caterina, into an angry and bitter disappointment with the new reality created by the unification.",
"Pirandello would eventually assimilate this sense of betrayal and resentment and express it in several of his poems and in his novel ''The Old and the Young''.",
"It is also probable that this climate of disillusion inculcated in the young Luigi the sense of disproportion between ideals and reality which is recognizable in his essay on humorism (''L'Umorismo'').",
"''L'Umorismo'', 1908Pirandello received his elementary education at home, but was much more fascinated by the fables and legends, somewhere between popular and magic, that his elderly servant Maria Stella used to recount to him than by anything scholastic or academic.",
"By the age of twelve, he had already written his first tragedy.",
"At the insistence of his father, he was registered at a technical school, but eventually switched to the study of the humanities at the ''ginnasio'', something which had always attracted him.In 1880, the Pirandello family moved to Palermo.",
"It was here, in the capital of Sicily, that Luigi completed his high school education.",
"He also began reading omnivorously, focusing, above all, on 19th-century Italian poets such as Giosuè Carducci and Arturo Graf.",
"He then started writing his first poems and fell in love with his cousin Lina.During this period, the first signs of serious differences arose between Luigi and his father; Luigi had discovered some notes revealing the existence of Stefano's extramarital relations.",
"As a reaction to the ever-increasing distrust and disharmony that Luigi was developing toward his father, a man of a robust physique and crude manners, his attachment to his mother would continue growing to the point of profound veneration.",
"This later expressed itself, after her death, in the moving pages of the novella ''Colloqui con i personaggi'' in 1915.His romantic feelings for his cousin, initially looked upon with disfavour, were suddenly taken very seriously by Lina's family.",
"They demanded that Luigi abandon his studies and dedicate himself to the sulphur business so that he could immediately marry her.",
"In 1886, during a vacation from school, Luigi went to visit the sulphur mines of Porto Empedocle and started working with his father.",
"This experience was essential to him and would provide the basis for such stories as ''Il Fumo'', ''Ciàula scopre la Luna'' as well as some of the descriptions and background in the novel ''The Old and the Young''.",
"The marriage, which had seemed imminent, was postponed.Pirandello then registered at the University of Palermo in the departments of Law and of Letters.",
"The campus at Palermo, and above all the Department of Law, was the centre in those years of the vast movement which would eventually evolve into the Fasci Siciliani.",
"Although Pirandello was not an active member of this movement, he had close ties of friendship with its leading ideologists: Rosario Garibaldi Bosco, Enrico La Loggia, Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida and Francesco De Luca.===Higher education===In 1887, having definitively chosen the Department of Letters, he moved to Rome in order to continue his studies.",
"But the encounter with the city, centre of the struggle for unification to which the families of his parents had participated with generous enthusiasm, was disappointing and nothing close to what he had expected.",
"\"When I arrived in Rome it was raining hard, it was night time and I felt like my heart was being crushed, but then I laughed like a man in the throes of desperation.",
"\"Pirandello, who was an extremely sensitive moralist, finally had a chance to see for himself the irreducible decadence of the so-called heroes of the Risorgimento in the person of his uncle Rocco, now a greying and exhausted functionary of the prefecture who provided him with temporary lodgings in Rome.",
"The \"desperate laugh\",the only manifestation of revenge for the disappointment undergone, inspired the bitter verses of his first collection of poems, ''Mal Giocondo'' (1889).",
"But not all was negative; this first visit to Rome provided him with the opportunity to assiduously visit the many theatres of the capital: Il Nazionale, Il Valle, il Manzoni.",
"\"Oh the dramatic theatre!",
"I will conquer it.",
"I cannot enter into one without experiencing a strange sensation, an excitement of the blood through all my veins...\"Because of a conflict with a Latin professor, he was forced to leave the University of Rome and went to Bonn with a letter of presentation from one of his other professors.",
"The stay in Bonn, which lasted two years, was fervid with cultural life.",
"He read the German romantics, Jean Paul, Tieck, Chamisso, Heinrich Heine and Goethe.",
"He began translating the ''Roman Elegies'' of Goethe, composed the ''Elegie Boreali'' in imitation of the style of the ''Roman Elegies'', and he began to meditate on the topic of humorism by way of the works of Cecco Angiolieri.In March 1891 he received his doctorate in Romance Philology with a dissertation on the dialect of Agrigento: ''Sounds and Developments of Sounds in the Speech of Craperallis''.===Marriage===After a brief sojourn in Sicily, during which the planned marriage with his cousin was finally called off, he returned to Rome, where he became friends with a group of writer-journalists including Ugo Fleres, Tomaso Gnoli, Giustino Ferri and Luigi Capuana.",
"Capuana encouraged Pirandello to dedicate himself to narrative writing.",
"In 1893 he wrote his first important work, ''Marta Ajala'', which was published in 1901 as ''l'Esclusa''.",
"In 1894 he published his first collection of short stories, ''Amori senza Amore''.",
"He also married in 1894, choosing (on his father's suggestion) a shy, withdrawn girl of a good family of Agrigentine origin educated by the nuns of San Vincenzo: Maria Antonietta Portulano.The first years of matrimony brought on in him a new fervour for his studies and writings: his encounters with his friends and the discussions on art continued, more vivacious and stimulating than ever, while his family life, despite the complete incomprehension of his wife with respect to the artistic vocation of her husband, proceeded relatively tranquilly with the birth of two sons (Stefano and Fausto) and a daughter (Rosalia \"Lietta\").",
"In the meantime, Pirandello intensified his collaborations with newspaper editors and other journalists in magazines such as ''La Critica'' and ''La Tavola Rotonda'' in which he published, in 1895, the first part of the ''Dialoghi tra Il Gran Me e Il Piccolo Me''.In 1897 he accepted an offer to teach Italian at the Istituto Superiore di Magistero di Roma, and in the magazine ''Il Marzocco'' he published several more pages of the ''Dialogi''.",
"In 1898, with Italo Falbo and Ugo Fleres, he founded the weekly ''Ariel'', in which he published the one-act play ''L'Epilogo'' (later changed to ''La Morsa'') and some novellas (La Scelta, Se...).",
"The end of the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th were a period of extreme productivity for Pirandello.",
"In 1900, he published in ''Il Marzocco'' some of the most celebrated of his novellas (''Lumie di Sicilia'', ''La Paura del Sonno''...) and, in 1901, the collection of poems ''Zampogna''.",
"In 1902 he published the first series of ''Beffe della Morte e della Vita'' and his second novel, ''Il Turno''.===Family disaster===The year 1903 was fundamental to the life of Pirandello.",
"The flooding of the sulphur mines of Aragona, in which his father Stefano had invested not only an enormous amount of his own capital but also Antonietta's dowry, precipitated the financial collapse of the family.",
"Antonietta, after opening and reading the letter announcing the catastrophe, entered into a state of semi-catatonia and underwent such a psychological shock that her mental balance remained profoundly and irremediably shaken.Pirandello, who had initially harboured thoughts of suicide, attempted to remedy the situation as best he could by increasing the number of his lessons in both Italian and German and asking for compensation from the magazines to which he had freely given away his writings and collaborations.",
"In the magazine ''New Anthology'', directed by G. Cena, meanwhile, the novel which Pirandello had been writing while in this horrible situation (watching over his mentally ill wife at night after an entire day spent at work) began appearing in episodes.",
"The title was ''Il Fu Mattia Pascal'' (''The Late Mattia Pascal'').",
"This novel contains many autobiographical elements that have been fantastically re-elaborated.",
"It was an immediate and resounding success.",
"Translated into German in 1905, this novel paved the way to the notoriety and fame which allowed Pirandello to publish with the more important firms such as Treves, with whom he published, in 1906, another collection of novellas ''Erma Bifronte''.",
"In 1908 he published a volume of essays entitled ''Arte e Scienza'' and the important essay ''L'Umorismo'', in which he initiated the legendary debate with Benedetto Croce that would continue with increasing bitterness and venom on both sides for many years.In 1905 he took his wife to stay in Chianciano Terme together with their children where they stay there for two months in what the writer called the ''village nestled on the windy hill'' right in ''opposite the Collegiata''.",
"Two short stories contained in the book ''Short stories for a year'' are coveted in this country: ''Bitter water'' and ''Pallino and Mimì''.In 1909 the first part of ''I Vecchi e I Giovani'' was published in episodes.",
"This novel retraces the history of the failure and repression of the Fasci Siciliani in the period from 1893 to 1894.When the novel came out in 1913 Pirandello sent a copy of it to his parents for their fiftieth wedding anniversary along with a dedication which said that \"their names, Stefano and Caterina, live heroically.\"",
"However, while the mother is transfigured in the novel into the otherworldly figure of Caterina Laurentano, the father, represented by the husband of Caterina, Stefano Auriti, appears only in memories and flashbacks, since, as was acutely observed by Leonardo Sciascia, \"he died censured in a Freudian sense by his son who, in the bottom of his soul, is his enemy.\"",
"Also in 1909, Pirandello began his collaboration with the prestigious journal ''Corriere della Sera'' in which he published the novellas ''Mondo di Carta'' (''World of Paper''), ''La Giara'', and, in 1910, ''Non è una cosa seria'' and ''Pensaci, Giacomino!''",
"(''Think it over, Giacomino!'')",
"At this point Pirandello's fame as a writer was continually increasing.",
"His private life, however, was poisoned by the suspicion and obsessive jealousy of Antonietta who began turning physically violent.In 1911, while the publication of novellas and short stories continued, Pirandello finished his fourth novel, ''Suo Marito'', republished posthumously (1941), and completely revised in the first four chapters, with the title ''Giustino Roncella nato Boggiòlo''.",
"During his life the author never republished this novel for reasons of discretion; within are implicit references to the writer Grazia Deledda.",
"But the work which absorbed most of his energies at this time was the collection of stories ''La vendetta del cane'', ''Quando s'è capito il giuoco'', ''Il treno ha fischiato'', ''Filo d'aria'' and ''Berecche e la guerra''.",
"They were all published from 1913 to 1914 and are all now considered classics of Italian literature.===First World War===As Italy entered the First World War, Pirandello's son Stefano volunteered for service and was taken prisoner by the Austro-Hungarians.",
"In 1916 the actor Angelo Musco successfully recited the three-act comedy that the writer had extracted from the novella ''Pensaci, Giacomino!''",
"and the ''pastoral'' comedy ''Liolà''.In 1917 the collection of novellas ''E domani Lunedì'' (''And Tomorrow, Monday...'') was published, but the year was mostly marked by important theatrical representations: ''Così è (se vi pare)'' (''Right you are (if you think so)''), ''A birrita cu' i ciancianeddi'' and ''Il Piacere dell'onestà'' (''The Pleasure Of Honesty'').",
"A year later, ''Ma non è una cosa seria'' (''But It's Nothing Serious'') and ''Il Gioco delle Parti'' (''The Game of Roles'') were all produced on stage.",
"Pirandello's son Stefano returned home when the war ended.Giardino Inglese park in PalermoIn 1919 Pirandello had his wife placed in an asylum.",
"The separation from his wife, despite her morbid jealousies and hallucinations, caused great suffering for Pirandello who, even as late as 1924, believed he could still properly care for her at home.",
"She never left the asylum.1920 was the year of comedies such as ''Tutto per bene'', ''Come prima meglio di prima'', and ''La Signora Morli''.",
"In 1921, the ''Compagnia di Dario Niccodemi'' staged, at the Valle di Roma, the play, ''Sei Personaggi in Cerca d'Autore'', ''Six Characters in Search of an Author''.",
"It was a clamorous failure.",
"The public divided into supporters and adversaries, the latter of whom shouted, \"Asylum, Asylum!\"",
"The author, who was present at the performance with his daughter Lietta, left through a side exit to avoid the crowd of enemies.",
"The same drama, however, was a great success when presented in Milan.",
"In 1922 in Milan, ''Enrico IV'' was performed for the first time and was acclaimed universally as a success.",
"Pirandello's international reputation was developing as well.",
"The ''Sei personaggi'' was performed in London and New York.===Italy under the Fascists===Pirandello was an Italian nationalist and supported Fascism in a moderate way.",
"In 1924 he wrote a letter to Benito Mussolini asking him to be accepted as a member of the National Fascist Party.In 1925 Pirandello, with the help of Mussolini, assumed the artistic direction and ownership of the Teatro d'Arte di Roma, founded by the Gruppo degli Undici.",
"He described himself as \"a Fascist because I am Italian.\"",
"For his devotion to Mussolini, the satirical magazine ''Il Becco Giallo'' used to call him ''P.",
"Randello'' (''randello'' in Italian means cudgel).He expressed publicly apolitical belief, saying \"I'm apolitical, I'm only a man in the world.\"",
"During these years, he had continuous conflicts with fascist leaders.",
"In 1927 he tore his fascist membership card to pieces in front of the startled secretary-general of the Fascist Party.",
"For the remainder of his life, Pirandello was always under close surveillance by the secret fascist police OVRA.His play, ''I Giganti della Montagna'' (''The Giants of the Mountain''), has been interpreted as evidence of his realization that the fascists were hostile to culture; yet, during a later appearance in New York, Pirandello distributed a statement announcing his support of Italy's annexation of Abyssinia.",
"He then gave his Nobel Prize medal to the Fascist government to be melted down as part of the 1935 Oro alla Patria (''Gold to the Fatherland'') campaign during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War.Pirandello's conception of the theatre underwent a significant change at this point.",
"The idea of the actor as an inevitable betrayer of the text, as in the ''Sei Personaggi,'' gave way to the identification of the actor with the character that they play.",
"The company took their act throughout the major cities of Europe, and the Pirandellian repertoire became increasingly well known.",
"Between 1925 and 1926 Pirandello's last and perhaps greatest novel, ''Uno, Nessuno e Centomila'' (''One, No one and One Hundred Thousand''), was published serially in the magazine ''La Fiera Letteraria''.",
"He was one of the contributors of the nationalist women's magazine, ''Lidel'', and the Fascist daily ''Il Tevere''."
],
[
"Legacy",
"On 14 July 1930, a version of his short play ''The Man with the Flower in His Mouth'', adapted and produced by Lance Sieveking, co-produced with John Logie Baird's company and starring Val Gielgud and Lionel Millard, became the first drama broadcast in both picture and sound when the British Broadcasting Corporation showed it for London audiences.Pirandello was nominated ''Academic of Italy'' in 1929, and in 1934 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature after he had been nominated by Guglielmo Marconi, member of the Royal Academy of Italy.",
"He was the last Italian playwright to be chosen for the award until Dario Fo won on 9 October 1997.Pirandello died alone in his home at Via Bosio, Rome, on 10 December 1936.He refused a State funeral offered by Mussolini and only in 1947 were his cremated remains buried in Sicily.",
"The Via Luigi Pirandello in Acquaviva delle Fonti is named after him.In the context of playwriting during the early and mid-1900s, Pirandello's impact is notable.",
"Pirandello inspired playwrights such as Samuel Beckett and Harold Pinter to write plays that echo the themes of existential exploration and metaphysical questioning that he focused on in his works.",
"However, his influence goes beyond playwright; French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre was also heavily inspired by Pirandello’s ideas to dive deep into one of the main pillars of his philosophy: existentialism.",
"The playwrights's portrayal of fractured identities and the ambiguity of existence in his plays served as inspiration for Sartre's concepts of freedom, authenticity, and existential angst.",
"Pirandello’s character narratives and metaphysical themes not only aligned with but also enriched Sartre's philosophical discourses, creating a link between existential thought in both theater and philosophy, where each medium deepened and reflected upon the complexities and theories of the other.",
"Thus, the dialogues between self and other, freedom and responsibility, authenticity and bad faith, found ground in the intersection of their respective domains.",
"His legacy pushes further reflection into the complexities of characters, human consciousness, and identity.Pirandello's contributions to theater and philosophy provide a rich tapestry of existential themes interwoven with detailed character narratives.",
"His thorough and insightful examinations of the intricacies of the human psyche and identity have left a mark that is palpable in contemporary theater and academic circles.",
"This influence, while rooted in a specific historical context, manages to bridge the gap between past and present.",
"The careful juxtaposition of simplicity and depth in his works not only invites but stimulates discourse, resonating deeply with modern artists, playwrights, and thinkers.",
"As a result, discussions on existential concepts, identity, and the nature of reality continue to be enriched by Pirandello's foundational ideas."
],
[
"Selected works",
"Pirandello with his friend Albert Einstein in 1935===Major plays===* 1916: ''Liolà''* 1917: ''Così è (se vi pare)'' (''So It Is (If You Think So)'')* 1917: ''Il piacere dell'onestà'' (''The Pleasure of Honesty'')* 1918: ''Il gioco delle parti'' (''The Rules of the Game'')* 1919: ''L'uomo, la bestia e la virtù'' (''Man, Beast and Virtue'')* 1921: ''Sei personaggi in cerca d'autore'' (''Six Characters in Search of an Author'')* 1922: ''Enrico IV'' (''Henry IV'')* 1922: ''L'imbecille'' (''The Imbecile'')* 1922: ''Vestire gli ignudi'' (''To Clothe the Naked'')* 1923: ''L'uomo dal fiore in bocca'' (''The Man with the Flower in His Mouth'')* 1923: ''L'altro figlio'' ''(The Other Son)''* 1923: ''La vita che ti diedi'' (''The Life I Gave You'')* 1924: ''Ciascuno a suo modo'' (''Each in His Own Way'')* 1924: ''Sagra del Signore della Nave'' (''The Rite of the Lord of the Ship'')* 1926: ''L'Amica delle Mogli'' (''The Friend of the Wives'')* 1926: ''Bellavita'' (''Bellavita'')* 1927: ''Diana e la Tuda'' (''Diana and Tuda'')* 1929: ''O di Uno o di Nessuno'' (''Either of One or of None'')* 1929: ''Come Tu Mi Vuoi'' (''How You Love Me'')* 1930: ''Questa sera si recita a soggetto'' (''Tonight We Improvise'')Original text of the most famous novel of Pirandello (One, No One and One Hundred Thousand)===Novels===* 1902: ''Il turno'' (''The Turn'')* 1904: ''Il fu Mattia Pascal'' (''The Late Mattia Pascal'')* 1908: ''L'esclusa'' (''The Excluded Woman'')* 1911: ''Suo marito'' (''Her Husband'')* 1913: ''I vecchi e i giovani'' (''The Old and the Young'')* 1915: ''Si Gira, Quaderni di Serafino Gubbio'' (''Shoot!, The Notebooks of Serafino Gubbio, Cinematograph Operator'', 1926 English translation by C. K. Scott Moncrieff)* 1926: ''Uno, nessuno e centomila'' (''One, No One and One Hundred Thousand'')===Short stories===* 1922–37: ''Novelle per un anno'' (''Short Stories for a Year''), 15 volumes.",
"A selection of thirty stories was translated by Virginia Jewiss as ''Stories for the Years'' (Yale, 2021).===Poetry===* 1889: ''Mal giocondo'' (''Playful Evil'')* 1891: ''Pasqua di Gea'' (''Easter of Gea'')* 1894: ''Pier Gudrò, 1809–1892''* 1895: ''Elegie renane, 1889–90'' (''Rheinland Elegies'')* 1901: ''Zampogna'' (''The Bagpipe'')* 1909: ''Scamandro''* 1912: ''Fuori di chiave'' (''Out of Tune'')===English translations===Nearly all of Pirandello's plays were translated into English by the actor Robert Rietti.",
"Pirandello's poetry was translated for the first time in 2016 by George Hochfield.",
"William Weaver is a noted translator of Luigi Pirandello.",
"Frederick May translated a number of Pirandello's plays and short stories in editions published by Oxford University Press and Penguin Books."
],
[
"Filmography",
"* ''Il crollo'', directed by Mario Gargiulo (Italy, 1920, based on the play ''Lumie di Sicilia'')* ''Il lume dell'altra casa'', directed by Ugo Gracci (Italy, 1920, based on the short story ''Il lume dell'altra casa'')* '''', directed by Augusto Genina (Italy, 1920, based on the short story ''Lo scaldino'')* ''But It Isn't Serious'', directed by (Italy, 1921, based on the play ''Ma non è una cosa seria'')* ''La rosa'', directed by (Italy, 1921, based on the short story ''La rosa'')* ''The Voyage'', directed by Gennaro Righelli (Italy, 1921, based on the short story ''Il viaggio'')* ''Feu Mathias Pascal'', directed by Marcel L'Herbier (France, 1925, based on the novel ''Il fu Mattia Pascal'')* ''The Flight in the Night'', directed by Amleto Palermi (Germany, 1926, based on the play ''Enrico IV'')* ''The Song of Love'', directed by Gennaro Righelli (Italy, 1930, based on the short story ''In silenzio'')** ''La Dernière berceuse'', directed by Gennaro Righelli and Jean Cassagne (France, 1931, based on the short story ''In silenzio'')** '''', directed by Constantin J. David (Germany, 1931, based on the short story ''In silenzio'')*''As You Desire Me'', directed by George Fitzmaurice (1932, based on the play ''Come tu mi vuoi'')* ''Steel'', directed by Walter Ruttmann (Italy, 1933, based on the story ''Giuoca, Pietro!",
"'')* '''', directed by Gennaro Righelli (Italy, 1936, based on the play ''Pensaci, Giacomino!",
"'')* ''But It's Nothing Serious'', directed by Mario Camerini (Italy, 1936, based on the play ''Ma non è una cosa seria'')** ''The Man Who Couldn't Say No'', directed by Mario Camerini (Germany, 1938, based on the play ''Ma non è una cosa seria'')* ''The Man from Nowhere'', directed by Pierre Chenal (France, 1937, based on the novel ''Il fu Mattia Pascal'')** ''The Former Mattia Pascal'', directed by Pierre Chenal (Italy, 1937, based on the novel ''Il fu Mattia Pascal'')* ''No Man's Land'', directed by Mario Baffico (Italy, 1939, based on two short stories)* '''', directed by Giorgio Pastina (Italy, 1943, based on the play ''Enrico IV'')* ''This Love of Ours'', directed by William Dieterle (1945, based on the play ''Come prima, meglio di prima'')* ''Man, Beast and Virtue'', directed by Steno (Italy, 1953, based on the play ''L'uomo, la bestia e la virtù'')* ''Of Life and Love'', directed by Aldo Fabrizi, Giorgio Pastina, Mario Soldati and Luigi Zampa (Italy, 1954, based on four short stories)* ''Vestire gli ignudi'', directed by Marcello Pagliero (Italy, 1954, based on the play ''Vestire gli ignudi'')* ''Never Say Goodbye'', directed by Jerry Hopper (1956, based on the play ''Come prima, meglio di prima'')* '''', directed by Carlos Rinaldi (Argentina, 1957, based on the play ''Tutto per bene'')* ''Liolà'', directed by Alessandro Blasetti (Italy, 1963, based on the play ''Liolà'')* ''The Voyage'', directed by Vittorio De Sica (Italy, 1974, based on the short story ''Il viaggio'')* ''Il turno'', directed by Tonino Cervi (Italy, 1981, based on the novel ''Il turno'')* ''Henry IV'', directed by Marco Bellocchio (Italy, 1984, based on the play ''Enrico IV'')* ''Kaos'', directed by Paolo and Vittorio Taviani (Italy, 1984, based on four short stories)* ''Wir'', directed by Henryk Jacek Schoen (Poland, 1984, based on two short stories)* ''The Two Lives of Mattia Pascal'', directed by Mario Monicelli (Italy, 1985, based on the novel ''Il fu Mattia Pascal'')* ''You Laugh'', directed by Paolo and Vittorio Taviani (Italy, 1998, based on two short stories)* ''The Nanny'', directed by Marco Bellocchio (Italy, 1999, based on the short story ''La balia'')* ''The Choice'', directed by Michele Placido (Italy, 2015, based on the play ''L'innesto'')* ''The Wait'', directed by Piero Messina (Italy, 2015, based on the play ''La vita che ti diedi'')* ''A Respectable Woman'', directed by Bernard Émond (Canada, 2023, based on the short story \"Pena di vivere cosi\")"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Giudice, Gaspare.",
"''Luigi Pirandello'', UTET, 1963.",
"* Baccolo, L. ''Pirandello''.",
"Milan: Bocca.",
"1949 (second edition).",
"* Di Pietro, ''L.",
"Pirandello''.",
"Milano: Vita e Pensiero.",
"1950.",
"(second edition).",
"* Ferrante, R. ''Luigi Pirandello''.",
"Firenze: Parenti.",
"1958.",
"* Gardair, ''Pirandello e il Suo Doppio''.",
"Rome: Abete.",
"1977.",
"* Janner, A.",
"''Luigi Pirandello''.",
"Firenze, La Nuova Italia.",
"1948.",
"* Monti, M. ''Pirandello'', Palermo: Palumbo.",
"1974.",
"* Moravia.",
"A.",
"\"Pirandello\" in ''Fiera Leteraria''.",
"Rome.",
"12 December 1946.",
"* Pancrazi, P. \"L'altro Pirandello\" In ''Scrittori Italiani del Novecento''.",
"Bari: Laterza.",
"1939.",
"* Pasini.",
"F. ''Pirandello nell'arte e nella vita''.",
"Padova.",
"1937.",
"* Podestà.",
"G. \"Kafka e Pirandello.\"",
"Humanitas, XI, 1956, pp. 230–44.",
"* Sarah Zappulla Muscarà, Enzo Zappulla, ''Pirandello e il teatro siciliano'', Giuseppe Maimone Editore, Catania 1986.",
"* Mirella Maugeri Salerno, ''Pirandello e dintorni'', Giuseppe Maimone Editore, Catania, 1987.",
"* Sarah Zappulla Muscarà (a cura di), ''Narratori siciliani del secondo dopoguerra'', Giuseppe Maimone Editore, Catania 1990.",
"* Elio Providenti (a cura di), ''Archeologie pirandelliane'', Giuseppe Maimone Editore, Catania, 1990.",
"* Carlo Schirru, Per un’analisi interlinguistica d’epoca: Grazia Deledda e contemporanei, Rivista Italiana di Linguistica e di Dialettologia, Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa-Roma, Anno XI, 2009, pp. 9–32.",
"* Virdia.",
"F. ''Pirandello''.",
"Milan: Mursia.",
"1975.",
"* Frederick May, ''Three Major Symbols in Four Plays by Pirandello'', Lawrence, Kansas: Allen Press, 1974.",
"* Massimo Colella, ''Ritratto, autoritratto, profezia: Bontempelli esegeta di Pirandello'', in «Pirandello Studies (Journal of the Society for Pirandello Studies)», 42, 2022, pp.",
"20–40."
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * * List of Works* * * The complete works of Pirandello in Italian and English section* * his bold and ingenious revival of dramatic and scenic art* ''Listen to some Pirandello's work in Italian'' on audio MP3 – free download* Pirandello's Girgenti.",
"Places in Agrigento associated with his literary works* Panoramic virtual tour of Piazza Luigi Pirandello in Agrigento* The Light from the House Opposite (The Panton Audio Library)* ''Suo Marito,'' English translation, ''Her Husband'', by Martha King and Mary Ann Frese Witt.",
"* * '' One, No One, and One Hundred Thousand,'' translated by William Weaver, published in 2018 by Spurl Editions"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Luke the Evangelist"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Luke the Evangelist''' is one of the Four Evangelists—the four traditionally ascribed authors of the canonical gospels.",
"The Early Church Fathers ascribed to him authorship of both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles.",
"Prominent figures in early Christianity such as Jerome and Eusebius later reaffirmed his authorship, although a lack of conclusive evidence as to the identity of the author of the works has led to discussion in scholarly circles, both secular and religious.The New Testament mentions Luke briefly a few times, and the Epistle to the Colossians refers to him as a physician (from Greek for 'one who heals'); thus he is thought to have been both a physician and a disciple of Paul.Since the early years of the faith, Christians have regarded him as a saint.",
"He is believed to have been a martyr, reportedly having been hanged from an olive tree, though some believe otherwise.",
"The Catholic Church and other major denominations venerate him as '''Saint Luke the Evangelist''' and as a patron saint of artists, physicians, bachelors, notaries, butchers, brewers, and others; his feast day is 18 October."
],
[
"Life",
"Print of Luke the EvangelistMany scholars believe that Luke was a physician who lived in the Hellenistic city of Antioch in Ancient Syria, born of a Greek family, although some scholars and theologians think Luke was a Hellenic Jew.",
"While it has been widely accepted that the theology of Luke–Acts points to a gentile Christian writing for a gentile audience, some have concluded that it is more plausible that Luke–Acts is directed to a community made up of both Jewish and gentile Christians since there is stress on the scriptural roots of the gentile mission (see the use of Isaiah 49:6 in Luke–Acts).",
"DNA testing on what Christian tradition holds to be his body has revealed it to be of Syrian ancestry.Whether Luke was a Jew or gentile, or something in between, it is clear from the quality of the Greek language used in Luke-Acts that the author, held in Christian tradition to be Luke, was one of the most highly educated of the authors of the New Testament.",
"The author's conscious and intentional allusions and references to, and quotations of, ancient Classical and Hellenistic Greek authors, such as Homer, Aesop, Epimenides, Euripides, Plato, and Aratus indicate that he was familiar with actual Greek literary texts.",
"This familiarity most likely derived from his experiences as a youth of the very homogeneous Hellenistic educational curriculum () that had been, and would continue to be, used for centuries throughout the eastern Mediterranean.Luke's earliest mention is in the Epistle to Philemon, chapter 1, verse 24.He is also mentioned in Colossians 4:14 and 2 Timothy 4:11, both traditionally held to be Pauline epistles (see Authorship of the Pauline epistles).",
"The next earliest account of Luke is in the anti-Marcionite prologue to the Gospel of Luke, a document once thought to date to the 2nd century, but which has more recently been dated to the later 4th century.James Tissot, ''Saint Luke'', Brooklyn MuseumEpiphanius states that Luke was one of the Seventy Apostles (''Panarion'' 51.11), and John Chrysostom indicates at one point that the \"brother\" that Paul mentions in the Second Epistle to the Corinthians 8:18 is either Luke or Barnabas (''Homily 18 on Second Corinthians'' on 2 Corinthians 8:18).If one accepts that Luke was indeed the author of the Gospel bearing his name and the Acts of the Apostles, certain details of his personal life can be reasonably assumed.",
"While he does exclude himself from those who were eyewitnesses to Jesus' ministry, he repeatedly uses the word ''we'' in describing the Pauline missions in Acts of the Apostles, indicating that he was personally there at those times.Saint Luke as depicted in the head-piece of an Armenian Gospel manuscript from 1609, held at the Bodleian LibraryThe composition of the writings, as well as the range of vocabulary used, indicate that the author was an educated man.",
"A quote in the Epistle to the Colossians differentiates between Luke and other colleagues \"of the circumcision.",
"\"This comment has traditionally caused commentators to conclude that Luke was a gentile.",
"If this were true, it would make Luke the only writer of the New Testament who can clearly be identified as not being Jewish.",
"However, that is not the only possibility.",
"Although Luke is considered likely to have been a gentile Christian, some scholars believe him to have been a Hellenized Jew.",
"The phrase could just as easily be used to differentiate between those Christians who strictly observed the rituals of Judaism and those who did not.Luke's presence in Rome with the Apostle Paul near the end of Paul's life was attested by 2 Timothy 4:11: \"Only Luke is with me\".",
"In the last chapter of the Book of Acts, widely attributed to Luke, there are several accounts in the first person also affirming Luke's presence in Rome, including Acts 28:16: \"And when we came to Rome...\" According to some accounts, Luke also contributed to the authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews.Luke died at age 84 in Boeotia, according to a \"fairly early and widespread tradition\".",
"According to Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos, Greek historian of the 14th century (and others), Luke's tomb was located in Thebes, whence his relics were transferred to Constantinople in the year 357."
],
[
"Authorship of Luke and Acts",
"The Gospel of Luke does not name its author.",
"The Gospel was not, nor does it claim to be, written by direct witnesses to the reported events, unlike Acts beginning in the sixteenth chapter.",
"However, in most translations the author suggests that they have investigated the book's events and notes the name (Theophilus) of that to whom they are writing.The earliest manuscript of the Gospel (Papyrus 75 = Papyrus Bodmer XIV-XV), dated AD 200, ascribes the work to Luke; as did Irenaeus writing AD 180, and the Muratorian fragment, a 7th-century Latin manuscript thought to be copied and translated from a Greek manuscript as old as AD 170.The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles make up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts.",
"Together they account for 27.5% of the New Testament, the largest contribution by a single author.''St.",
"Luke painting the Virgin'', by Maarten van Heemskerck, 1532"
],
[
"As a historian",
"Detail from a window in the parish church of SS Mary and Lambert, Stonham Aspal, Suffolk, with stained glass representing St Luke the EvangelistMost scholars understand Luke's works (Luke–Acts) in the tradition of Greek historiography.",
"Luke 1:1–4, drawing on historical investigation, identified the work to the readers as belonging to the genre of history.",
"There is disagreement about how best to treat Luke's writings, with some historians regarding Luke as highly accurate, and others taking a more critical approach.Based on his accurate description of towns, cities and islands, as well as correctly naming various official titles, archaeologist William Mitchell Ramsay wrote that \"Luke is a historian of the first rank; not merely are his statements of fact trustworthy.",
"…He should be placed along with the very greatest of historians.\"",
"Professor of Classics at Auckland University, Edward Musgrave Blaiklock, wrote: \"For accuracy of detail, and for evocation of atmosphere, Luke stands, in fact, with Thucydides.",
"The Acts of the Apostles is not shoddy product of pious imagining, but a trustworthy record.",
"…It was the spadework of archaeology which first revealed the truth.\"",
"New Testament scholar Colin Hemer has made a number of advancements in understanding the historical nature and accuracy of Luke's writings.On the purpose of Acts, New Testament scholar Luke Timothy Johnson has noted that \"Luke's account is selected and shaped to suit his apologetic interests, not in defiance of but in conformity to ancient standards of historiography.\"",
"Such a position is shared by Richard Heard, who sees historical deficiencies as arising from \"special objects in writing and to the limitations of his sources of information.",
"\"In modern times, Luke's competence as a historian is questioned, depending upon one's ''a priori'' view of the supernatural.",
"Since post-Enlightenment historians work with methodological naturalism, such historians would see a narrative that relates supernatural, fantastic things like angels, demons etc., as problematic as a historical source.",
"Mark Powell claims that \"it is doubtful whether the writing of history was ever Luke's intent.",
"Luke wrote to proclaim, to persuade, and to interpret; he did not write to preserve records for posterity.",
"An awareness of this, has been, for many, the final nail in Luke the historian's coffin.",
"\"Robert M. Grant has noted that although Luke saw himself within the historical tradition, his work contains a number of statistical improbabilities, such as the sizable crowd addressed by Peter in Acts 4:4.He has also noted chronological difficulties whereby Luke \"has Gamaliel refer to Theudas and Judas in the wrong order, and Theudas actually rebelled about a decade after Gamaliel spoke (5:36–7)\", though this report's status as a chronological difficulty is hotly disputed.Brent Landau writes:"
],
[
"As an artist",
"Luke the Evangelist painting the first icon of the Virgin MaryChristian tradition, starting from the 8th century, states that Luke was the first icon painter.",
"He is said to have painted pictures of the Virgin Mary and Child, in particular the Hodegetria image in Constantinople (now lost).",
"Starting from the 11th century, a number of painted images were venerated as his autograph works, including the Black Madonna of Częstochowa, Our Lady of Vladimir, and ''Madonna del Rosario''.",
"He was also said to have painted Saints Peter and Paul, and to have illustrated a gospel book with a full cycle of miniatures.Late medieval Guilds of Saint Luke in the cities of Late Medieval Europe, especially Flanders, or the \"Accademia di San Luca\" (Academy of Saint Luke) in Rome—imitated in many other European cities during the 16th century—gathered together and protected painters.",
"The tradition that Luke painted icons of Mary and Jesus has been common, particularly in Eastern Orthodoxy.",
"The tradition also has support from the Saint Thomas Christians of India who claim to still have one of the Theotokos icons that Saint Luke painted and which Saint Thomas brought to India.The art critic A. I. Uspensky writes that the icons attributed to the brush of the Evangelist Luke have a completely Byzantine character that was fully established only in the 5th-6th centuries."
],
[
"Symbol",
"Winged altar of the Guild of Saint Luke, Hermen Rode, Lübeck (1484)In traditional depictions, such as paintings, evangelist portraits, and church mosaics, Saint Luke is often accompanied by an ox or bull, usually having wings.",
"Sometimes only the symbol is shown, especially when in a combination of those of all Four Evangelists."
],
[
"Veneration",
"=== Eastern Orthodoxy ===The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorated Saint Luke, Apostle of the Seventy, Evangelist, companion (coworker) of the holy Apostle Paul, hieromartyr, physician, first icon painter with several feast days.",
"The following are fixed feast days:* 4 January - The Synaxis of the Seventy Apostles.",
"* 22 April - Feast of Apostles Nathaniel (Nathanael), Luke the Evangelist, Clement of Sardice or Clement of Rome and Apelles of Heraklion (Greek sources say that Saint Luke (Loukias) was someone other than the Evangelist Luke).",
"This feast is held also on the 10 September.",
"* 20 June - Translation of the relics and garments of the Apostles Luke, Andrew, and Thomas, the Prophet Eliseus, and Martyr Lazarus of Persia found , during the time of the emperor Romanos Lakapenos (919–44) in a monastery of Saint Augusta into the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople under Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (c. 956–70) by Saint Patriarch Polyeuctus of Constantinople (956–70).",
"* 10 September - Feast of Apostles of the Seventy: Nathaniel (Nathanael), Luke the Evangelist, Clement of Sardice or Clement of Rome and Apelles of Heraklion (Greek sources say that Saint Luke (Loukias) was someone other than the Evangelist Luke).",
"The commemoration is held again on the 22nd of April.",
"* 18 October - Feast of the Apostle and Evangelist Luke.There are also moveable feasts in which Luke is commemorated:* Synaxis of All Saints of Achaia - Moveable holiday the Sunday before the feast of Saint Andrew (November 30).",
"* Synaxis of All Saints of Boeotia - Moveable holiday on the last Saturday of May.=== Roman Catholicism ===The Roman Catholic Church commemorates Luke the Evangelist on October 18.=== Oriental Orthodoxy ===The Coptic Orthodox Church commemorates the martyrdom of Luke on Paopi 22.=== Anglicanism ===The Church of England commemorates Luke the Evangelist on October 18."
],
[
"Relics",
"Eight bodies and nine heads, located in different places, are presented as the relics of the Apostle Luke.Despot George of Serbia purportedly bought the relics from the Ottoman sultan Murad II for 30,000 gold coins.",
"After the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia, the kingdom's last queen, George's granddaughter Mary, who had brought the relics with her from Serbia as her dowry, sold them to the Venetian Republic.PaduaIn 1992, the then Greek Orthodox Metropolitan Ieronymos of Thebes and Levathia (who subsequently became Archbishop Ieronymos II of Athens and All Greece) requested from Bishop Antonio Mattiazzo of Padua the return of \"a significant fragment of the relics of St. Luke to be placed on the site where the holy tomb of the Evangelist is located and venerated today\".",
"This prompted a scientific investigation of the relics in Padua, and by numerous lines of empirical evidence (archeological analyses of the Tomb in Thebes and the Reliquary of Padua, anatomical analyses of the remains, carbon-14 dating, comparison with the purported skull of the Evangelist located in Prague) confirmed that these were the remains of an individual of Syrian descent who died between AD 72 and AD 416.The Bishop of Padua then delivered to Metropolitan Ieronymos the rib of Saint Luke that was closest to his heart to be kept at his tomb in Thebes.Thus, the relics of Saint Luke are divided as follows:* The body, in the Abbey of Santa Giustina in Padua;* The head, in the St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague;* A rib, at his tomb in Thebes."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Luke_writing.jpgFile:142082810-612x612.jpgFile:Luke_the_Evangelist.jpgFile:Saint_luke.jpgFile:Nuremberg_chronicles_f_108r_1.pngFile:Icon of the blessed Virgin Mary by Luke the Evangelist.jpg"
],
[
"See also",
"* John the Evangelist* Mark the Evangelist* Matthew the Evangelist"
],
[
"References",
"===Notes======Citations======Sources===*** **** ********************** Documenting an international congress in Padua in 2000 on the topic of Luke the evangelist, including his relics.",
"*** (In Greek and Latin parallel)************===Further reading===* I. Howard Marshall.",
"''Luke: Historian and Theologian''.",
"Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.",
"* F. F. Bruce, '' The Speeches in the Acts of the Apostles .''",
"London: The Tyndale Press, 1942.",
"* Helmut Koester.",
"''Ancient Christian Gospels''.",
"Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1999.",
"* Burton L. Mack.",
"''Who Wrote the New Testament?",
": The Making of the Christian Myth''.",
"San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins, 1996.",
"* J. Wenham, \"The Identification of Luke\", ''Evangelical Quarterly'' 63 (1991), 3–44"
],
[
"External links",
"* Biblical Interpretation of Texts of Saint Luke* Early Christian Writings: ''Gospel of Luke'' e-texts, introductions* National Academy of Sciences on Luke the Evangelist* Patron Saint Luke* Photo of the grave of Luke in Padua (in German)* DNA testing of the Saint Luke corpse* Catholic Online"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lynyrd Skynyrd"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lynyrd Skynyrd''' (, ) is an American rock band formed in Jacksonville, Florida.",
"The group originally formed as My Backyard in 1964 and comprised Ronnie Van Zant (lead vocalist), Gary Rossington (guitar), Allen Collins (guitar), Larry Junstrom (bass guitar), and Bob Burns (drums).",
"The band spent five years touring small venues under various names and with several lineup changes before deciding on \"Lynyrd Skynyrd\" in 1969.The band released its first album, ''(Pronounced 'Lĕh-'nérd 'Skin-'nérd)'', in 1973.By then, they had settled on a lineup that included bassist Leon Wilkeson, keyboardist Billy Powell, and guitarist Ed King.",
"Burns left and was replaced by Artimus Pyle in 1974.King left in 1975 and was replaced by Steve Gaines in 1976.At the height of their fame in the 1970s, the band popularized the Southern rock genre with songs such as \"Sweet Home Alabama\" and \"Free Bird\".",
"After releasing five studio albums and one live album, the band's career was abruptly halted on October 20, 1977, when their chartered airplane crashed, killing Van Zant, Steve Gaines, and backup singer Cassie Gaines; and seriously injuring the rest of the band.Lynyrd Skynyrd reformed in 1987 for a reunion tour with Ronnie's brother, Johnny Van Zant, as lead vocalist.",
"They continued to tour and record with co-founder Rossington, Johnny Van Zant, and Rickey Medlocke, who first wrote and recorded with the band from 1971 to 1972 before his return in 1996.Over the years, other founding members of the band have died either during—or after—their time in the band.",
"In January 2018, Lynyrd Skynyrd announced its farewell tour, and continued touring until 2022.Members were still working on the band's fifteenth album at the time of Rossington's death in 2023, after which no original members remained in the band.In 2004, ''Rolling Stone'' magazine ranked Lynyrd Skynyrd No.",
"95 on its list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\".",
"Lynyrd Skynyrd was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on March 13, 2006.As of 2023, the band has sold more than 28 million records in the United States."
],
[
"History",
"===Early years (1963–1973)===Allen Collins received his first guitar in 1963 and was later in a band called The Mods in Jacksonville, Florida.",
"The Mods membership included J.R. Rice and Larry Steele.",
"In early 1964, Ronnie Van Zant joined another local band, The Squires, that he soon renamed to Us.",
"That year, at a local 'Battle of the Bands', Us performed against The Mods and won the competition.",
"Van Zant, however, left Us shortly afterward.",
"In the early summer of 1964, bassist Larry Junstrom, drummer Bob Burns, and guitarist Gary Rossington formed a trio called Me, You, and Him.Later in the summer of 1964, teenagers Van Zant, Rossington, and Burns all became acquainted while playing on rival baseball teams.",
"The trio decided to jam together one afternoon after Burns was injured by a ball hit by Van Zant.",
"They set up their equipment in the carport of Burns' parents' house and played The Rolling Stones' hit \"Time Is on My Side\".",
"Liking what they heard, they immediately decided to form a band.",
"Bassist Larry Junstrom rounded out the lineup.",
"They soon approached guitarist Allen Collins to join the band just two weeks later, and he agreed to join.",
"The band later rehearsed in Junstrom's carport after Burns' parents said the band was too loud.",
"The band settled on the name My Backyard, later changed to Conquer the Worm for a day or two, then The Noble Five, and finally The One Percent by 1968.Leonard Skinner was a physical education instructor at Robert E. Lee High School (pictured) in Jacksonville, Florida, known for his strict enforcement of the school's regulations on male hair length.In 1969, Van Zant sought a new name after growing tired of taunts from audiences that the band had \"one percent talent\".",
"At Burns' suggestion, the group settled on ''Leonard Skinnerd'', which was in part a reference to a character named \"Leonard Skinner\" in Allan Sherman's novelty song \"Hello Muddah, Hello Fadduh\" and in part a mocking tribute to P.E.",
"teacher Leonard Skinner at Robert E. Lee High School.",
"Skinner was notorious for strictly enforcing the school's policy against boys having long hair.",
"Rossington dropped out of school, tired of being hassled about his hair.",
"The more distinctive spelling \"Lynyrd Skynyrd\" was adopted at least as early as 1970.By 1970, Lynyrd Skynyrd had become a top band in Jacksonville, headlining at some local concerts, and opening for several national acts.",
"Pat Armstrong, a Jacksonville native and partner in Macon, Georgia-based Hustlers Inc.; along with Phil Walden's younger brother, Alan, became the band's managers.",
"Armstrong left Hustlers shortly thereafter to start his own agency.",
"Walden stayed with the band until 1974, when management was transferred to Peter Rudge.",
"The band continued to perform throughout the South in the early 1970s, further developing their hard-driving blues rock sound and image, and experimenting with recording their sound in a studio.",
"Skynyrd crafted this distinctively \"southern\" sound through a creative blend of country, blues, and a slight British rock influence.During this time, the band experienced some lineup changes for the first time.",
"Junstrom left and was briefly replaced by Greg T. Walker on bass.",
"At that time, Rickey Medlocke joined as a second drummer and second vocalist to help fortify Burns' sound on the drums.",
"Medlocke had grown up with the founding members of Lynyrd Skynyrd and his grandfather, Shorty Medlocke, was an influence in the writing of \"The Ballad of Curtis Loew\".===Peak (1973–1977)===Lynyrd Skynyrd in 1973In 1972, the band (then comprising Van Zant, Collins, Rossington, Burns, Wilkeson, and Powell) was discovered by musician, songwriter, and producer Al Kooper of Blood, Sweat & Tears, who had attended one of their shows at Funocchio's in Atlanta.",
"Kooper signed them to his Sounds of the South label, which was to be distributed and supported by MCA Records, and produced their first album.",
"Wilkeson, citing nervousness about fame, temporarily left the band during the early recording sessions, playing on only two tracks.",
"He rejoined the band shortly after the album's release at Van Zant's invitation and is pictured on the album cover.",
"To replace him, Strawberry Alarm Clock guitarist Ed King joined the band and played bass on the album (the only part that Wilkeson had not already written being the solo section in \"Simple Man\"), and also contributed to the songwriting and did some guitar work on the album.",
"After Wilkeson rejoined, King stayed in the band and switched solely to guitar, allowing the band to replicate its three-guitar studio mix in live performances.",
"The band released their debut album ''(Pronounced 'Lĕh-'nérd 'Skin-'nérd)'' on August 13, 1973.It sold over one million copies and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA.",
"The album featured the hit song \"Free Bird\", which received national airplay, eventually reaching No.",
"19 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart.Lynyrd Skynyrd's fan base continued to grow rapidly throughout 1973, largely due to their opening slot on the Who's ''Quadrophenia'' tour in the United States.",
"Their 1974 follow-up album, ''Second Helping'', featuring King, Collins and Rossington all collaborating with Van Zant on the songwriting, cemented the band's breakthrough.",
"Its single \"Sweet Home Alabama\", a response to Neil Young's \"Southern Man\", reached #8 on the charts that August.",
"Young and Van Zant were not rivals, but fans of each other's music and good friends; Young wrote the song \"Powderfinger\" for the band, but they never recorded it.",
"During their peak years, most of their records sold over one million copies, but \"Sweet Home Alabama\" was the only single to crack the top ten.By 1975, personal issues began to take their toll on the band.",
"In January, drummer Burns left the band after suffering a mental breakdown during a European tour and was replaced by Kentucky native and former US Marine Artimus Pyle.",
"The band's third album, ''Nuthin' Fancy'', was recorded in 17 days.",
"Unhappy with the band's lack of preparation for the album's recording, Kooper and the band parted ways by mutual agreement after the tracking was completed, with Kooper mixing the album while the band left for the tour that had precipitated the constricted recording schedule.",
"Though the album fared well, it ultimately had lower sales than its predecessors.",
"Midway through the ''Nuthin' Fancy'' tour, guitarist Ed King abruptly left the band after a falling out with Van Zant.",
"King's guitar roadie and Van Zant were arrested together and spent the night in jail.",
"With his guitar roadie unavailable, King played that night's show with old strings that broke and caused his performance to be substandard, and Van Zant subsequently belittled him in front of his bandmates.",
"King quit and returned home to Los Angeles, believing Van Zant had been responsible for his guitar roadie being in jail in the first place.A crowd of 120,000 fans at Knebworth House in 1976Collins and Rossington both had serious car accidents over Labor Day weekend in 1976, which slowed the recording of the follow-up album and forced the band to cancel some concert dates.",
"Rossington's accident inspired the ominous Van Zant/Collins composition \"That Smell\" – a cautionary tale about drug abuse that was clearly aimed towards him and at least one other band member.",
"Rossington has admitted repeatedly that he was the \"Prince Charming\" of the song who crashed his car into an oak tree while drunk and stoned on Quaaludes.",
"With the birth of his daughter Melody in 1976, Van Zant was making a serious attempt to clean up his act and curtail the cycle of boozed-up brawling that was part of Skynyrd's reputation.Lynyrd Skynyrd in 1977The ''Street Survivors'' album of 1977 turned out to be a showcase for guitarist/vocalist Steve Gaines, who had joined the band just a year earlier and was making his studio debut with them.",
"Publicly and privately, Ronnie Van Zant marveled at the multiple talents of Skynyrd's newest member, claiming that the band would \"all be in his shadow one day\".",
"Gaines' contributions included his co-lead vocal with Van Zant on the co-written \"You Got That Right\" and the rousing guitar boogie \"I Know a Little\", which he had written before he joined Skynyrd.",
"So confident was Skynyrd's leader of Gaines' abilities that the album (and some concerts) featured Gaines delivering his self-penned bluesy \"Ain't No Good Life\" – the only song in the pre-crash Skynyrd catalog to feature a lead vocalist other than Ronnie Van Zant.",
"The album also included the hit singles \"What's Your Name\" and \"That Smell\".",
"The band was poised for their biggest tour yet, with shows always highlighted by the iconic rock anthem \"Free Bird\".===Plane crash (1977)===Following a performance at the Greenville Memorial Auditorium in Greenville, South Carolina, on October 20, 1977, the band boarded a chartered Convair CV-240 bound for Baton Rouge, Louisiana, where they were scheduled to appear at LSU the following night.",
"After running out of fuel, the pilots attempted an emergency landing before crashing in a heavily forested area five miles northeast of Gillsburg, Mississippi.",
"Killed on impact were Ronnie Van Zant and Steve Gaines, along with backup singer Cassie Gaines (Steve's older sister), assistant road manager Dean Kilpatrick, pilot Walter McCreary and co-pilot John Gray.",
"Other band members (Collins, Rossington, Wilkeson, Powell, Pyle, and Hawkins), tour manager Ron Eckerman, and several road crew members suffered serious injuries.The accident came just three days after the release of the group's fifth studio album ''Street Survivors''.",
"Following the crash and the ensuing press, ''Street Survivors'' became the band's second platinum album and reached No.",
"5 on the ''Billboard'' 200, their highest position on the chart.",
"The single \"What's Your Name\" reached No.",
"13 on the single charts in 1978.The original cover sleeve for ''Street Survivors'' had featured a photograph of the band amid flames, with Steve Gaines nearly obscured by fire.",
"Out of respect for the deceased (and at the request of Teresa Gaines, Steve's widow), MCA Records withdrew the original cover and replaced it with the album's back photo, a similar image of the band against a simple black background.",
"However, the group would restore the original image for the 30th anniversary deluxe edition of the album.===Hiatus (1977–1987)===Lynyrd Skynyrd disbanded after the tragedy, reuniting only on one occasion to perform an instrumental version of \"Free Bird\" at Charlie Daniels' Volunteer Jam V in January 1979.Collins, Rossington, Powell, and Pyle were joined by Daniels and members of his band.",
"Leon Wilkeson, who was still undergoing physical therapy for his badly broken left arm, was in attendance, along with Judy Van Zant, Teresa Gaines, JoJo Billingsley, and Leslie Hawkins.Rossington, Collins, Wilkeson and Powell formed the Rossington Collins Band, which released two MCA albums, ''Anytime, Anyplace, Anywhere'' in 1980 and ''This Is The Way'' in 1981.Deliberately avoiding comparisons with Ronnie Van Zant as well as suggestions that this band was Lynyrd Skynyrd reborn, Rossington and Collins chose a woman, Dale Krantz, as the lead vocalist.",
"However, as an acknowledgement of their past, the band's concert encore would always be an instrumental version of \"Free Bird\".",
"Rossington and Collins eventually had a falling out over the affections of Dale Krantz, whom Rossington married and with whom he formed The Rossington Band, which released two albums, ''Returned to the Scene of the Crime'' in 1986 and ''Love Your Man'' in 1988 and also opened for the Lynyrd Skynyrd Tribute Tour in 1987–1988.The other former members of Lynyrd Skynyrd continued to make music during the hiatus era.",
"Billy Powell played keyboards in a Christian rock band named Vision, touring with established Christian rocker Mylon LeFevre.",
"During Vision concerts, Powell's trademark keyboard talent was often spotlighted and he spoke about his conversion to Christianity after the near-fatal plane crash.",
"Pyle formed the Artimus Pyle Band in 1982, which occasionally featured former Honkettes JoJo Billingsley and Leslie Hawkins and released one MCA album, titled ''A.P.B.",
"''In 1980, Allen Collins's wife Kathy died of a massive hemorrhage while miscarrying their third child.",
"He formed the Allen Collins Band in 1983 from the remnants of the Rossington Collins Band and released one MCA studio album, ''Here, There & Back''.",
"He was visibly suffering from Kathy's death; he excessively drank and consumed drugs.",
"On January 29, 1986, Collins, then 33, crashed his Ford Thunderbird into a ditch near his home in Jacksonville, killing his girlfriend Debra Jean Watts and leaving himself permanently paralyzed from the chest down.===Return (1987–1995)===In 1987, Lynyrd Skynyrd reunited for a full-scale tour with five major members of the pre-crash band: crash survivors Gary Rossington, Billy Powell, Leon Wilkeson and Artimus Pyle, along with guitarist Ed King, who had left the band two years before the crash.",
"Ronnie Van Zant's younger brother, Johnny, took over as the new lead singer and primary songwriter.",
"Due to founding member Allen Collins' paralysis from his 1986 car accident, he was only able to participate as the musical director, choosing Randall Hall, his former bandmate in the Allen Collins Band, as his stand-in.",
"In return for avoiding prison following his guilty plea to DUI manslaughter, Collins would be wheeled out onstage each night to explain to the audience why he could no longer perform (usually before the performance of \"That Smell\", the lyrics of which had been partially directed at him).",
"Collins was stricken with pneumonia in 1989 and died on January 23, 1990, at age 37.The reunited band was intended to be a one-time tribute to the original lineup, captured on the double-live album ''Southern by the Grace of God: Lynyrd Skynyrd Tribute Tour 1987''.",
"That the band chose to continue after the 1987 tribute tour caused legal problems for the survivors, as Judy Van Zant Jenness and Teresa Gaines Rapp (widows of Ronnie and Steve, respectively) sued the others for violating an agreement made shortly after the plane crash, stating that they would not \"exploit\" the Skynyrd name for profit.",
"As part of the settlement, Jenness and Rapp collect nearly 30% of the band's touring revenues (representing the shares their husbands would have earned had they lived), and hold a proviso requiring any band touring as Lynyrd Skynyrd to include Rossington and at least two of the other four surviving members from the pre-crash era, namely Wilkeson, Powell, King and Pyle.",
"Following this rule, the band would have been forced to retire in 2001, but they have still continued to tour for another two decades.The band released its first post-reunion album in 1991, entitled ''Lynyrd Skynyrd 1991''.",
"By that time, the band had added a second drummer, Kurt Custer.",
"Artimus Pyle left the band during the same year, with Custer becoming the band's sole drummer.",
"That lineup released a second post-reunion album, entitled ''The Last Rebel'' in 1993.Later that year, Randall Hall was replaced by Mike Estes.",
"In 1994, Owen Hale replaced Kurt Custer on drums.===Member changes and deaths (1996–2019)===Ed King had to take a break from touring in 1996 due to heart complications that required a transplant.",
"In his absence, he was replaced by Hughie Thomasson.",
"The band did not let King rejoin after he recovered.",
"At the same time, Mike Estes was replaced by Rickey Medlocke, who had previously played and recorded with the band for a short time in the early 1970s.",
"The result was a major retooling of the band's 'guitar army'.",
"Medlocke and Thomasson would also become major contributors to the band's songwriting along with Rossington and Van Zant.The first album with this new lineup, released in 1997, was entitled ''Twenty''.",
"The band released another album, ''Edge of Forever'' in 1999.By that time, Hale had left the band, and the drums on the album were played by session drummer Kenny Aronoff.",
"Michael Cartellone became the band's permanent drummer on the subsequent tour.",
"Despite the growing number of post-reunion albums that the band had released up to this time, setlists showed that the band was playing mostly 1970s-era material in concert.The band released a Christmas album, entitled ''Christmas Time Again'' in 2000.Leon Wilkeson, Skynyrd's bassist since 1972, was found dead in his hotel room on July 27, 2001.His death was found to be due to emphysema and chronic liver disease.",
"He was replaced in 2001 by Ean Evans.The first album to feature Evans was ''Vicious Cycle'', released in 2003.This album had improved sales over the other post-reunion albums, and had a minor hit single in the song \"Red, White and Blue\".",
"The band also released a double album called ''Thyrty'', which had songs from the original lineup to the present, and also a live DVD of their Vicious Cycle Tour.",
"On June 22, 2004, the album ''Lynyrd Skynyrd Lyve: The Vicious Cycle Tour''.Thomasson left the band in 2005 to reform The Outlaws, and Mark \"Sparky\" Matejka, formerly of the country music band Hot Apple Pie, joined in 2006 as his replacement.",
"On November 2, 2007, the band performed for a crowd of 50,000 people at the University of Florida's Gator Growl student-run pep rally in Ben Hill Griffin Stadium (\"The Swamp\" football stadium).",
"This was the largest crowd that Lynyrd Skynyrd had played to in the U.S., until the July 2008 Bama Jam in Enterprise, Alabama where more than 111,000 people attended.On January 28, 2009, keyboardist Billy Powell died of a suspected heart attack at age 56 at his home near Jacksonville, Florida.",
"No autopsy was carried out.",
"He was replaced by Peter Keys.On March 17, 2009, it was announced that Skynyrd had signed a worldwide deal with Roadrunner Records, in association with their label, Loud & Proud Records, and released their new album ''God & Guns'' on September 29 of that year.",
"They toured Europe and the U.S. in 2009 with Keys on keyboards and Robert Kearns of the Bottle Rockets on bass; bassist Ean Evans died of cancer at age 48 on May 6, 2009.Scottish rock band Gun performed as special guests for the UK leg of Skynyrd's tour in 2010.In addition to the tour, Skynyrd appeared at the Sean Hannity Freedom Concert series in late 2010.Hannity had been actively promoting the ''God & Guns'' album, frequently playing portions of the track \"That Ain't My America\" on his radio show.",
"The tour is titled \"Rebels and Bandoleros\".",
"The band continued to tour throughout 2011, playing alongside ZZ Top and the Doobie Brothers.On May 2, 2012, the band announced the impending release of a new studio album, ''Last of a Dyin' Breed'', along with a North American and European tour.",
"On August 21, 2012, ''Last of a Dyin' Breed'' was released.",
"In celebration, the band did four autograph signings throughout the southeast.",
"Lynyrd Skynyrd used a Confederate flag from the 1970s until the 2010s, and several criticisms have been raised against them because of this.",
"While promoting the album on CNN on September 9, 2012, members of the band talked about its discontinued use of Confederate imagery.",
"In September 2012, the band briefly did not display the Confederate flag, which had for years been a part of their stage show, because they did not want to be associated with racists that adopted the flag.",
"However, after protests from fans, they reversed this decision, citing it as part of their Southern American heritage and states' rights symbolism.",
"The band would later cease use of the Confederate flag starting with their 2019 tour.Original drummer Bob Burns died aged 64 on April 3, 2015; his car crashed into a tree while he was driving alone near his home in Cartersville, Georgia.",
"From 2015 through 2017, the band had periods of being sidelined or having to cancel shows due to health problems suffered by founding member Gary Rossington.Former member Ed King, who had been battling cancer, died in his Nashville, Tennessee, home on August 22, 2018, at 68 years of age.===Farewell tour, upcoming fifteenth album and the death of Rossington (2018–present)===On January 25, 2018, Lynyrd Skynyrd announced their Last of the Street Survivors Farewell Tour, which started on May 4, 2018.Supporting acts included Kid Rock, Hank Williams Jr., Bad Company, the Charlie Daniels Band, the Marshall Tucker Band, .38 Special, Cheap Trick, Blackberry Smoke, the Randy Bachman Band, Blackfoot, Massive Wagons, and Status Quo.",
"Concerts were usually on Fridays and Saturdays.",
"On January 8, 2020, Rossington stated in an interview that while they would no longer be touring, they will continue to play occasional live shows.On March 19, 2019, Johnny Van Zant announced that the band intended to go into the studio to record one last album after completing the tour with several songs ready or \"in the can\".",
"They appeared at the Kaaboo Texas festival on May 11, 2019.Lynyrd Skynyrd was among hundreds of recording artists whose original master recordings were believed to have been destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.",
"Though it is not known with certainty which, if any, of the band's master recordings were lost in the blaze, Lynyrd Skynyrd was among the artists listed in an internal Universal Music Group document listing the artists whose master recordings the company believed had been lost and subsequently spent tens of millions of dollars trying to replace.Rossington, the last original member of the band, died on March 5, 2023.All of the original members are now deceased.",
"In April 2023, the band confirmed that they would continue to tour, despite Rossington's death.",
"There had previously been agreements about how many pre-crash members had to be in the band in order for it to be active and \"legal\", but this appears to be no longer applicable since Rossington's death."
],
[
"Recognition",
"===Honors===In 2004, ''Rolling Stone'' magazine ranked the group No.",
"95 on their list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\".On November 28, 2005, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame announced that Lynyrd Skynyrd would be inducted alongside Black Sabbath, Blondie, Miles Davis, and the Sex Pistols.",
"They were inducted in the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in Manhattan on March 13, 2006, during the Hall's 21st annual induction ceremony.",
"The inductees included Ronnie Van Zant, Allen Collins, Gary Rossington, Ed King, Steve Gaines, Billy Powell, Leon Wilkeson, Bob Burns, and Artimus Pyle.===Tributes===* In 2010, another country tribute album was produced, primarily by Jay Joyce, titled ''Sweet Home Alabama – The Country Music Tribute to Lynyrd Skynyrd''.",
"This album features a more modern country flavor than the 1994 tribute, featuring Randy Houser, Jamey Johnson, Eric Church, Eli Young Band, Uncle Kracker, Ashley Ray, Randy Montana, and Shooter Jennings.",
"* Ronnie Van Zant's widow, Judy Van Zant Jenness, operates a Lynyrd Skynyrd tribute website for the educational purpose of sharing the original Lynyrd Skynyrd band's history, as well as Freebird Live, a live music venue in Jacksonville Beach, Florida.",
"* The Drive-By Truckers dedicated their album ''Southern Rock Opera'' (2001) to Lynyrd Skynyrd.",
"* A monument in Magnolia, MS, 400 yards from the plane crash, was constructed in honor of the deceased members.",
"It is located off of I-55 near the Louisiana/Mississippi border at exit 8.The surviving families of the deceased attended the opening of the monument.===Biopic===On April 4, 2017, a biopic film project was announced.",
"The film was later titled ''Street Survivors: The True Story of the Lynyrd Skynyrd Plane Crash'' and released in June 2020.===Film===On March 13, 2018, filmmaker Stephen Kijak premiered his documentary called, \"If I Leave Here Tomorrow\" at the Stateside Theater during the South by Southwest (SXSW) festival in Austin, Texas.",
"Kijak was joined on stage by Johnny Van Zant and Gary Rossington at the world premiere to speak to fans about the film."
],
[
"Band members",
"===Current members===* Rickey Medlocke – drums (1971–1972); guitar (1972, 1996–present); vocals, mandolin (1971–1972, 1996–present)* Johnny Van Zant – lead vocals (1987–present)* Michael Cartellone – drums (1999–present)* Mark Matejka – guitar, backing vocals (2006–present)* Peter Keys – keyboards (2009–present)* Keith Christopher – bass (2017–present)* Damon Johnson - guitar (2023–present; touring 2021–2023)===Touring members===* Dale Krantz-Rossington – backing vocals (1987–present)* Carol Chase – backing vocals (1996–present)* Stacy Michelle – backing vocals (2021–present)"
],
[
"Tours",
"* Pronounced 'Lĕh-'nérd 'Skin-'nérd Tour (1973)* Second Helping Tour (1974)* Nuthin' Fancy Tour (1974–1975)* Gimme Back My Bullets Tour (1975–1976)* One More from the Road Tour (1976)* Street Survivors Tour (1977)* Lynyrd Skynyrd Tribute Tour (1987–1988)* Lynyrd Skynyrd 1991 Tour (1991–1992)* The Last Rebel Tour (1992–1996)* Lynyrd Skynyrd Twenty Tour (1997–1998)* Edge of Forever Tour (1999–2002)* Rowdy Frynds Tour (2007)* Vicious Cycle Tour (2003–2009)* God & Guns Tour (2009–2012)* Rebels and Bandoleros Tour (2011)* Lynyrd Skynyrd 2016 North American Tour (2016)* The Last of the Street Survivors Farewell Tour/Big Wheels Keep On Turning Tour (2018–2023)* Sharp Dressed Simple Man Tour (2023–2024) (with ZZ Top)"
],
[
"Discography",
"===Studio albums===* ''(Pronounced 'Lĕh-'nérd 'Skin-'nérd)'' (1973)* ''Second Helping'' (1974)* ''Nuthin' Fancy'' (1975)* ''Gimme Back My Bullets'' (1976)* ''Street Survivors'' (1977)* ''Lynyrd Skynyrd 1991'' (1991)* ''The Last Rebel'' (1993)* ''Endangered Species'' (1994)* ''Twenty'' (1997)* ''Edge of Forever'' (1999)* ''Christmas Time Again'' (2000)* ''Vicious Cycle'' (2003)* ''God & Guns'' (2009)* ''Last of a Dyin' Breed'' (2012)"
],
[
"References",
"===Notes====== Citations ======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * Lynyrd Skynyrd: Behind The Music Remastered on VH1.com* \"Photos: Remembering Leonard Skinner, namesake of Jacksonville rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd\".",
"''The Florida Times-Union'' (Jacksonville, FL)."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"List of Latin place names in Continental Europe, Ireland and Scandinavia"
],
[
"Introduction",
"This list includes European countries and regions that were part of the Roman Empire, or that were given Latin place names in historical references.",
"As a large portion of the latter were only created during the Middle Ages, often based on scholarly etiology, this is not to be confused with a list of the actual names modern regions and settlements bore during the classical era."
],
[
"Background",
"Until the Modern Era, Latin was the common language for scholarship and mapmaking.",
"During the 19th and 20th centuries, German scholars in particular have made significant contributions to the study of historical place names, or ''Ortsnamenkunde''.",
"These studies have, in turn, contributed to the study of genealogy.",
"For genealogists and historians of pre-Modern Europe, knowing alternate names of places is vital to extracting information from both public and private records.",
"Even specialists in this field point out, however, that the information can be easily taken out of context, since there is a great deal of repetition of place names throughout Europe; reliance purely on apparent connections should therefore be tempered with valid historical methodology."
],
[
"Caveats and notes",
"Latin place names are not always exclusive to one place — for example, there were several Roman cities whose names began with ''Colonia'' and then a more descriptive term.",
"During the Middle Ages, these were often shortened to just ''Colonia''.",
"One of these, ''Colonia Agrippinensis'', retains the name today in the form of Cologne.Early sources for Roman names show numerous variants and spellings of the Latin names.The modern canonical name is listed first.",
"Sources are listed chronologically.",
"In general, only the earliest source is shown for each name, although many of the names are recorded in more than one of the sources.",
"Where the source differs in spelling, or has other alternatives, these are listed following the source.",
"As an aid to searching, variants are spelled completely, and listed in most likely chronology.Superscripts indicate:# Latinized form of the Greek-derived name.# Latinized form of the Asian-derived name via Greek.# Altered Latinized form of the Greek-derived name."
],
[
"Cities and towns in Austria",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Brigantium, Brigantia Bregenz Carnuntum Bad Deutsch-Altenburg / Petronell Chremisa Krems Idunum Judenburg Iuenna Jaunstein – (Podjuna), Völkermarkt Iuvavum, Iuvavia, Salisburgum Salzburg Lentia Linz Noreia Neumarkt in der Steiermark Oenipons Innsbruck Ovilava Wels Veldidena Wilten Vindóbona, Vienna (Austriae) Vienna (Wien) Virunum, Maria in Solio Maria Saal – (Gospa Sveta)"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Belgium",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Aldenarda Oudenaarde (nl), Audenarde (fr) Alostum Aalst (nl), Alost (fr) Anderlacum Anderlecht Antverpia Antwerp, Antwerpen (nl), Anvers (fr) Atuatuca Tungrorum Tongeren (nl), Tongres (fr) Brugae Bruges (fr), Brugge (nl) Bruxella, Bruxellae Brussels, Brussel (nl), Bruxelles (fr) Cortoriacum, Cortracum Kortrijk (nl), Courtrai (fr) Damma, Dammum Damme (nl) Furna Veurne (nl) Gandavum Ghent, Gent (nl), Gand (fr) Leodium Liège (fr), Luik (nl), Lüttich (de) Lovanium Leuven (nl), Louvain (fr) Orolaunum Arlon (fr), Aarlen (nl) Rothnacum Ronse (nl), Renaix (fr) Tamasiacum, Tamisiacum, Temsica Temse (nl), Tamise (fr) Teneramonda Dendermonde (nl) Tornacum Tournai (fr), Doornik (nl) Viroviacum, Virovino Wervik (nl), Wervicq (fr)"
],
[
"Cities and towns in the [[Czech Republic]]",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Alta Muta Vysoké Mýto Beneschovium Benešov Broda Bohemica Český Brod Brunna Brno Budovisium České Budějovice Carnovia Krnov Colonia Kolín Eburum, Olomutium, Olomucium Olomouc Luna Louny Nova domus Jindřichův Hradec Oppavia Opava Ostravia Ostrava Pilsenum, Pilsna Plzeň Praga Prague (Praha) Racona Rakovník Vallis Gaudiorum Bruntál Verona Beroun Znoimium Znojmo"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Denmark",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Arus, Arhus Århus Fredericia Fredericia Hafnia Copenhagen (København) Othonia Odense Sora Sorø Wellea Vejle Wibergis Viborg"
],
[
"Cities and towns in [[Estonia]]",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Arx Aquilae Kuressaare Pernavia, (Nova) Perona Pärnu Revalia Tallinn Tarbatum, Tharbata Tartu"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Finland",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Aboa Turku – (Åbo) Arctopolis Pori – (Björneborg) Arx Savonum Savonlinna – (Nyslott) Arx Tavastiae, Tavasteburgum Hämeenlinna – (Tavastehus) Borgoa Porvoo – (Borgå) Brahestadium Raahe – (Brahestad) Cajaneburgum Kajaani – (Kajana) Carolina Vetus Kokkola – (Karleby, Gamlakarleby) Christinea Kristinestad – (Kristiinankaupunki) Espo Espoo – (Esbo) Fredericia Hamina – (Fredrikshamn) Granivicus Jyväskylä Helsinkium, Helsingia Helsinki – (Helsingfors) Michaelia Mikkeli – (S:t Michel) Neo-Carolina Nykarleby – (Uusikaarlepyy) Neostadium Uusikaupunki – (Nystad) Ostia Carelorum Joensuu Portus Mariae Mariehamn – (Maarianhamina) Raumoa Rauma – (Raumo) Sala Salo Tammerforsia Tampere – (Tammerfors) Tornea Tornio – (Torneå) Uloa Oulu – (Uleåborg) Vallis Gratiae Naantali – (Nådendal) Vantania Vantaa – (Vanda) Vasa Vaasa – (Vasa)"
],
[
"Cities and towns in France",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Adiacium Ajaccio Alberti campus Champaubert Andematunnum, Lugdunum, Lingones Langres Aquae Sextiae Aix-en-Provence Antissiodorum, Autesiodorum Auxerre Arelate, Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum Arles – (Arle) Argentoratum Strasbourg Arpajonum, Arpajoni castrum, Arpacona Arpajon, Paris Atrebatum Arras, Pas-de-Calais Augusta Argentorate Strasbourg Augustobona Tricassium, Tricassae Troyes Augustodurum, Bajocae, Bajocassium civitas Bayeux Augustodunum Autun Aurelianum Orléans Autricum, civitas Carnutum, Carnutes Chartres Avenio Avignon Belna Beaune Brestum, Brestia, Brivates Portis Brest Briva Isara Pontoise Burdigala Bordeaux Catalaunum, Catelaunorum Châlons-sur-Marne Catculliacum Saint-Denis, Paris Condate Riedonum Rennes Crisenaria Cressy Cularo Grenoble Damovilla Damville Darioritum Vannes Dinia, Diniensium civitas Digne-les-Bains, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Divio Dijon Divodurum Metz Durocortorum Reims Flavia (GOL: Flaviacum) Saint-Germer-de-Fly, Oise Flaviniacum (GOL: Flaviacum) Flavigny-sur-Ozerain, Côte-d'Or Gesoriacum, Bononia Boulogne-sur-Mer Glanum Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, Bouches-du-Rhône Lemonum, civitas Pictonum, Pictones Poitiers Lugdunum, Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugdunum Lyon Lugdunum Clavatum Laon Lugdunum Convenarum Saint-Bertrand-de-Comminges Lutetia Paris Massilia Marseille Medicinum Mézin, Lot-et-Garonne Mediolanum Aulercorum Évreux Mediolanum Santonum Saintes Narbo Martius Narbonne, Aude Nemausus Nîmes Nicaea, Nicia Nice Noviodunum Soissons Noviomagus Lexoviorum (GOL: Lexovium) Lisieux, Calvados Noviomagus Veromanduorum (GOL: Noviomium, Noviomense palatium, Noviomum, Novionum) Noyon, Oise Novio Rito (GOL: Niortum, Novirogus, Nyrax) Niort, Deux-Sèvres Portus Namnetum Nantes Ramboletium Rambouillet Rotomagus Rouen Samarobriva Amiens Sancti Audoeni fanum, villa aut domus Saint-Ouen, Paris Spinetum, Spinogelum, Spinoilum, Espinolum Épinay-sur-Orge, Paris Tolosa Toulouse Tullum Leucorum Toul Caesarodunum, Augusta Turonum, Metropolis civitas Turonum, Turonica civitas, Turones, T(h)oronus Tours Tutelae Tulle Verodunum Verdun – Wirten Vesontio Besançon Vienna Allobrogium Vienne, Isère Viennavicus Vienne-en-Val, Loiret Vierium Vihiers, Maine-et-Loire"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Germany",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Aquae Mattiacorum, Aquae Mattiacae Wiesbaden, Hessen (Colonia Claudia) Ara Agrippinensium Cologne (Köln), North Rhine-Westphalia Aqua Villae Badenweiler Aquisgrana, Aquis Granum, Aquae Grani, Aquensis urbs, Granis aquae Aachen, Aix-la-Chapelle (fr), North Rhine-Westphalia Antunnacum Andernach, Rhineland-Palatinate Arae Flaviae Rottweil Asopus Aspe Assindia Essen, North Rhine-Westphalia Augusta Vindelicorum Augsburg Augusta Treverorum Trier Aurelia Aquensis Baden-Baden Badena civitas Baden Batavis, Castra Batavorum, Castra Batava Passau Berolinum Berlin Bonna Bonn, North Rhine-Westphalia Borbetomagus, Wormatia Worms Brema Bremen Brunsvicum Braunschweig – (Brunswick) Cambodunum Kempten, Bavaria Castra Regina, Ratisbona Regensburg Castrum Novaesium Neuss, North Rhine-Westphalia Chemnitium, Chemnicium Chemnitz Cignavia, Cignea, Cygnea, Cynavia Zwickau Clivia Kleve, North Rhine-Westphalia Colonia Agrippina, Colonia Agrippinensis Cologne (Köln), North Rhine-Westphalia Colonia Ulpia Traiana, Vetera Xanten, North Rhine-Westphalia (Castellum apud) Confluentes Koblenz Constantia Konstanz – (Constance) Cruciniacum Bad Kreuznach, Rhineland-Palatinate Dispargum Duisburg Dresda Dresden Emetha, Amuthon, Embda, Emda, Embden Emden, East Frisia Erfordia, Erphesfurt Erfurt, Thuringia Esilinga, Ezelinga, Ezzilinga Eßlingen Francofortum ad Moenum Frankfurt am Main Friburgum Brisgoviae Freiburg im Breisgau Goettinga Göttingen Gorlicium Görlitz, Saxony Goslaria Goslar, Lower Saxony Hale Suevice Schwäbisch Hall – Hall in Schwaben, Baden-Württemberg Hamburgum, Hammonia Hamburg Hanovera Hanover – (Hanover) Herbipolis Würzburg Hildanus Hilden Iuliacum Jülich, North Rhine-Westphalia Lauriacum Lorch Lindaugia, Lindavia Lindau Lipsia Leipzig Locoritum Lohr, Bavaria Lubica (GOL: Lubicana, Lubeca, Lubecum, Lubacovia, Lybichi) Lübeck, Schleswig-Holstein Magdeburgum Magdeburg Megalopolis Mecklenburg Misnia (GOL: Misnensis marchia) Meissen, Saxony Moguncia, Moguntia, Moguntiacum, Mogontiacum Mainz Monachium, Monacum Munich (München) Monasterium in Eifel Bad Münstereifel Monasterium Westphaliae Münster Norimberga Nuremberg (Nürnberg) Northusia Nordhausen Novaesium, Novensium Neuss, North Rhine-Westphalia Noviomagus Nemetum (GOL: Augusta Nemetum, Nemetis, Nemodona, Spira, Spiratia, Sphira, Spyrea) Speyer, Rhineland-Palatinate Noviomagus Trevirorum (NLU; GOL: Augusta Trevirorum, Treviris, Treberis) Neumagen-Dhron near Trier Patavia, Castra Batava Passau Ratisbona, Radaspona Regensburg, Bavaria Rigomagus Remagen, North Rhine-Westphalia Rostochium (Rhodopolis) Rostock Sumelocenna Rottenburg am Neckar Stutgardia, Stuogardia Stuttgart Tremonia Dortmund, North Rhine-Westphalia Tubinga Tübingen Tulpiacum, Tolbiacum Zülpich, Tolbiac (fr), North Rhine-Westphalia Vetera, Colonia Ulpia Traiana Xanten"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Hungary",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Ad Flexum Mosonmagyaróvár Aegopolis Kecskemét Agria (Medieval Latin) Eger Alba Regia Székesfehérvár Alisca Szekszárd Altinum Kölked Annamatia Baracs Aquincum Budapest (Óbuda) Arrabona Győr Brigetio Komárom / Szőny Budapestum, Budapestinum, Buda Vetus (Medieval Latin) Budapest Caesariana Baláca Campona Budapest (Nagytétény) Cirpi Dunabogdány Civitas Archiepiscopalis Víziváros (today a part of Esztergom) Contra-Aquincum Budapest (Pest) Contra Constantiam Dunakeszi Gorsium, Herculia Tác Intercisa Dunaújváros Lussonium Dunakömlőd Matrica Százhalombatta Mursella Mórichida Partiscum Szeged Quadrata Lébény Sala Zalalövő Savaria Szombathely Scarbantia Sopron Solva, Strigonium (Medieval Latin) Esztergom Sopianae Pécs Tricciana Ságvár Valcum Fenékpuszta Vetus Salina Adony Ulcisia Castra Szentendre"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Ireland",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s)Ardachad Ardagh, County Longford (Ardach)Ardmachanus Armagh (Ard Mhacha)Attar Adare (Áth Dara)Baltifordia Waterford (Port Láirge)Campulus Bovis Aghaboe (Achadh Bhó)CanicKilkenny (Cill Chainnigh)Carlovia Carlow (Ceatharlach)Cellumabrath Kilfenora (Cill Fhionnúrach) Corcagia (Anuario Pontificio), Coracium Cork (Corcaigh) Dublinum, Dublanensis, Dublenensis, Dublina, Dublinensis, Dublinia, Dubliniensis, Dublinium, Duvelinensis, Eblanda, Erlana (2PG1; HLU: Kirkruel?",
"; GOL: Dublin (Baile Átha Cliath)Galvia Galway (Gaillimh)Hanahannassa Ballyhaunis (Béal Átha hAmhnais) Lagisia (Annals of Tigernach) County Laois (Loígis) Manutium Maynooth (Maigh Nuad)Nas (Castrum Nasense) Naas (Nás na Ríogh)RuscomiaRoscommon (Ros Comáin) Saltus Salmonis Leixlip (Léim an Bhradáin)Sanctum Nemus (Red Book of Ormond) Hollywood, County Wicklow (Cillín Chaoimhín)"
],
[
"Cities and towns in [[Latvia]]",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Rugensis civitas Riga"
],
[
"Cities and towns in [[Moldova]]",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Grigoriopolis Grigoriopol Tiraspolis Tiraspol"
],
[
"Cities and towns in [[Monaco]]",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Monaecum (GOL: Monoecum, Portus Herculis Monoeci) Monaco"
],
[
"Cities and towns in the Netherlands",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Ad Duodecimum unknown location Albaniana Alphen aan den Rijn Alcmaria Alkmaar Amivadum Amersfoort Amstelodamum Amsterdam Arenacum Arnhem Blariacum Blerick Carvium Herwen (De Bijland) Carvo Kesteren Caspingio unknown location Castra Herculis Arnhem (Meinerswijk) Ceuclum Cuijk Coriovallum Heerlen Daventria Deventer Eindovia Eindhoven Elenio Naaldwijk Fectio Vechten Flevum Velsen Forum Hadriani Voorburg Ganuentum (Colijnsplaat) Grinnes Rossum/Alem Horgana Hargen Laurium, Laurum Woerden Lefevanum Wijk bij Duurstede Lugdunum, Lugdunum Batavorum Katwijk (Brittenburg) Matilo Leiden (Roomburg) Maunnaricium Maurik Mosae Traiectum Maastricht Municipium Aelium Cananefatum Voorburg Nigrum Pullum Zwammerdam Praetorium Agrippinae Katwijk (Valkenburg) Ruraemunde Roermond Sablones Venlo Silva Ducis 's-Hertogenbosch (Den Bosch) Tablis unknown location Traiectum Utrecht Traiectum ad Mosam Maastricht Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum (HLU; GOL: Batavodurum, Niumagum, Niwimagum, Neumaia) Nijmegen Venlonum Venlo Vienna (Nederlandia), Vigenna Vianen Vadae Wageningen"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Norway",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Asloa Oslo Berga Bergen"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Poland",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Aurimontium, Aureus Mons, Auri Mons Złotoryja Bethania, Bithomia Bytom Bilici-Biala, Bielici-Biala Bielsko-Biała Bydgostia Bydgoszcz Calisia Kalisz Cervimontium, Mons Cervi (adj.",
"cervimontanus, hirschbergensis) Jelenia Góra Cracovia Kraków Culmen Chełmno Elbinga, Elbingus, Elbinca, Elbangum, Elbingense castrum Elbląg Gedania, Gedanum, Dantiscum Gdańsk Glivitium Gliwice Ostrovia Ostrów Wielkopolski Posnania, Poznania Poznań Resovia Rzeszów Sandomir Sandomierz Siradia Sieradz Stargardia Stargard Sedinum, (Stettinum) Szczecin Thorunium Toruń Varsovia, Varsavia Warsaw (Warszawa) Vratislavia, Wratislavia Wrocław"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Russia",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Archangelopolis (GOL: S. Michaeli Archangeli fanum, Michaelopolis) Archangelsk Asovia (GOL: Assovium; HLU: Tanais) Azov Astrachanum Astrachan Belogradum Belgorod Caluga (HLU: Coluga) Kaluga Casanum (GOL: Kazanum) Kazan Catharinoburgum Ekaterinburg Columna Kolomna Demitriovia Dmitrov Iaroslavia (GOL: Jereslavia) Yaroslavl Iuliania Ulyanovsk Moscua, Mosqua, Moscovia (HLU: Moscha) Moscow Novogardia Inferior Nizhny Novgorod Novogardia Magna Veliky Novgorod Orenburgum Orenburg Permia Perm Petropolis, Petroburgum (GOL: St. Petri fanum) Saint Petersburg Pscovia, Plescovia Pskov Regiomontium (GOL: Regiomontum, Regalis, Regius) Kaliningrad – Königsberg Resania (GOL: Rhezania; HLU: Rezana) Ryazan Rostovia Rostov Saratovia (HLU: Soratovia) Saratov Smolenscum (GOL: Smolska) Smolensk Stauropolis Stavropol Susdalia (HLU: Susdala) Suzdal Toropetia Toropets Tueria (GOL: Tuera, Twera) Tver Ustiuga Veliky Ustyug Volodimiria Vladimir Vologda (HLU: Volochda) Vologda Viatcia, Venetica Kirov – Vyatka Viburga, Viburgum, Viburgum Careliorum (GOL: Viburgus) Vyborg"
],
[
"Cities and towns in [[San Marino]]",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Aqua Viva Acquaviva Burgus Maior Borgo Maggiore Domenianus Domagnano Ecclesia Nova Chiesanuova Faetanum, Fagetanum Faetano Florentinum Fiorentino Marinum, Fanum Sancti Marini San Marino Mons Viridarium Montegiardino Olnanum Serravalle"
],
[
"Cities and towns in [[Slovakia]]",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Cassovia Košice Castrum Novum Nové Zámky Bartfa Bardejov Forum Dominarum Bátovce Semnichia Banská Štiavnica Celemantia Iža (Izsa) Cismarcinum, Forum Caseorum Kežmarok Comaromium Komárno Crempnichia Kremnica Leuchovia Levoča Prividia Prievidza Iglovia, Nova Villa Spišská Nová Ves Suburbium, Villa Sub Castro Spišské Vlachy Lublovia Stará Ľubovňa Divinium Devín Villa Theutonicalis Poprad Eperiessinum, Fragopolis Prešov Gerulata Rusovce, Bratislava Laugaricio Trenčín Tyrnavia Trnava Neosolium Banská Bystrica Posonium, Wratisslaburgium Bratislava Veterosolium, Vetusolium, Solium Zvolen"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Slovenia",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Iustinopolis, Caput Histriae Koper Labacum, Aemona Ljubljana Marburgum Maribor Mons Carniolae Kranjska Gora Nova Urbs Novo Mesto Poetovium Ptuj"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Sweden",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Amalia Åmål Arosia Västerås Boërosia Borås Calmaria Kalmar Caroli Corona Karlskrona Christinae portus Kristinehamn Christiania Kristianstad Cimbrorum portus Simrishamn Clara Vallis Ljusdal Copinga Köping Coronia Landskrona Dalecarlius Dalälven Delisboa Delsbo Eckesioea, Ecksium Eksjö Encopia Enköping Falcopia Falköping Gevalia Gävle Gothia Gothenburg (Göteborg) Halmostadium Halmstad Hiovia Hjo Holmia, Stockholmia Stockholm Hudvicovaldum Hudiksvall Iuncopia Jönköping Lagaholmia Laholm (older Swedish name: Lagaholm) Lidcopia Lidköping Lincopia Linköping Lindesberga, Linda Lindesberg Lula Luleå Lunda Lund Malmögia Malmö Medicorum villa Medevibrunn Nicopia Nyköping Norcopia Norrköping Örebrogia Örebro Øresundae Öresund Pax Mariae Mariefred Pitovia Piteå Schedina Skövde Stenbrovium Stenbro Stocholmia, Holmia Stockholm Sudercopia Söderköping Telga Södertälje (older Swedish name: Tälje) Upsala Uppsala Uraniburgum Uranienborg Urbs Mariae Mariestad Vadstenium Vadstena Vemmaria, Wemmaria Vimmerby Vexionia Växjö Visbia Visby Visingsburgum, Wisingsburgum Visingsborg Ystadium, Istadium, Ustadium Ystad"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Switzerland",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Acaunum, Agaunum Saint-Maurice Ad Fines Pfyn Aquae Helveticae Baden Arbor Felix Arbon Augusta Raurica Kaiseraugst / Augst Aventicum Avenches Basilia, Basilea Basel Berna Bern Brienzola Brienz Brunntrudum, Bruntraut Porrentruy, Pruntrut (de) Centum Prata Kempraten, Jona and Rapperswil Curia Chur, Graubünden Eburodunum Yverdon-les-Bains Esquinia Écône Genava Geneva Lousonna Lausanne Morgiis Morges Noviodunum (Colonia Iulia Equestris) Nyon Octodurum Martigny Solodurum/Salodurum Solothurn Suitia Schwyz Tugium Zug Turicum Zürich Urba Orbe Vibiscum Vevey Vindonissa Windisch Vitudurum Winterthur"
],
[
"Cities and towns in Ukraine",
" Canonical Latin name (source(s): variant(s)) English name (native language(s)) – older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) Alexandria Oleksandriia Alustum, Lusta Alushta Bialoquerca Bila Tserkva Calamita Inkerman Caulita Yalta Charcovia, Charkovia Kharkiv Chiovia, Kiovia Kyiv Chersonium Kherson Chersonesus Nordica Korsun-Shevchenkivskyi Czernihovia Chernihiv Eupatoria Yevpatoria Leopolis Lviv Marinopolis Mariiampil Mariupolis Mariupol Melitopolis Melitopol Novogardia Severiae Novhorod-Siverskyi Ovidiopolis Ovidiopol Panticapaeum, Cimmericum, Bosporus Cimmericum Kerch Pereaslavia Pereiaslav Sebastopolis, Chersonesus Taurica Sevastopol Solcata Stary Krym Sugdaia Sudak Symbolum Portus Balaklava Sympheropolis, Neapolis Scythica Simferopol Ternopolis Ternopil Theodoros, Doros Mangup Theodosia, Caffa Feodosia Theophania Feofaniia"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Latin place names in Iberia* List of Latin place names in the Balkans* List of Latin place names used as specific names"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"In order of likely publication:*'''PNH''': Pliny (Gaius Plinius Secundus), ''Naturalis Historia''; book \"PNH\" chapter (that is, \"37PNH81\" instead of the usual \"N.H.xxxvii.81\").",
"*'''PG''': Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), ''Geographia''; book \"PG\" chapter (that is, \"2PG3\" instead of the usual \"II.3\").",
"Ptolemy wrote in Greek, so names are transliterated back into Latin to reveal the original form.",
"*'''HLU''': Hofmann, Johann Jacob (1635–1706): ''Lexicon Universale''*'''GOL''': The standard reference to Latin placenames, with their modern equivalents, is Dr. J. G. Th.",
"Grässe, ''Orbis Latinus: Lexikon lateinischer geographischer Namen des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit'' (1861), an exhaustive work of meticulous German scholarship that is available on-line in the second edition of 1909.To use it, one must understand German names of countries, as they were in 1909.The original was re-edited and expanded in a multi-volume edition in 1972."
],
[
"External links",
"* Grässe, Orbis Latinus* Grässe, Orbis Latinus* Hofmann: Lexicon Universale* OHM Roman Places* Pliny the Elder: the Natural History* Ptolemy: the Geography"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lodovico Ferrari"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Niccolò Tartaglia, ''Terza risposta data a messer Hieronimo Cardano et a messer Lodovico Ferraro'', 1547'''Lodovico de Ferrari''' (2 February 1522 – 5 October 1565) was an Italian mathematician best known today for solving the quartic equation."
],
[
"Biography",
"Born in Bologna, Lodovico's grandfather, Bartolomeo Ferrari, was forced out of Milan to Bologna.",
"Lodovico settled in Bologna, and he began his career as the servant of Gerolamo Cardano.",
"He was extremely bright, so Cardano started teaching him mathematics.",
"Ferrari aided Cardano on his solutions for quadratic equations and cubic equations, and was mainly responsible for the solution of quartic equations that Cardano published.",
"While still in his teens, Ferrari was able to obtain a prestigious teaching post in Rome after Cardano resigned from it and recommended him.",
"Ferrari retired when young at 42 years old, and wealthy.",
"He then moved back to his home town of Bologna where he lived with his widowed sister Maddalena to take up a professorship of mathematics at the University of Bologna in 1565.Shortly thereafter, he died of white arsenic poisoning, according to a legend, by his sister."
],
[
"Cardano–Tartaglia formula",
"In 1545 a famous dispute erupted between Ferrari and Cardano's contemporary Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia, involving the solution to cubic equations.",
"Widespread stories that Tartaglia devoted the rest of his life to ruining Ferrari's teacher and erstwhile master Cardano, however, appear to be fabricated.",
"Mathematical historians now credit both Cardano and Tartaglia with the formula to solve cubic equations, referring to it as the \"Cardano–Tartaglia formula\"."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lymphedema"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lymphedema''', also known as '''lymphoedema''' and '''lymphatic edema''', is a condition of localized swelling caused by a compromised lymphatic system.",
"The lymphatic system functions as a critical portion of the body's immune system and returns interstitial fluid to the bloodstream.",
"Lymphedema is most frequently a complication of cancer treatment or parasitic infections, but it can also be seen in a number of genetic disorders.",
"Though incurable and progressive, a number of treatments may improve symptoms.",
"Tissues with lymphedema are at high risk of infection because the lymphatic system has been compromised.While there is no cure, treatment may improve outcomes.",
"This commonly includes compression therapy, good skin care, exercise, and manual lymphatic drainage (MLD), which together are known as combined decongestive therapy.",
"Diuretics are not useful."
],
[
"Signs and symptoms",
"Lymphedema seen on CT scanThe most common manifestation of lymphedema is soft tissue swelling (edema).",
"As the disorder progresses, worsening edema and skin changes including discoloration, verrucous (wart-like) hyperplasia, hyperkeratosis, papillomatosis, dermal thickening, and ulcers may be seen.",
"Additionally, there is increased risk of infection of the skin, known as erysipelas.===Complications===When lymphatic impairment becomes so great that the collected lymph fluid exceeds the lymphatic system's ability to transport it, an abnormal amount of protein-rich fluid collects in the tissues.",
"Left untreated, this stagnant, protein-rich fluid causes tissue channels to increase in size and number, reducing oxygen availability.",
"This interferes with wound healing and provides a rich medium for bacterial growth which can result in skin infections, lymphangitis, lymphadenitis, and, in severe cases, skin ulcers.",
"It is vital for lymphedema patients to be aware of the symptoms of infection and to seek immediate treatment, since recurrent infections or cellulitis, in addition to their inherent danger, further damage the lymphatic system and set up a vicious circle.In rare cases, lymphedema may lead to a form of cancer called lymphangiosarcoma, although the mechanism of carcinogenesis is not understood.",
"Lymphedema-associated lymphangiosarcoma is called Stewart–Treves syndrome.",
"Lymphangiosarcoma most frequently occurs in cases of long-standing lymphedema.",
"The incidence of angiosarcoma five years after radical mastectomy is estimated to be 0.45% in surviving patients.",
"Lymphedema is also associated with a low grade form of cancer called retiform hemangioendothelioma (a low grade angiosarcoma).Lymphedema can be disfiguring, and may result in a poor body image and psychological distress.",
"Complications of lymphedema can cause difficulties in activities of daily living."
],
[
"Causes and risk factors",
"Lymphedema may be inherited (primary) or caused by injury to the lymphatic vessels (secondary).",
"There are also risk factors that may increase one's risk of developing lymphedema such as old age, being overweight or obese, and having rheumatic or psoriatic arthritis.===Lymph node damage===Lymphedema is most commonly seen after lymph node dissection, surgery or radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer, most notably breast cancer.",
"In many patients the condition does not develop until months or even years after therapy has concluded.",
"Lymphedema may also be associated with accidents or certain diseases or conditions that may inhibit the lymphatic system from functioning properly.",
"It can also be caused by damage to the lymphatic system from infections such as cellulitis.",
"In tropical areas of the world where parasitic filarial worms are endemic, a common cause of secondary lymphedema is filariasis.Primary lymphedema may be congenital or may arise sporadically.",
"Multiple syndromes are associated with primary lymphedema, including Turner syndrome, Milroy's disease, and Klippel–Trénaunay syndrome.",
"In these syndromes it may occur as a result of absent or malformed lymph nodes and/or lymphatic channels.",
"Lymphedema can be present at birth, develop at the onset of puberty (praecox), or not become apparent for many years into adulthood (tarda).",
"In men, lower-limb primary lymphedema is most common, occurring in one or both legs.",
"Some cases of lymphedema may be associated with other vascular abnormalities.Secondary lymphedema affects both men and women, and, in Western countries, is most commonly due to cancer treatment.",
"In women, it is most prevalent in an upper limb after breast cancer surgery, especially axillary lymph node dissection, and occurs on the same side of the body as the surgery.",
"Breast and trunk lymphedema can also occur but go unrecognised as there is swelling in the area after surgery, and its symptoms (peau d'orange and an inverted nipple) can be confused with post surgery fat necrosis.",
"Between 38 and 89% of breast cancer patients have lymphedema due to axillary lymph node dissection or radiation.",
"Unilateral lymphedema of a lower limb occurs in up to 41% of patients after gynecologic cancer.",
"For men treated for prostate cancer, a 5-66% incidence has been reported, with the incidence rate depending on whether staging or radical removal of lymph glands was done in addition to radiotherapy.Head and neck lymphedema can be caused by surgery or radiation therapy for tongue or throat cancer.",
"It may also occur in the lower limbs or groin after surgery for colon, ovarian or uterine cancer, if removal of lymph nodes or radiation therapy is required.",
"Surgery or treatment for prostate, colon and testicular cancers may result in secondary lymphedema, particularly when lymph nodes have been removed or damaged.The onset of secondary lymphedema in patients who have had cancer surgery has also been linked to aircraft flight (likely due to decreased cabin pressure or relative immobility).",
"For cancer survivors wearing a prescribed and properly fitted compression garment may help decrease swelling during air travel.Some cases of lower-limb lymphedema have been associated with the use of tamoxifen, due to blood clots and deep vein thrombosis (DVT) associated with this medication.",
"Resolution of the blood clots or DVT is needed before lymphedema treatment can be initiated.===At birth==='''Hereditary lymphedema''' is a primary lymphedema – swelling that results from abnormalities in the lymphatic system that are present from birth.",
"Swelling may be present in a single limb, several limbs, genitalia, or the face.",
"It is sometimes diagnosed prenatally by a nuchal scan or postnatally by lymphoscintigraphy.The most common cause is Meige disease which usually presents at puberty.",
"Another form of hereditary lymphedema is Milroy's disease, caused by mutations in the VEGFR3 gene.",
"Hereditary lymphedema is frequently syndromic and is associated with Turner syndrome, lymphedema–distichiasis syndrome, yellow nail syndrome, and Klippel–Trénaunay syndrome.One defined genetic cause for hereditary lymphedema is GATA2 deficiency.",
"This deficiency is a grouping of several disorders caused by a single defect: familial or sporadic inactivating mutations in one of the two parental ''GATA2'' genes.",
"These autosomal dominant mutations cause a reduction, i.e.",
"a haploinsufficiency, in the cellular levels of the gene's product, GATA2.The GATA2 protein is a transcription factor critical for the development, maintenance, and functionality of blood-forming, lympathic-forming, and other tissue-forming stem cells.",
"Due to these mutations cellular levels of GATA2 are deficient and over time individuals develop hematological, immunological, lymphatic, and other disorders.",
"GATA2 deficiency-induced defects in the lymphatic vessels and valves underlies the development of lymphedema, primarily in the lower extremities but may also occur in places such as the face or testes.",
"This form of the deficiency, when coupled with sensorineural hearing loss, which may also be due to faulty development of the lymphatic system, is sometimes termed Emberger syndrome.Primary lymphedema occurs in approximately 1-3 births out of every 10,000 births, with a female to male ratio of 3.5:1.In North America, the incidence of primary lymphedema is approximately 1.15 births out of every 100,000 births.",
"Compared to secondary lymphedema, primary lymphedema is relatively rare.=== Inflammatory lymphedema ===Bilateral lower extremity inflammatory lymphedema (BLEIL) is a distinct type of lymphedema occurring in a setting of acute and prolonged standing, such as in new recruits during basic training.",
"Possible underlying mechanisms may include venous congestion and inflammatory vasculitis."
],
[
"Physiology",
"Lymph is formed from the fluid that filters out of blood and contains proteins, cellular debris, bacteria, etc.",
"This fluid is collected by the initial lymph collectors that are blind-ended endothelial-lined vessels with fenestrated openings that allow fluids and particles as large as cells to enter.",
"Once inside the lumen of the lymphatic vessels, the fluid is guided along increasingly larger vessels, first with rudimentary valves to prevent backflow, later with complete valves similar to the venous valve.",
"Once the lymph enters the fully valved lymphatic vessels, it is pumped by a rhythmic peristaltic-like action by smooth muscle cells within the lymphatic vessel walls.",
"This peristaltic action is the primary driving force moving lymph within its vessel walls.",
"The sympathetic nervous system regulates of the frequency and power of the contractions.",
"Lymph movement can be influenced by the pressure of nearby muscle contraction, arterial pulse pressure and the vacuum created in the chest cavity during respiration, but these passive forces contribute only a minor percentage of lymph transport.",
"The fluids collected are pumped into continually larger vessels and through lymph nodes, which remove debris and police the fluid for dangerous microbes.",
"The lymph ends its journey in the thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct, which drain into the blood circulation."
],
[
"Diagnosis",
"Diagnosis is generally based on signs and symptoms, with testing used to rule out other potential causes.",
"An accurate diagnosis and staging may help with management.",
"A swollen limb can result from different conditions that require different treatments.",
"Diagnosis of lymphedema is currently based on history, physical exam, and limb measurements.",
"Imaging studies such as lymphoscintigraphy and indocyanine green lymphography are only required when surgery is being considered.",
"However, the ideal method of staging to guide treatment is controversial because of several different proposed protocols.",
"Lymphedema can occur in both the upper and lower extremities, and in some cases, the head and neck.",
"Assessment of the extremities first begins with a visual inspection; color, presence of hair, visible veins, size and any sores or ulcerations are noted.",
"Lack of hair may indicate an arterial circulation problem.",
"In cases of swelling, the extremities' circumference is measured over time for reference.",
"In early stages of lymphedema, elevating the limb may reduce or eliminate the swelling.",
"Palpation of the wrist or ankle can determine the degree of swelling; assessment includes a check of the pulses.",
"The axillary or inguinal lymph nodes may be enlarged due to the swelling.",
"Enlargement of the nodes lasting more than three weeks may indicate infection or other illnesses (such as sequela from breast cancer surgery) requiring further medical attention.Diagnosis or early detection of lymphedema is difficult.",
"The first signs may be subjective observations such as a feeling of heaviness in the affected extremity.",
"These may be symptomatic of early-stage lymphedema where accumulation of lymph is mild and not detectable by changes in volume or circumference.",
"As lymphedema progresses, definitive diagnosis is commonly based upon an objective measurement of differences between the affected or at-risk limb and the opposite unaffected limb, e.g.",
"in volume or circumference.",
"No generally accepted criterion is definitively diagnostic, although a volume difference of 200 ml between limbs or a difference (at a single measurement site or set intervals along the limb) is often used.",
"Bioimpedance measurement (which measures the amount of fluid in a limb) offers greater sensitivity than other methods.Chronic venous stasis changes can mimic early lymphedema, but are more often bilateral and symmetric.",
"Lipedema can also mimic lymphedema, however lipedema characteristically spares the feet beginning abruptly at the malleolus (ankle).",
"As a part of the initial work-up before diagnosing lymphedema, it may be necessary to exclude other potential causes of lower extremity swelling such as kidney failure, hypoalbuminemia, congestive heart-failure, protein-losing kidney disease, pulmonary hypertension, obesity, pregnancy and drug-induced edema.===Classification===Cheng's Lymphedema GradingThe International Society of Lymphology (ISL) Staging System is based solely on subjective symptoms, making it prone to substantial observer bias.",
"Imaging modalities have been suggested as useful adjuncts to the ISL staging to clarify the diagnosis, such as Cheng's Lymphedema Grading tool, which assesses the severity of extremity lymphedema based on objective limb measurements and provides appropriate options for management.==== I. Grading ====* '''Grade 1''': Spontaneously reversible on elevation.",
"Mostly pitting edema.",
"* '''Grade 2''': Non-spontaneously reversible on elevation.",
"Mostly non-pitting edema.",
"* '''Grade 3''': Gross increase in volume and circumference of Grade 2 lymphedema, with eight stages of severity given below based on clinical assessments.===== II.",
"Staging =====As described by the Fifth WHO Expert Committee on Filariasis, and endorsed by the American Society of Lymphology, the staging system helps to identify the severity of lymphedema.",
"With the assistance of medical imaging, such as MRI or CT, staging can be established by the physician, and therapeutic or medical interventions may be applied:* '''Stage 0''': The lymphatic vessels have sustained some damage that is not yet apparent.",
"Transport capacity is sufficient for the amount of lymph being removed.",
"Lymphedema is not present.",
"* '''Stage 1''' : Swelling increases during the day and disappears overnight as the patient lies flat in bed.",
"Tissue is still at the pitting stage: when pressed by the fingertips, the affected area indents and reverses with elevation.",
"Usually, upon waking in the morning, the limb or affected area is normal or almost normal in size.",
"Treatment is not necessarily required at this point.",
"* '''Stage 2''': Swelling is not reversible overnight, and does not disappear without proper management.",
"The tissue now has a spongy consistency and is considered non-pitting: when pressed by the fingertips, the affected area bounces back without indentation.",
"Fibrosis found in Stage 2 lymphedema marks the beginning of the hardening of the limbs and increasing size.",
"* '''Stage 3''': Swelling is irreversible and usually the limb(s) or affected area becomes increasingly large.",
"The tissue is hard (fibrotic) and unresponsive; some patients consider undergoing reconstructive surgery, called \"debulking\".",
"This remains controversial, however, since the risks may outweigh the benefits and further damage done to the lymphatic system may make the lymphedema worse.",
"* '''Stage 4''': The size and circumference of the affected limb(s) become noticeably larger.",
"Bumps, lumps, or protrusions (also called knobs) on the skin begin to appear.",
"* '''Stage 5''': The affected limb(s) become grossly large; one or more deep skin folds is present.",
"* '''Stage 6''': Knobs of small elongated or rounded sizes cluster together, giving mossy-like shapes on the limb.",
"Mobility of the patient becomes increasingly impaired.",
"* '''Stage 7''': The person becomes \"handicapped\", and is unable to independently perform daily routine activities such as walking, bathing and cooking.",
"Assistance from the family and health care system is needed.====Grades====Lymphedema can also be categorized by its severity (usually compared to a healthy extremity):* '''Grade 1''' (mild edema): Involves the distal parts such as a forearm and hand or a lower leg and foot.",
"The difference in circumference is less than and no other tissue changes are present.",
"* '''Grade 2''' (moderate edema): Involves an entire limb or corresponding quadrant of the trunk.",
"Difference in circumference is .",
"Tissue changes, such as pitting, are apparent.",
"The patient may experience erysipelas.",
"* '''Grade 3a''' (severe edema): Lymphedema is present in one limb and its associated trunk quadrant.",
"Circumferential difference is greater than .",
"Significant skin alterations, such as cornification, keratosis, cysts or fistulae, are present.",
"Additionally, the patient may experience repeated attacks of erysipelas.",
"* '''Grade 3b''' (massive edema): The same symptoms as grade 3a, except that two or more extremities are affected.",
"* '''Grade 4''' (gigantic edema): In this stage of lymphedema, the affected extremities are huge, due to almost complete blockage of the lymph channels.===Differential===Lymphedema should not be confused with edema arising from chronic venous insufficiency, which is caused by compromise of venous drainage rather than lymphatic drainage.",
"However, untreated venous insufficiency can progress into a combined venous/lymphatic disorder known as phlebetic lymphedema (or phlebolymphedema)."
],
[
"Treatment",
"While there is no cure, treatment may improve outcomes.",
"This commonly include compression therapy, good skin care, exercise, manual lymphatic drainage (MLD) and the use of an intermittent pneumatic compression pump, which together is known as combined decongestive therapy.",
"MLD is most effective in mild to moderate disease.",
"In breast cancer-related lymphedema, MLD is safe and may offer added benefit to compression bandages for reducing swelling.",
"Most people with lymphedema can be medically managed with conservative treatment.",
"Diuretics are not useful.",
"Surgery is generally only used if symptoms are not improved by other measures.===Compression=======Garments====Lymphedema compression sleeve on a mannequinOnce a person is diagnosed with lymphedema, compression becomes imperative in the management of the condition.",
"Garments are often intended to be worn all day but may be taken off for sleep, unless otherwise prescribed.",
"Elastic compression garments are worn on the affected limb following complete de-congestive therapy to maintain edema reduction.",
"Inelastic garments provide containment and reduction.",
"Available styles, options, and prices vary widely.",
"A professional garment fitter or certified lymphedema therapist can help determine the best option for the patient.====Bandaging====Compression bandaging, also called wrapping, is the application of layers of padding and short-stretch bandages to the involved areas.",
"Short-stretch bandages are preferred over long-stretch bandages (such as those normally used to treat sprains), as the long-stretch bandages cannot produce the proper therapeutic tension necessary to safely reduce lymphedema and may produce a tourniquet effect.",
"Compression bandages provide resistance that assists in pumping fluid out of the affected area during exercise.",
"This counter-force results in increased lymphatic drainage and therefore a decrease in size of the swollen area.====Intermittent pneumatic compression therapy====Intermittent pneumatic compression therapy (IPC) utilizes a multi-chambered pneumatic sleeve with overlapping cells to promote movement of lymph fluid.",
"Pump therapy should only be used in addition to other treatments such as compression bandaging and manual lymph drainage.",
"Pump therapy has been used in the past to help with controlling lymphedema.",
"In some cases, pump therapy helps soften fibrotic tissue and therefore potentially enable more efficient lymphatic drainage.",
"However, reports link pump therapy to increased incidence of edema proximal to the affected limb, such as genital edema arising after pump therapy in the lower limb.",
"Current literature has suggested the use of IPC treatment in conjunction with an elastic therapeutic tape is more effective in the overall reduction of lymphedema as well as increasing shoulder range of motion than the traditional treatment of IPC paired with complete decongestive therapy.",
"The tape is an elastic cotton strip with an acrylic adhesive that is used commonly used to relieve the discomfort and disability associated with sports injuries, but in the context of lymphedema, this increases the space between the dermis and the muscle which increases the opportunity for lymphatic fluid to flow out naturally.",
"The use of IPC treatments with tape, as well as subsequent lymphatic drainage, has proven to significantly reduce the circumference of lymphatic limbs in patients experiencing lymphedema secondary to breast cancer post-mastectomy.===Exercise===In those with lymphedema or at risk of developing lymphedema, such as following breast cancer treatment, resistance training did not increase swelling and led to decreases in some, in addition to other potential beneficial effects on cardiovascular health.",
"Moreover, resistance training and other forms of exercise were not associated with an increased risk of developing lymphedema in people who previously received breast cancer-related treatment.",
"Compression garments should be worn during exercise.Physical therapy for patients with lymphedema may include trigger point release, soft tissue massage, postural improvement, patient education on condition management, strengthening, and stretching exercises.",
"Exercises may increase in intensity and difficulty over time, beginning with passive movements to increase range of motion and progressing towards using external weights and resistance in various postures.=== Surgery ===The treatment of lymphedema is usually conservative, however the use of surgery is proposed for some cases.Suction assisted lipectomy (SAL), also known as liposuction for lymphedema, may help improve chronic non pitting edema.",
"The procedure removes fat and protein and is done alongside continued compression therapy.Vascularized lymph node transfers (VLNT) and lymphovenous bypass are supported by tentative evidence but are associated with a number of complications.===Laser therapy===Low-level laser therapy (LLLT) was cleared by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of lymphedema in November 2006.According to the US National Cancer Institute, LLLT may be effective in reducing lymphedema in some women.",
"Two cycles of laser treatment were found to reduce the volume of the affected arm in approximately one-third of people with post-mastectomy lymphedema at three months post-treatment."
],
[
"Epidemiology",
"Lymphedema affects approximately 200 million people worldwide."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Laurens Janszoon Coster"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Laurens Janszoon Coster'''Laurens Janszoon Coster''' (, Haarlem – ), or '''Laurens Jansz Koster''', is the purported inventor of a printing press from Haarlem.",
"He allegedly invented printing simultaneously with Johannes Gutenberg and was regarded by some in the Netherlands well into the 20th century as having invented printing first."
],
[
"Biography",
"Illustration from a pamphlet by Petrus Scriverius, 1628 He was an important citizen of Haarlem and held the position of sexton (''Koster'') of Sint-Bavokerk.",
"He is mentioned in contemporary documents between 1417 and 1434 as a member of the great council, an assessor (scabinus), and as the city treasurer.",
"He probably perished in the plague that visited Haarlem in 1439 and 1440; his widow is mentioned in the latter year.There are no known works printed by Laurens."
],
[
"Junius story",
"Statue of Laurens Janszoon Coster designed by Romeyn de Hooghe.Hadrianus Junius, otherwise known as Adriaen de Jonghe, wrote this story around 1567 in his book ''Batavia'', published only in 1588, and was quoted by Cornelis de Bie.",
"Now known primarily for his ''Emblemata'', Junius moved to Haarlem in 1550, and wrote several books, acting shortly as the rector of the Latin School there, as the city physician and as historiographer of the States of Holland (as of 1565/66).",
"His story was echoed by his friend Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert, who started a printing business in Haarlem in 1560.Later Samuel Ampzing (with the help of Petrus Scriverius) repeated the story in ''Lavre-Kranz Voor Lavrens Koster Van Haerlem, Eerste Vinder vande Boek-Druckerye'' (1628) with illustrations of the invention.",
"According to Junius, sometime in the 1420s, Coster was in the Haarlemmerhout carving letters from bark for the amusement of his grandchildren, and observed that the letters left impressions on the sand.",
"He proceeded to invent a new type of ink that did not run, and he began a printing company based on his invention with a primitive typesetting arrangement using moveable type.",
"Since the Haarlemmerhout was burned during a siege by the Kennemers in 1426 during the Hook and Cod wars, this must have been early in the 1420s.",
"Using wooden letters at first, he later used lead and tin movable type.",
"His company prospered and grew.",
"He is said to have printed several books including ''Speculum Humanae Salvationis'' with several assistants including the letter cutter Johann Fust, and it was this letter cutter Fust (often spelled ''Faust'') who, when Laurens was nearing death, broke his promise of secrecy and stole his presses and type and took them to Mainz where he started his own printing company."
],
[
"Story by Ulrich Zell",
"There is support for the claim that Coster might be the inventor.",
"In the anonymous ''Kölner Chronik'' of 1499, Ulrich Zell, a printing assistant from Cologne, who was then between the age of 60 and 69 years old, claimed that printing had started in Mainz.",
"He based this statement on knowledge that Holland used to print Latin grammar texts (''Donatus'').",
"Neither Coster nor Haarlem are mentioned in that chronicle.",
"If true, this points to Johann Gutenberg about a decade after Coster's death.",
"However, the first securely dated book by Dutch printers is from 1471, long after Gutenberg.",
"Either way, Coster is somewhat of a Haarlem local \"hero\", and apart from a statue on the ''Grote Markt'' his name can be found in many places in the city."
],
[
"Earliest known Haarlem printer",
"Between 1483 and 1486, Jacob Bellaert worked in Haarlem.",
"His books were known for their artistic woodcuts.",
"Haarlem, Gouda, and Delft were all cities with early printing presses.",
"This was because these cities did not have powerful religious institutions or universities, where competing copyist production (''scriptoria'') took place.",
"Bellart did not enjoy much success, however, because there were few buyers for his books in the ''Nederduits'' language.",
"Most people who could afford a book wanted it to be in French, since that was the common language of the ruling classes.",
"Perhaps the strongest evidence in favor of Gutenberg is therefore that Mainz has in its possession today a first-edition of Erasmus' '' Lof der Zotheid'' (English translation: ''The Praise of Folly''), which was written in Gouda, but printed in Mainz in 1511.The earliest printed book from the Netherlands that has been dated with any certainty is from 1473.It is in the possession of the Museum Meermanno-Westreenianum and was printed in Utrecht, not Haarlem."
],
[
"300th anniversary",
"Laurens Jansz Coster 300 years of TypographiaIn 1740 Martin Holtzhey produced a medal to commemorate 300 years of printing and Coster's invention.",
"At the top of the allegorical scene, the heraldic shields of 4 men can be seen in addition to the coat of arms of Haarlem.",
"They were all mayors of Haarlem and their names were Anthony van Styrum (1679-1756), who also served in the admiralty of Amsterdam, Pieter van der Camer (1666-1747), who commissioned his own commemorative medal to celebrate 50 years in the service of the ''vroedschap'' of Haarlem in 1743, Jan van Dyck, and Cornelis Ascanius van Sypesteyn (1694-1744), who himself was a collector of medals and who lived at Brederode.",
"This medal set a historical precedent in Haarlem for commemorative medals; Sypesteyn's son Cornelis Ascanius van Sypesteyn (1723-1788) later became the founding director of the learned society Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen and its offshoot, the \"Oeconomische Tak\", and he hired Holtzhey's son Johann Georg to commission prize medals for both societies.Statue of Laurens Janszoon Coster on the Grote Markt in Haarlem, where he was born.",
"He holds the letter \"A\" up high."
],
[
"400th anniversary",
"Typesetter at the Enschede printing factory (was located behind the St. Bavochurch) in 1884, painting by the American artist Charles Frederic Ulrich.",
"At this time the story was already considered antiquated.Haarlemmerhout monument to Coster erected in 1823.His gravestone was never found, so this monument was a substitute memorial.In 1823 Haarlem celebrated the 400th anniversary of Coster's invention with a monument in the Haarlemmerhout.",
"The monument is decorated with Latin inscriptions and a memorial text in Dutch, with symbolic \"A\" decorations at the top.",
"The celebration was organized by Abraham de Vries, a Coster fan who became Haarlem's first librarian in 1821 and who received a commission from the city fathers to acquire ''Costeriana'', or material relating to Coster's claim to fame.",
"De Vries was supported by the professor and city council member David Jacob van Lennep, who believed the legend and sponsored De Vries by obtaining funds from the city council for the monument.",
"In the period after the Flanders Campaign which led to the French occupation of the Netherlands from 1794 to 1815, Haarlem's economy was severely depressed and the city council sought a local hero.",
"In 1817, Van Lennep (who was in the city council at the time) had also placed the monument De Naald (Heemstede) at his own home in nearby Heemstede."
],
[
"Joh. Enschedé",
"Behind the St. Bavochurch the printing factory of Joh.",
"Enschedé was located, which from 1737 to 1940 printed the Oprechte Haerlemsche Courant and from 1810 onwards became a mint that printed banknotes and later postage stamps.",
"Just as it had been in Coornhert's time, supporting the Coster legend became a publicity stunt for one of Haarlem's most important businesses, and the Enschedé company complied by offering tours of the printing presses, and even opened the Museum Enschedé in 1904 on the Klokhuisplein (now the location of a memorial plaque).",
"Today, \"Costeriana\" still can be viewed (by appointment) in the collections of the Haarlem Public Library, the Museum Enschedé, and the Teyler's Museum."
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"References",
"* The Legend of Koster* Deugd boven geweld, Een geschiedenis van Haarlem, 1245–1995, edited by Gineke van der Ree-Scholtens, 1995, *"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Land Rover"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Land Rover''' is a British brand of predominantly four-wheel drive, off-road capable vehicles, owned by multinational car manufacturer Jaguar Land Rover (JLR), since 2008 a subsidiary of India's Tata Motors.",
"JLR currently builds Land Rovers in Brazil, China, India, Slovakia, and the United Kingdom.",
"The Land Rover name was created in 1948 by the Rover Company for a utilitarian 4WD off-road vehicle; currently, the Land Rover range consists solely of upmarket and luxury sport utility vehicles.Land Rover was granted a Royal Warrant by King George VI in 1951, and 50 years later, in 2001, it received a Queen's Award for Enterprise for outstanding contribution to international trade.",
"Over time, Land Rover grew into its own brand (and for a while also a company), encompassing a consistently growing range of four-wheel drive, off-road capable models.",
"Starting with the much more upmarket 1970 Range Rover, and subsequent introductions of the mid-range Discovery and entry-level Freelander line (in 1989 and 1997), as well as the 1990 Land Rover Defender refresh, the marque today includes two models of Discovery, four distinct models of Range Rover, and after a three-year hiatus, a second generation of Defenders have gone into production for the 2020 model year—in short or long wheelbase, as before.For half a century (from the original 1948 model, through 1997, when the Freelander was introduced), Land Rovers and Range Rovers exclusively relied on their trademark boxed-section vehicle frames.",
"Land Rover used boxed frames in a direct product bloodline until the termination of the original Defender in 2016; and their last body-on-frame model was replaced by a monocoque with the third generation Discovery in 2017.Since then all Land Rovers and Range Rovers have a unified body and frame structure.Since 2010, Land Rover has also introduced two-wheel drive variants, both of the Freelander, and of the Evoque, after having built exclusively 4WD cars for 62 years.",
"The 2WD Freelander has been succeeded by a 2WD Discovery Sport, available in some markets."
],
[
"History",
"Originally, these vehicles were simply called the 'Land Rover' – an off-road capable car model of the Rover Company.",
"As 'Land Rover' became established as a brand, the 'Series' indication later became a retronym model name.",
"The Range Rover was introduced in 1970, and the company became a British Leyland subsidiary in 1978.In 1983 and 1984, the long and the short wheelbase Land Rovers were finally given official names – the One Ten, and the Ninety respectively, and together they were badged the Defender models in 1990, after the 1989 introduction of the new Discovery model.=== Rover era ===Series I first registered January 1949\"HUE166 first production Land-Rover\"portraits of Spencer and Maurice WilksSeries IIA long-wheelbaseSeries IIA dashboardLand Rover conversion to fight forest fires, Cascina, Italy (August 2016)The design for the original vehicle was started in 1947 by Maurice Wilks.",
"Wilks, chief designer at the Rover Company, on his farm in Newborough, Anglesey, working in conjunction with his brother Spencer who was the managing director of Rover.",
"The design may have been influenced by the Jeep and the prototype, later nicknamed Centre Steer, was built on a Jeep chassis and axles.",
"The early choice of colour was dictated by military surplus supplies of aircraft cockpit paint, so early vehicles only came in various shades of light green.",
"Starting with the series I Land Rover, all models in this era featured sturdy box-section ladder-frame chassis.",
"Early vehicles like the Series I were field-tested at Long Bennington and designed to be field-serviced.After the formation of Land Rover Limited in 1978 the hyphen in Land-Rover —as shown in the logo— began to be dropped.=== Land Rover Ltd – subsidiary of BL ===Land Rover as a company has existed since 1978.Prior to this, it was a product line of the Rover Company which was subsequently absorbed into the Rover-Triumph division of the British Leyland Motor Corporation (BL) following Leyland Motor Corporation's takeover of Rover in 1967.The ongoing commercial success of the original Land Rover series models, and latterly the Range Rover in the 1970s in the midst of BL's well-documented business troubles prompted the establishment of a separate Land Rover company but still under the BL umbrella, remaining part of the subsequent Rover Group in 1988, under the ownership of British Aerospace after the remains of British Leyland were broken up and privatised.=== BMW era ===On 31 January 1994, Rover Group plc, including Land Rover, was acquired by BMW.",
"In 2000, Rover Group was broken up by BMW and Land Rover was sold on to Ford Motor Company, becoming part of its Premier Automotive Group.",
"The transition to BMW ownership only just preceded the introduction of the second generation Range Rover, prior to launching Land Rover's first unibody model, the Freelander in 1997.BMW was then responsible for much of the development of the Range Rover III—the first to have a monocoque structure and independent suspension, introduced under Ford in late 2001.=== Ford era ===After the introduction of the all-new Range Rover in 2001, Ford moved Land Rover further away from its traditional boxed ladder-frames, by introducing a new generation Discovery featuring \"Integrated Body Frame\", in 2004.From then on, only the Defender continued on Land Rover's traditional since 1948 underpinnings.",
"Use of the Rover V8 engine in Land Rovers also ended with the replacement of the mk.",
"II Discovery.In 2006 Ford also purchased the Rover brand from BMW for around £6 million.",
"BMW had retained ownership of the brand to protect the integrity of the Land Rover brand, with which 'Rover' might be confused in the US 4x4 market, and allowed it to be used under licence by MG Rover until it collapsed in 2005, at which point it was offered to the Ford Motor Company, who by then owned Land Rover.",
"On 11 June 2007, Ford announced that it planned to sell Land Rover along with Jaguar Cars.",
"Private equity firms such as Alchemy Partners of the UK, TPG Capital, Ripplewood Holdings, Cerberus Capital Management and One Equity Partners of the US, Tata Motors of India and a consortium comprising Mahindra & Mahindra of India and Apollo Management all initially expressed interest in purchasing the marques from the Ford Motor Company.",
"On 1 January 2008, Ford formally declared that Tata was the preferred bidder.",
"On 26 March 2008, Ford announced that it had agreed to sell its Jaguar and Land Rover operations to Tata Motors, and that it expected to complete the sale by the end of the second quarter of 2008.=== Tata Motors era ===On 18 January 2008, Tata Motors, a part of the Tata Group, established Jaguar Land Rover Limited as a British-registered and wholly owned subsidiary.",
"The new company was to be used as a holding company for the acquisition of the two businesses from Ford—Jaguar Cars Limited and Land Rover.",
"That acquisition was completed on 2 June 2008 at a cost of £1.7 billion.",
"Included in the deal to buy Land Rover and Jaguar Cars were the rights to three other British brands: the Daimler marque, as well as two dormant brands Lanchester and Rover.On 1 January 2013, the group, which had been operating as two separate companies (Jaguar Cars Limited and Land Rover), although on an integrated basis, underwent a fundamental restructuring.",
"The parent company was renamed to Jaguar Land Rover Automotive PLC, Jaguar Cars Limited was renamed to Jaguar Land Rover Limited and the assets (excluding certain Chinese interests) of Land Rover were transferred to it.",
"The consequence was that Jaguar Land Rover Limited became responsible in the UK for the design, manufacture and marketing of both Jaguar and Land Rover branded products, and Land Rover and Jaguar Cars ceased to be separate vehicle producing entities.=== Timeline ===* 1947: Rover's chief designer Maurice Wilks and his associates create a prototype using Jeep chassis and components* 1948: The first Land Rover was officially launched on 30 April 1948, at the Amsterdam Motor Show* 1958: Series II launched* 1961: Series IIA began production* 1967: Rover becomes part of Leyland Motors, later British Leyland (BL) as Rover Triumph* 1970: Introduction of the Range Rover* 1971: Series III launched* 1974: Land Rover abandons US market facing competitive pressure from Japanese 4x4 brands* 1975: BL collapses and is nationalised, publication of the Ryder Report recommends that Land Rover be split from Rover and be treated as a separate company within BL and becomes part of the new commercial vehicle division called the Land Rover Leyland Group* 1976: One-millionth Land Rover leaves the production line* 1978: Land Rover Limited formed as a separate subsidiary of British Leyland* 1980: Rover car production ends at Solihull with the transfer of SD1 production to Cowley, Oxford; Solihull is now exclusively for Land Rover manufacture.",
"5-door Range Rover introduced* 1983: Land Rover 90 (Ninety)/110 (One-Ten)/127 (renamed Defender in 1990) introduced* 1986: BL plc becomes Rover Group plc; Project Llama started* 1987: Range Rover is finally introduced to the US market, following many years of demand being filled by grey market sales* 1988: Rover Group is privatised and becomes part of British Aerospace, and is now known simply as Rover* 1989: Introduction of Discovery* 1990: The Ninety and One-Ten range of models are given the generic name of Defender* 1994: Rover Group is taken over by BMW.",
"Introduction of second-generation Range Rover.",
"(The original Range Rover was continued under the name 'Range Rover Classic' until 1995)* 1997: Land Rover introduces the Special Edition Discovery XD with AA yellow paint, subdued wheels, SD type roof racks, and a few other off-road upgrades directly from the factory.",
"Produced only for the North American market, the Special Vehicles Division of Land Rover created only 250 of these bright yellow SUVs.",
"* 1997: Introduction of Freelander* 1998: Introduction of mark II Discovery* 2000: BMW breaks up the Rover Group and sells Land Rover to Ford for £1.8 billion* 2002: Introduction of third-generation Range Rover* 2004: Introduction of second-generation Discovery, marketed as the Discovery 3, or LR3, depending on market* 2005: Introduction of Range Rover Sport* 2005: Adoption of Jaguar AJ-V8 engine to replace the BMW M62 V8 in the Range Rover* 2006: Announcement of a new 2.4-litre diesel engine, 6-speed gearbox, dash and forward-facing rear seats for Defender.",
"Introduction of the second generation of Freelander (Freelander 2).",
"Ford acquires the Rover trademark from BMW, who previously licensed its use to MG Rover Group* 8 May 2007: 4,000,000th Land Rover rolls off the production line, a Discovery 3 (LR3), donated to The Born Free Foundation* 12 June 2007: Announcement from the Ford Motor Company that it plans to sell Land Rover and also Jaguar Cars* August 2007: Tata Motors and Mahindra & Mahindra as well as financial sponsors Cerberus Capital Management, TPG Capital and Apollo Global Management expressed their interest in purchasing Jaguar Cars and Land Rover from the Ford Motor Company.",
"* 26 March 2008: Ford agreed to sell the Jaguar and Land Rover operations to Tata Motors.",
"* 2 June 2008: Tata Motors finalised their purchase of Jaguar and Land Rover from Ford and put them into their new subsidiary, Jaguar Land Rover* 2010: Introduction of Discovery 4 / LR4* 2011: The Range Rover Evoque introduced* 2012: Fourth-generation Range Rover was exhibited at the 2012 Paris Motor Show* 1 January 2013: Land Rover and Jaguar Cars merged to form a single company, Jaguar Land Rover Limited, producing vehicles under both marques* 2014: The New Discovery Range was unveiled at the 2014 New York Motor Show* 1 March 2017: The Range Rover Velar was unveiled in London* June 2018: representatives of the company Land Rover announced the launch of a new project called \"Cortex\", for the implementation of which will be spent about $5 million.",
"The goal of this project is \"to create self-propelled cars-robots that are able to independently navigate off-road in all weather conditions.",
"\"* September 2019: Land Rover announces it is working on a remote control system for its new Defender that would allow low-speed driving from outside the car* 2020: Land Rover Defender (L663) is released."
],
[
"Manufacturing",
"Jaguar Land Rover manufactures Land Rover cars in plants in five countries.",
"In the United Kingdom the Range Rover, Range Rover Sport and Range Rover Velar are built at their Solihull plant near Birmingham and the Discovery Sport and Evoque are built at their Halewood plant near Liverpool.",
"In October 2018 JLR opened a new plant in Nitra, Slovakia to build the Discovery, and are now also building the 2020 Defender there.",
"In Brazil the company builds both the Discovery Sport and Evoque in their plant in Itatiaia which was opened in June 2016.JLR has been building cars since 2011 in Pune, India and currently builds the Discovery Sport and Evoque there.",
"Under a 50/50 joint venture with Chery at Changshu in China Discovery Sports and Evoques are also built.Historically Land Rovers were manufactured primarily at the Solihull plant until production of the Freelander was moved to the Halewood plant.",
"The Freelander was also assembled in CKD form at Land Rover's facility in Pune, India.",
"As of 2015, the company continued to expand by building locally in India as well as increasing the number of models made at JLR's Chikhali facility near Pune to include the Discovery Sport and Evoque.Defender models were assembled under licence in several locations worldwide, including Spain (Santana Motors), Iran (Pazhan Morattab), Brazil (Karmann), and Turkey (Otokar)."
],
[
"Global sales",
"=== Global and regional unit sales ===Worldwide sales of Land Rover tripled from model year 2008/'09 to 2014/'15 (from almost 130,000 to some 385,000 units), to peak at a further 10% higher in '15/'16 and '16/'17, and have since slid by some 100,000 (to 320,000 units) in 2018/'19.In spite of the facts, that Australia and New Zealand were important Land Rover markets in the 20th century, and sales in the Asia Pacific region have quadrupled from 2008/'09 to 2014/'15, Land Rover have stopped publishing sales of that region separately – instead including them in \"Rest of World\" starting 2015/'16.Overall, Europe is the firm's primary market, consistently yielding 40% to 50% of global units sold.",
"Generally, half of that is down to the home (UK) market.",
"Sales in the U.K. and the U.S. have generally kept equal pace, but since 2012 China has taken the lead as Land Rover's biggest single country market, except for 2018/'19.",
"'''Per calendar year:''' Year '''2009''' '''2010''' '''2011''' '''2012''' '''2013''' '''2014''' '''2015''' '''2016''' Units sold '''144,371''' '''181,395''' '''223,602''' '''303,926''' '''348,338''' '''381,108''' '''403,079''' '''434,582''''''Per model year:''' \tmodel year\t\tUnited Kingdom\t\tEurope (continent)\t\tNorth America\t\tChina*\t\tAsia Pacific**\t\tRest of world\t\tTotal\t\t'08 / '09\t\t25,197\t\t33,040\t\t23,008\t\t7,536\t\t5,436\t\t34,327\t '''128,544'''\t'09 / '10\t\t39,085\t\t39,086\t\t29,319\t\t14,962\t\t6,092\t\t28,633\t '''157,177'''\t'10 / '11\t\t42,125\t\t42,732\t\t36,041\t\t26,009\t\t7,288\t\t34,892\t '''189,087'''\t'11 / '12\t\t46,257\t\t58,213\t\t44,136\t\t44,622\t\t10,485\t\t47,919\t '''251,632'''\t'12 / '13\t\t57,186\t\t70,252\t\t49,931\t\t67,579\t\t14,008\t\t57,087\t '''316,043'''\t'13 / '14\t\t60,019\t\t71,525\t\t56,214\t\t83,186\t\t17,787\t\t65,058\t '''353,789'''\t'14 / '15\t\t68,882\t\t78,140\t\t61,555\t\t95,528\t\t21,548\t\t59,626\t '''385,279'''\t'15 / '16\t\t79,723\t\t103,683\t\t83,133\t\t79,937\t\t\t\t80,646\t '''427,122'''\t'16 / '17\t\t85,623\t\t100,711\t\t81,949\t\t95,856\t\t\t\t67,022\t '''431,161'''\t'17 / '18\t\t58,417\t\t78,836\t\t68,519\t\t89,975\t\t\t\t56,224\t '''351,971'''\t'18 / '19\t\t60,791\t\t60,168\t\t83,389\t\t57,801\t\t\t\t57,882\t '''320,031'''* China includes data for 2015/16 onwards of Chery Jaguar Land Rover (CJLR) sales.",
"** Asia Pacific is merged into the rest of world heading from 2015/16 onwards.=== Unit sales by model ===The Discovery Sport is the most successful Land Rover model, selling 95,520 units globally in 2018.This was followed by another 'sports' model, the Range Rover Sport, at 77,847 units.The Discovery Sport is the successor to the brands Freelander model, which was Europe's best selling 4x4 for five years in a row, after its market introduction in 1997."
],
[
"Models",
"Land Rover FreelanderDefender 90Series IIB Forward ControlSeries II 109in6-wheel Land Rover Defender, Hong Kong Police Bomb Disposal2016 Land Rover Discovery 4 - front2016 Land Rover Discovery 4 - rear2016 Land Rover Defender 110 Station Wagon2015 Land Rover Defender 110 XS TD DC2016 Range Rover Autobiography=== Historic ===* Series I, II, IIA and III* Freelander (sold in some markets as LR2)=== Current ===* Defender* Discovery* Discovery Sport* Range Rover* Range Rover Sport* Range Rover Velar* Range Rover Evoque"
],
[
"Concepts",
"Range Stormer – Land Rover's first concept vehicle, unveiled at the 2004 North American International Auto Show, later became the Range Rover Sport.",
"(Gritzinger, 2004).Land Rover LRX – Land Rover's second concept vehicle, first unveiled at the 2008 Detroit Auto Show.",
"Originally a vehicle with ERAD technology, the production version did not include this.",
"The car was then launched in 2011 as the Range Rover Evoque, and was the first Range Rover branded product to be offered with front wheel drive, and no low ratio transfer box.Land Rover DC100 – Land Rover's third concept vehicle, first unveiled at the 2011 Frankfurt Auto Show, designed to be a replacement for the Land Rover Defender, though it is unlikely that the Defender's replacement will be exactly the same as the DC100 concept.Land Rover Discovery Vision Concept – Land Rover's fourth concept vehicle, first unveiled at the 2014, was designed to be a replacement for the Land Rover Discovery, This concept features Transparent Bonnet, Suicide doors, and Laser assisted lamps (there is a very little chance this will be included in any future production vehicles).=== Military ===Models developed for the UK Ministry of Defence (MoD) include:* 101 Forward Control – also known as the \"Land Rover One Tonne FC\"* 1/2 ton Lightweight – airportable military short-wheelbase from the Series 2a* Land Rover Wolf – an uprated Military Defender* Snatch Land Rover – Land Rover with composite armoured body in UK Armed Forces Service* 109 Series IIa and III ambulance (body by Marshalls of Cambridge)* Range Rover '6×6' Fire Appliance (conversion by Carmichael and Sons of Worcester) for RAF airfield use* 130 Defender ambulance* 'Llama' prototypes for 101 replacementModels developed for the Australian Army* Land Rover Perentie 4×4 and 6×6=== Engines ===During the history of the Land Rover many different engines have been fitted:* The inlet-over-exhaust petrol engines (\"semi side-valve\"), in both four- and six-cylinder variants, which were used for the very first Land Rovers in 1948, and which had their origins in pre-war Rover cars.",
"Displacement of the first models was 1,600 cc.",
"* The four-cylinder overhead-valve engines, both petrol and diesel, which first appeared (in diesel form) in 1957, near the end of Series One production, and evolved over the years to the 300 TDi turbodiesel, which remains in production today for some overseas markets.",
"* The Buick-sourced all aluminium Rover V8 engine.",
"* 1,997 cc Petrol, inlet-over-exhaust: Series I engine, carried over for the first few months of Series II production.",
"* 2,052 cc Diesel, overhead-valve: Land Rover's first diesel engine, and one of the first small high-speed diesels produced in the UK.",
"It appeared in 1957, and was used in Series II production until 1961.Looks almost identical to the later 2,286 cc engine, but many internal differences.",
"It produced .",
"* 2,286 cc Petrol, overhead-valve, three-bearing crank:* 2,286 cc Diesel, overhead-valve, three-bearing crank: Appeared in 1961 alongside the redesigned 2,286 cc petrol engine at the start of Series IIA production, and shared its cylinder block and some other components.",
"It produced .",
"* 2,625 cc Petrol, inlet-over-exhaust: Borrowed from the Rover saloon range, in response to demands from mid-1960s Land Rover users for more power and torque.",
"* 2,286 cc petrol/diesel, overhead-valve type 11J: five-bearing crank: In 1980, Land Rover finally did something about the crank failures which had plagued its four-cylinder engines for 22 years.",
"These engines lasted beyond the end of Series III production and into the first couple of years of the new Ninety and One Ten ranges.",
"* 3,258 cc V8 Petrol: The ex-Buick all alloy V8 engine appeared in the Range Rover right from the start of production in 1970, but did not make its way into the company's utility vehicles until 1979.",
"* 2,495 cc petrol, overhead valve: The final development of Land Rover's ohv petrol 'four', with hardened valve seats which allow running on unleaded (or LPG).",
"* 2,495 cc diesel, overhead valve, type 12J: Land Rover reworked the old 'two and a quarter' diesel for the 1980s.",
"The injection pump was driven off a toothed belt at the front of the engine (together with the camshaft), a change compared with the older diesels.",
"* 2,495 cc turbodiesel, overhead valve, type 19J* 2,495 cc turbodiesel, overhead valve, 200TDi and 300TDi: Used in the Defender and Discovery from 1990.The cylinder block was similar to the previous engine, although strengthened but the cylinder head was all-new and a direct injection fuel system was used.",
"* 2,495 cc turbodiesel, five-cylinder, TD5: An all-new engine for the second generation Discovery, and the Defender featuring electronic control of the fuel injection system, 'drive by wire' throttle, and other refinements* The original Freelander models were available with various Rover K-series engines.",
"* In beginning of 2015 they start to use the all new Ingenium engine family, to replaced Ford sourced engines., most Land Rovers in production are powered by Ford engines.",
"Under the terms of the acquisition, Tata has the right to buy engines from Ford until 2019."
],
[
"Electric vehicles",
"Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive (ERAD) technology, dubbed e-terrain technology, will allow the vehicle to move off without starting the engine as well as supplying extra power over tough terrain.",
"Land Rover's Diesel ERAD Hybrid was developed as part of a multimillion-pound project supported by the UK Government's Energy Saving Trust, under the low carbon research and development programme.",
"ERAD programme is one of a broad range of sustainability-focused engineering programmes that Land Rover is pursuing, brought together by the company under the collective name \"e TERRAIN Technologies\".Land Rover presented at the 2008 London Motor Show its new ERAD diesel-electric hybrid in a pair of Freelander 2 (LR2) prototypes.",
"The new hybrid system is being designed as a scalable and modular system that could be applied across a variety of Land Rover models and powertrains.Land Rover unveiled the LRX hybrid concept at the 2008 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, for it to be going into production.",
"An ERAD will enable the car to run on electric power at speeds below .In September 2011, the Range Rover Evoque was launched, though it was based on the LRX hybrid concept presented at the 2008 North American International Auto Show, it did not include the ERAD system, included in the original concept.In February 2013, Land Rover unveiled at the 83rd Geneva Motor Show an All-Terrain Electric Defender that produces zero emissions.",
"The electric vehicle was developed for research purposes following successful trials of the Defender-based electric vehicle, Leopard 1.The vehicle is capable of producing 70kW and 330Nm of torque and has a range of 80 kilometres or in low speed off-road use it can last for up to eight hours before recharging."
],
[
"Abilities",
"Land-Rovers at AgQuip, Gunnedah, AustraliaPower take-off (PTO) was integral to the Land Rover concept from 1948, enabling farm machinery and many other items to be run with the vehicle stationary.",
"Maurice Wilks' original instruction was \"...to have power take-offs everywhere!\"",
"The 1949 report by British National Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Scottish Machinery Testing Station contained this description: \"the power take-off is driven through a Hardy Spicer propeller shaft from the main gearbox output and two interchangeable pinions giving two ratios.",
"The PTO gearbox casing is bolted to the rear chassis cross-member and an belt pulley driven from the PTO shaft through two bevel gears can be bolted to the PTO gearbox casing.\"",
"PTOs remained regular options on Series I, II and III Land Rovers up to the demise of the Series Land Rover in 1985.An agricultural PTO on a Defender is possible as a special order.Land Rovers (the Series/Defender models) are available in a variety of body styles, from a simple canvas-topped pick-up truck to a twelve-seat fully trimmed station wagon.",
"Both Land Rover and out-of-house contractors have offered conversions and adaptations to the basic vehicle, such as fire engines, excavators, 'cherry picker' hydraulic platforms, ambulances, snowploughs, and six-wheel-drive versions, as well as one-off special builds including amphibious Land Rovers and vehicles fitted with tracks instead of wheels.=== Military use ===British Land Rover near Pyongyang, November 1950, during the Korean War1st Armoured Division being extracted during the Gulf WarEx-Australian Army Land Rover Series 2 \"gunbuggy\", with an M40 recoilless rifle used in the anti-tank role, at the Australian War MemorialDefenders of the Bermuda Regiment, 1994Land Rovers on parade with the Italian Army, Navy and Air Force, June 2007Various Land Rover models have been used in a military capacity, most notably by the British Army and Australian Army.",
"Modifications may include military \"blackout\" lights, heavy-duty suspension, uprated brakes, 24 volt electrics, convoy lights, electronic suppression of the ignition system, blackout curtains and mounts for special equipment and small arms.",
"Dedicated military models have been produced such as the 101 Forward Control and the air-portable 1/2 ton Lightweight.",
"Military uses include light utility vehicle; communications platform; weapon platform for recoilless rifles, Anti-tank (e.g.",
"TOW or M40 recoilless rifle) / Surface-to-Air Guided Weapons or machine guns; ambulances and workshops.",
"The Discovery has also been used in small numbers, mostly as liaison vehicles.Two models that have been designed for military use from the ground up are the 101 Forward Control from the early 1970s and the Lightweight or Airportable from the late 1960s.",
"The latter was intended to be transported under a helicopter.",
"The Royal Air Force Mountain Rescue Service (RAFMRS) teams were early users in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and their convoys of Land Rovers and larger military trucks are a sight often seen in the mountain areas of the United Kingdom.",
"Originally RAFMRS Land Rovers had blue bodies and bright yellow tops, to be better seen from above.",
"In 1981, the colour scheme was changed to green with yellow stripes.",
"More recently, vehicles have been painted white, and are issued with fittings similar to civilian UK Mountain Rescue teams.An adaptation of Land Rovers to military purposes is the \"Pink Panther\" models.",
"Approximately 100 Series IIA models were adapted to reconnaissance use by British special operations forces the SAS.",
"For desert use they were often painted pink, hence the name.",
"The vehicles were fitted with among other gear a sun compass, machine guns, larger fuel tanks and smoke dischargers.",
"Similar adaptations were later made to Series IIIs and 90/110/Defenders.The Australian Army adapted the Land Rover Series 2 into the Long Range Patrol Vehicle for use by the Special Air Service Regiment and as an anti-tank \"gunbuggy\" fitted with an M40 recoilless rifle.The 75th Ranger Regiment of the United States Army also adapted twelve versions of the Land Rover that were officially designated the Ranger Special Operations Vehicle.Series and Defender models have also been armoured.",
"The most widespread of these is the Shorts Shorland, built by Shorts Brothers of Belfast.",
"The first of these were delivered in 1965 to the Royal Ulster Constabulary, the Northern Ireland police force.",
"They were originally wheelbase models with an armoured body and a turret from the Ferret armoured car.",
"By 1990, there had been more than 1,000 produced.In the 1970s, a more conventional armoured Land Rover was built for the Royal Ulster Constabulary in Wales called the Hotspur.",
"The Land Rover Tangi was built by the Royal Ulster Constabulary's own vehicle engineering team during the 1990s.",
"The British Army has used various armoured Land Rovers, first in Northern Ireland but also in more recent campaigns.",
"They first added protective panels to Series General Service vehicles (the Vehicle Protection Kit (VPK)).",
"Later they procured the Glover Webb APV and finally the Courtaulds (later NP Aerospace) Composite Armoured Vehicle, commonly known as Snatch.",
"These were originally based on heavy-duty V8 110 chassis but some have recently been re-mounted on new chassis from Otokar of Turkey and fitted with diesel engines and air-conditioning for Iraq.",
"Although these now have more in common with the 'Wolf' (Defender XD) Land Rovers that many mistakenly confuse them with, the Snatch and the Wolf are different vehicles.The most radical conversion of a Land Rover for military purposes was the Centaur half-track.",
"It was based on a Series III with a V8 engine and a shortened belt drive from the Alvis Scorpion light tank.",
"A small number was manufactured, and they were used by Ghana, among others.The Land Rover is used by military forces throughout the world.",
"The current generation of Land Rover used by British Army, the Snatch 2, have upgraded and strengthened chassis and suspension compared to civilian-specification vehicles.",
"There is also the Land Rover WMIK (weapon mounted installation kit) used by British Army.",
"The WMIK consists of a driver, a raised gun, usually a Browning heavy machine gun or a grenade machine gun, this used for ground support, and a GPMG (general-purpose machine gunner) located next to the driver, this used for vehicle protection.=== Competitive use ===Highly modified Land Rovers have competed in the Dakar Rally and won the Macmillan 4x4 UK Challenge almost every year, as well as having been the vehicle used for the Camel Trophy.",
"Now, Land Rover has its own G4 challenge."
],
[
"Driver training",
"Land Rover Experience was established in 1990, and consists of a network of centres throughout the world, set up to help customers get the most out of their vehicles' on and off-road capability.",
"The flagship centres are Land Rover's bases at Solihull, Eastnor, Gaydon and Halewood.",
"Courses offered include off-road driving, winching and trailer handling, along with a variety of corporate and individual 'Adventure Days'.",
"The factory centres at Solihull and Halewood have manufacturing tours, while Gaydon has an engineering tour."
],
[
"Safety",
"Model-by-model road accident statistics from the UK Department for Transport show that the Land Rover Defender is one of the safest cars on British roads as measured by chance of death in two-car injury accidents.The figures, which were based on data collected by police forces following accidents between 2000 and 2004 in Great Britain, showed that Defender drivers had a 1% chance of being killed or seriously injured and a 33% chance of sustaining any kind of injury.",
"Other four-wheel-drive vehicles scored equally highly, and collectively these vehicles were much safer for their passengers than those in other classes such as passenger cars and MPVs.",
"These figures reflect the fact that drivers of large mass vehicles are likely to be safer, often at the expense of other drivers if they collide with smaller cars."
],
[
"Clubs",
"The original Land Rover Owners Club was set up by the Rover Company in 1954.The company published the ''Land Rover Owners Club Review'' magazine for members from 1957 to 1968 when the club became the Rover Owners Association.",
"This original association fell away when the company merged with British Leyland.There are many Land Rover clubs throughout the UK and internationally.",
"Land Rover clubs break down into a number of groups of varying interests.Single Marque Clubs – Bring together owners of a specific model or series of vehicle such as the Land Rover Series One Club, or the Discovery Owners Club.",
"Single marque clubs have a global membership.Special Vehicle Clubs – At various times Land Rover have produced vehicles for specific events or on a specific theme, most notable are the Camel Trophy and G4 Challenge vehicles which have been sold on to the general public, and a range of Defenders that were loosely based on the custom vehicles produced for the Tomb Raider motion picture.Regional Clubs in the UK break down into two groups, competitive and non-competitive.",
"The non-competitive clubs activities generally relate to social events, off-road driving or green laning on un-surfaced public highways or 'pay and play' days at off-road centres.",
"Competitive clubs are a phenomenon almost exclusively found within the UK, who as well as the non-competitive activities detailed above run competitive events such as Tyro, Road Taxed Vehicle (RTV) and Cross Country Vehicle (CCV) trials, winch and recovery challenges or speed events such as Competitive Safaries.",
"All UK competitive events are run within the framework of rules created by the Motor Sports Association (MSA) with further vehicle specific rules applied by the host club or association.",
"Outside of the UK regional clubs are independent and mostly non-competitive.A number of clubs are affiliated to the Association of Land Rover Clubs (ALRC); formerly known as the Association of Rover Clubs (ARC) the association applies its own vehicle regulations to all of its member clubs who have the opportunity to compete together at regional events and an annual national event with vehicles approved to the same standard.",
"In recent years some non-competitive clubs have dropped their affiliation fifth ALRC.",
"Few clubs outside of the UK are affiliated with ALRC.",
"Other than ALRC and the short lived Association of North American Rover Clubs (ANARC), which was created 1998 to celebrate Land Rover's 50th anniversary and disbanded in 2001, other groups of Land Rover clubs have affiliated with each other.Land Rover owners were also early adopters of virtual clubs that are entirely based online.",
"Bill Caloccia created the original Land Rover Owner email list (LRO) as single marque offshoot of the British Cars email list in May 1990.Bill later created email lists in the mid-1990s for Range Rovers (RRO) and various regions (e.g., UK-LRO, AU-LRO, ZA-LRO, EU-LRO, IT-LRO, NL-LRO).",
"In California members of the LRO list created mendo_recce in 1995.In 2005, under Ford ownership, Land Rover became more interested in the club environment.",
"An internal club was formed, The Land Rover Club, exclusive to employees of Ford's Premier Automotive Group (Now exclusive to the new 'Jaguar – Land Rover' group since the brand moved away from the Ford stable).",
"Also, an agreement was generated to allow other clubs to use the Land Rover green oval logo under licence.",
"In 2006, the Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire and Cambridgeshire club were the pilot licensees for the new agreement, who now benefit from a reciprocal arrangement where their own logo is trade marked and owned by Land Rover and they can refer to themselves as a 'Land Rover Approved Club'."
],
[
"Brand extensions",
"=== Bicycles ===In 1995, Land Rover endorsed the production of a hand-made bicycle using its logo.",
"The bicycle, called the Land Rover APB and manufactured by Pashley Cycles of Stratford-upon-Avon, was the collapsible version of Pashley Cycles' Moulton APB (All Purpose Bicycle) model, with leading link front suspension and adjustable damping and stroke.",
"Two more models immediately followed: the Land Rover XCB V-20, aimed primarily at younger riders (children); and the Land Rover XCB D-26, also available as the M26 with hydraulic rim brakes, front suspension and suspension seat pillar.In June 2004, Land Rover released a comprehensive 25 model range of bicycles.",
"The three main ranges are the \"Defender\", the \"Discovery\", and the \"Freelander\", each with different attributes.",
"The \"Discovery\" is an all-rounder bicycle suited to a variety of terrains, \"Defender\" is most suited to rugged terrain and off-road pursuits, whereas the \"Freelander\" is designed for an urban lifestyle.",
"All bikes are made from lightweight aluminium.In 2010 the range was relaunched in conjunction with British manufacturer 2x2.=== Coffee ===Land Rover has had its name associated with coffee since 2005, when the Land Rover Coffee company was established.=== Pushchairs ===Land Rover gave UK pram company Pegasus a licence to produce a three-wheeler range of Land Rover ATP pushchairs.",
"The design reflected the heritage of the marque, with a light metal frame with canvas seating, held together with push-studs and tough simple parts like brakes and hinges.",
"They could be collapsed completely flat, with wheels removed in seconds.",
"The basic frame could be adapted with modules to allow a baby to lie flat or a bubble windscreen to completely enclose the child.",
"The frame also came in long or short-handled versions, and could be repaired with home tools.",
"The design was simple, light, and rugged and able to travel in all terrains (hence the ATP for all-terrain pushchair.)",
"It came in three military looking colours: a light blue, a sand colour and olive drab.",
"Production was discontinued in 2002."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"International Numbering System for Food Additives"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''International Numbering System for Food Additives''' ('''INS''') is a European-based naming system for food additives, aimed at providing a short designation of what may be a lengthy actual name.",
"It is defined by Codex Alimentarius, the international food standards organisation of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN).",
"The information is published in the document ''Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives'', first published in 1989, with revisions in 2008 and 2011.The INS is an open list, \"subject to the inclusion of additional additives or removal of existing ones on an ongoing basis\"."
],
[
"Numbering system",
"INS numbers consist of three or four digits, optionally followed by an alphabetical suffix to further characterize individual additives.",
"On packaging in the European Union (EU), approved food additives are written with a prefix of ''E''.",
"An additive that appears in the INS does not automatically have a corresponding E number.INS numbers are assigned by the committee to identify each food additive.",
"INS numbers generally correspond to E numbers for the same compound, e.g.",
"INS 102, Tartrazine, is also E102.INS numbers are not unique and, in fact, one number may be assigned to a group of similar compounds."
],
[
"List of INS numbers",
"*Except where stated, the list of INS numbers and associated food additives is based on the most recent publication of the Codex Alimentarius, ''Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives'', first published in 1989, with revisions in 2008 and 2011.",
"*E number and American approval flags are derived from other sources.",
"*In the table below, food additives approved for the EU are listed with an 'E', and those approved for Australia and New Zealand with an 'A'.",
"and for the US with a U, even though the US does not use the INS numbering system.INS #ApprovalsNamesType100AEUcurcuminscolour100(i)AEUcurcumincolour (yellow and orange)100(ii)AEUturmericcolour (yellow and orange)101AEUriboflavins101(i)AEUriboflavin, synthetic (vitamin B2)colour (yellow and orange)101(ii)AERiboflavin-5'-phosphatecolour (yellow and orange)101(iii)AEriboflavin from ''Bacillus subtilis''colour (yellow and orange)102AEUtartrazinecolour (yellow and orange) (FDA: FD&C Yellow #5)103Aalkannin, chrysoine resorcinolcolour (red)104AEQuinoline Yellow WScolour (yellow and orange) (FDA: D&C Yellow #10)107EYellow 2Gcolour (yellow and orange)110AEUSunset Yellow FCFcolour (yellow and orange) (FDA: FD&C Yellow #6)111?EOrange GGN.",
"Delistedcolour (orange)120AEUCochineal, carminescolour (red)121UCitrus red 2, Orcein, Orchilcolour (red)122AEazorubine, carmoisinecolour (red) (FDA: Ext D&C Red #10)123Eamaranth Delistedcolour (red) (FDA: DELISTED Red #2)124AEBrilliant Scarlet 4R, Ponceau 4Rcolour (FDA: Ext D&C Red #8)125Ponceau SX, Scarlet GNcolour126Ponceau 6R.",
"Delistedcolour127EUerythrosinecolour (red) (FDA: FD&C Red #3)128ERed 2Gcolour129AEUAllura red ACcolour (FDA: FD&C Red #40)130UIndanthrene blue RScolour (blue)131EPatent blue Vcolour (blue)132AEUindigo carmine, indigotinecolour (blue) (FDA: FD&C Blue #2)133AEUBrilliant blue FCFcolour (FDA: FD&C Blue #1)140AEUchlorophyllscolour (green)141AEUChlorophylls and chlorophyllins, copper complexes141(i)UChlorophylls, copper complexescolour (green)141(ii)UChlorophyllins, copper complexes, potassium and sodium saltscolour (green)142AEGreen Scolour (green)143AUFast green FCFcolour (FDA: FD&C Green #3)150AEUCaramels150aAEUcaramel I – plaincolour (brown and black)150bAEUcaramel II – sulfite caramelcolour (brown and black)150cAEUcaramel III – ammonia caramelcolour (brown and black)150dAEUcaramel IV – sulfite ammonia caramelcolour (brown and black)151AEBrilliant Black BN (Black PN)colour (brown and black)152?",
"?Carbon blackcolour (brown and black)153AEVegetable carboncolour (brown and black)154EBrown FKcolour (brown and black)155AEChocolate Brown HTcolour160aAEUcarotenes160a(i)AEUbeta-carotene, syntheticcolour160a(ii)AEUbeta-carotene, vegetablecolour160a(iii)AEUbeta-carotene, Blakeslea trisporacolour160a(iv)AEUbeta-carotene, algaecolour160bEUannatto extracts160b(i)EUannatto extracts, bixin-basedcolour160b(ii)EUannatto extracts, norbixin-basedcolour160cAEUpaprika oleoresin (paprika extract)colour160dAEUlycopenes160d(i)AEUlycopene, syntheticcolour160d(ii)AEUlycopene, tomatocolour160d(iii)AEUlycopene, ''Blakeslea trispora''colour160eAEUbeta-apo-8'-carotenal (C 30)colour160fAEUbeta-apo-8'-carotenic acid ethyl estercolour161aAUflavoxanthincolour161bAEUluteins161b(i)AEUlutein from ''Tagetes erecta''colour161b(ii)AEUTagetes extractcolour161cAUkryptoxanthincolour161dAUrubixanthincolour161eAUviolaxanthincolour161fAUrhodoxanthincolour161gEUcanthaxanthincolour161h??Uzeaxanthinscolour161h(i)?",
"?Uzeaxanthin, syntheticcolour161h(ii)?",
"?Uzeaxanthin-rich extract from ''Tagetes erecta''colour161icitranaxanthin.",
"Delistedcolour161jastaxanthin.",
"Delistedcolour162AEUbeet redcolour163AEUanthocyaninscolour163(ii)AEUGrape skin extractcolour163(iii)AEUBlackcurrant extractcolour163(iv)AEUPurple corn colourcolour163(v)AEURed cabbage colourcolour164AUGardenia yellow165UGardenia bluecolour166Usandalwoodcolour170EUcalcium carbonates170(i)EUcalcium carbonateAcidity regulator, anticaking agent, stabilizer, surface colourant170(ii)EUcalcium hydrogen carbonateAcidity regulator, anticaking agent, stabilizer, surface colourant171AEUtitanium dioxidecolour (white)172AEUiron oxides172(i)AEUiron oxide, blackcolour172(ii)AEUiron oxide, redcolour172(iii)AEUiron oxide, yellowcolour173EUaluminiumcolour (silver)174EUsilvercolour (silver)175EUgoldcolour (gold)180ELithol Rubine BKcolour181EUtanninscolour, emulsifier, stabiliser, thickener182Uorchilcolour200EUsorbic acidpreservative201Usodium sorbatepreservative202EUpotassium sorbatepreservative203EUcalcium sorbatepreservative209Uheptyl p-hydroxybenzoatepreservative210EUbenzoic acidpreservative211AEUsodium benzoatepreservative212AEUpotassium benzoatepreservative213AEUcalcium benzoatepreservative214EUethyl para-hydroxybenzoatepreservative215EUsodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoatepreservative216AUpropylparaben (propyl para-hydroxybenzoate)preservative217Usodium propyl para-hydroxybenzoatepreservative218AEUmethylparaben (methyl para-hydroxybenzoate)preservative219EUsodium methyl para-hydroxybenzoatepreservative220AEUsulfur dioxidepreservative, antioxidant221AEUsodium sulfitepreservative, antioxidant222AEUsodium bisulfite (sodium hydrogen sulfite)preservative, antioxidant223AEUsodium metabisulfitepreservative, antioxidant, bleaching agent224AEUpotassium metabisulfitepreservative, antioxidant225AUpotassium sulfitepreservative, antioxidant226EUcalcium sulfitepreservative, antioxidant227EUcalcium bisulfite, calcium hydrogen sulfitepreservative, antioxidant228AEUpotassium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen sulfitepreservative, antioxidant230EUdiphenyl (biphenyl)preservative231EUorthophenyl phenol (2-hydroxybiphenyl)preservative232EUsodium orthophenyl phenolpreservative233Uthiabendazolepreservative234AEUnisinpreservative235AEUnatamycin (pimaricin)preservative236Uformic acidpreservative237Usodium formatepreservative238Ucalcium formatepreservative239EUhexamethylene tetramine (hexamine)preservative240Uformaldehydepreservative241Ugum guaicumpreservative242AEUdimethyl dicarbonatepreservative249AEUpotassium nitritepreservative, colour fixative250AEUsodium nitritepreservative, colour fixative251AEUsodium nitratepreservative, colour fixative252AUpotassium nitratepreservative, colour fixative260AEUglacial acetic acidpreservative, acidity regulator261AEUpotassium acetatespreservative, acidity regulator262AEUsodium acetate, sodium hydrogen acetatepreservative, acidity regulator263AEUcalcium acetatepreservative, acidity regulator264AUammonium acetatepreservative, acidity regulator265Udehydroacetic acidpreservative266Usodium dehydroacetatepreservative270AEUlactic acidacidity regulator, preservative, antioxidant280AEUpropionic acidpreservative281AEUsodium propionatepreservative282AEUcalcium propionatepreservative283AEUpotassium propionatepreservative284EUboric acidpreservative285EUsodium tetraborate, boraxpreservative290AEUcarbon dioxideacidity regulator, propellant296AEUmalic acidacidity regulator297AEUfumaric acidacidity regulator300AEUascorbic acidantioxidant (water-soluble)301AEUsodium ascorbateantioxidant (water-soluble)302AEUcalcium ascorbateantioxidant (water-soluble)303AUpotassium ascorbateantioxidant (water-soluble)304AEUascorbyl palmitate, ascorbyl stearateantioxidant (fat soluble)307AEUtocopherols307aAEUl-alpha-tocopherolantioxidant307bAEUmixed tocopherol concentrateantioxidant307cAEUdl-alpha-tocopherolantioxidant308AEUgamma-tocopherol(synthetic)antioxidant309AEUdelta-tocopherol(synthetic)antioxidant310AEUpropyl gallateantioxidant311AEUoctyl gallateantioxidant312AEUdodecyl gallateantioxidant315AEUerythorbic acidantioxidant316AEUsodium erythorbateantioxidant317?",
"?Uerythorbin acidantioxidant318?",
"?Usodium erythorbinantioxidant319AUtert-butylhydroquinoneantioxidant320AEUbutylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)antioxidant (fat soluble)321AEUbutylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)antioxidant (fat soluble)322AEUlecithinsantioxidant, emulsifier325AEUsodium lactatefood acid326AEUpotassium lactatefood acid327AEUcalcium lactatefood acid328AUammonium lactatefood acid329AUmagnesium lactatefood acid330AEUcitric acidfood acid331AEUsodium citratesfood acid332AEUpotassium citratesfood acid333AEUcalcium citratesfood acid, firming agent334AEUL(+)-tartaric acidfood acid335AEUsodium tartratesfood acid336AEUpotassium tartratesfood acid337AEUpotassium sodium tartratefood acid338AEUphosphoric acidfood acid339AEUsodium phosphatesmineral salt340AEUpotassium phosphatesmineral salt341AEUcalcium phosphatesmineral salt, anti-caking agent, firming agent342AUammonium phosphatesmineral salt343AEUmagnesium phosphatesmineral salt, anti-caking agent344Ulecithin citratepreservative345Umagnesium citrateacidity regulator349AUammonium malatefood acid350AEUsodium malatesfood acid351AEUpotassium malatefood acid352AEUcalcium malatesfood acid353AEUmetatartaric acidfood acid, emulsifier354AEUcalcium tartratefood acid, emulsifier355AEUadipic acidfood acid356EUsodium adipatefood acid357AEUpotassium adipatefood acid359Uammonium adipatesacidity regulator363EUsuccinic acidfood acid364Usodium succinatesacidity regulator, flavour enhancer365AUsodium fumaratefood acid366AUpotassium fumaratefood acid367AUcalcium fumaratefood acid368AUammonium fumaratefood acid370U1,4-heptonolactonefood acid375AUniacin (nicotinic acid), nicotinamide (vitamin B3)colour retention agent380AEUtriammonium citratefood acid381AUferric ammonium citrate, ammonium ferrocitratefood acid384Uisopropyl citratesantioxidant, preservative385AEUcalcium disodium EDTApreservative386Udisodium ethylenediaminetetraacetateantioxidant, preservative387Uoxystearinantioxidant, sequestrant388Uthiodipropionic acidantioxidant389Udilauryl thiodipropionateantioxidant390Udistearyl thiodipropionateantioxidant391Uphytic acidpreservative399Ucalcium lactobionatestabilizer400AEUalginic acidthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier401AEUsodium alginatethickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier402AEUpotassium alginatethickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier403AEUammonium alginatethickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier404AEUcalcium alginatethickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier405AEUpropylene glycol alginate, propane-1,2-diol alginatethickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier406AEUagarthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent407AEUcarrageenanthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier407aAEUprocessed eucheuma seaweedthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier409AUarabinogalactanthickener, vegetable gum410AEUlocust bean gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier412AEUguar gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer413AEUtragacanththickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier414AEUgum acacia, gum arabicthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier415AEUxanthan gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer416AEUkaraya gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier417EUtara gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer418AEUgellan gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier420AEUsorbitolhumectant, emulsifier, sweetener421AEUmannitolhumectant, anti-caking agent, sweetener422AEUglycerinhumectant, sweetener425EUkonjac, konjac gum, konjac glucomannatethickener, vegetable gum428AEUgelatin, gelatine (not classified as an additive)carrier, emulsifier, gelling agent, stabiliser, thickener430?Upolyoxyethylene (8) stearateemulsifier, stabilizer431EUpolyoxyethylene (40) stearateemulsifier432EUpolysorbate 20emulsifier433AEUpolysorbate 80emulsifier434EUpolysorbate 40emulsifier435AEUpolysorbate 60emulsifier436AEUpolysorbate 65emulsifier440AEUpectinvegetable gum, emulsifier441USuperglycerinated hydrogenated rapeseed oil, Hydrogenated rapeseed oil superglycerinated, Superglycerinated fully hydrogenated rapeseed oilEmulsifier442AEUMixed ammonium salts of phosphorylated glyceridessemulsifier443?Ubrominated vegetable oilemulsifier, stabiliser444AEUsucrose acetate isobutyrateemulsifier, stabiliser445EUglycerol esters of wood rosinsemulsifier450AEUdiphosphatesmineral salt, emulsifier451AEUtriphosphatesmineral salt, emulsifier452AEUpolyphosphatesmineral salt, emulsifier459EUbeta-cyclodextrinemulsifier460AEUpowdered cellulose, microcrystalline celluloseanti-caking agent461AEUmethylcellulosethickener, emulsifier, vegetable gum463EUhydroxypropyl cellulosethickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier464AEUhydroxypropyl methylcellulosethickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier465AEUmethyl ethyl cellulose, ethyl methyl cellulosethickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier466AEUsodium carboxymethylcelluloseemulsifier468Ucrosslinked sodium carboxymethylcelluloseemulsifier469Uenzymatically hydrolyzed carboxymethyl celluloseemulsifier470AUmagnesium stearateemulsifier, stabiliser470aEUsodium, potassium and calcium salts of fatty acidsemulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent470bEUmagnesium salts of fatty acidsemulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent471AEUmono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – glyceryl monostearate, glyceryl distearateemulsifier472aAEUacetic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier472bAEUlactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier472cAEUcitric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier472dAEUtartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier472eAEUdiacetyltartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier472fEUmixed acetic and tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier473AEUsucrose esters of fatty acidsemulsifier474EUsucroglyceridesemulsifier475AEUpolyglycerol esters of fatty acidsemulsifier476AEUpolyglycerol polyricinoleateemulsifier477AEUpropylene glycol esters of fatty acidsemulsifier478?",
"?Ulactylated fatty acid esters of glycerol and propylene glycolemulsifier479bEUthermally oxidised soya bean oilemulsifier480AUdioctyl sodium sulfosuccinateemulsifier481AEUsodium stearoyl lactylateemulsifier482AEUcalcium stearoyl lactylateemulsifier483EUstearyl tartarateemulsifier491AEUsorbitan monostearateemulsifier492AEUsorbitan tristearateemulsifier493EUsorbitan monolaurateemulsifier494EUsorbitan monooleateemulsifier495EUsorbitan monopalmitateemulsifier500AEUsodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate (E500ii)mineral salt501AEUpotassium carbonate, potassium bicarbonatemineral salt503AEUammonium carbonate, ammonium bicarbonatemineral salt504AEUmagnesium carbonateanti-caking agent, mineral salt507AEUhydrochloric acidacidity regulator508AEUpotassium chloridemineral salt509AEUcalcium chloridemineral salt510AUammonium chloridemineral salt511AEUmagnesium chloridemineral salt512AEUstannous chloridecolour retention agent, antioxidant513EUsulfuric acidacidity regulator514AEUsodium sulfatemineral salt515AEUpotassium sulfatemineral salt, seasoning516AEUcalcium sulfateflour treatment agent, mineral salt, sequestrant, improving agent, firming agent517EUammonium sulfatemineral salt, improving agent518AUmagnesium sulfate, Epsom saltsmineral salt, acidity regulator, firming agent519AUcupric sulfatemineral salt520EUaluminium sulfatemineral salt521EUaluminium sodium sulfatemineral salt522EUaluminium potassium sulfatemineral salt523EUaluminium ammonium sulfatemineral salt524EUsodium hydroxidemineral salt525EUpotassium hydroxidemineral salt526AEUcalcium hydroxidemineral salt527EUammonium hydroxidemineral salt528EUmagnesium hydroxidemineral salt529AEUcalcium oxidemineral salt530EUmagnesium oxideanti-caking agent535AEUsodium ferrocyanideanti-caking agent536AEUpotassium ferrocyanideanti-caking agent538EUcalcium ferrocyanideanti-caking agent540Udicalcium diphosphateanti-caking agent541AEUsodium aluminium phosphateacidity regulator, emulsifier542AUbone phosphateanti-caking agent544Ucalcium polyphosphatesanti-caking agent545Uammonium polyphosphatesanti-caking agent551AEUsilicon dioxideanti-caking agent552AEUcalcium silicateanti-caking agent553(i)AEUmagnesium silicate, syntheticanti-caking agent553bAEUtalcanti-caking agent554AEUsodium aluminosilicate (sodium aluminium silicate)anti-caking agent555EUpotassium aluminium silicateanti-caking agent556AEUcalcium aluminosilicate (calcium aluminium silicate)anti-caking agent558AEUbentoniteanti-caking agent559AEUkaolin, aluminium silicateanti-caking agent570AEUstearic acidanti-caking agent575AEUglucono delta-lactoneacidity regulator576EUsodium gluconatestabiliser577AEUpotassium gluconatestabiliser578AEUcalcium gluconateacidity regulator579AEUferrous gluconatecolour retention agent585EUferrous lactate620AEUglutamic acidflavour enhancer621AEUmonosodium glutamate (MSG)flavour enhancer622AEUmonopotassium glutamateflavour enhancer623AEUcalcium diglutamateflavour enhancer624AEUmonoammonium glutamateflavour enhancer625AEUmagnesium diglutamateflavour enhancer626Uguanylic acidflavour enhancer627AEUdisodium guanylateflavour enhancer628EUdipotassium guanylateflavour enhancer629EUcalcium guanylateflavour enhancer630EUinosinic acidflavour enhancer631AEUdisodium inosinateflavour enhancer632EUdipotassium inosinateflavour enhancer633EUcalcium inosinateflavour enhancer634EUcalcium 5'-ribonucleotidesflavour enhancer635AEUdisodium 5'-ribonucleotidesflavour enhancer636AUmaltolflavour enhancer637AUethyl maltolflavour enhancer640AEUglycineflavour enhancer641AUleucineflavour enhancer650EUzinc acetateflavour enhancer900AEUdimethylpolysiloxaneemulsifier, anti-caking agent901AEUbeeswaxglazing agent902EUcandelilla waxglazing agent903AEUcarnauba waxglazing agent904AEUshellacglazing agent905AEUparaffinsglazing agent907Urefined microcrystalline waxglazing agent912EUmontanic acid estershumectant914AEUoxidised polyethylene waxhumectant920AEUL-cysteineflour treatment agent924potassium bromateflour treatment agent925AUchlorineflour treatment agent926AUchlorine dioxideflour treatment agent927bEUcarbamideflour treatment agent928AUbenzoyl peroxideflour treatment agent938EUargonpropellant939EUheliumpropellant941AEUnitrogenpropellant942AEUnitrous oxidepropellant943aEUbutanepropellant943bEUisobutanepropellant950AEUAcesulfame potassiumartificial sweetener951AEUaspartameartificial sweetener952AEcyclamic acid, cyclamatesartificial sweetener953AEUisomalthumectant954AEUsaccharinartificial sweetener955AUsucraloseartificial sweetener956AUalitameartificial sweetener957AEUthaumatinflavour enhancer, artificial sweetener959EUneohesperidin dihydrochalconeartificial sweetener965AEUmaltitolhumectant, stabiliser966AEUlactitolhumectant967AEUxylitolhumectant, stabiliser999EUquillaia extracthumectant1001AUcholine salts and estersemulsifier1100AUamylasesflour treatment agent1102AUglucose oxidaseantioxidant1103EUinvertase?1104AUlipasesflavour enhancer1105AEUlysozymepreservative1200AEUpolydextrosehumectant1201AEUpoly vinyl pyrrolidone?1202AEUpolyvinylpolypyrrolidonecolour stabiliser1400AUdextrin roasted starchthickener, vegetable gum1401AUacid treated starchthickener, vegetable gum1402AUalkaline treated starchthickener, vegetable gum1403AUbleached starchthickener, vegetable gum1404AEUoxidised starchthickener, vegetable gum1405AUenzyme treated starchthickener, vegetable gum1410AEUmonostarch phosphatethickener, vegetable gum1412AEUdistarch phosphatethickener, vegetable gum1413AEUphosphated distarch phosphatethickener, vegetable gum1414AEUacetylated distarch phosphatethickener, vegetable gum1420AEUacetylated starchthickener, vegetable gum1422AEUacetylated distarch adipatethickener, vegetable gum1440AEUhydroxypropyl starchthickener, vegetable gum1442AEUhydroxypropyl distarch phosphatethickener, vegetable gum1450AEUstarch sodium octenylsuccinatethickener, vegetable gum1451EUacetylated oxidised starchthickener, vegetable gum1505AEUtriethyl citratethickener, vegetable gum1510ethanol (not classified as an additive)alcohol1518AEUtriacetinhumectant1520AEUpropylene glycolhumectant1521AEUPolyethylene glycolantifoaming agentINS # Approvals NamesType"
],
[
"See also",
"*Codex Alimentarius*Codex Alimentarius Austriacus*E number*Food Additives*Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act*Food Chemicals Codex*List of food additives"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Codex Alimentarius* Food Standards Australia New Zealand* Food Additives and Ingredients Association* Northern Allergy Centre's Guide to Food Additives* USFDA: Food Color Facts"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Law of dilution"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Wilhelm Ostwald’s '''dilution law''' is a relationship proposed in 1888 between the dissociation constant '''' and the degree of dissociation '''' of a weak electrolyte.",
"The law takes the form:Where the square brackets denote concentration, and is the total concentration of electrolyte.Using , where is the molar conductivity at concentration c and is the limiting value of molar conductivity extrapolated to zero concentration or infinite dilution, this results in the following relation::"
],
[
"Derivation",
"Consider a binary electrolyte AB which dissociates reversibly into A+ and B− ions.",
"Ostwald noted that the law of mass action can be applied to such systems as dissociating electrolytes.",
"The equilibrium state is represented by the equation::AB {A+} + B^-If '''' is the fraction of dissociated electrolyte, then '''' is the concentration of each ionic species.",
"must, therefore be the fraction of ''undissociated'' electrolyte, and the concentration of same.",
"The dissociation constant may therefore be given as:For very weak electrolytes (however, neglecting 'α' for most weak electrolytes yields counterproductive result) , implying that .",
":This gives the following results;:Thus, the degree of dissociation of a weak electrolyte is proportional to the inverse square root of the concentration, or the square root of the dilution.",
"The concentration of any one ionic species is given by the root of the product of the dissociation constant and the concentration of the electrolyte.",
":"
],
[
"Limitations",
"The Ostwald law of dilution provides a satisfactory description of the concentration dependence of the conductivity of weak electrolytes like CH3COOH and NH4OH.",
"The variation of molar conductivity is essentially due to the incomplete dissociation of weak electrolytes into ions.",
"For strong electrolytes, however, Lewis and Randall recognized that the law fails badly since the supposed equilibrium constant is actually far from constant.",
"This is because the dissociation of strong electrolytes into ions is essentially complete below a concentration threshold value.",
"The decrease in molar conductivity as a function of concentration is actually due to attraction between ions of opposite charge as expressed in the Debye-Hückel-Onsager equation and later revisions.Even for weak electrolytes the equation is not exact.",
"Chemical thermodynamics shows that the true equilibrium constant is a ratio of thermodynamic activities, and that each concentration must be multiplied by an activity coefficient.",
"This correction is important for ionic solutions due to the strong forces between ionic charges.",
"An estimate of their values is given by the Debye–Hückel theory at low concentrations."
],
[
"See also",
"*Autosolvolysis*Osmotic coefficient*Activity coefficient*Ion transport number*Ion association*Molar conductivity"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lleida"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lleida''' (, ; ; ) is a city in the west of Catalonia.",
"It is the capital and largest town in Segrià county, the Ponent region and the province of Lleida.",
"Geographically, it is located in the Catalan Central Depression.",
"It had 140,797 inhabitants .Lleida is one of the oldest towns in Catalonia, with recorded settlements dating back to the Bronze Age period.",
"Until the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the area served as a settlement for an Iberian people, the Ilergetes.",
"The town became a municipality, named Ilerda, under the reign of Augustus.",
"It was ruled by the Moors from the 8th century, and reconquered in 1149.In 1297, the University of Lleida was founded, becoming the third oldest in the whole of Spain.",
"During the following centuries, the town was damaged by several wars such as the Reapers' War in the 17th century and the Spanish Civil War in the 20th century.",
"Since then, the city has been in constant urban, commercial and demographic growth."
],
[
"Name",
"Although the usual Spanish form of the town's name is , pronounced , the associations of that name with enforced Castilianization under the Francoist regime have led to the Catalan form being used for official purposes even in Spanish.",
"The local pronunciation of the name is while the standard pronunciation is ."
],
[
"History",
"Indíbilis, king of the Ilergetes (left) and Mandonius, king of the Ausetani (right)In ancient times the city, named '''Iltrida''' and '''Ilerda''', was the chief city of the Ilergetes, an Iberian tribe.",
"Indíbil, king of the Ilergetes, and Mandoni, king of the Ausetanes, defended it against the Carthaginian and Roman invasions.Under the Romans the city was incorporated into the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis, and was a place of considerable importance, historically as well as geographically.",
"It stood upon an eminence, on the right (west) bank of the river Sicoris (the modern Segre), the principal tributary of the Ebre, and some distance above its confluence with the Cinga (modern Cinca); thus commanding the country between those rivers, as well as the great road from Tarraco (modern Tarragona), the provincial capital, to the northwest of Spain, which here crossed the Sicoris.Its situation induced the legates of Pompey in Spain to make it the key of their defense against Caesar, in the first year of the Civil War (49 BC).",
"Afranius and Marcus Petreius threw themselves into the place with five legions; and their siege by Caesar himself (Battle of Ilerda), as narrated in his own words, forms one of the most interesting passages of military history.",
"Caesar’s skill as a general, in a contest where the formation of the district and a series of natural events seemed very favorable to his enemies, ultimately gained him victory.",
"It was ended by the capitulation of Afranius and Petreius.",
"In consequence of the battle, the Latin phrase ''Ilerdam videas'' is said to have been used by people who wanted to cast bad luck on someone else.Under the Roman empire Ilerda was a prosperous city and a ''municipium''.",
"It minted its own coins.",
"It had a fine stone bridge over the Sicoris, which was so sturdy that its foundations support a bridge to this day.",
"In the time of Ausonius the city had fallen into decay but it rose again into importance in the Middle Ages.It was part of Visigothic and Muslim Hispania until it was conquered from the Moors by Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona in 1149.It used to be the seat of a major university, the oldest in the Crown of Aragon, until 1717, when it was moved by Philip V to the nearby town of Cervera.",
"The University of Lleida is nowadays active again since 1991.During the Reapers' War Lleida was occupied by the French and rebel forces.",
"In 1644 the city was conquered by the Spanish under Felipe da Silva.Lleida served as a key defence point for Barcelona during the Spanish Civil War and fell to the Insurgents, whose air forces bombed it extensively in 1937 and 1938.The 2 November 1937 Legion Condor attacks against Lleida became especially infamous since they were aimed to the school known as ''Liceu Escolar de Lleida''.",
"48 children and several teachers died in it that day, 300 people were killed in the 2 November bombings altogether and the town would be bombed and besieged again in 1938, when it was conquered by Franco's forces.After some decades without any kind of population growth it experienced a massive influx of Andalusians, who helped the town undergo a relative demographic growth.",
"Nowadays it is home to immigrants of 146 different nationalities.Lleida was the Capital of Catalan Culture in 2007."
],
[
"Climate",
"Lleida has a temperate semi-arid climate (Köppen ''BSk'').",
"Winters are mild and foggy though cooler than places on the coast while summers are hot and dry.",
"Frosts are common during winter although snowfall can occasionally fall, averaging 1 or 2 days.",
"Precipitation is low, with an annual average of with a peak in April and May and another peak in September and October.",
"==Districts and neighbourhoods==Centre Històric.Lleida is divided in the following districts by the Socioeconomic Observatory of Lleida:*Balàfia*Les Basses d'Alpicat*La Bordeta*Butsènit*Camp d'Esports*Cappont*Centre Històric*Ciutat Jardí*Humbert Torres*Instituts-Templers*Joc de la Bola*Llívia*Magraners*Mariola*Pardinyes*Príncep de Viana-Clot*Rambla Ferran-Estació*Secà de Sant Pere*Torres de Sanuí*Universitat"
],
[
"Transport",
"===Railway===Lleida-Pirineus railway stationLleida is served by Renfe's Madrid-Barcelona high-speed rail line, serving Barcelona, Zaragoza, Calatayud, Guadalajara, and Madrid.",
"Lleida has a new airport opened in January 2010, and a minor airfield located in Alfès.",
"Also, the town is the western terminus of the Eix Transversal Lleida-Girona, and a railway covering the same distance (''Eix Transversal Ferroviari'') is currently under planning.Lleida's only passenger railway station is Lleida Pirineus.",
"It is served by both Renfe and Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya train lines.",
"In the future a Rodalies Lleida commuter network will connect the town with its adjacent area and the main towns of its province, improving the existing network with more train frequency and newly built infrastructure.",
"A second railway station is Pla de la Vilanoveta in an industrial area, and only used by freight trains.",
"A future railway museum will be located in its facilities.",
"Since 2008 the bulk of public transport of the Lleida's surrounding area, mainly buses operated by several companies, is managed by Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Lleida.===Bus===The urban buses, coloured yellow with blue stripes and owned by ''Autobusos de Lleida'', include the following lines:*L-1 Interior*L-2 Ronda*L-3 Pardinyes*L-4 Mariola – *L-5 Bordeta*L-6 Magraners*L-7 Secà*L-8 Balàfia-Gualda*L-9 Hospitals*L-10 Exterior*L-11 Llívia-Caparrella*L-11B Llívia-Caparrella-Butsenit*L-12 C.Històric-Universitat*L-13 Cappont*L-14 Agrònoms*L-P Polígons*L-17 Bordeta-Ciutat Jardí*L-18 Palau de Congressos- Rambla de la Mercé*L-19 Butsenit*L-N Wonder (Regular night service)*L-Bus Turístic (tourist bus)*L-Aeroport*L-LlotjaIn addition to these, there's a tourist bus and a regular night service to nearby clubs.===Lleida-Pirineus airport===''Lleida-Alguaire'' airportLleida has depended long time on nearby airports and had no local air transit.",
"The Lleida-Alguaire airport opened in 2010.===Future and planned services===A tram-train system is pending approval.",
"Using an existing but outdated passenger line, it would link Balaguer and Lleida, crossing both towns in a much needed move towards better public transportation, both inner-city and between localities."
],
[
"Languages",
"Lleida is a traditionally Catalan-speaking city, with a characteristic dialect (known as Western or, more specifically, Northwestern Catalan, or colloquially ''lleidatà'').",
"Most of the population is actively bilingual in Spanish.",
"'''Largest groups of foreign residents''' Nationality Population (2022) 6,249 5,014 1,578 1,489 1,444"
],
[
"Culture",
"Auditori Enric GranadosLa Llotja de LleidaMuseu d'Art Jaume MoreraLleida was the Capital of Catalan Culture in 2007.===Theatre and music venues===Enric Granados Auditorium is the city's concert hall and main music institution and conservatory.",
"It is named after the composer Enric Granados, who was born in the city.",
"CaixaForum Lleida (formerly known as ''Centre Cultural de la Fundació La Caixa'') includes a concert hall.",
"Teatre Municipal de l'Escorxador is the town's main theatre; it includes a concert venue, Cafè del Teatre.",
"A theatre and congress centre, La Llotja de Lleida, opened in 2010.===Music festivals===There are two important music festivals in Lleida; MÚSIQUES DISPERSES Folk Festival in March, and the jazz festival JAZZ TARDOR in November.",
"Concerts are also a regular fixture of the two local feasts, Sant Anastasi in May, and Sant Miquel in September.===Film===CaixaForum Lleida is the usual venue for film-related events and screenings.",
"A Latin-American film festival is held yearly in the town (''Mostra de Cinema Llatinoamericà de Lleida''), and an animation film festival called ''Animac'' is held every May.===Art and museums===The Lleida Museum opened in 2008 and displays historical artefacts and works of art from various periods.",
"The Institut d'Estudis Ilerdencs, a historically relevant building, exhibits both ancient and contemporary art.",
"The Centre d'Art La Panera is a contemporary art institution.",
"The Museu d'Art Jaume Morera displays art from the 20th and 21st centuries (as well as artwork by its namesake).The city has a number of small municipal galleries, such as the Sala Municipal d'Exposicions de Sant Joan and the Sala Manel Garcia Sarramona.",
"There are also several institutions dedicated to local artists, such as the Sala Leandre Cristòfol, containing artwork by the sculptor and painter Leandre Cristòfol (1908–1998); and the Sala Coma Estadella, dedicated to the sculptor and painter Albert Coma Estadella (1933–1991).Private art galleries include the Espai Cavallers.",
"The private foundation CaixaForum Lleida and the Public Library of Lleida also offer regular exhibits.",
"The now defunct Petite Galerie was an innovative and influential gallery in the 1970s.The Escola Municipal de Belles Arts provides higher education in the arts.===Traditional culture===The Giants of Lleida in front of the PaeriaTraditional celebrations include the main annual town festivity: ''Festa Major''; ''Fira de Sant Miquel'' and ''L’Aplec del Caragol'' (escargot-eating festival, the biggest in the world of this sort, held at the Camps Elisis since 1980).The latter is a gastronomical festivity focused on escargot cooking and is celebrated yearly at the end of May.",
"\"L'Aplec\" gathers thousands of people around the table to taste the most traditional dishes from Lleida.Due to its strong popularity, it was declared a traditional festivity of national interest in 2002 by the Generalitat of Catalonia and two years later it was also declared as such by the Spanish Government.The main traditional celebrations in Lleida are chaired by the twelve emblematic \"Gegants de la Paeria\" (Giants of the Town Hall), the two oldest made in 1840.===Nightlife===Lleida has a bar and clubbing area, informally known as ''Els Vins''.",
"The oldest part of the quarter, known as ''Els Vins Vells'', has been largely replaced by ''Els Vins Nous'', an architecturally newer and more upscale area.",
"Most big clubs in Lleida are located outside the town and are not easily accessible without a car, though on Saturday nights there is a bus."
],
[
"Main sights",
"Seu VellaTemplar castle of GardenyRomanesque church of Sant Martímodernist building*La Seu Vella, a cathedral built in a blend of Romanesque and Gothic styles over time, and made a military fortress in the 18th century.",
"There is also an older, and mostly destroyed ''Palau de la Suda'', built during Arab rule and later used as a royal residence by the counts of Barcelona and kings of Aragon.",
"Both medieval buildings are situated over the so-called ''Turó de la Seu'', a medium-sized hill that overlooks the town.",
"*La Seu Nova, the baroque cathedral, in use since Bourbon rule.",
"It was burnt during the Spanish Civil War by the anarchists commanded by Durruti.",
"*Institut d'Estudis Ilerdencs, used to be a hospital (''Antic Hospital de Santa Maria'') built in Gothic style, but today is a historical museum and research centre open to visitors, with historically significant artworks and artefacts from the Iberian, Roman, Arab, medieval and modern times, as well as an exhibit area usually showcasing contemporary local artists.",
"*La Paeria, the city council and also a historical site with remains and artefacts from Roman times through to the Moorish rule, Mediaeval and Modern times, including old prison cells.",
"*Gardeny is a hill hosting a fortress built between the 12th and 13th centuries.",
"Used by the Knights Templar in the Middle Ages after the area (a fifth of the town) had been granted to them by King Ramon Berenguer IV.",
"*The gardens known as Camps Elisis, already used by the Romans.",
"The Mermaid Fountain is a nice piece.",
"*La Mitjana, a park at the edge of town with wilderness areas adjacent to an old dam on the river Segre.",
"*Les Basses d'Alpicat, a park.",
"It is currently closed, awaiting reforms.",
"*Church of Sant Llorenç, a 12th-century Romanesque church with 15th-century Gothic additions.",
"The interior is well preserved.",
"*Church of Sant Martí, a 12th-century Romanesque church.",
"*The bishop of Lleida’s Palace on Rambla d'Aragó, which also serves as an art museum displaying pieces spanning from Romanesque to Baroque times.",
"*El Roser, a 13th-century convent built by the Dominican Order.",
"It hosted a fine arts academy of the same name and has recently been controversially reformed and turned into a Parador (a luxury hotel using a historical location).",
"*The Cementiri de Lleida (Municipal Cemetery) to the West of the city is listed in the Inventari del Patrimoni Arquitectònic de Catalunya (Inventory of the Architectural Heritage of Catalonia).",
"The oldest portion dates from 1784.",
"*Lleida Public Library, on Rambla d'Aragó, in the building previously known as La Maternitat, a mid-19th century orphanage.",
"*Museum of Lleida, opened in 2008, and owned by the Diocese of Lleida focusing on the town's history.",
"Some of the artefacts it contains, which come from areas historically belonging to the diocese but not currently part of the province of Lleida's territory and jurisdiction, have been the object of contention with the neighbouring dioceses and the government of the autonomous community of Aragon.",
"*Sala Cristòfol, a museum devoted to the works of the avant-garde sculptor Leandre Cristòfol.",
"*Sala Mercat del Pla, an art gallery.",
"*Museu d'Art Jaume Morera, an art museum displaying art from the 20th and 21st centuries in a modernist building.",
"*Centre d'Art de la Panera, a small contemporary art institution.",
"*Museu de l'Aigua, in ''Parc de l'Aigua''.",
"*Auditori Enric Granados, Lleida's foremost concert hall.",
"Next to its basement and on public display are some ancient ruins.",
"*La Llotja de Lleida, a concert hall, theatre, opera and congress hall opened in 2010.",
"*Parc de l'Aigua, urban park in the southern neighborhoods."
],
[
"Sports",
"* Unió Esportiva Lleida, based on the Camp d'Esports dissolved in 2011*Lleida Esportiu football club founded in 2011* CE Lleida Bàsquet, based on the Pavelló Barris Nord"
],
[
"Sister cities",
"Lleida has sister relationships with many places worldwide:* Ferrara, Italy* Foix, France* Hefei, China* Lérida, Colombia* Perpignan, France* Monterey, California, United States"
],
[
"References in culture",
"The city is the subject of the Catalan folk song ''La Presó de Lleida'', \"The prison of Lleida\", which was already attested in the 17th century and may be even older.",
"It is a very popular tune, covered by many artists such as Joan Manuel Serrat."
],
[
"Notable people",
"* Mariano Gomar de las Infantas (1855–1923), lawyer and Integrist politician* Joan Oró (1923–2004), born in Lleida: biochemist, researcher on the origin of life.",
"* Trini Tinturé (born 1935), born in Lleida: cartoonist and illustrator."
],
[
"See also",
"* Battle of Ilerda* Diocese of Lleida, Bishop of Lleida* Talarn Dam* University of Lleida* Volta a Lleida"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography"
],
[
"External links",
"** Tourism information of Lleida* Internet Portal of the town* Government data pages"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Le Mans"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Le Mans''' (, ) is a city in northwestern France on the Sarthe River where it meets the Huisne.",
"Traditionally the capital of the province of Maine, it is now the capital of the Sarthe department and the seat of the Roman Catholic diocese of Le Mans.",
"Le Mans is a part of the Pays de la Loire region.Its inhabitants are called ''Manceaux'' (male) and ''Mancelles'' (female).",
"Since 1923, the city has hosted the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the world's oldest active endurance sports car race.",
"The event is among the most attended and prestigious motor sports events in the world."
],
[
"History",
"First mentioned by Claudius Ptolemy, the Roman city ''Vindinium'' was the capital of the Aulerci, a sub tribe of the Aedui.",
"Le Mans is also known as ''Civitas Cenomanorum'' (City of the Cenomani), or ''Cenomanus''.",
"Their city, seized by the Romans in 47 BC, was within the ancient Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis.",
"A 3rd-century amphitheatre is still visible.",
"The ''thermae'' were demolished during the crisis of the third century when workers were mobilized to build the city's defensive walls.",
"The ancient wall around Le Mans is one of the most complete circuits of Gallo-Roman city walls to survive.As the use of the French language replaced late Vulgar Latin in the area, ''Cenomanus'', with dissimilation, became known as ''Celmins.''",
"''Cel-'' was taken to be a form of the French word for \"this\" and \"that\", and was replaced by ''le'', which means \"the\".As the principal city of Maine, Le Mans was the stage for struggles in the eleventh century between the counts of Anjou and the dukes of Normandy.",
"When the Normans had control of Maine, William the Conqueror successfully invaded England and established an occupation.",
"In 1069 the citizens of Maine revolted and expelled the Normans, resulting in Hugh V being proclaimed count of Maine.",
"Geoffrey V of Anjou married Matilda of England in the cathedral.",
"Their son Henry II Plantagenet, king of England, was born here.",
"In 1154, during the reign of his uncle King Stephen, Henry landed in England with an army, intent on challenging Stephen for the throne.",
"Some of the members of that feudal force were known by the surname 'del Mans' (Latin for of Mans, as the city was then known.)",
"In medieval records pertaining to the history of Gloucester is a reference to one such man, Walter del Mans, and beside his name 'Cenomanus' was added by the medieval scribe, so that there is no doubt as to Walter's origin.",
"In the English censuses down to the twentieth century the surname Mans (latterly often spelled Manns) was virtually confined to the counties of Gloucestershire and Herefordshire and their borderlands, reflecting the original settlement patterns in the Welsh Marches of the original followers of Henry's from Le Mans in 1154.A John Mans/Manns was escheator of Hereford 1399–1400.One family from Le Mans held the manor of Dodenham, Worcestershire.",
"(Calendar of the Records of the Corporation of Gloucester, Item 96, ca.1200; Fine Roles Henry III, 23 August.",
"1233 Hereford;'Parishes: Doddenham', A History of the County of Worcester, volume 4 (1924), pp. 260–62.)",
"Intercourse between England and Le Mans continued throughout the Angevin period.In the 13th century Le Mans came under the control of the French crown.",
"It was subsequently invaded by England during the Hundred Years' War.Industrialization took place in the 19th century which saw the development of railway and motor vehicle production as well as textiles and tobacco manufacture.Wilbur Wright began official public demonstrations of the airplane he had developed with his younger brother Orville on 8 August 1908, at the Hunaudières horse racing track near Le Mans.===World War II===Soon after Le Mans was liberated by the U.S. 79th and 90th Infantry Divisions on 8 August 1944, engineers of the Ninth Air Force IX Engineering Command began construction of a combat Advanced Landing Ground outside of the town.",
"The airfield was declared operational on 3 September and designated as \"A-35\".",
"It was used by several American fighter and transport units until late November of that year in additional offensives across France; the airfield was closed."
],
[
"Main sights",
"* Le Mans has a well-preserved old town (''Cité Plantagenêt'', also called ''Vieux Mans'') and the Cathédrale St-Julien, dedicated to St Julian of Le Mans, who is honoured as the city's first bishop.",
"* Remnants of a Roman wall are visible in the old town and Roman baths are located by the river.",
"These walls are highlighted every summer (July and August) evening in a light show that tells the history of the town.",
"* Arboretum de la Grand Prée*Notre-Dame de la Couture, medieval church*Notre Dame de Sainte Croix, neogothic church* Part of the former Cistercian abbey de l'Epau, founded by Queen Berengaria and currently maintained in extensive grounds by the Département de la Sarthe.",
"* Jardin des Plantes du Mans* Musée de la reine Bérengère, a museum of Le Mans history located in a gothic manor house.",
"* Musée de Tessé, the fine arts museum of the city, displaying painting (including artworks by Philippe de Champaigne, Charles Le Brun, François Boucher, John Constable, Ingres, Théodore Géricault and Camille Corot) and archaeological collections as well as decorative arts."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Palais des comtes du Maine - Le Mans.jpg|''Le Palais des Comtes du Maine''File:Le Mans muraille Gallo Romaine nord-est.JPG|Gallo-Roman wallsFile:Organ in the cathedral.JPG|Organ in the cathedralFile:Street Le Mans 2009 SK.jpg|A street in the old townFile:LeMansCoatArms.JPG|Manhole cover depicting the city's coat-of-armsFile:Yvre - Abbaye Epau RB 01.jpg|Effigy of Berengaria of Navarre in the chapter house of Épau abbey."
],
[
"Climate",
"Le Mans has a temperate oceanic climate (''Cfb'') influenced by the mild Atlantic air travelling inland.",
"Summers are warm and occasionally hot, whereas winters are mild and cloudy.",
"Precipitation is relatively uniform and moderate year round."
],
[
"Demographics",
", there were 367,082 inhabitants in the metropolitan area (''aire d'attraction'') of Le Mans, with 143,252 of these living in the city proper (commune).",
"In 1855 Le Mans absorbed four neighbouring communes.",
"The population data for 1851 and earlier in the table and graph below refer to the pre-1855 borders."
],
[
"Transportation",
"The Gare du Mans is the main railway station of Le Mans.",
"It takes 1 hour to reach Paris from Le Mans by TGV high speed train.",
"There are also TGV connections to Lille, Marseille, Nantes, Rennes and Brest.",
"Gare du Mans is also a hub for regional trains.",
"Le Mans inaugurated a new light rail system on 17 November 2007."
],
[
"Sport",
"===Motorsport===Dunlop CurveHandprints and signatures from the winners of the 1992 edition of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, Mark Blundell, Derek Warwick, and Yannick Dalmas, at Le MansThe first French Grand Prix took place on a 64-mile (103 km) circuit based at Le Mans in 1906.Since the 1920s, the city has been best known for its connection with motorsports.",
"There are two official and separate racing tracks at Le Mans, though they share certain portions.",
"The smaller is the Bugatti Circuit (named after Ettore Bugatti, founder of the car company bearing his name), a relatively short permanent circuit, which is used for racing throughout the year and regularly hosts the French motorcycle Grand Prix.",
"The longer and more famous Circuit de la Sarthe is composed partly of public roads.",
"These are closed to the public when the track is in use for racing.",
"Since 1923, this route has been used for the famous 24 Hours of Le Mans sports car endurance race.",
"Boutiques and shops are set up during the race, selling merchandise and promoting products for cars.The \"Le Mans start\" was formerly used in the 24-hour race: drivers lined up across the track from their cars, ran across the track, jumped into their cars and started them to begin the race.The 1955 Le Mans disaster was a large accident during the race that killed eighty-four spectators.===Basketball===The city is home to Le Mans Sarthe Basket, 2006 Champion of the LNB Pro A, France's top professional basketball division.The team plays its home games at the Antarès, which served as one of the host arenas of the FIBA EuroBasket 1999.===Football===*Le Mans FC===Cycling===*Circuit de la Sarthe (cycling)"
],
[
"Notable people",
"Le Mans was the birthplace of:Basil Moreau around 1860* Elijah ben Menahem Ha-Zaken, born 980* Henry II of England, born 1133* Geoffroy V d'Anjou, born 1113* Geoffrey de Goreham or Gorron, became Abbot of St Albans, Hertfordshire, UK in 1119* John II of France, born 1319* Dom Louis Le Pelletier, born 1663, linguist of the Breton language * Gilles-François de Beauvais, born 7 July 1693, Jesuit writer and preacher* Jean-Marie-Joseph Coutelle (1748–1835), engineer, scientist and pioneer of ballooning* Basil Moreau, born 1799, priest of Le Mans, founded the Congregation of Holy Cross, beatified in Le Mans in 2007* Léon Bollée, born 1870, car manufacturer and inventor* Henri Fournier, born 1871, racing driver* Christine and Lea Papin, whose murder (1933) of their employers inspired Jean Genêt's ''The Maids''* Jean Françaix, born in 1912, composer* Jean Lucas, born 1917, racing driver* Anny-Charlotte Verney, born 1943, racing driver* François Migault, born 1944, racing driver* Jean Rondeau, born in 1946, racing driver and constructor* Gérard Tremblay, born 1950, racing driver* Jean-Yves Empereur born 1952, archeologist* Bertrand Lançon, born 1952, Roman history scholar* François Fillon, born in 1954, former Prime Minister of France* Yves Jumeau, born in 1955, visual artist* François Vallejo, born 1960, novelist* Sylvie Tolmont, born 1962, politician* Lionel Robert, born 1962, racing driver* Sabine Toutain, born in 1966, violist* Doan Bui, born in the 1970s, journalist*Amaelle Landais-Israël, born 1977, climatologist* Emmanuel Moire, born 1979, French singer* Sébastien Bourdais, born 1979, race car driver* Julien Canal, born 1982, race car driver* Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, born 1985, professional tennis player* Guillaume Loriot, footballer* Leslie, born 4 February 1985, French singer* Louis Rossi born 1989, Grand Prix motorcycle racer* Emma Mackey, born 1996, French-British actressNotable residents include:* Gilles Villeneuve, lived temporarily in Le Mans in 1973.",
"* Gérard Genette, literary theorist, lived and taught in Le Mans from 1956 to 1963.",
"* Jacques Derrida, philosopher, lived and taught in Le Mans in 1959–1960.",
"* David Jason, English actor, lived in Le Mans between 1965–1968 and 1999–2001.",
"* Andy Wallace, born 1961, racecar driver.Died in Le Mans:* Liborius of Le Mans (c. 348–397), bishop of Le Mans* André d'Arbelles (1767–1825), journalist and historiographer*Lawrence Aubrey Wallace (1857–1942) British Colonial Administrator"
],
[
"International relations",
"Le Mans is twinned with:* Bolton, England, United Kingdom* Haouza, Western Sahara* Paderborn, Germany* Rostov-on-Don, Russia* Suzuka, Japan* Volos, Greece* Xianyang, China"
],
[
"Gastronomy",
"The culinary specialty of Le Mans is ''rillettes'', a shredded pork pâté."
],
[
"Landmarks",
"Located at Mayet near Le Mans, the Le Mans-Mayet transmitter has a height of 342 m and is one of the tallest radio masts in France."
],
[
"Representation in popular culture",
"*Le Mans has been a setting for numerous feature films that feature its famous race.",
"*Le Mans is a setting for sections of the 2020 novel, ''The Invisible Life of Addie LaRue'', by V.E.",
"Schwab."
],
[
"See also",
"* The Cenomanian Age of the Cretaceous Period of geological time is named for Cenomanus (Gallo-Roman Le Mans)*Communes of the Sarthe department"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography"
],
[
"External links",
"* Official website * Le Mans d'Antan"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lois McMaster Bujold"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lois McMaster Bujold''' ( ; born November 2, 1949) is an American speculative fiction writer.",
"She is an acclaimed writer, having won the Hugo Award for best novel four times, matching Robert A. Heinlein's record (not counting his Retro Hugos).",
"Her novella ''The Mountains of Mourning'' won both the Hugo Award and Nebula Award.",
"In the fantasy genre, ''The Curse of Chalion'' won the Mythopoeic Award for Adult Literature and was nominated for the 2002 World Fantasy Award for best novel, and both her fourth Hugo Award and second Nebula Award were for ''Paladin of Souls''.",
"In 2011 she was awarded the Skylark Award.",
"She has won two Hugo Awards for Best Series, in 2017 for the Vorkosigan Saga and in 2018 for the World of the Five Gods.",
"The Science Fiction Writers of America named her its 36th SFWA Grand Master in 2019.The bulk of Bujold's works comprises three series: the Vorkosigan Saga, the World of the Five Gods, and the Sharing Knife series."
],
[
"Biography",
"Bujold at Finncon 2012 in TampereBujold is the daughter of Robert Charles McMaster and attributes her early interest in science fiction, as well as certain aspects of the Vorkosigan Saga, to his influence.",
"He was editor of the ''Nondestructive Testing Handbook''.Bujold writes that her experience growing up with a famous father is reflected in the same experience that her characters (Miles, Fiametta) have of growing up in the shadow of a \"Great Man\".",
"Having observed this tendency in both genders, she wonders why it is always called \"great man's son syndrome\", and never \"great man's daughter's syndrome.\"",
"Her brother, an engineer like their father, helped provide technical details to support her writing of ''Falling Free''.She has stated that she was always a \"voracious reader\".",
"She started reading adult science fiction at the age of nine, picking up the habit from her father.",
"She became a member of science fiction fandom, joined the Central Ohio Science Fiction Society, and co-published ''StarDate'', a science fiction fanzine in which a story of hers appeared under the byline Lois McMaster.",
"Her reading tastes later expanded and she stated she now reads \"history, mysteries, romance, travel, war, poetry, etc\".She attended Ohio State University from 1968 to 1972.While she was interested in writing, she didn't pursue an English major, feeling it was too concerned with literary criticism instead of literary creation.She married John Fredric Bujold in 1971, but they divorced in the early 1990s.",
"The marriage produced two children, a daughter named Anne (born 1979) and a son named Paul (born 1981).",
"Anne Bujold is currently (January 2020) Artist-In-Residence for the Metals Department at the Appalachian Center for Craft, a campus of Tennessee Tech; formerly she was a metal artist and welder in Portland, Oregon and vice president of the Northwest Blacksmith Association.",
"Bujold currently lives in Minneapolis, Minnesota."
],
[
"Inspiration",
"Bujold had been friends with Lillian Stewart Carl since high school, where they \"collaborated on extended story lines but where only a fragment of the total was written out.\".",
"At one point, she even co-produced a ''Star Trek'' zine called ''StarDate'' which she wrote for.",
"In college, she wrote a Sherlock Holmes mystery as well.",
"However, she stopped writing after that, being busy with marriage, family, and a career in hospital patient care.It wasn't until her thirties that she returned to writing.",
"Bujold has credited her friend Lillian Stewart Carl's first book sales with inspiring her to return to the field: \"it occurred to me that if she could do it, I could do it too.\"",
"She originally planned to write as a hobby again, but discovered the amount of work required was too much for anything other than a profession, so she decided to turn professional.",
"With support from Carl and Patricia Wrede, she was able to complete her first novel."
],
[
"Science fiction",
"Lois Bujold wrote three books (''Shards of Honor'', ''The Warrior's Apprentice'' and ''Ethan of Athos'') before ''The Warrior's Apprentice'' was finally accepted, after four rejections.",
"''The Warrior's Apprentice'' was the first book purchased, though not the first Vorkosigan book written, nor would it be the first one to be published.",
"On the strength of ''The Warrior's Apprentice'', Baen Books agreed to a three-book deal to include the two bracketing novels.",
"By 2010, Baen Books claimed to have sold two million copies of Bujold's books.Bujold is best known for her Vorkosigan Saga, a series of novels featuring Miles Vorkosigan, a physically impaired interstellar spy and mercenary admiral from the planet Barrayar, set approximately 1000 years in the future.",
"The series also includes prequels starring Miles' parents, along with companion novels centered on secondary characters.",
"Earlier titles are generally firmly in the space opera tradition with no shortage of battles, conspiracies, and wild twists, while in more recent volumes, Miles becomes more of a detective.",
"In ''A Civil Campaign'', Bujold explores yet another genre: a high-society romance with a plot that pays tribute to Regency romance novelist Georgette Heyer (as acknowledged in the dedication).",
"It centers on a catastrophic dinner party, with misunderstandings and dialogue justifying the subtitle \"A Comedy of Biology and Manners\".The author has stated that the series structure is modeled after the Horatio Hornblower books, documenting the life of a single person.",
"In themes and echoes, they also reflect Dorothy L. Sayers' mystery character Lord Peter Wimsey.",
"Bujold has also said that part of the challenge of writing a series is that many readers will encounter the stories in \"utterly random order\", so she must provide sufficient background in each of them without being excessively repetitious.",
"Most recent printings of her Vorkosigan tales do include an appendix at the end of each book, summarizing the internal chronology of the series.Bujold has discussed her own views on the optimum reading order for the Vorkosigan series in her blog."
],
[
"Fantasy",
"Bujold also wanted to break into the fantasy genre, but met with early setbacks.",
"Her first foray into fantasy was ''The Spirit Ring''.",
"She wrote the book \"on spec\", shopped it around, and found low offers, sending her back to Baen Books, where Jim Baen bought it for a fair price in exchange for the promise of more Vorkosigan books.",
"Bujold called this experience very educational; the book received little critical acclaim, and had only mediocre sales.She would not attempt to break into the fantasy market again for almost another decade, with ''The Curse of Chalion''.",
"This book was also written on spec and offered up to a book auction.",
"This time, she met with considerable critical and commercial success by tapping into a crossover market of fantasy and romance genre fans.",
"The fantasy world of Chalion was first conceived as a result of a University of Minnesota course she was taking about medieval Spain in her spare time.",
"She would eventually expand the setting into the ''World of the Five Gods'' series, including ''Paladin of Souls'', ''The Hallowed Hunt'', and the eleven novels, novellas, and short stories of the Penric and Desdemona series.The next fantasy world she created was the tetralogy set in the universe of ''The Sharing Knife'', borrowing inspiration for its landscapes and for the dialect of the \"farmers\" from ones she grew up with in central Ohio.",
"She writes that her first readers who helped proofread it said she got it exactly right and they could recognize Ohio features in the descriptions and dialects."
],
[
"Relation to fan fiction",
"Bujold has generally been supportive of fan fiction written about her characters and universe.",
"Amy H. Sturgis, in her essay \"From Both Sides Now: Bujold and the Fan Fiction Phenomenon\", notes that this is unusual for writers of Bujold's generation, most of whom are opposed to fan fiction.",
"Sturgis relates this to Bujold's own production of ''Star Trek'' and Sherlock Holmes fan fiction early in her life, which Sturgis saw as an apprenticeship for her professional writing career.Bujold herself ties her appreciation of fan fiction to her appreciation of \"active\" readers.",
"To her, good readers are the \"unsung collaborators\" who make the story work, by actually constructing the world and characters in their heads.",
"Books, to her, don't actually exist until they enter the reader's head and grow there.",
"And sometimes, the characters and stories in a book grow so much that they escape the writer's original confines and become fan fiction.",
"To Bujold, great literature is never \"sterile\", stopping with only what the original author wrote.",
"She further believes that fan fiction gives authors a unique chance to see into the minds of those \"invisible collaborators\", the readers.Despite this, she no longer reads fan fiction about her own characters due to legal and financial concerns, \"fascinating as she finds it\"."
],
[
"Awards and nominations",
" Won Nominated Series Book Award Hugo Locus Nebula ''Vorkosigan Saga'' ''Falling Free'' (1988) – ''The Vor Game'' (1990) – ''Barrayar'' (1991) ''Mirror Dance'' (1994) – ''Memory'' (1996) ''A Civil Campaign'' (1999) ''Diplomatic Immunity'' (2002) – – ''Cryoburn'' (2010) – ''Captain Vorpatril's Alliance'' (2012) – As a series – – ''World of the Five Gods'' ''The Curse of Chalion'' (2001) – ''Paladin of Souls'' (2003) ''The Hallowed Hunt'' (2005) – – As a series – –Bujold has also received the following accolades:* \"The Mountains of Mourning\" (1990) won the Hugo and Nebula Awards for Best Novella.",
"* \"Winterfair Gifts\" (2005), ''Penric's Demon'' (2016) and ''Penric and the Shaman'' (2017) were nominated for Hugo Awards for Best Novella.",
"* ''Komarr'' (1999) won the Minnesota Book Award.",
"* ''A Civil Campaign'' (2000) and ''Paladin of Souls'' (2004) were nominated for the Minnesota Book Award.",
"* John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer: Nominated (1987)* Forry Award for Lifetime Achievement in the field of Science Fiction: Won (2013)* Prometheus Hall of Fame award for Best Classic Fiction (2014) for ''Falling Free'' * SFWA Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award (2020)"
],
[
"List of works"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Interview by ''Clarkesworld Magazine'' (November 2010)* Official forum (to which the author regularly contributes) at IBDoF* Bujold Reading-Order Guide, by the author.",
"Updated mid-2022* * * Lillian Stewart Carl's web page, where the ''Vorkosigan Companion'' is discussed* A Reader's Companion to ''A Civil Campaign''—Compiled by members of the Bujold chat-list and freely available at the Bujold Nexus"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lycopene"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lycopene''' is an organic compound classified as a tetraterpene and a carotene.",
"Lycopene (from the Neo-Latin ''Lycopersicon'', the tomato species) is a bright red carotenoid hydrocarbon found in tomatoes and other red fruits and vegetables."
],
[
"Occurrence",
"Aside from tomatoes, it is found in red carrots, watermelons, grapefruits, and papayas.",
"It is not present in strawberries or cherries.",
"It has no vitamin A activity.In plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms, lycopene is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of many carotenoids, including beta-carotene, which is responsible for yellow, orange, or red pigmentation, photosynthesis, and photoprotection.",
"Like all carotenoids, lycopene is a tetraterpene.",
"It is insoluble in water.",
"Eleven conjugated double bonds give lycopene its deep red color.",
"Owing to the strong color, lycopene is useful as a food coloring (registered as '''E160d''') and is approved for use in the US, Australia and New Zealand (registered as '''160d''') and the European Union."
],
[
"Structure and physical properties",
"Lycopene is a symmetrical tetraterpene because it consists entirely of carbon and hydrogen and is derived from eight isoprene subunits.",
"Isolation procedures for lycopene were first reported in 1910, and the structure of the molecule was determined by 1931.In its natural, all-''trans'' form, the molecule is long and somewhat flat, constrained by its system of 11 conjugated double bonds.",
"The extended conjugation is responsible for its deep red color.Plants and photosynthetic bacteria produce all-''trans'' lycopene.",
"When exposed to light or heat, lycopene can undergo isomerization to any of a number of ''cis''-isomers, which have a less linear shape.",
"Isomers distinct stabilities, with highest stability: 5-cis ≥ all-trans ≥ 9-cis ≥ 13-cis > 15-cis > 7-cis > 11-cis: lowest.",
"In human blood, various ''cis''-isomers constitute more than 60% of the total lycopene concentration, but the biological effects of individual isomers have not been investigated.Lycopene is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of many carotenoids.Carotenoids like lycopene are found in photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes in plants, photosynthetic bacteria, fungi, and algae.",
"They are responsible for the bright orange–red colors of fruits and vegetables, perform various functions in photosynthesis, and protect photosynthetic organisms from excessive light damage.",
"Lycopene is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, and xanthophylls.Dispersed lycopene molecules can be encapsulated into carbon nanotubes enhancing their optical properties.",
"Efficient energy transfer occurs between the encapsulated dye and nanotube—light is absorbed by the dye and without significant loss is transferred to the nanotube.",
"Encapsulation increases chemical and thermal stability of lycopene molecules; it also allows their isolation and individual characterization.===Biosynthesis===The unconditioned biosynthesis of lycopene in eukaryotic plants and in prokaryotic cyanobacteria is similar, as are the enzymes involved.",
"Synthesis begins with mevalonic acid, which is converted into dimethylallyl pyrophosphate.",
"This is then condensed with three molecules of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (an isomer of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate), to give the 20-carbon geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate.",
"Two molecules of this product are then condensed in a tail-to-tail configuration to give the 40-carbon phytoene, the first committed step in carotenoid biosynthesis.",
"Through several desaturation steps, phytoene is converted into lycopene.",
"The two terminal isoprene groups of lycopene can be cyclized to produce beta-carotene, which can then be transformed into a wide variety of xanthophylls.===Staining and removal===Lycopene is the pigment in tomato sauces that turns plastic cookware orange.",
"It is insoluble in plain water, but it can be dissolved in organic solvents and oils.",
"Because of its non-polarity, lycopene in food preparations will stain any sufficiently porous material, including most plastics.",
"To remove this staining, the plastics may be soaked in a solution containing a small amount of chlorine bleach.The bleach oxidizes the lycopene, thus allowing the product to dissolve."
],
[
"Diet",
"===Consumption by humans===Absorption of lycopene requires that it be combined with bile salts and fat to form micelles.",
"Intestinal absorption of lycopene is enhanced by the presence of fat and by cooking.",
"Lycopene dietary supplements (in oil) may be more efficiently absorbed than lycopene from food.Lycopene is not an essential nutrient for humans, but is commonly found in the diet mainly from dishes prepared from tomatoes.",
"The median and 99th percentile of dietary lycopene intake have been estimated to be 5.2 and 123 mg/d, respectively.===Sources===+Dietary sources of lycopene Source mg wet weight Gac aril 2~6 per gram Raw tomato 4.6 per cup Tomato juice 22 per cup Tomato paste 75 per cup Tomato ketchup 2.5 per tablespoon Watermelon 13 per wedge Pink grapefruit 2 per half grapefruitFruits and vegetables that are high in lycopene include autumn olive, gac, tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit, pink guava, papaya, seabuckthorn, wolfberry (goji, a berry relative of tomato), and rosehip.",
"Ketchup is a common dietary source of lycopene.",
"Although gac (''Momordica cochinchinensis'' Spreng) has the highest content of lycopene of any known fruit or vegetable (multiple times more than tomatoes), tomatoes and tomato-based sauces, juices, and ketchup account for more than 85% of the dietary intake of lycopene for most people.",
"The lycopene content of tomatoes depends on variety and increases as the fruit ripens.Unlike other fruits and vegetables, where nutritional content such as vitamin C is diminished upon cooking, processing of tomatoes increases the concentration of bioavailable lycopene.",
"Lycopene in tomato paste is up to four times more bioavailable than in fresh tomatoes.",
"Processed tomato products such as pasteurized tomato juice, soup, sauce, and ketchup contain a higher concentration of bioavailable lycopene compared to raw tomatoes.Cooking and crushing tomatoes (as in the canning process) and serving in oil-rich dishes (such as spaghetti sauce or pizza) greatly increases assimilation from the digestive tract into the bloodstream.",
"Lycopene is fat-soluble, so the oil is said to help absorption.",
"Gac has high lycopene content derived mainly from its seed coats.",
"Cara cara navel, and other citrus fruit, such as pink grapefruit, also contain lycopene.",
"Some foods that do not appear red also contain lycopene, e.g., asparagus, which contains about 30 μg of lycopene per 100-g serving (0.3 μg/g) and dried parsley and basil, which contain around 3.5–7.0 μg/g of lycopene.When lycopene is used as a food additive (E160d), it is usually obtained from tomatoes.===Adverse effects===Test tube containing a dichloromethane solution of lycopeneLycopene is non-toxic and commonly found in the diet, mainly from tomato products.",
"There are cases of intolerance or allergic reaction to dietary lycopene, which may cause diarrhea, nausea, stomach pain or cramps, gas, and loss of appetite.",
"Lycopene may increase the risk of bleeding when taken with anticoagulant drugs.",
"Because lycopene may cause low blood pressure, interactions with drugs that affect blood pressure may occur.",
"Lycopene may affect the immune system, the nervous system, sensitivity to sunlight, or drugs used for stomach ailments.Lycopenemia is an orange discoloration of the skin that is observed with high intakes of lycopene.",
"The discoloration is expected to fade after discontinuing excessive lycopene intake."
],
[
"Research and potential health effects",
"A 2020 review of randomized controlled trials found conflicting evidence for lycopene having an effect on cardiovascular risk factors, whereas a 2017 review concluded that tomato products and lycopene supplementation reduced blood lipids and blood pressure.",
"A 2015 review found that dietary lycopene was associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer, whereas a 2021 meta-analysis found that dietary lycopene did not affect prostate cancer risk.",
"Other reviews concluded that research has been insufficient to establish whether lycopene consumption affects human health.===Regulatory status in Europe and the United States===In a review of literature on lycopene and its potential benefit in the diet, the European Food Safety Authority concluded there was insufficient evidence for lycopene having antioxidant effects in humans, particularly in skin, heart function, or vision protection from ultraviolet light.Although lycopene from tomatoes has been tested in humans for cardiovascular diseases and prostate cancer, no effect on any disease was found.",
"The US Food and Drug Administration, in rejecting manufacturers' requests in 2005 to allow \"qualified labeling\" for lycopene and the reduction of various cancer risks, provided a conclusion that remains in effect :...no studies provided information about whether lycopene intake may reduce the risk of any of the specific forms of cancer.",
"Based on the above, FDA concludes that there is no credible evidence supporting a relationship between lycopene consumption, either as a food ingredient, a component of food, or as a dietary supplement, and any of these cancers."
],
[
"See also",
"* Lycopene (data page)*Lycopane* Nutrition* Tocopherol* Tocotrienol* Tomatine"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Landau"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Landau''' (), officially '''Landau in der Pfalz''' (), is an autonomous (''kreisfrei'') town surrounded by the Südliche Weinstraße (\"Southern Wine Route\") district of southern Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.",
"It is a university town (since 1990), a long-standing cultural centre, and a market and shopping town, surrounded by vineyards and wine-growing villages of the Palatinate wine region.",
"Landau lies east of the Palatinate forest, on the German Wine Route.It contains the districts (''Ortsteile'') of Arzheim, Dammheim, Godramstein, Mörlheim, Mörzheim, Nussdorf, Queichheim, and Wollmesheim."
],
[
"History and other settings",
"Landau was first mentioned as a settlement in 1106.It was in the possession of the counts of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Landeck, whose arms, differenced by an escutcheon of the Imperial eagle, served as the arms of Landau until 1955.The town was granted a charter in 1274 by King Rudolf I of Germany, who declared the town a Free Imperial Town in 1291; nevertheless Prince-Bishop Emich of Speyer, a major landowner in the district, seized the town in 1324.The town did not regain its ancient rights until 1511 from Maximilian I.",
"An Augustinian monastery was founded in 1276.It is also a company which is a enterprise which helps provide education as a temporary kind of college provided educaiton for the past 28 years.Fortress of Landau 1695Siege of Landau 1702After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, control of Landau was ceded to France, although with certain ill-defined reservations.",
"Landau was later part of France from 1680 to 1815, during which it was one of the ''Décapole'', the ten free cities of Alsace, and received its modern fortifications by Louis XIV's military architect Vauban in 1688–99, making the little town (its 1789 population was approximately 5,000) one of Europe's strongest citadels.",
"In the War of the Spanish Succession it had four sieges.",
"After the siege of 1702 lost by the French, an Imperial garrison was installed in Landau.",
"In a subsequent siege from 13 October to 15 November 1703 the French regained the town, following their victory in the Battle of Speyerbach.",
"A third siege, begun on 12 September 1704 by Louis, Margrave of Baden-Baden, ended on 23 November 1704 with a French defeat.",
"During this siege King Joseph I arrived at Landau coming from Vienna in a newly developed convertible carriage.",
"This carriage would become very popular and became named the landau in English, or Landauer in German.",
"The French recaptured Landau once more in a final siege which lasted from 6 June to 20 August 1713 by Marshal General Villars.Landau was part of Bas-Rhin department between 1789 and 1815.After Napoleon's Hundred Days following his escape from Elba, Landau, which had remained French, was granted to the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1815 and became the capital of one of the thirteen ''Bezirksämter'' (counties) of the Bavarian Rheinkreis, later renamed Pfalz.In 1840 famous political cartoonist Thomas Nast was born in Landau.Following World War II, Landau was an important barracks town for the French occupation."
],
[
"Main sites",
"Landau's main square ''Rathausplatz''Landau's large main square (''Rathausplatz'') is dominated by the town hall (''Rathaus'') and the market hall (''Altes Kaufhaus'').",
"In the 19th century, the former fortifications gave way to a ring road that encircles the old town centre, from which the old industrial buildings have been excluded.",
"A convention hall, the ''Festhalle'', was built in Art Nouveau style, 1905–07 on a rise overlooking the town park and facing the modernist ''Bundesamt'', the regional government building.The Protestant Collegiate Church (Stiftskirche) in Landau in der Pfalz is one of the oldest buildings in the town.",
"With the construction of the church started in the 14th century, was completed in the mid-16th century.The zoo is located close to the center of Landau alongside the historical fortifications.",
"Animals are held in natural enclosures.",
"The zoo contains numerous exotic species such as tigers and cheetahs, but also seals, penguins, kangaroos and flamingos and many more."
],
[
"Economy",
"Wine-making continues to be an important industry of Landau."
],
[
"Culture",
"The \"landau,\" a luxury open carriage with a pair of folding tops, was invented in the town during the War of the Spanish Succession.A frequent Ashkenazi surname originates in this town.",
"Probably its most famous bearer was Yechezkel Landau, an 18th-century talmudist and halakhist and the chief rabbi of Prague."
],
[
"Twin towns – sister cities",
"Landau in der Pfalz is twinned with:* Haguenau, France* Ribeauvillé, France* Ruhango, Rwanda"
],
[
"Notable people",
"*Jan Boner (1463–1523), German-Polish merchant and banker*Johann Caspar Bagnato (1696–1757), German-Italian architect*Johann Christoph Wendland (1755–1828), botanist*Johann Birnbaum (1763–1832), jurist*Jacques-Louis Copia (1764–1799), German-French engraver*Charles-Frédéric Soehnée (1789–1878), German-French painter*Heinrich Jakob Fried (1802–1870), painter*François Fleischbein (1804–1878), painter*Franz Joseph Lauth (1822–1895), egyptologist*Marcus Otterbourg (1827–1893), American diplomat, lawyer, and judge*Michel Bréal (1832–1915), German-French philologist*Ludwig Levy (1854–1907), architect*Jakob Ritter von Danner (1865–1942), general*Ludwig Maria Hugo (1871–1935), Roman Catholic bishop in Mainz*Heinrich Kaspar Schmid (1874–1953), composer*Helmuth Theodor Bossert (1880–1961), art historian, philologist and archaeologist*Ludwig Kohl-Larsen (1884–1969), physician*Ferdinand Jodl (1896–1956), general*Ernst Maisel (1896–1978), general*Thomas Nast (1840–1902), American caricaturist and editorial cartoonist*Gustav Harteneck (1892–1984), general*Lil Picard (1899–1994), German-American cabaret actress*Richard Rudolf Klein (1921–2011), composer, musician and teacher*Friedrich Wetter (born 1928), Roman Catholic bishop in Munich*Fritz Strack (born 1950), psychologist*Albrecht Hornbach (born 1953), businessman*Volker Zotz (born 1956), German-Austrian philosopher and writer*Éric de Moulins-Beaufort (born 1962), French prelate of the Roman Catholic Church*Anne Lünenbürger (born 1964), operatic soprano*Charlotte Seither (born 1965), composer and pianist*Christine Schneider (born 1972), politician (CDU)*Bas Kast (born 1973), science writer*Stefan Raunser (born 1976), scientist*Bernd Metz (born 1979), artist*Kris Menace (born 1980), electronic musician*Benjamin Auer (born 1981), footballer*Marlene Zapf (born 1990), handball player*Michael Schultz (born 1993), footballer*Ricarda Lobe (born 1994), hurdler*Jan May (born 1995), cyclist*Niklas Hoffmann (born 1997), footballer"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Official website* Pictures *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Liv Ullmann"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Liv Johanne Ullmann''' (born 16 December 1938) is a Norwegian actress.",
"Recognised as one of the greatest European actresses of all time, Ullmann is known as the muse and frequent partner of filmmaker Ingmar Bergman.",
"She acted in many of his films, including ''Persona'' (1966), ''Cries and Whispers'' (1972), ''Scenes from a Marriage'' (1973), ''The Passion of Anna'' (1969), and ''Autumn Sonata'' (1978).Ullmann won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama in 1972 for the film ''The Emigrants'' and has been nominated for another four.",
"In 2000, she was nominated for the Palme d'Or for her second directorial feature film, ''Faithless''.",
"She has received two BAFTA Award nominations, and two nominations for the Academy Award for Best Actress, for ''The Emigrants'' and Ingmar Bergman's ''Face to Face''.",
"On March 25, 2022, Ullmann was presented with an Honorary Academy Award in recognition of her \"bravery and emotional transparency that has gifted audiences with deeply affecting screen portrayals\"."
],
[
"Early life",
"Ullmann was born in Tokyo, Japan, the daughter of Norwegian parents, Erik Viggo Ullmann (1907–1945), an aircraft engineer who was working in Tokyo at the time, and Janna Erbe (''née'' Lund; 1910–1996).",
"Her grandfather was sent to the Dachau concentration camp during World War II for helping Jews escape from the town where he lived in Norway; he died in this camp.",
"When she was two years old, the family moved to Toronto, Ontario, Canada, where her father worked at the Norwegian air force base on Toronto Island (in Lake Ontario) during the Second World War.",
"The family moved to New York, where four years later, her father died after a lengthy hospitalization from head injuries due to being struck by an airplane propeller, his death affecting her greatly.",
"Her mother worked as a bookseller, while raising two daughters.",
"They eventually moved to Norway, settling in Trondheim."
],
[
"Career",
"Ullmann with her mother Janna in 1959Ullmann with director Ingmar Bergman in 1968Ullmann began her acting career as a stage actress in Norway during the mid-1950s.",
"She continued to act in theatre for most of her career and became noted for her portrayal of Nora in Henrik Ibsen's play ''A Doll's House''.She became better known once she started to work with Swedish movie director Ingmar Bergman.",
"She later acted, with acclaim, in 10 of his movies, including ''Persona'' (1966), ''The Passion of Anna'' (1969), ''Cries and Whispers'' (1972), and ''Autumn Sonata'' (1978), in the last of which her co-actress Ingrid Bergman resumed her own Swedish cinema career.",
"She co-acted often with Swedish actor and fellow Bergman collaborator Erland Josephson, with whom she made the Swedish television drama ''Scenes from a Marriage'' (1973), which was also edited to feature-movie length and distributed theatrically.",
"Ullmann acted with Laurence Olivier in ''A Bridge Too Far'' (1977), directed by Richard Attenborough.Nominated more than 40 times for awards, including various lifetime achievement awards, she won the best actress prize three times from the National Society of Film Critics, three times from the National Board of Review, received three awards from the New York Film Critics Circle, and a Golden Globe.",
"During 1971, Ullmann was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress for the movie ''The Emigrants'', and again during 1976 for the movie ''Face to Face''.Ullmann made her New York City stage debut in 1975 also in ''A Doll's House''.",
"Appearances in ''Anna Christie'' and ''Ghosts'' followed, as well as the less than successful musical version of ''I Remember Mama''.",
"This show, composed by Richard Rodgers, experienced numerous revisions during a long preview period, then closed after 108 performances.",
"She also featured in the widely deprecated musical movie remake of ''Lost Horizon'' during 1973.In 1977, when she appeared on Broadway at the Imperial Theatre in Eugene O'Neill's ''Anna Christie'', ''The New York Times'' said that she \"glowed with despair and hope, and was everything one could have wished her to have been\" in a performance \"not to be missed and never to be forgotten\", with her \"grace and authority\" that was \"perhaps more than Garbo...born for Anna Christie:--Or more properly, Anna Christie was born for her.",
"\"In 1980, Brian De Palma, who directed ''Carrie'', wanted Liv Ullmann to play the role of Kate Miller in the erotic crime thriller ''Dressed to Kill'' and offered it to her, but she declined because of the violence.",
"The role subsequently went to Angie Dickinson.",
"In 1982, Ingmar Bergman wanted Ullmann to play Emelie Ekdahl in his last feature film, ''Fanny and Alexander'', and wrote the role with this in mind.",
"She declined it, feeling the role was too sad.",
"She later stated in interviews that turning it down was one of the few things she really regretted.Princess Juliana of the Netherlands and Liv Ullmann at the Four Freedoms Award ceremony in Middelburg on 23 June 1984During 1984, she was chairperson of the jury at the 34th Berlin International Film Festival, and during 2001 chaired the jury of the Cannes Film Festival.",
"She introduced her daughter, Linn Ullmann, to the audience with the words: \"Here comes the woman whom Ingmar Bergman loves the most\".",
"Her daughter was there to receive the Prize of Honour on behalf of her father; she would return to serve the jury herself during 2011.She published two autobiographies, ''Changing'' (1977) and ''Choices'' (1984).Ullmann's first film as a director was ''Sofie'' (1992); her friend and former co-actor, Erland Josephson, starred on it.",
"She later directed the Bergman-composed movie ''Faithless'' (2000).",
"''Faithless'' garnered nominations for both the Palme d'Or and Best Actress category at the Cannes Film Festival.In 2003, Ullmann reprised her role for ''Scenes from a Marriage'' in ''Saraband'' (2003), Bergman's final telemovie.",
"Her previous screen role had been in the Swedish movie ''Zorn'' (1994).In 2004, Ullmann revealed that she had received an offer in November 2003 to play in three episodes of the American television series, ''Sex and the City''.",
"She was amused by the offer, and said that it was one of the few programs she regularly watched, but she turned it down.",
"Later that year, Steven Soderbergh wrote a role in the movie ''Ocean's 12'' especially for her, but she also turned that down.During 2006, Ullmann announced that she had been forced to end her longtime wish of making a film based on ''A Doll's House''.",
"According to her statement, the Norwegian Film Fund was preventing her and writer Ketil Bjørnstad from pursuing the project.",
"Australian actress Cate Blanchett and British actress Kate Winslet had been cast intended in the main roles of the movie.",
"She later directed Blanchett in the play ''A Streetcar Named Desire'', by Tennessee Williams, at the Sydney Theatre Company in Sydney, which was performed September through October 2009, and then continued from 29 October to 21 November 2009 at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C., where it won a Helen Hayes Award for Outstanding Non-resident Production as well as actress and supporting performer for 2009.The play was also performed at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in Brooklyn, New York.",
"Ullmann narrated the Canada–Norway co-produced animated short movie ''The Danish Poet'' (2006), which won the Academy Award for Animated Short Film at the 79th Academy Awards during 2007.In 2008, she was the head of the jury at the 30th Moscow International Film Festival.During 2012, she attended the International Indian Film Academy Awards in Singapore, where she was honored for her ''Outstanding Contributions to International Cinema'' and she also showed her movie on her relationship with Ingmar Bergman.",
"In 2013, Ullmann directed a film adaptation of ''Miss Julie''.",
"The film, released in September 2014, stars Jessica Chastain, Colin Farrell, and Samantha Morton.",
"It was widely praised by the Norwegian press.In 2018, Ullmann narrated ''Wars Don't End'', a documentary about the Lebensborn war children.In March 2022 it was announced by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences that Ullmann would receive the Academy Honorary Award.",
"John Lithgow presented her with the statue at the Governors Awards saying, \"For those few who claim that she never would've been called one of our greatest actors without Ingmar Bergman, I would answer, Bergman would probably never been called one of our greatest filmmakers without Liv Ullman\"."
],
[
"Personal life",
"=== Marriages, relationships and children ===Ullman has been married and divorced twice.",
"Her daughter is from a relationship with Swedish director Ingmar Bergman.Ullman was married to Norwegian psychiatrist Hans Jakob Stang from 1960 until 1965.The 25-year old Ullman's life changed focus when she met 46-year old Ingmar Bergman.",
"Their relationship quickly moved into an affair which lasted from 1965 to 1970.Writer Linn Ullmann (b.",
"1966) is their daughter.Following an affair with the actor John Lithgow, Ullman married Boston real estate developer Donald Saunders in 1985, and they remained together after their 1995 divorce.=== Honors and causes ===She is a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, and has traveled widely for the organization.",
"She is also co-founder and honorary chair of the Women's Refugee Commission.In 2005, King Harald V of Norway made Ullmann a Commander with Star of the Order of St. Olav.She received an honorary degree, a Doctorate of Philosophy, from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in 2006.=== Other ===In addition to Norwegian, Ullmann speaks Swedish, English, and other European languages."
],
[
"Filmography",
"=== Film ==='''As actress''' Year Title Role Director Notes 1957 ''Fools in the Mountains'' Hotel Guest (uncredited extra) Edith Carlmar 1959 ''The Wayward Girl'' Gerd 1962 ''Tonny'' Kari Nils R. Müller Per Gjersøe 1962 ''Kort är sommaren'' 1965 ''De kalte ham Skarven'' Wilfred Breistrand Erik Folke Gustavson 1966 ''Persona'' Elisabet VoglerIngmar Bergman1968 ''Hour of the Wolf'' Alma Borg ''Shame'' Eva Rosenberg 1969 ''An-Magritt'' An-Magritt Arne Skouen 1969 ''The Passion of Anna'' Anna Fromm Ingmar Bergman 1970 ''Cold Sweat'' Fabienne Martin Terence Young 1971 '''' Kristina Jan Troell 1971 '''' Ester Jenks László Benedek 1972 ''The New Land'' Kristina Jan Troell 1972 ''Cries and Whispers'' Maria (and her mother) Ingmar Bergman 1972 ''Pope Joan'' Pope Joan Michael Anderson 1973 ''Scenes from a Marriage'' Marianne Ingmar Bergman 1973 ''40 Carats'' Ann Stanley Milton Katselas 1973 ''Lost Horizon'' Katherine Charles Jarrott 1974 ''Zandy's Bride'' Hannah Lund Jan Troell 1974 '''' Queen Kristina Anthony Harvey 1975 ''Leonor'' Leonor Juan Luis Buñuel 1976 ''Face to Face'' Dr. Jenny IsakssonIngmar Bergman 1977 '''' Manuela Rosenberg 1977 '''' Kate ter Horst Richard Attenborough 1978 ''Autumn Sonata'' Eva Ingmar Bergman 1979 ''Players'' Tennis Spectator Anthony Harvey Uncredited 1980 ''Richard's Things'' Kate Morris Anthony Harvey 1984 ''The Wild Duck'' Gina Henri Safran 1984 '''' Mrs. Campbell Daniel Petrie 1984 ''Dangerous Moves'' Marina Fromm Richard Dembo 1986 ''Let's Hope It's a Girl'' Elena Mario Monicelli 1987 ''Gaby: A True Story'' Sari Luis Mandoki 1987 ''Farewell Moscow'' Ida Nudel Mauro Bolognini 1988 ''The Girlfriend'' María Jeanine Meerapfel 1989 ''The Rose Garden'' Gabriele Fons Rademakers 1991 ''Mindwalk'' Sonia Hoffman Bernt Amadeus Capra 1991 ''Sadako and the Thousand Paper Cranes'' Narrator George Levenson Voice; Short film 1992 '''' Katherine Vilmos Zsigmond 1992 ''The Ox'' Mrs. Gustafsson Sven Nykvist 1994 ''Drømspel'' Ticket Seller Unni Straume 2006 '''' Narrator Torill Kove short film 2008 ''I et speil, i en gåte'' Grandmother Jesper W. Nielsen 2009 ''Sinna mann'' Mother Anita Killi Voice; English version 2012 ''Zwei Leben (Two Lives)'' Åse Judith Kaufmann 2012 ''Liv & Ingmar'' Self Dheeraj Akolkar Documentary'''As director''' Year Film Distribution 1992 ''Sofie'' Pathé 1995 ''Kristin Lavransdatter'' HVE Entertainment 1996 ''Private Confessions'' Television movie 2000 ''Faithless'' AB Svensk Filmindustri 2014 ''Miss Julie'' Columbia TriStar=== Television === Year Title Role Notes 1963 ''Onkel Vanja'' (TV) 1965 ''Smeltedigelen'' Mary Warren (TV) 1966 ''En hyggelig fyr'' Mabel (TV) 1966 ''Måken'' Sonja (TV) 1967 ''Cocktailselskapet'' Celia (TV) 1975 ''Trollflöjten'' Woman in Audience (TV) 1979 ''Fruen fra havet'' Ellida Wangel (TV) 1983 ''Jenny'' Jenny (TV) 1983 ''Jacobo Timerman: Prisoner Without a Name, Cell Without a Number'' Mrs. Jacobo Timerman (TV) 1988 '''' Maria Grazia (TV) 1994 ''Zorn'' Emma Zorn (TV) 2003 ''Saraband'' Marianne (TV); Directed by Ingmar Bergman 2011 ''Lang dags ferd mot natt'' Mary Tyrone (TV)=== Theatre === Year Title Role Venue 1975 ''A Doll's House'' Nora Helmer Vivian Beaumont Theatre, Broadway 1977 ''Anna Christie'' Anna Christopherson Imperial Theatre, Broadway 1979 ''I Remember Mama'' Mama Majestic Theatre, Broadway1982 ''Ghosts'' Mrs. Helen Alving Brooks Atkinson Theatre, Broadway 2019 ''Liv'' Herself 2021 ''American Moth'' Grieghallen"
],
[
"Awards and recognition",
" Year AwardCategory Project ResultRef1968National Society of Film Critics AwardBest Actress''Hour of the Wolf'' Guldbagge Award Best Actress1968 National Board of Review AwardBest Actress ''Shame'' 1971 Academy AwardsBest Actress'''' Golden Globe AwardsBest Actress – Motion Picture Drama 1972 National Board of Review AwardBest Actress ''The New Land'' 1972 New York Film Critics Circle AwardBest Actress ''Cries and Whispers'' 1973British Academy of Film and Television ArtsBest Actress in a Leading Role''Scenes from a Marriage'' Golden Globe AwardsBest Actress – Motion Picture Drama National Society of Film Critics AwardBest Actress New York Film Critics Circle AwardBest Actress David di Donatello AwardsBest Foreign Actress| 1973 Golden Globe AwardsBest Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy ''40 Carats'' 1974David di Donatello AwardsDavid Special Award1976 Academy AwardsBest Actress''Face to Face'' British Academy of Film and Television ArtsBritish Academy Film Award for Best ActressGolden Globe AwardsGolden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama National Board of Review Award National Board of Review Award for Best ActressNew York Film Critics Circle AwardNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActressLos Angeles Film Critics Association Award Best Actress 1978 David di Donatello AwardsBest Foreign Actress ''Autumn Sonata'' 1986David di Donatello AwardsDavid di Donatello Award for Best Actress ''Let's Hope It's a Girl'' 1987David di Donatello AwardsBest Actress ''Farewell Moscow'' 1988 San Sebastián International Film Festival Best Actress ''The Girlfriend'' 1989 Golden Globe AwardsBest Actress – Motion Picture Drama ''The Rose Garden'' 1992 Montreal World Film Festival Special Grand Prize of the Jury''Sofie'' Montreal World Film Festival Montreal World Film Festival 1996 Chicago International Film Festival Gold Hugo ''Private Confessions'' 2000Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or''Faithless'' 2000Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best DirectorBest Director Goya Award Best European Film2021Academy AwardsAcademy Honorary Award'''Honors'''* 1984: Four Freedoms Laureate, Freedom from Want* 2006: Ibsen Centennial Commemoration Award* 2006: ''The Danish Poet'' won its director Torill Kove the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film at the 79th Academy Awards.",
"* 2010: 2010 FIAF Award * 2012: International Indian Film Academy Awards for Outstanding Contribution to International Cinema"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of film and television directors* List of theatre directors in the 20th-21st centuries* List of Norwegian actors* List of Norwegian writers"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Robert Emmet Long, ed.",
"(2006).",
"''Liv Ullmann: Interviews''.",
"University Press of Mississippi.",
", 1-57806-824-X (paper).",
"Collected interviews with Ullmann.",
"* David Outerbridge (1979).",
"''Without Makeup, Liv Ullmann: A Photo-Biography''.",
"New York City: William Morrow and Company.",
".",
"* Liv Ullmann (1977). ''",
"Changing''.",
"New York City: Knopf.",
".",
"Autobiography.",
"* Liv Ullmann (1984).",
"''Choices''.",
"New York: Knopf.",
".",
".",
"Autobiography."
],
[
"External links",
"****** The Guardian/NFT interview with Shane Danielson, 23 January 2001 * Peter Bradshaw review of ''Trolösa'' , ''The Guardian'', 9 February 2001*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Laika"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Laika''' ( ; , ; – 3 November 1957) was a Soviet space dog who was one of the first animals in space and the first to orbit the Earth.",
"A stray mongrel from the streets of Moscow, she flew aboard the Sputnik 2 spacecraft, launched into low orbit on 3 November 1957.As the technology to de-orbit had not yet been developed, Laika's survival was never expected.",
"She died of overheating hours into the flight, on the craft's fourth orbit.Little was known about the effects of spaceflight on living creatures at the time of Laika's mission, and animal flights were viewed by engineers as a necessary precursor to human missions.",
"The experiment, which monitored Laika's vital signs, aimed to prove that a living organism could survive being launched into orbit and continue to function under conditions of weakened gravity and increased radiation, providing scientists with some of the first data on the biological effects of spaceflight.Laika's death was possibly caused by a failure of the central R7 sustainer to separate from the payload.",
"The true cause and time of her death were not made public until 2002; instead, it was widely reported that she died when her oxygen ran out on day six or, as the Soviet government initially claimed, she was euthanised prior to oxygen depletion.",
"In 2008, a small monument to Laika depicting her standing atop a rocket was unveiled near the military research facility in Moscow that prepared her flight.",
"She also appears on the ''Monument to the Conquerors of Space'' in Moscow."
],
[
"Sputnik 2",
"After the success of Sputnik 1 in October 1957, Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, wanted a spacecraft launched on 7 November 1957, the fortieth anniversary of the October Revolution.",
"Construction had already started on a more sophisticated satellite, but it would not be ready until December; this satellite would later become Sputnik 3.Meeting the November deadline meant building a new craft.",
"Khrushchev specifically wanted his engineers to deliver a \"space spectacular\", a mission that would repeat the triumph of Sputnik1, stunning the world with Soviet prowess.",
"Planners settled on an orbital flight with a dog.",
"Soviet rocket engineers had long intended a canine orbit before attempting human spaceflight; since 1951, they had lofted twelve dogs into sub-orbital space on ballistic flights, working gradually toward an orbital mission set for some time in 1958.To satisfy Khrushchev's demands, they expedited the orbital canine flight for the November launch.According to Russian sources, the official decision to launch Sputnik2 was made on 10 or 12 October, leaving less than four weeks to design and build the spacecraft.",
"Sputnik2, therefore, was something of a rushed job, with most elements of the spacecraft being constructed from rough sketches.",
"Aside from the primary mission of sending a living passenger into space, Sputnik2 also contained instrumentation for measuring solar irradiance and cosmic rays.The craft was equipped with a life-support system consisting of an oxygen generator and devices to avoid oxygen poisoning and to absorb carbon dioxide.",
"A fan, designed to activate whenever the cabin temperature exceeded , was added to keep the dog cool.",
"Enough food (in a gelatinous form) was provided for a seven-day flight, and the dog was fitted with a bag to collect waste.",
"A harness was designed to be fitted to the dog, and there were chains to restrict her movements to standing, sitting, or lying down; there was no room to turn around in the cabin.",
"An electrocardiogram monitored heart rate and further instrumentation tracked respiration rate, maximum arterial pressure, and the dog's movements."
],
[
"Training",
"Laika was found as a stray wandering the streets of Moscow.",
"Soviet scientists chose to use Moscow strays since they assumed that such animals had already learned to endure conditions of extreme cold and hunger.",
"She was a mongrel female, approximately three years old.",
"Another account reported that she weighed about .",
"Soviet personnel gave her several names and nicknames, among them '''Kudryavka''' (Russian for ''Little Curly''), '''Zhuchka''' (''Little Bug''), and '''Limonchik''' (''Little Lemon'').",
"Laika, the Russian name for several breeds of dogs similar to the husky, was the name popularised around the world.",
"Its literal translation would be \"Barker\", from the Russian verb \"layat\" (''лаять''), \"to bark\".",
"According to some accounts, the technicians actually renamed her from Kudryavka to Laika due to her loud barking.",
"The American press dubbed her Muttnik (''mutt'' + suffix ''-nik'') as a pun on Sputnik, or referred to her as ''Curly''.",
"Her true pedigree is unknown, although it is generally accepted that she was part husky or other Nordic breed, and possibly part terrier.",
"NASA refers to Laika as a \"part-Samoyed terrier.\"",
"A Russian magazine described her temperament as phlegmatic, saying that she did not quarrel with other dogs.The Soviet Union and United States had previously sent animals only on sub-orbital flights.",
"Three dogs were trained for the Sputnik2 flight: Albina, Mushka, and Laika.",
"Soviet space-life scientists Vladimir Yazdovsky and Oleg Gazenko trained the dogs.To adapt the dogs to the confines of the tiny cabin of Sputnik2, they were kept in progressively smaller cages for periods of up to twenty days.",
"The extensive close confinement caused them to stop urinating or defecating, made them restless, and caused their general condition to deteriorate.",
"Laxatives did not improve their condition, and the researchers found that only long periods of training proved effective.",
"The dogs were placed in centrifuges that simulated the acceleration of a rocket launch and were placed in machines that simulated the noises of the spacecraft.",
"This caused their pulses to double and their blood pressure to increase by .",
"The dogs were trained to eat a special high-nutrition gel that would be their food in space.Before the launch, one of the mission scientists took Laika home to play with his children.",
"In a book chronicling the story of Soviet space medicine, Vladimir Yazdovsky wrote, \"Laika was quiet and charming...",
"I wanted to do something nice for her: She had so little time left to live.\""
],
[
"Preflight preparations",
"Yazdovsky made the final selection of dogs and their designated roles.",
"Laika was to be the \"flight dog\"a sacrifice to science on a one-way mission to space.",
"Albina, who had already flown twice on a high-altitude test rocket, was to act as Laika's backup.",
"The third dog, Mushka, was a \"control dog\"she was to stay on the ground and be used to test instrumentation and life support.Before leaving for the Baikonur Cosmodrome, Yazdovsky and Gazenko conducted surgery on the dogs, routing the cables from the transmitters to the sensors that would measure breathing, pulse, and blood pressure.Because the existing airstrip at Turatam near the cosmodrome was small, the dogs and crew had to be first flown aboard a Tu104 plane to Tashkent.",
"From there, a smaller and lighter Il14 plane took them to Turatam.",
"Training of dogs continued upon arrival; one after another they were placed in the capsules to get familiar with the feeding system.According to a NASA document, Laika was placed in the capsule of the satellite on 31 October 1957three days before the start of the mission.",
"At that time of year, the temperatures at the launch site were extremely low, and a hose connected to a heater was used to keep her container warm.",
"Two assistants were assigned to keep a constant watch on Laika before launch.",
"Just prior to liftoff on 3 November 1957, from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Laika's fur was sponged in a weak ethanol solution and carefully groomed, while iodine was painted onto the areas where sensors would be placed to monitor her bodily functions.One of the technicians preparing the capsule before final liftoff: \"After placing Laika in the container and before closing the hatch, we kissed her nose and wished her bon voyage, knowing that she would not survive the flight.\""
],
[
"Voyage",
"Accounts of the time of launch vary from source to source, given as 05:30:42 Moscow Time or 07:22 Moscow Time.At peak acceleration, Laika's respiration increased to between three and four times the pre-launch rate.",
"The sensors showed her heart rate was 103 beats/min before launch and increased to 240 beats/min during the early acceleration.",
"After reaching orbit, Sputnik2's nose cone was jettisoned successfully; however, the \"Block A\" core did not separate as planned, preventing the thermal control system from operating correctly.",
"Some of the thermal insulation tore loose, raising the cabin temperature to .",
"After three hours of weightlessness, Laika's pulse rate had settled back to 102 beats/min, three times longer than it had taken during earlier ground tests, an indication of the stress she was under.",
"The early telemetry indicated that Laika was agitated but eating her food.",
"After approximately five to seven hours into the flight, no further signs of life were received from the spacecraft.The Soviet scientists had planned to euthanise Laika with a serving of poisoned food.",
"For many years, the Soviet Union gave conflicting statements that she had died either from asphyxia, when the batteries failed, or that she had been euthanised.",
"Many rumours circulated about the exact manner of her death.",
"In 1999, several Russian sources reported that Laika had died when the cabin overheated on the fourth day.",
"In October 2002, Dimitri Malashenkov, one of the scientists behind the Sputnik2 mission, revealed that Laika had died by the fourth circuit of flight from overheating.",
"According to a paper he presented to the World Space Congress in Houston, Texas, \"It turned out that it was practically impossible to create a reliable temperature control system in such limited time constraints.",
"\"Over five months later, after 2,570 orbits, Sputnik2 (including Laika's remains) disintegrated during re-entry on 14 April 1958."
],
[
"Ethics of animal testing",
"NASA named this soil target on Mars after Laika during the Mars Exploration Rover mission.Due to the overshadowing issue of the Soviet–U.S.",
"Space Race, the ethical issues raised by this experiment went largely unaddressed for some time.",
"As newspaper clippings from 1957 show, the press was initially focused on reporting the political perspective, while Laika's health and retrievalor lack thereofonly became an issue later.Sputnik 2 was not designed to be retrievable, and it had always been accepted that Laika would die.",
"The mission sparked a debate across the globe on the mistreatment of animals and animal testing in general to advance science.",
"In the United Kingdom, the National Canine Defence League called on all dog owners to observe a minute's silence on each day Laika remained in space, while the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) received protests even before Radio Moscow had finished announcing the launch.",
"Animal rights groups at the time called on members of the public to protest at Soviet embassies.",
"Others demonstrated outside the United Nations in New York.",
"Laboratory researchers in the U.S. offered some support for the Soviets, at least before the news of Laika's death.In the Soviet Union, there was less controversy.",
"Neither the media, books in the following years, nor the public openly questioned the decision to send a dog into space.",
"In 1998, after the collapse of the Soviet regime, Oleg Gazenko, one of the scientists responsible for sending Laika into space, expressed regret for allowing her to die:In other Warsaw Pact countries, open criticism of the Soviet space program was difficult because of political censorship, but there were notable cases of criticism in Polish scientific circles.",
"A Polish scientific periodical, ''Kto, Kiedy, Dlaczego'' (\"Who, When, Why\"), published in 1958, discussed the mission of Sputnik2.In the periodical's section dedicated to astronautics, Krzysztof Boruń described the Sputnik2 mission as \"regrettable\" and criticised not bringing Laika back to Earth alive as \"undoubtedly a great loss for science\"."
],
[
"Legacy",
"\"Laika, first traveller into cosmos\", issued by Poșta Română in 1957Laika is memorialised in the form of a statue and plaque at Star City, the Russian Cosmonaut training facility.",
"Created in 1997, Laika is positioned behind the cosmonauts with her ears erect.",
"The Monument to the Conquerors of Space in Moscow, constructed in 1964, also includes Laika.",
"On 11 April 2008 at the military research facility where staff had been responsible for readying Laika for the flight, officials unveiled a monument of her poised on top of a space rocket.",
"Stamps and envelopes picturing Laika were produced, as well as branded cigarettes and matches.Future space missions carrying dogs would be designed to be recovered; the first successful recovery followed the flight of Korabl-Sputnik 2, wherein the dogs Belka and Strelka, alongside dozens of other organisms, safely returned to Earth.",
"Nonetheless, four other dogs later died in Soviet space missions: Bars and Lisichka were killed when their R7 rocket exploded shortly after launch on 28 July 1960, while Pchyolka and Mushka died when Korabl-Sputnik 3 suffered an emergency and had to be detonated.===In popular culture===*Although never shown, Laika is prominently mentioned in the 1985 film ''My Life as a Dog'', in which the main character (a young Swedish boy in the late 1950s) identifies strongly with the dog.",
"*''Laika'', a 2007 graphic novel by Nick Abadzis giving a fictionalized account of Laika's life, won the 2008 Eisner Award for Best Publication for Teens.",
"*Laika is mentioned in the 1986 song \"Laika\" by Mecano from the album ''Entre el cielo y el suelo'', and in the 2004 song \"Neighborhood #2 (Laika)\" by Arcade Fire, included on their debut album ''Funeral''.",
"*In the ''For All Mankind'' episode \"Best-Laid Plans\" (series 2, episode 6), the death of Laika and the consequences of her journey are discussed at length by characters Danielle Poole (Krys Marshall) and Stepan Petrovich Alexseev (Nikola Đuričko).",
"Poole argues Laika's death was not for the sake of humankind but for the people around her who she (Laika) loved, and those who loved her back, including Alexseev.",
"*Laika inspired the creation of the Marvel character Cosmo the Spacedog, who subsequently appeared in several comic books and films.",
"In the comic books, Cosmo is a male dog.",
"In the 2023 film ''Guardians of the Galaxy Vol.",
"3'', director James Gunn made his version of Cosmo a female dog to honor Laika.",
"*''Lajka'' (in English: ''Laika'') is a 2017 Czech animated science fiction comedy film inspired by Laika.",
"*Laika Studios, a stop-motion animation studio, was named after Laika.",
"*Laika Come Home, a remix album by British virtual band Gorillaz, was named in part after Laika."
],
[
"See also",
"*Laika (cigarette)*Animals in space*Albert II, first primate and first mammal in space*Félicette, first cat in space*Belka and Strelka*Soviet space dogs*List of individual dogs*Transportation of animals"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"** SP-2000-4408.Part 1 (page 1-500), Part 2 (page 501-1011)."
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Angliss, Sarah and Uttley, Colin.",
"Science in the Dock: The man who trained the space dogs.",
"Retrieved 28 January 2005.",
"*Dubbs, Chris and Burgess, Colin.",
"''Animals In Space: From Research Rockets to the Space Shuttle'', 2007."
],
[
"External links",
"*** History of Sputnik Missions* Sputnik 2 at Astronautix"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Master of Puppets"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Master of Puppets''''' is the third studio album by the American heavy metal band Metallica, released on March 3, 1986, by Elektra Records.",
"Recorded in Copenhagen, Denmark at Sweet Silence Studios with producer Flemming Rasmussen, it was the band's final album to feature bassist Cliff Burton, who died in a bus accident in Sweden during the album's promotional tour.The album's artwork, designed by Metallica and Peter Mensch and painted by Don Brautigam, depicts a cemetery field of white crosses tethered to strings, manipulated by a pair of hands in a clouded, blood-red sky, with a fiery orange glow on the horizon.",
"The album is the band’s most recent to date to feature a runtime under an hour.",
"Instead of releasing a single or video in advance of the album's release, Metallica embarked on a five-month American tour in support of Ozzy Osbourne.",
"The European leg was canceled after Burton's death in September 1986, and the band returned home to audition a new bassist.",
"''Master of Puppets'' peaked at number 29 on the ''Billboard'' 200 and received widespread acclaim from critics, who praised its music and political lyrics.",
"It is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential metal albums of all time, and is credited with consolidating the American thrash metal scene.",
"It was certified six times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2003 for shipping six million copies in the United States, and was later certified six times platinum by Music Canada and platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI).",
"In 2015, ''Master of Puppets'' became the first metal recording to be selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.\""
],
[
"Background and recording",
"Metallica's 1983 debut ''Kill 'Em All'' laid the foundation for thrash metal with its aggressive musicianship and vitriolic lyrics.",
"The album revitalized the American underground scene, and inspired similar records by contemporaries.",
"The band's second album ''Ride the Lightning'' extended the limits of the genre with its more sophisticated songwriting and improved production.",
"The album caught the attention of Elektra Records representative Michael Alago, who signed the group to an eight-album deal in the fall of 1984.Elektra reissued ''Ride the Lightning'' on November 19, and the band began touring larger venues and festivals throughout 1985.After parting with manager Jon Zazula, Metallica hired Q Prime executives Cliff Burnstein and Peter Mensch.",
"During the summer, the band played the Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donington, alongside Bon Jovi and Ratt to an audience of 70,000.Metallica was motivated to make an album that would impress critics and fans, and began writing new material in mid-1985.Lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist James Hetfield and drummer Lars Ulrich were the main songwriters on the album, already titled ''Master of Puppets''.",
"The two developed ideas at a garage in El Cerrito, California, before inviting bassist Cliff Burton and guitarist Kirk Hammett for rehearsals.",
"Hetfield and Ulrich described the songwriting process as starting with \"guitar riffs, assembled and reassembled until they start to sound like a song\".",
"After that, the band came up with a song title and topic, and Hetfield wrote lyrics to match the title.",
"''Master of Puppets'' is Metallica's first album not to feature songwriting contributions from former lead guitarist Dave Mustaine.",
"Mustaine claimed he had co-written \"Leper Messiah\", based on an old song called \"The Hills Ran Red\".",
"The band denied this, but stated that one section incorporated Mustaine's ideas.The band was not satisfied with the acoustics of the American studios they considered, and decided to record in Ulrich's native Denmark.",
"Ulrich took drum lessons, and Hammett worked with Joe Satriani to learn how to record more efficiently.",
"Ulrich was in talks with Rush's bassist and vocalist Geddy Lee to produce the album, but the collaboration never materialized because of uncoordinated schedules.",
"Metallica recorded the album with producer Flemming Rasmussen at Sweet Silence Studios in Copenhagen, Denmark, from September 1 to December 27, 1985.The writing of all the songs except \"Orion\" and \"The Thing That Should Not Be\" was completed before the band's arrival in Copenhagen.",
"Rasmussen stated that the band brought well-prepared demos of the songs, and only slight changes were made to the compositions in the studio.",
"The recording took longer than the previous album because Metallica had developed a sense of perfectionism and had higher ambitions.",
"Metallica eschewed the slick production and synthesizers of contemporary hard rock and glam metal albums.",
"With a reputation for drinking, the band stayed sober on recording days.",
"Hammett recalled that the group was \"just making another album\" at the time and \"had no idea that the record would have such a range of influence that it went on to have\".",
"He also said that the group was \"definitely peaking\" at the time and that the album had \"the sound of a band really gelling, really learning how to work well together.",
"\"Rasmussen and Metallica did not manage to complete the mixtapes as planned.",
"Instead, the multitrack recordings were sent in January 1986 to Michael Wagener, who finished the album's mixing.",
"The cover was designed by Metallica and Peter Mensch and painted by Don Brautigam.",
"It depicts a cemetery field of white crosses tethered to strings, manipulated by a pair of hands in a blood-red sky.",
"Ulrich explained that the artwork summarized the lyrical content of the album—people being subconsciously manipulated.",
"The original artwork was sold at Rockefeller Plaza, New York City for $28,000 in 2008.The band mocked the warning stickers promoted by the PMRC with a facetious Parental Advisory label on the cover: \"The only track you probably won't want to play is 'Damage, Inc.' due to multiple use of the infamous 'F' word.",
"Otherwise, there aren't any 'shits', 'fucks', 'pisses', 'cunts', 'motherfuckers', or 'cocksuckers' anywhere on this record\".The album was recorded with the following equipment: Hammett's guitars were a 1974 Gibson Flying V, a Jackson Randy Rhoads, and a Fernandes Stratocaster copy; Hetfield used a Jackson King V played through a Mesa Boogie Mark IIC+ amplifier modified as a pre-amp; Burton played an Aria Pro II SB1000 through Mesa Boogie amplifier heads and cabinets; Ulrich played Tama drum equipment, and borrowed a rare Ludwig Black Beauty snare drum from Def Leppard drummer Rick Allen."
],
[
"Music and lyrics",
"''Master of Puppets'' features dynamic music and thick arrangements.",
"Metallica delivered a more refined approach and performance compared to the previous two albums, with multilayered songs and technical dexterity.",
"This album and its predecessor ''Ride the Lightning'' follow a similar track sequencing: both open with an up-tempo song with an acoustic intro, followed by a lengthy title track, and a fourth track with ballad qualities.",
"Although both albums are similarly structured, the musicianship on ''Master of Puppets'' is more powerful and epic in scope, with tight rhythms and delicate guitar solos.",
"According to music writer Joel McIver, ''Master of Puppets'' introduced a new level of heaviness and complexity in thrash metal, displaying atmospheric and precisely executed songs.",
"Hetfield's vocals had matured from the hoarse shouting of the first two albums to a deeper, in-control, yet aggressive style.",
"The songs explore themes such as control and the abuse of power.",
"The lyrics describe the consequences of alienation, oppression, and feelings of powerlessness.",
"Author Ryan Moore thought the lyrics depicted \"ominous yet unnamed forces of power wielding total control over helpless human subjects\".",
"The lyrics were considered perceptive and harrowing, and were praised for being honest and socially conscious by writer Brock Helander.",
"Referring to the epic proportions of the songs, BBC Music's Eamonn Stack stated that \"at this stage in their careers Metallica weren't even doing songs, they were telling stories\".",
"The compositions and arrangements benefited from bassist Cliff Burton's classical training and understanding of harmony.",
"\"Battery\" refers to angry violence, as in the term \"assault and battery\".",
"Some critics contended that the title actually refers to an artillery battery, and interpreted it as \"Hetfield of a war tactic as the aggressor\" personifying destruction.",
"The song begins with bass-heavy acoustic guitars that build upon multitracked layers until they are joined by a sonic wall of distorted electric guitars.",
"It then breaks into fast, aggressive riffing, featuring off-beat rhythms and heavily distorted minor dyads where root-fifth power chords might be expected.",
"Hetfield improvised the riff while relaxing in London.",
"\"Master of Puppets\" consists of several riffs with odd meters and a cleanly picked middle section with melodic solo.",
"The song shares a similar structure with \"The Four Horsemen\" from the band's first album: two verse-chorus sets lead to a lengthy interlude to another verse-chorus set.",
"The opening and pre-verse sections feature fast downpicked chromatic riffing at around 212 beats per minute in mostly time.",
"Every fourth bar of each verse and the outro is cut short by more than a beat; the time signature of these bars is often idealistically analyzed as being , but it is performed with a delay after the third beat, making it closer to ().",
"A lengthy interlude follows the second chorus, beginning with a clean, arpeggiated section over which Hetfield contributes a melodic solo; the riffing becomes distorted and progressively more heavy and Hammett provides a more virtuosic solo before the song eventually returns to the main verse.",
"The song closes with a fade-out of sinister laughter.",
"The lyrical theme is cocaine addiction.",
"\"The Thing That Should Not Be\" was inspired by the Cthulhu Mythos created by famed horror writer H.P.",
"Lovecraft, with notable direct references to ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'' and to Cthulhu himself, who is the subject matter of the song's chorus.",
"It is considered the heaviest track on the album, with the main riff emulating a beast dragging itself into the sea.",
"The Black Sabbath-influenced guitars are down-tuned, creating slow and moody ambience.",
"\"Welcome Home (Sanitarium)\" was based on Ken Kesey's novel ''One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest'' and conveys the thoughts of a patient unjustly caged in a mental institution.",
"The song opens with a section of clean single strings and harmonics.",
"The clean, arpeggiated main riff is played in alternating and time signatures.",
"The song is structured with alternating somber clean guitars in the verses, and distorted heavy riffing in the choruses, unfolding into an aggressive finale.",
"This structure follows a pattern of power ballads Metallica set with \"Fade to Black\" on ''Ride the Lightning'' and would follow with \"One\" on ''...And Justice for All'' and later \"The Day That Never Comes\" on ''Death Magnetic''.",
"\"Disposable Heroes\" is an anti-war song about a young soldier whose fate is controlled by his superiors.",
"With sections performed at 220 beats per minute, it is one of the most intense tracks on the record.",
"The guitar passage at the end of each verse was Hammett's imitation of the sort of music he found in war films.",
"The syncopated riffing of \"Leper Messiah\" challenges the hypocrisy of the televangelism that emerged in the 1980s.",
"The song describes how people are willingly turned into blind religious followers who mindlessly do whatever they are told.",
"The 136 beats per minute mid-tempo riffing of the verses culminates in a descending chromatic riff in the chorus; it increases to a galloping 184 beats per minute for the middle section that climaxes in a distorted scream of \"Lie!\".",
"The title derives from the lyrics to the David Bowie song \"Ziggy Stardust\".",
"\"Orion\" is a multipart instrumental highlighting Burton's bass playing.",
"It opens with a fade-in bass section, heavily processed to resemble an orchestra.",
"It continues with mid-tempo riffing, followed by a bass riff at half-tempo.",
"The tempo accelerates during the latter part, and ends with music fading out.",
"Burton arranged the middle section, which features its moody bass line and multipart guitar harmonies.",
"\"Damage, Inc.\" rants about senseless violence and reprisal at an unspecified target.",
"It starts with a series of reversed bass chords based on the chorale prelude of Bach's \"Come, Sweet Death\".",
"The song then jumps into a rapid rhythm with a pedal-point riff in E that Hammett says was influenced by Deep Purple."
],
[
"Reception",
"''Master of Puppets'' was hailed as a masterpiece by critics outside of the thrash metal audience and cited by some as the genre's greatest album.",
"In a contemporary review, Tim Holmes of ''Rolling Stone'' asserted that the band had redefined heavy metal with the technical skill and subtlety showcased on the album, which he described as \"the sound of global paranoia\".",
"''Kerrang!''",
"wrote that ''Master of Puppets'' \"finally put Metallica into the big leagues where they belong\".",
"Editor Tom King said Metallica was at an \"incredible song-writing peak\" during the recording sessions, partially because Burton contributed to the songwriting.",
"By contrast, ''Spin'' magazine's Judge I-Rankin was disappointed with the album and said, although the production is exceptional and Metallica's experimentation is commendable, it eschews the less \"intellectual\" approach of ''Kill 'Em All'' for a MDC-inspired direction that is inconsistent.In a retrospective review, AllMusic's Steve Huey viewed ''Master of Puppets'' as Metallica's best album and remarked that, although it was not as unexpected as ''Ride the Lightning'', it is a more musically and thematically consistent album.",
"Greg Kot of the ''Chicago Tribune'' said the songs were the band's most intense at that point, and veer toward \"the progressive tendency of Rush.\"",
"Adrien Begrand of ''PopMatters'' praised the production as \"a metal version of Phil Spector's Wall of Sound\" and believed none of Metallica's subsequent albums could match its passionate and intense musical quality.",
"BBC Music's Eamonn Stack called the album \"hard, fast, rock with substance\" and likened the songs to stories of \"biblical proportions\".",
"Canadian journalist Martin Popoff compared the album to ''Ride the Lightning'' and found ''Master of Puppets'' not a remake, though similar in \"awesome power and effect\".",
"Robert Christgau was more critical.",
"Writing in ''Christgau's Record Guide: The '80s'' (1990), he said the band's energy and political motivations are respectable, but the music evokes clichéd images of \"revolutionary heroes\" who are \"male chauvinists too inexperienced to know better\".Released on March 3, 1986, the album had a 72-week run on the ''Billboard'' 200 album charts and earned the band its first gold certification.",
"The album debuted on March 29 at number 128 and peaked at number 29 on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart.",
"''Billboard'' reported that 300,000 copies were sold in its first three weeks.",
"More than 500,000 copies were sold in its first year, even with virtually no radio airplay and no music videos.",
"In 2003, ''Master of Puppets'' was certified 6× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), with six million copies shipped in the United States.",
"Between the beginning of the Nielsen SoundScan era in 1991 and 2023, 7,980,000 copies were sold.",
"The album was less successful on an international level, despite entering the top 5 on the Finnish and the top 40 on the German and Swiss album charts in its inaugural year.",
"In 2004, it peaked within the top 15 in Sweden.",
"In 2008, the album reached the top 40 on the Australian and Norwegian album charts.",
"It received 6× platinum certification from Music Canada and a gold certification from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 600,000 and 100,000 copies, respectively.Bassist Robert Trujillo cited ''Master of Puppets'' as his favorite album, \"I feel ''Master of Puppets'' has a lot of everything.",
"It's got instrumentals, it's got great segues, great riffs.",
"It's got one of my favorite songs ever by Metallica, and that song is \"Disposable Heroes\".",
"So any time I can hear that particular song, count me in.",
"\"Battery\" is an amazing song.",
"So it's just got everything that I love about Metallica.\""
],
[
"Accolades and legacy",
"''Master of Puppets'' has appeared in several publications' best album lists.",
"It was ranked number 167 on the list of Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, maintaining the rating in a 2012 revised list, and upgrading to number 97 in a 2020 revised list.",
"The magazine would also later rank it second on its 2017 list of \"100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time\", behind Black Sabbath's ''Paranoid''.",
"''Time'' included the album in its list of the 100 best albums of all time.",
"According to the magazine's Josh Tyrangiel, ''Master of Puppets'' reinforced the velocity of playing in heavy metal and diminished some of its clichés.",
"''Slant Magazine'' placed the album at number 90 on its list of the best albums of the 1980s, saying ''Master of Puppets'' is Metallica's best and most sincere recording.",
"The album is featured in Robert Dimery's book ''1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die''.",
"IGN named ''Master of Puppets'' the best heavy metal album of all time.",
"The website stated it was Metallica's best because it \"built upon and perfected everything they had experimented with prior\" and that \"all the pieces come together in glorious cohesion\".",
"Music journalist Martin Popoff also ranked it the best heavy metal album.",
"The album was voted the fourth greatest guitar album of all time by ''Guitar World'' in 2006, and the title track ranked number 61 on the magazine's list of the 100 greatest guitar solos.",
"''Total Guitar'' ranked the main riff of the title track at number 7 among the top 20 guitar riffs.",
"The April 2006 edition of ''Kerrang!''",
"was dedicated to the album and gave away to readers the cover album ''Master of Puppets: Remastered''.",
"''Master of Puppets'' became thrash metal's first platinum album and by the early 1990s thrash metal successfully challenged and redefined the mainstream of heavy metal.",
"Metallica and a few other bands headlined arena concerts and appeared regularly on MTV, although radio play remained incommensurate with their popularity.",
"''Master of Puppets'' is widely accepted as the genre's most accomplished album, and paved the way for subsequent development.",
"The album, in the words of writer Christopher Knowles, \"ripped Metallica away from the underground and put them atop the metal mountain\".",
"David Hayter from ''Guitar Planet'' recognized the album as one of the most influential records ever made and a benchmark by which other metal albums should be judged.",
"MTV's Kyle Anderson had similar thoughts, saying that 25 years after its release the album remained a \"stone cold classic\".",
"Carlos Ramirez from Noisecreep believes that ''Master of Puppets'' stands as one of the most representative albums of its genre.1986 is seen as a pinnacle year for thrash metal in which the genre broke out of the underground due to albums such as Megadeth's ''Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?''",
"and Slayer's ''Reign in Blood''.",
"Anthrax released ''Among the Living'' in 1987, and by the end of the year these bands, alongside Metallica, were being called the \"Big Four\" of thrash metal.",
"''Master of Puppets'' frequently tops critic and fan polls of favorite thrash metal albums.",
"Histories of the band tend to position ''Ride the Lightning'', ''Master of Puppets'', and ''...And Justice for All'' as a trilogy over the course of which the band's music progressively matured and became more sophisticated.",
"In 2015, the album was deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry.''Kerrang!''",
"released a tribute album titled ''Master of Puppets: Remastered'' with the April 8, 2006, edition of the magazine to celebrate the 20th anniversary of ''Master of Puppets''.",
"The album featured cover versions of Metallica songs by Machine Head, Bullet for My Valentine, Chimaira, Mastodon, Mendeed, and Trivium—all of which are influenced by Metallica.The title track was also featured in the fourth season finale of the Netflix series ''Stranger Things'', as the character Eddie Munson plays the song in the Upside Down dimension to draw the dimension's monsters away from his friends.",
"Kelly McClure of ''Salon'' compares the song's newfound popularity to Kate Bush's \"Running Up That Hill\", another song featured in the show's fourth season.",
"The song's appearance on ''Stranger Things'' saw the song resurging on Spotify's charts, behind \"Running Up That Hill\", and the band stated on social media that \"It’s an incredible honor to be such a big part of Eddie’s journey and to once again be keeping company with all of the amazing artists featured in the show.\""
],
[
"Tour and Burton's death",
"Metallica opted for extensive touring instead of releasing a single or video to promote the album.",
"The Damage, Inc. Tour began in March 1986, and the band spent March to August touring as the opening act for Ozzy Osbourne in the United States, the first tour Metallica played to arena-sized audiences.",
"During sound checks, the group played riffs from Osbourne's previous band Black Sabbath, which Osbourne perceived as mockery.",
"Ulrich, however, stated that Metallica was honored to play with Osbourne, who treated the band well on the tour.",
"Metallica was noted by the media for their excessive drinking habit while touring and earned the nickname \"Alcoholica\".",
"The band members occasionally even wore satirical T-shirts reading \"Alcoholica/Drank 'Em All\".The band usually played a 45-minute set often followed by an encore.",
"According to Ulrich, the audiences in bigger cities were already familiar with Metallica's music, unlike in the smaller towns they've visited.",
"\"In the B-markets, people really don't know what we're all about.",
"But after 45 or 50 minutes we can tell we've won them over.",
"And fans who come to hear Ozzy go home liking Metallica.\"",
"Metallica won over Osbourne's fans and slowly began to establish a mainstream following.",
"Hetfield broke his wrist in a mid-tour skateboarding accident, and guitar technician John Marshall played rhythm guitar on several dates.The European leg of the tour commenced in September, with Anthrax as the supporting band.",
"The morning after a performance on September 26 in Stockholm, the band's bus rolled off the road, and Burton was thrown through a window and killed instantly.",
"The driver claimed he hit a patch of black ice, but others believed he was either drunk or fell asleep at the wheel.",
"The driver was charged with manslaughter but was not convicted.",
"The band returned to San Francisco and hired Flotsam and Jetsam bassist Jason Newsted to replace Burton.",
"Many of the songs that appeared on the band's next album, ''...And Justice for All'', were composed during Burton's career with the band.===Later live performances===Hammett performing the \"Master of Puppets\" solo in the late 1990sAll of the songs have been performed live, and some became permanent setlist features.",
"Four tracks were featured on the nine-song set list for the album's promotional tour: \"Battery\" as opener, \"Master of Puppets\", \"Welcome Home (Sanitarium)\", and \"Damage, Inc.\" The title track, which was issued as a single in France, became a live staple and the most-played Metallica song.",
"''Loudwire''s Chad Childers characterized the band's performance as \"furious\" and the song as the set's highlight.",
"''Rolling Stone'' described the live performance as \"a classic in all its eight-minute glory\".",
"While filming its 3D movie ''Metallica: Through the Never'' (2013) at Rogers Arena in Vancouver, crosses were rising from the stage during the song, reminiscent of the album's cover art.",
"\"Welcome Home (Sanitarium)\" is the second-most performed song from the album.",
"The live performance is often accompanied by lasers, pyrotechnical effects and film screens.",
"\"Battery\" is usually played at the beginning of the setlist or during the encore, accompanied by lasers and flame plumes.",
"\"Disposable Heroes\" is featured in the video album ''Orgullo, Pasión, y Gloria: Tres Noches en la Ciudad de México'' (2009) filmed in Mexico City, in which the song was played on the second of three nights at the Foro Sol.",
"\"Orion\" is the least-performed song from the album.",
"Its first live performance was during the Escape from the Studio '06 tour, when the band performed the album in its entirety, honoring the 20th anniversary of its release.",
"The band performed the album in the middle of the set.",
"\"Battery\", \"Welcome Home (Sanitarium)\", \"Damage, Inc.\" and the full-length \"Master of Puppets\" were revived for the band's concerts in 1997 and 1998, after having been retired for a number of years."
],
[
"Track listing",
"=== Original release ===All lyrics written by James Hetfield.",
"The bonus tracks on the digital re-release were recorded live at the Seattle Coliseum, Seattle, Washington, on August 29 and 30, 1989, and also appeared on the live album ''Live Shit: Binge & Purge'' (1993).=== 2017 deluxe box set ===In 2017, the album was remastered and reissued in a limited edition deluxe box set with an expanded track listing and bonus content.",
"The deluxe edition set includes the original album on vinyl and CD, with two additional vinyl records containing a live recording from Chicago; nine CDs of interviews, rough mixes, demo recordings, outtakes, and live recordings recorded from 1985 to 1987; a cassette of a fan recording of Metallica's September 1986 live concert in Stockholm, which was Cliff Burton's final performance before his death; and two DVDs of interviews and live recordings recorded in 1986."
],
[
"Personnel",
"Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes.",
"'''Metallica'''* James Hetfield – vocals, rhythm guitar, 1st guitar solo on \"Master of Puppets\", 2nd guitar solo on \"Orion\"* Lars Ulrich – drums, percussion* Kirk Hammett – lead guitar* Cliff Burton – bass, backing vocals'''Production'''* Metallica – production* Flemming Rasmussen – production, engineering* Andy Wroblewski – assistant engineer* Michael Wagener – mixing* Mark Wilzcak – assistant mixing engineer* George Marino – mastering, remastering on 1995 re-release* Howie Weinberg, Gentry Studer – 2017 remastering'''Artwork'''* Metallica, Peter Mensch – cover concept* Don Brautigam – cover illustration* Ross Halfin – inner sleeve photos* Rich Likong, Ross Halfin, Rob Ellis – back cover photos'''Digital reissue bonus tracks'''* Jason Newsted – bass and backing vocals* Mike Gillies – mixing"
],
[
"Charts",
"=== Weekly charts ===+Weekly chart performance of ''Master of Puppets'' Chart (1986–2024) Peak position Canadian Albums (''RPM'') 52Japanese Albums (Oricon)87=== Year-end charts ===+Year-end chart performance of ''Master of Puppets'' Chart (1986) Position US ''Billboard'' 200 87 Chart (2002) PositionCanadian Metal Albums (Nielsen SoundScan)89 Chart (2015) Position US ''Billboard'' 200 182 US Top Catalog Albums (''Billboard'') 13 Chart (2016) Position US Top Catalog Albums (''Billboard'') 11 Chart (2018) Position US Top Rock Albums (''Billboard'') 81 Chart (2020) Position Polish Albums (ZPAV) 37 Chart (2021) Position Polish Albums (ZPAV) 42"
],
[
"Certifications"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Ride the Lightning"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Ride the Lightning''''' is the second studio album by the American heavy metal band Metallica, released on July 27, 1984, by the independent record label Megaforce Records.",
"The album was recorded in three weeks with the producer Flemming Rasmussen at Sweet Silence Studios in Copenhagen, Denmark.",
"The artwork, based on a concept by the band, depicts an electric chair being struck by lightning flowing from the band logo.",
"The title was taken from a passage in Stephen King's novel ''The Stand'', in which a character uses the phrase to refer to execution by electric chair.Although rooted in the thrash metal genre, the album showcased the band's musical growth and lyrical sophistication.",
"Bassist Cliff Burton introduced the basics of music theory to the band and had more input in the songwriting.",
"Beyond the fast tempos of its debut ''Kill 'Em All'', Metallica broadened its approach by employing acoustic guitars, extended instrumentals, and more complex harmonies.",
"The overall recording costs were paid by Metallica's European label Music for Nations because Megaforce was unable to cover it.",
"It is the last album to feature songwriting contributions from former lead guitarist Dave Mustaine, and the first to feature contributions from successor Kirk Hammett.",
"''Ride the Lightning'' received a highly positive response from music critics, who saw it as a more ambitious effort than its predecessor.",
"Metallica promoted the album on the Bang That Head That Doesn't Bang European tour in late 1984, and on its North American leg in the first half of 1985.The band performed at major music festivals such as Monsters of Rock and Day on the Green later that year.",
"Two months after its release, Elektra Records signed Metallica to a multi-year deal and reissued the album.",
"''Ride the Lightning'' peaked at number 100 on the ''Billboard'' 200 with virtually no radio exposure.",
"Although 75,000 copies were initially pressed for the American market, the album sold half a million by November 1987.It was certified 6× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2012 for shipping six million copies in the United States.",
"Many rock publications have ranked ''Ride the Lightning'' on their best album lists, saying it had a lasting impact on the genre."
],
[
"Background and recording",
"Metallica released its debut album, ''Kill 'Em All'', on the independent label Megaforce Records on July 25, 1983.The album helped to establish thrash metal, a heavy metal subgenre defined by its brisk riffs and intense percussion.",
"After finishing its promotional tour, Metallica began composing new material, and from September, began performing the songs that were to make up ''Ride the Lightning'' at concerts.",
"Because the band had little money, its members often ate one meal a day and stayed at fans' homes while playing at clubs across the United States.",
"An incident occurred when part of Metallica's gear was stolen in Boston, and Anthrax lent Metallica some of its equipment to complete the remaining dates.",
"When not gigging, the band stayed in a rented house in El Cerrito, California, called the Metallica Mansion.",
"Frontman James Hetfield felt uneasy about performing double duty on vocals and rhythm guitar, so the band offered the job to Armored Saint singer John Bush, who turned down the offer because Armored Saint was doing well at the time.Hetfield gradually built confidence as lead vocalist and kept his original role.",
"Metallica started recording on February 20, 1984, at Sweet Silence Studios in Copenhagen, Denmark.",
"The album was produced by Flemming Rasmussen, the founder of Sweet Silence Studios.",
"Drummer Lars Ulrich chose Rasmussen, because he liked his work on Rainbow's ''Difficult to Cure'' (1981) and was keen to record in Europe.",
"Rasmussen, who had not heard of Metallica, agreed to work on the album, even though his studio employees questioned the band's talent.",
"Rasmussen listened to Metallica's tapes before the members arrived and thought the band had great potential.",
"Metallica rehearsed the album's material at Mercyful Fate's practice room in Copenhagen.Metallica appeared second and played ten songs at the sold-out show at New York City's Roseland Ballroom on August 3, 1984.Before entering the studio, Metallica collected ideas on \"riff tape\" recordings of various jam sessions.",
"Hetfield and Ulrich went through the tapes and selected the strongest riffs to assemble into songs.",
"Instruments were recorded separately, with only Hetfield playing rhythm guitar.",
"Rasmussen, with the support of drum roadie Flemming Larsen, taught the basics of timing and beat duration to Ulrich, who had a tendency to increase speed and had little knowledge of rhythm theory.",
"Drums were recorded in an empty warehouse at the back of the studio, which was not soundproof, and caused reverberation.",
"Although four tracks were already arranged, the band members were not used to creating songs in the studio, as they had not done so for ''Kill 'Em All''.",
"\"For Whom the Bell Tolls\", \"Trapped Under Ice\", and \"Escape\" were written mostly in Copenhagen, and the band put finishing touches on \"Fight Fire with Fire\", \"Ride the Lightning\", \"Creeping Death\", and \"The Call of Ktulu\", which had already been performed live.Lead guitarist Kirk Hammett took the album's name from a passage in Stephen King's novel ''The Stand''.",
"The cover art, displaying an electric chair in the midst of lightning bolts, was conceived before recording began.",
"Metallica initially had difficulty recording because gear was stolen three weeks before the band arrived in Copenhagen.",
"The band members slept in the studio by day as they could not afford a hotel and recorded by night, because the studio was booked by other artists during the daytime.",
"Because the group was looking for a major label deal, several A&R representatives from different labels visited the studio.",
"At first, it seemed that Metallica was going to sign with Bronze Records, but the deal was canceled, because Bronze executive Gerry Bron did not appreciate the work done at Sweet Silence Studios, and wanted the US edition to be remixed by engineer Eddie Kramer, and even considered re-recording the album in another studio.",
"Metallica was put off by Bron's failure to share the band's artistic vision and decided to look for another label for the US release, though Bronze had already advertised Metallica as one of its bands.Metallica had to record quickly because of European shows scheduled 29 days after entering the studio.",
"Recording finished on March 14, and Megaforce released the album on July 27.Although the original album budget was $20,000, the final expense was above .",
"Metallica's European label Music for Nations paid the studio costs because Megaforce owner Jon Zazula could not afford them.",
"Metallica was unhappy with the lack of promotion by Megaforce, and decided to part ways with Zazula.",
"Major label Elektra Records employee Michael Alago noticed Metallica at The Stone gig in San Francisco, and invited Elektra's chairman and the head of promotion to see the August show in New York.",
"The performance at Roseland Ballroom, with Anthrax and Metallica opening for Raven, pleased the Elektra staff, and the band was offered a contract the following morning.",
"On September 12, Metallica signed with Elektra, which re-released the album on November 19.Cliff Burnstein and Peter Mensch of Q Prime were concurrently appointed as the band's new managers.",
"''Ride the Lightning'' is the last Metallica album to feature co-writing contributions from former lead guitarist Dave Mustaine, who received credit on the title track and \"The Call of Ktulu\".",
"The album also represented the first time Hammett was given writing credits."
],
[
"Music and lyrics",
"Music writers opine that ''Ride the Lightning'' exhibits greater musical maturity, with sonically broader songs than ''Kill 'Em All'', which was noted for its one-dimensional sound.",
"This development is partially because of bassist Cliff Burton's knowledge of music theory.",
"He showed Hetfield how to augment core notes with complementary counter-melodies and how basic guitar harmony works, which reflected on the song compositions.",
"Hetfield developed more socially aware lyrics, as well as ominous and semi-philosophical references.",
"Ulrich explained that Metallica opted not to rely strictly on fast tempos as on the previous album, but to explore other musical approaches that sounded powerful and heavy.",
"''Grinder'' magazine's Kevin Fisher summarized the album as \"ultimate thrash, destruction and total blur\" that reminded him of the speed and power of ''Kill 'Em All''.",
"Music journalist Martin Popoff observed that ''Ride the Lightning'' offered \"sophistication and brutality in equal measure\" and was seen as something new at the time of its release.",
"Discussing the album's lyrical content, philosopher William Irwin wrote: \"After ''Kill 'Em All'', the rebellion and aggression became much more focused as the enemy became more clearly defined.",
"Metallica was deeply concerned about various domains in which the common man was wrongfully yet ingeniously deceived.",
"More precisely, they were highly critical of those in power\".The major-key acoustic introduction to \"Fight Fire with Fire\" displays Metallica's evolution towards a more harmonically complex style of songwriting.",
"The fastest Metallica song in terms of picking speed, it is driven by nimbly tremolo-picked riffs in the verses and chorus.",
"The extended solo at the end dissolves in a sound effect of a vast nuclear explosion.",
"The main riff was taped during the Kill 'Em All Tour and the acoustic intro was something Burton was playing on acoustic guitar at the time.",
"The lyrical themes focused on nuclear annihilation, and specifically critiques the doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction.",
"\"Ride the Lightning\" is Metallica's first song to have emphasized the misery of the criminal justice system.",
"The lyrics are in the perspective of a death row inmate anticipating execution by the electric chair.",
"The song, one of the two album tracks that credits Mustaine, begins in a mid-tempo which gradually accelerates as the song progress.",
"One of the riffs, originally composed by Mustaine, was simplified.",
"It features an instrumental middle section highlighted by Hammett's soloing.",
"According to Hetfield, the song is not a criticism of capital punishment, but a tale of a man sentenced to death for a crime he did not commit, as in the opening lyrics: \"Guilty as charged/But damn it/It ain't right\".",
"\"For Whom the Bell Tolls\" begins with a bell tolling, followed by a marching riff and high-register bass melody.",
"The chromatic introduction, which Burton wrote before he joined Metallica, is often mistaken for an electric guitar but is actually Burton's bass guitar augmented with distortion and a wah-wah pedal.",
"The lyrics were inspired by Ernest Hemingway's 1940 novel of the same name, which explores the horror and dishonor of modern warfare.",
"\"For Whom the Bell Tolls\" was released as a promotional single in two versions, an edit on side A and the album version on side B.",
"\"Fade to Black\" is a power ballad with lyrics about suicide.",
"Hetfield wrote the words because he felt powerless after the band's equipment was stolen before the January 1984 show in Boston.",
"Musically, the song begins with an acoustic guitar introduction overlaid with electric soloing.",
"The song becomes progressively heavier and faster, ending with multi-layered guitar solos.",
"The ballad's arpeggiated chords and reserved singing was incongruous for thrash metal bands at the time and disappointed some of Metallica's fans.",
"The song's structure foreshadows later Metallica ballads, \"Welcome Home (Sanitarium)\", \"One\", and \"The Day That Never Comes\".",
"\"Fade to Black\" was released as a promotional single in 1984, in phosphorescent green.",
"\"Trapped Under Ice\" is about a person who wakes from a cryonic state.",
"Realizing there is nowhere to go, and no-one will come to the rescue, the person helplessly awaits impending doom.",
"The song is built on a fast-picked galloping riff, reminiscent of the album's opener.",
"It was inspired by a track Hammett's former band Exodus had demoed called \"Impaler\", which was later released on that band's 2004 album ''Tempo of the Damned''.",
"\"Escape\" was originally titled \"The Hammer\" and was intended to be released as a single due to its lighter riffs and conventional song structure.",
"The intro features a counterpoint bass melody and a chugging guitar riff that resolves into a standard down-picked riff.",
"\"Escape\" is Hetfield's most disliked Metallica song, due to it being the result of the record company forcing Metallica to write something more radio friendly.",
"Book authors Mick Wall and Malcolm Dome said the song was influenced by the album-oriented rock of 1970s bands such as Journey and Foreigner, but fans perceived it as an attempt for airplay on rock radio.",
"Metallica has so far performed \"Escape\" live only once, at the 2012 Orion Music + More festival, while performing ''Ride the Lightning'' in its entirety.",
"\"Creeping Death\" describes the Plague of the Death of the Firstborn (Exodus 12:29).",
"The lyrics deal with the ten plagues visited on Ancient Egypt; four of them are mentioned throughout the song, as well as the Passover.",
"The title was inspired by a scene from ''The Ten Commandments'' while the band was watching the movie at Burton's house.",
"The bridge, with its chant \"Die, by my hand!",
"\", was originally written by Hammett for the song \"Die by His Hand\" while he was playing in Exodus, who recorded it as a demo but did not feature it on a studio album.",
"Journalist Joel McIver called the song a \"moshpit anthem\" due to its epic lyrical themes and dramatic atmosphere.",
"\"Creeping Death\" was released as a single with a B-side titled ''Garage Days Revisited'' made up of covers of Diamond Head's \"Am I Evil?\"",
"and Blitzkrieg's \"Blitzkrieg\".",
"\"The Call of Ktulu\", tentatively titled \"When Hell Freezes Over\", was inspired by H. P. Lovecraft's book ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'', which was introduced to the rest of the band by Burton.",
"The title was taken from one of Lovecraft's key stories featuring Cthulhu, ''The Call of Cthulhu'', although the original name was modified to \"Ktulu\" for easier pronunciation.",
"The track begins with a D minor chord progression in the intro, written by Mustaine (Mustaine later re-used the chord structure on Megadeth's track \"Hangar 18\") followed by a two-minute bass solo over a rhythmic riff pattern.",
"Conductor Michael Kamen rearranged the piece for Metallica's 1999 ''S&M'' project and won a Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance in 2001."
],
[
"Reception and legacy",
"''Ride the Lightning'' received widespread acclaim from music critics.",
"According to ''Q'' magazine, the album confirmed Metallica's status as the leading heavy metal band of the modern era.",
"The magazine credited the group for redefining the norms of thrash metal with \"Fade to Black\", the genre's first power ballad.",
"British rock magazine ''Kerrang!''",
"stated that the album's maturity and musical intelligence helped Metallica expand heavy metal's boundaries.",
"Greg Kot of the ''Chicago Tribune'' described ''Ride the Lightning'' as a more refined extension of the group's debut.",
"In a retrospective review, Sputnikmusic's Channing Freeman named it as one of the few albums that can be charming and powerful at the same time.",
"He praised Hetfield's vocal performance and concluded that Metallica was \"firing on all cylinders\".",
"AllMusic's Steve Huey saw the album as a more ambitious and remarkable effort than ''Kill 'Em All''.",
"He called ''Ride the Lightning'' an \"all-time metal classic\" because of the band's rich musical imagination and lyrics that avoided heavy metal cliches.",
"''The Rolling Stone Album Guide'' viewed the album as a great step forward for the band and as an album that established the concept for Metallica's following two records.",
"Colin Larkin, writing in the ''Encyclopedia of Popular Music'', singled out \"For Whom the Bell Tolls\" as an example of Metallica's growing music potential.",
"Popoff regards ''Ride the Lightning'' as an album where \"extreme metal became art\".",
"\"This literally was the first album since (Judas Priest's 1976) ''Sad Wings of Destiny'' where the rulebook has changed.",
"This was a new kind of heaviness; the soft, billowy but explosive production was amazing, the speed was superhuman\", stated Popoff.",
"Reviewing the 2016 reissue, Jason Anderson of ''Uncut'' considers ''Ride the Lightning'' the second best Metallica album which set the pace for metal in the years to come.Megaforce initially pressed 75,000 copies of the album for the US market, while Music for Nations serviced the European market.",
"By late 1984, 85,000 copies of ''Ride the Lightning'' had been sold in Europe, resulting in Metallica's first cover story for ''Kerrang!''",
"in its December issue.",
"After signing Metallica, Elektra released the single \"Creeping Death\" in a sleeve depicting a bridge and a skull painted grey and green.",
"The album peaked at number 100 on the ''Billboard'' 200 with no radio exposure.",
"In 1984, the French record label Bernett Records misprinted the color of the album cover in green, rather than blue, and 400 copies with the green cover were produced.",
"''Ride the Lightning'' went gold by November 1987 and in 2012 was certified 6× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for six million copies shipped in the US.The album, along with ''Kill 'Em All'', was reissued in 2016 as a boxed set including demos and live recordings.",
"Many rock publications have ranked ''Ride the Lightning'' on their best album lists.",
"The album placed fifth on IGN Music's \"Top 25 Metal Albums\" list.",
"''Spin'' listed it as a thrash metal essential, declaring it \"the thrashiest thrash ever\".",
"According to ''Guitar World'', ''Ride the Lightning'' \"didn't just change the band's trajectory—it reset the course of metal itself\".",
"Corey Deiterman of the ''Houston Press'' considers ''Ride the Lightning'' the most influential Metallica album, saying it had a lasting impact on genres such as crossover thrash and hardcore punk.",
"In 2017, it was ranked 11th on ''Rolling Stone'' list of \"100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time\".",
"In a 1991 interview, Jason Newsted stated that ''Ride the Lightning'' was next to ''Metallica'', \"the best album ever\"."
],
[
"Touring",
"Metallica (pictured in 2009) began using Ennio Morricone's \"Ecstasy of Gold\" as its concert introduction music in 1984.After recording was completed, Music for Nations founder Martin Hooker wanted to arrange a triple-bill UK tour in March / April 1984 with Exciter, Metallica, and the Rods.",
"The Hell on Earth Tour never materialized because of poor ticket sales.",
"To promote ''Ride the Lightning'', Metallica commenced the Bang That Head That Doesn't Bang European tour on November 16, in Rouen, France, with English new wave band Tank as support.",
"The tour continued with dates in Belgium, Italy, Germany, and the Nordic countries to an average crowd of 1,300.After a Christmas break, the group embarked on a 50-date North American tour, first as a co-headlining act with W.A.S.P.",
"and then as headliners with Armored Saint supporting.",
"At a gig in Portland, Oregon, Metallica covered \"The Money Will Roll Right In\" by Fang, with Armored Saint onstage.The American leg ended in March 1985, and the band spent the following months working on the next studio album, ''Master of Puppets'', whose recording sessions were scheduled to begin in September.",
"Metallica performed at the Monsters of Rock festival held at Castle Donington in England on August 17 in front of 70,000 fans.",
"The band was placed between Ratt and Bon Jovi, two glam metal groups whose sound and appearance were much unlike Metallica's.",
"At the start of the set, Hetfield pronounced to the audience: \"If you came here to see spandex, eye make-up, and the words 'oh baby' in every fuckin' song, this ain't the fuckin' band!\"",
"Two weeks later, Metallica appeared on the Day on the Green festival in Oakland, California, before 90,000 people.",
"The last show Metallica played before recording began was the Loreley Metal Hammer Festival in Germany, headlined by Venom.",
"\"Disposable Heroes\" from the upcoming album was performed live for the first time at this festival.",
"Metallica finished 1985 with a show at the Sacramento Memorial Auditorium on December 29 opening for Y&T, and a New Year's Eve concert at the Civic Auditorium in San Francisco on a bill with Metal Church, Exodus, and Megadeth, the first time Metallica and Megadeth shared a stage.",
"At this gig, Metallica premiered \"Master of Puppets\" from the then-upcoming third studio album."
],
[
"Track listing",
"===Original release===All lyrics written by James Hetfield (Kirk Hammett also contributed to lyrics for \"Creeping Death\").",
"The bonus tracks on the digital re-release were recorded live at the Seattle Coliseum, Seattle, Washington, on August 29 and 30, 1989, and later appeared on the live album ''Live Shit: Binge & Purge'' (1993).===2016 deluxe box set===In 2016, the album was remastered and reissued in a limited-edition deluxe box set with an expanded track listing and bonus content.",
"The deluxe edition set includes the original album on vinyl and CD, with an additional vinyl record containing a live show recorded in Los Angeles, a picture disc containing the \"Creeping Death\" single tracklist, six CDs of live recordings, interviews, rough mixes, and demos recorded from 1984 to 1985, and one DVD of live shows and interviews with the band."
],
[
"Personnel",
"Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes.",
"'''Metallica'''* James Hetfield – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, acoustic guitar on \"Fight Fire with Fire\" and \"Fade to Black\"* Kirk Hammett – lead guitar, backing vocals* Cliff Burton – bass, backing vocals* Lars Ulrich – drums, percussion, backing vocals on \"Ride the Lightning\", anvil on \"For Whom the Bell Tolls\"'''Production'''* Metallica – production* Flemming Rasmussen – production assistant, engineering* Mark Whitaker – production assistant, concert sound engineer, live production manager* Tom Coyne – mastering on Megaforce release* Tim Young – mastering on Music for Nations release* Bob Ludwig – mastering on Elektra release* George Marino – 1995 remastering* Howie Weinberg – 2016 remastering'''Packaging'''* Metallica – cover concept* AD Artists – cover design* Fin Costello, Anthony D. Somella, Robert Hoetink – inner sleeve photos* Pete Cronin, Rick Brackett, Harold Oimen – back cover photos'''Digital re-release bonus tracks'''* Jason Newsted – bass, backing vocals* Mike Gillies – mixing"
],
[
"Charts",
"===Weekly charts===Chart (1984–2023)PeakpositionAustralian Albums (ARIA)38Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)20Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista)9French Albums (SNEP)126Irish Albums (IRMA)55Italian Albums (FIMI)66Japanese Albums (Oricon)99New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)32Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)40Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)31UK Albums (OCC)87US ''Billboard'' 20048===Year-end charts=== Chart (2020) Position Polish Albums (ZPAV) 53 Chart (2021) Position Polish Albums (ZPAV) 59"
],
[
"Certifications"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Metallica (album)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Metallica''''' (commonly known as '''''The Black Album''''') is the fifth studio album by American heavy metal band Metallica.",
"It was released on August 12, 1991, by Elektra Records.",
"Recording sessions took place at One on One Recording Studios in Los Angeles over an eight-month span that frequently found Metallica at odds with their new producer Bob Rock.",
"The album marked a change in the band's music from the thrash metal style of their previous four albums to a slower, heavier, and more refined sound.Metallica promoted ''Metallica'' with a series of tours.",
"They also released five singles to promote the album: \"Enter Sandman\", \"The Unforgiven\", \"Nothing Else Matters\", \"Wherever I May Roam\", and \"Sad but True\", all of which have been considered to be among the band's best-known songs.",
"The song \"Don't Tread on Me\" was also issued to rock radio shortly after the album's release but did not receive a commercial single release.",
"''Metallica'' received widespread critical acclaim and became the band's best-selling album.",
"It debuted at number one in ten countries and spent four consecutive weeks at the top of the ''Billboard'' 200, making it Metallica's first album to top the album charts.",
"With over 30 million copies sold worldwide, ''Metallica'' is one of the best-selling albums worldwide, and also one of the best-selling albums in the United States since Nielsen SoundScan tracking began.",
"The album was certified 16× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2012, and has sold over sixteen million copies in the United States, being the first album in the SoundScan era to do so.Metallica played ''Metallica'' in its entirety during the 2012 European Black Album Tour.",
"In 2020, the album was ranked number 235 on ''Rolling Stone''s \"The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\" list.",
"In December 2019, ''Metallica'' became the fourth release in American history to enter the 550-week milestone on the ''Billboard'' 200.It also became the second longest-charting traditional title in history only behind ''The Dark Side of the Moon'' (1973) by Pink Floyd, and the second to spend 550 weeks on the album charts."
],
[
"Background and recording",
"At the time of ''Metallica'' recording, the band's songs were written mainly by frontman James Hetfield and drummer Lars Ulrich, with Hetfield being the lyricist.",
"The duo frequently composed together at Ulrich's house in Berkeley, California.",
"Several song ideas and concepts were conceived by other members of the band, lead guitarist Kirk Hammett and bassist Jason Newsted.",
"For instance, Newsted wrote the main riff of \"My Friend of Misery\", which was originally intended to be an instrumental, one of which had been included on every previous Metallica album.",
"The songs were written in two months in mid-1990; the ideas for some of them were originated during the Damaged Justice Tour.",
"Metallica was impressed with Bob Rock's production work on Mötley Crüe's ''Dr.",
"Feelgood'' (1989) and decided to hire him to work on their album.",
"Initially, the band members were not interested in having Rock producing the album as well, but changed their minds.",
"Ulrich said, \"We felt that we still had our best record in us and Bob Rock could help us make it\".Four demos for the album were recorded on August 13, 1990; \"Enter Sandman\", \"The Unforgiven\", \"Nothing Else Matters\" and \"Wherever I May Roam\".",
"The lead single \"Enter Sandman\" was the first song to be written and the last to receive lyrics.",
"On October 4, 1990, a demo of \"Sad but True\" was recorded.",
"In October 1990, Metallica began recording at One on One Recording Studios in Los Angeles, California, to record the album, and also at Little Mountain Sound Studios in Vancouver, British Columbia, for about a week.",
"On June 2, 1991, a demo of \"Holier than Thou\" was recorded.",
"Hetfield stated about the recording: \"What we really wanted was a live feel.",
"In the past, Lars and I constructed the rhythm parts without Kirk and Jason.",
"This time I wanted to try playing as a band unit in the studio.",
"It lightens things up and you get more of a vibe.",
"\"Because it was Rock's first time producing a Metallica album, he had the band make the album in different ways; he asked them to record songs collaboratively rather than individually in separate locations.",
"He also suggested recording tracks live and using harmonic vocals for Hetfield.",
"Rock was expecting the production to be \"easy\" but had trouble working with the band, leading to frequent, engaged arguments with the band members over aspects of the album.",
"Rock wanted Hetfield to write better lyrics and found his experience recording with Metallica disappointing.",
"Since the band was perfectionist, Rock insisted they record as many takes as needed to get the sound they wanted.",
"The album was remixed three times and cost .",
"The troubled production coincided with Ulrich, Hammett, and Newsted divorcing their wives; Hammett said this influenced their playing because they were \"trying to take those feeling of guilt and failure and channel them into the music, to get something positive out of it\".Rock altered Metallica's familiar recording routine and the recording experience was so stressful that Rock briefly swore never to work with the band again.",
"The tension between band and producer was documented in ''A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica'' and ''Classic Albums: Metallica – Metallica'', documentaries that explore the intense recording process that resulted in ''Metallica''.",
"Despite the controversies between the band and Rock, he continued to work with Metallica through to the 2003 album ''St.",
"Anger''.",
"After the production of ''St.",
"Anger'', the fourth and final Metallica record Rock would produce, a petition signed by 1,500 fans was posted online in an attempt to encourage the band to prohibit Rock from producing Metallica albums, saying he had too much influence on the band's sound and musical direction.",
"Rock said the petition hurt his children's feelings; he said, \"sometimes, even with a great coach, a team keeps losing.",
"You have to get new blood in there.\""
],
[
"Composition and lyrics",
"According to Robert Palmer of ''Rolling Stone'', \"tempos were often slowed down in exchange for slower BPMs, while they expand its music and expressive range\".",
"The album was a change in Metallica's direction from the thrash metal style of the band's previous four studio albums towards a more commercial, heavy metal sound, but still had characteristics of thrash metal.",
"Many fans consider the album to be a transition from the often ostentatious compositions of Metallica's previous releases to the slower, divested style of the band's later albums, where \"old\" and \"new\" Metallica are distinguished from one another.",
"Instruments not usually used by heavy metal bands, such as the cellos in \"The Unforgiven\" and the orchestra in \"Nothing Else Matters\", were added at Rock's insistence.",
"Rock also raised the volume of the bass guitar, which had been nearly inaudible on the previous album ''...And Justice for All''.",
"Newsted said he tried to \"create a real rhythm section rather than a one-dimensional sound\" with his bass.",
"Newsted credited Rock with helping him find a sound that would work without killing the bass drum or messing with the lower end of the guitar, which Newsted claimed had always been a real big problem with him.",
"Ulrich said he tried to avoid the \"progressive Peartian paradiddles which became boring to play live\" in his drumming and used a basic sound similar to those of the Rolling Stones' Charlie Watts and AC/DC's Phil Rudd.The band took a simpler approach partly because the members felt the songs on ''...And Justice for All'' were too long and complex.",
"Hetfield said that radio airplay was not their intention, but because they felt \"we had pretty much done the longer song format to death,\" and considered a good change doing songs with just two riffs and \"only taking two minutes to get the point across\".",
"Ulrich added that the band was feeling a musical insecurity — \"We felt inadequate as musicians and as songwriters.",
"That made us go too far, around ''Master of Puppets'' and ''Justice'', in the direction of trying to prove ourselves.",
"'We'll do all this weird-ass shit sideways to prove that we are capable musicians and songwriters'\" – and Hetfield added he wanted to avoid getting stale: \"Sitting there and worrying about whether people are going to like the album, therefore we have to write a certain kind of song — you just end up writing for someone else.",
"Everyone's different.",
"If everyone was the same, it would be boring as shit.",
"\"The lyrics of ''Metallica'' written by James Hetfield were more personal and introspective in nature than those of previous Metallica albums; Rock said Hetfield's songwriting became more confident, and that he was inspired by Bob Dylan, Bob Marley, and John Lennon.",
"According to Chris True of AllMusic, \"Enter Sandman\" is about \"nightmares and all that come with them\".",
"\"The God That Failed\" dealt with the death of Hetfield's mother from cancer and her Christian Science beliefs, which kept her from seeking medical treatment.",
"\"Nothing Else Matters\" was a love song Hetfield wrote about missing his girlfriend while on tour.",
"Hetfield said the album's lyrical themes were more introspective because he wanted \"lyrics that the band could stand behind – but we are four completely different individuals.",
"So the only way to go was in.\""
],
[
"Packaging",
"Metallica had many discussions about the album title; the members considered calling it ''Five'' or using the title of one of the songs, but eventually chose an eponym because they \"wanted to keep it simple.\"",
"The album's cover depicts the band's logo angled against the upper left corner and a coiled snake derived from the Gadsden flag in the bottom right corner.",
"For the initial release, both emblems were embossed so they could barely be seen against the black background, giving ''Metallica'' the nickname \"''The Black Album''\".",
"These emblems also appear on the back cover of the album.",
"For later and current releases, both emblems are dark gray so they stand out more prominently.",
"The motto of the Gadsden flag, \"Don't Tread on Me\", is also the title of a song on the album.",
"A folded, pageless booklet depicts the faces of the band's members against a black background.",
"The lyrics and liner notes are also printed on a grey background.",
"The cover is reminiscent of Spinal Tap's album ''Smell the Glove'', which the band jokingly acknowledged in its documentary ''A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica''.",
"Members of Spinal Tap appeared on the film and asked Metallica about it, with Lars Ulrich commenting that British rock group Status Quo was the original inspiration as that band's ''Hello!''",
"album cover was also black."
],
[
"Marketing and sales",
"\"Enter Sandman\" was released as ''Metallica''s lead single on July 29, 1991; it reached number 16 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 singles chart and was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).",
"The follow-up single, \"Don't Tread on Me\", was released promotionally but did not chart.",
"The subsequent single, \"The Unforgiven\", was a Top 40 hit; it peaked in the Top 10 in Australia.",
"''Metallica'' was released on August 12, 1991, and was the band's first album to debut at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200, selling 598,000 copies in its first week.",
"It was certified platinum in two weeks and spent four consecutive weeks atop the ''Billboard'' 200.Meanwhile, more singles were released to further success.",
"\"Nothing Else Matters\" reached number six in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and \"Wherever I May Roam\" peaked at number two on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks singles chart, although the 1993 single \"Sad but True\" charted only for one week on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 at 98.Almost all singles were accompanied by music videos; the Wayne Isham-directed \"Enter Sandman\" promotional film won an MTV Video Music Award for Best Rock Video at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards.",
"Internationally, ''Metallica'' was also a success.",
"It debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart and was certified 2× platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for selling 600,000 copies in the UK.",
"''Metallica'' topped the charts in Australia, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland.",
"It also reached the top five in Austria, Finland, and Japan, as well as the top 10 in Spain.",
"The album failed to reach the top 20 in Ireland, having peaked at number 27.The Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) certified the album 12× platinum.",
"It received diamond plaques from the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) and the Recorded Music NZ (RMNZ) for shipping a million and 150,000 copies, respectively.Logging over 488 weeks on the US ''Billboard'' 200, ''Metallica'' proved the third-longest charting album in the Nielsen SoundScan era, behind Pink Floyd's ''The Dark Side of the Moon'' and Carole King's ''Tapestry''.",
"In 2009, it surpassed Shania Twain's ''Come On Over'' as the best-selling album of the SoundScan era.",
"It became the first album in the SoundScan era to pass 16 million in sales, and with 16.4 million copies sold by 2016, ''Metallica'' is the best-selling album in the United States since Nielsen SoundScan tracking began in 1991.Of that sum, 5.8 million were purchased on cassette.",
"The album never sold fewer than 1,000 copies in a week, and moved a weekly average of 5,000 copies in 2016.",
"''Metallica'' was certified 16× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2012 for shipping sixteen million copies in the US.",
"''Metallica'' sold 31 million copies worldwide on physical media.",
"All five of ''Metallica''s singles, \"Enter Sandman\", \"The Unforgiven\", \"Nothing Else Matters\", \"Wherever I May Roam\" and \"Sad but True\" charted on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.=== Touring ===O2 Arena, London in 2008In 1991, for the fourth time, Metallica played as part of the Monsters of Rock festival tour.",
"The last concert of the tour was held on September 28, 1991, at Tushino Airfield in Moscow; it was described as \"the first free outdoor Western rock concert in Soviet history\" and was attended by an estimated 150,000 to 500,000 people.",
"Some unofficial estimates put the attendance as high as 1,600,000.The first tour directly intended to support the album, the Wherever We May Roam Tour, included a performance at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert, at which Metallica performed a short set list, consisting of \"Enter Sandman\", \"Sad but True\", and \"Nothing Else Matters\", along with Hetfield performed the Queen song \"Stone Cold Crazy\" with John Deacon, Brian May, and Roger Taylor of Queen and Tony Iommi of Black Sabbath.",
"At one of the tour's first gigs the floor of the stage collapsed.",
"The January 13 and 14, 1992, shows in San Diego were later released in the box set ''Live Shit: Binge & Purge'', while the tour and the album were documented in the documentary ''A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica''.Metallica's Wherever We May Roam Tour also overlapped with Guns N' Roses' Use Your Illusion Tour.",
"Hetfield suffered second and third degree burns to his arms, face, hands, and legs on August 8, 1992, during a Montreal show in the co-headlining Guns N' Roses/Metallica Stadium Tour.",
"The tour included pyrotechnics, which were installed on-stage.",
"Hetfield accidentally walked into a flame shot from a pyrotechnic during a live performance of the introduction of \"Fade to Black\".",
"The show was cut short shortly after this accident, so that Guns N' Roses began their concert to malicious reactions from fans.",
"Newsted said Hetfield's skin was \"bubbling like on ''The Toxic Avenger''\".",
"The tour recommenced on August 25 in Phoenix, and although Hetfield could sing, he could not play guitar for the remainder of the tour.",
"Guitar technician John Marshall, who had previously filled in on rhythm guitar and was then playing in Metal Church, played guitar for the recovering Hetfield.",
"Brazilian musician Andreas Kisser from Sepultura was initially considered to join the tour, but Marshall ultimately was chosen.The shows in Mexico City across February and March 1993 during the Nowhere Else to Roam tour were recorded, filmed and later also released as part of the band's first box set, which was released in November 1993 and titled ''Live Shit: Binge & Purge''.",
"The collection contained three live CDs, three home videos, and a book filled with riders and letters.",
"Pressings of the box set since November 2002 includes two DVDs, the first one being filmed at San Diego on the Wherever We May Roam Tour, and the latter at Seattle on the Damaged Justice Tour.",
"''Binge & Purge'' was packaged as a cardboard box resembling that of a typical tour equipment transport box.",
"The box set also featured a recreated copy of an access pass to the \"Snakepit\" part of the tour stage, as well as a cardboard drawing/airbrush stencil for the \"Scary Guy\" logo.",
"The Mexico City shows were also the first time the band met future member Robert Trujillo, who was in Suicidal Tendencies at the time.The final tour supporting the album, the Shit Hits the Sheds Tour, included a performance at Woodstock '94 that followed Nine Inch Nails and preceded Aerosmith on August 13 in front of a crowd of 350,000.Some songs, such as \"Enter Sandman\", \"Nothing Else Matters\", and \"Sad but True\", became permanent staples of Metallica's concert setlists during these and subsequent tours.",
"Other songs though, such as \"Holier than Thou\", \"The God That Failed\", \"Through the Never\", and \"The Unforgiven\" were no longer included in performances after 1995 and would not be played again until the 2000s, when Metallica began performing a more extensive back catalog of songs with Robert Trujillo on bass after he joined the band upon completion of the album ''St.",
"Anger''.After touring duties for the album were finished, Metallica filed a lawsuit against Elektra Records, which tried to force the record label to terminate the band's contract and give the band ownership of their master recordings.",
"The band based its claim on a section of the California Labor Code that allows employees to be released from a personal services contract after seven years.",
"Metallica had sold 40 million copies worldwide upon the filing of the suit.",
"Metallica had been signed to the label for over a decade but was still operating under the terms of its original 1984 contract, which provided a relatively low 14% royalty rate.",
"The band members said they were taking the action because they were ambivalent about Robert Morgado's refusal to give them another record deal along with Bob Krasnow, who retired from his job at the label shortly afterwards.",
"Elektra responded by counter-suing the band, but in December 1994, Warner Music Group United States chairman Doug Morris offered Metallica a lucrative new deal in exchange for dropping the suit, which was reported to be even more generous than the earlier Krasnow deal.",
"In January 1995, both parties settled out of court with a non-disclosure agreement.",
"Metallica played the album in its entirety during the 2012 European Black Album Tour."
],
[
"Critical reception and legacy",
"''Metallica'' was met with widespread acclaim from both heavy metal journalists and mainstream publications, including ''NME'', ''The New York Times'', and ''The Village Voice''.",
"In ''Entertainment Weekly'', David Browne called it \"rock's preeminent speed-metal cyclone\", and said, \"Metallica may have invented a new genre: progressive thrash\".",
"''Q'' magazine's Mark Cooper said he found the album's avoidance of metal's typically clumsy metaphors and glossy production refreshing; he said, \"Metallica manage to rekindle the kind of intensity that fired the likes of Black Sabbath before metal fell in love with its own cliches\".",
"''Select'' magazine's David Cavanagh believed the album lacks artifice and is \"disarmingly genuine\".",
"In his review for ''Spin'', Alec Foege found the music's harmonies vividly performed and said that Metallica showcase their \"newfound versatility\" on songs such as \"The Unforgiven\" and \"Holier than Thou\".",
"Robert Palmer, writing in ''Rolling Stone'', said that several songs sound like \"hard-rock classics\" and that, apart from \"Don't Tread on Me\", ''Metallica'' is an \"exemplary album of mature but still kickass rock & roll\".",
"In his guide to Metallica's albums up to that point, Greg Kot of the ''Chicago Tribune'' recommended the album as \"a great place for Metallica neophytes to start, with its more concise songs and explosive production.",
"\"Some reviewers had reservations.",
"Jonathan Gold, in the ''Los Angeles Times'', said that while Metallica had embraced pop sensibilities \"quite well\", there was a sense the group was \"no longer in love with the possibilities of its sound\" on an album whose difficulty being embraced by the \"metal cult\" mirrored Bob Dylan going electric in the mid-1960s.",
"More critical was Robert Christgau, who wrote in his \"Consumer Guide\" for ''The Village Voice'' that he \"put James Hetfield out of his misery in under five plays\" of the album and that he \"found life getting shorter with every song\".",
"In his 2000 collection ''Christgau's Consumer Guide'', Christgau later graded ''Metallica'' a \"dud\", indicating \"a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought\".Retrospective appraisals have been positive.",
"In a retrospective article, ''Kerrang!''",
"said ''Metallica'' is the album that \"propelled the band out of the metal ghetto to true mainstream global rock superstardom\".",
"''Melody Maker'' said that as a deliberate departure from the band's thrash style on ''...And Justice for All'', \"''Metallica'' was slower, less complicated, and probably twice as heavy as anything they'd done before\".",
"In his review for BBC Music, Sid Smith said that although staunch listeners of the band accused them of selling out, Metallica confidently departed from the style of their previous albums and transitioned \"from cult metal gods to bona fide rock stars\".",
"''Classic Rock'' called it \"the absolute pinnacle of Metallica's long and successful career\", and credited the album for inspiring 1990s post-grunge music and convincing the music industry to embrace heavy metal as a genre with mass appeal.",
"Author and philosopher Thomas Walker wrote in 2020, \"Its success at encapsulating...individualist ideas in musical form and bringing them to a global audience is truly unique.\"",
"AllMusic's Steve Huey believed the massive popularity of ''Metallica'' inspired other speed metal bands to also embrace a simpler, less progressive sound.",
"He deemed it \"a good, but not quite great, album, one whose best moments deservedly captured the heavy metal crown, but whose approach also foreshadowed a creative decline for Metallica.",
"\"Speaking in ''The Independent'', Metallica biographer Paul Stenning explained that Metallica created \"a sound that had not really been heard in metal before, especially by a thrash band.",
"\"Iron Maiden vocalist Bruce Dickinson said that Metallica should be given huge credit for \"grabbing the opportunity when it came up, taking the risk and deservedly reaping the enormous rewards\", and that their achievement with the album cannot be underestimated.",
"He also shared his thoughts on it as well, \"It's one of those seminal albums that just gets it right.",
"It's extremely well-produced, and every note on that album is totally under control.",
"I admire how they did it, and what they did with the songs, and it was very effective: it undoubtedly did help push metal into the mainstream.",
"\"To celebrate the 30th anniversary of ''Metallica'', a 53-track covers album titled ''The Metallica Blacklist'' was released on September 10, 2021.The album features covers of songs from ''Metallica'' from over 50 artists in various styles.",
"All profits from the album are donated to the band's All Within My Hands Foundation as well as charities of each contributing artist's choice.=== Accolades ===''Metallica'' was voted the eighth best album of 1991 in the Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics nationwide, published by ''The Village Voice''.",
"''Melody Maker'' ranked it number 16 in the magazine's December 1991 list of the year's best albums.",
"In 1992, the album won a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance.",
"In 2000, it was voted number 88 in Colin Larkin's ''All Time Top 1000 Albums''.",
"In 2012, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked ''Metallica'' number 255 on \"The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\", and then number 235 in a 2020 revised edition of the list.",
"It was also ranked 25th on the magazine's \"100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time\" (2017).",
"''Spin'' ranked it number 52 in on the \"90 Greatest Albums of the '90s\" (1999), with its entry reading: \"this record's diamond-tipped tuneage stripped the band's melancholy guitar excess down to melodic, radio-ready bullets and ballads\".",
"''Metallica'' featured in ''Q'' magazine's August 2000 list of the \"Best Metal Albums of All Time\"; the magazine said the album \"transformed them from cult metal heroes into global superstars, bringing a little refinement to their undoubted power\".",
"In 1999, eight years after the album's release, ''Metallica'' won a Billboard Music Award for Catalog Album of the Year."
],
[
"Track listing",
"* On the vinyl record releases, Tracks 1–3 were on Side A, Tracks 4–6 were on Side B, Tracks 7–9 were on Side C, and tracks 10–12 were on Side D."
],
[
"Reissues",
"''Metallica'' has been reissued several times, including in 2008, in 2010, and in 2014.To mark its 30th anniversary, a remastered edition was released on September 10, 2021.The album was remastered by Bob Ludwig at Gateway Mastering, with all content overseen by executive producer Greg Fidelman.",
"A limited edition box set was released, which includes the remastered album on a 180-gram double LP and a CD, as well as three live LPs, 14 CDs and six DVDs featuring unreleased content, and various other physical merchandise."
],
[
"Personnel",
"Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes.",
"'''Metallica'''* James Hetfield – vocals, rhythm guitar, acoustic guitar, lead guitar on \"Nothing Else Matters\"* Kirk Hammett – lead guitar* Jason Newsted – bass* Lars Ulrich – drums, percussion'''Additional musicians'''* Michael Kamen – orchestral arrangement on \"Nothing Else Matters\"'''Production'''* Bob Rock – production* James Hetfield – production* Lars Ulrich – production* Randy Staub – engineering* Mike Tacci – assistant engineering* George Marino – mastering* Bob Ludwig – 2021 remastering"
],
[
"Charts",
"=== Weekly charts ===+Weekly chart performance for ''Metallica''Chart (1991–2021)PeakpositionEuropean Albums (''Billboard'')2Irish Albums (IRMA)2Italian Albums (''Musica e dischi'')2Japanese Albums (Oricon)3=== Year-end charts ===+Year-end chart performance for ''Metallica''Chart (1991)PositionAustralian Albums (ARIA)28Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)40Canadian Albums (''RPM'')13Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)36European (European Top 100 Albums)26German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)29New Zealand (RMNZ)28US ''Billboard'' 20062Chart (1992)PositionAustralian Albums (ARIA)49Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)18Europe (European Top 100 Albums)33German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)12 New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)35US ''Billboard'' 2007Chart (1993)PositionAustralian Albums (ARIA)31Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)42US ''Billboard'' 20032Chart (1994)PositionAustralian Albums (ARIA) 94Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)75US ''Billboard'' 20071Chart (1995)PositionUS ''Billboard'' 20094Chart (1996)PositionUS ''Billboard'' 20091 Chart (2000) PositionCanadian Albums (Nielsen SoundScan)181Chart (2002)PositionCanadian Metal Albums (Nielsen SoundScan)35Chart (2004)PositionSwedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)99Chart (2014)PositionSwedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)81Chart (2015)PositionSwedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)60Chart (2016)PositionSwedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)70US ''Billboard'' 20092Chart (2017)Position Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)72US ''Billboard'' 20095 US Top Rock Albums (''Billboard'')16 Chart (2018) Position Icelandic Albums (Plötutíóindi)84 US ''Billboard'' 200109 US Top Rock Albums (''Billboard'')14 Chart (2019) Position Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)103 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)195Icelandic Albums (Plötutíóindi)78 Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)59 US ''Billboard'' 200174 US Top Rock Albums (''Billboard'')23 Chart (2020) Position Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)134 Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)74 US ''Billboard'' 200177 US Top Rock Albums (''Billboard'')18 Chart (2021) Position Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)57 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)84 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)75 German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)23 Hungarian Albums (MAHASZ)85 Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)56 Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)82 US ''Billboard'' 20099 US Top Rock Albums (''Billboard'')13 Chart (2022) Position Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders) 152 Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan) 91 US ''Billboard'' 200 102 US Top Rock Albums (''Billboard'') 13 Chart (2023) Position Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders) 133 Dutch Albums (Album Top 100) 93 Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan) 80 US ''Billboard'' 200 125 US Top Rock Albums (''Billboard'') 22=== Decade-end charts ===+Decade-end chart performance for ''Metallica''Chart (1990–1999)PositionUS ''Billboard'' 2008"
],
[
"Certifications and sales"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of best-selling albums in Australia* List of best-selling albums in Finland* List of best-selling albums in Turkey* List of best-selling albums in the United States* List of best-selling albums* ''The Beatles'' (album) – an eponymous album by the Beatles also known as \"the White Album\" due to its packaging design"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Load (album)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Load''''' is the sixth studio album by American heavy metal band Metallica, released on June 4, 1996, by Elektra Records in the United States and by Vertigo Records internationally.",
"The album showed more of a hard rock side of Metallica than the band's typical thrash metal style, which alienated much of the band's fanbase.",
"It also featured influences from genres such as Southern rock, blues rock, country rock, and alternative rock.",
"Drummer Lars Ulrich said about ''Load'' more exploratory nature, \"This album and what we're doing with it – that, to me, is what Metallica are all about: exploring different things.",
"The minute you stop exploring, then just sit down and fucking die.\"",
"At 79 minutes, ''Load'' is Metallica's longest studio album.",
"''Load'' received mixed reviews from critics but was a commercial success, debuting and spending four consecutive weeks at number one on the US ''Billboard'' 200 chart.",
"''Load'' sold 680,000 units in its first week, making it the biggest opening week for Metallica as well as the biggest debut of 1996.It was certified 5× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping five million copies in the United States.",
"Four singles—\"Until It Sleeps\", \"Hero of the Day\", \"Mama Said\", and \"King Nothing\"—were released as part of the marketing campaign for the album."
],
[
"Background",
"''Load'', released approximately five years after the commercially successful album ''Metallica'', saw the band shifting toward hard rock and further away from their thrash metal roots.",
"As on previous releases, the album's fourteen songs began as rough demos created by principal songwriters James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich in Ulrich's basement recording studio, \"The Dungeon\".",
"In early 1995, the band took over thirty demos into The Plant Studios, where they would work for approximately one year.",
"Metallica worked with producer Bob Rock, who had been at the helm during the recording process for ''Metallica''.The songwriting dispensed almost entirely with the thrash metal style that characterized the band's sound in the 1980s.",
"Metallica had listed several artists and bands from which they took inspiration while writing ''Load'' and ''Reload'' that strayed from the types of bands that influenced them for their earlier albums, including Kyuss, Alice in Chains, Soundgarden, Primus, ZZ Top, Pantera, Corrosion of Conformity, Ted Nugent, Aerosmith, and even more mainstream acts like Oasis, Alanis Morissette, and Garth Brooks, among others.",
"This resulted in ''Load'' having a much more mid-paced, groovier sound that verged on hard rock.",
"In place of staccato riffs, Hetfield and lead guitarist Kirk Hammett experimented with blues rock-based tones and styles.",
"Additionally, Ulrich adopted a minimalist approach to his drum recording, abandoning the speed and complex double bass drumming patterns of previous albums, and using simpler techniques and playing styles.",
"The album's lyrical themes show a striking departure from Metallica's previously social and politically charged subjects; many of ''Load'''s tracks discuss themes of depression, including \"Bleeding Me\", \"Mama Said\", and \"Until It Sleeps\", all of which are about the death of Hetfield's mother, and \"The Outlaw Torn\", which is said to be about the band coping with Cliff Burton's death.",
"Other songs, such as \"The House Jack Built\" and \"Cure\", discuss themes of drug and alcohol addiction, and \"Thorn Within\" and \"Poor Twisted Me\" reflect James's struggles with depression.Hammett, encouraged by producer Bob Rock, also played rhythm guitar on a Metallica album for the first time, having previously only played lead parts with Hetfield playing all the rhythm parts to achieve a tighter feel, in contrast to the looser feel they were looking for here.",
"Hammett continued playing rhythm until ''Death Magnetic'' when Hetfield once again played all the rhythm parts.At 79 minutes, ''Load'' is Metallica's longest studio album.",
"With the CD length at 78:59, initial pressings of the album were affixed with stickers boasting of its long playtime, simply reading \"78:59\".",
"\"The Outlaw Torn\" had to be shortened by about one minute to fit on the album; the full version of the track was released on the single \"The Memory Remains\" as \"The Outlaw Torn (Unencumbered by Manufacturing Restrictions Version)\", with a running time of 10:48.An explanation on the single's back cover stated:''Load'' was Metallica's first album on which all tracks were down-tuned to E♭ tuning.",
"Hammett states:The band had recorded songs on earlier albums in tunings lower than E: \"The God That Failed\" (''Metallica'') was in E♭, and \"Sad but True\" (''Metallica'') and \"The Thing That Should Not Be\" (''Master of Puppets'') were in D tuning.",
"Hetfield also felt that the change to E♭ was a bonus, as it was easier to perform string bends in the riffs.The Australian CD release of ''Load'' includes a bonus interview CD that is unavailable elsewhere.",
"10 songs from the album have been played live including \"King Nothing\", \"Until It Sleeps\", \"Ain't My Bitch\", \"Bleeding Me\", \"Wasting My Hate\", \"Hero of the Day\", \"The Outlaw Torn\", \"2 X 4\", \"Poor Twisted Me\", \"Mama Said\".",
"Songs that have not been played live in their entirety are \"The House Jack Built\", \"Cure\", \"Thorn Within\", and \"Ronnie\"."
],
[
"Artwork",
"The cover of ''Load'' is an original artwork titled \"Semen and Blood III\".",
"It is one of three photographic studies that Andres Serrano created in 1990 by mingling bovine blood and his own semen between two sheets of Plexiglas.",
"The liner notes simply state \"cover art by Andres Serrano\" rather than listing the title of the work.",
"Hammett learned of Serrano's work from Godflesh frontman Justin Broadrick when he was shown the music video Serrano had directed for the Godflesh song \"Crush My Soul\".",
"Broadrick claimed that no one in Metallica knew about Serrano before the \"Crush My Soul\" music video.",
"In a 2009 interview with ''Classic Rock'', Hetfield expressed his dislike of the album cover and its inspiration:''Load'' also marked the first appearance of a new Metallica logo that rounded off the stabbing edges of the band's earlier logo, greatly simplifying its appearance.",
"The M from the original logo was used to make a shuriken-like symbol known as the \"ninja star\", which was used as an alternate logo on this and future albums, and on related artwork.",
"The album featured an expansive booklet containing photographs by Anton Corbijn.",
"These photographs depict the band in various dress, including white A-shirts with suspenders, Cuban suits, and gothic.",
"In the aforementioned 2009 interview, James Hetfield said:"
],
[
"Reception",
"''Load'' received mixed to positive reviews from critics.",
"''Rolling Stone'' said, \"The foursome dams the bombast and chugs half-speed ahead, settling into a wholly magnetizing groove that bridges old-school biker rock and the doomier side of post-grunge '90s rock.\"",
"''Q'' enthused, \"These boys set up their tents in the darkest place of all, in the naked horror of their own heads... Metallica make existential metal and they've never needed the props... Metallica are still awesome... What is new is streamlined attack, the focus and, yes, the tunes.",
"\"''Melody Maker'' expressed reservations about ''Load'''s heaviness compared to its predecessors: \"A Metallica album is traditionally an exhausting event.",
"It should rock you to exhaustion, leave you brutalised and drained.",
"This one is no exception.",
"It is, however, the first Metallica album to make me wonder at any point, 'What the fuck was that?'",
"It's as if the jackboot grinding the human face were to take occasional breaks for a pedicure.\"",
"AllMusic considered ''Load'' repetitive, uninteresting and poorly executed.",
"In ''The Village Voice'', Robert Christgau said \"this is just a metal record with less solo room, which is good because it concentrates their chops, and more singing, which isn't because they can't.",
"\"\"Some of that stuff was pretty cool,\" remarked Lars Ulrich of the album and its follow-up.",
"\"With ''Load'', it was disappointing that some people's reaction to the music was biased by how they dealt with the pictures – the hair and all that crap ''see Artwork, above''.",
"People have come up to me years afterwards and said, 'I never gave the record a fair chance because I couldn't get beyond Jason Newsted wearing eyeliner.'",
"But 'The Outlaw Torn', some of that shit is pretty fucking awesome.\""
],
[
"Track listing"
],
[
"Personnel",
"Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes.",
"'''Metallica'''* James Hetfield – vocals, rhythm guitar, lead guitar on \"2 X 4\", \"The House Jack Built\", \"King Nothing\", \"Thorn Within\" and \"The Outlaw Torn\"* Kirk Hammett – lead and rhythm guitar* Jason Newsted – bass* Lars Ulrich – drums'''Production'''* Bob Rock – production* Brian Dobbs – engineering, mixing* Randy Staub – engineering* Jason Goldstein – assistant engineering* Kent Matcke – assistant engineering* Mike Fraser – mixing* Matt Curry – mixing assistant* Mike Rew – mixing assistant* George Marino – mastering* Paul DeCarli – digital editing* Mike Gillies – digital editing assistant* Chris Vrenna – digital editing assistant* Andie Airfix – design* Andres Serrano – cover design* Anton Corbijn – photography"
],
[
"Charts",
"===Weekly charts===+Weekly chart performance for ''Load''Chart (1996)Peakposition Danish Albums (Hitlisten) 1 Europe (European Top 100 Albums) 1Irish Albums (IRMA)2Italian Albums (FIMI)2Portuguese Albums (AFP)1Spanish Albums (AFYVE)2===Year-end charts===+1996 year-end chart performance for ''Load''Chart (1996)PositionAustralian Albums (ARIA)21Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)6Canadian Albums (''RPM'')9Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)33European Top 100 Albums (''Music & Media'')10French Albums (SNEP)17German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)6New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)17Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)23UK Albums (OCC)59US ''Billboard'' 20014===Decade-end charts===+1990s-end chart performance for ''Load''Chart (1990–1999)Position US ''Billboard'' 20081"
],
[
"Certifications"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Garage Inc."
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Garage Inc.''''' is a compilation album of cover songs by American heavy metal band, Metallica.",
"It was released on November 24, 1998, through Elektra Records.",
"It includes cover songs, B-side covers, and ''The $5.98 E.P.",
"- Garage Days Re-Revisited'', which had gone out of print since its original release in 1987.The title is a combination of ''Garage Days Revisited'' and Metallica's song \"Damage, Inc.\", from ''Master of Puppets''.",
"The album's graphical cover draws heavily from the 1987 EP.",
"The album features songs by artists that have influenced Metallica, including many bands from new wave of British heavy metal, hardcore punk bands and popular songs."
],
[
"Production",
"The day after Metallica finished the North American leg of the Poor Re-Touring Me Tour in San Diego's Coors Amphitheatre, they hit the studio to start recording a new album of cover versions.",
"As Lars Ulrich explained, the band wanted to do something different after \"three pretty serious albums in a row, starting with the Black album and then ''Load'' and ''ReLoad''\", and the process would be easier by working with covers, especially as the band had a tradition of taking other people's songs and \"turning them into something very Metallica, different from what the original artist did\".",
"Given that the band had recorded many covers that were spread across various releases, such as B-sides of their singles and the 1987 EP ''The $5.98 E.P.",
"- Garage Days Re-Revisited'', the band would \"put them all in a nice little packaging for easy listening\" along with the newly recorded cover versions, chosen through a group decision.",
"Only one of the eleven songs in the \"New Recordings '98\" disk was not done in the three-week sessions, a version of Lynyrd Skynyrd's \"Tuesday's Gone\" the band recorded for a radio broadcast along with friends such as Les Claypool, John Popper and Gary Rossington."
],
[
"Garage Barrage Tour",
"Metallica played five shows in November 1998 to support the album's release.",
"Embracing the cover song concept, the band's setlist consisted entirely of cover songs from throughout their career.",
"Metallica's own music was presented by the opening band, Battery, a Metallica tribute band."
],
[
"Packaging",
"The cover for ''Garage Inc.'' had an Anton Corbijn photograph of Metallica dressed as mechanics.",
"The band wanted the booklet to hold a detailed account of the contents of the project, and designer Andy Airfix was allowed to search through Ulrich's catalogue of Metallica memorabilia in San Francisco to create a 32-page booklet.",
"Airfix also did the back cover, where the front of ''Garage Days Re-Revisited'' was modified with headshots of Metallica in 1998 and the track list written on tracing paper."
],
[
"Reception",
"*''Rolling Stone'' (12/10/98, print edition, p. 122) – 4 Stars (out of 5) – \"Gloriously hard as the album is, you can't miss Metallica's good natured side coming through.",
"\"*''Entertainment Weekly'' (12/18/98, p. 84) – \"We'll have to wait until Metallica's next 'proper' album to find out if this trip to the garage recharges their batteries.",
"Still, all things considered, Garage Inc. is an intermittently exhilarating joyride.\"",
"– Rating: B−*''CMJ'' (12/21/98, p. 29) – \"Those who still relate to the adolescent angst of the 'Metallicas' earliest days will find plenty to like on Garage Inc.\"* In 2005, the album was ranked number 500 in ''Rock Hard'' magazine's book of ''The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time''."
],
[
"Track listing",
"===Disc one===These tracks (except \"Tuesday's Gone\"; see below) were recorded in September–October 1998 for the ''Garage Inc.'' album.",
"* \"Sabbra Cadabra\" also covers part of the Black Sabbath song \"A National Acrobat\".",
"* \"Mercyful Fate\" is a medley of the songs \"Satan's Fall\", \"Curse of the Pharaohs\", \"A Corpse Without Soul\", \"Into the Coven\" and \"Evil\".",
"* \"Tuesday's Gone\" was recorded December 18, 1997, during the \"Don't Call Us, We'll Call You\" radio broadcast on KSJO.",
"* \"The More I See\" ends at 03:23 and, after a period of silence, contains a short segment of the Robin Trower song \"Bridge of Sighs\", from the album of the same name, as a hidden track.",
"* \"Free Speech for the Dumb\", \"Loverman\", \"Astronomy\", \"The More I See\" and \"Bridge of Sighs\" have never been performed live.===Disc two===These tracks are a collection of B-sides from artists Metallica were inspired by, throughout the early years of the band.",
"* \"Last Caress/Green Hell\" contains a parody of Iron Maiden's song \"Run to the Hills\" at the outro; Iron Maiden responded to this on a B-side cover of the Montrose song titled \"Space Station No.",
"5\".",
"The original CD edition has a mastering error in \"Green Hell\" at 2:01 where the left channel glitches and is out of sync with the right channel for a second.",
"This error does not exist on the original EP release, nor the remastered EP edition.",
"* \"Am I Evil?\"",
"and \"Blitzkrieg\" were originally released in November 1984 as B-sides contained on the \"Creeping Death\" single.",
"They were later included as bonus tracks on the 1988 Elektra re-issue of Metallica's debut album ''Kill 'Em All''; subsequent re-issues of ''Kill 'Em All'' did not contain the two bonus tracks.",
"* \"Breadfan\" and \"The Prince\" were originally released by Metallica in September 1988 as B-sides to the \"Harvester of Sorrow\" single.",
"\"Breadfan\" was also included on the \"Eye of the Beholder\" single.",
"\"The Prince\" was also the B-side to the \"One\" single, as well as the bonus track on the Japanese pressing of ''…And Justice For All''.",
"* \"Stone Cold Crazy\" was originally released by Metallica in September 1990 on the Rubáiyát: Elektra's 40th Anniversary compilation album, and was later included on the \"Enter Sandman\" single.",
"* \"So What\" and \"Killing Time\" were originally released by Metallica in November 1991 as B-sides to \"The Unforgiven\" single.",
"\"So What\" was also on the \"Sad but True\" single, as well as the bonus track on the Japanese pressing of ''Metallica''.",
"*\"Motörheadache\" was recorded live at The Plant Studios in December, 1995"
],
[
"Personnel",
"'''Metallica'''* James Hetfield – vocals, rhythm guitar, lead guitar on \"Whiskey in the Jar\" and \"Stone Dead Forever\"* Lars Ulrich – drums* Kirk Hammett – lead guitar, backing vocals* Jason Newsted – bass, backing vocals* Cliff Burton – bass on \"Am I Evil?\"",
"and \"Blitzkrieg\"'''Guest musicians''' '''on''' \"'''Tuesday's Gone'''\"* Pepper Keenan – co-lead vocals* Jerry Cantrell – guitar* Sean Kinney – additional percussion* Jim Martin – guitar* John Popper – harmonica* Gary Rossington – additional guitar* Les Claypool – banjo'''Technical personnel'''Disc I* Bob Rock, James Hetfield, Lars Ulrich – production*Randy Staub – engineering*Brian Dobbs – additional engineering*Kent Matcke, Leff Lefferts, Chris Manning – assistant engineers*Paul DeCarli, Mike Gillies – digital editing*Randy Staub, Mike Fraser – mixing*George Marino – masteringDisc II* Tracks 1–5:** \"Not very produced\" by Metallica (Hetfield, Ulrich, Hammett, Newsted)** Csaba \"The Hut\" Petocz – engineering* Tracks 6–7:** Metallica (Hetfield, Ulrich, Burton, Hammett), Mark Whitaker – production** Jeffrey \"Nick\" Norman – engineering* Tracks 8–9** Not produced** Mike Clink, Toby \"Rage\" Wright – engineering** Flemming Rasmussen – rough mixing* Track 10** \"Kind of produced\" by Metallica (Hetfield, Ulrich, Hammett, Newsted)** Toby \"Rage\" Wright – engineering* Tracks 11–12** \"Roughly produced\" by Bob Rock with Hetfield & Ulrich** Randy Staub – engineering* Tracks 13–16** Not produced** Randy Staub – mixing** George Marino – remastering* Andie Airfix – album design* Anton Corbijn – front cover photography, additional photography*Ross Halfin – back cover photography, additional photography* Mark Leialoha – additional photography* David Fricke – liner notes"
],
[
"Charts",
"===Album===+Weekly chart performance for ''Garage Inc.'' Chart (1998–99) PeakpositionAustralian Albums (ARIA)2Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)3Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)9Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)31 Danish Albums (Hitlisten)21Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)8Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista)1French Albums (SNEP)9German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)1 Italian Albums (''Musica e Dischi'')22Mexican Albums (Top 100 Mexico)97New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)3Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)1Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE)11Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)10Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)1UK Albums (OCC)29===Year-end charts===+1998 year-end chart performance for ''Garage Inc.''Chart (1998)PositionAustralian Albums (ARIA)36Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)73Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)59+1999 year-end chart performance for ''Garage Inc.''Chart (1999)Position Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria) 33 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders) 74Canadian Albums (''RPM'') 77 Dutch Albums (MegaCharts) 68German Albums Chart21 US ''Billboard'' 200 27===Singles=== Year Single Chart Position 1998 \"Turn the Page\" Mainstream Rock Tracks1 1999 \"Die, Die My Darling\" Mainstream Rock Tracks26 1999 \"Turn the Page\" Modern Rock Tracks39 1999 \"Whiskey in the Jar\" Mainstream Rock Tracks4===Sales and certifications===In the U.S., ''Garage Inc.'' sold 426,500 units in the first week of release, making Metallica's fourth straight debut surpassing 400,000 copies.",
"Still, the million-plus record breaking debut of Garth Brooks' ''Double Live'' made ''Garage Inc.'' land only at second on the ''Billboard 200''."
],
[
"Awards",
"===Grammy Awards=== Year Winner Category 1999 \"Whiskey in the Jar\" Best Hard Rock Performance"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Information about the album on the official website"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"S&M (album)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''S&M''''' (an abbreviation of '''''Symphony and Metallica''''') is a live album by American thrash metal band Metallica, with the San Francisco Symphony conducted by Michael Kamen.",
"It was recorded on April 21 and 22, 1999, at The Berkeley Community Theatre.",
"This is the final Metallica album to feature bassist Jason Newsted."
],
[
"Album information",
"''S&M'' contains performances of Metallica songs with additional symphonic accompaniment, composed by Michael Kamen, who also conducted the orchestra during the concert.",
"According to James Hetfield, the idea to combine heavy metal with an epic classical approach was Cliff Burton's idea.",
"His love of classical music, especially of Johann Sebastian Bach, can be found in many instrumental parts and melodic characteristics in Metallica's songwriting, including songs from ''Ride the Lightning'' (1984) and ''Master of Puppets'' (1986).",
"Kamen, who arranged and conducted the orchestral background tracks for \"Nothing Else Matters\", met the band at the 1992 Grammy award show for the first time, and after hearing the \"Elevator version\" of the song, suggested the band perform with a whole orchestra; the band, however, did not take him up on the offer until seven years later.",
"Lars Ulrich's favorite band Deep Purple, whom he colorfully inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2016, is noted for having kicked off this kind of approach 30 years before, in ''Concerto for Group and Orchestra'' (1969), although it had actually been done multiple times before, most notably with the Moody Blues' ''Days of Future Passed'' in 1967.In addition to songs from previous albums spanning ''Ride the Lightning'' through ''Reload'', there are two new compositions: \"No Leaf Clover\" and \"−Human\".",
"\"The Ecstasy of Gold\" by Ennio Morricone, Metallica's entrance music, was played live by the orchestra.",
"\"No Leaf Clover\" has since been performed by Metallica in concert, using a recording of the orchestral prelude.Changes were made to the lyrics of some songs, most notably the removal of the second verse and chorus of \"The Thing That Should Not Be\" and playing the third verse in its place.The \"S\" in the stylized \"S&M\" on the album cover is a backwards treble clef, while the \"M\" is taken from Metallica's logo.The drum kit Ulrich used on the album currently resides in a Guitar Center in San Francisco."
],
[
"Critical reception",
"*''Rolling Stone'' (January 20, 2000, pp.",
"57–59) - 3 stars out of 5 - \"...create the most crowded, ceiling-rattling basement rec room in rock....in its sheer awesomeness...the live performance succeeded....the monster numbers benefit from supersizing.",
"The effect is more one of timelessness...\"*''Spin'' (February 2000, pp.",
"114–5) – 8 out of 10 – \"...makes their tempo and texture dynamics...into a topic in and off of itself, a deep evocation of bad-voodoo creeping willies culminating in 'One' and 'Enter Sandman'....Freed from ritualized superhuman extremism, it builds a soundtrack to everyday life.",
"\"*''Entertainment Weekly'' (December 3, 1999, p. 102) – \"Buttressed by grim strings, creaky horns, and thundering timpani, staples...creep with fearful new dimension, like an old Posada print come to life.\"",
"– Rating: B*''Q'' (February 2000, p. 86) – 3 stars out of 5 – \"...another just about forgivable flirtation with Spinal Tap-esque lunacy....a fine hit-heavy live LP with bolted-on bombast from the S.F.",
"Symphony....Michael Kamen's scores swoop and soar with impressive portent throughout.",
"\"*''CMJ'' (December 20, 1999, p. 24) – \"...stunning....orchestral renditions of hits from the band's '90s output.",
"\"*''S&M'' was included in the book ''1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die''.",
"*''NME'' ranked the album 48th on its list of 50 Greatest Live Albums.",
"*''Metal Hammer'' magazine named it one of the 20 best metal albums of 1999.===Accolades=== Year Winner Category1999''S&M''Metal Edge Readers' Choice Award for Compilation Album of the Year2000''S&M'' ARTIST Direct Online Music Award for Favorite Turn-It-Up-Loud CD2000''S&M''California Music Award for Arthur M. Sohcot Award for Excellence 2001 \"The Call of Ktulu\" Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance"
],
[
"Commercial performance",
"''S&M'' sold 300,000 units in the first week of release, and went on to sell a total of 2.5 million copies in the US.",
"the album had been certified 5× platinum."
],
[
"20th anniversary",
"After Kamen's death in 2003, Metallica did not revisit the S&M concept in any further performances or recording work for years.",
"However, the band announced on March 18, 2019, that they would hold a concert with the San Francisco Symphony at the Chase Center on September 6 of that year to commemorate the 20th anniversary with a single-night concert, headed by Michael Tilson Thomas as music director.",
"They later added a second concert on September 8.The shows included many songs from the original S&M performances, as well as renditions of songs that had been released since then.",
"In August, it was announced that a film of the concerts would receive a limited worldwide theatrical release.",
"The concert was given a limited release and has grossed over 5.5 million dollars.",
"In August 2020, the band released the two 20th anniversary performances as an album, video, and box set entitled ''S&M2''."
],
[
"Track listing"
],
[
"Video release",
"Metallica also filmed and released the concert in DVD and VHS with direction by Wayne Isham.",
"The VHS set has only the concert video, while the double DVD set has 5.1 sound (also: 2.0 band+orchestra, 2.0 band-only and 2.0 orchestra-only), 41 minute documentary about the concert, and two \"No Leaf Clover\" music videos: \"Slice & Dice\" version and the \"Maestro Edit\".",
"The DVD also contains four songs with multi-angles where each band member can be viewed individually: \"Of Wolf and Man\", \"Fuel\", \"Sad But True\", and \"Enter Sandman\"."
],
[
"Personnel",
"'''Metallica'''* James Hetfield – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, electro-acoustic guitar in \"Nothing Else Matters\"; first solo in \"Master of Puppets\", solo on \"Nothing Else Matters\", outro solo in \"The Outlaw Torn\" * Kirk Hammett – lead guitar, backing vocals, sitar on \"Wherever I May Roam\"* Jason Newsted – bass guitar, backing vocals* Lars Ulrich – drums'''Video production'''* Wayne Isham – video director* Bart Lipton – video producer* Dana Marshall – video producer'''San Francisco Symphony'''* Michael Kamen – orchestral arrangements and conducting* John Kieser – general manager* Eric Achen, Joshua Garrett, Douglas Hull, Jonathan Ring, Bruce Roberts, Robert Ward, James Smelser – French horns* David Teie principal, Richard Andaya, Barara Bogatin, Jill Rachuy Brindel, David Goldblatt – cello* Jeremy Constant concertmaster, Daniel Banner, Enrique Bocedi, Paul Brancato, Catherine Down, Bruce Freifeld, Connie Gantsweg, Michael Gerling, Frances Jeffrey, Robert Zelnick, Yukiko Kamei, Naomi Kazama, Kum Mo Kim, Yasuko Hattori, Melissa Kleinbart, Mo Kobialka, Daniel Kobialka, Rudolph Kremer, Kelly Leon-Pearce, Diane Nicholeris, Florin Parvulescu, Anne Pinsker, Victor Romasevich, Philip Santos, Peter Shelton – violins* Chris Bogios, Glenn Fischthal, Andrew McCandless, Craig Morris – trumpets* Stephen Paulson, Steven Dibner, Rob Weir – bassoons* Steven Braunstein – contrabassoon* Charles Chandler, Laurence Epstein, Chris Gilbert, William Ritchen, Stephen Tramontozzi, S. Mark Wright – double basses* Anthony J. Cirone, Ray Froelich, Thomas Hemphill, Artie Storch – percussion* Don Ehrlich, Gina Feinauer, David Gaudry, Christina King, Yun Jie Liu, Seth Mausner, Nanci Severance, Geraldine Walther – violas* John Engelkes, Tom Hornig, Paul Welcomer, Jeff Budin – trombones* Julie Ann Giacobassi, Eugene Izotov, Pamela Smith – oboes* Russ deLuna – English horn* David Herbert – timpani* Linda Lukas, Tim Day, Robin McKee – flutes* David Neuman, Carey Bell, Luis Beez – clarinets* Catherine Payne – piccolo* Douglas Rioth – harp* Robin Sutherland – keyboards* Peter Wahrhaftig – tuba'''Technical personnel'''* Bob Rock – producer, engineer*James Hetfield – producer*Lars Ulrich – producer*Michael Kamen – producer, orchestration, arranger, liner notes, music director* Randy Staub – engineer, mixing*Steve McLaughlin – engineer, recording* George Marino – mastering* Billy Bowers – digital editing*Paul DeCarli – digital editing*Mike Gillies – digital editing*Darren Grahn – digital editing, assistant* John Vrtacic – technical assistance* James Brett – assistant, music preparation*Billy Konkel – assistant*Leff Lefferts – assistant*Kent Matcke – assistant* Geoffrey Alexander – orchestration* Ted Allen – orchestration*Pete Anthony – orchestration*Chris Wagner – orchestration*Bruce Babcock - orchestration*Chris Boardman – orchestration*Bob Elhai – orchestration*Blake Neely – orchestration, music copyist, music preparation*Jonathan Sacks – orchestration*Brad Warnaar – orchestration*Michael Price – music preparation* Vic Fraser – music copyist* Andie Airfix – design* Anton Corbijn – photography"
],
[
"Chart positions",
"===Weekly charts===+Weekly chart performance for ''S&M''Chart (1999–2000)PeakpositionDanish Albums (Hitlisten)3Europe (European Top 100 Albums)2German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)1Irish Albums (IRMA)42 Italian Albums (''Musica e Dischi'')26Mexican Albums (Top 100 Mexico)55 Portuguese Albums (AFP)1Spanish Albums (AFYVE)6Chart (2020)Peakposition===Year-end charts===+1999 year-end chart performance for ''S&M''Chart (1999)Position Australian Albums (ARIA)42 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)58 Danish Albums (Hitlisten)96 Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)54 German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)89+2000 year-end chart performance for ''S&M''Chart (2000)Position Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)18 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)29 Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)62Canadian Albums (Nielsen SoundScan)112 Danish Albums (Hitlisten) 50 Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)23 European Albums (''Music & Media'')23 German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)8South Korean International Albums (MIAK)32 Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)17 US ''Billboard'' 20030+2020 year-end chart performance for ''S&M''Chart (2020)Position Polish Albums (ZPAV)27+2021 year-end chart performance for ''S&M''Chart (2021)Position Polish Albums (ZPAV)36===Singles=== Year Single Chart Position 1999 \"No Leaf Clover\" Mainstream Rock Tracks 1 Modern Rock Tracks 18 2000 ''Billboard'' Hot 100 74"
],
[
"Certifications and sales"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Metallica"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Metallica''' is an American heavy metal band.",
"The band was formed in 1981 in Los Angeles by vocalist and guitarist James Hetfield and drummer Lars Ulrich, and has been based in San Francisco for most of its career.",
"The band's fast tempos, instrumentals and aggressive musicianship made them one of the founding \"big four\" bands of thrash metal, alongside Megadeth, Anthrax and Slayer.",
"Metallica's current lineup comprises founding members and primary songwriters Hetfield and Ulrich, longtime lead guitarist Kirk Hammett and bassist Robert Trujillo.",
"Guitarist Dave Mustaine, who formed Megadeth after being fired from Metallica, and bassists Ron McGovney, Cliff Burton and Jason Newsted are former members of the band.Metallica first found commercial success with the release of its third album, ''Master of Puppets'' (1986), which is cited as one of the heaviest metal albums and the band's best work.",
"The band's next album, ''...And Justice for All'' (1988), gave Metallica its first Grammy Award nomination.",
"Its fifth album, ''Metallica'' (1991), was a turning point for the band that saw them transition from their thrash roots; it appealed to a more mainstream audience, achieving substantial commercial success and selling more than 16 million copies in the United States to date, making it the best-selling album of the SoundScan era.",
"After experimenting with different genres and directions in subsequent releases, Metallica returned to its thrash metal roots with its ninth album, ''Death Magnetic'' (2008), which drew similar praise to that of the band's earlier albums.",
"The band's eleventh and most recent album, ''72 Seasons'', was released in 2023.In 2000, Metallica led the case against the peer-to-peer file sharing service Napster, in which the band and several other artists filed lawsuits against the service for sharing their copyright-protected material without consent, eventually reaching a settlement.",
"Metallica was the subject of the acclaimed 2004 documentary film ''Metallica: Some Kind of Monster'', which documented the troubled production of the band's eighth album, ''St.",
"Anger'' (2003), and the internal struggles within the band at the time.",
"In 2009, Metallica was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.",
"The band co-wrote the screenplay for and starred alongside Dane DeHaan in the 2013 concert film ''Metallica: Through the Never'', in which the band performed live against a fictional thriller storyline.Metallica has released eleven studio albums, four live albums (including two performances with the San Francisco Symphony), twelve video albums, one cover album, two extended plays, 37 singles and 39 music videos.",
"The band has won ten Grammy Awards from 26 nominations and had six consecutive studio albums – from ''Metallica'' through ''Hardwired... to Self-Destruct'' (2016) – debut at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200.Metallica ranks as one of the most commercially successful bands of all time, having sold more than 125 million albums worldwide .",
"Metallica has been listed as one of the greatest artists of all time by magazines such as ''Rolling Stone'', which ranked the band in 61st place on its list of 100 greatest artists of all time.",
", Metallica is the third-best-selling music artist since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991, selling 58 million albums in the United States."
],
[
"History",
"===1981–1984: Formation, early years, and ''Kill 'Em All''===The classic Metallica logo, designed by James Hetfield and used on most of the band's releasesMetallica was formed in Los Angeles in late 1981 when Danish drummer Lars Ulrich placed an advertisement in a Los Angeles newspaper, ''The Recycler'', which read, \"Drummer looking for other metal musicians to jam with Tygers of Pan Tang, Diamond Head and Iron Maiden.\"",
"Guitarists James Hetfield and Hugh Tanner of Leather Charm answered the advertisement.",
"Although he had not formed a band, Ulrich asked Metal Blade Records founder Brian Slagel if he could record a song for the label's upcoming compilation album, ''Metal Massacre''.",
"Slagel accepted, and Ulrich recruited Hetfield to sing and play rhythm guitar.",
"The band was officially formed on October 28, 1981, five months after Ulrich and Hetfield first met.The band name came from Ulrich's friend Ron Quintana, who was brainstorming names for a fanzine and was considering ''MetalMania'' or ''Metallica''.",
"After hearing the two names, Ulrich wanted the latter for his band, so he suggested Quintana use ''MetalMania'' instead.",
"Dave Mustaine replied to an advertisement for a lead guitarist; Ulrich and Hetfield recruited him after seeing his expensive guitar equipment.",
"In early 1982, Metallica recorded its first original song, \"Hit the Lights\", for the ''Metal Massacre I'' compilation.",
"Hetfield sang and played both bass and rhythm guitar, while Lars Ulrich played drums and Lloyd Grant was credited with a guitar solo.",
"''Metal Massacre I'' was released on June 14, 1982; early pressings listed the band incorrectly as \"Mettallica\", angering the band.",
"The song generated word of mouth, and the band played its first live performance on March 14, 1982, at Radio City in Anaheim, California, with newly recruited bassist Ron McGovney.",
"Their first live success came early; they were chosen to open for British heavy metal band Saxon at one gig of their 1982 U.S. tour.",
"This was Metallica's second gig.",
"Metallica recorded its first demo, ''Power Metal'', whose name was inspired by Quintana's early business cards, in early 1982.The term \"thrash metal\" was coined in February 1984 by ''Kerrang!''",
"journalist Malcolm Dome in reference to Anthrax's song \"Metal Thrashing Mad\".",
"Prior to this, Hetfield referred to Metallica's sound as \"power metal\".",
"In late 1982, Ulrich and Hetfield attended a show at the West Hollywood nightclub Whisky a Go Go, which featured bassist Cliff Burton in the band Trauma.",
"The two were \"blown away\" by Burton's use of a wah-wah pedal and asked him to join Metallica.",
"Hetfield and Mustaine wanted McGovney to leave because they thought he \"didn't contribute anything, he just followed.\"",
"Although Burton initially declined the offer, by the end of the year, he had accepted on the condition that the band move to El Cerrito in the San Francisco Bay Area.",
"Metallica's first live performance with Burton was at the nightclub The Stone in March 1983, and the first recording to feature Burton was the ''Megaforce'' demo (1983).Metallica was ready to record their debut album, but when Metal Blade was unable to cover the cost, they began looking for other options.",
"Concert promoter Jonathan \"Jonny Z\" Zazula, who had heard the demo ''No Life 'til Leather'' (1982), offered to broker a record deal between Metallica and New York City–based record labels.",
"After those record labels showed no interest, Zazula borrowed enough money to cover the recording budget and signed Metallica to his own label, Megaforce Records.Dave Mustaine (pictured in 2009) went on to found rival band Megadeth after being fired from the band in 1983.In May 1983, Metallica traveled to Rochester, New York, to record its debut album, ''Metal Up Your Ass'', which was produced by Paul Curcio.",
"The other members decided to eject Mustaine from the band because of his drug and alcohol abuse and violent behavior just before the recording sessions on April 11, 1983.Exodus guitarist Kirk Hammett replaced Mustaine the same afternoon.",
"Metallica's first live performance with Hammett was on April 16, 1983, at a nightclub in Dover, New Jersey, called The Showplace; the support act was Anthrax's original lineup, which included Dan Lilker and Neil Turbin.",
"This was the first time the two bands performed live together.Kirk Hammett (pictured in 2010) replaced Mustaine in 1983, and has been with the band ever since.Mustaine, who went on to form Megadeth, has expressed his dislike for Hammett in interviews, saying Hammett \"stole\" his job.",
"Mustaine was \"pissed off\" because he believes Hammett became popular by playing guitar leads that Mustaine had actually written.",
"In a 1985 interview with ''Metal Forces'', Mustaine said, \"It's real funny how Kirk Hammett ripped off every lead break I'd played on that ''No Life 'til Leather'' tape and got voted No.",
"1 guitarist in your magazine.\"",
"On Megadeth's debut album, ''Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!''",
"(1985), Mustaine included the song \"Mechanix\", which Metallica had previously reworked and retitled \"The Four Horsemen\" on ''Kill 'Em All''.",
"Mustaine said he did this to \"straighten Metallica up\" because Metallica referred to Mustaine as a drunk and said he could not play guitar.Because of conflicts with its record label and the distributors' refusal to release an album titled ''Metal Up Your Ass'', the album was renamed ''Kill 'Em All''.",
"It was released on Megaforce Records in the U.S. and on Music for Nations in Europe, and peaked at number 155 on the ''Billboard'' 200 in 1986.Although the album was not initially a financial success, it earned Metallica a growing fan base in the underground metal scene.",
"To support the release, Metallica embarked on the Kill 'Em All for One tour with Raven.",
"In February 1984, Metallica supported Venom on the Seven Dates of Hell tour, during which the bands performed in front of 7,000 people at the Aardschok Festival in Zwolle, Netherlands.===1984–1986: ''Ride the Lightning'', ''Master of Puppets'', and Burton's death===Cliff Burton (pictured in 1985) replaced Ron McGovney as the bassist in 1982 and played with the band until his death in 1986.Metallica recorded its second studio album, ''Ride the Lightning'', at Sweet Silence Studios in Copenhagen, Denmark, from February to March 1984.It was released in August 1984 and reached number 100 on the ''Billboard'' 200.A French printing press mistakenly printed green covers for the album, which are now considered collectors' items.",
"Mustaine received writing credit for \"Ride the Lightning\" and \"The Call of Ktulu\".Elektra Records A&R director Michael Alago and co-founder of Q-Prime Management Cliff Burnstein attended a Metallica concert in September 1984; they were impressed with the performance, signed Metallica to Elektra and made the band a client of Q-Prime Management.",
"Metallica's growing success was such that the band's British label, Music for Nations, released \"Creeping Death\" as a limited-edition single, which sold 40,000 copies as an import in the U.S. Two of the three songs on the record – cover versions of Diamond Head's \"Am I Evil?\"",
"and Blitzkrieg's \"Blitzkrieg\" – appeared on the 1988 Elektra reissue of ''Kill 'Em All''.",
"Metallica embarked on its first major European tour with Tank to an average crowd of 1,300.Returning to the U.S., it embarked on a co-headlining tour with W.A.S.P.",
"and support from Armored Saint.",
"Metallica played its largest show at the Monsters of Rock festival at Donington Park, England, on August 17, 1985, with Bon Jovi and Ratt, playing to 70,000 people.",
"At a show in Oakland, California, at the Day on the Green festival, the band played to a crowd of 60,000.Metallica's third studio album, ''Master of Puppets'', was recorded at Sweet Silence Studios from September to December 1985 and released in March 1986.The album reached number 29 on the ''Billboard'' 200 and spent 72 weeks on the chart.",
"It was the band's first album to be certified Gold on November 4, 1986, and was certified six times Platinum in 2003.Steve Huey of AllMusic considered the album \"the band's greatest achievement\".",
"Following the release of the album, Metallica supported Ozzy Osbourne on a U.S. tour.",
"Hetfield broke his wrist while skateboarding; he continued with the tour, performing vocals, with guitar technician John Marshall playing rhythm guitar.On September 27, 1986, during the European leg of Metallica's Damage, Inc. Tour, members drew cards to determine which bunks on the tour bus they would sleep in.",
"Burton won and chose to sleep in Hammett's bunk.",
"At around sunrise near Dörarp, Sweden, the bus driver lost control and skidded, which caused the bus to overturn several times.",
"Ulrich, Hammett and Hetfield sustained no serious injuries; however, Burton was pinned under the bus and died.",
"Hetfield said:I saw the bus lying right on him.",
"I saw his legs sticking out.",
"I freaked.",
"The bus driver, I recall, was trying to yank the blanket out from under him to use for other people.",
"I just went, \"Don't fucking do that!\"",
"I already wanted to kill the bus driver.",
"I don't know if he was drunk or if he hit some ice.",
"All I knew was, he was driving and Cliff wasn't alive anymore.===1986–1994: Newsted joins, ''...And Justice for All'' and ''Metallica''===Jason Newsted (pictured in 2013) joined Metallica soon after Cliff Burton's death in 1986.Burton's death left Metallica's future in doubt.",
"The three remaining members decided Burton would want them to carry on, and with the Burton family's blessings, the band sought a replacement.",
"Roughly 40 people – including Hammett's childhood friend, Les Claypool of Primus; Troy Gregory of Prong; and Jason Newsted, formerly of Flotsam and Jetsam – auditioned for the band to fill Burton's spot.",
"Newsted learned Metallica's entire setlist; after the audition, Metallica invited him to Tommy's Joynt in San Francisco.",
"Hetfield, Ulrich and Hammett decided on Newsted as Burton's replacement; his first live performance with Metallica was at the Country Club in Reseda, California.",
"The members initiated Newsted by tricking him into eating a ball of wasabi.",
"The band finished its tour in February 1987.After Newsted joined Metallica, the band left their El Cerrito practice space – a suburban house formerly rented by sound engineer Mark Whitaker and dubbed \"the Metalli-mansion\" – and relocated to the adjacent cities of Berkeley and Albany before eventually settling in the Marin County city of San Rafael, north of San Francisco.",
"In March 1987, Hetfield again broke his wrist while skateboarding, forcing the band to cancel an appearance on ''Saturday Night Live''.",
"In August 1987, an all-covers extended play (EP), titled ''The $5.98 E.P.",
"- Garage Days Re-Revisited'', was released.",
"The EP was recorded in an effort to use the band's newly constructed recording studio, test Newsted's talents, and to relieve grief and stress following the death of Burton.",
"A video titled ''Cliff 'Em All'' commemorating Burton's three years in Metallica was released in 1987; the video included bass solos, home videos and pictures.Metallica performing during its Damaged Justice Tour in 1988Metallica's first studio album since Burton's death, ''...And Justice for All'', was recorded from January to May 1988 and released in September.",
"The album was a commercial success, reaching number 6 on the ''Billboard'' 200, and was the band's first album to enter the top 10.The album was certified Platinum nine weeks after its release.",
"There were complaints about the production, however; Steve Huey of AllMusic said Ulrich's drums were clicking more than thudding, and the guitars \"buzz thinly\".",
"To promote the album, Metallica embarked on a tour called Damaged Justice.In 1989, Metallica received its first Grammy Award nomination for ''...And Justice for All'' in the new Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance Vocal or Instrument category.",
"Metallica was the favorite to win, but the award was given to Jethro Tull for the album ''Crest of a Knave''.",
"The award was controversial with fans and the press; Metallica was standing off-stage waiting to receive the award after performing the song \"One\".",
"Jethro Tull had been advised by its manager not to attend the ceremony because he was expecting Metallica to win.",
"The award was named in ''Entertainment Weekly'' \"Grammy's 10 Biggest Upsets\" list.Following the release of ''...And Justice for All'', Metallica released its debut music video for the song \"One\", which the band performed in an abandoned warehouse.",
"The footage was remixed with the film ''Johnny Got His Gun''.",
"Rather than organize an ongoing licensing deal, Metallica purchased the rights to the film.",
"The remixed video was submitted to MTV with an alternative, performance-only version that was held back in case MTV banned the remixed version.",
"MTV accepted the remixed version; the video was viewers' first exposure to Metallica.",
"In 1999, it was voted number 38 in MTV's \"Top 100 Videos of All Time\" countdown and was featured on the network's 25th-anniversary edition of ''ADD Video'', which showcased the most popular videos on MTV in the last 25 years.In October 1990, Metallica entered One on One Recording's studio in North Hollywood to record its next album.",
"Bob Rock, who had worked with Aerosmith, The Cult, Bon Jovi and Mötley Crüe, was hired as the producer.",
"''Metallica'' – also known as ''The Black Album'' – was remixed three times, cost US$1 million, and ended Hammett and Ulrich's marriages.",
"Although the release was delayed until 1991, ''Metallica'' debuted at number one in 10 countries, selling 650,000 units in the U.S. during its first week.",
"The album brought Metallica mainstream attention; it has been certified 16 times Platinum in the U.S., which makes it the 25th-best-selling album in the country.",
"The making of ''Metallica'' and the following tour was documented in ''A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica''.",
"The tour in support of the album, called the Wherever We May Roam Tour, lasted 14 months and included dates in the U.S., Japan and the U.K.",
"In September 1991, 1.6 million rock music fans converged in Moscow to enjoy the first open-air rock concert to be held in the former Soviet Union; it was part of the Monsters of Rock series.",
"However, in a June 2020 interview, Lars estimated the attendance at about a half million during their time slot.",
"In April 1992, Metallica appeared at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert and performed a three-song set.",
"Hetfield later performed \"Stone Cold Crazy\" with the remaining members of Queen and Tony Iommi.On August 8, 1992, during the co-headlining Guns N' Roses/Metallica Stadium Tour at the Olympic Stadium in Montreal, Hetfield suffered second- and third-degree burns to his arms, face, hands and legs.",
"There had been some confusion with the new pyrotechnics setup, which resulted in Hetfield walking into a flame during \"Fade to Black\".",
"Newsted said Hetfield's skin was \"bubbling like on ''The Toxic Avenger''\".",
"Metallica returned to the stage 17 days later with guitar technician and Metal Church member John Marshall replacing Hetfield on guitar for the remainder of the tour, although Hetfield was able to sing.",
"Later in 1993, Metallica went on the Nowhere Else to Roam Tour, playing five shows in Mexico City.",
"''Live Shit: Binge & Purge'', the band's first box set, was released in November 1993.The collection contains three live CDs, three home videos, and a book filled with riders and letters.===1994–2001: ''Load'', ''Reload'', Napster controversy and Newsted's departure===James Hetfield performing with the band during its tour for ''Load'' in 1996After almost three years of touring to promote ''Metallica'', including a headlining performance at Woodstock '94, Metallica returned to the studio to write and record its sixth studio album.",
"The band went on a brief hiatus in the summer of 1995 and played a short tour, Escape from the Studio '95, which comprised three outdoor shows, including a headline show at Donington Park supported by Slayer, Skid Row, Slash's Snakepit, Therapy?",
"and Corrosion of Conformity.",
"The band spent about a year writing and recording new songs, resulting in the release of ''Load'' in 1996.",
"''Load'' debuted at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200 and ARIA Charts; it was the band's second number one album.",
"The cover art, ''Blood and Semen III'', was created by Andres Serrano, who pressed a mixture of his own semen and blood between sheets of plexiglass.",
"The release marked another change in the band's musical direction and a new image; the band members' hair was cut.",
"Metallica headlined the alternative rock festival Lollapalooza festival in mid-1996.During early production of the album, the band had recorded enough material to fill a double album.",
"It was decided that half of the songs were to be released; the band would continue to work on the remaining songs and release them the following year.",
"This resulted in follow-up album, titled ''Reload''.",
"The cover art was again created by Serrano, this time using a mixture of blood and urine.",
"''Reload'', too, debuted at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200 and reached number two on the Top Canadian Album chart.",
"Hetfield said in the 2004 documentary film ''Metallica: Some Kind of Monster'' that the band initially thought some of the songs on these albums were of average quality; these were \"polished and reworked\" until judged releasable.",
"To promote ''Reload'', Metallica performed \"Fuel\" and \"The Memory Remains\" with Marianne Faithfull on NBC's ''Saturday Night Live'' in December 1997.In 1998, Metallica compiled a double album of cover songs, titled ''Garage Inc.'' The first disc contained newly recorded covers of songs by Diamond Head, Killing Joke, the Misfits, Thin Lizzy, Mercyful Fate, Black Sabbath and others, and the second disc featured the original version of ''The $5.98 E.P.",
"– Garage Days Re-Revisited'', which had become a scarce collectors' item.",
"The album entered the ''Billboard'' 200 at number two.On April 21 and 22, 1999, Metallica recorded two performances with the San Francisco Symphony, which was conducted by Michael Kamen, who had previously worked with producer Rock on \"Nothing Else Matters\".",
"Kamen approached Metallica in 1991 with the idea of pairing the band's music with a symphony orchestra.",
"Kamen and his staff of over 100 composed additional orchestral material for Metallica songs.",
"Metallica wrote two new Kamen-scored songs for the event: \"No Leaf Clover\" and \"-Human\".",
"The audio recording and concert footage were released in 1999 as the album and concert film ''S&M''.",
"It entered the ''Billboard'' 200 at number two and the Australian ARIA charts and Top Internet Albums chart at number one.In 2000, Metallica discovered that a demo of its song \"I Disappear\", which was supposed to be released in combination with the ''Mission: Impossible II'' soundtrack, was receiving radio airplay.",
"Tracing the source of the leak, the band found the file on the Napster peer-to-peer file-sharing network and also found that the band's entire catalogue was freely available.",
"Metallica filed a lawsuit at the U.S. District Court, Central District of California, alleging that Napster violated three areas of the law: copyright infringement, unlawful use of digital audio interface device and the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO).Lars Ulrich led the case against Napster for Metallica.Ulrich provided a statement to the Senate Judiciary Committee regarding copyright infringement on July 11, 2000.Federal Judge Marilyn Hall Patel ordered the site to place a filter on the program within 72 hours or be shut down.",
"A settlement between Metallica and Napster was reached when German media conglomerate Bertelsmann BMG showed interest in purchasing the rights to Napster for $94 million.",
"Under the terms of settlement, Napster agreed to block users who shared music by artists who do not want their music shared.",
"On June 3, 2002, Napster filed for Chapter 11 protection under U.S. bankruptcy laws.",
"On September 3, 2002, an American bankruptcy judge blocked the sale of Napster to Bertelsmann and forced Napster to liquidate its assets, according to Chapter 7 of the U.S. bankruptcy laws.At the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards, Ulrich appeared with host Marlon Wayans in a skit that criticized the idea of using Napster to share music.",
"Wayans played a college student listening to Metallica's \"I Disappear\".",
"Ulrich walked in and asked for an explanation, and he responded to Wayans' excuse that using Napster was just \"sharing\" by saying that Wayans' idea of sharing was \"borrowing things that were not yours without asking.\"",
"He called in the Metallica road crew, who proceeded to confiscate all of Wayans' belongings, leaving him almost naked in an empty room.",
"Napster creator Shawn Fanning responded later in the ceremony by presenting an award wearing a Metallica shirt that read: \"I borrowed this shirt from a friend.",
"Maybe, if I like it, I'll buy one of my own.\"",
"Ulrich was later booed on stage at the award show when he introduced the final musical act, Blink-182.Longtime producer Bob Rock recorded bass for ''St.",
"Anger'' following Newsted's departure in 2001.Newsted left Metallica on January 17, 2001, just as plans were being made to enter the recording studio.",
"He said he left the band for \"private and personal reasons, and the physical damage I have done to myself over the years while playing the music that I love.\"",
"During a ''Playboy'' interview with Metallica, Newsted said he wanted to release an album with his side project, Echobrain.",
"Hetfield was opposed to the idea and said, \"When someone does a side project, it takes away from the strength of Metallica\" and that a side project is \"like cheating on your wife in a way.\"",
"Newsted said Hetfield had recorded vocals for a song used in the film ''South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut'', and appeared on two Corrosion of Conformity albums.",
"Hetfield replied: \"My name isn't on those records.",
"And I'm not out trying to sell them\" and raised questions such as, \"Where would it end?",
"Does he start touring with it?",
"Does he sell shirts?",
"Is it his band?",
"\"===2001–2006: ''Some Kind of Monster'', ''St.",
"Anger'', and Trujillo joins===In April 2001, filmmakers Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky began following Metallica to document the recording process of the band's next studio album.",
"Over two years they recorded more than 1,000 hours of footage.",
"On July 19, 2001, before preparations to enter the recording studio, Hetfield entered rehab to treat his \"alcoholism and other addictions\".",
"All recording plans were put on hold and the band's future was in doubt.",
"Hetfield left rehab on December 4, 2001, and the band returned to the recording studio on April 12, 2002.Hetfield was required to limit his work to four hours a day between noon and 4 pm, and to spend the rest of his time with his family.",
"The footage recorded by Berlinger and Sinofsky was compiled into the documentary ''Metallica: Some Kind of Monster'', which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2004.In the documentary, Newsted said his former bandmates' decision to hire a therapist to help solve their problems which he felt they could have solved on their own was \"really fucking lame and weak\".Robert Trujillo joined Metallica in 2003 after the recording of ''St.",
"Anger''.In June 2003, Metallica's eighth studio album, ''St.",
"Anger'', debuted at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200, and drew mixed reactions from critics.",
"Ulrich's \"steely\" sounding snare drum and the absence of guitar solos received particular criticism.",
"Kevin Forest Moreau of ''Shakingthrough.net'' said, \"the guitars stumble in a monotone of mid-level, processed rattle; the drums don't propel as much as struggle to disguise an all-too-turgid pace; and the rage is both unfocused and leavened with too much narcissistic navel-gazing\".",
"Brent DiCrescenzo of ''Pitchfork'' described it as \"an utter mess\".",
"However, ''Blender'' magazine called it the \"grimiest and grimmest of the band's Bob Rock productions\", and ''New York Magazine'' called it \"utterly raw and rocking\".",
"The title track, \"St. Anger\", won the Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 2004; it was used as the official theme song for WWE's ''SummerSlam 2003''.For the duration of ''St.",
"Anger''s recording period, producer Bob Rock played bass on the album and in several live shows at which Metallica performed during that time.",
"Once the record was completed, the band started to hold auditions for Newsted's permanent replacement.",
"Bassists Pepper Keenan, Jeordie White, Scott Reeder, Eric Avery, Danny Lohner, and Chris Wyseamong othersauditioned for the role.",
"After three months of auditions, Robert Trujillo, formerly of Suicidal Tendencies and Ozzy Osbourne's band, was chosen as the new bassist.",
"Newsted, who had joined Canadian thrash metal band Voivod by that time, was Trujillo's replacement in Osbourne's band during the 2003 Ozzfest tour, which included Voivod.Before the band's set at the 2004 Download Festival, Ulrich was rushed to the hospital after having an anxiety seizure and was unable to perform.",
"Hetfield searched for last-minute volunteers to replace Ulrich.",
"Slayer drummer Dave Lombardo and Slipknot drummer Joey Jordison volunteered.",
"Lombardo performed \"Battery\" and \"The Four Horsemen\", Ulrich's drum technician Flemming Larsen performed \"Fade to Black\", and Jordison performed the remainder of the set.",
"Having toured for two years in support of ''St.",
"Anger'' on the Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003 and the Madly in Anger with the World Tour, with multi-platinum rock band Godsmack in support, Metallica took a break from performing and spent most of 2005 with friends and family.",
"The band opened for The Rolling Stones at SBC Park in San Francisco on November 13 and 15, 2005.===2006–2013: ''Death Magnetic'' and Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction===In February 2006, Metallica announced on its official website that after 15 years, long-time producer Bob Rock would not be producing the band's next studio album.",
"Instead, the band chose to work with producer Rick Rubin.",
"Around the same time, a petition signed by 1,500 fans was posted online in an attempt to encourage the band to prohibit Rock from producing Metallica albums, saying he had too much influence on the band's sound and musical direction.",
"Rock said the petition hurt his children's feelings; he said, \"sometimes, even with a great coach, a team keeps losing.",
"You have to get new blood in there.",
"\"In December 2006, Metallica released a DVD titled ''The Videos 1989–2004'', which sold 28,000 copies in its first week and entered the ''Billboard'' Top Videos chart at number three.",
"Metallica recorded a guitar-based interpretation of Ennio Morricone's \"The Ecstasy of Gold\" for a tribute album titled ''We All Love Ennio Morricone'', which was released in February 2007.The track received a Grammy nomination at the 50th Grammy Awards for the category \"Best Rock Instrumental Performance\".",
"A recording of \"The Ecstasy of Gold\" has been played to introduce Metallica's performances since the 1980s.Metallica performing in London in 2008Metallica scheduled the release of the album ''Death Magnetic'' as September 12, 2008, and the band filmed a music video for the album's first single, \"The Day That Never Comes\".",
"On September 2, 2008, a record store in France began selling copies of ''Death Magnetic'' nearly two weeks before its scheduled worldwide release date, which resulted in the album being made available on peer-to-peer clients.",
"This prompted the band's UK distributor Vertigo Records to officially release the album on September 10, 2008.Rumors of Metallica or Warner Bros. taking legal action against the French retailer were unconfirmed, though drummer Lars Ulrich responded to the leak by saying, \"...We're ten days from release.",
"I mean, from here, we're golden.",
"If this thing leaks all over the world today or tomorrow, happy days.",
"Happy days.",
"Trust me\", and, \"By 2008 standards, that's a victory.",
"If you'd told me six months ago that our record wouldn't leak until 10 days out, I would have signed up for that.",
"\"''Death Magnetic'' debuted at number one in the U.S., selling 490,000 units; Metallica became the first band to have five consecutive studio albums debut at number one in the history of the ''Billboard'' 200.A week after its release, ''Death Magnetic'' remained at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200 and the European album chart; it also became the fastest selling album of 2008 in Australia.",
"''Death Magnetic'' remained at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200 album chart for three consecutive weeks.",
"Metallica was one of two artists whose albumthe other being Jack Johnson's album ''Sleep Through the Static''remained on the ''Billboard'' 200 for three consecutive weeks at number one in 2008.",
"''Death Magnetic'' also remained at number one on ''Billboard'' Hard Rock, Modern Rock/Alternative and Rock album charts for five consecutive weeks.",
"The album reached number one in 32 countries outside the U.S., including the UK, Canada, and Australia.",
"In November 2008, Metallica's record deal with Warner Bros. ended and the band considered releasing its next album through the internet.On January 14, 2009, it was announced that Metallica would be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on April 4, 2009, and that former bassist Jason Newstedwho left the band in 2001would perform with the band at the ceremony.",
"Initially, it was announced that the matter had been discussed and that bassist Trujillo had agreed not to play because he \"wanted to see the Black Album band\".",
"However, during the band's set of \"Master of Puppets\" and \"Enter Sandman\", both Trujillo and Newsted were on stage.",
"Ray Burton, father of the late Cliff Burton, accepted the honor on his behalf.",
"Although he was not to be inducted with them, Metallica invited Dave Mustaine to take part in the induction ceremony.",
"Mustaine declined because of his touring commitments in Europe.Metallica performing in London in 2009Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth, and Anthrax performed on the same bill for the first time on June 16, 2010, at Warsaw Babice Airport, Poland, as a part of the Sonisphere Festival series.",
"The show in Sofia, Bulgaria, on June 22, 2010, was broadcast via satellite to cinemas.",
"The bands also played concerts in Bucharest on June 26, 2010, and Istanbul on June 27, 2010.On June 28, 2010, ''Death Magnetic'' was certified double platinum by the RIAA.",
"Metallica's World Magnetic Tour ended in Melbourne on November 21, 2010.The band had been touring for more than two years in support of ''Death Magnetic''.",
"To accompany the final tour dates in Australia and New Zealand, a live, limited edition EP of past performances in Australia called ''Six Feet Down Under'' was released.",
"The EP was followed by ''Six Feet Down Under (Part II)'', which was released on November 12, 2010.Part 2 contains a further eight songs recorded during the first two Oceanic Legs of the World Magnetic Tour.",
"On November 26, 2010, Metallica released a live EP titled ''Live at Grimey's'', which was recorded in June 2008 at Grimey's Record Store, just before the band's appearance at Bonnaroo Music Festival that year.In a June 2009 interview with Italy's Rock TV, Ulrich said Metallica was planning to continue touring until August 2010, and that there were no plans for a tenth album.",
"He said he was sure the band would collaborate with producer Rick Rubin again.",
"According to Blabbermouth.net, the band was considering recording its next album in the second half of 2011.In November 2010, during an interview with The Pulse of Radio, Ulrich said Metallica would return to writing in 2011.Ulrich said, \"There's a bunch of balls in the air for 2011, but I think the main one is we really want to get back to writing again.",
"We haven't really written since, what, '06, '07, and we want to get back to kind of just being creative again.",
"Right now we are going to just chill out and then probably start up again in, I'd say, March or April, and start probably putting the creative cap back on and start writing some songs.",
"\"Metallica performing in Sacramento in 2009On November 9, 2010, Metallica announced it would be headlining the Rock in Rio festival in Rio de Janeiro on September 25, 2011.On December 13, 2010, the band announced it would again play as part of the \"big four\" during the Sonisphere Festival at Knebworth House, Hertfordshire, on July 8, 2011.It was the first time all of the \"big four\" members played on the same stage in the UK.",
"On December 17, 2010, Another \"big four\" Sonisphere performance that would take place in France on July 9 was announced.",
"On January 25, 2011, another \"big four\" performance on April 23, 2011, at the Empire Polo Club in Indio, California, was announced.",
"It was the first time all of the \"big four\" members played on the same stage in the U.S. On February 17, 2011, a show in Gelsenkirchen, Germany, on July 2, 2011, was announced.",
"On February 22, a \"big four\" show in Milan on July 6, 2011, was announced.",
"On March 2, 2011, another \"big four\" concert, which took place in Gothenburg on July 3, 2011, was announced.",
"The final \"big four\" concert was in New York City, at Yankee Stadium, on September 14, 2011.In an interview at the April 2011 Big Four concert, Robert Trujillo said Metallica will work with Rick Rubin again as producer for the new album and were \"really excited to write some new music.",
"There's no shortage of riffage in Metallica world right now.\"",
"He added, \"The first album with Rick was also the first album for me, so in a lot of ways, you're kind of testing the water.",
"Now that we're comfortable with Rick and his incredible engineer, Greg Fidelman, who worked with Slayer, actually, on this last recordit's my heroit's a great team.",
"And it's only gonna better; I really believe that.",
"So I'm super-excited.\"",
"In June 2011, Rubin said Metallica had begun writing its new album.On June 15, 2011, Metallica announced that recording sessions with singer-songwriter Lou Reed had concluded.",
"The album, which was titled ''Lulu'', was recorded over several months and comprised ten songs based on Frank Wedekind's \"Lulu\" plays ''Earth Spirit'' and ''Pandora's Box''.",
"The album was released on October 31, 2011.The recording of the album was problematic at times; Lars Ulrich later said Lou Reed challenged him to a \"street fight\".",
"On October 16, 2011, Robert Trujillo confirmed that the band was back in the studio and writing new material.",
"He said, \"The writing process for the new Metallica album has begun.",
"We've been in the studio with Rick Rubin, working on a couple of things, and we're going to be recording during the most of next year.",
"\"Metallica performing in Bangalore in 2011Metallica was due to make its first appearance in India at the \"India Rocks\" concert, supporting the 2011 Indian Grand Prix.",
"However, the concert was canceled when the venue was proven to be unsafe.",
"Fans raided the stage during the event and the organizers were later arrested for fraud.",
"Metallica made its Indian debut in Bangalore on October 30, 2011.On November 10, it was announced that Metallica would headline the main stage on Saturday June 9, 2012, at the Download Festival at Donington Park and that the band would play ''The Black Album'' in its entirety.",
"Metallica celebrated its 30th anniversary by playing four shows at the Fillmore in San Francisco in December 2011.The shows were exclusive to Met Club members and tickets were charged at $6 each or $19.81 for all four nights.",
"The shows consisted of songs from the band's career and featured guest appearances by artists who had either helped or had influenced Metallica.",
"These shows were notable because Lloyd Grant, Dave Mustaine, Jason Newsted, Glenn Danzig, Ozzy Osbourne, Jerry Cantrell, Apocalyptica, members of Diamond Head, and King Diamond joined Metallica on stage for all appropriate songs.",
"In December 2011, Metallica began releasing songs that were written for ''Death Magnetic'' but were not included on the album online.",
"On December 13, 2011, the band released ''Beyond Magnetic'', a digital EP release exclusively on iTunes.",
"It was released on CD in January 2012.On February 7, 2012, Metallica announced that it would start a new music festival called Orion Music + More, which took place on June 23 and 24, 2012, in Atlantic City.",
"Metallica also confirmed that it would headline the festival on both days and would perform two of its most critically acclaimed albums in their entirety: ''The Black Album'' on one night, and ''Ride the Lightning'' on the other.",
"In a July 2012 interview with Canadian radio station 99.3 The Fox, Ulrich said Metallica would not release its new album until at least early 2014.In November 2012, Metallica left Warner Bros. Records and launched an independent record label, '''Blackened Recordings''', which will produce the band's future releases.",
"The band acquired the rights to all of its studio albums, which were all reissued through the new label.",
"Blackened releases were licensed through Warner subsidiary Rhino Entertainment in North America and internationally through Universal Music.",
"On September 20, 2012, Metallica announced via its official website that a new DVD containing footage of shows it performed in Quebec in 2009 would be released that December; fans would get the chance to vote for two setlists that would appear on the DVD.",
"The film, titled ''Quebec Magnetic'', was released in the U.S. on December 10, 2012.===2013–2019: ''Metallica: Through the Never'' and ''Hardwired... to Self-Destruct''===Metallica at the San Diego Comic-Con International in 2013In an interview with ''Classic Rock'' on January 8, 2013, Ulrich said regarding the band's upcoming album, \"What we're doing now certainly sounds like a continuation of ''Death Magnetic''\".",
"He also said, \"I love Rick Rubin.",
"We all love Rick.",
"We're in touch with Rick constantly.",
"We'll see where it goes.",
"It would stun me if the record came out in 2013.\"",
"Also in 2013, the band starred in a 3D concert film titled ''Metallica: Through the Never'', which was directed by Antal Nimród and was released in IMAX theaters on September 27.In an interview dated July 22, 2013, Ulrich told ''Ultimate Guitar'', \"2014 will be all about making a new Metallica record\"; he said the album will most likely be released during 2015.Kirk Hammett and Robert Trujillo later confirmed the band's intention to enter the studio.",
"At the second Orion Music + More festival held in Detroit, the band played under the name \"Dehaan\"a reference to actor Dane DeHaan, who starred in ''Metallica: Through the Never''.",
"The band performed its debut album ''Kill 'Em All'' in its entirety, celebrating the 30th anniversary of its release.On December 8, 2013, the band played a show called \"Freeze 'Em All\" in Antarctica, becoming the first band to play on all seven continents.",
"The performance was filmed and released as a live album the same month.At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in January 2014, Metallica performed \"One\" with Chinese pianist Lang Lang.",
"In March 2014, Metallica began a tour called \"Metallica By Request\", in which fans request songs for the band to perform.",
"A new song, titled \"Lords of Summer\" was written for the concerts and released as a \"first take\" demo in June 2014.In June 2014, the band headlined the Glastonbury Festival in an attempt to attract new fans.",
"Ulrich said, \"We have one shot, you never know if you'll be invited back\".",
"In November 2014, Metallica performed at the closing ceremony of BlizzCon 2014.In January 2015, Metallica announced a \"Metallica Night\" with the San Jose Sharks, which featured a Q&A session with the band and a charity auction benefiting the San Francisco Bay Chapter of the Sierra Club, but no performances.",
"They were announced to headline Lollapalooza in March 2015, returning to perform there for the first time in 20 years.",
"On May 2, 2015, Metallica performed their third annual Metallica Day at AT&T Park.",
"Metallica were also announced to play at X Games for the first time at X Games Austin 2015 in Austin, Texas.",
"On June 14, 2015, Hetfield and Hammett performed The Star-Spangled Banner live via electric guitars prior to game 5 of the NBA Finals between the Cleveland Cavaliers and Golden State Warriors at Oracle Arena in Oakland, California.",
"In late October, the band unveiled a new website with an introduction from Ulrich containing footage from the studio of the band working on new material.",
"On November 2, Metallica were announced to play \"The Night Before\" Super Bowl 50 at AT&T Park.",
"Metallica announced they would be opening the U.S. Bank Stadium on August 20, 2016, with Avenged Sevenfold and Volbeat as support.Metallica performing in London in 2017In April 2016, during the week leading up to Record Store Day, for which the band was its ambassador for 2016, Ulrich told ''Billboard'' that the band's expanded role within the music industry had played a part in the amount of time that it had taken to write and record the album.",
"\"The way we do things now is very different than the way we did things back in the days of ''Kill 'Em All'' and ''Ride the Lightning''.",
"Nowadays we like to do so many different things.\"",
"Ulrich was also optimistic that production of the album had almost reached its completion.",
"\"Unless something radical happens it would be difficult for me to believe that it won't come out in 2016\".",
"On August 18, 2016, the band announced via their website that their tenth studio album, ''Hardwired... to Self-Destruct'', would be released worldwide on November 18, 2016, via their independent label, Blackened Recordings.",
"They also unveiled the track listing, album artwork, and released a music video for the album's first single, \"Hardwired\".",
"The album was released as scheduled and debuted at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200.Metallica announced they would be touring the US and Canada in summer of 2017 for the WorldWired Tour.",
"The stadium tour also includes Avenged Sevenfold, Volbeat and Gojira as supporting acts.",
"On August 7, 2017, Metallica was invited by the San Francisco Giants again for the fifth annual \"Metallica Night\" with Hammett and Hetfield performing the national anthem.",
"In January 2018, the band announced that they would be reissuing ''The $5.98 E.P.",
"– Garage Days Re-Revisited'' on April 13 for Record Store Day, and the sixth annual \"Metallica Night\" was also announced a few weeks later, this time in April, with all proceeds going to the All Within My Hands Foundation, which the band created in late 2017.In February 2018, the band announced a second set of North American tour dates, most of which for cities that they had not visited in up to thirty years.===2019–present: Further activity and ''72 Seasons''===Metallica performing in Milan in 2019In an interview with Australian magazine ''The Music''s official podcast in March 2019, Trujillo said that Metallica had begun jamming on new material for its next studio album.",
"\"I'm excited about the next record because I believe it will also be a culmination of the two previous records and another journey.",
"There's no shortage of original ideas, that's the beauty of being in this band.\"",
"He estimated that the album would be released \"a lot sooner than the previous two did... this time around I think we'll be able to jump on it a lot quicker and jump in the studio and start working.",
"We've all vowed to get this one going sooner than later.\"",
"In an interview with Australian magazine ''Mixdown'' the following month, Hammett said that the band had tentative plans to enter the studio after the conclusion of its WorldWired Tour.",
"He stated, \"We're in our third year since ''Hardwired''.",
"Maybe we can get a bit more focus and go into the studio a bit sooner.\"",
"After not contributing any writing to ''Hardwired... to Self-Destruct'', Hammett said regarding his ideas for the new album, \"I have a ton of material.",
"I've over-compensated, so I'm ready to go anytime.",
"\"In March 2019, Metallica announced that its WorldWired Tour would continue into Australia and New Zealand in October with Slipknot in support.",
"Later that month, the band announced that it would perform at the grand opening of San Francisco's new Chase Center with the San Francisco Symphony in September to celebrate the twenty-year anniversary of ''S&M''.",
"The commemorative shows, titled ''S&M2'', were screened in more than 3,000 theaters worldwide on October 9; the event featured arrangements from the original ''S&M'' concerts as well as new arrangements for songs recorded since then and a cover of the Alexander Mosolov piece ''Iron Foundry'', and were conducted by Edwin Outwater and San Francisco Symphony music director Michael Tilson Thomas.",
"''S&M2'' went on to earn $5.5 million at the box office, making it the biggest global rock event cinema release of all time; a second screening was later announced for October 30 as a result.",
"In August 2020, the band announced that they would release the ''S&M2'' performances as an album, DVD and box set.In July 2019, Metallica announced a set of South American tour dates for April 2020 with Greta Van Fleet in support.",
"In September, ahead of that year's Global Citizen Festival, it was announced that Metallica would perform at the following year's festival in September 2020 alongside artists such as Billie Eilish, Miley Cyrus and Coldplay, in what would be the final event of Global Poverty Project's year-long Global Goal Live: The Possible Dream campaign.",
"The following day, on September 27, Metallica announced that Hetfield had re-entered a rehabilitation program and that its Australia/New Zealand tour would be postponed.",
"In a statement by Ulrich, Hammett and Trujillo, the band spoke of the devastation of the news, saying that Hetfield \"had been struggling with addiction on and off for many years\" and that all tickets would be fully refunded.",
"Ulrich later added that Hetfield was \"in the process of healing himself\", and that the band hoped to return to Australia and New Zealand in 2020.The band's other commitments, including a benefit concert in March 2020, were still expected to continue as planned; a further five US festival appearances were announced in October.",
"These shows were later postponed or cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic and to support Hetfield's recovery.In March 2020, the band began a series on YouTube and Facebook called ''#MetallicaMondays'', where they streamed full archived shows every Monday to relieve boredom while staying home and social distancing amid the pandemic.",
"In May 2020, while in quarantine, Metallica performed a virtual acoustic version of \"Blackened\", titled \"Blackened 2020\", which was later made available for download.In an interview with Marc Benioff in April 2020, Ulrich stated that Metallica could work on its next studio album while in quarantine.",
"Trujillo told ''The Vinyl Guide'' in June that the band was \"excited about cultivating new ideas\" for its new album.",
"\"We communicate every week, which is really great, so we have our connection intact ... what we've started doing is basically just really concentrating on our home studios and being creative from our homes and navigating through ideas and building on new ideas.",
"And that's where we're at right now\".",
"He also said that the band was working towards eventually entering a studio to record the album.On August 10, 2020, Metallica played a show at Gundlach-Bundschu Winery in Sonoma, California, which was only attended by a few crew members, and it was recorded and played for drive-in movies across the U.S. and Canada on August 29.In May 2021, the band announced that they would do one more ''#MetallicaMondays'' on May 24 to benefit their All Within My Hands Foundation.",
"The concert dates to September 6, 2018, in Lincoln, Nebraska.",
"On Labor Day, September 6, 2021, the band's All Within My Hands Foundation raised $377,450.Metallica teamed up with workwear brand Carhartt on the initiative, with the clothing brand donating all of their sales proceeds on the holiday to the band's Metallica Scholars initiative, which provides opportunities to people interested in pursuing essential workforce jobs.On November 28, 2022, the band released the single \"Lux Æterna\".",
"On January 19, 2023, Metallica released the second single titled \"Screaming Suicide\".",
"On March 1, 2023, Metallica released the third single titled \"If Darkness Had a Son\".",
"On March 30, 2023, Metallica released a music video for the album's title track, \"72 Seasons\".",
"The band released their eleventh studio album ''72 Seasons'' on April 14, 2023."
],
[
"Style and lyrical themes",
"Metallica's sound has been described as heavy metal, thrash metal, speed metal, and hard rock.",
"Metallica was influenced by early heavy metal and hard rock bands and artists Black Sabbath, Deep Purple, Kiss, Led Zeppelin, Queen, Ted Nugent, AC/DC, Rush, Aerosmith, and Judas Priest and by new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) bands Raven, Venom, Motörhead, Saxon, Diamond Head, Blitzkrieg, and Iron Maiden as well as European bands Scorpions, Accept, and Mercyful Fate.",
"Early punk rock bands Ramones, Sex Pistols, and the Misfits also influenced Metallica's style as did post-punk band Killing Joke and hardcore punk acts Discharge, GBH, and Suicidal Tendencies.",
"Lars Ulrich has cited Iron Maiden as probably the biggest influence on Metallica's career.",
"The band's early releases contained fast tempos, harmonized leads, and nine-minute instrumental tracks.",
"Steve Huey of AllMusic said ''Ride the Lightning'' featured \"extended, progressive epics; tight, concise groove-rockers\".",
"He also said Metallica expanded its compositional technique and range of expression to take on a more aggressive approach in following releases, and lyrics dealt with personal and socially conscious issues.",
"Religious and military leaders, rage, insanity, monsters, and drugsamong other themeswere explored on ''Master of Puppets''.In 1991, Huey said Metallica with new producer Bob Rock simplified and streamlined its music for a more commercial approach to appeal to mainstream audiences.",
"Robert Palmer of ''Rolling Stone'' said the band abandoned its aggressive, fast tempos to expand its music and expressive range.",
"The change in direction proved commercially successful; ''Metallica'' was the band's first album to peak at number one on the ''Billboard'' 200.Metallica noticed changes to the rock scene created by the grunge movement of the early-1990s.",
"In ''Load''—an album that has been described as having \"an almost alternative rock\" approach—the band changed musical direction again and focused on non-metal influences.",
"Metallica's new lyrical approach moved away from drugs and monsters, and focused on anger, loss, and retribution.",
"Some fans and critics were not pleased with this change, which included haircuts, the cover art of ''Load'', and headlining the Lollapalooza festival of 1996.David Fricke of ''Rolling Stone'' described the move as \"goodbye to the moldy stricture and dead-end Puritanism of no-frills thrash\", and called ''Load'' the heaviest record of 1996.With the release of ''ReLoad'' in 1997, the band displayed blues and early hard rock influences, incorporating more rhythm and harmony in song structures.''St.",
"Anger'' marked another large change in the band's sound.",
"Guitar solos were excluded from the album, leaving a \"raw and unpolished sound\".",
"The band used drop C tuning; Ulrich's snare drum received particular criticism.",
"''New York Magazine''s Ethan Brown said it \"reverberates with a thwong\".",
"The album's lyrics deal with Hetfield's drug rehabilitation and include references to the devil, anti-drug themes, claustrophobia, impending doom, and religious hypocrisy.",
"At the advice of producer Rick Rubin, for its ninth studio album ''Death Magnetic'', the band returned to standard tuning and guitar solos.",
"As a return to Metallica's thrash roots, ''Death Magnetic'' was a riff-oriented album featuring intense guitar solos and subtle lyrics about suicide and redemption."
],
[
"All Within My Hands Foundation",
"In February 2017, Metallica launched All Within My Hands Foundation, \"dedicated to creating sustainable communities by supporting workforce education, the fight against hunger, and other critical local services\".",
"For example, the group works with various selected charities to organize volunteer projects at food banks.",
"It also works with workforce training institutions on its Metallica Scholars grant program to help chosen students learn new trade skills.",
"The Foundation has also donated and further raised funds for World Central Kitchen's Ukraine war relief efforts and granted $200,000 for relief efforts after the destructive August 2023 Maui, Hawaii fire.",
"The band has also performed fundraising concerts for the Foundation."
],
[
"Legacy and influence",
"Metallica has become one of the most influential heavy metal bands of all time and is credited as one of the \"big four\" of thrash metal, along with Slayer, Anthrax, and Megadeth.",
"The band has sold more than 125 million records worldwide, including an RIAA-certified 66 million and Nielsen SoundScan-reported 58,000,000 in the US, making Metallica one of the most commercially successful bands of all time.",
"The writers of ''The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll'' said Metallica gave heavy metal \"a much-needed charge\".",
"Stephen Thomas Erlewine and Greg Prato of Allmusic said Metallica \"expanded the limits of thrash, using speed and volume not for their own sake, but to enhance their intricately structured compositions\", and called the band \"easily the best, most influential heavy metal band of the '80s, responsible for bringing the music back to Earth\".Jonathan Davis of Korn said he respects Metallica as his favorite band; he said, \"I love that they've done things their own way and they've persevered over the years and they're still relevant to this day.",
"I think they're one of the greatest bands ever.\"",
"Godsmack drummer Shannon Larkin said Metallica has been the biggest influence on the band, stating, \"they really changed my life when I was 16 years oldI'd never heard anything that heavy\".",
"Chuck Billy of Testament has also cited Metallica as an influence on the band, as well as Hetfield as \"an inspiration with clever lyrics\"; he added, \"When I first started hearing Metallica it was something new to me the way his cadence of vocal styles sang to the music.\"",
"Vocalist and guitarist Robb Flynn of Machine Head said that when creating the band's 2007 album, ''The Blackening'', \"What we mean is an album that has the power, influence and epic grandeur of that album ''Master of Puppets''and the staying powera timeless record like that\".",
"Gojira lead guitarist Christian Andreu said it was while listening to ''Ride the Lightning'' that he started making music; saying \"we find on the album 'Fade to Black', 'For Whom the Bell Tolls', emblematic pieces\".",
"Trivium guitarists Corey Beaulieu and Matt Heafy said that when they heard Metallica they wanted to start playing guitar.",
"M. Shadows of Avenged Sevenfold said touring with Metallica was the band's career highlight, and said, \"Selling tons of records and playing huge shows will never compare to meeting your idols ''Metallica''\".",
"God Forbid guitarists Doc and Dallas Coyle were inspired by Metallica as they grew up, and the band's bassist John Outcalt admires Burton as a \"rocker\".",
"Ill Niño drummer Dave Chavarri said he finds early Metallica releases are \"heavy, raw, rebellious.",
"It said, 'fuck you'\", and Adema drummer Kris Kohls said the band is influenced by Metallica.On April 4, 2009, Metallica were inducted into the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame.",
"They entered the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame the second year they were eligible and first year they were nominated.",
"Metallica's induction into the Hall included its current lineup, James Hetfield, Kirk Hammett, Robert Trujillo, and Lars Ulrich, and former members Jason Newsted and Cliff Burton.MTV ranked Metallica the third \"Greatest Heavy Metal Band in History\".",
"Metallica was ranked 42nd on VH1's \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\", was listed fifth on VH1's \"100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock\", and the band was number one on VH1's \"20 Greatest Metal Bands\" list.",
"''Rolling Stone'' placed the band 61st on its list of \"The 100 Greatest Artists of All Time\"; its albums ''Master of Puppets'' and ''Metallica'' were ranked at numbers 167 and 252 respectively on the magazine's list of ''The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time''.",
"''Master of Puppets'' was named in ''Q Magazine'' \"50 Heaviest Albums of All Time\", and was ranked number one on IGN's \"Top 25 Metal Albums\", and number one on Metal-rules.com's \"Top 100 Heavy Metal Albums\" list.",
"\"Enter Sandman\" was ranked number 399 on ''Rolling Stone'' \"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\".''Kerrang!''",
"released a tribute album titled ''Master of Puppets: Remastered'' with the April 8, 2006, edition of the magazine to celebrate the 20th anniversary of ''Master of Puppets''.",
"The album featured cover versions of Metallica songs by Machine Head, Bullet for My Valentine, Chimaira, Mastodon, Mendeed, and Triviumall of which are influenced by Metallica.",
"At least 15 Metallica tribute albums have been released.",
"On September 10, 2006, Metallica guest starred on ''The Simpsons'' eighteenth-season premiere, \"The Mook, the Chef, the Wife and Her Homer\".",
"Hammett's and Hetfield's voices were used in three episodes of the animated television series ''Metalocalypse''.",
"Finnish cello metal band Apocalyptica released a tribute album titled ''Plays Metallica by Four Cellos'', which features eight Metallica songs played on cellos.",
"A parody band named Beatallica plays music using a combination of The Beatles and Metallica songs.",
"Beatallica faced legal troubles when Sony, which owns The Beatles' catalog, issued a cease and desist order, claiming \"substantial and irreparable injury\" and ordering the group to pay damages.",
"Ulrich, a fan of Beatallica, asked Metallica's lawyer Peter Paterno to help settle the case.On March 7, 1999, Metallica was inducted into the San Francisco Walk of Fame.",
"The mayor of San Francisco, Willie Brown, proclaimed the day \"Official Metallica Day\".",
"The band was awarded the MTV Icon award in 2003, and a concert paying tribute to the band with artists performing its songs was held.",
"Performances included Sum 41 and a medley of \"For Whom the Bell Tolls\", \"Enter Sandman\", and \"Master of Puppets\".",
"Staind covered \"Nothing Else Matters\", Avril Lavigne played \"Fuel\", hip-hop artist Snoop Dogg performed \"Sad but True\", Korn played \"One\", and Limp Bizkit performed \"Welcome Home (Sanitarium)\".The ''Guitar Hero'' video game series included several of Metallica's songs.",
"\"One\" was used in ''Guitar Hero III''.",
"The album ''Death Magnetic'' was later released as purchasable, downloadable content for the game.",
"\"Trapped Under Ice\" was featured in the sequel, ''Guitar Hero World Tour''.",
"In 2009, Metallica collaborated with the game's developers to make ''Guitar Hero: Metallica'', which included a number of Metallica's songs.",
"Harmonix' video game series ''Rock Band'' included \"Enter Sandman\" and \"Battery\"; \"Ride the Lightning\", \"Blackened\", and \"...And Justice for All\" were released as downloadable tracks.",
"In 2013, due to expiring content licenses, \"Ride the Lightning\", \"Blackened\", and \"...And Justice for All\" are no longer available for download.In October 2020, Miley Cyrus announced that she was planning on recording a Metallica covers album and on January 7, 2021, she announced that she has recorded a cover version of \"Nothing Else Matters\" that would feature Elton John on piano, drummer Chad Smith from Red Hot Chili Peppers and cellist Yo-Yo Ma.",
"The song was produced by Andrew Watt."
],
[
"Feuds",
"===Dave Mustaine/Megadeth===Former lead guitarist and Megadeth frontman Dave Mustaine has been involved in a historic feud with Metallica.",
"During his time as a founding member during the first two years of the band, Mustaine's tenure was marred by his alcoholism and even a physical altercation with James Hetfield.",
"Mustaine continued to make numerous inflammatory statements against his former band in the press due to buried tension primarily stemming from his firing in 1983 among other issues such as existing songwriting credits across Metallica's first three albums.",
"By the late 1980s, it was believed that the feud had largely subsided; later confirmed after Megadeth were hired to open for Metallica on numerous European dates in 1993.Despite this; Mustaine expressed his anger at Metallica during his appearance in the band's documentary ''Metallica: Some Kind of Monster'', in a scene he later disapproved of as he felt he was mischaracterized, and that it did not represent the full extent of what happened during the meeting.",
"The two bands would again find themselves on friendlier terms in 2011 when both bands took part in the lauded 'Big 4 Tour' which also included Slayer and Anthrax.",
"That same year, Mustaine took part in Metallica's exclusive 30th anniversary show in San Francisco which invited other former members Ron McGovney, Lloyd Grant, and Jason Newsted.===Mötley Crüe===Often clashing during the early 1980s, both bands were fighting for dominance in the Los Angeles rock scene during Metallica's primitive years prior to their relocation to the Bay Area.",
"Both James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich expressed their hatred of the hair metal scene in Los Angeles during the time and frequently attacked multiple up-and-coming local bands in multiple interviews, including Mötley Crüe.",
"Ulrich and Sixx had allegedly been involved in a spat prior to a show at the Troubadour in Hollywood in 1982.Then-lead guitarist Dave Mustaine insulted Mötley Crüe during a 1983 interview, claiming Crüe and glam metal were an abbreviation for \"Gay LA Music\".",
"Though despite their public disdain for glam metal, Metallica were impressed by the production and commercial success of ''Dr.",
"Feelgood'' in 1989, later hiring the album's producer Bob Rock to produce their self-titled fifth album in 1991.Several years later; both Sixx and Ulrich would reignite the feud after Ulrich accused Mötley Crüe of performing to a backing track at the 1997 American Music Awards.",
"Sixx responded via an online forum in which he insulted numerous band members and also attacked Metallica's then-recent album ''Load''.",
"Despite this, Sixx would praise Metallica's then-latest album ''St.",
"Anger'' during a 2003 interview, contrary to the negative attention it received upon release.",
"In 2006, both Tommy Lee and former bassist Jason Newsted took part in a reality show entitled ''Rock Star: Supernova'' as they would both participate in creating a supergroup while the show's premise revolved around finding a frontman via contest.",
"During a 2011 meet-and-greet in Mexico City, Hetfield was approached by a fan attacking Mötley Crüe due to their public image and frequent appearances in tabloids.",
"Hetfield refused to directly respond to the fan's comments towards Mötley Crüe but laughed in his insults toward the band.",
"In 2015, drummer Tommy Lee reignited the feud when he tweeted a picture of Ulrich with the words \"Straight Outta Tempo\" superimposed over his face.",
"Following the post by Lee, singer Vince Neil had stated online that he was unaware of the feud with Metallica; however, during a later interview with an Oregon radio show, Neil was again asked about the band's current relationship with Metallica and hung up on the show's host.",
"Things were alleged to have calmed down by 2017, when Hetfield appeared on Sixx's radio show 'Sixx Sense'.",
"During an interview in 2021, Sixx applauded Metallica's longevity and praised several of their releases during an interview.===Jason Newsted===Following his hiring in 1986, former bassist Jason Newsted had regularly experienced incidents of hazing and a perceived lack of acceptance from his bandmates despite his strong efforts in a majority of the band's live performances.",
"Many fans and outlets cite the band's fourth album's unusual mixing to drown the bass tracks as a possible effort by Hetfield and Ulrich to minimize Newsted's involvement.",
"This sentiment was further exacerbated by the fact that Newsted was only given songwriting credits on three songs during his 14-year span in the band which also saw him perform on four studio albums.",
"Tensions between Hetfield and Newsted reached a breaking point in 2000 after Hetfield repeatedly blocked Newsted's request to venture into his side project Echobrain.",
"Discussions broke down and Newsted abruptly left the band in January 2001 prior to the recording of ''St.",
"Anger''.",
"Despite Newsted's animosity surrounding his decision, he was later inducted into the hall of fame as a member of the band in 2009 and also appeared at the band's 30th anniversary show in San Francisco in 2011."
],
[
"Band members",
"'''Current members'''* James Hetfield – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1981–present)* Kirk Hammett – lead guitar, backing vocals (1983–present)* Robert Trujillo – bass, backing vocals (2003–present)* Lars Ulrich – drums (1981–present)'''Session/touring musicians'''* Bob Rock – bass (2001–2003)'''Former members'''* Dave Mustaine – lead guitar, backing vocals (1981–1983)* Ron McGovney – bass, backing vocals (1981–1982)* Cliff Burton – bass, backing vocals (1982–1986; died 1986)* Jason Newsted – bass, backing vocals (1986–2001)===Timeline==="
],
[
"Discography",
"'''Studio albums'''* ''Kill 'Em All'' (1983)* ''Ride the Lightning'' (1984)* ''Master of Puppets'' (1986)* ''...And Justice for All'' (1988)* ''Metallica'' (1991)* ''Load'' (1996)* ''Reload'' (1997)* ''St.",
"Anger'' (2003)* ''Death Magnetic'' (2008)* ''Hardwired... to Self-Destruct'' (2016)* ''72 Seasons'' (2023)"
],
[
"Tours"
],
[
"Awards and nominations",
"'''Grammy Awards'''* 1990: Best Metal Performance – \"One\"* 1991: Best Metal Performance – \"Stone Cold Crazy\"* 1992: Best Metal Performance – ''Metallica''* 1999: Best Metal Performance – \"Better than You\"* 2000: Best Hard Rock Performance – \"Whiskey in the Jar\"* 2001: Best Rock Instrumental Performance – \"The Call of Ktulu\" (with Michael Kamen and the San Francisco Symphony)* 2004: Best Metal Performance – \"St. Anger\"* 2009: Best Metal Performance – \"My Apocalypse\"* 2009: Best Recording Package – ''Death Magnetic''* 2024: Best Metal Performance – \"72 Seasons\""
],
[
"See also",
"* List of artists who reached number one on the U.S.",
"Mainstream Rock chart* List of bands from the San Francisco Bay Area* List of best-selling music artists* List of heavy metal bands* List of highest-grossing live music artists* List of people from California* List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees* List of thrash metal bands"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"General sources",
"***"
],
[
"External links",
"*****"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Mural"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Ceiling painting, by Jean-André Rixens.",
"Salle des Illustres, Le Capitole, Toulouse, FrancePrehistoric Egyptian mural painted on a Nekhen tomb wall with aspects in the Gerzeh culture styleA '''mural''' is any piece of graphic artwork that is painted or applied directly to a wall, ceiling or other permanent substrate.",
"Mural techniques include fresco, mosaic, graffiti and marouflage."
],
[
"Word mural in art",
"The word ''mural'' is a Spanish adjective that is used to refer to what is attached to a wall.",
"The term ''mural'' later became a noun.",
"In art, the word '''mural''' began to be used at the beginning of the 20th century.",
"In 1906, Dr. Atl issued a manifesto calling for the development of a monumental public art movement in Mexico; he named it in Spanish ''pintura mural'' (English: ''wall painting'').",
"In ancient Roman times, a mural crown was given to the fighter who was first to scale the wall of a besieged town.",
"\"Mural\" comes from the Latin ''muralis'', meaning \"wall painting\".",
"This word is related to ''murus'', meaning \"wall\"."
],
[
"History",
"===Antique art===Jataka tales from the Ajanta Caves, present-day Maharashtra, India, 7th century CE.Murals of sorts date to Upper Paleolithic times such as the cave paintings in the Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave in Borneo (40,000-52,000 BP), Chauvet Cave in Ardèche department of southern France (around 32,000 BP).",
"Many ancient murals have been found within ancient Egyptian tombs (around 3150 BC), the Minoan palaces (Middle period III of the Neopalatial period, 1700–1600 BC), the Oxtotitlán cave and Juxtlahuaca in Mexico (around 1200-900 BC) and in Pompeii (around 100 BC – AD 79).During the Middle Ages murals were usually executed on dry plaster (secco).",
"The huge collection of Kerala mural painting dating from the 14th century are examples of fresco secco.",
"In Italy, , the technique of painting of frescos on wet plaster was reintroduced and led to a significant increase in the quality of mural painting.St.",
"Lawrence Church of Lohja===Modern art===The term mural became better known with the Mexican muralism art movement (Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros and José Orozco).",
"The first mural painted in the 20th century, was “El árbol de la vida”, by Roberto Montenegro.There are many different styles and techniques.",
"The best-known is probably ''fresco'', which uses pigments dispersed in water with a damp lime wash, rapid use of the resulting mixture over a large surface, and often in parts (but with a sense of the whole).",
"The colors lighten as they dry.",
"The ''marouflage'' method has also been used for millennia.Murals today are painted in a variety of ways, using oil or water-based media.",
"The styles can vary from abstract to ''trompe-l'œil'' (a French term for \"fool\" or \"trick the eye\").",
"Initiated by the works of mural artists like Graham Rust or Rainer Maria Latzke in the 1980s, trompe-l'œil painting has experienced a renaissance in private and public buildings in Europe.Today, the beauty of a wall mural has become much more widely available with a technique whereby a painting or photographic image is transferred to poster paper or canvas which is then pasted to a wall surface ''(see wallpaper, Frescography)'' to give the effect of either a hand-painted mural or realistic scene.A special type of mural painting is Lüftlmalerei, still practised today in the villages of the Alpine valleys.",
"Well-known examples of such façade designs from the 18th and 19th centuries can be found in Mittenwald, Garmisch, Unter- and Oberammergau."
],
[
"Technique",
"The 18th-century BC fresco of the ''Investiture of Zimrilim'' discovered at the Royal Palace of ancient Mari in Syria In the history of mural several methods have been used:''A fresco'' painting, from the Italian word ''affresco'' which derives from the adjective ''fresco'' (\"fresh\"), describes a method in which the paint is applied on plaster on walls or ceilings.",
"The ''buon fresco'' technique consists of painting in pigment mixed with water on a thin layer of wet, fresh, lime mortar or plaster.",
"The pigment is then absorbed by the wet plaster; after a number of hours, the plaster dries and reacts with the air: it is this chemical reaction which fixes the pigment particles in the plaster.",
"After this the painting stays for a long time up to centuries in fresh and brilliant colors.",
"''Fresco-secco'' painting is done on dry plaster (''secco'' is \"dry\" in Italian).",
"The pigments thus require a binding medium, such as egg (tempera), glue or oil to attach the pigment to the wall.",
"''Mezzo-fresco'' is painted on nearly-dry plaster, and was defined by the sixteenth-century author Ignazio Pozzo as \"firm enough not to take a thumb-print\" so that the pigment only penetrates slightly into the plaster.",
"By the end of the sixteenth century this had largely displaced the ''buon fresco'' method, and was used by painters such as Gianbattista Tiepolo or Michelangelo.",
"This technique had, in reduced form, the advantages of ''a secco'' work."
],
[
"Material",
"In Greco-Roman times, mostly encaustic colors applied in a cold state were used.Tempera painting is one of the oldest known methods in mural painting.",
"In tempera, the pigments are bound in an albuminous medium such as egg yolk or egg white diluted in water.In 16th-century Europe, oil painting on canvas arose as an easier method for mural painting.",
"The advantage was that the artwork could be completed in the artist's studio and later transported to its destination and there attached to the wall or ceiling.",
"Oil paint may be a less satisfactory medium for murals because of its lack of brilliance in colour.",
"Also, the pigments are yellowed by the binder or are more easily affected by atmospheric conditions.",
"Different muralists tend to become experts in their preferred medium and application, whether that be oil paints, emulsion or acrylic paints applied by brush, roller or airbrush/aerosols.",
"Clients will often ask for a particular style and the artist may adjust to the appropriate technique.A consultation usually leads to detailed design and layout of the proposed mural with a price quote that the client approves before the muralist starts on the work.",
"The area to be painted can be gridded to match the design allowing the image to be scaled accurately step by step.",
"In some cases, the design is projected straight onto the wall and traced with pencil before painting begins.",
"Some muralists will paint directly without any prior sketching, preferring the spontaneous technique.Once completed the mural can be given coats of varnish or protective acrylic glaze to protect the work from UV rays and surface damage.In modern, quick form of muralling, young enthusiasts also use POP clay mixed with glue or bond to give desired models on canvas board.",
"The canvas is later set aside to let the clay dry.",
"Once dried, the canvas and the shape can be painted with your choice of colors and later coated with varnish.CAM designed Frescography by Rainer Maria Latzke, digitally printed on canvasAs an alternative to a hand-painted or airbrushed mural, digitally printed murals can also be applied to surfaces.",
"Already existing murals can be photographed and then be reproduced in near-to-original quality.The disadvantages of pre-fabricated murals and decals are that they are often mass-produced and lack the allure and exclusivity of original artwork.",
"They are often not fitted to the individual wall sizes of the client and their personal ideas or wishes cannot be added to the mural as it progresses.",
"The Frescography technique, a digital manufacturing method (CAM) invented by Rainer Maria Latzke addresses some of the personalisation and size restrictions.A mural in the stone fence in Turku, Finland in 2008Digital techniques are commonly used in advertisements.",
"A \"wallscape\" is a large advertisement on or attached to the outside wall of a building.",
"Wallscapes can be painted directly on the wall as a mural, or printed on vinyl and securely attached to the wall in the manner of a billboard.",
"Although not strictly classed as murals, large scale printed media are often referred to as such.",
"Advertising murals were traditionally painted onto buildings and shops by sign-writers, later as large scale poster billboards."
],
[
"Significance",
"San Bartolo muralMurals are important as they bring art into the public sphere.",
"Due to the size, cost, and work involved in creating a mural, muralists must often be commissioned by a sponsor.",
"Often it is the local government or a business, but many murals have been paid for with grants of patronage.",
"For artists, their work gets a wide audience who otherwise might not set foot in an art gallery.",
"A city benefits by the beauty of a work of art.Murals can be a relatively effective tool of social emancipation or achieving a political goal.",
"Murals have sometimes been created against the law, or have been commissioned by local bars and coffee shops.",
"Often, the visual effects are an enticement to attract public attention to social issues.",
"State-sponsored public art expressions, particularly murals, are often used by totalitarian regimes as a tool of propaganda.",
"However, despite the propagandist character of that works, some of them still have an artistic value.Murals can have a dramatic impact whether consciously or subconsciously on the attitudes of passers-by, when they are added to areas where people live and work.",
"It can also be argued that the presence of large, public murals can add aesthetic improvement to the daily lives of residents or that of employees at a corporate venue.",
"Large-format hand-painted murals were the norm for advertisements in cities across America, before the introduction of vinyl and digital posters.",
"It was an expensive form of advertising with strict signage laws but gained attention and improved local aesthetics.Other world-famous murals can be found in Mexico, New York City, Philadelphia, Belfast, Derry, Los Angeles, Nicaragua, Cuba, the Philippines, and in India.",
"They have functioned as an important means of communication for members of socially, ethnically and racially divided communities in times of conflict.",
"They also proved to be an effective tool in establishing a dialogue and hence solving the cleavage in the long run.The Indian state Kerala has exclusive murals.",
"These Kerala mural painting are on walls of Hindu temples.",
"They can be dated from 9th century AD.The San Bartolo murals of the Maya civilization in Guatemala, are the oldest example of this art in Mesoamerica and are dated at 300 BC.Many rural towns have begun using murals to create tourist attractions in order to boost economic income.",
"Colquitt, Georgia was chosen to host the 2010 Global Mural Conference.",
"The town had more than twelve murals completed, and hosted the Conference along with Dothan, Alabama, and Blakely, Georgia."
],
[
"Politics",
"RiveraMuralNationalPalace.jpg|Diego Rivera's mural ''The History of Mexico'' at the National Palace in Mexico City (1929-1935).BardiaMural.jpg|The Bardia Mural, photographed in the 1960s, prior to its damage by defacement and the ravages of time.Press Cafe in East Berlin on Alexanderplatz, 1977.jpg|Murals displaying the Marxist view of the press on this East Berlin cafe in 1977 were covered over by commercial advertising after Germany was reunited.Wien - Donald-Trump- und Kim-Jong-un-Graffiti von Lush Sux.JPG|A mural with Kim Jong Un and Donald Trump in Vienna.The Mexican mural movement in the 1930s brought new prominence to murals as a social and political tool.",
"Diego Rivera, José Orozco and David Siqueiros were the most famous artists of the movement.",
"Between 1932 and 1940, Rivera also painted murals in San Francisco, Detroit, and New York City.",
"In 1933, he completed a famous series of twenty-seven fresco panels entitled ''Detroit Industry'' on the walls of an inner court at the Detroit Institute of Arts.",
"During the McCarthyism of the 1950s, a large sign was placed in the courtyard defending the artistic merit of the murals while attacking his politics as \"detestable\".The United Nations Security Council mural, by Per Krohg (1952), towers over meetings of the Security Council at UN headquarters in New York CityIn 1948, the Colombian government hosted the IX Pan-American Conference to establish the Marshall plan for the Americas.",
"The director of the OEA and the Colombian government commissioned master Santiago Martinez Delgado, to paint a mural in the Colombian congress building to commemorate the event.",
"Martinez decided to make it about the Cúcuta Congress, and painted Bolívar in front of Santander, making liberals upset; so, due to the murder of Jorge Elieser Gaitan the mobs of el bogotazo tried to burn the capitol, but the Colombian Army stopped them.",
"Years later, in the 1980s, with liberals in charge of the Congress, they passed a resolution to turn the whole chamber in the Elliptic Room 90 degrees to put the main mural on the side and commissioned Alejandro Obregon to paint a non-partisan mural in the surrealist style.Northern Ireland contains some of the most famous political murals in the world.",
"Almost 2,000 murals have been documented in Northern Ireland since the 1970s.",
"In recent times, many murals are non-sectarian, concerning political and social issues such as racism and environmentalism, and many are completely apolitical, depicting children at play and scenes from everyday life.",
"(See Northern Irish murals.",
")A not political, but social related mural covers a wall in an old building, once a prison, at the top of a cliff in Bardiyah, in Libya.",
"It was painted and signed by the artist in April 1942, weeks before his death on the first day of the First Battle of El Alamein.",
"Known as the Bardia Mural, it was created by English artist, private John Frederick Brill.In 1961 East Germany began to erect a wall between East and West Berlin, which became famous as the Berlin Wall.",
"While on the East Berlin side painting was not allowed, artists painted on the Western side of the Wall from the 80s until the fall of the Wall in 1989.Many unknown and known artists such as Thierry Noir and Keith Haring painted on the Wall, the \"World's longest canvas\".",
"The sometimes detailed artwork were often painted over within hours or days.",
"On the Western side the Wall was not protected, so everybody could paint on the Wall.",
"After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the Eastern side of the Wall became also a popular \"canvas\" for many mural and graffiti artists.Orgosolo, in Sardinia, is a most important center of murals politics.It is also common for mural graffiti to be used as a memoir.",
"In the 2001 book ''Somebody Told Me'', Rick Bragg writes about a series of communities, mainly located in New York, that have walls dedicated to the people who died.",
"These memorials, both written word and mural style, provide the deceased to be present in the communities in which they lived.",
"Bragg states that the \"murals have woven themselves in the fabric of the neighborhoods, and the city\".",
"These memorials remind people of the deaths caused by inner city violence."
],
[
"Contemporary interior design",
"===Traditional===Forest mural by ''One Red Shoe'' in private home, England 2007Many people like to express their individuality by commissioning an artist to paint a mural in their home.",
"This is not an activity exclusively for owners of large houses.",
"A mural artist is only limited by the fee and therefore the time spent on the painting; dictating the level of detail; a simple mural can be added to the smallest of walls.Private commissions can be for dining rooms, bathrooms, living rooms or, as is often the case- children's bedrooms.",
"A child's room can be transformed into the 'fantasy world' of a forest or racing track, encouraging imaginative play and an awareness of art.The current trend for feature walls has increased commissions for muralists in the UK.",
"A large hand-painted mural can be designed on a specific theme, incorporate personal images and elements and may be altered during the course of painting it.",
"The personal interaction between client and muralist is often a unique experience for an individual not usually involved in the arts.In the 1980s, illusionary wall painting experienced a renaissance in private homes.",
"The reason for this revival in interior design could, in some cases be attributed to the reduction in living space for the individual.",
"Faux architectural features, as well as natural scenery and views, can have the effect of 'opening out' the walls.",
"Densely built-up areas of housing may also contribute to people's feelings of being cut off from nature in its free form.",
"A mural commission of this sort may be an attempt by some people to re-establish a balance with nature.Commissions of murals in schools, hospitals, and retirement homes can achieve a pleasing and welcoming atmosphere in these caring institutions.",
"Murals in other public buildings, such as public houses are also common.===Graffiti-style===Graffiti painting against torture on the making in Donostia-San SebastiánRecently, graffiti and street art have played a key role in contemporary wall painting.",
"Such graffiti/street artists as Keith Haring, Shepard Fairey, Above, Mint&Serf, Futura 2000, Os Gemeos, and Faile among others have successfully transcended their street art aesthetic beyond the walls of urban landscape and onto walls of private and corporate clients.",
"As graffiti/street art became more mainstream in the late 1990s, youth-oriented brands such as Nike and Red Bull, with Wieden Kennedy, have turned to graffiti/street artists to decorate walls of their respective offices.",
"This trend continued through 2000's with graffiti/street art gaining more recognition from art institutions worldwide.===Ethnic===Rajasthani motif mural by Kakshyaachitra, Mumbai 2014Many homeowners choose to display the traditional art and culture of their society or events from their history in their homes.",
"Ethnic murals have become an important form of interior decoration.",
"Warli painting murals are becoming a preferred mode of wall decor in India.",
"Warli painting is an ancient Indian art form in which the tribal people used to depict different phases of their life on the walls of their mud houses."
],
[
"Tile",
"Panel of glazed tiles by Jorge Colaço (1922) depicting an episode from the battle of Aljubarrota (1385) between the Portuguese and Castilian armies.",
"A piece of public art in Lisbon, Portugal.Tile murals are murals made out of stone, ceramic, porcelain, glass and or metal tiles that are installed within, or added onto the surface of an existing wall.",
"They are also inlaid into floors.",
"Mural tiles are painted, glazed, sublimation printed (as described below) or more traditionally cut out of stone, ceramic, mosaic glass(opaque) and stained glass.",
"Some artists use pottery and plates broken into pieces.",
"Unlike the traditional painted murals described above, tile murals are always made by fitting pieces of the selected materials together to create the design or image.",
"Mosaic murals are made by combining small 1/4\" to 2\" size pieces of colorful stone, ceramic, or glass tiles which are then laid out to create a picture.",
"Modern day technology has allowed commercial mosaic mural makers to use computer programs to separate photographs into colors that are automatically cut and glued onto sheets of mesh creating precise murals fast and in large quantities.The azulejo (, ) refers to a typical form of Portuguese or Spanish painted, tin-glazed, ceramic tilework.",
"They have become a typical aspect of Portuguese culture, manifesting without interruption during five centuries, the consecutive trends in art.Azulejos can be found inside and outside churches, palaces, ordinary houses and even railway stations or subway stations.They were not only used as an ornamental art form, but also had a specific functional capacity like temperature control in homes.",
"Many ''azulejos'' chronicle major historical and cultural aspects of Portuguese history.19th century mural of Guru Angad from Baoli Sahib, Goindwal.",
"The Gurmukhi numeral \"੨\" is written on the right-side, showing the significance of Angad as the second of the Sikh gurus.Custom-printed tile murals can be produced using digital images for kitchen splashbacks, wall displays, and flooring.",
"Digital photos and artwork can be resized and printed to accommodate the desired size for the area to be decorated.",
"Custom tile printing uses a variety of techniques including dye sublimation and ceramic-type laser toners.",
"The latter technique can yield fade-resistant custom tiles which are suitable for long term exterior exposure."
],
[
"Notable muralists",
"*Edwin Abbey*Carlos Almaraz*Dorothy Annan*Judy Baca*Banksy*Above (artist)*Arnold Belkin*Thomas Hart Benton*John T. Biggers*Torsten Billman*Henry Bird*Edwin Howland Blashfield*Blek le Rat*Giotto di Bondone*Guillaume Bottazzi*Gabriel Bracho*Arturo Garcia Bustos*Paul Cadmus*Eleanor Coen*Dean Cornwell* Kenyon Cox*John Steuart Curry*Robert Dafford*Dora De Larios*Santiago Martinez Delgado*Faile*Shepard Fairey*LeRoy Foster*Piero della Francesca*Carlos \"Botong\" Francisco*Os Gemeos*Louis Grell*Satish Gujral*Manav Gupta*Richard Haas*Keith Haring*Jane Kim (artist)*Eduardo Kobra*Albert Henry Krehbiel*Susan Krieg*Per Krohg*Paul Kuniholm*Rainer Maria Latzke*Rina Lazo*Tom Lea*Michelle Loughery*Will Hicok Low*Sofia Maldonado*John Anton Mallin*Andrea Mantegna*Reginald Marsh*Knox Martin*Peter Max*Anjolie Ela Menon*Michelangelo*Mario Miranda*Claude Monet*Roberto Montenegro*Frank Nuderscher*Violet Oakley*Edward O'Brien*Juan O'Gorman*Pablo O'Higgins*José Clemente Orozco*Rufus Porter*Aarón Piña Mora*John Pugh*Archie Rand*Raphael*Diego Rivera*Graham Rust*P K Sadanandan*Sadequain*John Singer Sargent*Eugene Savage*Conrad Schmitt*Clément Serveau*David Alfaro Siqueiros*Frank Stella*Rufino Tamayo*Titian*Alton Tobey*Allen Tupper True*Kent Twitchell*Leonardo da Vinci*John Augustus Walker*Henry Oliver Walker*Lucia Wiley*Ezra Winter*Lumen Martin Winter*Richard Wyatt, Jr. *Robert Wyland*Isaiah Zagar*Carolina Falkholt"
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Warren James.jpg|Stylised mural of the miners' leader Warren James, at a public house in Parkend, GloucestershireFile:Wall paint, Dhaka, Bangladesh.jpg|Wall paint, Dhaka, BangladeshFile:Mural art Praha10 Gutovka.JPG|Graffiti mural in Gutovka, Prague 10, Czech Republic, 2012File:Wall Mural, Mt Ayr, IA Post Office, 1998.jpg|Orr C. Fischer, ''The Corn Parade,'' 1941, oil on canvas, Agriculture-themed mural on wall of post office, Mount Ayr, IowaFile:Mural on Israeli wall.jpg|Mural on Israeli separation barrierFile:LT Kaunas, sztuka ulicy, ul Daukanto, 2019.07.19, fot Ivonna Nowicka (1).jpg|Mural of a painter in classical style in a real 3-dimensional niche in Kaunas, LithuaniaFile:Lebo pass Magnificent 2.jpg|a school project funded by the government of Angola so that the kids can paint this mural.",
"Each school painted oneFile:PL_Wwa,_sztuka_w_miescie,_mural,_ul_Nowolipki,_2022.09.02,_fot_Ivonna_Nowicka_(1)_corr.jpg|Mural of founder of Esperanto, Ludwik Zamenhof, with note in Esperanto in Warsaw, Poland"
],
[
"See also",
"*Anamorphosis*Bogside Artists*Brixton murals*Detachment of wall paintings*Institute of Mural Painting*List of New Deal murals*List of United States post office murals*Mexican muralism*Murals of Kerala, India*MURAL Festival*Newtown area graffiti and street art*Post Office Murals *Propaganda*Public art*Social realism*Socialist realism*''The Manchester Murals''*Tiled printing*Trompe-l'œil*Wall poems in Leiden"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"******"
],
[
"External links",
"* How to prepare a mural wall and protect the mural* Political Wall Murals in Northern Ireland* Calpams* Murals.trompe-l-oeil.info French and European gate of murals: 10 000 pictures and 1100 murals* The National Society of Mural Painters (USA; founded 1895)* Ancient Maya Art* Ancient Prehispanic Murals* Global Murals Conference 2006 at Prestoungrange* The Melville Shoe Mosaic, an early 20th century ceramic tile mural at 44 Hammond Street in Worcester, MA* Take an online tour of the murals in Belfast, Northern Ireland* ''Albert Krehbiel's murals at the Illinois Supreme Court Building'': The Third Branch - A Chronicle of the Illinois Supreme Court; The History of the Illinois Supreme Court* Murals of Northern Ireland in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library* Roman wall paintings* Pixel Mural - A digital mural of collaborative pixel art* mural.ch / muralism.info Universal database on modern muralism, with many details to the works: authors, locations, literature etc.",
"* Creative Wall Painting Urban Square Mall, Udaipur created World's Largest and Longest Indoor Paintings honored by World Records India"
]
] | wikipedia |
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